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In the fields of molecular biology and genetics, a pan-genome (pangenome or supragenome) is the entire set of genes from all strains within a clade. More generally, it is the union of all the genomes of a clade. The pan-genome can be broken down into a "core pangenome" that contains genes present in all individuals, a ... | Wikipedia - Pangenomics - Summary |
Note that the use of the term 'dispensable' has been questioned, at least in plant genomes, as accessory genes play "an important role in genome evolution and in the complex interplay between the genome and the environment". The field of study of the pangenome is called pangenomics.The genetic repertoire of a bacterial... | Wikipedia - Pangenomics - Summary |
For species with a closed pan-genome, very few genes are added per sequenced genome (after sequencing many strains), and the size of the full pangenome can be theoretically predicted. Species with an open pangenome have enough genes added per additional sequenced genome that predicting the size of the full pangenome is... | Wikipedia - Pangenomics - Summary |
Plant studies have shown that pan-genome dynamics are linked to transposable elements. The significance of the pan-genome arises in an evolutionary context, especially with relevance to metagenomics, but is also used in a broader genomics context. An open access book reviewing the pangenome concept and its implications... | Wikipedia - Pangenomics - Summary |
In the fields of nonlinear optics and fluid dynamics, modulational instability or sideband instability is a phenomenon whereby deviations from a periodic waveform are reinforced by nonlinearity, leading to the generation of spectral-sidebands and the eventual breakup of the waveform into a train of pulses.It is widely ... | Wikipedia - Modulation instability - Summary |
In the fields of optometry and ophthalmology, the Hirschberg test, also Hirschberg corneal reflex test, is a screening test that can be used to assess whether a person has strabismus (ocular misalignment). A photographic version of the Hirschberg is used to quantify strabismus. | Wikipedia - Hirschberg test - Summary |
In the fields of paleoceanography and paleoclimatology, biogenous ooze and other pelagic sediments can be collected form the seafloor and used to reconstruct Earth's climate for the last 100 million years. Reconstruction can be done through analysis of biogeography, stable isotopes along with important oxygen and carbo... | Wikipedia - Biogenous ooze - Determination of climate history |
In the fields of physical security and information security, the high-water mark for access control was introduced by Clark Weissmann in 1969. It pre-dates the Bell–LaPadula security model, whose first volume appeared in 1972. Under high-water mark, any object less than the user's security level can be opened, but the ... | Wikipedia - High-water mark (computer security) - Summary |
The practical effect of the high-water mark was a gradual movement of all objects towards the highest security level in the system. If user A is writing a CONFIDENTIAL document, and checks the unclassified dictionary, the dictionary becomes CONFIDENTIAL. Then, when user B is writing a SECRET report and checks the spell... | Wikipedia - High-water mark (computer security) - Summary |
In the fields of predictive modelling and probabilistic forecasting, the Markov property is considered desirable since it may enable the reasoning and resolution of the problem that otherwise would not be possible to be resolved because of its intractability. Such a model is known as a Markov model. | Wikipedia - Strong Markov property - In forecasting |
In the fields of project management and cost engineering, systemic risks include those risks that are not unique to a particular project and are not readily manageable by a project team at a given point in time. They are caused by micro or internal factors i.e. uncertainty resulting from attributes of the project syste... | Wikipedia - Systemic risk - Project risks |
These risks may be driven by the nature of a company's project system (e.g., funding projects before the scope is defined), capabilities, or culture. They may also be driven by the level of technology in a project or the complexity of a project's scope or execution strategy. One recent example of systemic risk is the c... | Wikipedia - Systemic risk - Project risks |
