context
stringlengths 545
71.9k
| questionsrc
stringlengths 16
10.2k
| question
stringlengths 11
563
|
|---|---|---|
what should i know before starting biology ? if you are curious about biology or plan to study it in the future , you may be wondering what `` prerequisites '' it has – that is , what other knowledge will give you a solid foundation to learn biology . if so , big kudos for thinking ahead ! in my opinion , the only strict prereqs for biology are curiosity , an open mind , and a willingness to think critically about the natural world . if you have those , you can start learning biology without other background , as long as you 're willing to pick up bits of chemistry , physics , statistics , and math along the way . that said , you may find your journey through biology smoother and more satisfying if you already have some familiarity with topics in other areas , particularly chemistry . below are some foundational topics that will help you get the most out of khan academy 's biology materials ( or any biology class ) . general science skills the scientific method . are you rusty on what a hypothesis is or how it gets tested ? how about experiments ? these basic concepts will help you not only in biology , but also in any other area of science ! chemistry general chemistry . get a feel for atoms , molecules , and how they interact with each other . after all , that 's what you ( and all life ) are made up of ! acid-base chemistry . a lot of the chemistry in your body is acid-base chemistry that takes place in watery solutions . knowing what acids and bases are will get you a long way with biochemistry . physics laws of thermodynamics . get a feeling for what energy is and what rules govern its transfer . energy is constantly flowing through ecosystems , organisms , and cells , and is essential to keep these systems running ! statistics basics of probability . probability is a key concept in biology . you do n't need to know tons of details or formulas , but if you understand the basic concepts , that will help you a lot with genetics and population genetics . statistics . remind yourself about the basic ways we can describe sets of data , such as mean , median , and mode . if you go even deeper and learn about hypothesis testing , you 'll definitely be ahead of the curve ! math basic algebra and graphing . most intro bio classes are not that math-intensive , but having an understanding of basic algebra and graphs ( e.g. , the meaning of slope ) will help you understand figures and data in biology . do i have to know all these before starting ? not necessarily ! as i mentioned , you can also learn as you go . you just need to be willing to work on these topics in parallel with your learning of biology . so , do n't be deterred from biology if you have n't yet mastered all of these topics . case in point : i was the poster child for how not to prepare for biology classes . i never took physics in high school , and did n't take it in college until i was a junior ! i was also behind on my chemistry classes for most of undergrad . while i do n't recommend that approach , it goes to show that a motivated person can be successful in biology even if s/he is `` catching up '' on some of the prereqs . what if i do n't like [ chem/physics/stats/math ] ? do n't be deterred from biology if some of these topics are not your favorites ( yet ! ) . biology is a huge , diverse field . all biologists need to have some basic , foundational understanding of chemistry , physics , math , and statistics . but they do n't have to become specialists in all these topics . also , if you had a bad experience with one of these topics in the past , why not give it a shot on khan academy ? you may find it 's more fun than you expect !
|
what should i know before starting biology ? if you are curious about biology or plan to study it in the future , you may be wondering what `` prerequisites '' it has – that is , what other knowledge will give you a solid foundation to learn biology .
|
what is meiosis and where the sperms of male are deposit ?
|
what should i know before starting biology ? if you are curious about biology or plan to study it in the future , you may be wondering what `` prerequisites '' it has – that is , what other knowledge will give you a solid foundation to learn biology . if so , big kudos for thinking ahead ! in my opinion , the only strict prereqs for biology are curiosity , an open mind , and a willingness to think critically about the natural world . if you have those , you can start learning biology without other background , as long as you 're willing to pick up bits of chemistry , physics , statistics , and math along the way . that said , you may find your journey through biology smoother and more satisfying if you already have some familiarity with topics in other areas , particularly chemistry . below are some foundational topics that will help you get the most out of khan academy 's biology materials ( or any biology class ) . general science skills the scientific method . are you rusty on what a hypothesis is or how it gets tested ? how about experiments ? these basic concepts will help you not only in biology , but also in any other area of science ! chemistry general chemistry . get a feel for atoms , molecules , and how they interact with each other . after all , that 's what you ( and all life ) are made up of ! acid-base chemistry . a lot of the chemistry in your body is acid-base chemistry that takes place in watery solutions . knowing what acids and bases are will get you a long way with biochemistry . physics laws of thermodynamics . get a feeling for what energy is and what rules govern its transfer . energy is constantly flowing through ecosystems , organisms , and cells , and is essential to keep these systems running ! statistics basics of probability . probability is a key concept in biology . you do n't need to know tons of details or formulas , but if you understand the basic concepts , that will help you a lot with genetics and population genetics . statistics . remind yourself about the basic ways we can describe sets of data , such as mean , median , and mode . if you go even deeper and learn about hypothesis testing , you 'll definitely be ahead of the curve ! math basic algebra and graphing . most intro bio classes are not that math-intensive , but having an understanding of basic algebra and graphs ( e.g. , the meaning of slope ) will help you understand figures and data in biology . do i have to know all these before starting ? not necessarily ! as i mentioned , you can also learn as you go . you just need to be willing to work on these topics in parallel with your learning of biology . so , do n't be deterred from biology if you have n't yet mastered all of these topics . case in point : i was the poster child for how not to prepare for biology classes . i never took physics in high school , and did n't take it in college until i was a junior ! i was also behind on my chemistry classes for most of undergrad . while i do n't recommend that approach , it goes to show that a motivated person can be successful in biology even if s/he is `` catching up '' on some of the prereqs . what if i do n't like [ chem/physics/stats/math ] ? do n't be deterred from biology if some of these topics are not your favorites ( yet ! ) . biology is a huge , diverse field . all biologists need to have some basic , foundational understanding of chemistry , physics , math , and statistics . but they do n't have to become specialists in all these topics . also , if you had a bad experience with one of these topics in the past , why not give it a shot on khan academy ? you may find it 's more fun than you expect !
|
what should i know before starting biology ? if you are curious about biology or plan to study it in the future , you may be wondering what `` prerequisites '' it has – that is , what other knowledge will give you a solid foundation to learn biology .
|
what is eukaryotic and prokaryotic ?
|
introduction as cells move through the cell cycle , do they breeze through from one phase to the next ? if they 're cancer cells , the answer might be yes . normal cells , however , move through the cell cycle in a regulated way . they use information about their own internal state and cues from the environment around them to decide whether to proceed with cell division . this regulation makes sure that cells do n't divide under unfavorable conditions ( for instance , when their dna is damaged , or when there is n't room for more cells in a tissue or organ ) . cell cycle checkpoints a checkpoint is a stage in the eukaryotic cell cycle at which at which the cell examines internal and external cues and `` decides '' whether or not to move forward with division . there are a number of checkpoints , but the three most important ones are : the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _1 $ /s transition . the g $ _2 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _2 $ /m transition . the spindle checkpoint , at the transition from metaphase to anaphase . the g $ _1 $ checkpoint the g $ _1 $ checkpoint is the main decision point for a cell – that is , the primary point at which it must choose whether or not to divide . once the cell passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint and enters s phase , it becomes irreversibly committed to division . that is , barring unexpected problems , such as dna damage or replication errors , a cell that passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint will continue the rest of the way through the cell cycle and produce two daughter cells . at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , a cell checks whether internal and external conditions are right for division . here are some of the factors a cell might assess : size . is the cell large enough to divide ? nutrients . does the cell have enough energy reserves or available nutrients to divide ? molecular signals . is the cell receiving positive cues ( such as growth factors ) from neighbors ? dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? these are not the only factors that can affect progression through the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , and which factors are most important depend on the type of cell . for instance , some cells also need mechanical cues ( such as being attached to a supportive network called the extracellular matrix ) in order to divide $ ^1 $ . if a cell doesn ’ t get the go-ahead cues it needs at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , it may leave the cell cycle and enter a resting state called g $ _0 $ phase . some cells stay permanently in g $ _0 $ , while others resume dividing if conditions improve . # # the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to make sure that cell division goes smoothly ( produces healthy daughter cells with complete , undamaged dna ) , the cell has an additional checkpoint before m phase , called the g $ _2 $ checkpoint . at this stage , the cell will check : dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? dna replication . was the dna completely copied during s phase ? if errors or damage are detected , the cell will pause at the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to allow for repairs . if the checkpoint mechanisms detect problems with the dna , the cell cycle is halted , and the cell attempts to either complete dna replication or repair the damaged dna . if the damage is irreparable , the cell may undergo apoptosis , or programmed cell death $ ^2 $ . this self-destruction mechanism ensures that damaged dna is not passed on to daughter cells and is important in preventing cancer . the spindle checkpoint the m checkpoint is also known as the spindle checkpoint : here , the cell examines whether all the sister chromatids are correctly attached to the spindle microtubules . because the separation of the sister chromatids during anaphase is an irreversible step , the cycle will not proceed until all the chromosomes are firmly attached to at least two spindle fibers from opposite poles of the cell . how does this checkpoint work ? it seems that cells do n't actually scan the metaphase plate to confirm that all of the chromosomes are there . instead , they look for `` straggler '' chromosomes that are in the wrong place ( e.g. , floating around in the cytoplasm ) $ ^3 $ . if a chromosome is misplaced , the cell will pause mitosis , allowing time for the spindle to capture the stray chromosome . how do the checkpoints actually work ? this article gives a high-level overview of cell cycle control , outlining the factors that influence a cell ’ s decision to pause or progress at each checkpoint . however , you may be wondering what these factors actually do to the cell , or change inside of it , to cause ( or block ) progression from one phase of the cell cycle to the next . the general answer is that internal and external cues trigger signaling pathways inside the cell that activate , or inactivate , a set of core proteins that move the cell cycle forward . you can learn more about these proteins , and see examples of how they are affected by cues such as dna damage , in the article on cell cycle regulators .
|
this regulation makes sure that cells do n't divide under unfavorable conditions ( for instance , when their dna is damaged , or when there is n't room for more cells in a tissue or organ ) . cell cycle checkpoints a checkpoint is a stage in the eukaryotic cell cycle at which at which the cell examines internal and external cues and `` decides '' whether or not to move forward with division . there are a number of checkpoints , but the three most important ones are : the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _1 $ /s transition .
|
for each of the three main checkpoints in the cell cycle , indicates what could happen if the checkpoint did n't function ?
|
introduction as cells move through the cell cycle , do they breeze through from one phase to the next ? if they 're cancer cells , the answer might be yes . normal cells , however , move through the cell cycle in a regulated way . they use information about their own internal state and cues from the environment around them to decide whether to proceed with cell division . this regulation makes sure that cells do n't divide under unfavorable conditions ( for instance , when their dna is damaged , or when there is n't room for more cells in a tissue or organ ) . cell cycle checkpoints a checkpoint is a stage in the eukaryotic cell cycle at which at which the cell examines internal and external cues and `` decides '' whether or not to move forward with division . there are a number of checkpoints , but the three most important ones are : the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _1 $ /s transition . the g $ _2 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _2 $ /m transition . the spindle checkpoint , at the transition from metaphase to anaphase . the g $ _1 $ checkpoint the g $ _1 $ checkpoint is the main decision point for a cell – that is , the primary point at which it must choose whether or not to divide . once the cell passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint and enters s phase , it becomes irreversibly committed to division . that is , barring unexpected problems , such as dna damage or replication errors , a cell that passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint will continue the rest of the way through the cell cycle and produce two daughter cells . at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , a cell checks whether internal and external conditions are right for division . here are some of the factors a cell might assess : size . is the cell large enough to divide ? nutrients . does the cell have enough energy reserves or available nutrients to divide ? molecular signals . is the cell receiving positive cues ( such as growth factors ) from neighbors ? dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? these are not the only factors that can affect progression through the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , and which factors are most important depend on the type of cell . for instance , some cells also need mechanical cues ( such as being attached to a supportive network called the extracellular matrix ) in order to divide $ ^1 $ . if a cell doesn ’ t get the go-ahead cues it needs at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , it may leave the cell cycle and enter a resting state called g $ _0 $ phase . some cells stay permanently in g $ _0 $ , while others resume dividing if conditions improve . # # the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to make sure that cell division goes smoothly ( produces healthy daughter cells with complete , undamaged dna ) , the cell has an additional checkpoint before m phase , called the g $ _2 $ checkpoint . at this stage , the cell will check : dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? dna replication . was the dna completely copied during s phase ? if errors or damage are detected , the cell will pause at the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to allow for repairs . if the checkpoint mechanisms detect problems with the dna , the cell cycle is halted , and the cell attempts to either complete dna replication or repair the damaged dna . if the damage is irreparable , the cell may undergo apoptosis , or programmed cell death $ ^2 $ . this self-destruction mechanism ensures that damaged dna is not passed on to daughter cells and is important in preventing cancer . the spindle checkpoint the m checkpoint is also known as the spindle checkpoint : here , the cell examines whether all the sister chromatids are correctly attached to the spindle microtubules . because the separation of the sister chromatids during anaphase is an irreversible step , the cycle will not proceed until all the chromosomes are firmly attached to at least two spindle fibers from opposite poles of the cell . how does this checkpoint work ? it seems that cells do n't actually scan the metaphase plate to confirm that all of the chromosomes are there . instead , they look for `` straggler '' chromosomes that are in the wrong place ( e.g. , floating around in the cytoplasm ) $ ^3 $ . if a chromosome is misplaced , the cell will pause mitosis , allowing time for the spindle to capture the stray chromosome . how do the checkpoints actually work ? this article gives a high-level overview of cell cycle control , outlining the factors that influence a cell ’ s decision to pause or progress at each checkpoint . however , you may be wondering what these factors actually do to the cell , or change inside of it , to cause ( or block ) progression from one phase of the cell cycle to the next . the general answer is that internal and external cues trigger signaling pathways inside the cell that activate , or inactivate , a set of core proteins that move the cell cycle forward . you can learn more about these proteins , and see examples of how they are affected by cues such as dna damage , in the article on cell cycle regulators .
|
if the checkpoint mechanisms detect problems with the dna , the cell cycle is halted , and the cell attempts to either complete dna replication or repair the damaged dna . if the damage is irreparable , the cell may undergo apoptosis , or programmed cell death $ ^2 $ . this self-destruction mechanism ensures that damaged dna is not passed on to daughter cells and is important in preventing cancer .
|
so g1 and g2 checkpoints both check for cell damage ?
|
introduction as cells move through the cell cycle , do they breeze through from one phase to the next ? if they 're cancer cells , the answer might be yes . normal cells , however , move through the cell cycle in a regulated way . they use information about their own internal state and cues from the environment around them to decide whether to proceed with cell division . this regulation makes sure that cells do n't divide under unfavorable conditions ( for instance , when their dna is damaged , or when there is n't room for more cells in a tissue or organ ) . cell cycle checkpoints a checkpoint is a stage in the eukaryotic cell cycle at which at which the cell examines internal and external cues and `` decides '' whether or not to move forward with division . there are a number of checkpoints , but the three most important ones are : the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _1 $ /s transition . the g $ _2 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _2 $ /m transition . the spindle checkpoint , at the transition from metaphase to anaphase . the g $ _1 $ checkpoint the g $ _1 $ checkpoint is the main decision point for a cell – that is , the primary point at which it must choose whether or not to divide . once the cell passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint and enters s phase , it becomes irreversibly committed to division . that is , barring unexpected problems , such as dna damage or replication errors , a cell that passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint will continue the rest of the way through the cell cycle and produce two daughter cells . at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , a cell checks whether internal and external conditions are right for division . here are some of the factors a cell might assess : size . is the cell large enough to divide ? nutrients . does the cell have enough energy reserves or available nutrients to divide ? molecular signals . is the cell receiving positive cues ( such as growth factors ) from neighbors ? dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? these are not the only factors that can affect progression through the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , and which factors are most important depend on the type of cell . for instance , some cells also need mechanical cues ( such as being attached to a supportive network called the extracellular matrix ) in order to divide $ ^1 $ . if a cell doesn ’ t get the go-ahead cues it needs at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , it may leave the cell cycle and enter a resting state called g $ _0 $ phase . some cells stay permanently in g $ _0 $ , while others resume dividing if conditions improve . # # the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to make sure that cell division goes smoothly ( produces healthy daughter cells with complete , undamaged dna ) , the cell has an additional checkpoint before m phase , called the g $ _2 $ checkpoint . at this stage , the cell will check : dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? dna replication . was the dna completely copied during s phase ? if errors or damage are detected , the cell will pause at the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to allow for repairs . if the checkpoint mechanisms detect problems with the dna , the cell cycle is halted , and the cell attempts to either complete dna replication or repair the damaged dna . if the damage is irreparable , the cell may undergo apoptosis , or programmed cell death $ ^2 $ . this self-destruction mechanism ensures that damaged dna is not passed on to daughter cells and is important in preventing cancer . the spindle checkpoint the m checkpoint is also known as the spindle checkpoint : here , the cell examines whether all the sister chromatids are correctly attached to the spindle microtubules . because the separation of the sister chromatids during anaphase is an irreversible step , the cycle will not proceed until all the chromosomes are firmly attached to at least two spindle fibers from opposite poles of the cell . how does this checkpoint work ? it seems that cells do n't actually scan the metaphase plate to confirm that all of the chromosomes are there . instead , they look for `` straggler '' chromosomes that are in the wrong place ( e.g. , floating around in the cytoplasm ) $ ^3 $ . if a chromosome is misplaced , the cell will pause mitosis , allowing time for the spindle to capture the stray chromosome . how do the checkpoints actually work ? this article gives a high-level overview of cell cycle control , outlining the factors that influence a cell ’ s decision to pause or progress at each checkpoint . however , you may be wondering what these factors actually do to the cell , or change inside of it , to cause ( or block ) progression from one phase of the cell cycle to the next . the general answer is that internal and external cues trigger signaling pathways inside the cell that activate , or inactivate , a set of core proteins that move the cell cycle forward . you can learn more about these proteins , and see examples of how they are affected by cues such as dna damage , in the article on cell cycle regulators .
|
because the separation of the sister chromatids during anaphase is an irreversible step , the cycle will not proceed until all the chromosomes are firmly attached to at least two spindle fibers from opposite poles of the cell . how does this checkpoint work ? it seems that cells do n't actually scan the metaphase plate to confirm that all of the chromosomes are there .
|
do the lines in the diagrams symbolize where in the cycle the checkpoint is occurring ?
|
introduction as cells move through the cell cycle , do they breeze through from one phase to the next ? if they 're cancer cells , the answer might be yes . normal cells , however , move through the cell cycle in a regulated way . they use information about their own internal state and cues from the environment around them to decide whether to proceed with cell division . this regulation makes sure that cells do n't divide under unfavorable conditions ( for instance , when their dna is damaged , or when there is n't room for more cells in a tissue or organ ) . cell cycle checkpoints a checkpoint is a stage in the eukaryotic cell cycle at which at which the cell examines internal and external cues and `` decides '' whether or not to move forward with division . there are a number of checkpoints , but the three most important ones are : the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _1 $ /s transition . the g $ _2 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _2 $ /m transition . the spindle checkpoint , at the transition from metaphase to anaphase . the g $ _1 $ checkpoint the g $ _1 $ checkpoint is the main decision point for a cell – that is , the primary point at which it must choose whether or not to divide . once the cell passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint and enters s phase , it becomes irreversibly committed to division . that is , barring unexpected problems , such as dna damage or replication errors , a cell that passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint will continue the rest of the way through the cell cycle and produce two daughter cells . at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , a cell checks whether internal and external conditions are right for division . here are some of the factors a cell might assess : size . is the cell large enough to divide ? nutrients . does the cell have enough energy reserves or available nutrients to divide ? molecular signals . is the cell receiving positive cues ( such as growth factors ) from neighbors ? dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? these are not the only factors that can affect progression through the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , and which factors are most important depend on the type of cell . for instance , some cells also need mechanical cues ( such as being attached to a supportive network called the extracellular matrix ) in order to divide $ ^1 $ . if a cell doesn ’ t get the go-ahead cues it needs at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , it may leave the cell cycle and enter a resting state called g $ _0 $ phase . some cells stay permanently in g $ _0 $ , while others resume dividing if conditions improve . # # the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to make sure that cell division goes smoothly ( produces healthy daughter cells with complete , undamaged dna ) , the cell has an additional checkpoint before m phase , called the g $ _2 $ checkpoint . at this stage , the cell will check : dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? dna replication . was the dna completely copied during s phase ? if errors or damage are detected , the cell will pause at the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to allow for repairs . if the checkpoint mechanisms detect problems with the dna , the cell cycle is halted , and the cell attempts to either complete dna replication or repair the damaged dna . if the damage is irreparable , the cell may undergo apoptosis , or programmed cell death $ ^2 $ . this self-destruction mechanism ensures that damaged dna is not passed on to daughter cells and is important in preventing cancer . the spindle checkpoint the m checkpoint is also known as the spindle checkpoint : here , the cell examines whether all the sister chromatids are correctly attached to the spindle microtubules . because the separation of the sister chromatids during anaphase is an irreversible step , the cycle will not proceed until all the chromosomes are firmly attached to at least two spindle fibers from opposite poles of the cell . how does this checkpoint work ? it seems that cells do n't actually scan the metaphase plate to confirm that all of the chromosomes are there . instead , they look for `` straggler '' chromosomes that are in the wrong place ( e.g. , floating around in the cytoplasm ) $ ^3 $ . if a chromosome is misplaced , the cell will pause mitosis , allowing time for the spindle to capture the stray chromosome . how do the checkpoints actually work ? this article gives a high-level overview of cell cycle control , outlining the factors that influence a cell ’ s decision to pause or progress at each checkpoint . however , you may be wondering what these factors actually do to the cell , or change inside of it , to cause ( or block ) progression from one phase of the cell cycle to the next . the general answer is that internal and external cues trigger signaling pathways inside the cell that activate , or inactivate , a set of core proteins that move the cell cycle forward . you can learn more about these proteins , and see examples of how they are affected by cues such as dna damage , in the article on cell cycle regulators .
|
some cells stay permanently in g $ _0 $ , while others resume dividing if conditions improve . # # the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to make sure that cell division goes smoothly ( produces healthy daughter cells with complete , undamaged dna ) , the cell has an additional checkpoint before m phase , called the g $ _2 $ checkpoint . at this stage , the cell will check : dna integrity .
|
if so , is n't the g1 checkpoint supposed to occur before the g0 phase ?
|
introduction as cells move through the cell cycle , do they breeze through from one phase to the next ? if they 're cancer cells , the answer might be yes . normal cells , however , move through the cell cycle in a regulated way . they use information about their own internal state and cues from the environment around them to decide whether to proceed with cell division . this regulation makes sure that cells do n't divide under unfavorable conditions ( for instance , when their dna is damaged , or when there is n't room for more cells in a tissue or organ ) . cell cycle checkpoints a checkpoint is a stage in the eukaryotic cell cycle at which at which the cell examines internal and external cues and `` decides '' whether or not to move forward with division . there are a number of checkpoints , but the three most important ones are : the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _1 $ /s transition . the g $ _2 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _2 $ /m transition . the spindle checkpoint , at the transition from metaphase to anaphase . the g $ _1 $ checkpoint the g $ _1 $ checkpoint is the main decision point for a cell – that is , the primary point at which it must choose whether or not to divide . once the cell passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint and enters s phase , it becomes irreversibly committed to division . that is , barring unexpected problems , such as dna damage or replication errors , a cell that passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint will continue the rest of the way through the cell cycle and produce two daughter cells . at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , a cell checks whether internal and external conditions are right for division . here are some of the factors a cell might assess : size . is the cell large enough to divide ? nutrients . does the cell have enough energy reserves or available nutrients to divide ? molecular signals . is the cell receiving positive cues ( such as growth factors ) from neighbors ? dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? these are not the only factors that can affect progression through the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , and which factors are most important depend on the type of cell . for instance , some cells also need mechanical cues ( such as being attached to a supportive network called the extracellular matrix ) in order to divide $ ^1 $ . if a cell doesn ’ t get the go-ahead cues it needs at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , it may leave the cell cycle and enter a resting state called g $ _0 $ phase . some cells stay permanently in g $ _0 $ , while others resume dividing if conditions improve . # # the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to make sure that cell division goes smoothly ( produces healthy daughter cells with complete , undamaged dna ) , the cell has an additional checkpoint before m phase , called the g $ _2 $ checkpoint . at this stage , the cell will check : dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? dna replication . was the dna completely copied during s phase ? if errors or damage are detected , the cell will pause at the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to allow for repairs . if the checkpoint mechanisms detect problems with the dna , the cell cycle is halted , and the cell attempts to either complete dna replication or repair the damaged dna . if the damage is irreparable , the cell may undergo apoptosis , or programmed cell death $ ^2 $ . this self-destruction mechanism ensures that damaged dna is not passed on to daughter cells and is important in preventing cancer . the spindle checkpoint the m checkpoint is also known as the spindle checkpoint : here , the cell examines whether all the sister chromatids are correctly attached to the spindle microtubules . because the separation of the sister chromatids during anaphase is an irreversible step , the cycle will not proceed until all the chromosomes are firmly attached to at least two spindle fibers from opposite poles of the cell . how does this checkpoint work ? it seems that cells do n't actually scan the metaphase plate to confirm that all of the chromosomes are there . instead , they look for `` straggler '' chromosomes that are in the wrong place ( e.g. , floating around in the cytoplasm ) $ ^3 $ . if a chromosome is misplaced , the cell will pause mitosis , allowing time for the spindle to capture the stray chromosome . how do the checkpoints actually work ? this article gives a high-level overview of cell cycle control , outlining the factors that influence a cell ’ s decision to pause or progress at each checkpoint . however , you may be wondering what these factors actually do to the cell , or change inside of it , to cause ( or block ) progression from one phase of the cell cycle to the next . the general answer is that internal and external cues trigger signaling pathways inside the cell that activate , or inactivate , a set of core proteins that move the cell cycle forward . you can learn more about these proteins , and see examples of how they are affected by cues such as dna damage , in the article on cell cycle regulators .
|
introduction as cells move through the cell cycle , do they breeze through from one phase to the next ? if they 're cancer cells , the answer might be yes . normal cells , however , move through the cell cycle in a regulated way .
|
what happens to those cells who has not satisfied the checking that is made during the g1 phase ?
