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In the field of transportation, bilevel optimization commonly appears in the toll-setting problem. Consider a network of highways that is operated by the government. The government wants to maximize its revenues by choosing the optimal toll setting for the highways. However, the government can maximize its revenues onl... | Wikipedia - Bilevel program - Toll setting problem |
For any given tax structure the highway users solve their own optimization problem, where they minimize their traveling costs by deciding between utilizing the highways or an alternative route. Under these circumstances, the government's problem needs to be formulated as a bilevel optimization problem. The upper level ... | Wikipedia - Bilevel program - Toll setting problem |
In the field of unconventional superconductivity, a Fermi arc is a phenomenon visible in the pseudogap state of a superconductor. Seen in momentum space, part of the space exhibits a gap in the density of states, like in a superconductor. This starts at the antinodal points, and spreads through momentum space when lowe... | Wikipedia - Fermi arc - Summary |
In the field of user interfaces, an exocentric environment refers to a virtual reality or some other immersive environment which completely encompasses the user, e.g. by placing the viewer in a room made up entirely of rear projection screens. Systems which merely display a virtual reality directly to the user (e.g. us... | Wikipedia - Exocentric environment - Summary |
In the field of varicose veins, the latest medical innovation is high-intensity focused ultrasound therapy (HIFU). This method is completely non-invasive and is not necessarily performed in an operating room, unlike existing techniques. This is because the procedure involves treating from outside the body, able to pene... | Wikipedia - Varicose veins - Echotherapy Treatment |
In the field of vehicles authorized to drive, a one-off vehicle is a vehicle that was manufactured only once. The production of unique vehicles is reduced to one unit in each case. The easiest cases to analyze are those of cars and motorcycles. Unique automobiles and unique motorcycles are usually kept and displayed in... | Wikipedia - One-off vehicle - Summary |
Aeronautical vehicles, with notable exceptions, are not preserved in the same way (due to accidents and disappearances). Naval vehicles feature a myriad of unique models. A non-exclusive base of examples could be the field of sailing and motor yachts. Some cases of non-legalized vehicles may be included in this article... | Wikipedia - One-off vehicle - Summary |
In the field of verbal self-defense, the one element not entirely agreed upon is the concept that verbal defense tactics include the art of persuasion. Several authors clearly proclaim that verbal self-defense is designed as a means for persuading others; however, more recent books on the subject have denounced this co... | Wikipedia - Verbal self-defense - Persuasion vs. self-defense |
In the field of verification and design of timed and hybrid systems, the system behaviour is called Zeno if it includes an infinite number of discrete steps in a finite amount of time. Some formal verification techniques exclude these behaviours from analysis, if they are not equivalent to non-Zeno behaviour. In system... | Wikipedia - Zeno's dichotomy paradox - Zeno behaviour |
In the field of video compression a video frame is compressed using different algorithms with different advantages and disadvantages, centered mainly around amount of data compression. These different algorithms for video frames are called picture types or frame types. The three major picture types used in the differen... | Wikipedia - B frames - Summary |
In the field of weaponry, terminal guidance refers to any guidance system that is primarily or solely active during the "terminal phase", just before the weapon impacts its target. The term is generally used in reference to missile guidance systems, and specifically to missiles that use more than one guidance system th... | Wikipedia - Terminal guidance - Summary |
In the field of wilderness first aid, medical providers receive additional training relating to wilderness medicine. There are several levels of certification that parallel the aforementioned levels, which include wilderness first responder and wilderness emergency medical technician. | Wikipedia - Emergency medical responder - Remote areas |
In the field of wireless communication, macrodiversity is a kind of space diversity scheme using several receiver or transmitter antennas for transferring the same signal. The distance between the transmitters is much longer than the wavelength, as opposed to microdiversity where the distance is in the order of or shor... | Wikipedia - Macrodiversity - Summary |
Receiver macro-diversity is a form of antenna combining, and requires an infrastructure that mediates the signals from the local antennas or receivers to a central receiver or decoder. Transmitter macro-diversity may be a form of simulcasting, where the same signal is sent from several nodes. If the signals are sent ov... | Wikipedia - Macrodiversity - Summary |
The aim is to combat fading and to increase the received signal strength and signal quality in exposed positions in between the base stations or access points. Macro diversity may also facilitate efficient multicast services, where the same frequency channel can be used for all transmitters sending the same information... | Wikipedia - Macrodiversity - Summary |