In contrast, those risks that are unique to a particular project are called overall project risks aka systematic risks in finance terminology. They are project-specific risks which are sometimes called contingent risks, or risk events. These systematic risks are caused by uncertainty in macro or external factors of the... | Wikipedia - Systemic risk - Project risks |
In the fields of science and engineering, the accuracy of a measurement system is the degree of closeness of measurements of a quantity to that quantity's true value. The precision of a measurement system, related to reproducibility and repeatability, is the degree to which repeated measurements under unchanged conditi... | Wikipedia - Accuracy and precision - Common technical definition |
A measurement system can be accurate but not precise, precise but not accurate, neither, or both. For example, if an experiment contains a systematic error, then increasing the sample size generally increases precision but does not improve accuracy. The result would be a consistent yet inaccurate string of results from... | Wikipedia - Accuracy and precision - Common technical definition |
Eliminating the systematic error improves accuracy but does not change precision. A measurement system is considered valid if it is both accurate and precise. Related terms include bias (non-random or directed effects caused by a factor or factors unrelated to the independent variable) and error (random variability). | Wikipedia - Accuracy and precision - Common technical definition |
The terminology is also applied to indirect measurements—that is, values obtained by a computational procedure from observed data. In addition to accuracy and precision, measurements may also have a measurement resolution, which is the smallest change in the underlying physical quantity that produces a response in the ... | Wikipedia - Accuracy and precision - Common technical definition |
In the fields of sociology and social psychology, a breaching experiment is an experiment that seeks to examine people's reactions to violations of commonly accepted social rules or norms. Breaching experiments are most commonly associated with ethnomethodology, and in particular the work of Harold Garfinkel. Breaching... | Wikipedia - Breaching experiment - Summary |
The assumption behind this approach is not only that individuals engage daily in building up "rules" for social interaction, but also that people are unaware they are doing so. The work of sociologist Erving Goffman laid the theoretical foundation for ways to study the construction of everyday social meanings and behav... | Wikipedia - Breaching experiment - Summary |
In the fifteenth century, most people in Europe slept on straw, but very rich people had featherbeds on top (for instance, Anne of Brittany's ladies in waiting slept on straw beds). By the nineteenth century many people had feather beds.If the pile of mattresses threatened to slide off the bed, in 16th- and 17th-centur... | Wikipedia - Tick mattress - History |
In the fifth and final phase of prophase I, diakinesis (from the Greek for "double movement"), full chromatin condensation has occurred and all four sister chromatids can be seen in bivalents with microscopy. The rest of the phase resemble the early stages of mitotic prometaphase, as the meiotic prophase ends with the ... | Wikipedia - Chromatin condensation - Diakinesis |
In the fifth assertion, analysis of objects with respect to approximate (enumerated) ultimates does not create a problem of true establishment. A distinction can be made when analyzing for each case, including the two approaches to cognition (one for the conventional domain and the other to analyze for ultimacy) which ... | Wikipedia - Madhyamakālaṃkāra - Fifth |
In the fifth case, critical speed Vcs applies when road curvature is the factor limiting safe speed. A vehicle which exceeds this speed will slide out of its lane. Critical speed is a function of curve radius r, superelevation or banking e, and friction coefficient μ; the constant g again is the acceleration of gravity... | Wikipedia - Assured clear distance ahead - Critical speed |
Hence, critical speed may not resemble loss of control speed. Attenuated "side" friction coefficients are often used for computing critical speed. The formula is frequently approximated without the denominator for low angle banking which may be suitable for nearly all situations except the tightest radius of highway on... | Wikipedia - Assured clear distance ahead - Critical speed |
In the fifth century BC, Empedocles postulated that everything was composed of four elements; fire, air, earth and water. He believed that Aphrodite made the human eye out of the four elements and that she lit the fire in the eye which shone out from the eye making sight possible. If this were true, then one could see ... | Wikipedia - Visible light - Classical Greece and Hellenism |