|
introduction as cells move through the cell cycle , do they breeze through from one phase to the next ? if they 're cancer cells , the answer might be yes . normal cells , however , move through the cell cycle in a regulated way . they use information about their own internal state and cues from the environment around them to decide whether to proceed with cell division . this regulation makes sure that cells do n't divide under unfavorable conditions ( for instance , when their dna is damaged , or when there is n't room for more cells in a tissue or organ ) . cell cycle checkpoints a checkpoint is a stage in the eukaryotic cell cycle at which at which the cell examines internal and external cues and `` decides '' whether or not to move forward with division . there are a number of checkpoints , but the three most important ones are : the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _1 $ /s transition . the g $ _2 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _2 $ /m transition . the spindle checkpoint , at the transition from metaphase to anaphase . the g $ _1 $ checkpoint the g $ _1 $ checkpoint is the main decision point for a cell – that is , the primary point at which it must choose whether or not to divide . once the cell passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint and enters s phase , it becomes irreversibly committed to division . that is , barring unexpected problems , such as dna damage or replication errors , a cell that passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint will continue the rest of the way through the cell cycle and produce two daughter cells . at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , a cell checks whether internal and external conditions are right for division . here are some of the factors a cell might assess : size . is the cell large enough to divide ? nutrients . does the cell have enough energy reserves or available nutrients to divide ? molecular signals . is the cell receiving positive cues ( such as growth factors ) from neighbors ? dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? these are not the only factors that can affect progression through the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , and which factors are most important depend on the type of cell . for instance , some cells also need mechanical cues ( such as being attached to a supportive network called the extracellular matrix ) in order to divide $ ^1 $ . if a cell doesn ’ t get the go-ahead cues it needs at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , it may leave the cell cycle and enter a resting state called g $ _0 $ phase . some cells stay permanently in g $ _0 $ , while others resume dividing if conditions improve . # # the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to make sure that cell division goes smoothly ( produces healthy daughter cells with complete , undamaged dna ) , the cell has an additional checkpoint before m phase , called the g $ _2 $ checkpoint . at this stage , the cell will check : dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? dna replication . was the dna completely copied during s phase ? if errors or damage are detected , the cell will pause at the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to allow for repairs . if the checkpoint mechanisms detect problems with the dna , the cell cycle is halted , and the cell attempts to either complete dna replication or repair the damaged dna . if the damage is irreparable , the cell may undergo apoptosis , or programmed cell death $ ^2 $ . this self-destruction mechanism ensures that damaged dna is not passed on to daughter cells and is important in preventing cancer . the spindle checkpoint the m checkpoint is also known as the spindle checkpoint : here , the cell examines whether all the sister chromatids are correctly attached to the spindle microtubules . because the separation of the sister chromatids during anaphase is an irreversible step , the cycle will not proceed until all the chromosomes are firmly attached to at least two spindle fibers from opposite poles of the cell . how does this checkpoint work ? it seems that cells do n't actually scan the metaphase plate to confirm that all of the chromosomes are there . instead , they look for `` straggler '' chromosomes that are in the wrong place ( e.g. , floating around in the cytoplasm ) $ ^3 $ . if a chromosome is misplaced , the cell will pause mitosis , allowing time for the spindle to capture the stray chromosome . how do the checkpoints actually work ? this article gives a high-level overview of cell cycle control , outlining the factors that influence a cell ’ s decision to pause or progress at each checkpoint . however , you may be wondering what these factors actually do to the cell , or change inside of it , to cause ( or block ) progression from one phase of the cell cycle to the next . the general answer is that internal and external cues trigger signaling pathways inside the cell that activate , or inactivate , a set of core proteins that move the cell cycle forward . you can learn more about these proteins , and see examples of how they are affected by cues such as dna damage , in the article on cell cycle regulators .
|
this self-destruction mechanism ensures that damaged dna is not passed on to daughter cells and is important in preventing cancer . the spindle checkpoint the m checkpoint is also known as the spindle checkpoint : here , the cell examines whether all the sister chromatids are correctly attached to the spindle microtubules . because the separation of the sister chromatids during anaphase is an irreversible step , the cycle will not proceed until all the chromosomes are firmly attached to at least two spindle fibers from opposite poles of the cell .
|
does the spindle checkpoint play a role in inducing mitotic catastrophe ?
|
introduction as cells move through the cell cycle , do they breeze through from one phase to the next ? if they 're cancer cells , the answer might be yes . normal cells , however , move through the cell cycle in a regulated way . they use information about their own internal state and cues from the environment around them to decide whether to proceed with cell division . this regulation makes sure that cells do n't divide under unfavorable conditions ( for instance , when their dna is damaged , or when there is n't room for more cells in a tissue or organ ) . cell cycle checkpoints a checkpoint is a stage in the eukaryotic cell cycle at which at which the cell examines internal and external cues and `` decides '' whether or not to move forward with division . there are a number of checkpoints , but the three most important ones are : the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _1 $ /s transition . the g $ _2 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _2 $ /m transition . the spindle checkpoint , at the transition from metaphase to anaphase . the g $ _1 $ checkpoint the g $ _1 $ checkpoint is the main decision point for a cell – that is , the primary point at which it must choose whether or not to divide . once the cell passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint and enters s phase , it becomes irreversibly committed to division . that is , barring unexpected problems , such as dna damage or replication errors , a cell that passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint will continue the rest of the way through the cell cycle and produce two daughter cells . at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , a cell checks whether internal and external conditions are right for division . here are some of the factors a cell might assess : size . is the cell large enough to divide ? nutrients . does the cell have enough energy reserves or available nutrients to divide ? molecular signals . is the cell receiving positive cues ( such as growth factors ) from neighbors ? dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? these are not the only factors that can affect progression through the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , and which factors are most important depend on the type of cell . for instance , some cells also need mechanical cues ( such as being attached to a supportive network called the extracellular matrix ) in order to divide $ ^1 $ . if a cell doesn ’ t get the go-ahead cues it needs at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , it may leave the cell cycle and enter a resting state called g $ _0 $ phase . some cells stay permanently in g $ _0 $ , while others resume dividing if conditions improve . # # the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to make sure that cell division goes smoothly ( produces healthy daughter cells with complete , undamaged dna ) , the cell has an additional checkpoint before m phase , called the g $ _2 $ checkpoint . at this stage , the cell will check : dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? dna replication . was the dna completely copied during s phase ? if errors or damage are detected , the cell will pause at the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to allow for repairs . if the checkpoint mechanisms detect problems with the dna , the cell cycle is halted , and the cell attempts to either complete dna replication or repair the damaged dna . if the damage is irreparable , the cell may undergo apoptosis , or programmed cell death $ ^2 $ . this self-destruction mechanism ensures that damaged dna is not passed on to daughter cells and is important in preventing cancer . the spindle checkpoint the m checkpoint is also known as the spindle checkpoint : here , the cell examines whether all the sister chromatids are correctly attached to the spindle microtubules . because the separation of the sister chromatids during anaphase is an irreversible step , the cycle will not proceed until all the chromosomes are firmly attached to at least two spindle fibers from opposite poles of the cell . how does this checkpoint work ? it seems that cells do n't actually scan the metaphase plate to confirm that all of the chromosomes are there . instead , they look for `` straggler '' chromosomes that are in the wrong place ( e.g. , floating around in the cytoplasm ) $ ^3 $ . if a chromosome is misplaced , the cell will pause mitosis , allowing time for the spindle to capture the stray chromosome . how do the checkpoints actually work ? this article gives a high-level overview of cell cycle control , outlining the factors that influence a cell ’ s decision to pause or progress at each checkpoint . however , you may be wondering what these factors actually do to the cell , or change inside of it , to cause ( or block ) progression from one phase of the cell cycle to the next . the general answer is that internal and external cues trigger signaling pathways inside the cell that activate , or inactivate , a set of core proteins that move the cell cycle forward . you can learn more about these proteins , and see examples of how they are affected by cues such as dna damage , in the article on cell cycle regulators .
|
how do the checkpoints actually work ? this article gives a high-level overview of cell cycle control , outlining the factors that influence a cell ’ s decision to pause or progress at each checkpoint . however , you may be wondering what these factors actually do to the cell , or change inside of it , to cause ( or block ) progression from one phase of the cell cycle to the next .
|
or does it only serve to pause the cell cycle ?
|
introduction as cells move through the cell cycle , do they breeze through from one phase to the next ? if they 're cancer cells , the answer might be yes . normal cells , however , move through the cell cycle in a regulated way . they use information about their own internal state and cues from the environment around them to decide whether to proceed with cell division . this regulation makes sure that cells do n't divide under unfavorable conditions ( for instance , when their dna is damaged , or when there is n't room for more cells in a tissue or organ ) . cell cycle checkpoints a checkpoint is a stage in the eukaryotic cell cycle at which at which the cell examines internal and external cues and `` decides '' whether or not to move forward with division . there are a number of checkpoints , but the three most important ones are : the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _1 $ /s transition . the g $ _2 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _2 $ /m transition . the spindle checkpoint , at the transition from metaphase to anaphase . the g $ _1 $ checkpoint the g $ _1 $ checkpoint is the main decision point for a cell – that is , the primary point at which it must choose whether or not to divide . once the cell passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint and enters s phase , it becomes irreversibly committed to division . that is , barring unexpected problems , such as dna damage or replication errors , a cell that passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint will continue the rest of the way through the cell cycle and produce two daughter cells . at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , a cell checks whether internal and external conditions are right for division . here are some of the factors a cell might assess : size . is the cell large enough to divide ? nutrients . does the cell have enough energy reserves or available nutrients to divide ? molecular signals . is the cell receiving positive cues ( such as growth factors ) from neighbors ? dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? these are not the only factors that can affect progression through the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , and which factors are most important depend on the type of cell . for instance , some cells also need mechanical cues ( such as being attached to a supportive network called the extracellular matrix ) in order to divide $ ^1 $ . if a cell doesn ’ t get the go-ahead cues it needs at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , it may leave the cell cycle and enter a resting state called g $ _0 $ phase . some cells stay permanently in g $ _0 $ , while others resume dividing if conditions improve . # # the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to make sure that cell division goes smoothly ( produces healthy daughter cells with complete , undamaged dna ) , the cell has an additional checkpoint before m phase , called the g $ _2 $ checkpoint . at this stage , the cell will check : dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? dna replication . was the dna completely copied during s phase ? if errors or damage are detected , the cell will pause at the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to allow for repairs . if the checkpoint mechanisms detect problems with the dna , the cell cycle is halted , and the cell attempts to either complete dna replication or repair the damaged dna . if the damage is irreparable , the cell may undergo apoptosis , or programmed cell death $ ^2 $ . this self-destruction mechanism ensures that damaged dna is not passed on to daughter cells and is important in preventing cancer . the spindle checkpoint the m checkpoint is also known as the spindle checkpoint : here , the cell examines whether all the sister chromatids are correctly attached to the spindle microtubules . because the separation of the sister chromatids during anaphase is an irreversible step , the cycle will not proceed until all the chromosomes are firmly attached to at least two spindle fibers from opposite poles of the cell . how does this checkpoint work ? it seems that cells do n't actually scan the metaphase plate to confirm that all of the chromosomes are there . instead , they look for `` straggler '' chromosomes that are in the wrong place ( e.g. , floating around in the cytoplasm ) $ ^3 $ . if a chromosome is misplaced , the cell will pause mitosis , allowing time for the spindle to capture the stray chromosome . how do the checkpoints actually work ? this article gives a high-level overview of cell cycle control , outlining the factors that influence a cell ’ s decision to pause or progress at each checkpoint . however , you may be wondering what these factors actually do to the cell , or change inside of it , to cause ( or block ) progression from one phase of the cell cycle to the next . the general answer is that internal and external cues trigger signaling pathways inside the cell that activate , or inactivate , a set of core proteins that move the cell cycle forward . you can learn more about these proteins , and see examples of how they are affected by cues such as dna damage , in the article on cell cycle regulators .
|
introduction as cells move through the cell cycle , do they breeze through from one phase to the next ? if they 're cancer cells , the answer might be yes . normal cells , however , move through the cell cycle in a regulated way .
|
can cells go through apoptosis in g0 phase ?
|
introduction as cells move through the cell cycle , do they breeze through from one phase to the next ? if they 're cancer cells , the answer might be yes . normal cells , however , move through the cell cycle in a regulated way . they use information about their own internal state and cues from the environment around them to decide whether to proceed with cell division . this regulation makes sure that cells do n't divide under unfavorable conditions ( for instance , when their dna is damaged , or when there is n't room for more cells in a tissue or organ ) . cell cycle checkpoints a checkpoint is a stage in the eukaryotic cell cycle at which at which the cell examines internal and external cues and `` decides '' whether or not to move forward with division . there are a number of checkpoints , but the three most important ones are : the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _1 $ /s transition . the g $ _2 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _2 $ /m transition . the spindle checkpoint , at the transition from metaphase to anaphase . the g $ _1 $ checkpoint the g $ _1 $ checkpoint is the main decision point for a cell – that is , the primary point at which it must choose whether or not to divide . once the cell passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint and enters s phase , it becomes irreversibly committed to division . that is , barring unexpected problems , such as dna damage or replication errors , a cell that passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint will continue the rest of the way through the cell cycle and produce two daughter cells . at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , a cell checks whether internal and external conditions are right for division . here are some of the factors a cell might assess : size . is the cell large enough to divide ? nutrients . does the cell have enough energy reserves or available nutrients to divide ? molecular signals . is the cell receiving positive cues ( such as growth factors ) from neighbors ? dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? these are not the only factors that can affect progression through the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , and which factors are most important depend on the type of cell . for instance , some cells also need mechanical cues ( such as being attached to a supportive network called the extracellular matrix ) in order to divide $ ^1 $ . if a cell doesn ’ t get the go-ahead cues it needs at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , it may leave the cell cycle and enter a resting state called g $ _0 $ phase . some cells stay permanently in g $ _0 $ , while others resume dividing if conditions improve . # # the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to make sure that cell division goes smoothly ( produces healthy daughter cells with complete , undamaged dna ) , the cell has an additional checkpoint before m phase , called the g $ _2 $ checkpoint . at this stage , the cell will check : dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? dna replication . was the dna completely copied during s phase ? if errors or damage are detected , the cell will pause at the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to allow for repairs . if the checkpoint mechanisms detect problems with the dna , the cell cycle is halted , and the cell attempts to either complete dna replication or repair the damaged dna . if the damage is irreparable , the cell may undergo apoptosis , or programmed cell death $ ^2 $ . this self-destruction mechanism ensures that damaged dna is not passed on to daughter cells and is important in preventing cancer . the spindle checkpoint the m checkpoint is also known as the spindle checkpoint : here , the cell examines whether all the sister chromatids are correctly attached to the spindle microtubules . because the separation of the sister chromatids during anaphase is an irreversible step , the cycle will not proceed until all the chromosomes are firmly attached to at least two spindle fibers from opposite poles of the cell . how does this checkpoint work ? it seems that cells do n't actually scan the metaphase plate to confirm that all of the chromosomes are there . instead , they look for `` straggler '' chromosomes that are in the wrong place ( e.g. , floating around in the cytoplasm ) $ ^3 $ . if a chromosome is misplaced , the cell will pause mitosis , allowing time for the spindle to capture the stray chromosome . how do the checkpoints actually work ? this article gives a high-level overview of cell cycle control , outlining the factors that influence a cell ’ s decision to pause or progress at each checkpoint . however , you may be wondering what these factors actually do to the cell , or change inside of it , to cause ( or block ) progression from one phase of the cell cycle to the next . the general answer is that internal and external cues trigger signaling pathways inside the cell that activate , or inactivate , a set of core proteins that move the cell cycle forward . you can learn more about these proteins , and see examples of how they are affected by cues such as dna damage , in the article on cell cycle regulators .
|
here are some of the factors a cell might assess : size . is the cell large enough to divide ? nutrients .
|
for cells that normally do not divide ( such as neurones ) , is it possible to purposefully induce cell division ?
|
introduction as cells move through the cell cycle , do they breeze through from one phase to the next ? if they 're cancer cells , the answer might be yes . normal cells , however , move through the cell cycle in a regulated way . they use information about their own internal state and cues from the environment around them to decide whether to proceed with cell division . this regulation makes sure that cells do n't divide under unfavorable conditions ( for instance , when their dna is damaged , or when there is n't room for more cells in a tissue or organ ) . cell cycle checkpoints a checkpoint is a stage in the eukaryotic cell cycle at which at which the cell examines internal and external cues and `` decides '' whether or not to move forward with division . there are a number of checkpoints , but the three most important ones are : the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _1 $ /s transition . the g $ _2 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _2 $ /m transition . the spindle checkpoint , at the transition from metaphase to anaphase . the g $ _1 $ checkpoint the g $ _1 $ checkpoint is the main decision point for a cell – that is , the primary point at which it must choose whether or not to divide . once the cell passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint and enters s phase , it becomes irreversibly committed to division . that is , barring unexpected problems , such as dna damage or replication errors , a cell that passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint will continue the rest of the way through the cell cycle and produce two daughter cells . at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , a cell checks whether internal and external conditions are right for division . here are some of the factors a cell might assess : size . is the cell large enough to divide ? nutrients . does the cell have enough energy reserves or available nutrients to divide ? molecular signals . is the cell receiving positive cues ( such as growth factors ) from neighbors ? dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? these are not the only factors that can affect progression through the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , and which factors are most important depend on the type of cell . for instance , some cells also need mechanical cues ( such as being attached to a supportive network called the extracellular matrix ) in order to divide $ ^1 $ . if a cell doesn ’ t get the go-ahead cues it needs at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , it may leave the cell cycle and enter a resting state called g $ _0 $ phase . some cells stay permanently in g $ _0 $ , while others resume dividing if conditions improve . # # the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to make sure that cell division goes smoothly ( produces healthy daughter cells with complete , undamaged dna ) , the cell has an additional checkpoint before m phase , called the g $ _2 $ checkpoint . at this stage , the cell will check : dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? dna replication . was the dna completely copied during s phase ? if errors or damage are detected , the cell will pause at the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to allow for repairs . if the checkpoint mechanisms detect problems with the dna , the cell cycle is halted , and the cell attempts to either complete dna replication or repair the damaged dna . if the damage is irreparable , the cell may undergo apoptosis , or programmed cell death $ ^2 $ . this self-destruction mechanism ensures that damaged dna is not passed on to daughter cells and is important in preventing cancer . the spindle checkpoint the m checkpoint is also known as the spindle checkpoint : here , the cell examines whether all the sister chromatids are correctly attached to the spindle microtubules . because the separation of the sister chromatids during anaphase is an irreversible step , the cycle will not proceed until all the chromosomes are firmly attached to at least two spindle fibers from opposite poles of the cell . how does this checkpoint work ? it seems that cells do n't actually scan the metaphase plate to confirm that all of the chromosomes are there . instead , they look for `` straggler '' chromosomes that are in the wrong place ( e.g. , floating around in the cytoplasm ) $ ^3 $ . if a chromosome is misplaced , the cell will pause mitosis , allowing time for the spindle to capture the stray chromosome . how do the checkpoints actually work ? this article gives a high-level overview of cell cycle control , outlining the factors that influence a cell ’ s decision to pause or progress at each checkpoint . however , you may be wondering what these factors actually do to the cell , or change inside of it , to cause ( or block ) progression from one phase of the cell cycle to the next . the general answer is that internal and external cues trigger signaling pathways inside the cell that activate , or inactivate , a set of core proteins that move the cell cycle forward . you can learn more about these proteins , and see examples of how they are affected by cues such as dna damage , in the article on cell cycle regulators .
|
some cells stay permanently in g $ _0 $ , while others resume dividing if conditions improve . # # the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to make sure that cell division goes smoothly ( produces healthy daughter cells with complete , undamaged dna ) , the cell has an additional checkpoint before m phase , called the g $ _2 $ checkpoint . at this stage , the cell will check : dna integrity .
|
if a cell becomes cancerous , what is the checkpoint it will bypass ?
|
introduction as cells move through the cell cycle , do they breeze through from one phase to the next ? if they 're cancer cells , the answer might be yes . normal cells , however , move through the cell cycle in a regulated way . they use information about their own internal state and cues from the environment around them to decide whether to proceed with cell division . this regulation makes sure that cells do n't divide under unfavorable conditions ( for instance , when their dna is damaged , or when there is n't room for more cells in a tissue or organ ) . cell cycle checkpoints a checkpoint is a stage in the eukaryotic cell cycle at which at which the cell examines internal and external cues and `` decides '' whether or not to move forward with division . there are a number of checkpoints , but the three most important ones are : the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _1 $ /s transition . the g $ _2 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _2 $ /m transition . the spindle checkpoint , at the transition from metaphase to anaphase . the g $ _1 $ checkpoint the g $ _1 $ checkpoint is the main decision point for a cell – that is , the primary point at which it must choose whether or not to divide . once the cell passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint and enters s phase , it becomes irreversibly committed to division . that is , barring unexpected problems , such as dna damage or replication errors , a cell that passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint will continue the rest of the way through the cell cycle and produce two daughter cells . at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , a cell checks whether internal and external conditions are right for division . here are some of the factors a cell might assess : size . is the cell large enough to divide ? nutrients . does the cell have enough energy reserves or available nutrients to divide ? molecular signals . is the cell receiving positive cues ( such as growth factors ) from neighbors ? dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? these are not the only factors that can affect progression through the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , and which factors are most important depend on the type of cell . for instance , some cells also need mechanical cues ( such as being attached to a supportive network called the extracellular matrix ) in order to divide $ ^1 $ . if a cell doesn ’ t get the go-ahead cues it needs at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , it may leave the cell cycle and enter a resting state called g $ _0 $ phase . some cells stay permanently in g $ _0 $ , while others resume dividing if conditions improve . # # the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to make sure that cell division goes smoothly ( produces healthy daughter cells with complete , undamaged dna ) , the cell has an additional checkpoint before m phase , called the g $ _2 $ checkpoint . at this stage , the cell will check : dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? dna replication . was the dna completely copied during s phase ? if errors or damage are detected , the cell will pause at the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to allow for repairs . if the checkpoint mechanisms detect problems with the dna , the cell cycle is halted , and the cell attempts to either complete dna replication or repair the damaged dna . if the damage is irreparable , the cell may undergo apoptosis , or programmed cell death $ ^2 $ . this self-destruction mechanism ensures that damaged dna is not passed on to daughter cells and is important in preventing cancer . the spindle checkpoint the m checkpoint is also known as the spindle checkpoint : here , the cell examines whether all the sister chromatids are correctly attached to the spindle microtubules . because the separation of the sister chromatids during anaphase is an irreversible step , the cycle will not proceed until all the chromosomes are firmly attached to at least two spindle fibers from opposite poles of the cell . how does this checkpoint work ? it seems that cells do n't actually scan the metaphase plate to confirm that all of the chromosomes are there . instead , they look for `` straggler '' chromosomes that are in the wrong place ( e.g. , floating around in the cytoplasm ) $ ^3 $ . if a chromosome is misplaced , the cell will pause mitosis , allowing time for the spindle to capture the stray chromosome . how do the checkpoints actually work ? this article gives a high-level overview of cell cycle control , outlining the factors that influence a cell ’ s decision to pause or progress at each checkpoint . however , you may be wondering what these factors actually do to the cell , or change inside of it , to cause ( or block ) progression from one phase of the cell cycle to the next . the general answer is that internal and external cues trigger signaling pathways inside the cell that activate , or inactivate , a set of core proteins that move the cell cycle forward . you can learn more about these proteins , and see examples of how they are affected by cues such as dna damage , in the article on cell cycle regulators .
|
this self-destruction mechanism ensures that damaged dna is not passed on to daughter cells and is important in preventing cancer . the spindle checkpoint the m checkpoint is also known as the spindle checkpoint : here , the cell examines whether all the sister chromatids are correctly attached to the spindle microtubules . because the separation of the sister chromatids during anaphase is an irreversible step , the cycle will not proceed until all the chromosomes are firmly attached to at least two spindle fibers from opposite poles of the cell .
|
are spindle fibers the same thing as spindle microtubules ?
|
introduction as cells move through the cell cycle , do they breeze through from one phase to the next ? if they 're cancer cells , the answer might be yes . normal cells , however , move through the cell cycle in a regulated way . they use information about their own internal state and cues from the environment around them to decide whether to proceed with cell division . this regulation makes sure that cells do n't divide under unfavorable conditions ( for instance , when their dna is damaged , or when there is n't room for more cells in a tissue or organ ) . cell cycle checkpoints a checkpoint is a stage in the eukaryotic cell cycle at which at which the cell examines internal and external cues and `` decides '' whether or not to move forward with division . there are a number of checkpoints , but the three most important ones are : the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _1 $ /s transition . the g $ _2 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _2 $ /m transition . the spindle checkpoint , at the transition from metaphase to anaphase . the g $ _1 $ checkpoint the g $ _1 $ checkpoint is the main decision point for a cell – that is , the primary point at which it must choose whether or not to divide . once the cell passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint and enters s phase , it becomes irreversibly committed to division . that is , barring unexpected problems , such as dna damage or replication errors , a cell that passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint will continue the rest of the way through the cell cycle and produce two daughter cells . at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , a cell checks whether internal and external conditions are right for division . here are some of the factors a cell might assess : size . is the cell large enough to divide ? nutrients . does the cell have enough energy reserves or available nutrients to divide ? molecular signals . is the cell receiving positive cues ( such as growth factors ) from neighbors ? dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? these are not the only factors that can affect progression through the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , and which factors are most important depend on the type of cell . for instance , some cells also need mechanical cues ( such as being attached to a supportive network called the extracellular matrix ) in order to divide $ ^1 $ . if a cell doesn ’ t get the go-ahead cues it needs at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , it may leave the cell cycle and enter a resting state called g $ _0 $ phase . some cells stay permanently in g $ _0 $ , while others resume dividing if conditions improve . # # the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to make sure that cell division goes smoothly ( produces healthy daughter cells with complete , undamaged dna ) , the cell has an additional checkpoint before m phase , called the g $ _2 $ checkpoint . at this stage , the cell will check : dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? dna replication . was the dna completely copied during s phase ? if errors or damage are detected , the cell will pause at the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to allow for repairs . if the checkpoint mechanisms detect problems with the dna , the cell cycle is halted , and the cell attempts to either complete dna replication or repair the damaged dna . if the damage is irreparable , the cell may undergo apoptosis , or programmed cell death $ ^2 $ . this self-destruction mechanism ensures that damaged dna is not passed on to daughter cells and is important in preventing cancer . the spindle checkpoint the m checkpoint is also known as the spindle checkpoint : here , the cell examines whether all the sister chromatids are correctly attached to the spindle microtubules . because the separation of the sister chromatids during anaphase is an irreversible step , the cycle will not proceed until all the chromosomes are firmly attached to at least two spindle fibers from opposite poles of the cell . how does this checkpoint work ? it seems that cells do n't actually scan the metaphase plate to confirm that all of the chromosomes are there . instead , they look for `` straggler '' chromosomes that are in the wrong place ( e.g. , floating around in the cytoplasm ) $ ^3 $ . if a chromosome is misplaced , the cell will pause mitosis , allowing time for the spindle to capture the stray chromosome . how do the checkpoints actually work ? this article gives a high-level overview of cell cycle control , outlining the factors that influence a cell ’ s decision to pause or progress at each checkpoint . however , you may be wondering what these factors actually do to the cell , or change inside of it , to cause ( or block ) progression from one phase of the cell cycle to the next . the general answer is that internal and external cues trigger signaling pathways inside the cell that activate , or inactivate , a set of core proteins that move the cell cycle forward . you can learn more about these proteins , and see examples of how they are affected by cues such as dna damage , in the article on cell cycle regulators .