In the field snow scientists often excavate a snow pit within which to make basic measurements and observations. Observations can describe features caused by wind, water percolation, or snow unloading from trees. Water percolation into a snowpack can create flow fingers and ponding or flow along capillary barriers, whi... | Wikipedia - Snow crystal - Measurement and classification |
Among the measurements of the properties of snowpacks that the International Classification for Seasonal Snow on the Ground includes are: snow height, snow water equivalent, snow strength, and extent of snow cover. Each has a designation with code and detailed description. The classification extends the prior classific... | Wikipedia - Snow crystal - Measurement and classification |
It also has a more extensive classification of deposited snow than those that pertain to airborne snow. The categories include both natural and man-made snow types, descriptions of snow crystals as they metamorphose and melt, the development of hoar frost in the snow pack and the formation of ice therein. Each such lay... | Wikipedia - Snow crystal - Measurement and classification |
Thus, at any one time, the type and state of the snow forming a layer have to be defined because its physical and mechanical properties depend on them. Physical properties include microstructure, grain size and shape, snow density, liquid water content, and temperature.When it comes to measuring snow cover on the groun... | Wikipedia - Snow crystal - Measurement and classification |
In the field, evacuation of all casualties is the ultimate goal, so that the site of the incident can ultimately be cleared, if necessary investigated, and eventually rendered safe. Additional considerations must be made to avoid overwhelming local resources, and in some extreme cases, this can mean evacuating some pat... | Wikipedia - Manchester Triage System - Evacuation |
In the field, pentlandite is often confused with other sulfide minerals, as they are all brassy yellowish in color and have a metallic luster. For this reason, the best way to discern pentlandite is by its paler color, lack of magnetism, and light brownish bronze streak. In contrast, pyrite, pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite... | Wikipedia - Pentlandite - Physical & Optical Properties |
When looked at using reflected light ore microscopy, it possesses key diagnostic properties such as octahedral cleavage, and its alteration to bravoite, a pinkish to brownish violet sulfide mineral that occurs in euhedral to octahedral crystals. Pentlandite usually develops as granular inclusions within other sulfide m... | Wikipedia - Pentlandite - Physical & Optical Properties |
In the field, the special route is typically distinguished from the parent route with the use of auxiliary words or suffix letters placed on the route shield or on an adjacent sign, known as a "banner" or "plate" or according to the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices, a "route sign auxiliary sign". A common road... | Wikipedia - Loop route - Nomenclature |
Numbered Highways. As of 2009, the standards organization only advocates four types of special routes: business, bypass, alternate, and temporary. AASHTO suggests that transportation authorities of the United States remove other types of special routes and/or replace such obsolete designations with another type of rout... | Wikipedia - Loop route - Nomenclature |
Some old alignments of routes may also be informally known as special routes (despite some that do not intersect the parent route). These older alignments may be given street names like "Old U.S. Highway 52", or in some rare cases, be signed with route shields attached to "Old" or "Historic" sign plates (such as decomm... | Wikipedia - Loop route - Nomenclature |
Route 66 that are still driveable). In the case of U.S. state route systems, special routes are generally restricted to primary state routes, not secondary state routes, though Missouri has three supplemental routes with short spur routes, and the 500-series county routes in New Jersey have alternate, bypass, spur, and... | Wikipedia - Loop route - Nomenclature |
Some of these doubly designated special routes are: Alternate Business US 66 in Springfield, Missouri Business US 1A in downtown Bangor, Maine Truck Business US 17 in Elizabeth City, North Carolina Business US 77 Alternate in Yoakum, Texas U.S. Route 202 Alternate Truck in Montgomery County, Pennsylvania (Many Pennsylv... | Wikipedia - Loop route - Nomenclature |
In the field, these robust, large-headed birds are often perched alone on a tree in a grassy clearing, and are almost unmistakable with their colourful plumage tones. The lilac throat of the nominate subspecies C. c. caudatus deepens into a darker lilac breast. The crown to mantle is olive, and the cheeks and ear cover... | Wikipedia - Lilac-breasted roller - Description |
The throat is lilac, and some lilac-throated rollers have a lilac patch or rufous-brown tinges on the lower abdomen. Both subspecies have long, black outermost tail streamers that are absent in juveniles. Lilac-breasted rollers are not sexually dimorphic though males may be slightly larger than females. | Wikipedia - Lilac-breasted roller - Description |
Juveniles, immatures and adults have the largest alula feather dark blue, but the primary coverts and rest of the alula azure. The proximal half of the remiges are also a brilliant azure, and the distal half black on the inner web, and dark purple blue on the outer webs. Juveniles have the throat and breast rufous-tawn... | Wikipedia - Lilac-breasted roller - Description |