He questioned that sight is the result of a beam from the eye, for he asks how one sees the stars immediately, if one closes one's eyes, then opens them at night. If the beam from the eye travels infinitely fast this is not a problem.In 55 BC, Lucretius, a Roman who carried on the ideas of earlier Greek atomists, wrote... | Wikipedia - Visible light - Classical Greece and Hellenism |
(from On the nature of the Universe). Despite being similar to later particle theories, Lucretius's views were not generally accepted. Ptolemy (c. second century) wrote about the refraction of light in his book Optics. | Wikipedia - Visible light - Classical Greece and Hellenism |
In the fifth century BCE, Empedocles postulated that everything was composed of four elements; fire, air, earth and water. He believed that Aphrodite made the human eye out of the four elements and that she lit the fire in the eye which shone out from the eye making sight possible. If this were true, then one could see... | Wikipedia - History of optics - Early history |
In the 36 propositions that follow, Euclid relates the apparent size of an object to its distance from the eye and investigates the apparent shapes of cylinders and cones when viewed from different angles. Pappus believed these results to be important in astronomy and included Euclid's Optics, along with his Phaenomena... | Wikipedia - History of optics - Early history |
In his Catoptrica, Hero of Alexandria showed by a geometrical method that the actual path taken by a ray of light reflected from a plane mirror is shorter than any other reflected path that might be drawn between the source and point of observation. The Indian Buddhists, such as Dignāga in the 5th century and Dharmakir... | Wikipedia - History of optics - Early history |
In the fifth century BCE, Hippocrates described necrotizing soft tissue infection as a disease where those affected would have "erysipelas all over the body while the cause was only a trivial accident. Bones, flesh, and sinew (cord, tendon, or nerve) would fall off from the body and there were many deaths". The first E... | Wikipedia - Necrotizing fasciitis - History |
At that time, necrotizing soft-tissue infections were known variously as "phagedaenic ulcer" (ulceration that spreads and destroys surrounding tissue), "gangrenous phagedena", "gangrenous ulcer", "malignant ulcer", "putrid ulcer", "fulminating gangrene", "necrotizing erysipelas", "gangrenous erysipelas", "crepitant cel... | Wikipedia - Necrotizing fasciitis - History |
In 1883, Dr Jean-Alfred Fournier described the necrotizing infection of the perineum and scrotum, now called Fournier gangrene. The term "necrotizing fasciitis" was first coined by Wilson in 1952. Its definition has become broader, to include not only infection of fascia, but also other soft-tissue infection. Despite b... | Wikipedia - Necrotizing fasciitis - History |
In the fifth century, B.C., Sun Tzu advocated foreknowledge (predictive analysis) as part of a winning strategy. He warned that planners must have a precise understanding of the active threat and not "remain ignorant of the enemy's condition". The thread of proactive defense is spun throughout his teachings. Psychiatri... | Wikipedia - Cyber defense - History of the term proactive |
Later in 1982, the United States Department of Defense (DoD) used "proactive" as a contrary concept to "reactive" in assessing risk. In the framework of risk management "proactive" meant taking initiative by acting rather than reacting to threat events. Conversely "reactive" measures respond to a stimulus or past event... | Wikipedia - Cyber defense - History of the term proactive |
Military science considers defence as the science-art of thwarting an attack. Furthermore, doctrine poses that if a party attacks an enemy who is about to attack this could be called active-defence. Defence is also a euphemism for war but does not carry the negative connotation of an offensive war. | Wikipedia - Cyber defense - History of the term proactive |
Usage in this way has broadened the concept of proactive defence to include most military issues including offensive, which is implicitly referred to as active-defence. Politically, the concept of national self-defence to counter a war of aggression refers to a defensive war involving pre-emptive offensive strikes and ... | Wikipedia - Cyber defense - History of the term proactive |