|
they use information about their own internal state and cues from the environment around them to decide whether to proceed with cell division . this regulation makes sure that cells do n't divide under unfavorable conditions ( for instance , when their dna is damaged , or when there is n't room for more cells in a tissue or organ ) . cell cycle checkpoints a checkpoint is a stage in the eukaryotic cell cycle at which at which the cell examines internal and external cues and `` decides '' whether or not to move forward with division . there are a number of checkpoints , but the three most important ones are : the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _1 $ /s transition .
|
what happens if the cell ca n't pass the checkpoints ?
|
introduction as cells move through the cell cycle , do they breeze through from one phase to the next ? if they 're cancer cells , the answer might be yes . normal cells , however , move through the cell cycle in a regulated way . they use information about their own internal state and cues from the environment around them to decide whether to proceed with cell division . this regulation makes sure that cells do n't divide under unfavorable conditions ( for instance , when their dna is damaged , or when there is n't room for more cells in a tissue or organ ) . cell cycle checkpoints a checkpoint is a stage in the eukaryotic cell cycle at which at which the cell examines internal and external cues and `` decides '' whether or not to move forward with division . there are a number of checkpoints , but the three most important ones are : the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _1 $ /s transition . the g $ _2 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _2 $ /m transition . the spindle checkpoint , at the transition from metaphase to anaphase . the g $ _1 $ checkpoint the g $ _1 $ checkpoint is the main decision point for a cell – that is , the primary point at which it must choose whether or not to divide . once the cell passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint and enters s phase , it becomes irreversibly committed to division . that is , barring unexpected problems , such as dna damage or replication errors , a cell that passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint will continue the rest of the way through the cell cycle and produce two daughter cells . at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , a cell checks whether internal and external conditions are right for division . here are some of the factors a cell might assess : size . is the cell large enough to divide ? nutrients . does the cell have enough energy reserves or available nutrients to divide ? molecular signals . is the cell receiving positive cues ( such as growth factors ) from neighbors ? dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? these are not the only factors that can affect progression through the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , and which factors are most important depend on the type of cell . for instance , some cells also need mechanical cues ( such as being attached to a supportive network called the extracellular matrix ) in order to divide $ ^1 $ . if a cell doesn ’ t get the go-ahead cues it needs at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , it may leave the cell cycle and enter a resting state called g $ _0 $ phase . some cells stay permanently in g $ _0 $ , while others resume dividing if conditions improve . # # the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to make sure that cell division goes smoothly ( produces healthy daughter cells with complete , undamaged dna ) , the cell has an additional checkpoint before m phase , called the g $ _2 $ checkpoint . at this stage , the cell will check : dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? dna replication . was the dna completely copied during s phase ? if errors or damage are detected , the cell will pause at the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to allow for repairs . if the checkpoint mechanisms detect problems with the dna , the cell cycle is halted , and the cell attempts to either complete dna replication or repair the damaged dna . if the damage is irreparable , the cell may undergo apoptosis , or programmed cell death $ ^2 $ . this self-destruction mechanism ensures that damaged dna is not passed on to daughter cells and is important in preventing cancer . the spindle checkpoint the m checkpoint is also known as the spindle checkpoint : here , the cell examines whether all the sister chromatids are correctly attached to the spindle microtubules . because the separation of the sister chromatids during anaphase is an irreversible step , the cycle will not proceed until all the chromosomes are firmly attached to at least two spindle fibers from opposite poles of the cell . how does this checkpoint work ? it seems that cells do n't actually scan the metaphase plate to confirm that all of the chromosomes are there . instead , they look for `` straggler '' chromosomes that are in the wrong place ( e.g. , floating around in the cytoplasm ) $ ^3 $ . if a chromosome is misplaced , the cell will pause mitosis , allowing time for the spindle to capture the stray chromosome . how do the checkpoints actually work ? this article gives a high-level overview of cell cycle control , outlining the factors that influence a cell ’ s decision to pause or progress at each checkpoint . however , you may be wondering what these factors actually do to the cell , or change inside of it , to cause ( or block ) progression from one phase of the cell cycle to the next . the general answer is that internal and external cues trigger signaling pathways inside the cell that activate , or inactivate , a set of core proteins that move the cell cycle forward . you can learn more about these proteins , and see examples of how they are affected by cues such as dna damage , in the article on cell cycle regulators .
|
some cells stay permanently in g $ _0 $ , while others resume dividing if conditions improve . # # the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to make sure that cell division goes smoothly ( produces healthy daughter cells with complete , undamaged dna ) , the cell has an additional checkpoint before m phase , called the g $ _2 $ checkpoint . at this stage , the cell will check : dna integrity .
|
what would happen if a cell bypasses a checkpoint ?
|
introduction as cells move through the cell cycle , do they breeze through from one phase to the next ? if they 're cancer cells , the answer might be yes . normal cells , however , move through the cell cycle in a regulated way . they use information about their own internal state and cues from the environment around them to decide whether to proceed with cell division . this regulation makes sure that cells do n't divide under unfavorable conditions ( for instance , when their dna is damaged , or when there is n't room for more cells in a tissue or organ ) . cell cycle checkpoints a checkpoint is a stage in the eukaryotic cell cycle at which at which the cell examines internal and external cues and `` decides '' whether or not to move forward with division . there are a number of checkpoints , but the three most important ones are : the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _1 $ /s transition . the g $ _2 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _2 $ /m transition . the spindle checkpoint , at the transition from metaphase to anaphase . the g $ _1 $ checkpoint the g $ _1 $ checkpoint is the main decision point for a cell – that is , the primary point at which it must choose whether or not to divide . once the cell passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint and enters s phase , it becomes irreversibly committed to division . that is , barring unexpected problems , such as dna damage or replication errors , a cell that passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint will continue the rest of the way through the cell cycle and produce two daughter cells . at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , a cell checks whether internal and external conditions are right for division . here are some of the factors a cell might assess : size . is the cell large enough to divide ? nutrients . does the cell have enough energy reserves or available nutrients to divide ? molecular signals . is the cell receiving positive cues ( such as growth factors ) from neighbors ? dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? these are not the only factors that can affect progression through the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , and which factors are most important depend on the type of cell . for instance , some cells also need mechanical cues ( such as being attached to a supportive network called the extracellular matrix ) in order to divide $ ^1 $ . if a cell doesn ’ t get the go-ahead cues it needs at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , it may leave the cell cycle and enter a resting state called g $ _0 $ phase . some cells stay permanently in g $ _0 $ , while others resume dividing if conditions improve . # # the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to make sure that cell division goes smoothly ( produces healthy daughter cells with complete , undamaged dna ) , the cell has an additional checkpoint before m phase , called the g $ _2 $ checkpoint . at this stage , the cell will check : dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? dna replication . was the dna completely copied during s phase ? if errors or damage are detected , the cell will pause at the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to allow for repairs . if the checkpoint mechanisms detect problems with the dna , the cell cycle is halted , and the cell attempts to either complete dna replication or repair the damaged dna . if the damage is irreparable , the cell may undergo apoptosis , or programmed cell death $ ^2 $ . this self-destruction mechanism ensures that damaged dna is not passed on to daughter cells and is important in preventing cancer . the spindle checkpoint the m checkpoint is also known as the spindle checkpoint : here , the cell examines whether all the sister chromatids are correctly attached to the spindle microtubules . because the separation of the sister chromatids during anaphase is an irreversible step , the cycle will not proceed until all the chromosomes are firmly attached to at least two spindle fibers from opposite poles of the cell . how does this checkpoint work ? it seems that cells do n't actually scan the metaphase plate to confirm that all of the chromosomes are there . instead , they look for `` straggler '' chromosomes that are in the wrong place ( e.g. , floating around in the cytoplasm ) $ ^3 $ . if a chromosome is misplaced , the cell will pause mitosis , allowing time for the spindle to capture the stray chromosome . how do the checkpoints actually work ? this article gives a high-level overview of cell cycle control , outlining the factors that influence a cell ’ s decision to pause or progress at each checkpoint . however , you may be wondering what these factors actually do to the cell , or change inside of it , to cause ( or block ) progression from one phase of the cell cycle to the next . the general answer is that internal and external cues trigger signaling pathways inside the cell that activate , or inactivate , a set of core proteins that move the cell cycle forward . you can learn more about these proteins , and see examples of how they are affected by cues such as dna damage , in the article on cell cycle regulators .
|
here are some of the factors a cell might assess : size . is the cell large enough to divide ? nutrients .
|
what happens when cytokinesis does not undergo ... does the cell not divide and have two nuclei ?
|
introduction as cells move through the cell cycle , do they breeze through from one phase to the next ? if they 're cancer cells , the answer might be yes . normal cells , however , move through the cell cycle in a regulated way . they use information about their own internal state and cues from the environment around them to decide whether to proceed with cell division . this regulation makes sure that cells do n't divide under unfavorable conditions ( for instance , when their dna is damaged , or when there is n't room for more cells in a tissue or organ ) . cell cycle checkpoints a checkpoint is a stage in the eukaryotic cell cycle at which at which the cell examines internal and external cues and `` decides '' whether or not to move forward with division . there are a number of checkpoints , but the three most important ones are : the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _1 $ /s transition . the g $ _2 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _2 $ /m transition . the spindle checkpoint , at the transition from metaphase to anaphase . the g $ _1 $ checkpoint the g $ _1 $ checkpoint is the main decision point for a cell – that is , the primary point at which it must choose whether or not to divide . once the cell passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint and enters s phase , it becomes irreversibly committed to division . that is , barring unexpected problems , such as dna damage or replication errors , a cell that passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint will continue the rest of the way through the cell cycle and produce two daughter cells . at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , a cell checks whether internal and external conditions are right for division . here are some of the factors a cell might assess : size . is the cell large enough to divide ? nutrients . does the cell have enough energy reserves or available nutrients to divide ? molecular signals . is the cell receiving positive cues ( such as growth factors ) from neighbors ? dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? these are not the only factors that can affect progression through the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , and which factors are most important depend on the type of cell . for instance , some cells also need mechanical cues ( such as being attached to a supportive network called the extracellular matrix ) in order to divide $ ^1 $ . if a cell doesn ’ t get the go-ahead cues it needs at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , it may leave the cell cycle and enter a resting state called g $ _0 $ phase . some cells stay permanently in g $ _0 $ , while others resume dividing if conditions improve . # # the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to make sure that cell division goes smoothly ( produces healthy daughter cells with complete , undamaged dna ) , the cell has an additional checkpoint before m phase , called the g $ _2 $ checkpoint . at this stage , the cell will check : dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? dna replication . was the dna completely copied during s phase ? if errors or damage are detected , the cell will pause at the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to allow for repairs . if the checkpoint mechanisms detect problems with the dna , the cell cycle is halted , and the cell attempts to either complete dna replication or repair the damaged dna . if the damage is irreparable , the cell may undergo apoptosis , or programmed cell death $ ^2 $ . this self-destruction mechanism ensures that damaged dna is not passed on to daughter cells and is important in preventing cancer . the spindle checkpoint the m checkpoint is also known as the spindle checkpoint : here , the cell examines whether all the sister chromatids are correctly attached to the spindle microtubules . because the separation of the sister chromatids during anaphase is an irreversible step , the cycle will not proceed until all the chromosomes are firmly attached to at least two spindle fibers from opposite poles of the cell . how does this checkpoint work ? it seems that cells do n't actually scan the metaphase plate to confirm that all of the chromosomes are there . instead , they look for `` straggler '' chromosomes that are in the wrong place ( e.g. , floating around in the cytoplasm ) $ ^3 $ . if a chromosome is misplaced , the cell will pause mitosis , allowing time for the spindle to capture the stray chromosome . how do the checkpoints actually work ? this article gives a high-level overview of cell cycle control , outlining the factors that influence a cell ’ s decision to pause or progress at each checkpoint . however , you may be wondering what these factors actually do to the cell , or change inside of it , to cause ( or block ) progression from one phase of the cell cycle to the next . the general answer is that internal and external cues trigger signaling pathways inside the cell that activate , or inactivate , a set of core proteins that move the cell cycle forward . you can learn more about these proteins , and see examples of how they are affected by cues such as dna damage , in the article on cell cycle regulators .
|
dna replication . was the dna completely copied during s phase ? if errors or damage are detected , the cell will pause at the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to allow for repairs .
|
what happens in the g2 phase ?
|
introduction as cells move through the cell cycle , do they breeze through from one phase to the next ? if they 're cancer cells , the answer might be yes . normal cells , however , move through the cell cycle in a regulated way . they use information about their own internal state and cues from the environment around them to decide whether to proceed with cell division . this regulation makes sure that cells do n't divide under unfavorable conditions ( for instance , when their dna is damaged , or when there is n't room for more cells in a tissue or organ ) . cell cycle checkpoints a checkpoint is a stage in the eukaryotic cell cycle at which at which the cell examines internal and external cues and `` decides '' whether or not to move forward with division . there are a number of checkpoints , but the three most important ones are : the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _1 $ /s transition . the g $ _2 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _2 $ /m transition . the spindle checkpoint , at the transition from metaphase to anaphase . the g $ _1 $ checkpoint the g $ _1 $ checkpoint is the main decision point for a cell – that is , the primary point at which it must choose whether or not to divide . once the cell passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint and enters s phase , it becomes irreversibly committed to division . that is , barring unexpected problems , such as dna damage or replication errors , a cell that passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint will continue the rest of the way through the cell cycle and produce two daughter cells . at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , a cell checks whether internal and external conditions are right for division . here are some of the factors a cell might assess : size . is the cell large enough to divide ? nutrients . does the cell have enough energy reserves or available nutrients to divide ? molecular signals . is the cell receiving positive cues ( such as growth factors ) from neighbors ? dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? these are not the only factors that can affect progression through the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , and which factors are most important depend on the type of cell . for instance , some cells also need mechanical cues ( such as being attached to a supportive network called the extracellular matrix ) in order to divide $ ^1 $ . if a cell doesn ’ t get the go-ahead cues it needs at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , it may leave the cell cycle and enter a resting state called g $ _0 $ phase . some cells stay permanently in g $ _0 $ , while others resume dividing if conditions improve . # # the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to make sure that cell division goes smoothly ( produces healthy daughter cells with complete , undamaged dna ) , the cell has an additional checkpoint before m phase , called the g $ _2 $ checkpoint . at this stage , the cell will check : dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? dna replication . was the dna completely copied during s phase ? if errors or damage are detected , the cell will pause at the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to allow for repairs . if the checkpoint mechanisms detect problems with the dna , the cell cycle is halted , and the cell attempts to either complete dna replication or repair the damaged dna . if the damage is irreparable , the cell may undergo apoptosis , or programmed cell death $ ^2 $ . this self-destruction mechanism ensures that damaged dna is not passed on to daughter cells and is important in preventing cancer . the spindle checkpoint the m checkpoint is also known as the spindle checkpoint : here , the cell examines whether all the sister chromatids are correctly attached to the spindle microtubules . because the separation of the sister chromatids during anaphase is an irreversible step , the cycle will not proceed until all the chromosomes are firmly attached to at least two spindle fibers from opposite poles of the cell . how does this checkpoint work ? it seems that cells do n't actually scan the metaphase plate to confirm that all of the chromosomes are there . instead , they look for `` straggler '' chromosomes that are in the wrong place ( e.g. , floating around in the cytoplasm ) $ ^3 $ . if a chromosome is misplaced , the cell will pause mitosis , allowing time for the spindle to capture the stray chromosome . how do the checkpoints actually work ? this article gives a high-level overview of cell cycle control , outlining the factors that influence a cell ’ s decision to pause or progress at each checkpoint . however , you may be wondering what these factors actually do to the cell , or change inside of it , to cause ( or block ) progression from one phase of the cell cycle to the next . the general answer is that internal and external cues trigger signaling pathways inside the cell that activate , or inactivate , a set of core proteins that move the cell cycle forward . you can learn more about these proteins , and see examples of how they are affected by cues such as dna damage , in the article on cell cycle regulators .
|
if the checkpoint mechanisms detect problems with the dna , the cell cycle is halted , and the cell attempts to either complete dna replication or repair the damaged dna . if the damage is irreparable , the cell may undergo apoptosis , or programmed cell death $ ^2 $ . this self-destruction mechanism ensures that damaged dna is not passed on to daughter cells and is important in preventing cancer .
|
why is it important for the cell to produce proteins before dividing ?
|
introduction as cells move through the cell cycle , do they breeze through from one phase to the next ? if they 're cancer cells , the answer might be yes . normal cells , however , move through the cell cycle in a regulated way . they use information about their own internal state and cues from the environment around them to decide whether to proceed with cell division . this regulation makes sure that cells do n't divide under unfavorable conditions ( for instance , when their dna is damaged , or when there is n't room for more cells in a tissue or organ ) . cell cycle checkpoints a checkpoint is a stage in the eukaryotic cell cycle at which at which the cell examines internal and external cues and `` decides '' whether or not to move forward with division . there are a number of checkpoints , but the three most important ones are : the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _1 $ /s transition . the g $ _2 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _2 $ /m transition . the spindle checkpoint , at the transition from metaphase to anaphase . the g $ _1 $ checkpoint the g $ _1 $ checkpoint is the main decision point for a cell – that is , the primary point at which it must choose whether or not to divide . once the cell passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint and enters s phase , it becomes irreversibly committed to division . that is , barring unexpected problems , such as dna damage or replication errors , a cell that passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint will continue the rest of the way through the cell cycle and produce two daughter cells . at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , a cell checks whether internal and external conditions are right for division . here are some of the factors a cell might assess : size . is the cell large enough to divide ? nutrients . does the cell have enough energy reserves or available nutrients to divide ? molecular signals . is the cell receiving positive cues ( such as growth factors ) from neighbors ? dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? these are not the only factors that can affect progression through the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , and which factors are most important depend on the type of cell . for instance , some cells also need mechanical cues ( such as being attached to a supportive network called the extracellular matrix ) in order to divide $ ^1 $ . if a cell doesn ’ t get the go-ahead cues it needs at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , it may leave the cell cycle and enter a resting state called g $ _0 $ phase . some cells stay permanently in g $ _0 $ , while others resume dividing if conditions improve . # # the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to make sure that cell division goes smoothly ( produces healthy daughter cells with complete , undamaged dna ) , the cell has an additional checkpoint before m phase , called the g $ _2 $ checkpoint . at this stage , the cell will check : dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? dna replication . was the dna completely copied during s phase ? if errors or damage are detected , the cell will pause at the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to allow for repairs . if the checkpoint mechanisms detect problems with the dna , the cell cycle is halted , and the cell attempts to either complete dna replication or repair the damaged dna . if the damage is irreparable , the cell may undergo apoptosis , or programmed cell death $ ^2 $ . this self-destruction mechanism ensures that damaged dna is not passed on to daughter cells and is important in preventing cancer . the spindle checkpoint the m checkpoint is also known as the spindle checkpoint : here , the cell examines whether all the sister chromatids are correctly attached to the spindle microtubules . because the separation of the sister chromatids during anaphase is an irreversible step , the cycle will not proceed until all the chromosomes are firmly attached to at least two spindle fibers from opposite poles of the cell . how does this checkpoint work ? it seems that cells do n't actually scan the metaphase plate to confirm that all of the chromosomes are there . instead , they look for `` straggler '' chromosomes that are in the wrong place ( e.g. , floating around in the cytoplasm ) $ ^3 $ . if a chromosome is misplaced , the cell will pause mitosis , allowing time for the spindle to capture the stray chromosome . how do the checkpoints actually work ? this article gives a high-level overview of cell cycle control , outlining the factors that influence a cell ’ s decision to pause or progress at each checkpoint . however , you may be wondering what these factors actually do to the cell , or change inside of it , to cause ( or block ) progression from one phase of the cell cycle to the next . the general answer is that internal and external cues trigger signaling pathways inside the cell that activate , or inactivate , a set of core proteins that move the cell cycle forward . you can learn more about these proteins , and see examples of how they are affected by cues such as dna damage , in the article on cell cycle regulators .
|
if they 're cancer cells , the answer might be yes . normal cells , however , move through the cell cycle in a regulated way . they use information about their own internal state and cues from the environment around them to decide whether to proceed with cell division .
|
what occurs when they ( the cells ) miss checkpoints in the cell cycle ?
|
introduction as cells move through the cell cycle , do they breeze through from one phase to the next ? if they 're cancer cells , the answer might be yes . normal cells , however , move through the cell cycle in a regulated way . they use information about their own internal state and cues from the environment around them to decide whether to proceed with cell division . this regulation makes sure that cells do n't divide under unfavorable conditions ( for instance , when their dna is damaged , or when there is n't room for more cells in a tissue or organ ) . cell cycle checkpoints a checkpoint is a stage in the eukaryotic cell cycle at which at which the cell examines internal and external cues and `` decides '' whether or not to move forward with division . there are a number of checkpoints , but the three most important ones are : the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _1 $ /s transition . the g $ _2 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _2 $ /m transition . the spindle checkpoint , at the transition from metaphase to anaphase . the g $ _1 $ checkpoint the g $ _1 $ checkpoint is the main decision point for a cell – that is , the primary point at which it must choose whether or not to divide . once the cell passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint and enters s phase , it becomes irreversibly committed to division . that is , barring unexpected problems , such as dna damage or replication errors , a cell that passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint will continue the rest of the way through the cell cycle and produce two daughter cells . at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , a cell checks whether internal and external conditions are right for division . here are some of the factors a cell might assess : size . is the cell large enough to divide ? nutrients . does the cell have enough energy reserves or available nutrients to divide ? molecular signals . is the cell receiving positive cues ( such as growth factors ) from neighbors ? dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? these are not the only factors that can affect progression through the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , and which factors are most important depend on the type of cell . for instance , some cells also need mechanical cues ( such as being attached to a supportive network called the extracellular matrix ) in order to divide $ ^1 $ . if a cell doesn ’ t get the go-ahead cues it needs at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , it may leave the cell cycle and enter a resting state called g $ _0 $ phase . some cells stay permanently in g $ _0 $ , while others resume dividing if conditions improve . # # the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to make sure that cell division goes smoothly ( produces healthy daughter cells with complete , undamaged dna ) , the cell has an additional checkpoint before m phase , called the g $ _2 $ checkpoint . at this stage , the cell will check : dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? dna replication . was the dna completely copied during s phase ? if errors or damage are detected , the cell will pause at the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to allow for repairs . if the checkpoint mechanisms detect problems with the dna , the cell cycle is halted , and the cell attempts to either complete dna replication or repair the damaged dna . if the damage is irreparable , the cell may undergo apoptosis , or programmed cell death $ ^2 $ . this self-destruction mechanism ensures that damaged dna is not passed on to daughter cells and is important in preventing cancer . the spindle checkpoint the m checkpoint is also known as the spindle checkpoint : here , the cell examines whether all the sister chromatids are correctly attached to the spindle microtubules . because the separation of the sister chromatids during anaphase is an irreversible step , the cycle will not proceed until all the chromosomes are firmly attached to at least two spindle fibers from opposite poles of the cell . how does this checkpoint work ? it seems that cells do n't actually scan the metaphase plate to confirm that all of the chromosomes are there . instead , they look for `` straggler '' chromosomes that are in the wrong place ( e.g. , floating around in the cytoplasm ) $ ^3 $ . if a chromosome is misplaced , the cell will pause mitosis , allowing time for the spindle to capture the stray chromosome . how do the checkpoints actually work ? this article gives a high-level overview of cell cycle control , outlining the factors that influence a cell ’ s decision to pause or progress at each checkpoint . however , you may be wondering what these factors actually do to the cell , or change inside of it , to cause ( or block ) progression from one phase of the cell cycle to the next . the general answer is that internal and external cues trigger signaling pathways inside the cell that activate , or inactivate , a set of core proteins that move the cell cycle forward . you can learn more about these proteins , and see examples of how they are affected by cues such as dna damage , in the article on cell cycle regulators .
|
this regulation makes sure that cells do n't divide under unfavorable conditions ( for instance , when their dna is damaged , or when there is n't room for more cells in a tissue or organ ) . cell cycle checkpoints a checkpoint is a stage in the eukaryotic cell cycle at which at which the cell examines internal and external cues and `` decides '' whether or not to move forward with division . there are a number of checkpoints , but the three most important ones are : the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _1 $ /s transition .
|
what happens when a cell ignores the checkpoints ?
|
introduction as cells move through the cell cycle , do they breeze through from one phase to the next ? if they 're cancer cells , the answer might be yes . normal cells , however , move through the cell cycle in a regulated way . they use information about their own internal state and cues from the environment around them to decide whether to proceed with cell division . this regulation makes sure that cells do n't divide under unfavorable conditions ( for instance , when their dna is damaged , or when there is n't room for more cells in a tissue or organ ) . cell cycle checkpoints a checkpoint is a stage in the eukaryotic cell cycle at which at which the cell examines internal and external cues and `` decides '' whether or not to move forward with division . there are a number of checkpoints , but the three most important ones are : the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _1 $ /s transition . the g $ _2 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _2 $ /m transition . the spindle checkpoint , at the transition from metaphase to anaphase . the g $ _1 $ checkpoint the g $ _1 $ checkpoint is the main decision point for a cell – that is , the primary point at which it must choose whether or not to divide . once the cell passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint and enters s phase , it becomes irreversibly committed to division . that is , barring unexpected problems , such as dna damage or replication errors , a cell that passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint will continue the rest of the way through the cell cycle and produce two daughter cells . at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , a cell checks whether internal and external conditions are right for division . here are some of the factors a cell might assess : size . is the cell large enough to divide ? nutrients . does the cell have enough energy reserves or available nutrients to divide ? molecular signals . is the cell receiving positive cues ( such as growth factors ) from neighbors ? dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? these are not the only factors that can affect progression through the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , and which factors are most important depend on the type of cell . for instance , some cells also need mechanical cues ( such as being attached to a supportive network called the extracellular matrix ) in order to divide $ ^1 $ . if a cell doesn ’ t get the go-ahead cues it needs at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , it may leave the cell cycle and enter a resting state called g $ _0 $ phase . some cells stay permanently in g $ _0 $ , while others resume dividing if conditions improve . # # the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to make sure that cell division goes smoothly ( produces healthy daughter cells with complete , undamaged dna ) , the cell has an additional checkpoint before m phase , called the g $ _2 $ checkpoint . at this stage , the cell will check : dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? dna replication . was the dna completely copied during s phase ? if errors or damage are detected , the cell will pause at the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to allow for repairs . if the checkpoint mechanisms detect problems with the dna , the cell cycle is halted , and the cell attempts to either complete dna replication or repair the damaged dna . if the damage is irreparable , the cell may undergo apoptosis , or programmed cell death $ ^2 $ . this self-destruction mechanism ensures that damaged dna is not passed on to daughter cells and is important in preventing cancer . the spindle checkpoint the m checkpoint is also known as the spindle checkpoint : here , the cell examines whether all the sister chromatids are correctly attached to the spindle microtubules . because the separation of the sister chromatids during anaphase is an irreversible step , the cycle will not proceed until all the chromosomes are firmly attached to at least two spindle fibers from opposite poles of the cell . how does this checkpoint work ? it seems that cells do n't actually scan the metaphase plate to confirm that all of the chromosomes are there . instead , they look for `` straggler '' chromosomes that are in the wrong place ( e.g. , floating around in the cytoplasm ) $ ^3 $ . if a chromosome is misplaced , the cell will pause mitosis , allowing time for the spindle to capture the stray chromosome . how do the checkpoints actually work ? this article gives a high-level overview of cell cycle control , outlining the factors that influence a cell ’ s decision to pause or progress at each checkpoint . however , you may be wondering what these factors actually do to the cell , or change inside of it , to cause ( or block ) progression from one phase of the cell cycle to the next . the general answer is that internal and external cues trigger signaling pathways inside the cell that activate , or inactivate , a set of core proteins that move the cell cycle forward . you can learn more about these proteins , and see examples of how they are affected by cues such as dna damage , in the article on cell cycle regulators .