Immatures have the breast buffy with occasional lilac feathers and diffuse pale streaking.The average mass is 104 grams, and length ranges from 36 to 38 centimeters (inclusive of the tail streamer of 8 to 9 cm). These acrobatic fliers have an average wingspan range of 50 to 58 cm. Unique to rollers (family Coraciidae) ... | Wikipedia - Lilac-breasted roller - Description |
In the fields of Big Bang theory and cosmology, reionization is the process that caused electrically neutral atoms in the universe to reionize after the lapse of the "dark ages". Reionization is the second of two major phase transitions of gas in the universe (the first is recombination). While the majority of baryonic... | Wikipedia - Epoch of Reionization - Summary |
In the fields of actuarial science and financial economics there are a number of ways that risk can be defined; to clarify the concept theoreticians have described a number of properties that a risk measure might or might not have. A coherent risk measure is a function that satisfies properties of monotonicity, sub-add... | Wikipedia - Coherent risk measure - Summary |
In the fields of atomic, molecular, and optical science, the term light dressed state refers to a quantum state of an atomic or molecular system interacting with a laser light in terms of the Floquet picture, i.e. roughly like an atom or a molecule plus a photon. The Floquet picture is based on the Floquet theorem in d... | Wikipedia - Light dressed state - Summary |
In the fields of biochemistry and cell biology, the cation-dependent mannose-6-phosphate receptor (CD-MPR) also known as the 46 kDa mannose 6-phosphate receptor is a protein that in humans is encoded by the M6PR gene.The CD-MPR is one of two transmembrane proteins that bind mannose-6-phosphate (M6P) tags on acid hydrol... | Wikipedia - Cation-dependent mannose-6-phosphate receptor - Summary |
In the fields of bioinformatics and computational biology, Genome survey sequences (GSS) are nucleotide sequences similar to expressed sequence tags (ESTs) that the only difference is that most of them are genomic in origin, rather than mRNA.Genome survey sequences are typically generated and submitted to NCBI by labs ... | Wikipedia - Genome survey sequence - Summary |
In the fields of broadcasting and content delivery, multiscreen video describes video content that is transformed into multiple formats, bit rates and resolutions for display on devices such as televisions, mobile phones, tablets and computers. Additional devices may include video game consoles such as the Xbox 360, or... | Wikipedia - Multi-screen video - Summary |
In the fields of cardiology and medical imaging, speckle tracking echocardiography (STE) is an echocardiographic imaging technique. It analyzes the motion of tissues in the heart by using the naturally occurring speckle pattern in the myocardium (or motion of blood when imaged by ultrasound). This method of documentati... | Wikipedia - Speckle tracking echocardiography - Summary |
The speckle pattern is a mixture of interference patterns and natural acoustic reflections. These reflections are also described as speckles or markers. The pattern being random, each region of the myocardium has a unique speckle pattern (also called patterns, features, or fingerprints) that allows the region to be tra... | Wikipedia - Speckle tracking echocardiography - Summary |
The speckle pattern is relatively stable, at least from one frame to the next. In post processing this can be tracked consecutively frame to frame and ultimately resolved into angle-independent two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional strain-based sequences (3D). These sequences provide both quantitative and qualitat... | Wikipedia - Speckle tracking echocardiography - Summary |
In the fields of chemical graph theory, molecular topology, and mathematical chemistry, a topological index, also known as a connectivity index, is a type of a molecular descriptor that is calculated based on the molecular graph of a chemical compound. Topological indices are numerical parameters of a graph which chara... | Wikipedia - Topological descriptor - Summary |
In the fields of chemistry and cheminformatics, the circuit rank of a molecular graph (the number of rings in the smallest set of smallest rings) is sometimes referred to as the Frèrejacque number. | Wikipedia - Circuit rank - Computational chemistry |
In the fields of cognitive science and psychology OBEs are considered dissociative experiences arising from different psychological and neurological factors. Scientists consider the OBE to be an experience from a mental state, like a dream or an altered state of consciousness without recourse to the paranormal.Charles ... | Wikipedia - Out of body - Psychological |
G. N. M. Tyrrell interpreted OBEs as hallucinatory constructs relating to subconscious levels of personality.Donovan Rawcliffe (1959) connected the OBE experience with psychosis and hysteria. Other researchers have discussed the phenomena of the OBE in terms of a distortion of the body image (Horowitz, 1970) and depers... | Wikipedia - Out of body - Psychological |
According to (Irin and Watt, 2007) Jan Ehrenwald had described the out-of-body experience (OBE) "as an imaginal confirmation of the quest for immortality, a delusory attempt to assure ourselves that we possess a soul that exists independently of the physical body". The psychologists Donald Hebb (1960) and Cyril Burt (1... | Wikipedia - Out of body - Psychological |
John Palmer (1978) wrote that the OBE is a response to a body image change causing a threat to personal identity.Carl Sagan (1977) and Barbara Honegger (1983) wrote that the OBE experience may be based on a rebirth fantasy or reliving of the birth process based on reports of tunnel-like passageways and a cord-like conn... | Wikipedia - Out of body - Psychological |