In the fifth century, Syriac Bible manuscripts used question markers, according to a 2011 theory by manuscript specialist Chip Coakley: he believes the zagwa elaya ("upper pair"), a vertical double dot over a word at the start of a sentence, indicates that the sentence is a question. From around 783, in Godescalc Evang... | Wikipedia - Question Mark - History |
Another theory, is that the "lightning flash" was originally a tilde or titlo, as in ·~, one of many wavy or more or less slanted marks used in medieval texts for denoting things such as abbreviations, which would later become various diacritics or ligatures. From the 10th century, the pitch-defining element (if it eve... | Wikipedia - Question Mark - History |
In 1598, the English term point of interrogation is attested in an Italian–English dictionary by John Florio.In the 1850s, the term question mark is attested: The mark which you are to notice in this lesson is of this shape ? You see it is made by placing a little crooked mark over a period. The name of this mark is th... | Wikipedia - Question Mark - History |
In the fifth chapter of Vaisheshika Sutra, Kaṇāda mentions various empirical observations and natural phenomena such as the falling of objects to the ground, rising of fire and heat upwards, the growth of grass upwards, the nature of rainfall and thunderstorms, the flow of liquids, the movement towards a magnet among m... | Wikipedia - Kaṇāda (philosopher) - Observations and theories |
In the fifth era (1994–present), digital versions have been developed and released on optical media and online. In 1996, the Britannica was bought by Jacqui Safra at well below its estimated value, owing to the company's financial difficulties. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. split in 1999. | Wikipedia - Encyclopaedia Britannica - 1994–present |
One part retained the company name and developed the print version, and the other, Britannica.com Inc., developed digital versions. Since 2001, the two companies have shared a CEO, Ilan Yeshua, who has continued Powell's strategy of introducing new products with the Britannica name. In March 2012, Britannica's presiden... | Wikipedia - Encyclopaedia Britannica - 1994–present |
The company will focus only on the online edition and other educational tools.Britannica's final print edition was in 2010, a 32-volume set. Britannica Global Edition was also printed in 2010, containing 30 volumes and 18,251 pages, with 8,500 photographs, maps, flags, and illustrations in smaller "compact" volumes, as... | Wikipedia - Encyclopaedia Britannica - 1994–present |
The following is Britannica's description of the work: The editors of Encyclopædia Britannica, the world standard in reference since 1768, present the Britannica Global Edition. Developed specifically to provide comprehensive and global coverage of the world around us, this unique product contains thousands of timely, ... | Wikipedia - Encyclopaedia Britannica - 1994–present |
In 2020, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. released the Britannica All New Children's Encyclopedia: What We Know and What We Don't, an encyclopedia aimed primarily at younger readers, covering major topics. The encyclopedia was widely praised for bringing back the print format. It was Britannica's first encyclopedia for ch... | Wikipedia - Encyclopaedia Britannica - 1994–present |
In the fifth game of the 2008 World Series between the Tampa Bay Rays and Philadelphia Phillies at Citizens Bank Park in Philadelphia, Pedro Feliz of the Phillies hit a pop-up to the right side of the infield with runners on first and second and one out, in strong rain and swirling winds, and the infield fly rule was n... | Wikipedia - Infield fly rule - 2008 World Series |
In the fifth or fourth century BC, Hippocrates wrote about the effects of the environs over the human diseases: Whoever wishes to investigate medicine properly, should proceed thus: in the first place to consider the seasons of the year, and what effects each of them produces for they are not at all alike, but differ m... | Wikipedia - Miasmatic theory - Europe |
These things one ought to consider most attentively, and concerning the waters which the inhabitants use, whether they be marshy and soft, or hard, and running from elevated and rocky situations, and then if saltish and unfit for cooking; and the ground, whether it be naked and deficient in water, or wooded and well wa... | Wikipedia - Miasmatic theory - Europe |