|
they use information about their own internal state and cues from the environment around them to decide whether to proceed with cell division . this regulation makes sure that cells do n't divide under unfavorable conditions ( for instance , when their dna is damaged , or when there is n't room for more cells in a tissue or organ ) . cell cycle checkpoints a checkpoint is a stage in the eukaryotic cell cycle at which at which the cell examines internal and external cues and `` decides '' whether or not to move forward with division .
|
what happens to the polar bodies that do n't become gametes ?
|
introduction as cells move through the cell cycle , do they breeze through from one phase to the next ? if they 're cancer cells , the answer might be yes . normal cells , however , move through the cell cycle in a regulated way . they use information about their own internal state and cues from the environment around them to decide whether to proceed with cell division . this regulation makes sure that cells do n't divide under unfavorable conditions ( for instance , when their dna is damaged , or when there is n't room for more cells in a tissue or organ ) . cell cycle checkpoints a checkpoint is a stage in the eukaryotic cell cycle at which at which the cell examines internal and external cues and `` decides '' whether or not to move forward with division . there are a number of checkpoints , but the three most important ones are : the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _1 $ /s transition . the g $ _2 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _2 $ /m transition . the spindle checkpoint , at the transition from metaphase to anaphase . the g $ _1 $ checkpoint the g $ _1 $ checkpoint is the main decision point for a cell – that is , the primary point at which it must choose whether or not to divide . once the cell passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint and enters s phase , it becomes irreversibly committed to division . that is , barring unexpected problems , such as dna damage or replication errors , a cell that passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint will continue the rest of the way through the cell cycle and produce two daughter cells . at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , a cell checks whether internal and external conditions are right for division . here are some of the factors a cell might assess : size . is the cell large enough to divide ? nutrients . does the cell have enough energy reserves or available nutrients to divide ? molecular signals . is the cell receiving positive cues ( such as growth factors ) from neighbors ? dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? these are not the only factors that can affect progression through the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , and which factors are most important depend on the type of cell . for instance , some cells also need mechanical cues ( such as being attached to a supportive network called the extracellular matrix ) in order to divide $ ^1 $ . if a cell doesn ’ t get the go-ahead cues it needs at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , it may leave the cell cycle and enter a resting state called g $ _0 $ phase . some cells stay permanently in g $ _0 $ , while others resume dividing if conditions improve . # # the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to make sure that cell division goes smoothly ( produces healthy daughter cells with complete , undamaged dna ) , the cell has an additional checkpoint before m phase , called the g $ _2 $ checkpoint . at this stage , the cell will check : dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? dna replication . was the dna completely copied during s phase ? if errors or damage are detected , the cell will pause at the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to allow for repairs . if the checkpoint mechanisms detect problems with the dna , the cell cycle is halted , and the cell attempts to either complete dna replication or repair the damaged dna . if the damage is irreparable , the cell may undergo apoptosis , or programmed cell death $ ^2 $ . this self-destruction mechanism ensures that damaged dna is not passed on to daughter cells and is important in preventing cancer . the spindle checkpoint the m checkpoint is also known as the spindle checkpoint : here , the cell examines whether all the sister chromatids are correctly attached to the spindle microtubules . because the separation of the sister chromatids during anaphase is an irreversible step , the cycle will not proceed until all the chromosomes are firmly attached to at least two spindle fibers from opposite poles of the cell . how does this checkpoint work ? it seems that cells do n't actually scan the metaphase plate to confirm that all of the chromosomes are there . instead , they look for `` straggler '' chromosomes that are in the wrong place ( e.g. , floating around in the cytoplasm ) $ ^3 $ . if a chromosome is misplaced , the cell will pause mitosis , allowing time for the spindle to capture the stray chromosome . how do the checkpoints actually work ? this article gives a high-level overview of cell cycle control , outlining the factors that influence a cell ’ s decision to pause or progress at each checkpoint . however , you may be wondering what these factors actually do to the cell , or change inside of it , to cause ( or block ) progression from one phase of the cell cycle to the next . the general answer is that internal and external cues trigger signaling pathways inside the cell that activate , or inactivate , a set of core proteins that move the cell cycle forward . you can learn more about these proteins , and see examples of how they are affected by cues such as dna damage , in the article on cell cycle regulators .
|
dna replication . was the dna completely copied during s phase ? if errors or damage are detected , the cell will pause at the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to allow for repairs .
|
what are the number of chromosomes in g1 phase ?
|
introduction as cells move through the cell cycle , do they breeze through from one phase to the next ? if they 're cancer cells , the answer might be yes . normal cells , however , move through the cell cycle in a regulated way . they use information about their own internal state and cues from the environment around them to decide whether to proceed with cell division . this regulation makes sure that cells do n't divide under unfavorable conditions ( for instance , when their dna is damaged , or when there is n't room for more cells in a tissue or organ ) . cell cycle checkpoints a checkpoint is a stage in the eukaryotic cell cycle at which at which the cell examines internal and external cues and `` decides '' whether or not to move forward with division . there are a number of checkpoints , but the three most important ones are : the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _1 $ /s transition . the g $ _2 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _2 $ /m transition . the spindle checkpoint , at the transition from metaphase to anaphase . the g $ _1 $ checkpoint the g $ _1 $ checkpoint is the main decision point for a cell – that is , the primary point at which it must choose whether or not to divide . once the cell passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint and enters s phase , it becomes irreversibly committed to division . that is , barring unexpected problems , such as dna damage or replication errors , a cell that passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint will continue the rest of the way through the cell cycle and produce two daughter cells . at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , a cell checks whether internal and external conditions are right for division . here are some of the factors a cell might assess : size . is the cell large enough to divide ? nutrients . does the cell have enough energy reserves or available nutrients to divide ? molecular signals . is the cell receiving positive cues ( such as growth factors ) from neighbors ? dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? these are not the only factors that can affect progression through the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , and which factors are most important depend on the type of cell . for instance , some cells also need mechanical cues ( such as being attached to a supportive network called the extracellular matrix ) in order to divide $ ^1 $ . if a cell doesn ’ t get the go-ahead cues it needs at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , it may leave the cell cycle and enter a resting state called g $ _0 $ phase . some cells stay permanently in g $ _0 $ , while others resume dividing if conditions improve . # # the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to make sure that cell division goes smoothly ( produces healthy daughter cells with complete , undamaged dna ) , the cell has an additional checkpoint before m phase , called the g $ _2 $ checkpoint . at this stage , the cell will check : dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? dna replication . was the dna completely copied during s phase ? if errors or damage are detected , the cell will pause at the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to allow for repairs . if the checkpoint mechanisms detect problems with the dna , the cell cycle is halted , and the cell attempts to either complete dna replication or repair the damaged dna . if the damage is irreparable , the cell may undergo apoptosis , or programmed cell death $ ^2 $ . this self-destruction mechanism ensures that damaged dna is not passed on to daughter cells and is important in preventing cancer . the spindle checkpoint the m checkpoint is also known as the spindle checkpoint : here , the cell examines whether all the sister chromatids are correctly attached to the spindle microtubules . because the separation of the sister chromatids during anaphase is an irreversible step , the cycle will not proceed until all the chromosomes are firmly attached to at least two spindle fibers from opposite poles of the cell . how does this checkpoint work ? it seems that cells do n't actually scan the metaphase plate to confirm that all of the chromosomes are there . instead , they look for `` straggler '' chromosomes that are in the wrong place ( e.g. , floating around in the cytoplasm ) $ ^3 $ . if a chromosome is misplaced , the cell will pause mitosis , allowing time for the spindle to capture the stray chromosome . how do the checkpoints actually work ? this article gives a high-level overview of cell cycle control , outlining the factors that influence a cell ’ s decision to pause or progress at each checkpoint . however , you may be wondering what these factors actually do to the cell , or change inside of it , to cause ( or block ) progression from one phase of the cell cycle to the next . the general answer is that internal and external cues trigger signaling pathways inside the cell that activate , or inactivate , a set of core proteins that move the cell cycle forward . you can learn more about these proteins , and see examples of how they are affected by cues such as dna damage , in the article on cell cycle regulators .
|
this regulation makes sure that cells do n't divide under unfavorable conditions ( for instance , when their dna is damaged , or when there is n't room for more cells in a tissue or organ ) . cell cycle checkpoints a checkpoint is a stage in the eukaryotic cell cycle at which at which the cell examines internal and external cues and `` decides '' whether or not to move forward with division . there are a number of checkpoints , but the three most important ones are : the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _1 $ /s transition .
|
whether cell is in diploid condition or haploid ?
|
introduction as cells move through the cell cycle , do they breeze through from one phase to the next ? if they 're cancer cells , the answer might be yes . normal cells , however , move through the cell cycle in a regulated way . they use information about their own internal state and cues from the environment around them to decide whether to proceed with cell division . this regulation makes sure that cells do n't divide under unfavorable conditions ( for instance , when their dna is damaged , or when there is n't room for more cells in a tissue or organ ) . cell cycle checkpoints a checkpoint is a stage in the eukaryotic cell cycle at which at which the cell examines internal and external cues and `` decides '' whether or not to move forward with division . there are a number of checkpoints , but the three most important ones are : the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _1 $ /s transition . the g $ _2 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _2 $ /m transition . the spindle checkpoint , at the transition from metaphase to anaphase . the g $ _1 $ checkpoint the g $ _1 $ checkpoint is the main decision point for a cell – that is , the primary point at which it must choose whether or not to divide . once the cell passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint and enters s phase , it becomes irreversibly committed to division . that is , barring unexpected problems , such as dna damage or replication errors , a cell that passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint will continue the rest of the way through the cell cycle and produce two daughter cells . at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , a cell checks whether internal and external conditions are right for division . here are some of the factors a cell might assess : size . is the cell large enough to divide ? nutrients . does the cell have enough energy reserves or available nutrients to divide ? molecular signals . is the cell receiving positive cues ( such as growth factors ) from neighbors ? dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? these are not the only factors that can affect progression through the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , and which factors are most important depend on the type of cell . for instance , some cells also need mechanical cues ( such as being attached to a supportive network called the extracellular matrix ) in order to divide $ ^1 $ . if a cell doesn ’ t get the go-ahead cues it needs at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , it may leave the cell cycle and enter a resting state called g $ _0 $ phase . some cells stay permanently in g $ _0 $ , while others resume dividing if conditions improve . # # the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to make sure that cell division goes smoothly ( produces healthy daughter cells with complete , undamaged dna ) , the cell has an additional checkpoint before m phase , called the g $ _2 $ checkpoint . at this stage , the cell will check : dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? dna replication . was the dna completely copied during s phase ? if errors or damage are detected , the cell will pause at the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to allow for repairs . if the checkpoint mechanisms detect problems with the dna , the cell cycle is halted , and the cell attempts to either complete dna replication or repair the damaged dna . if the damage is irreparable , the cell may undergo apoptosis , or programmed cell death $ ^2 $ . this self-destruction mechanism ensures that damaged dna is not passed on to daughter cells and is important in preventing cancer . the spindle checkpoint the m checkpoint is also known as the spindle checkpoint : here , the cell examines whether all the sister chromatids are correctly attached to the spindle microtubules . because the separation of the sister chromatids during anaphase is an irreversible step , the cycle will not proceed until all the chromosomes are firmly attached to at least two spindle fibers from opposite poles of the cell . how does this checkpoint work ? it seems that cells do n't actually scan the metaphase plate to confirm that all of the chromosomes are there . instead , they look for `` straggler '' chromosomes that are in the wrong place ( e.g. , floating around in the cytoplasm ) $ ^3 $ . if a chromosome is misplaced , the cell will pause mitosis , allowing time for the spindle to capture the stray chromosome . how do the checkpoints actually work ? this article gives a high-level overview of cell cycle control , outlining the factors that influence a cell ’ s decision to pause or progress at each checkpoint . however , you may be wondering what these factors actually do to the cell , or change inside of it , to cause ( or block ) progression from one phase of the cell cycle to the next . the general answer is that internal and external cues trigger signaling pathways inside the cell that activate , or inactivate , a set of core proteins that move the cell cycle forward . you can learn more about these proteins , and see examples of how they are affected by cues such as dna damage , in the article on cell cycle regulators .
|
this regulation makes sure that cells do n't divide under unfavorable conditions ( for instance , when their dna is damaged , or when there is n't room for more cells in a tissue or organ ) . cell cycle checkpoints a checkpoint is a stage in the eukaryotic cell cycle at which at which the cell examines internal and external cues and `` decides '' whether or not to move forward with division . there are a number of checkpoints , but the three most important ones are : the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _1 $ /s transition .
|
what would be the evolutionary advantages of cell checkpoints ?
|
introduction as cells move through the cell cycle , do they breeze through from one phase to the next ? if they 're cancer cells , the answer might be yes . normal cells , however , move through the cell cycle in a regulated way . they use information about their own internal state and cues from the environment around them to decide whether to proceed with cell division . this regulation makes sure that cells do n't divide under unfavorable conditions ( for instance , when their dna is damaged , or when there is n't room for more cells in a tissue or organ ) . cell cycle checkpoints a checkpoint is a stage in the eukaryotic cell cycle at which at which the cell examines internal and external cues and `` decides '' whether or not to move forward with division . there are a number of checkpoints , but the three most important ones are : the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _1 $ /s transition . the g $ _2 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _2 $ /m transition . the spindle checkpoint , at the transition from metaphase to anaphase . the g $ _1 $ checkpoint the g $ _1 $ checkpoint is the main decision point for a cell – that is , the primary point at which it must choose whether or not to divide . once the cell passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint and enters s phase , it becomes irreversibly committed to division . that is , barring unexpected problems , such as dna damage or replication errors , a cell that passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint will continue the rest of the way through the cell cycle and produce two daughter cells . at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , a cell checks whether internal and external conditions are right for division . here are some of the factors a cell might assess : size . is the cell large enough to divide ? nutrients . does the cell have enough energy reserves or available nutrients to divide ? molecular signals . is the cell receiving positive cues ( such as growth factors ) from neighbors ? dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? these are not the only factors that can affect progression through the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , and which factors are most important depend on the type of cell . for instance , some cells also need mechanical cues ( such as being attached to a supportive network called the extracellular matrix ) in order to divide $ ^1 $ . if a cell doesn ’ t get the go-ahead cues it needs at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , it may leave the cell cycle and enter a resting state called g $ _0 $ phase . some cells stay permanently in g $ _0 $ , while others resume dividing if conditions improve . # # the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to make sure that cell division goes smoothly ( produces healthy daughter cells with complete , undamaged dna ) , the cell has an additional checkpoint before m phase , called the g $ _2 $ checkpoint . at this stage , the cell will check : dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? dna replication . was the dna completely copied during s phase ? if errors or damage are detected , the cell will pause at the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to allow for repairs . if the checkpoint mechanisms detect problems with the dna , the cell cycle is halted , and the cell attempts to either complete dna replication or repair the damaged dna . if the damage is irreparable , the cell may undergo apoptosis , or programmed cell death $ ^2 $ . this self-destruction mechanism ensures that damaged dna is not passed on to daughter cells and is important in preventing cancer . the spindle checkpoint the m checkpoint is also known as the spindle checkpoint : here , the cell examines whether all the sister chromatids are correctly attached to the spindle microtubules . because the separation of the sister chromatids during anaphase is an irreversible step , the cycle will not proceed until all the chromosomes are firmly attached to at least two spindle fibers from opposite poles of the cell . how does this checkpoint work ? it seems that cells do n't actually scan the metaphase plate to confirm that all of the chromosomes are there . instead , they look for `` straggler '' chromosomes that are in the wrong place ( e.g. , floating around in the cytoplasm ) $ ^3 $ . if a chromosome is misplaced , the cell will pause mitosis , allowing time for the spindle to capture the stray chromosome . how do the checkpoints actually work ? this article gives a high-level overview of cell cycle control , outlining the factors that influence a cell ’ s decision to pause or progress at each checkpoint . however , you may be wondering what these factors actually do to the cell , or change inside of it , to cause ( or block ) progression from one phase of the cell cycle to the next . the general answer is that internal and external cues trigger signaling pathways inside the cell that activate , or inactivate , a set of core proteins that move the cell cycle forward . you can learn more about these proteins , and see examples of how they are affected by cues such as dna damage , in the article on cell cycle regulators .
|
if the checkpoint mechanisms detect problems with the dna , the cell cycle is halted , and the cell attempts to either complete dna replication or repair the damaged dna . if the damage is irreparable , the cell may undergo apoptosis , or programmed cell death $ ^2 $ . this self-destruction mechanism ensures that damaged dna is not passed on to daughter cells and is important in preventing cancer .
|
would a cell undergo apoptosis if it was a single celled organism ?
|
introduction as cells move through the cell cycle , do they breeze through from one phase to the next ? if they 're cancer cells , the answer might be yes . normal cells , however , move through the cell cycle in a regulated way . they use information about their own internal state and cues from the environment around them to decide whether to proceed with cell division . this regulation makes sure that cells do n't divide under unfavorable conditions ( for instance , when their dna is damaged , or when there is n't room for more cells in a tissue or organ ) . cell cycle checkpoints a checkpoint is a stage in the eukaryotic cell cycle at which at which the cell examines internal and external cues and `` decides '' whether or not to move forward with division . there are a number of checkpoints , but the three most important ones are : the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _1 $ /s transition . the g $ _2 $ checkpoint , at the g $ _2 $ /m transition . the spindle checkpoint , at the transition from metaphase to anaphase . the g $ _1 $ checkpoint the g $ _1 $ checkpoint is the main decision point for a cell – that is , the primary point at which it must choose whether or not to divide . once the cell passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint and enters s phase , it becomes irreversibly committed to division . that is , barring unexpected problems , such as dna damage or replication errors , a cell that passes the g $ _1 $ checkpoint will continue the rest of the way through the cell cycle and produce two daughter cells . at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , a cell checks whether internal and external conditions are right for division . here are some of the factors a cell might assess : size . is the cell large enough to divide ? nutrients . does the cell have enough energy reserves or available nutrients to divide ? molecular signals . is the cell receiving positive cues ( such as growth factors ) from neighbors ? dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? these are not the only factors that can affect progression through the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , and which factors are most important depend on the type of cell . for instance , some cells also need mechanical cues ( such as being attached to a supportive network called the extracellular matrix ) in order to divide $ ^1 $ . if a cell doesn ’ t get the go-ahead cues it needs at the g $ _1 $ checkpoint , it may leave the cell cycle and enter a resting state called g $ _0 $ phase . some cells stay permanently in g $ _0 $ , while others resume dividing if conditions improve . # # the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to make sure that cell division goes smoothly ( produces healthy daughter cells with complete , undamaged dna ) , the cell has an additional checkpoint before m phase , called the g $ _2 $ checkpoint . at this stage , the cell will check : dna integrity . is any of the dna damaged ? dna replication . was the dna completely copied during s phase ? if errors or damage are detected , the cell will pause at the g $ _2 $ checkpoint to allow for repairs . if the checkpoint mechanisms detect problems with the dna , the cell cycle is halted , and the cell attempts to either complete dna replication or repair the damaged dna . if the damage is irreparable , the cell may undergo apoptosis , or programmed cell death $ ^2 $ . this self-destruction mechanism ensures that damaged dna is not passed on to daughter cells and is important in preventing cancer . the spindle checkpoint the m checkpoint is also known as the spindle checkpoint : here , the cell examines whether all the sister chromatids are correctly attached to the spindle microtubules . because the separation of the sister chromatids during anaphase is an irreversible step , the cycle will not proceed until all the chromosomes are firmly attached to at least two spindle fibers from opposite poles of the cell . how does this checkpoint work ? it seems that cells do n't actually scan the metaphase plate to confirm that all of the chromosomes are there . instead , they look for `` straggler '' chromosomes that are in the wrong place ( e.g. , floating around in the cytoplasm ) $ ^3 $ . if a chromosome is misplaced , the cell will pause mitosis , allowing time for the spindle to capture the stray chromosome . how do the checkpoints actually work ? this article gives a high-level overview of cell cycle control , outlining the factors that influence a cell ’ s decision to pause or progress at each checkpoint . however , you may be wondering what these factors actually do to the cell , or change inside of it , to cause ( or block ) progression from one phase of the cell cycle to the next . the general answer is that internal and external cues trigger signaling pathways inside the cell that activate , or inactivate , a set of core proteins that move the cell cycle forward . you can learn more about these proteins , and see examples of how they are affected by cues such as dna damage , in the article on cell cycle regulators .
|
if the checkpoint mechanisms detect problems with the dna , the cell cycle is halted , and the cell attempts to either complete dna replication or repair the damaged dna . if the damage is irreparable , the cell may undergo apoptosis , or programmed cell death $ ^2 $ . this self-destruction mechanism ensures that damaged dna is not passed on to daughter cells and is important in preventing cancer .
|
because the only reason i see for a cell to `` kill itself '' is if it was for the greater good for the organism , but how would that be good if itself was the organism ?
|
key points : a multicellular organism develops from a single cell ( the zygote ) into a collection of many different cell types , organized into tissues and organs . development involves cell division , body axis formation , tissue and organ development , and cell differentiation ( gaining a final cell type identity ) . during development , cells use both intrinsic , or inherited , information and extrinsic signals from neighbors to `` decide on '' their behavior and identity . cells usually become more and more restricted in their developmental potential ( the cell types they can produce ) as development progresses . introduction you , my friend , are a walking , talking , thinking , learning collection of over $ 30 $ $ \text { trillion } $ cells $ ^1 $ . but you weren ’ t always that large and complex . in fact , you ( like every other human on the planet ) started out as a single cell – a zygote , or the product of fertilization . so , how did your amazing , complex body form ? development : the big picture during development , a human or other multicellular organism goes through an amazing transformation , one at least as dramatic as the metamorphosis of a caterpillar turning into a butterfly . over the course of hours , days , or months , the organism turns from a single cell called the zygote ( the product of sperm meeting egg ) into a huge , organized collection of cells , tissues , and organs . as an embryo develops , its cells divide , grow , and migrate in specific patterns to make a more and more elaborate body . to function correctly , that body needs well-defined axes ( such as head vs. tail ) . it also needs a specific collection of many-celled organs and other structures , positioned in the right spots along the axes and connected up with one another in the right ways . the cells of an organism 's body must also specialize into many functionally different types as development goes on . your body ( or even the body of a newborn ) contains a wide array of different cell types , from neurons to liver cells to blood cells . each one of these cell types is found only in certain parts of the body—in certain tissues of certain organs—where its function is needed . how does this intricate cellular dance unfold ? development is largely under the control of genes . mature cell types of the body , like neurons and liver cells , express different sets of genes , which give them their unique properties and functions . in the same way , cells during development also express specific sets of genes . these patterns of gene expression guide cells ’ behavior and allow them to communicate with neighboring cells , coordinating development . in this article and the ones that follow , we ’ ll take a closer look at principles and examples of development . some basic processes of development different organisms develop in different ways , but there are some basic things that must happen during the embryonic development of almost any organism : the number of cells must increase through division body axes ( head-tail , right-left , etc . ) must form tissues must form , and organs and structures must take on their shapes individual cells must acquire their final cell type identities ( e.g. , neuron ) to be clear , these processes aren ’ t separate events that happen one after another . instead , they are going on at the same time as the embryo develops . for instance , different body axes ( such as head-tail and left-right ) are set up at different times during early development , while the cells of the embryo are dividing away in the background . similarly , formation of an organ requires cell division to build that organ , as well as differentiation ( cells taking on their final identities ) to ensure that the right cells make up the right parts of the organ . sources of information in development how do cells know what they 're supposed to do during development ? that is , how does a cell know when and how to migrate , divide , or differentiate ? broadly speaking , there are two kinds of information that guide cells ' behavior : intrinsic ( lineage ) information is inherited from the mother cell , via cell division . for instance , a cell might inherit molecules that `` tell '' it that it belongs to the neural , or nerve cell-producing , lineage of the body . extrinsic ( positional ) information is received from the cell 's surroundings . for instance , a cell might get chemical signals from a neighbor , instructing it to become a particular kind of photoreceptor ( light-detecting neuron ) . during development , cells often use both intrinsic and extrinsic information to make decisions about their identity and behavior . of course , they do n't actually `` decide '' by thinking the problem over like you or me ! instead , cells make decisions in the way a calculator or computer would : by using genes and proteins to perform logic operations that calculate the best response . differentiation , determination , and stem cells over the course of development , cells tend to become more and more restricted in their `` developmental potential . '' $ ^3 $ that is , the types of other cells they can make by cell division ( or directly turn into ) become fewer and fewer . for instance , a human zygote can give rise to all the cell types of the human body , as well as the cells that make up the placenta . to use vocab from the stem cell field , this ability to give rise to all cell types of the body and placenta makes the zygote totipotent . however , after multiple rounds of cell division , the cells of the embryo lose their ability to give rise to cells of the placenta and become more restricted in their potential ( pluripotent ) $ ^4 $ . these changes are due to alterations in the set of genes expressed in the cells . eventually , the cells of the embryo are split into three different groups known as germ layers : mesoderm , endoderm , and ectoderm . each germ layer will , under normal conditions , give rise to its own specific set of tissues and organs . as the cells of a germ layer continue to divide , interacting with their neighbors and reading out their own internal information , their cell fate “ options ” will get narrower and narrower . at first , cells may be specified , earmarked for a certain fate but able to switch given the right cues . next , they may become determined , meaning that they are irreversibly committed to a certain fate . once a cell is determined , even if it ’ s moved to a new environment , it will differentiate as the cell type to which it 's become committed $ ^5 $ . eventually , most cells in the body differentiate , or take on a stable , final identity . examples of differentiated cell types in the human body include neurons , the cells lining the intestine , and the macrophages that gobble up bacterial invaders in the immune system . each differentiated cell type has a specific gene expression pattern that it maintains stably . the genes expressed in a cell type specify proteins and functional rnas needed by that particular cell type , giving it the right structure and function to do its job . for example , the diagram above shows two genes that are differently expressed between a liver cell and a neuron . one gene , encoding part of an enzyme that breaks down alcohol and other toxins , is expressed only in the liver cell ( and not in the neuron ) . the other gene , encoding a neurotransmitter , is expressed only in the neuron ( and not in the liver cell ) . many other genes would also be expressed differently between these two cell types . adult stem cells not all cells in the human body differentiate . some cells in the adult body retain the ability to divide and produce multiple cell types . these include adult stem cells , which are usually multipotent : they can produce more than one cell type , but not a large range of cell types $ ^4 $ . for instance , hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow can give rise to all the cell types of the blood system ( shown below ) , but not other cell types such as neurons or skin cells . the hallmark of stem cells is that they undergo asymmetric cell division , producing two daughter cells that are different from one another . one daughter remains a stem cell , a process called self-renewal ( the dividing cell `` renews '' itself by making a functionally identical daughter ) . the other daughter cell takes on a different identity , either differentiating directly into a needed cell type or going through additional divisions to make more cells . you can learn more about development and see more examples of its principles and processes in these articles : frog development : learn about the early development of frogs . bonus : see an experiment that makes a two-headed newt ! homeotic genes : learn about the `` master regulator '' genes that specify whole segments or structures of the body . bonus : see a fly with legs growing out of its head !