In the 1850s, miasma was used to explain the spread of cholera in London and in Paris, partly justifying Haussmann's later renovation of the French capital. The disease was said to be preventable by cleansing and scouring of the body and items. Dr. William Farr, the assistant commissioner for the 1851 London census, wa... | Wikipedia - Miasmatic theory - Europe |
He believed that cholera was transmitted by air, and that there was a deadly concentration of miasmata near the River Thames' banks. Such a belief was in part accepted because of the general lack of air quality in urbanized areas. The wide acceptance of miasma theory during the cholera outbreaks overshadowed the partia... | Wikipedia - Miasmatic theory - Europe |
This slowed the response to the major outbreaks in the Soho district of London and other areas. The Crimean War nurse Florence Nightingale (1820–1910) was a proponent of the theory and worked to make hospitals sanitary and fresh-smelling. It was stated in 'Notes on Nursing for the Labouring Classes' (1860) that Nightin... | Wikipedia - Miasmatic theory - Europe |
"Fear of miasma registered in many early nineteenth-century warnings concerning what was termed "unhealthy fog". The presence of fog was thought to strongly indicate the presence of miasma. The miasmas were thought to behave like smoke or mist, blown with air currents, wafted by winds. It was thought that miasma didn't... | Wikipedia - Miasmatic theory - Europe |
In the fifth round, Candidate A2 is eliminated with all their votes going to the candidate A4, the last remaining candidate from Party A, who is elected. The surplus votes of Candidate A4 are transferred. All the voters who helped elect Candidate A4 prefer the independent candidate to the candidates of the other party ... | Wikipedia - Single transferable voting - Fifth and sixth rounds |
In the fifties and sixties, three more countries joined the "nuclear club." The United Kingdom had been an integral part of the Manhattan Project following the Quebec Agreement in 1943. The passing of the McMahon Act by the United States in 1946 unilaterally broke this partnership and prevented the passage of any furth... | Wikipedia - History of nuclear weapons - Initial proliferation |
Because of British involvement in the Manhattan Project, Britain had extensive knowledge in some areas, but not in others. An improved version of 'Fat Man' was developed, and on 26 February 1952, Prime Minister Winston Churchill announced that the United Kingdom had an atomic bomb and a successful test took place on 3 ... | Wikipedia - History of nuclear weapons - Initial proliferation |
A Vickers Valiant dropped the first UK nuclear weapon on 11 October 1956 at Maralinga, South Australia. Later came a missile, Blue Steel, intended for carriage by the V Force bombers, and then the Blue Streak medium-range ballistic missile (later canceled). | Wikipedia - History of nuclear weapons - Initial proliferation |
Anglo-American cooperation on nuclear weapons was restored by the 1958 US-UK Mutual Defence Agreement. As a result of this and the Polaris Sales Agreement, the United Kingdom has bought United States designs for submarine missiles and fitted its own warheads. | Wikipedia - History of nuclear weapons - Initial proliferation |
It retains full independent control over the use of the missiles. It no longer possesses any free-fall bombs. France had been heavily involved in nuclear research before World War II through the work of the Joliot-Curies. | Wikipedia - History of nuclear weapons - Initial proliferation |
This was discontinued after the war because of the instability of the Fourth Republic and lack of finances. However, in the 1950s, France launched a civil nuclear research program, which produced plutonium as a byproduct. In 1956, France formed a secret Committee for the Military Applications of Atomic Energy and a dev... | Wikipedia - History of nuclear weapons - Initial proliferation |
With the return of Charles de Gaulle to the French presidency in 1958, final decisions to build a bomb were made, which led to a successful test in 1960. Since then, France has developed and maintained its own nuclear deterrent independent of NATO. In 1951, China and the Soviet Union signed an agreement whereby China s... | Wikipedia - History of nuclear weapons - Initial proliferation |
In 1953, China established a research program under the guise of civilian nuclear energy. Throughout the 1950s the Soviet Union provided large amounts of equipment. But as the relations between the two countries worsened the Soviets reduced the amount of assistance and, in 1959, refused to donate a bomb for copying pur... | Wikipedia - History of nuclear weapons - Initial proliferation |
Despite this, the Chinese made rapid progress. Chinese first gained possession of nuclear weapons in 1964, making it the fifth country to have them. It tested its first atomic bomb at Lop Nur on October 16, 1964 (Project 596); and tested a nuclear missile on October 25, 1966; and tested a thermonuclear (hydrogen) bomb ... | Wikipedia - History of nuclear weapons - Initial proliferation |
China ultimately conducted a total of 45 nuclear tests; although the country has never become a signatory to the Limited Test Ban Treaty, it conducted its last nuclear test in 1996. In the 1980s, China's nuclear weapons program was a source of nuclear proliferation, as China transferred its CHIC-4 technology to Pakista... | Wikipedia - History of nuclear weapons - Initial proliferation |
In the figure 2 to the left, B1, B2 and B3 are the different budget lines and I1, I2 and I3 are the indifference curves that are available to the consumer. As shown earlier, as the income of the consumer rises, the budget line moves outwards parallel to itself. In this case, from initial bundle X*, with an increase in ... | Wikipedia - Income–consumption curve - Normal goods |
In the figure above, ABC is the original triangle. AZB, BXC, and CYA are equilateral triangles constructed on its sides' exteriors, and points L, M, and N are the centroids of those triangles. The theorem for outer triangles states that triangle LMN (green) is equilateral. A quick way to see that the triangle LMN is eq... | Wikipedia - Napoleon's triangle - Proofs |
In the figure above, illustrating the Fourier transforming property of lenses, the lens is in the near field of the object plane transparency, therefore the object plane field at the lens may be regarded as a superposition of plane waves, each one of which propagates at some angle with respect to the z-axis. In this re... | Wikipedia - Fourier optics - Far-field range and the 2D2 / λ criterion |
On the other hand, the far field distance from a PSF spot is on the order of λ. This is because D for the spot is on the order of λ, so that D/λ is on the order of unity; this times D (i.e., λ) is on the order of λ (10−6 m). Since the lens is in the far field of any PSF spot, the field incident on the lens from the spo... | Wikipedia - Fourier optics - Far-field range and the 2D2 / λ criterion |
(2.1). On the other hand, the lens is in the near field of the entire input plane transparency, therefore eqn. (2.1) - the full plane wave spectrum - accurately represents the field incident on the lens from that larger, extended source. | Wikipedia - Fourier optics - Far-field range and the 2D2 / λ criterion |
In the figure at right, an observer at O is at an elevation y obs {\displaystyle y_{\text{obs}}} above sea level in a uniform radially symmetrical atmosphere of height y a t m {\displaystyle y_{\mathrm {atm} }} . The path length of a light ray at zenith angle z {\displaystyle z} is s {\displaystyle s} ; R E {\displayst... | Wikipedia - Air mass (astronomy) - Homogeneous spherical atmosphere with elevated observer |
In the figure below, human germ cells are able to differentiate into the specific organs and tissues they become later on in life. Germ cells are able to migrate to their final locations to rearrange themselves and some organs are made of two germ layers; one for the outside, the other for the inside. The endoderm cell... | Wikipedia - Ontogeny - Organogenesis |
This germ layer is more specific for species, as it is the distinguishing layer of the three that can identify evolutionarily higher life-forms (e.g., bilateral organisms like humans) from lower-life forms (with radial symmetry). Lastly, the ectoderm is the outer layer of cells that become the epidermis and hair while ... | Wikipedia - Ontogeny - Organogenesis |
The figure above shows how the development of a pig, cow, rabbit, and human offspring are similar when compared to one another. This figure shows how the germ layers can become different organs and tissues in evolutionarily higher life-forms and how these species essentially develop very similarly. Additionally, it sho... | Wikipedia - Ontogeny - Organogenesis |
In the figure on the geometry, the particle (red arrow) travels in a medium with speed v p {\displaystyle v_{\text{p}}} such that where c {\displaystyle c} is speed of light in vacuum, and n {\displaystyle n} is the refractive index of the medium. If the medium is water, the condition is 0.75 c < v p < c {\displaystyle... | Wikipedia - Čerenkov radiation - Emission angle |