|
key points : a multicellular organism develops from a single cell ( the zygote ) into a collection of many different cell types , organized into tissues and organs . development involves cell division , body axis formation , tissue and organ development , and cell differentiation ( gaining a final cell type identity ) . during development , cells use both intrinsic , or inherited , information and extrinsic signals from neighbors to `` decide on '' their behavior and identity .
|
how a does cell know what function to perform ?
|
key points unexpected inflation tends to hurt those whose money received—in terms of wages and interest payments—does not rise with inflation . inflation can help those who owe money that can be paid back in less valuable , inflated dollars . low rates of inflation have relatively little economic impact over the short term . over the medium and the long term , however , even low rates of inflation can complicate future planning . high rates of inflation can muddle price signals in the short term and prevent market forces from operating efficiently . the confusion over inflation many economists oppose high inflation , but they tend to oppose it with less fervor than many non-economists . robert shiller , one of 2013 ’ s nobel prize winners in economics , carried out several surveys during the 1990s about attitudes toward inflation . one of his questions was “ do you agree that preventing high inflation is an important national priority , as important as preventing drug abuse or preventing deterioration in the quality of our schools ? ” answers were on a scale of one to five , where one meant “ fully agree ” and five meant “ completely disagree. ” of the entire us population , 52 % answered “ fully agree ” that preventing high inflation was a highly important national priority and just 4 % answered “ completely disagree. ” however , among professional economists , only 18 % answered “ fully agree ; ” another 18 % answered “ completely disagree. ” the land of funny money what are the economic problems caused by inflation , and why do economists often regard them with less concern than the general public ? let 's start with a very short story : the land of funny money . one morning , everyone in the land of funny money awakened to find that the monetary value of everything had increased by 20 % . the change was completely unexpected . every price in every store was 20 % higher . paychecks were 20 % higher . interest rates were 20 % higher . the amount of money—everywhere from wallets to savings accounts—was 20 % larger . this overnight inflation of prices made newspaper headlines everywhere in the land of funny money . but the headlines quickly disappeared as people realized that , in terms of what they could actually buy with their incomes , this inflation had no economic impact . everyone ’ s pay could still buy exactly the same set of goods as it did before . everyone ’ s savings were still sufficient to buy exactly the same car , vacation , or retirement that they could have bought before . equal levels of inflation in all wages and prices ended up not mattering much at all . when the people in robert shiller ’ s surveys explained their concern about inflation , one typical reason for their worry was that they feared that as prices rose , they would not be able to afford to buy as much . in other words , people were worried because they did not live in a place like the land of funny money , where all prices and wages rose simultaneously . instead , people live here on earth , where prices might rise while wages do not rise at all , or where wages rise more slowly than prices . economists note that over most periods , the inflation level in prices is roughly similar to the inflation level in wages , so they reason that , on average over time , people ’ s economic status is not greatly changed by inflation . if all prices , wages , and interest rates adjusted automatically and immediately with inflation , as in the land of funny money , then no one ’ s purchasing power , profits , or real loan payments would change . however , if other economic variables do not move exactly in sync with inflation , or if they adjust for inflation only after a time lag , then inflation can cause three types of problems : unintended redistributions of purchasing power , blurred price signals , and difficulties in long-term planning . unintended redistributions of purchasing power inflation can cause redistributions of purchasing power that hurt some and help others . people who are hurt by inflation include those who are holding a lot of cash , whether it is in a safe deposit box or in a cardboard box under the bed . when inflation happens , the buying power of cash is diminished . but cash is only an example of a more general problem : anyone who has financial assets invested in a way that the nominal return does not keep up with inflation will tend to suffer from inflation . for example , if a person has money in a bank account that pays 4 % interest , but inflation rises to 5 % , then the real rate of return for the money invested in that bank account is negative 1 % . the problem of a good-looking nominal interest rate being transformed into an ugly-looking real interest rate can be worsened by taxes . the us income tax is charged on the nominal interest received in dollar terms , without an adjustment for inflation . so , a person who invests \ $ 10,000 and receives a 5 % nominal rate of interest is taxed on the \ $ 500 received—no matter whether the inflation rate is 0 % , 5 % , or 10 % . if inflation is 0 % , then the real interest rate is 5 % and all \ $ 500 is a gain in buying power . but if inflation is 5 % , then the real interest rate is zero and the person had no real gain—but they owe income tax on the nominal gain anyway . if inflation is 10 % , then the real interest rate is negative 5 % , and the person is actually falling behind in buying power . but , they would still owe taxes on the \ $ 500 in nominal gains . inflation can cause unintended redistributions for wage earners , too . wages do typically creep up with inflation over time—eventually . however , increases in wages may lag behind inflation for a year or two since wage adjustments are often somewhat sticky and occur only once or twice a year . also , the extent to which wages keep up with inflation creates insecurity for workers and may involve painful , prolonged conflicts between employers and employees . if the minimum wage is adjusted for inflation only infrequently , minimum wage workers are losing purchasing power from their nominal wages , as shown in the graph below . one sizable group of people has often received a large share of their income in a form that does not increase over time—retirees who receive a private company pension . most pensions have traditionally been set as a fixed nominal dollar amount per year at retirement . for this reason , pensions are called defined-benefits plans . even if inflation is low , the combination of inflation and a fixed income can create a substantial problem over time . a person who retires on a fixed income at age 65 will find that losing just 1 % to 2 % of buying power per year to inflation compounds to a considerable loss of buying power after a decade or two . fortunately , pensions and other defined benefits retirement plans are increasingly rare , replaced instead by “ defined contribution ” plans , such as 401 ( k ) s and 403 ( b ) s. in these plans , the employer contributes a fixed amount to the worker ’ s retirement account on a regular basis , usually every pay check . the employee often contributes as well . the worker invests these funds in a wide range of investment vehicles . these plans are tax deferred , and they are portable so that if the individual takes a job with a different employer , their 401 ( k ) comes with them . to the extent that the investments made generate real rates of return , retirees do not suffer from the inflation costs of traditional pensioners . ordinary people can sometimes benefit from the unintended redistributions of inflation as well . consider someone who borrows \ $ 10,000 to buy a car at a fixed interest rate of 9 % . if inflation is 3 % at the time the loan is made , then the loan must be repaid at a real interest rate of 6 % . but if inflation rises to 9 % , then the real interest rate on the loan is zero . in this case , the borrower ’ s benefit from inflation is the lender ’ s loss . a borrower paying a fixed interest rate who benefits from inflation is just the flip side of an investor receiving a fixed interest rate who suffers from inflation . the lesson is that when interest rates are fixed , rises in the rate of inflation tend to penalize suppliers of financial capital , who end up being repaid in dollars that are worth less because of inflation . at the same time , demanders of financial capital end up better off because they can repay their loans in dollars that are worth less than originally expected . the unintended redistributions of buying power caused by inflation may have a broader effect on society as well . the united states ' widespread acceptance of market forces rests on a perception that people ’ s actions have a reasonable connection to market outcomes . when inflation causes a retiree who built up a pension or invested at a fixed interest rate to suffer while someone who borrowed at a fixed interest rate benefits from inflation , it is hard to believe that this outcome was deserved in any way . similarly , when homeowners benefit from inflation because the price of their homes rises , while renters suffer because they are paying higher rent , it is hard to see any useful incentive effects . one of the reasons that inflation is so disliked by the general public is a sense that it makes economic rewards and penalties more arbitrary and therefore likely to be perceived as unfair—even dangerous.. blurred price signals prices are the messengers in a market economy ; they convey information about conditions of demand and supply . inflation blurs those price messages . inflation means that price signals are perceived more vaguely , like a radio program received with a lot of static . if the static becomes severe , it is hard to tell what is happening . in israel , when inflation accelerated to an annual rate of 500 % in 1985 , some stores stopped posting prices directly on items since they would have had to put new labels on the items or shelves every few days to reflect inflation . instead , a shopper just took items from a shelf and went up to the checkout register to find out the price for that day . obviously , this situation makes comparing prices and shopping for the best deal rather difficult . when the levels and changes of prices become uncertain , businesses and individuals find it harder to react to economic signals . in a world where inflation is at a high rate , but bouncing up and down to some extent , does a higher price of a good mean that inflation has risen , or that supply of that good has decreased , or that demand for that good has increased ? should a buyer of the good take the higher prices as an economic hint to start substituting other products—or have the prices of the substitutes risen by an equal amount ? should a seller of the good take a higher price as a reason to increase production—or is the higher price only a sign of a general inflation due to which the prices of all inputs to production are rising as well ? the true story will presumably become clear over time , but at a given moment , who can say ? high and variable inflation means that the incentives in the economy to adjust in response to changes in prices are weaker . markets will adjust toward their equilibrium prices and quantities more erratically and slowly , and many individual markets will experience a greater chance of surpluses and shortages . problems of long-term planning inflation can make long-term planning difficult . in the section above on unintended redistributions , we discussed the case of someone trying to plan for retirement with a pension that is fixed in nominal terms during a period of a high inflation . similar problems arise for all people trying to save for retirement because they must consider what their money will really buy several decades in the future when the rate of future inflation can not be known with certainty . inflation , especially at moderate or high levels , poses substantial planning problems for businesses , too . a firm can make money from inflation—for example , by paying bills and wages as late as possible so that it can pay in inflated dollars , while collecting revenues as soon as possible . a firm can also suffer losses from inflation , as in the case of a retail business that gets stuck holding too much cash only to see the value of that cash eroded by inflation . but when a business spends its time focusing on how to profit by inflation , or at least how to avoid suffering from it , an inevitable tradeoff strikes : less time is spent on improving products and services or on figuring out how to make existing products and services more cheaply . an economy with high inflation rewards businesses that have found clever ways of profiting from inflation , which are not necessarily the businesses that excel at productivity , innovation , or quality of service . in the short term , low or moderate levels of inflation may not pose an overwhelming difficulty for business planning because costs of doing business and sales revenues may rise at similar rates . if , however , inflation varies substantially over the short or medium term , then it may make sense for businesses to stick to shorter-term strategies . the evidence as to whether relatively low rates of inflation reduce productivity is controversial among economists . there is some evidence that if inflation can be held to moderate levels of less than 3 % per year , it need not prevent a nation ’ s real economy from growing at a healthy pace . for some countries that have experienced hyperinflation of several thousand percent per year , an annual inflation rate of 20–30 % may feel basically the same as zero . however , several economists have pointed to the suggestive fact that when us inflation heated up in the early 1970s—to 10 % —us growth in productivity slowed down , and when inflation slowed down in the 1980s , productivity edged up again not long thereafter , as shown in the graph below . any benefits of inflation ? although the economic effects of inflation are primarily negative , two counterbalancing points are worth noting . first , the impact of inflation differs considerably according to whether it is creeping up slowly at 0 % to 2 % per year , galloping along at 10 % to 20 % per year , or racing to the point of hyperinflation at , say , 40 % per month . hyperinflation can rip an economy and a society apart . an annual inflation rate of 2 % , 3 % , or 4 % , however , is a long way from a national crisis . low inflation is also better than deflation which occurs with severe recessions . second , an argument is sometimes made that moderate inflation may help the economy by making wages in labor markets more flexible . a little inflation can nibble away at real wages , and thus help real wages to decline if necessary . in this way , even if a moderate or high rate of inflation may act as sand in the gears of the economy , perhaps a low rate of inflation serves as oil for the gears of the labor market . this argument is controversial . a full analysis would have to take all the effects of inflation into account . it does , however , offer another reason to believe that , all things considered , very low rates of inflation may not be especially harmful . summary unexpected inflation tends to hurt those whose money received—in terms of wages and interest payments—does not rise with inflation . inflation can help those who owe money that can be paid back in less valuable , inflated dollars . low rates of inflation have relatively little economic impact over the short term . over the medium and the long term , however , even low rates of inflation can complicate future planning . high rates of inflation can muddle price signals in the short term and prevent market forces from operating efficiently . self-check question if inflation rises unexpectedly by 5 % , would a state government that had recently borrowed money to pay for a new highway benefit or lose ? review question identify several parties likely to be helped and several parties likely to be hurt by inflation . critical-thinking questions if , over time , wages and salaries on average rise at least as fast as inflation , why do people worry about how inflation affects incomes ? who in an economy is the big winner from inflation ?
|
high rates of inflation can muddle price signals in the short term and prevent market forces from operating efficiently . self-check question if inflation rises unexpectedly by 5 % , would a state government that had recently borrowed money to pay for a new highway benefit or lose ? review question identify several parties likely to be helped and several parties likely to be hurt by inflation .
|
does the government really benefit from increased tax returns , because would n't those returns be worth less ?
|
key points unexpected inflation tends to hurt those whose money received—in terms of wages and interest payments—does not rise with inflation . inflation can help those who owe money that can be paid back in less valuable , inflated dollars . low rates of inflation have relatively little economic impact over the short term . over the medium and the long term , however , even low rates of inflation can complicate future planning . high rates of inflation can muddle price signals in the short term and prevent market forces from operating efficiently . the confusion over inflation many economists oppose high inflation , but they tend to oppose it with less fervor than many non-economists . robert shiller , one of 2013 ’ s nobel prize winners in economics , carried out several surveys during the 1990s about attitudes toward inflation . one of his questions was “ do you agree that preventing high inflation is an important national priority , as important as preventing drug abuse or preventing deterioration in the quality of our schools ? ” answers were on a scale of one to five , where one meant “ fully agree ” and five meant “ completely disagree. ” of the entire us population , 52 % answered “ fully agree ” that preventing high inflation was a highly important national priority and just 4 % answered “ completely disagree. ” however , among professional economists , only 18 % answered “ fully agree ; ” another 18 % answered “ completely disagree. ” the land of funny money what are the economic problems caused by inflation , and why do economists often regard them with less concern than the general public ? let 's start with a very short story : the land of funny money . one morning , everyone in the land of funny money awakened to find that the monetary value of everything had increased by 20 % . the change was completely unexpected . every price in every store was 20 % higher . paychecks were 20 % higher . interest rates were 20 % higher . the amount of money—everywhere from wallets to savings accounts—was 20 % larger . this overnight inflation of prices made newspaper headlines everywhere in the land of funny money . but the headlines quickly disappeared as people realized that , in terms of what they could actually buy with their incomes , this inflation had no economic impact . everyone ’ s pay could still buy exactly the same set of goods as it did before . everyone ’ s savings were still sufficient to buy exactly the same car , vacation , or retirement that they could have bought before . equal levels of inflation in all wages and prices ended up not mattering much at all . when the people in robert shiller ’ s surveys explained their concern about inflation , one typical reason for their worry was that they feared that as prices rose , they would not be able to afford to buy as much . in other words , people were worried because they did not live in a place like the land of funny money , where all prices and wages rose simultaneously . instead , people live here on earth , where prices might rise while wages do not rise at all , or where wages rise more slowly than prices . economists note that over most periods , the inflation level in prices is roughly similar to the inflation level in wages , so they reason that , on average over time , people ’ s economic status is not greatly changed by inflation . if all prices , wages , and interest rates adjusted automatically and immediately with inflation , as in the land of funny money , then no one ’ s purchasing power , profits , or real loan payments would change . however , if other economic variables do not move exactly in sync with inflation , or if they adjust for inflation only after a time lag , then inflation can cause three types of problems : unintended redistributions of purchasing power , blurred price signals , and difficulties in long-term planning . unintended redistributions of purchasing power inflation can cause redistributions of purchasing power that hurt some and help others . people who are hurt by inflation include those who are holding a lot of cash , whether it is in a safe deposit box or in a cardboard box under the bed . when inflation happens , the buying power of cash is diminished . but cash is only an example of a more general problem : anyone who has financial assets invested in a way that the nominal return does not keep up with inflation will tend to suffer from inflation . for example , if a person has money in a bank account that pays 4 % interest , but inflation rises to 5 % , then the real rate of return for the money invested in that bank account is negative 1 % . the problem of a good-looking nominal interest rate being transformed into an ugly-looking real interest rate can be worsened by taxes . the us income tax is charged on the nominal interest received in dollar terms , without an adjustment for inflation . so , a person who invests \ $ 10,000 and receives a 5 % nominal rate of interest is taxed on the \ $ 500 received—no matter whether the inflation rate is 0 % , 5 % , or 10 % . if inflation is 0 % , then the real interest rate is 5 % and all \ $ 500 is a gain in buying power . but if inflation is 5 % , then the real interest rate is zero and the person had no real gain—but they owe income tax on the nominal gain anyway . if inflation is 10 % , then the real interest rate is negative 5 % , and the person is actually falling behind in buying power . but , they would still owe taxes on the \ $ 500 in nominal gains . inflation can cause unintended redistributions for wage earners , too . wages do typically creep up with inflation over time—eventually . however , increases in wages may lag behind inflation for a year or two since wage adjustments are often somewhat sticky and occur only once or twice a year . also , the extent to which wages keep up with inflation creates insecurity for workers and may involve painful , prolonged conflicts between employers and employees . if the minimum wage is adjusted for inflation only infrequently , minimum wage workers are losing purchasing power from their nominal wages , as shown in the graph below . one sizable group of people has often received a large share of their income in a form that does not increase over time—retirees who receive a private company pension . most pensions have traditionally been set as a fixed nominal dollar amount per year at retirement . for this reason , pensions are called defined-benefits plans . even if inflation is low , the combination of inflation and a fixed income can create a substantial problem over time . a person who retires on a fixed income at age 65 will find that losing just 1 % to 2 % of buying power per year to inflation compounds to a considerable loss of buying power after a decade or two . fortunately , pensions and other defined benefits retirement plans are increasingly rare , replaced instead by “ defined contribution ” plans , such as 401 ( k ) s and 403 ( b ) s. in these plans , the employer contributes a fixed amount to the worker ’ s retirement account on a regular basis , usually every pay check . the employee often contributes as well . the worker invests these funds in a wide range of investment vehicles . these plans are tax deferred , and they are portable so that if the individual takes a job with a different employer , their 401 ( k ) comes with them . to the extent that the investments made generate real rates of return , retirees do not suffer from the inflation costs of traditional pensioners . ordinary people can sometimes benefit from the unintended redistributions of inflation as well . consider someone who borrows \ $ 10,000 to buy a car at a fixed interest rate of 9 % . if inflation is 3 % at the time the loan is made , then the loan must be repaid at a real interest rate of 6 % . but if inflation rises to 9 % , then the real interest rate on the loan is zero . in this case , the borrower ’ s benefit from inflation is the lender ’ s loss . a borrower paying a fixed interest rate who benefits from inflation is just the flip side of an investor receiving a fixed interest rate who suffers from inflation . the lesson is that when interest rates are fixed , rises in the rate of inflation tend to penalize suppliers of financial capital , who end up being repaid in dollars that are worth less because of inflation . at the same time , demanders of financial capital end up better off because they can repay their loans in dollars that are worth less than originally expected . the unintended redistributions of buying power caused by inflation may have a broader effect on society as well . the united states ' widespread acceptance of market forces rests on a perception that people ’ s actions have a reasonable connection to market outcomes . when inflation causes a retiree who built up a pension or invested at a fixed interest rate to suffer while someone who borrowed at a fixed interest rate benefits from inflation , it is hard to believe that this outcome was deserved in any way . similarly , when homeowners benefit from inflation because the price of their homes rises , while renters suffer because they are paying higher rent , it is hard to see any useful incentive effects . one of the reasons that inflation is so disliked by the general public is a sense that it makes economic rewards and penalties more arbitrary and therefore likely to be perceived as unfair—even dangerous.. blurred price signals prices are the messengers in a market economy ; they convey information about conditions of demand and supply . inflation blurs those price messages . inflation means that price signals are perceived more vaguely , like a radio program received with a lot of static . if the static becomes severe , it is hard to tell what is happening . in israel , when inflation accelerated to an annual rate of 500 % in 1985 , some stores stopped posting prices directly on items since they would have had to put new labels on the items or shelves every few days to reflect inflation . instead , a shopper just took items from a shelf and went up to the checkout register to find out the price for that day . obviously , this situation makes comparing prices and shopping for the best deal rather difficult . when the levels and changes of prices become uncertain , businesses and individuals find it harder to react to economic signals . in a world where inflation is at a high rate , but bouncing up and down to some extent , does a higher price of a good mean that inflation has risen , or that supply of that good has decreased , or that demand for that good has increased ? should a buyer of the good take the higher prices as an economic hint to start substituting other products—or have the prices of the substitutes risen by an equal amount ? should a seller of the good take a higher price as a reason to increase production—or is the higher price only a sign of a general inflation due to which the prices of all inputs to production are rising as well ? the true story will presumably become clear over time , but at a given moment , who can say ? high and variable inflation means that the incentives in the economy to adjust in response to changes in prices are weaker . markets will adjust toward their equilibrium prices and quantities more erratically and slowly , and many individual markets will experience a greater chance of surpluses and shortages . problems of long-term planning inflation can make long-term planning difficult . in the section above on unintended redistributions , we discussed the case of someone trying to plan for retirement with a pension that is fixed in nominal terms during a period of a high inflation . similar problems arise for all people trying to save for retirement because they must consider what their money will really buy several decades in the future when the rate of future inflation can not be known with certainty . inflation , especially at moderate or high levels , poses substantial planning problems for businesses , too . a firm can make money from inflation—for example , by paying bills and wages as late as possible so that it can pay in inflated dollars , while collecting revenues as soon as possible . a firm can also suffer losses from inflation , as in the case of a retail business that gets stuck holding too much cash only to see the value of that cash eroded by inflation . but when a business spends its time focusing on how to profit by inflation , or at least how to avoid suffering from it , an inevitable tradeoff strikes : less time is spent on improving products and services or on figuring out how to make existing products and services more cheaply . an economy with high inflation rewards businesses that have found clever ways of profiting from inflation , which are not necessarily the businesses that excel at productivity , innovation , or quality of service . in the short term , low or moderate levels of inflation may not pose an overwhelming difficulty for business planning because costs of doing business and sales revenues may rise at similar rates . if , however , inflation varies substantially over the short or medium term , then it may make sense for businesses to stick to shorter-term strategies . the evidence as to whether relatively low rates of inflation reduce productivity is controversial among economists . there is some evidence that if inflation can be held to moderate levels of less than 3 % per year , it need not prevent a nation ’ s real economy from growing at a healthy pace . for some countries that have experienced hyperinflation of several thousand percent per year , an annual inflation rate of 20–30 % may feel basically the same as zero . however , several economists have pointed to the suggestive fact that when us inflation heated up in the early 1970s—to 10 % —us growth in productivity slowed down , and when inflation slowed down in the 1980s , productivity edged up again not long thereafter , as shown in the graph below . any benefits of inflation ? although the economic effects of inflation are primarily negative , two counterbalancing points are worth noting . first , the impact of inflation differs considerably according to whether it is creeping up slowly at 0 % to 2 % per year , galloping along at 10 % to 20 % per year , or racing to the point of hyperinflation at , say , 40 % per month . hyperinflation can rip an economy and a society apart . an annual inflation rate of 2 % , 3 % , or 4 % , however , is a long way from a national crisis . low inflation is also better than deflation which occurs with severe recessions . second , an argument is sometimes made that moderate inflation may help the economy by making wages in labor markets more flexible . a little inflation can nibble away at real wages , and thus help real wages to decline if necessary . in this way , even if a moderate or high rate of inflation may act as sand in the gears of the economy , perhaps a low rate of inflation serves as oil for the gears of the labor market . this argument is controversial . a full analysis would have to take all the effects of inflation into account . it does , however , offer another reason to believe that , all things considered , very low rates of inflation may not be especially harmful . summary unexpected inflation tends to hurt those whose money received—in terms of wages and interest payments—does not rise with inflation . inflation can help those who owe money that can be paid back in less valuable , inflated dollars . low rates of inflation have relatively little economic impact over the short term . over the medium and the long term , however , even low rates of inflation can complicate future planning . high rates of inflation can muddle price signals in the short term and prevent market forces from operating efficiently . self-check question if inflation rises unexpectedly by 5 % , would a state government that had recently borrowed money to pay for a new highway benefit or lose ? review question identify several parties likely to be helped and several parties likely to be hurt by inflation . critical-thinking questions if , over time , wages and salaries on average rise at least as fast as inflation , why do people worry about how inflation affects incomes ? who in an economy is the big winner from inflation ?
|
critical-thinking questions if , over time , wages and salaries on average rise at least as fast as inflation , why do people worry about how inflation affects incomes ? who in an economy is the big winner from inflation ?
|
who in an economy is the big winner from inflation really ?
|
key points unexpected inflation tends to hurt those whose money received—in terms of wages and interest payments—does not rise with inflation . inflation can help those who owe money that can be paid back in less valuable , inflated dollars . low rates of inflation have relatively little economic impact over the short term . over the medium and the long term , however , even low rates of inflation can complicate future planning . high rates of inflation can muddle price signals in the short term and prevent market forces from operating efficiently . the confusion over inflation many economists oppose high inflation , but they tend to oppose it with less fervor than many non-economists . robert shiller , one of 2013 ’ s nobel prize winners in economics , carried out several surveys during the 1990s about attitudes toward inflation . one of his questions was “ do you agree that preventing high inflation is an important national priority , as important as preventing drug abuse or preventing deterioration in the quality of our schools ? ” answers were on a scale of one to five , where one meant “ fully agree ” and five meant “ completely disagree. ” of the entire us population , 52 % answered “ fully agree ” that preventing high inflation was a highly important national priority and just 4 % answered “ completely disagree. ” however , among professional economists , only 18 % answered “ fully agree ; ” another 18 % answered “ completely disagree. ” the land of funny money what are the economic problems caused by inflation , and why do economists often regard them with less concern than the general public ? let 's start with a very short story : the land of funny money . one morning , everyone in the land of funny money awakened to find that the monetary value of everything had increased by 20 % . the change was completely unexpected . every price in every store was 20 % higher . paychecks were 20 % higher . interest rates were 20 % higher . the amount of money—everywhere from wallets to savings accounts—was 20 % larger . this overnight inflation of prices made newspaper headlines everywhere in the land of funny money . but the headlines quickly disappeared as people realized that , in terms of what they could actually buy with their incomes , this inflation had no economic impact . everyone ’ s pay could still buy exactly the same set of goods as it did before . everyone ’ s savings were still sufficient to buy exactly the same car , vacation , or retirement that they could have bought before . equal levels of inflation in all wages and prices ended up not mattering much at all . when the people in robert shiller ’ s surveys explained their concern about inflation , one typical reason for their worry was that they feared that as prices rose , they would not be able to afford to buy as much . in other words , people were worried because they did not live in a place like the land of funny money , where all prices and wages rose simultaneously . instead , people live here on earth , where prices might rise while wages do not rise at all , or where wages rise more slowly than prices . economists note that over most periods , the inflation level in prices is roughly similar to the inflation level in wages , so they reason that , on average over time , people ’ s economic status is not greatly changed by inflation . if all prices , wages , and interest rates adjusted automatically and immediately with inflation , as in the land of funny money , then no one ’ s purchasing power , profits , or real loan payments would change . however , if other economic variables do not move exactly in sync with inflation , or if they adjust for inflation only after a time lag , then inflation can cause three types of problems : unintended redistributions of purchasing power , blurred price signals , and difficulties in long-term planning . unintended redistributions of purchasing power inflation can cause redistributions of purchasing power that hurt some and help others . people who are hurt by inflation include those who are holding a lot of cash , whether it is in a safe deposit box or in a cardboard box under the bed . when inflation happens , the buying power of cash is diminished . but cash is only an example of a more general problem : anyone who has financial assets invested in a way that the nominal return does not keep up with inflation will tend to suffer from inflation . for example , if a person has money in a bank account that pays 4 % interest , but inflation rises to 5 % , then the real rate of return for the money invested in that bank account is negative 1 % . the problem of a good-looking nominal interest rate being transformed into an ugly-looking real interest rate can be worsened by taxes . the us income tax is charged on the nominal interest received in dollar terms , without an adjustment for inflation . so , a person who invests \ $ 10,000 and receives a 5 % nominal rate of interest is taxed on the \ $ 500 received—no matter whether the inflation rate is 0 % , 5 % , or 10 % . if inflation is 0 % , then the real interest rate is 5 % and all \ $ 500 is a gain in buying power . but if inflation is 5 % , then the real interest rate is zero and the person had no real gain—but they owe income tax on the nominal gain anyway . if inflation is 10 % , then the real interest rate is negative 5 % , and the person is actually falling behind in buying power . but , they would still owe taxes on the \ $ 500 in nominal gains . inflation can cause unintended redistributions for wage earners , too . wages do typically creep up with inflation over time—eventually . however , increases in wages may lag behind inflation for a year or two since wage adjustments are often somewhat sticky and occur only once or twice a year . also , the extent to which wages keep up with inflation creates insecurity for workers and may involve painful , prolonged conflicts between employers and employees . if the minimum wage is adjusted for inflation only infrequently , minimum wage workers are losing purchasing power from their nominal wages , as shown in the graph below . one sizable group of people has often received a large share of their income in a form that does not increase over time—retirees who receive a private company pension . most pensions have traditionally been set as a fixed nominal dollar amount per year at retirement . for this reason , pensions are called defined-benefits plans . even if inflation is low , the combination of inflation and a fixed income can create a substantial problem over time . a person who retires on a fixed income at age 65 will find that losing just 1 % to 2 % of buying power per year to inflation compounds to a considerable loss of buying power after a decade or two . fortunately , pensions and other defined benefits retirement plans are increasingly rare , replaced instead by “ defined contribution ” plans , such as 401 ( k ) s and 403 ( b ) s. in these plans , the employer contributes a fixed amount to the worker ’ s retirement account on a regular basis , usually every pay check . the employee often contributes as well . the worker invests these funds in a wide range of investment vehicles . these plans are tax deferred , and they are portable so that if the individual takes a job with a different employer , their 401 ( k ) comes with them . to the extent that the investments made generate real rates of return , retirees do not suffer from the inflation costs of traditional pensioners . ordinary people can sometimes benefit from the unintended redistributions of inflation as well . consider someone who borrows \ $ 10,000 to buy a car at a fixed interest rate of 9 % . if inflation is 3 % at the time the loan is made , then the loan must be repaid at a real interest rate of 6 % . but if inflation rises to 9 % , then the real interest rate on the loan is zero . in this case , the borrower ’ s benefit from inflation is the lender ’ s loss . a borrower paying a fixed interest rate who benefits from inflation is just the flip side of an investor receiving a fixed interest rate who suffers from inflation . the lesson is that when interest rates are fixed , rises in the rate of inflation tend to penalize suppliers of financial capital , who end up being repaid in dollars that are worth less because of inflation . at the same time , demanders of financial capital end up better off because they can repay their loans in dollars that are worth less than originally expected . the unintended redistributions of buying power caused by inflation may have a broader effect on society as well . the united states ' widespread acceptance of market forces rests on a perception that people ’ s actions have a reasonable connection to market outcomes . when inflation causes a retiree who built up a pension or invested at a fixed interest rate to suffer while someone who borrowed at a fixed interest rate benefits from inflation , it is hard to believe that this outcome was deserved in any way . similarly , when homeowners benefit from inflation because the price of their homes rises , while renters suffer because they are paying higher rent , it is hard to see any useful incentive effects . one of the reasons that inflation is so disliked by the general public is a sense that it makes economic rewards and penalties more arbitrary and therefore likely to be perceived as unfair—even dangerous.. blurred price signals prices are the messengers in a market economy ; they convey information about conditions of demand and supply . inflation blurs those price messages . inflation means that price signals are perceived more vaguely , like a radio program received with a lot of static . if the static becomes severe , it is hard to tell what is happening . in israel , when inflation accelerated to an annual rate of 500 % in 1985 , some stores stopped posting prices directly on items since they would have had to put new labels on the items or shelves every few days to reflect inflation . instead , a shopper just took items from a shelf and went up to the checkout register to find out the price for that day . obviously , this situation makes comparing prices and shopping for the best deal rather difficult . when the levels and changes of prices become uncertain , businesses and individuals find it harder to react to economic signals . in a world where inflation is at a high rate , but bouncing up and down to some extent , does a higher price of a good mean that inflation has risen , or that supply of that good has decreased , or that demand for that good has increased ? should a buyer of the good take the higher prices as an economic hint to start substituting other products—or have the prices of the substitutes risen by an equal amount ? should a seller of the good take a higher price as a reason to increase production—or is the higher price only a sign of a general inflation due to which the prices of all inputs to production are rising as well ? the true story will presumably become clear over time , but at a given moment , who can say ? high and variable inflation means that the incentives in the economy to adjust in response to changes in prices are weaker . markets will adjust toward their equilibrium prices and quantities more erratically and slowly , and many individual markets will experience a greater chance of surpluses and shortages . problems of long-term planning inflation can make long-term planning difficult . in the section above on unintended redistributions , we discussed the case of someone trying to plan for retirement with a pension that is fixed in nominal terms during a period of a high inflation . similar problems arise for all people trying to save for retirement because they must consider what their money will really buy several decades in the future when the rate of future inflation can not be known with certainty . inflation , especially at moderate or high levels , poses substantial planning problems for businesses , too . a firm can make money from inflation—for example , by paying bills and wages as late as possible so that it can pay in inflated dollars , while collecting revenues as soon as possible . a firm can also suffer losses from inflation , as in the case of a retail business that gets stuck holding too much cash only to see the value of that cash eroded by inflation . but when a business spends its time focusing on how to profit by inflation , or at least how to avoid suffering from it , an inevitable tradeoff strikes : less time is spent on improving products and services or on figuring out how to make existing products and services more cheaply . an economy with high inflation rewards businesses that have found clever ways of profiting from inflation , which are not necessarily the businesses that excel at productivity , innovation , or quality of service . in the short term , low or moderate levels of inflation may not pose an overwhelming difficulty for business planning because costs of doing business and sales revenues may rise at similar rates . if , however , inflation varies substantially over the short or medium term , then it may make sense for businesses to stick to shorter-term strategies . the evidence as to whether relatively low rates of inflation reduce productivity is controversial among economists . there is some evidence that if inflation can be held to moderate levels of less than 3 % per year , it need not prevent a nation ’ s real economy from growing at a healthy pace . for some countries that have experienced hyperinflation of several thousand percent per year , an annual inflation rate of 20–30 % may feel basically the same as zero . however , several economists have pointed to the suggestive fact that when us inflation heated up in the early 1970s—to 10 % —us growth in productivity slowed down , and when inflation slowed down in the 1980s , productivity edged up again not long thereafter , as shown in the graph below . any benefits of inflation ? although the economic effects of inflation are primarily negative , two counterbalancing points are worth noting . first , the impact of inflation differs considerably according to whether it is creeping up slowly at 0 % to 2 % per year , galloping along at 10 % to 20 % per year , or racing to the point of hyperinflation at , say , 40 % per month . hyperinflation can rip an economy and a society apart . an annual inflation rate of 2 % , 3 % , or 4 % , however , is a long way from a national crisis . low inflation is also better than deflation which occurs with severe recessions . second , an argument is sometimes made that moderate inflation may help the economy by making wages in labor markets more flexible . a little inflation can nibble away at real wages , and thus help real wages to decline if necessary . in this way , even if a moderate or high rate of inflation may act as sand in the gears of the economy , perhaps a low rate of inflation serves as oil for the gears of the labor market . this argument is controversial . a full analysis would have to take all the effects of inflation into account . it does , however , offer another reason to believe that , all things considered , very low rates of inflation may not be especially harmful . summary unexpected inflation tends to hurt those whose money received—in terms of wages and interest payments—does not rise with inflation . inflation can help those who owe money that can be paid back in less valuable , inflated dollars . low rates of inflation have relatively little economic impact over the short term . over the medium and the long term , however , even low rates of inflation can complicate future planning . high rates of inflation can muddle price signals in the short term and prevent market forces from operating efficiently . self-check question if inflation rises unexpectedly by 5 % , would a state government that had recently borrowed money to pay for a new highway benefit or lose ? review question identify several parties likely to be helped and several parties likely to be hurt by inflation . critical-thinking questions if , over time , wages and salaries on average rise at least as fast as inflation , why do people worry about how inflation affects incomes ? who in an economy is the big winner from inflation ?
|
an annual inflation rate of 2 % , 3 % , or 4 % , however , is a long way from a national crisis . low inflation is also better than deflation which occurs with severe recessions . second , an argument is sometimes made that moderate inflation may help the economy by making wages in labor markets more flexible .
|
theoretically would n't deflation potentially be better if it was accompanied by higher efficiency and production and allowed companies to produce more and lower costs , thus allowing them to lower prices and be more competitive in the open market ?
|
key points : bacterial genes are often found in operons . genes in an operon are transcribed as a group and have a single promoter . each operon contains regulatory dna sequences , which act as binding sites for regulatory proteins that promote or inhibit transcription . regulatory proteins often bind to small molecules , which can make the protein active or inactive by changing its ability to bind dna . some operons are inducible , meaning that they can be turned on by the presence of a particular small molecule . others are repressible , meaning that they are on by default but can be turned off by a small molecule . introduction we tend to think of bacteria as simple . but even the simplest bacterium has a complex task when it comes to gene regulation ! the bacteria in your gut or between your teeth have genomes that contain thousands of different genes . most of these genes encode proteins , each with its own role in a process such as fuel metabolism , maintenance of cell structure , and defense against viruses . some of these proteins are needed routinely , while others are needed only under certain circumstances . thus , cells do n't express all the genes in their genome all the time . you can think of the genome as being like a cookbook with many different recipes in it . the cell will only use the recipes ( express the genes ) that fit its current needs . how is gene expression regulated ? there are various forms of gene regulation , that is , mechanisms for controlling which genes get expressed and at what levels . however , a lot of gene regulation occurs at the level of transcription . bacteria have specific regulatory molecules that control whether a particular gene will be transcribed into mrna . often , these molecules act by binding to dna near the gene and helping or blocking the transcription enzyme , rna polymerase . let 's take a closer look at how genes are regulated in bacteria . in bacteria , genes are often found in operons in bacteria , related genes are often found in a cluster on the chromosome , where they are transcribed from one promoter ( rna polymerase binding site ) as a single unit . such a cluster of genes under control of a single promoter is known as an operon . operons are common in bacteria , but they are rare in eukaryotes such as humans . in general , an operon will contain genes that function in the same process . for instance , a well-studied operon called the lac operon contains genes that encode proteins involved in uptake and metabolism of a particular sugar , lactose . operons allow the cell to efficiently express sets of genes whose products are needed at the same time . anatomy of an operon operons are n't just made up of the coding sequences of genes . instead , they also contain regulatory dna sequences that control transcription of the operon . typically , these sequences are binding sites for regulatory proteins , which control how much the operon is transcribed . the promoter , or site where rna polymerase binds , is one example of a regulatory dna sequence . most operons have other regulatory dna sequences in addition to the promoter . these sequences are binding sites for for regulatory proteins that turn expression of the operon `` up '' or `` down . '' some regulatory proteins are repressors that bind to pieces of dna called operators . when bound to its operator , a repressor reduces transcription ( e.g. , by blocking rna polymerase from moving forward on the dna ) . some regulatory proteins are activators . when an activator is bound to its dna binding site , it increases transcription of the operon ( e.g. , by helping rna polymerase bind to the promoter ) . where do the regulatory proteins come from ? like any other protein produced in an organism , they are encoded by genes in the bacterium 's genome . the genes that encode regulatory proteins are sometimes called regulatory genes . many regulatory proteins can themselves be turned `` on '' or `` off '' by specific small molecules . the small molecule binds to the protein , changing its shape and altering its ability to bind dna . for instance , an activator may only become active ( able to bind dna ) when it 's attached to a certain small molecule . operons may be inducible or repressible some operons are usually `` off , '' but can be turned `` on '' by a small molecule . the molecule is called an inducer , and the operon is said to be inducible . for example , the lac operon is an inducible operon that encodes enzymes for metabolism of the sugar lactose . it turns on only when the sugar lactose is present ( and other , preferred sugars are absent ) . the inducer in this case is allolactose , a modified form of lactose . other operons are usually `` on , '' but can be turned `` off '' by a small molecule . the molecule is called a corepressor , and the operon is said to be repressible . for example , the trp operon is a repressible operon that encodes enzymes for synthesis of the amino acid tryptophan . this operon is expressed by default , but can be repressed when high levels of the amino acid tryptophan are present . the corepressor in this case is tryptophan . these examples illustrate an important point : that gene regulation allows bacteria to respond to changes in their environment by altering gene expression ( and thus , changing the set of proteins present in the cell ) . some genes and operons are expressed all the time many genes play specialized roles and are expressed only under certain conditions , as described above . however , there are also genes whose products are constantly needed by the cell to maintain essential functions . these housekeeping genes are constantly expressed under normal growth conditions ( `` constitutively active '' ) . housekeeping genes have promoters and other regulatory dna sequences that ensure constant expression .
|
for instance , an activator may only become active ( able to bind dna ) when it 's attached to a certain small molecule . operons may be inducible or repressible some operons are usually `` off , '' but can be turned `` on '' by a small molecule . the molecule is called an inducer , and the operon is said to be inducible .
|
how would the lac and trp operons be affected by a mistake in the system ?
|
key points : bacterial genes are often found in operons . genes in an operon are transcribed as a group and have a single promoter . each operon contains regulatory dna sequences , which act as binding sites for regulatory proteins that promote or inhibit transcription . regulatory proteins often bind to small molecules , which can make the protein active or inactive by changing its ability to bind dna . some operons are inducible , meaning that they can be turned on by the presence of a particular small molecule . others are repressible , meaning that they are on by default but can be turned off by a small molecule . introduction we tend to think of bacteria as simple . but even the simplest bacterium has a complex task when it comes to gene regulation ! the bacteria in your gut or between your teeth have genomes that contain thousands of different genes . most of these genes encode proteins , each with its own role in a process such as fuel metabolism , maintenance of cell structure , and defense against viruses . some of these proteins are needed routinely , while others are needed only under certain circumstances . thus , cells do n't express all the genes in their genome all the time . you can think of the genome as being like a cookbook with many different recipes in it . the cell will only use the recipes ( express the genes ) that fit its current needs . how is gene expression regulated ? there are various forms of gene regulation , that is , mechanisms for controlling which genes get expressed and at what levels . however , a lot of gene regulation occurs at the level of transcription . bacteria have specific regulatory molecules that control whether a particular gene will be transcribed into mrna . often , these molecules act by binding to dna near the gene and helping or blocking the transcription enzyme , rna polymerase . let 's take a closer look at how genes are regulated in bacteria . in bacteria , genes are often found in operons in bacteria , related genes are often found in a cluster on the chromosome , where they are transcribed from one promoter ( rna polymerase binding site ) as a single unit . such a cluster of genes under control of a single promoter is known as an operon . operons are common in bacteria , but they are rare in eukaryotes such as humans . in general , an operon will contain genes that function in the same process . for instance , a well-studied operon called the lac operon contains genes that encode proteins involved in uptake and metabolism of a particular sugar , lactose . operons allow the cell to efficiently express sets of genes whose products are needed at the same time . anatomy of an operon operons are n't just made up of the coding sequences of genes . instead , they also contain regulatory dna sequences that control transcription of the operon . typically , these sequences are binding sites for regulatory proteins , which control how much the operon is transcribed . the promoter , or site where rna polymerase binds , is one example of a regulatory dna sequence . most operons have other regulatory dna sequences in addition to the promoter . these sequences are binding sites for for regulatory proteins that turn expression of the operon `` up '' or `` down . '' some regulatory proteins are repressors that bind to pieces of dna called operators . when bound to its operator , a repressor reduces transcription ( e.g. , by blocking rna polymerase from moving forward on the dna ) . some regulatory proteins are activators . when an activator is bound to its dna binding site , it increases transcription of the operon ( e.g. , by helping rna polymerase bind to the promoter ) . where do the regulatory proteins come from ? like any other protein produced in an organism , they are encoded by genes in the bacterium 's genome . the genes that encode regulatory proteins are sometimes called regulatory genes . many regulatory proteins can themselves be turned `` on '' or `` off '' by specific small molecules . the small molecule binds to the protein , changing its shape and altering its ability to bind dna . for instance , an activator may only become active ( able to bind dna ) when it 's attached to a certain small molecule . operons may be inducible or repressible some operons are usually `` off , '' but can be turned `` on '' by a small molecule . the molecule is called an inducer , and the operon is said to be inducible . for example , the lac operon is an inducible operon that encodes enzymes for metabolism of the sugar lactose . it turns on only when the sugar lactose is present ( and other , preferred sugars are absent ) . the inducer in this case is allolactose , a modified form of lactose . other operons are usually `` on , '' but can be turned `` off '' by a small molecule . the molecule is called a corepressor , and the operon is said to be repressible . for example , the trp operon is a repressible operon that encodes enzymes for synthesis of the amino acid tryptophan . this operon is expressed by default , but can be repressed when high levels of the amino acid tryptophan are present . the corepressor in this case is tryptophan . these examples illustrate an important point : that gene regulation allows bacteria to respond to changes in their environment by altering gene expression ( and thus , changing the set of proteins present in the cell ) . some genes and operons are expressed all the time many genes play specialized roles and are expressed only under certain conditions , as described above . however , there are also genes whose products are constantly needed by the cell to maintain essential functions . these housekeeping genes are constantly expressed under normal growth conditions ( `` constitutively active '' ) . housekeeping genes have promoters and other regulatory dna sequences that ensure constant expression .
|
the molecule is called an inducer , and the operon is said to be inducible . for example , the lac operon is an inducible operon that encodes enzymes for metabolism of the sugar lactose . it turns on only when the sugar lactose is present ( and other , preferred sugars are absent ) .
|
more specifically , what would happen to the organism if the operon systems did not run properly due to mutation or other sources of error ?
|
key points : bacterial genes are often found in operons . genes in an operon are transcribed as a group and have a single promoter . each operon contains regulatory dna sequences , which act as binding sites for regulatory proteins that promote or inhibit transcription . regulatory proteins often bind to small molecules , which can make the protein active or inactive by changing its ability to bind dna . some operons are inducible , meaning that they can be turned on by the presence of a particular small molecule . others are repressible , meaning that they are on by default but can be turned off by a small molecule . introduction we tend to think of bacteria as simple . but even the simplest bacterium has a complex task when it comes to gene regulation ! the bacteria in your gut or between your teeth have genomes that contain thousands of different genes . most of these genes encode proteins , each with its own role in a process such as fuel metabolism , maintenance of cell structure , and defense against viruses . some of these proteins are needed routinely , while others are needed only under certain circumstances . thus , cells do n't express all the genes in their genome all the time . you can think of the genome as being like a cookbook with many different recipes in it . the cell will only use the recipes ( express the genes ) that fit its current needs . how is gene expression regulated ? there are various forms of gene regulation , that is , mechanisms for controlling which genes get expressed and at what levels . however , a lot of gene regulation occurs at the level of transcription . bacteria have specific regulatory molecules that control whether a particular gene will be transcribed into mrna . often , these molecules act by binding to dna near the gene and helping or blocking the transcription enzyme , rna polymerase . let 's take a closer look at how genes are regulated in bacteria . in bacteria , genes are often found in operons in bacteria , related genes are often found in a cluster on the chromosome , where they are transcribed from one promoter ( rna polymerase binding site ) as a single unit . such a cluster of genes under control of a single promoter is known as an operon . operons are common in bacteria , but they are rare in eukaryotes such as humans . in general , an operon will contain genes that function in the same process . for instance , a well-studied operon called the lac operon contains genes that encode proteins involved in uptake and metabolism of a particular sugar , lactose . operons allow the cell to efficiently express sets of genes whose products are needed at the same time . anatomy of an operon operons are n't just made up of the coding sequences of genes . instead , they also contain regulatory dna sequences that control transcription of the operon . typically , these sequences are binding sites for regulatory proteins , which control how much the operon is transcribed . the promoter , or site where rna polymerase binds , is one example of a regulatory dna sequence . most operons have other regulatory dna sequences in addition to the promoter . these sequences are binding sites for for regulatory proteins that turn expression of the operon `` up '' or `` down . '' some regulatory proteins are repressors that bind to pieces of dna called operators . when bound to its operator , a repressor reduces transcription ( e.g. , by blocking rna polymerase from moving forward on the dna ) . some regulatory proteins are activators . when an activator is bound to its dna binding site , it increases transcription of the operon ( e.g. , by helping rna polymerase bind to the promoter ) . where do the regulatory proteins come from ? like any other protein produced in an organism , they are encoded by genes in the bacterium 's genome . the genes that encode regulatory proteins are sometimes called regulatory genes . many regulatory proteins can themselves be turned `` on '' or `` off '' by specific small molecules . the small molecule binds to the protein , changing its shape and altering its ability to bind dna . for instance , an activator may only become active ( able to bind dna ) when it 's attached to a certain small molecule . operons may be inducible or repressible some operons are usually `` off , '' but can be turned `` on '' by a small molecule . the molecule is called an inducer , and the operon is said to be inducible . for example , the lac operon is an inducible operon that encodes enzymes for metabolism of the sugar lactose . it turns on only when the sugar lactose is present ( and other , preferred sugars are absent ) . the inducer in this case is allolactose , a modified form of lactose . other operons are usually `` on , '' but can be turned `` off '' by a small molecule . the molecule is called a corepressor , and the operon is said to be repressible . for example , the trp operon is a repressible operon that encodes enzymes for synthesis of the amino acid tryptophan . this operon is expressed by default , but can be repressed when high levels of the amino acid tryptophan are present . the corepressor in this case is tryptophan . these examples illustrate an important point : that gene regulation allows bacteria to respond to changes in their environment by altering gene expression ( and thus , changing the set of proteins present in the cell ) . some genes and operons are expressed all the time many genes play specialized roles and are expressed only under certain conditions , as described above . however , there are also genes whose products are constantly needed by the cell to maintain essential functions . these housekeeping genes are constantly expressed under normal growth conditions ( `` constitutively active '' ) . housekeeping genes have promoters and other regulatory dna sequences that ensure constant expression .
|
the cell will only use the recipes ( express the genes ) that fit its current needs . how is gene expression regulated ? there are various forms of gene regulation , that is , mechanisms for controlling which genes get expressed and at what levels .
|
what is the evolutionary advantage of regulation of prokaryotic gene expression ?