In the figure shown here, as long as the observer at point P is outside the stellar atmosphere, the intensity seen in the direction θ will be a function only of the angle of incidence ψ. This is most conveniently approximated as a polynomial in cos ψ: I ( ψ ) I ( 0 ) = ∑ k = 0 N a k cos k ψ , {\displaystyle {\frac {I... | Wikipedia - Limb darkening - Calculation of limb darkening |
As another example, for the Sun at 550 nanometres (5.5×10−7 m), the limb darkening is well expressed by N = 2 and a 0 = 1 − a 1 − a 2 = 0.3 , {\displaystyle a_{0}=1-a_{1}-a_{2}=0.3,} a 1 = 0.93 , {\displaystyle a_{1}=0.93,} a 2 = − 0.23 {\displaystyle a_{2}=-0.23} The equation for limb darkening is sometimes more conve... | Wikipedia - Limb darkening - Calculation of limb darkening |
{\displaystyle A_{2}=a_{2}.} For the Sun at 550 nm, we then have A 1 = − 0.47 , {\displaystyle A_{1}=-0.47,} A 2 = − 0.23. {\displaystyle A_{2}=-0.23.} | Wikipedia - Limb darkening - Calculation of limb darkening |
This model gives an intensity at the edge of the Sun's disk of only 30% of the intensity at the center of the disk. We can convert these formulas to functions of θ by using the substitution cos ψ = cos 2 θ − cos 2 Ω sin Ω = 1 − ( sin θ sin Ω ) 2 , {\displaystyle \cos \psi ={\frac {\sqrt {\cos ^{2}\theta -\c... | Wikipedia - Limb darkening - Calculation of limb darkening |
{\displaystyle \cos \psi \approx {\sqrt {1-\left({\frac {\theta }{\sin \Omega }}\right)^{2}}}.} We see that the derivative of cos ψ is infinite at the edge. The above approximation can be used to derive an analytic expression for the ratio of the mean intensity to the central intensity. | Wikipedia - Limb darkening - Calculation of limb darkening |
The mean intensity Im is the integral of the intensity over the disk of the star divided by the solid angle subtended by the disk: I m = ∫ I ( ψ ) d ω ∫ d ω , {\displaystyle I_{m}={\frac {\int I(\psi )\,d\omega }{\int d\omega }},} where dω = sin θ dθ dφ is a solid angle element, and the integrals are over the disk: 0 ≤... | Wikipedia - Limb darkening - Calculation of limb darkening |
However, for an observer at infinite distance from the star, d cos θ {\displaystyle d\cos \theta } can be replaced by sin 2 Ω cos ψ d cos ψ {\displaystyle \sin ^{2}\Omega \cos \psi \,d\cos \psi } , so we have I m = ∫ 0 1 I ( ψ ) cos ψ d cos ψ ∫ 0 1 cos ψ d cos ψ = 2 ∫ 0 1 I ( ψ ) cos ψ d cos ψ , {\d... | Wikipedia - Limb darkening - Calculation of limb darkening |
In the figure to the right, the crystal structure of the muscle-type M-CK monomer is shown. In vivo, two such monomers arrange symmetrically to form the active MM-CK enzyme. | Wikipedia - CKM (gene) - Structure |
In the figure, Rx is the fixed, yet unknown, resistance to be measured. R1, R2, and R3 are resistors of known resistance and the resistance of R2 is adjustable. The resistance R2 is adjusted until the bridge is "balanced" and no current flows through the galvanometer Vg. At this point, the potential difference between ... | Wikipedia - Wheatstone bridge - Operation |
Therefore the ratio of the two resistances in the known leg (R2 / R1) is equal to the ratio of the two resistances in the unknown leg (Rx / R3). If the bridge is unbalanced, the direction of the current indicates whether R2 is too high or too low. | Wikipedia - Wheatstone bridge - Operation |
At the point of balance, R 2 R 1 = R x R 3 ⇒ R x = R 2 R 1 ⋅ R 3 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\frac {R_{2}}{R_{1}}}&={\frac {R_{x}}{R_{3}}}\\\Rightarrow R_{x}&={\frac {R_{2}}{R_{1}}}\cdot R_{3}\end{aligned}}} Detecting zero current with a galvanometer can be done to extremely high precision. Therefore, if R1, R2, an... | Wikipedia - Wheatstone bridge - Operation |
In the figure, an example of the RCS methodology for designing a control system for autonomous onroad driving under everyday traffic conditions is summarized in six steps. Step 1 consists of an intensive analysis of domain knowledge from training manuals and subject matter experts. Scenarios are developed and analyzed ... | Wikipedia - Real-Time Control System - Methodology |
At each echelon, a vocabulary of commands (action verbs with goal states, parameters, and constraints) is defined to evoke task behavior at each echelon. Step 2 defines a hierarchical structure of organizational units that will execute the commands defined in step 1. | Wikipedia - Real-Time Control System - Methodology |
For each unit, its duties and responsibilities in response to each command are specified. This is analogous to establishing a work breakdown structure for a development project, or defining an organizational chart for a business or military operation. Step 3 specifies the processing that is triggered within each unit u... | Wikipedia - Real-Time Control System - Methodology |