|
key points : bacterial genes are often found in operons . genes in an operon are transcribed as a group and have a single promoter . each operon contains regulatory dna sequences , which act as binding sites for regulatory proteins that promote or inhibit transcription . regulatory proteins often bind to small molecules , which can make the protein active or inactive by changing its ability to bind dna . some operons are inducible , meaning that they can be turned on by the presence of a particular small molecule . others are repressible , meaning that they are on by default but can be turned off by a small molecule . introduction we tend to think of bacteria as simple . but even the simplest bacterium has a complex task when it comes to gene regulation ! the bacteria in your gut or between your teeth have genomes that contain thousands of different genes . most of these genes encode proteins , each with its own role in a process such as fuel metabolism , maintenance of cell structure , and defense against viruses . some of these proteins are needed routinely , while others are needed only under certain circumstances . thus , cells do n't express all the genes in their genome all the time . you can think of the genome as being like a cookbook with many different recipes in it . the cell will only use the recipes ( express the genes ) that fit its current needs . how is gene expression regulated ? there are various forms of gene regulation , that is , mechanisms for controlling which genes get expressed and at what levels . however , a lot of gene regulation occurs at the level of transcription . bacteria have specific regulatory molecules that control whether a particular gene will be transcribed into mrna . often , these molecules act by binding to dna near the gene and helping or blocking the transcription enzyme , rna polymerase . let 's take a closer look at how genes are regulated in bacteria . in bacteria , genes are often found in operons in bacteria , related genes are often found in a cluster on the chromosome , where they are transcribed from one promoter ( rna polymerase binding site ) as a single unit . such a cluster of genes under control of a single promoter is known as an operon . operons are common in bacteria , but they are rare in eukaryotes such as humans . in general , an operon will contain genes that function in the same process . for instance , a well-studied operon called the lac operon contains genes that encode proteins involved in uptake and metabolism of a particular sugar , lactose . operons allow the cell to efficiently express sets of genes whose products are needed at the same time . anatomy of an operon operons are n't just made up of the coding sequences of genes . instead , they also contain regulatory dna sequences that control transcription of the operon . typically , these sequences are binding sites for regulatory proteins , which control how much the operon is transcribed . the promoter , or site where rna polymerase binds , is one example of a regulatory dna sequence . most operons have other regulatory dna sequences in addition to the promoter . these sequences are binding sites for for regulatory proteins that turn expression of the operon `` up '' or `` down . '' some regulatory proteins are repressors that bind to pieces of dna called operators . when bound to its operator , a repressor reduces transcription ( e.g. , by blocking rna polymerase from moving forward on the dna ) . some regulatory proteins are activators . when an activator is bound to its dna binding site , it increases transcription of the operon ( e.g. , by helping rna polymerase bind to the promoter ) . where do the regulatory proteins come from ? like any other protein produced in an organism , they are encoded by genes in the bacterium 's genome . the genes that encode regulatory proteins are sometimes called regulatory genes . many regulatory proteins can themselves be turned `` on '' or `` off '' by specific small molecules . the small molecule binds to the protein , changing its shape and altering its ability to bind dna . for instance , an activator may only become active ( able to bind dna ) when it 's attached to a certain small molecule . operons may be inducible or repressible some operons are usually `` off , '' but can be turned `` on '' by a small molecule . the molecule is called an inducer , and the operon is said to be inducible . for example , the lac operon is an inducible operon that encodes enzymes for metabolism of the sugar lactose . it turns on only when the sugar lactose is present ( and other , preferred sugars are absent ) . the inducer in this case is allolactose , a modified form of lactose . other operons are usually `` on , '' but can be turned `` off '' by a small molecule . the molecule is called a corepressor , and the operon is said to be repressible . for example , the trp operon is a repressible operon that encodes enzymes for synthesis of the amino acid tryptophan . this operon is expressed by default , but can be repressed when high levels of the amino acid tryptophan are present . the corepressor in this case is tryptophan . these examples illustrate an important point : that gene regulation allows bacteria to respond to changes in their environment by altering gene expression ( and thus , changing the set of proteins present in the cell ) . some genes and operons are expressed all the time many genes play specialized roles and are expressed only under certain conditions , as described above . however , there are also genes whose products are constantly needed by the cell to maintain essential functions . these housekeeping genes are constantly expressed under normal growth conditions ( `` constitutively active '' ) . housekeeping genes have promoters and other regulatory dna sequences that ensure constant expression .
|
key points : bacterial genes are often found in operons . genes in an operon are transcribed as a group and have a single promoter .
|
which of the following discoveries is most crucial to explaining why all organisms share the same genetic code ?
|
key points : bacterial genes are often found in operons . genes in an operon are transcribed as a group and have a single promoter . each operon contains regulatory dna sequences , which act as binding sites for regulatory proteins that promote or inhibit transcription . regulatory proteins often bind to small molecules , which can make the protein active or inactive by changing its ability to bind dna . some operons are inducible , meaning that they can be turned on by the presence of a particular small molecule . others are repressible , meaning that they are on by default but can be turned off by a small molecule . introduction we tend to think of bacteria as simple . but even the simplest bacterium has a complex task when it comes to gene regulation ! the bacteria in your gut or between your teeth have genomes that contain thousands of different genes . most of these genes encode proteins , each with its own role in a process such as fuel metabolism , maintenance of cell structure , and defense against viruses . some of these proteins are needed routinely , while others are needed only under certain circumstances . thus , cells do n't express all the genes in their genome all the time . you can think of the genome as being like a cookbook with many different recipes in it . the cell will only use the recipes ( express the genes ) that fit its current needs . how is gene expression regulated ? there are various forms of gene regulation , that is , mechanisms for controlling which genes get expressed and at what levels . however , a lot of gene regulation occurs at the level of transcription . bacteria have specific regulatory molecules that control whether a particular gene will be transcribed into mrna . often , these molecules act by binding to dna near the gene and helping or blocking the transcription enzyme , rna polymerase . let 's take a closer look at how genes are regulated in bacteria . in bacteria , genes are often found in operons in bacteria , related genes are often found in a cluster on the chromosome , where they are transcribed from one promoter ( rna polymerase binding site ) as a single unit . such a cluster of genes under control of a single promoter is known as an operon . operons are common in bacteria , but they are rare in eukaryotes such as humans . in general , an operon will contain genes that function in the same process . for instance , a well-studied operon called the lac operon contains genes that encode proteins involved in uptake and metabolism of a particular sugar , lactose . operons allow the cell to efficiently express sets of genes whose products are needed at the same time . anatomy of an operon operons are n't just made up of the coding sequences of genes . instead , they also contain regulatory dna sequences that control transcription of the operon . typically , these sequences are binding sites for regulatory proteins , which control how much the operon is transcribed . the promoter , or site where rna polymerase binds , is one example of a regulatory dna sequence . most operons have other regulatory dna sequences in addition to the promoter . these sequences are binding sites for for regulatory proteins that turn expression of the operon `` up '' or `` down . '' some regulatory proteins are repressors that bind to pieces of dna called operators . when bound to its operator , a repressor reduces transcription ( e.g. , by blocking rna polymerase from moving forward on the dna ) . some regulatory proteins are activators . when an activator is bound to its dna binding site , it increases transcription of the operon ( e.g. , by helping rna polymerase bind to the promoter ) . where do the regulatory proteins come from ? like any other protein produced in an organism , they are encoded by genes in the bacterium 's genome . the genes that encode regulatory proteins are sometimes called regulatory genes . many regulatory proteins can themselves be turned `` on '' or `` off '' by specific small molecules . the small molecule binds to the protein , changing its shape and altering its ability to bind dna . for instance , an activator may only become active ( able to bind dna ) when it 's attached to a certain small molecule . operons may be inducible or repressible some operons are usually `` off , '' but can be turned `` on '' by a small molecule . the molecule is called an inducer , and the operon is said to be inducible . for example , the lac operon is an inducible operon that encodes enzymes for metabolism of the sugar lactose . it turns on only when the sugar lactose is present ( and other , preferred sugars are absent ) . the inducer in this case is allolactose , a modified form of lactose . other operons are usually `` on , '' but can be turned `` off '' by a small molecule . the molecule is called a corepressor , and the operon is said to be repressible . for example , the trp operon is a repressible operon that encodes enzymes for synthesis of the amino acid tryptophan . this operon is expressed by default , but can be repressed when high levels of the amino acid tryptophan are present . the corepressor in this case is tryptophan . these examples illustrate an important point : that gene regulation allows bacteria to respond to changes in their environment by altering gene expression ( and thus , changing the set of proteins present in the cell ) . some genes and operons are expressed all the time many genes play specialized roles and are expressed only under certain conditions , as described above . however , there are also genes whose products are constantly needed by the cell to maintain essential functions . these housekeeping genes are constantly expressed under normal growth conditions ( `` constitutively active '' ) . housekeeping genes have promoters and other regulatory dna sequences that ensure constant expression .
|
operons are common in bacteria , but they are rare in eukaryotes such as humans . in general , an operon will contain genes that function in the same process . for instance , a well-studied operon called the lac operon contains genes that encode proteins involved in uptake and metabolism of a particular sugar , lactose . operons allow the cell to efficiently express sets of genes whose products are needed at the same time .
|
is it possible that genes of the same operon up- and down-regulates at the same time ?
|
while there is no one text or creed that forms the basis of all hindu beliefs , several texts are considered fundamental to all branches of hinduism . these texts are generally divided into two main groups : eternal , revealed texts , and those based upon what humanity has learned and written down . the vedas are an example of the former , while the two great epics , the mahabharata and ramayana , belong to the latter category . for centuries , texts were transmitted orally , and the priestly caste , or brahmans , was entrusted with memorization and preservation of sacred texts . the vedas the vedas are india ’ s earliest surviving texts , dating from approximately 2000 to 1500 b.c.e . these texts are made up of hymns and ritual treatises that are instructional in nature , along with other sections that are more speculative and metaphysical . the vedas are greatly revered by contemporary hindus as forming the foundation for their deepest beliefs . the early vedas refer often to certain gods such as indra , the thunder god , and agni , who carries messages between humans and the gods through fire sacrifices . some of these gods persist in later hinduism , while others are diminished or transformed into other deities over time . the vedas are considered a timeless revelation , and a source of unchanging knowledge that underlies much of present-day hindu practices . mahabharata and ramayana these two great epics are the most widely known works in india . every child becomes familiar with these stories from an early age . the mahabharata is the world ’ s longest poem , with approximately 100,000 verses . it tells the story of the conflict between the pandava brothers and their cousins the kauravas , a rivalry that culminates in a great battle . on the eve of the battle , the pandava warrior arjuna is distressed by what will happen . the god krishna consoles him in a famous passage known as the bhagavad-gita ( meaning “ the song of the lord ” ) . this section of the mahabharata has become a standard reference in addressing the duty of the individual , the importance of dharma , and humankind ’ s relationship to god and society . a second epic , the ramayana , contains some of india ’ s best-loved characters , including rama and sita , the ideal royal couple , and their helper , the monkey leader , hanuman . rama is an incarnation of the god vishnu . the story tells of rama and sita ’ s withdrawal to the forest after being exiled from the kingdom of ayodhya . sita is abducted in the forest by ravana , the evil king of lanka . rama eventually defeats ravana , with the help of his brother and an army of monkeys and bears . the couple returns to ayodhya and are crowned , and from that point the story has evolved to acquire different endings . episodes of the ramayana are frequently illustrated in hindu art . the puranas the puranas are the primary source of stories about the hindu deities . they were probably assembled between 300 to 1000 c.e. , and their presence corresponds to the rise of hinduism and the growing importance of certain deities . they describe the exploits of the gods as well as various devotional practices associated with them . some of the vedic gods—indra , agni , surya—reappear in the puranas , but figure less importantly in the stories than do brahma , vishnu , and shiva , the various manifestations of the goddess , and other celestial figures . tantras around the same time as the recording of the puranas , a number of texts concerning ritual practices surrounding various deities emerge . they are collectively known as tantras or agamas , and refer to religious observances , yoga , behavior , and the proper selection and design of temple sites . some aspects of the tantras concern the harnessing of physical energies as a means to achieve spiritual breakthrough . tantric practices cross religious boundaries , and manifest themselves in aspects of hinduism , jainism , and buddhism .
|
they are collectively known as tantras or agamas , and refer to religious observances , yoga , behavior , and the proper selection and design of temple sites . some aspects of the tantras concern the harnessing of physical energies as a means to achieve spiritual breakthrough . tantric practices cross religious boundaries , and manifest themselves in aspects of hinduism , jainism , and buddhism .
|
what energies are considered possible to harness in the tantras ?
|
while there is no one text or creed that forms the basis of all hindu beliefs , several texts are considered fundamental to all branches of hinduism . these texts are generally divided into two main groups : eternal , revealed texts , and those based upon what humanity has learned and written down . the vedas are an example of the former , while the two great epics , the mahabharata and ramayana , belong to the latter category . for centuries , texts were transmitted orally , and the priestly caste , or brahmans , was entrusted with memorization and preservation of sacred texts . the vedas the vedas are india ’ s earliest surviving texts , dating from approximately 2000 to 1500 b.c.e . these texts are made up of hymns and ritual treatises that are instructional in nature , along with other sections that are more speculative and metaphysical . the vedas are greatly revered by contemporary hindus as forming the foundation for their deepest beliefs . the early vedas refer often to certain gods such as indra , the thunder god , and agni , who carries messages between humans and the gods through fire sacrifices . some of these gods persist in later hinduism , while others are diminished or transformed into other deities over time . the vedas are considered a timeless revelation , and a source of unchanging knowledge that underlies much of present-day hindu practices . mahabharata and ramayana these two great epics are the most widely known works in india . every child becomes familiar with these stories from an early age . the mahabharata is the world ’ s longest poem , with approximately 100,000 verses . it tells the story of the conflict between the pandava brothers and their cousins the kauravas , a rivalry that culminates in a great battle . on the eve of the battle , the pandava warrior arjuna is distressed by what will happen . the god krishna consoles him in a famous passage known as the bhagavad-gita ( meaning “ the song of the lord ” ) . this section of the mahabharata has become a standard reference in addressing the duty of the individual , the importance of dharma , and humankind ’ s relationship to god and society . a second epic , the ramayana , contains some of india ’ s best-loved characters , including rama and sita , the ideal royal couple , and their helper , the monkey leader , hanuman . rama is an incarnation of the god vishnu . the story tells of rama and sita ’ s withdrawal to the forest after being exiled from the kingdom of ayodhya . sita is abducted in the forest by ravana , the evil king of lanka . rama eventually defeats ravana , with the help of his brother and an army of monkeys and bears . the couple returns to ayodhya and are crowned , and from that point the story has evolved to acquire different endings . episodes of the ramayana are frequently illustrated in hindu art . the puranas the puranas are the primary source of stories about the hindu deities . they were probably assembled between 300 to 1000 c.e. , and their presence corresponds to the rise of hinduism and the growing importance of certain deities . they describe the exploits of the gods as well as various devotional practices associated with them . some of the vedic gods—indra , agni , surya—reappear in the puranas , but figure less importantly in the stories than do brahma , vishnu , and shiva , the various manifestations of the goddess , and other celestial figures . tantras around the same time as the recording of the puranas , a number of texts concerning ritual practices surrounding various deities emerge . they are collectively known as tantras or agamas , and refer to religious observances , yoga , behavior , and the proper selection and design of temple sites . some aspects of the tantras concern the harnessing of physical energies as a means to achieve spiritual breakthrough . tantric practices cross religious boundaries , and manifest themselves in aspects of hinduism , jainism , and buddhism .
|
the couple returns to ayodhya and are crowned , and from that point the story has evolved to acquire different endings . episodes of the ramayana are frequently illustrated in hindu art . the puranas the puranas are the primary source of stories about the hindu deities .
|
why ca n't there be any pages on the history of the tantras and tantric art in india and tibet ?
|
overview virginian and revolutionary war general george washington became the united states 's first president in 1789 . his actions in office set a precedent for a strong executive branch and a strong central government . the major political questions and conflicts during the 1790s concerned foreign policy , economic policy , and the balance of power between states and the federal government . during washington 's presidency , factions began to emerge that would soon form the first two political parties in the united states : the democratic-republicans and the federalists . washington ’ s decision to stay neutral during the french revolution set a precedent for the united states government to practice isolationism as its main foreign policy strategy for over a hundred years . washington 's presidency after the states ratified the new constitution of the united states , which created three branches of the federal government : congress , the courts , and the presidency . in 1789 , george washington became the first person to hold the office of president of the united states . as president and head of the executive branch , washington was responsible for enforcing the government that the constitution created . he and the rest of the first federal congress quickly realized that the constitution did not have clear solutions to every problem they would face . the way that washington and the first federal congress handled some of the issues the country faced during his tenure as president created a precedent , or an example for how future presidents should deal with similar situations . in the next few paragraphs , we 'll take a look at some of the important questions washington and his cabinet took on during his presidency . debate over the national bank coming out of the american revolution , the united states was faced with the issue of a large national debt . after taking out loans from france to cover the expenses of fighting the war , the state debt totaled about $ \ $ $ 25 million . but after the constitution brought the states under a central government , who would be responsible for the debt that the states owed ? would each individual state be responsible for paying back its debt , or would the new federal government pay ? newly-minted treasury secretary alexander hamilton proposed a two-part solution : the federal government would assume the states ’ debt and create a national bank . hamilton believed a national bank would help to promote business by printing federally-backed money . there was just one problem : the constitution said nothing about creating a national bank . however , hamilton and his followers believed that under the “ necessary and proper ” clause of article i , the constitution gave congress the right to create the bank to fix the debt problem . thomas jefferson and his followers disagreed with hamilton ’ s argument , stating that it was a misinterpretation of the necessary and proper clause . he believed that creating a national bank would be an abuse of power by the federal government . after much debate between these two emerging factions—the federalists , represented by hamilton , and the democratic-republicans , represented by jefferson—the bill establishing the first bank of the united states passed the house and senate , president washington signed the bill into law in early 1791 . the french revolution and the proclamation of neutrality the american revolution sparked several other revolutions across the world , including the haitian revolution and the french revolution . at the start of the french revolution in 1789 , the united states had just ratified its new constitution and bill of rights . when french revolutionaries came to the united states asking for assistance , washington decided to issue a proclamation of neutrality , guaranteeing that the united states would stay out of the war and not take anyone ’ s side . this was a risky decision , since france had been the united states 's major ally during the revolutionary war . washington 's decision to issue a proclamation of neutrality was rooted in the fact that the united states was still dealing with a sizable debt after the american revolution . with this act , along with the recommendations he made in his farewell address upon leaving office , washington set a precedent for isolationism , or refraining from involvement in international affairs , that set the tone for us foreign policy over the next century . the whiskey rebellion in order to raise money to repay the debt after the american revolution , alexander hamilton proposed a tax on whiskey in 1791 . for farmers in rural areas , whiskey was a form of currency . distilled from grain , farmers found it was more profitable to sell grain to a distillery than it was to ship it across several states to be sold in the eastern half of the united states . the new tax enraged farmers . when tax collectors came to the farmers for their payments for the whiskey , they were met with armed resistance , sometimes even tar and feathering . after about 500 men gathered and burned down the house of a tax collector in pennsylvania , washington ordered a force of about 13,000 troops to crush the resistance . although no fighting broke out , the whiskey rebellion had one profound impact on the future of the united states . it affirmed the fact that the federal government could handle political unrest and was much stronger than it had been under the articles of confederation . stop and consider : how did the government 's response to the whiskey rebellion compare to its response to shays 's rebellion ? what accounts for the differences ? washington 's farewell address washington ’ s presidency was significant beyond the fact that he was the first president . his actions established a strong central government and helped put in place a plan to fix the problem of the national debt . on his way out of the presidency , washington delivered a farewell address in which he advised the country to avoid political factions , based on party or geography , and avoid long-term alliances with other countries . excerpt from george washington 's farewell address , 1796 . i have already intimated to you the danger of parties in the state , with particular reference to the founding of them on geographical discriminations . let me now take a more comprehensive view , and warn you in the most solemn manner against the baneful effects of the spirit of party generally . . . . it serves always to distract the public councils and enfeeble the public administration . it agitates the community with ill-founded jealousies and false alarms , kindles the animosity of one part against another , foments occasionally riot and insurrection . . . . the great rule of conduct for us in regard to foreign nations is in extending our commercial relations , to have with them as little political connection as possible . so far as we have already formed engagements , let them be fulfilled with perfect good faith . here let us stop . europe has a set of primary interests which to us have none ; or a very remote relation . hence she must be engaged in frequent controversies , the causes of which are essentially foreign to our concerns . . . . despite washington 's warnings , america ’ s first two political parties emerged in the 1790s : the federalists and the democratic-republicans . washington 's successor , john adams , became the first federalist president . what do you think ? what was the most important precedent that george washington set while in office ? do you think the constitution gave hamilton the power to create a national bank ? why or why not ? why did washington advise the united states to pursue a policy of isolationism ?
|
newly-minted treasury secretary alexander hamilton proposed a two-part solution : the federal government would assume the states ’ debt and create a national bank . hamilton believed a national bank would help to promote business by printing federally-backed money . there was just one problem : the constitution said nothing about creating a national bank .
|
was this statement adjusted for inflation or was it this amount of money back in 1789 ?
|
what is celiac disease ? wheat has been a basic staple of the human diet for around 10,000 years . its success as a food source is largely due to its adaptability to growing conditions in temperate countries , its high yield and nutritional value , and because of gluten , a mixture of proteins contained within the wheat seed ( and other related grains including barley and rye ) . gluten forms a rubbery protein mass that gives dough its elasticity and helps it keep its shape , properties that make it ideally suited for processing into a wide variety of different foods including breads , pasta , and sweet treats like cakes and pastries . unfortunately , some people have an autoimmune disorder in which the immune system reacts to gluten , causing damage to the lining of the small intestine . this disorder is known as celiac disease . digestion and absorption in the small intestine your digestive tract , or gut , is a tube that runs from your mouth to your anus . digestion , or the breakdown of food , begins in your mouth . once you have chewed and swallowed , the food travels to your stomach , and then into your small intestine , where most of the digestion and absorption of nutrients occurs . the small intestine has three distinct sections , called the duodenum , jejunum , and ileum that are uniquely designed for this function , and is where things may go wrong in celiac disease . the duodenum receives partly digested food from the stomach , called acid chyme , as well as digestives enzymes from the pancreas that break down proteins and starch , and bile from the gall bladder that emulsifies fats . it produces an alkaline secretion that together with bicarbonate from the pancreas neutralizes the stomach acid that is in the chyme , allowing further digestion to take place . the jejunum is the mid section of the small intestine . it contains circular folds that slow the passage of chyme and increase the surface area for absorption . the folds are covered in villi ( from the latin word villos meaning “ shaggy ” ) , which are small finger-like projections . each villus is covered in microvilli , which provide a vast surface area for absorption of fats and nutrients from chyme . most of the nutrients produced from the food you eat are absorbed here . the ileum is the final section of the small intestine . it also contains villi and microvilli that absorb any remaining nutrients , as well as vitamin b12 and bile acids . the gut microflora : in addition to digesting the three major classes of nutrients ( proteins , carbohydrates , and fats ) and absorbing the majority of nutrients ( amino acids , simple sugars , and lipids ) present in your food , your small intestine is home to trillions of microbes that colonize the gut , known as the gut microflora . these mutually beneficial organisms not only help with digestion , but also stimulate your gut ’ s immune system to produce antibodies against potentially harmful organisms . the gut immune system : your gut ’ s immune system is exposed to a multitude of disease-causing ( pathogenic ) organisms every day . although its job is to eliminate them , it must do this without destroying the beneficial microbes in the gut microflora . various immune system adaptations enable this , including that the intestinal lining itself is a strong physical barrier that protects against pathogens and prevents any undigested food components from stimulating an immune response . the result of the immune adaptations is that pathogenic organisms are quickly detected and efficiently eliminated , with any inflammation , a normal part of the immune response that occurs when tissues are injured by pathogens or any other cause , quickly subsiding . at the same time , the immune system is able to tolerate the beneficial organisms and ignore potential food allergens that could activate an immune response ( most often proteins that are resistant to breakdown by the digestive enzymes in the digestive tract ) . what goes wrong when you have celiac disease ? gluten is a mixture of proteins , called prolamins that are found in cereal grains , especially wheat ( gliadins and a glutenins ) , barley ( hordeins ) , and rye ( secalins ) . gluten is somewhat resistant to digestion in the small intestine , so that when you eat food containing gluten , the digestive enzymes that normally break down proteins into their amino acids building blocks produce short strings of amino acids , called peptides , instead . for people with celiac disease , gluten peptides disrupt the lining of the small intestine and trigger an immune response that attracts inflammatory cells and increases the release of inflammatory chemicals . with continued exposure to gluten , the inflammatory response erodes the tiny villi ( known as villous atrophy ) of the intestinal wall , shortening and flattening them so they are unable to effectively absorb nutrients ( malabsorption ) . genetic link : the inappropriate immune response to gluten is linked to your genetic makeup , particularly the human leukocyte antigen ( hla ) gene family . these genes provide instructions for making proteins that help the immune system distinguish the body 's own proteins from foreign proteins produced by pathogens or found in foods . the vast majority of people with celiac disease have either the hla-dq2 gene or the hla-dq8 gene ; although , there are also many people who have these genes but do not have celiac disease . this means that having these genes is typically necessary but not sufficient to cause sensitivity to gluten . in addition to these genes a number of other genes have been associated with celiac diseases , although they do not seem to have as much influence on whether or not you will develop the disease . signs and symptoms of celiac disease the damage to the intestines caused by celiac disease can cause weight loss and malnourishment of organs and tissues , and may reduce growth and development of children . however , signs and symptoms can vary widely , from mild to severe , may or may not involve gastrointestinal symptoms , and for some people there may even be no symptoms at all . the classic symptoms of celiac disease are diarrhea , with or without symptoms caused by faulty absorption of nutrients by the intestines ( malabsorption ) . however , only a minority of people have these classic symptoms , with many people experiencing few or atypical symptoms that may affect any organ from the the central nervous system to skin , joints , liver or teeth . to complicate matters further , many of the other signs and symptoms are nonspecific , which means they may occur in many disorders . intestinal symptoms : in addition to the classic symptom of diarrhea , intestinal damage may cause abdominal pain , bloating , mouth ulcers , and food intolerances ; e.g , to lactose . continued exposure to gluten causes chronic inflammation that may increase the risk of developing gastrointestinal cancers such as cancer of the intestine or esophagus , as well as ulcerative jejunitis ( ulceration within the jejunum ) , or narrowing and obstruction of the intestine due to scarring . malabsorption-related symptoms : the damaged intestinal lining it less able to absorb a wide range of nutrients , minerals and fat-soluble vitamins including vitamins a , d , e , and k , and wide ranging symptoms may occur . for example : weight loss , or failure to thrive if you are a child may occur as a result of malabsorption of carbohydrates and fat ; anemia may occur due to inadequate levels of iron , copper , or folic acid and vitamin b12 ; osteopenia or osteoporosis may result from a lack of calcium and vitamin d , while a zinc deficiency can cause stunted growth and mental slowness , hair loss , diarrhea , impotence , eye and skin conditions , and loss of appetite . miscellaneous symptoms : various other signs and symptoms have been linked to celiac disease , although exactly how they are related to the immune reaction to gluten in the intestine is unclear . these include : neurological problems such as migraine headaches , depression , attention deficit hyperactivity disorder , and epilepsy ; increased risk of infections and other autoimmune diseases such as type 1 diabetes and rheumatoid arthritis ; dermatitis herpetiformis , an itchy skin condition that may also be an autoimmune disease ; delayed puberty ; miscarriage ; and symptoms associated with spleen and/or liver malfunction . what are the risk factors for celiac disease ? if you are genetically predisposed to celiac disease , it can develop at any age once you start eating foods containing gluten , although exactly why it happens , and why some people have mild symptoms and others have severe symptoms is unknown . genes : because the risk of getting celiac disease increases if you have certain variants of genes that make proteins that control immune function , celiac disease tends to cluster in families , with first-degree family members ( parents , siblings , children ) having up to a 15 % chance of getting it. $ ^1 $ because having an autoimmune disease , such as type 1 diabetes mellitus , thyroid disease , and primary biliary cirrhosis , makes you more likely to develop other autoimmune diseases , you also have an increased chance of getting celiac disease if you have any of these conditions . environmental triggers : the primary environmental trigger in celiac disease is gluten and gluten-related proteins that are present in wheat , barley and rye . this fits well with observations that introducing gluten into the diet of children who are genetically predisposed to celiac disease at 12 months of age rather than 6 months of age delayed onset of disease , but did not prevent it. $ ^2 $ how likely are you to get celiac disease ? the worldwide distribution of gluten-containing foods and the genes that predispose you to an immune reaction to gluten have made celiac disease the most common autoimmune disorder known , with around 1 % of people affected in most parts of the world. $ ^3 $ that said , experts think this likely represents just the tip of the iceberg , as for each person who has been diagnosed there are many other people who are living with celiac disease but don ’ t know it . in addition , there is often a lag of many years before an immune reaction to gluten exposure develops . as such adult onset celiac disease is fairly common . can celiac disease be prevented ? its very straightforward , if you have celiac disease , you can prevent symptoms and further damage to your intestines by eating a strict gluten-free diet . however , it is important to have the cause of any symptoms properly diagnosed first . diagnosis and treatment of celiac disease diagnosis : there are blood tests that can detect specific antibodies that indicate you have had an immune reaction to gluten . these tests can detect whether or not you have celiac disease even whether you have severe , mild or no symptoms at all . it is important not to go gluten-free prior to these tests as this may give a false negative result . if your blood test is positive for celiac disease , your healthcare provider may recommend that you have an endoscopy , a non surgical procedure in which a flexible tube with a light and camera attached is introduced into your digestive tract so as to view the lining of your intestine . it is also possible to collect a tissue sample ( biopsy ) during this procedure to look for villous atrophy , and assess the extent of intestinal damage . treatment : there is no cure for celiac disease , and the only effective treatment is complete avoidance of gluten for life . a gluten-free diet requires avoiding all foods made from wheat , rye , and barley ; for example , breads , cereals , pasta , crackers , cakes , pies , pastries , cookies , biscuits . oats contain prolamins known as avenins , which are non toxic to the vast majority of people with celiac disease. $ ^4 $ however , it may be advisable to avoid them too , at least initially , due to the possibility that oats or oat-based foods are contaminated with other grains . if you have celiac disease try to stick to that gluten free diet , as the intestinal villi will recover completely within a year in two out of three cases ; however , even a year is not long enough for people with more severe intestinal damage. $ ^5 $ consider the following : for most people , there is no reason to avoid eating foods containing gluten . however , in addition to the gluten intolerance that affects people with celiac disease , another group of people report experiencing a non-celiac gluten sensitivity that causes similar symptoms . notably , people with this condition do not test positive for celiac disease or for a wheat allergy . gluten sensitivity causes a range of symptoms such as “ foggy mind ” , lack of energy or lethargy , gas , bloating , abdominal pain or cramps , diarrhea and sometimes constipation , but does not do the intestinal damage that occurs with celiac disease . the pathophysiology of this condition is currently poorly understood , and at this point , although it is referred to as gluten sensitivity it is not known whether gluten or another chemical component in wheat is responsible for the symptoms . there is no specific diagnostic test for gluten sensitivity . a diagnosis is made if you test negative for celiac disease or wheat allergy , and your symptoms resolve when you start a gluten-free diet , and start again when gluten is reintroduced . as with celiac disease , there is no cure for gluten sensitivity , and the only treatment is a gluten-free diet .
|
what is celiac disease ? wheat has been a basic staple of the human diet for around 10,000 years .
|
what happened if you keep eating wheat after you been diagnosed with celiac disease ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products .
|
so a chemical reaction changes wood into fire ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products .
|
questions : 1 ) why do you always need two sets of reactants to form chemical reactions ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) .
|
when forming a bond with oxygen come about ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
would n't making the solute smaller decrease the surface area ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects .
|
are all hidrogen atoms equal to each other ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible .
|
so , there are revirsible and irreversible ions and atoms ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time .
|
how much energy would be required to make an irreversible reaction go the other way , such as to turn water back into its reactants ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products .
|
when we make chemical reaction , is the energy produce will only be in the form of heat or is there any kind of energy that it produce during the chemical reaction takes place ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products .
|
how many combinations of chemical reactions are there ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken .
|
can radioactive elements set on fire ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products .
|
why does there always have to be two sets of reactments to form a proper chemical reaction ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants .
|
how can we tell which reactions are reversible or irreversible ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products .
|
what 's the difference between a chemical bond and a chemical reaction ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water .
|
where are hydrogen and oxygen atoms found as single atoms ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects .
|
where do atoms get their energy from ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products .
|
how do multiple chemical reactions occur simultaneously ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products .
|
when water gets boiled by fire that is an example of a chemical reaction ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products .
|
how can i calculate the entropy just by looking at the chemical equations ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
what is hco3 , h+ and h2co3 ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects .
|
what is the difference between h2o and o2 ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time .
|
i get that the products can be turned into reactants and that after the reactants can be turned into products , but is the reaction that fast that to us it looks like the molecules are being converted one into another at the same time ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects .
|
why and how does carbon- 12 become carbom-14 which is radioactive ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time .
|
what would be the singular form of reactants , reactor or reactant ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible .
|
concerning the reversibility and equilibrium paragraph : if i were to introduce salt water to , to a glass of water , would the reactions that occur ( establishing equilibrium ) be in line with the concept of this paragraph ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products .
|
so what is the difference between chemical reactions and non-chemical reactions ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) .
|
can this energy be used to break water molecule into hydrogen and oxygen and the hydrogen be used as fuel for cars ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction .
|
why is the equation written 2h2 + o2 ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products .
|
if most reactions are actually reversable , how would you reverse co2 ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects .
|
how are the charges of radicals determined ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
can somebody tell me what the equation for ( hco3- +3+ < > h2co3 ) would be if carbonic acid would be ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects .
|
how do biological chemicals react to acids ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time .
|
if reversible reactions reach equilibrium , does that mean that the concentration of reactants in the system is equal to the concentration of the products ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction .
|
how does water factor into dehydration synthesis during weight lifting ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products .
|
can chemical reactions changes everything ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) .
|
will the collision of an electron and proton produce a lot of energy because of opposite charges annihilating each other and because of the equation'e=mc^2 ' ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products .
|
how do you know when a chemical reaction has occurred ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products .
|
the third paragraph says that a chemical reaction has occured when `` chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken '' , but are there signs that a chemical reaction happened ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products .
|
would an explosion be considered a chemical reaction ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction .
|
what happen when a non metal react with water ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects .
|
how do you know that h2o2 gives h2o and o2 ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium .
|
how do the reactions take place ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products .
|
what properties of a chemical equation make it reversible and what properties of a chemical equation make it irreversible ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products .
|
is mass conserved in a chemical reaction ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects .
|
if the atoms are n't gained ou losed , from where comes the energy released ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction .
|
can an atom be seen using a special kind of microscope ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products .
|
what happens to the atom in a chemical reaction ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken .
|
is a new one created or is it destroyed ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction .
|
what is the incomplete combustion word equation and balanced equation of acetylene in oxygen ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products .
|
how are chemical bonds useful in our daily life ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products .
|
in the paragraph chemical reactions , how powerful or strong can a reaction get ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products .
|
how long can a reaction last ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial .
|
can atoms be destroyed or created ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects .
|
does an atom have a life span ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products .
|
if you had some kind of radioactive explosion or leak , where nulear or atomic waste leak onto the earth or into the air , would the slow decaying of the waste 's radioactivity be a chemical reaction , and would the effects that radioactive waste gives off be chemical ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects .
|
what does the formulas mean ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products .
|
does the mass of a chemical change when heated ?
|
introduction molecules—like the ones that make up your body—are just collections of atoms held together by chemical bonds . in many ways , they 're a lot like tinkertoy® building projects . in fact , if you take organic chemistry , you ’ ll most likely buy a model set that looks suspiciously similar to tinkertoys® : just as you can put tinkertoy® wheels together in different ways using different stick connectors , you can also put atoms together in a different ways by forming different sets of chemical bonds . the process of reorganizing atoms by breaking one set of chemical bonds and forming a new set is known as a chemical reaction . chemical reactions chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken . the substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants , and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products . an arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction , though a chemical reaction is not always a `` one-way street , '' as we 'll explore further in the next section . for example , the reaction for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } $ ) into water and oxygen can be written as : $ 2 \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( hydrogen peroxide ) } $ $ \rightarrow $ $ 2\text { h } { 2 } \text o \text { ( water ) } $ + $ \text { o } { 2 } \text { ( oxygen ) } $ in this example hydrogen peroxide is our reactant , and it gets broken down into water and oxygen , our products . the atoms that started out in hydrogen peroxide molecules are rearranged to form water molecules ( $ \text { h } _ { 2 } \text o $ ) and oxygen molecules ( $ \text o_2 $ ) . you may have noticed extra numbers in the chemical equation above : the $ 2 $ s in front of hydrogen peroxide and water . these numbers are called coefficients , and they tell us how many of each molecule participate in the reaction . they must be included in order to make our equation balanced , meaning that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the equation . equations must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of matter , which states that no atoms are created or destroyed over the course of a normal chemical reaction . you can learn more about balancing reactions in the balancing chemical equations tutorial . reversibility and equilibrium some chemical reactions simply run in one direction until the reactants are used up . these reactions are said to be irreversible . other reactions , however , are classified as reversible . reversible reactions can go in both the forward and backward directions . in a reversible reaction , reactants turn into products , but products also turn back into reactants . in fact , both the forward reaction and its opposite will take place at the same time . this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant . to learn where the equilibrium constant comes from and how to calculate it for a specific reaction , check out the equilibrium topic . when a reaction is classified as reversible , it is usually written with paired forward and backward arrows to show it can go both ways . for example , in human blood , excess hydrogen ions ( $ \text h^+ $ ) bind to bicarbonate ions ( $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ ) , forming carbonic acid ( $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ ) : $ \text { hco } { 3 } $ $ ^ { - } $ + $ \text { h } ^ { + } $ $ \rightleftharpoons $ $ \text { h } { 2 } $ $ \text { co } _ { 3 } $ since this is a reversible reaction , if carbonic acid were added to the system , some of it would be turned into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to restore equilibrium . in fact , this buffer system plays a key role in keeping your blood ph stable and healthy .
|
this back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products is reached—a state called equilibrium . at equilibrium , the forward and backward reactions are still happening , but the relative concentrations of products and reactants no longer change . each reaction has its own characteristic equilibrium point , which we can describe with a number called the equilibrium constant .
|
why is fire hot and why does it change collar ?
|
before we get into the discussion of cyclic hemiacetals and hemiacetals , let ’ s just quickly recollect how they are formed . they are formed when an alcohol oxygen atom adds to the carbonyl carbon of an aldehyde or a ketone . this happens through the nucleophilic attack of the hydroxyl group at the electrophilic carbonyl group . since alcohols are weak nucleophiles , the attack on the carbonyl carbon is usually promoted by protonation of the carbonyl oxygen . when this reaction takes place with an aldehyde , the product is called a ‘ hemiacetal ’ ; and when this reaction takes place with a ketone , the product is referred to as a ‘ hemiketal ’ . the above reaction exemplifies the formation of an intermolecular hemiacetal . these are intrinsically unstable and tend to favor the parent aldehyde . molecules ( aldehyde or ketone ) , which contain both an alcohol and a carbonyl group , can instead undergo an intramolecular reaction to form a cyclic hemiacetal/ hemiketal . these , on the contrary , are more stable as compared to the intermolecular hemiacetals/hemiketals . stability of cyclic hemiacetals/hemiketals is highly dependent on the size of the ring , where 5 & amp ; 6 membered rings are generally favored . intramolecular hemiacetal and hemiketal formation is commonly encountered in sugar chemistry . just to give you an example : in solution , ~ 99 % of glucose exists in the cyclic hemiacetal form and only 1 % of glucose exists in the open form . cyclization of glucose to its hemiacetal form let ’ s first draw a molecule of glucose ( c $ 6 $ h $ { 12 } $ o $ _6 $ ) . the simplest way to do so is by using the fischer projection as shown below glucose has an aldehyde group and five hydroxyl groups . does that ring a bell ? yes , glucose can form an intramolecular cyclic hemiacetal . let ’ s now show the formation of hemiacetal of glucose starting from its open structure ( fischer projection ) . so why doesn ’ t the hydroxyl attached to c-4 react with the carbonyl group ? why does the carbonyl group react with the hydroxyl attached to c-5 ? c-4 hydroxyl attacking the carbonyl group will lead to the formation of a 5-membered ring , while the attack of c-5 hydroxyl at the carbonyl group will generate a 6-membered ring ( as shown in the above figure ) . in the case of glucose , a 6-membered ring is thermodynamically more stable than a 5-membered ring , thus favoring the formation of a 6-membered ring over a 5-membered ring . now let ’ s shift our focus to the hemiacetal of glucose ( haworth projection ) . if you notice this cyclization process creates a new stereogenic center , c-1 , which is referred to as the anomeric carbon . glucose can exist as an α or a β isomer , depending on whether the oh group attached to the anomeric carbon ( c-1 ) is on the same side as the ch2oh group or is on the opposite side . these two forms are referred to as anomers of glucose . ps : when you move from a haworth projection to a chair conformation , the groups pointing upwards in the former become equatorial and the groups pointing downwards become axial respectively in the latter . in aqueous solution , glucose exists in both the open and closed forms . these two forms always exist in equilibrium . in the process of converting from closed to open form and then back to closed form , the c-1→ c-2 bond rotates . this rotation produces either of the two anomers . we term this phenomenon of opening of the ring , rotation of the c-1→ c-2 bond and the subsequent closing of the ring as mutarotation . so as a result of mutarotation , both the α and β anomers are present in equilibrium in solution . in the case of glucose , β anomer is more predominant than α anomer . this may not be the case with all the monosaccharides . cyclization of fructose to its hemiketal form now let ’ s change gears and apply the same principles ( as applied to glucose ) to a molecule of fructose . fructose has a ketone group and five hydroxyl groups . so , fructose should also be able to cyclize to form an intramolecular hemiketal . there are in fact two ways in which a molecule of fructose can cyclize . the first is as illustrated below here , as you can see , the hydroxyl attached to c-5 attacks the carbonyl group , yielding a 5-membered ring ( furanose form ) . in the second scenario ( as shown below ) , the hydroxyl attached to c-6 attacks the carbonyl group , resulting in a 6-membered ring ( pyranose form ) .
|
let ’ s now show the formation of hemiacetal of glucose starting from its open structure ( fischer projection ) . so why doesn ’ t the hydroxyl attached to c-4 react with the carbonyl group ? why does the carbonyl group react with the hydroxyl attached to c-5 ? c-4 hydroxyl attacking the carbonyl group will lead to the formation of a 5-membered ring , while the attack of c-5 hydroxyl at the carbonyl group will generate a 6-membered ring ( as shown in the above figure ) .
|
the article explains the preference of c5 over c4 , but why does n't c6 's hydroxyl group react with the carbonyll ?
|
before we get into the discussion of cyclic hemiacetals and hemiacetals , let ’ s just quickly recollect how they are formed . they are formed when an alcohol oxygen atom adds to the carbonyl carbon of an aldehyde or a ketone . this happens through the nucleophilic attack of the hydroxyl group at the electrophilic carbonyl group . since alcohols are weak nucleophiles , the attack on the carbonyl carbon is usually promoted by protonation of the carbonyl oxygen . when this reaction takes place with an aldehyde , the product is called a ‘ hemiacetal ’ ; and when this reaction takes place with a ketone , the product is referred to as a ‘ hemiketal ’ . the above reaction exemplifies the formation of an intermolecular hemiacetal . these are intrinsically unstable and tend to favor the parent aldehyde . molecules ( aldehyde or ketone ) , which contain both an alcohol and a carbonyl group , can instead undergo an intramolecular reaction to form a cyclic hemiacetal/ hemiketal . these , on the contrary , are more stable as compared to the intermolecular hemiacetals/hemiketals . stability of cyclic hemiacetals/hemiketals is highly dependent on the size of the ring , where 5 & amp ; 6 membered rings are generally favored . intramolecular hemiacetal and hemiketal formation is commonly encountered in sugar chemistry . just to give you an example : in solution , ~ 99 % of glucose exists in the cyclic hemiacetal form and only 1 % of glucose exists in the open form . cyclization of glucose to its hemiacetal form let ’ s first draw a molecule of glucose ( c $ 6 $ h $ { 12 } $ o $ _6 $ ) . the simplest way to do so is by using the fischer projection as shown below glucose has an aldehyde group and five hydroxyl groups . does that ring a bell ? yes , glucose can form an intramolecular cyclic hemiacetal . let ’ s now show the formation of hemiacetal of glucose starting from its open structure ( fischer projection ) . so why doesn ’ t the hydroxyl attached to c-4 react with the carbonyl group ? why does the carbonyl group react with the hydroxyl attached to c-5 ? c-4 hydroxyl attacking the carbonyl group will lead to the formation of a 5-membered ring , while the attack of c-5 hydroxyl at the carbonyl group will generate a 6-membered ring ( as shown in the above figure ) . in the case of glucose , a 6-membered ring is thermodynamically more stable than a 5-membered ring , thus favoring the formation of a 6-membered ring over a 5-membered ring . now let ’ s shift our focus to the hemiacetal of glucose ( haworth projection ) . if you notice this cyclization process creates a new stereogenic center , c-1 , which is referred to as the anomeric carbon . glucose can exist as an α or a β isomer , depending on whether the oh group attached to the anomeric carbon ( c-1 ) is on the same side as the ch2oh group or is on the opposite side . these two forms are referred to as anomers of glucose . ps : when you move from a haworth projection to a chair conformation , the groups pointing upwards in the former become equatorial and the groups pointing downwards become axial respectively in the latter . in aqueous solution , glucose exists in both the open and closed forms . these two forms always exist in equilibrium . in the process of converting from closed to open form and then back to closed form , the c-1→ c-2 bond rotates . this rotation produces either of the two anomers . we term this phenomenon of opening of the ring , rotation of the c-1→ c-2 bond and the subsequent closing of the ring as mutarotation . so as a result of mutarotation , both the α and β anomers are present in equilibrium in solution . in the case of glucose , β anomer is more predominant than α anomer . this may not be the case with all the monosaccharides . cyclization of fructose to its hemiketal form now let ’ s change gears and apply the same principles ( as applied to glucose ) to a molecule of fructose . fructose has a ketone group and five hydroxyl groups . so , fructose should also be able to cyclize to form an intramolecular hemiketal . there are in fact two ways in which a molecule of fructose can cyclize . the first is as illustrated below here , as you can see , the hydroxyl attached to c-5 attacks the carbonyl group , yielding a 5-membered ring ( furanose form ) . in the second scenario ( as shown below ) , the hydroxyl attached to c-6 attacks the carbonyl group , resulting in a 6-membered ring ( pyranose form ) .
|
this may not be the case with all the monosaccharides . cyclization of fructose to its hemiketal form now let ’ s change gears and apply the same principles ( as applied to glucose ) to a molecule of fructose . fructose has a ketone group and five hydroxyl groups . so , fructose should also be able to cyclize to form an intramolecular hemiketal . there are in fact two ways in which a molecule of fructose can cyclize . the first is as illustrated below here , as you can see , the hydroxyl attached to c-5 attacks the carbonyl group , yielding a 5-membered ring ( furanose form ) .
|
does somebody knows if both structures ( alpha and beta fructose ) are present in the nature ?
|
how were firearms introduced to japan ? guns were introduced to japan by portuguese adventurers who were shipwrecked near the shore of tanegashima , a small island south of kyushu , in 1543 . matchlock pistols and guns modeled on the imported weapons began to be made in japan and were an important feature of battles during the 1570s and 1580s . how did they transform warfare in japan ? technically the matchlock is a kind of musket , fired by mechanically touching a lighted fuse to a charge of shot and gunpowder . the matchlock ’ s effective range was about two hundred meters , and a well-trained soldier would be able to fire four shots per minute at most . but in japan , where bows and arrows and stone catapults had been the only projectile weapons , firearms revolutionized battle strategy . long-range fighting came to replace close combat , and infantry superseded cavalry in importance . oda nobunaga ’ s 1575 victory over takeda katsuyori in the battle of nagashino is said to have depended on firearms fired in volleys by infantrymen against a charging cavalry force . what do the symbols on the matchlock gun represent ? the matchlock gun has a long octagonal iron barrel with a narrow diameter . it is decorated on the butt of the stock ( where the barrel and firing mechanism attach to the gun ) with a rabbit , an auspicious animal believed to be a spirit of the moon , where he abides for a thousand years . who might have used this weapon ? officers and foot soldiers both used matchlock guns . what do the symbols on the matchlock pistol represent ? samurai could order their family crests ( mon ) inlaid into or painted on the barrel of a new gun . the pistol ’ s barrel bears a family crest of golden stars consisting of a large , central circle surrounded by eight smaller circles . some twenty-four samurai families used the star crest , a symbol of hope and good luck . the pistol ’ s stock is further embellished with floral scrolls in gold and silver against a black-lacquered background . who might have used this weapon ? the matchlock pistol was intended for use by mounted samurai , but pistols proved impractical because the rider had to ignite a piece of cord in the lock , or firing chamber , while at the same time controlling his moving horse . nonetheless , owning a pistol remained popular as a symbol of a samurai ’ s power , rank , and wealth .
|
how were firearms introduced to japan ? guns were introduced to japan by portuguese adventurers who were shipwrecked near the shore of tanegashima , a small island south of kyushu , in 1543 .
|
was there any difference in status between a bow and a firearm ?
|
the end of the world y2k . the rapture . 2012 . for over a decade , speculation about the end of the world has run rampant—all in conjunction with the arrival of the new millennium . the same was true for our religious european counterparts who , prior to the year 1000 , believed the second coming of christ was imminent , and the end was nigh . when the apocalypse failed to materialize in 1000 , it was decided that the correct year must be 1033 , a thousand years from the death of jesus christ , but then that year also passed without any cataclysmic event . just how extreme the millennial panic was , remains debated . it is certain that from the year 950 onwards , there was a significant increase in building activity , particularly of religious structures . there were many reasons for this construction boom beside millennial panic , and the building of monumental religious structures continued even as fears of the immediate end of time faded . not surprisingly , this period also witnessed a surge in the popularity of the religious pilgrimage . a pilgrimage is a journey to a sacred place . these are acts of piety and may have been undertaken in gratitude for the fact that doomsday had not arrived , and to ensure salvation , whenever the end did come . the pilgrimage to santiago de compostela for the average european in the 12th century , a pilgrimage to the holy land of jerusalem was out of the question—travel to the middle east was too far , too dangerous and too expensive . santiago de compostela in spain offered a much more convenient option . to this day , hundreds of thousands of faithful travel the “ way of saint james ” to the spanish city of santiago de compostela . they go on foot across europe to a holy shrine where bones , believed to belong to saint james , were unearthed . the cathedral of santiago de compostela now stands on this site . the pious of the middle ages wanted to pay homage to holy relics , and pilgrimage churches sprang up along the route to spain . pilgrims commonly walked barefoot and wore a scalloped shell , the symbol of saint james ( the shell 's grooves symbolize the many roads of the pilgrimage ) . in france alone there were four main routes toward spain . le puy , arles , paris and vézelay are the cities on these roads and each contains a church that was an important prilgrimage site in its own right . why make a pilgrimage ? a pilgrimage to santiago de compostela was an expression of christian devotion and it was believed that it could purify the soul and perhaps even produce miraculous healing benefits . a criminal could travel the `` way of saint james '' as an act penance . for the everyday person , a pilgrimage was also one of the only opportunities to travel and see some of the world . it was a chance to meet people , perhaps even those outside one 's own class . the purpose of pilgrimage may not have been entirely devotional . the cult of the relic pilgrimage churches can be seen in part as popular desinations , a spiritual tourism of sorts for medieval travelers . guidebooks , badges and various souvenirs were sold . pilgrims , though traveling light , would spend money in the towns that possessed important sacred relics . the cult of relic was at its peak during the romanesque period ( c. 1000 - 1200 ) . relics are religious objects generally connected to a saint , or some other venerated person . a relic might be a body part , a saint 's finger , a cloth worn by the virgin mary , or a piece of the true cross . relics are often housed in a protective container called a reliquary . reliquarys are often quite opulent and can be encrusted with precious metals and gemstones given by the faithful . an example is the reliquary of saint foy , located at conques abbey on the pilgrimage route . it is said to hold a piece of the child martyr ’ s skull . a large pilgrimage church might be home to one major relic , and dozens of lesser-known relics . because of their sacred and economic value , every church wanted an important relic and a black market boomed with fake and stolen goods . accomodating crowds pilgrimage churches were constructed with some special features to make them particularly accessible to visitors . the goal was to get large numbers of people to the relics and out again without disturbing the mass in the center of the church . a large portal that could accommodate the pious throngs was a prerequisite . generally , these portals would also have an elaborate sculptural program , often portraying the second coming—a good way to remind the weary pilgrim why they made the trip ! a pilgrimage church generally consisted of a double aisle on either side of the nave ( the wide hall that runs down the center of a church ) . in this way , the visitor could move easily around the outer edges of the church until reaching the smaller apsidioles or radiating chapels . these are small rooms generally located off the back of the church behind the altar where relics were often displayed . the faithful would move from chapel to chapel venerating each relic in turn . thick walls , small windows romanesque churches were dark . this was in large part because of the use of stone barrel-vault construction . this system provided excellent acoustics and reduced fire danger . however , a barrel vault exerts continuous lateral ( outward pressure ) all along the walls that support the vault . this meant the outer walls of the church had to be extra thick . it also meant that windows had to be small and few . when builders dared to pierce walls with additional or larger windows they risked structural failure . churches did collapse . later , the masons of the gothic period replaced the barrel vault with the groin vault which carries weight down to its four corners , concentrating the pressure of the vaulting , and allowing for much larger windows . essay by christine m. bolli
|
the end of the world y2k . the rapture .
|
why do we have these `` end of the world '' stories ?
|
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.