For each input command, a state-graph (or statetable or extended finite state automaton) is defined that provides a plan (or procedure for making a plan) for accomplishing the commanded task. The input command selects (or causes to be generated) an appropriate state-table, the execution of which generates a series of o... | Wikipedia - Real-Time Control System - Methodology |
The sequence of output subcommands required to accomplish the input command is generated by situations (i.e., branching conditions) that cause the FSA to transition from one output subcommand to the next. In step 4, each of the situations that are defined in step 3 are analyzed to reveal their dependencies on world and... | Wikipedia - Real-Time Control System - Methodology |
In step 5, we identify and name all of the objects and entities together with their particular features and attributes that are relevant to detecting the above world states and situations. In step 6, we use the context of the particular task activities to establish the distances and, therefore, the resolutions at which... | Wikipedia - Real-Time Control System - Methodology |
In the figure, the area-preserving property of the projection can be seen by comparing a grid sector near the center of the net with one at the far right of the net. The two sectors have the same area on the sphere and the same area on the disk. The angle-distorting property can be seen by examining the grid lines; mos... | Wikipedia - Schmidt net - Construction |
It is relatively simple to re-plot a gridded map of the world onto a Schmidt net if the azimuth is chosen to be the junction of the equator with any particular meridian from the world-map's grid. Each grid square surrounding this chosen longitude is simply re-plotted into the corresponding distorted grid-square in the ... | Wikipedia - Schmidt net - Construction |
For greater accuracy, it is helpful to have a net with finer spacing than 10°; spacings of 2° are common. The Schmidt net is not an appropriate grid for representing the Earth's northern or southern hemisphere (because the lines would not correspond to meridians or parallels in such a projection). However, it can be us... | Wikipedia - Schmidt net - Construction |
The intersection of the parallels with the outer circle can be used as a de facto protractor for plotting a point's longitude as the angle in the polar projection. The Schmidt net's horizontal axis can then be used as a scalar measuring device to convert the point's latitude (relative to the pole) into a radial distanc... | Wikipedia - Schmidt net - Construction |
In the figure, the thickness of the propeller disc is assumed to be negligible. The boundary between the fluid in motion and fluid at rest is shown. Therefore, the flow is assumed to be taking place in an imaginary converging duct where: D = Diameter of the Propeller Disc. | Wikipedia - Axial fan design - Slipstream theory |
In the figure, we can see an example of two packets linearly combined into a new coded packet. In the example, we have two packets, namely packet f {\displaystyle f} and packet e {\displaystyle e} . The generation size of our example is two. We know this because each packet has two coding coefficients ( C i j {\display... | Wikipedia - Linear network coding - Example |
The appended coefficients can take any value from the Galois field. However, an original, uncoded data packet would have appended the coding coefficients {\displaystyle } or {\displaystyle } , which means that they are constructed by a linear combination of zero times one of the packets plus one time the other packet... | Wikipedia - Linear network coding - Example |
In our example, packet f {\displaystyle f} for instance has appended the coefficients {\displaystyle } . Since network coding can be applied at any layter of the communication protocol, these packets can have a header from the other layers, which is ignored in the network coding operations. Now, lets assume that the n... | Wikipedia - Linear network coding - Example |
In RLNC, it will randomly choose two coding coefficients, d 1 {\displaystyle d_{1}} and d 2 {\displaystyle d_{2}} in the example. The node will multiply each symbol of packet f {\displaystyle f} by d 1 {\displaystyle d_{1}} , and each symbol of packet e {\displaystyle e} by d 2 {\displaystyle d_{2}} . Then, it will add... | Wikipedia - Linear network coding - Example |
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