His theory involved a cognitive personality construct known as psychological absorption and gave instances of the classification of an OBE as examples of autoscopy, depersonalization and mental dissociation. The psychophysiologist Stephen Laberge (1985) has written that the explanation for OBEs can be found in lucid dr... | Wikipedia - Out of body - Psychological |
Other scientists have also linked OBEs to cases of hypnagogia and sleep paralysis (cataplexy).In case studies fantasy proneness has been shown to be higher among OBErs than those who have not had an OBE. The data has shown a link between the OBE experience in some cases to fantasy prone personality (FPP). In a case stu... | Wikipedia - Out of body - Psychological |
Research from studies has also suggested that OBEs are related to cognitive-perceptual schizotypy.Terence Hines (2003) has written that spontaneous out-of-body experiences can be generated by artificial stimulation of the brain and this strongly suggests that the OBE experience is caused from "temporary, minor brain ma... | Wikipedia - Out of body - Psychological |
Instead, they reveal something far more remarkable about the everyday workings of your brain and body." A study conducted by Jason Braithwaite and colleagues (2011) linked the OBE to "neural instabilities in the brain's temporal lobes and to errors in the body's sense of itself". Braithwaite et al. (2013) reported that... | Wikipedia - Out of body - Psychological |
In the fields of computational chemistry and molecular modelling, scoring functions are mathematical functions used to approximately predict the binding affinity between two molecules after they have been docked. Most commonly one of the molecules is a small organic compound such as a drug and the second is the drug's ... | Wikipedia - Scoring functions for docking - Summary |
In the fields of computational linguistics and applied linguistics, a morphological dictionary is a linguistic resource that contains correspondences between surface form and lexical forms of words. Surface forms of words are those found in natural language text. The corresponding lexical form of a surface form is the ... | Wikipedia - Morphological dictionary - Summary |
In English give, gives, giving, gave and given are surface forms of the verb give. The lexical form would be "give", verb. There are two kinds of morphological dictionaries: morpheme-aligned dictionaries and full-form (non-aligned) dictionaries. | Wikipedia - Morphological dictionary - Summary |
In the fields of computational linguistics and natural language processing (NLP), esp. corpus linguistics and machine-learned NLP, it is common to disregard hapax legomena (and sometimes other infrequent words), as they are likely to have little value for computational techniques. This disregard has the added benefit o... | Wikipedia - Hapax legomena - Computer science |
In the fields of computer and video games and pixel art, the technique has become popular because of the ease with which 2D sprite- and tile-based graphics can be made to represent 3D gaming environments. Because parallelly projected objects do not change in size as they move about an area, there is no need for the com... | Wikipedia - Isometric graphics in video games and pixel art - Advantages |
And, while the depth confusion problems of parallel projection can sometimes be a problem, good game and level design can alleviate this. Further, though not limited strictly to isometric video game graphics, pre-rendered 2D graphics can possess a higher fidelity and use more advanced graphical techniques than may be p... | Wikipedia - Isometric graphics in video games and pixel art - Advantages |
This means that static pre-rendered isometric graphics often look better compared to their contemporary real-time-rendered counterparts, and may age better over time compared to their peers. However, this advantage may be less pronounced today than it was in the past, as developments in graphical technology equalize or... | Wikipedia - Isometric graphics in video games and pixel art - Advantages |
Secondly, compared to a first- or third-person video game, they allow you to more easily field and control a large number of units, such as a full party of characters in a computer role-playing game, or an army of minions in a real-time strategy game. Further, they may alleviate situations where a player may become dis... | Wikipedia - Isometric graphics in video games and pixel art - Advantages |
In the fields of computer security and information technology, computer security incident management involves the monitoring and detection of security events on a computer or computer network, and the execution of proper responses to those events. Computer security incident management is a specialized form of incident ... | Wikipedia - Computer security incident management - Summary |
In the fields of computer vision and image analysis, the Harris affine region detector belongs to the category of feature detection. Feature detection is a preprocessing step of several algorithms that rely on identifying characteristic points or interest points so to make correspondences between images, recognize text... | Wikipedia - Harris affine region detector - Summary |
In the fields of computer vision and image analysis, the scale-invariant feature operator (or SFOP) is an algorithm to detect local features in images. The algorithm was published by Förstner et al. in 2009. | Wikipedia - Scale-invariant feature operator - Summary |
In the fields of computing and computer vision, pose (or spatial pose) represents the position and orientation of an object, usually in three dimensions. Poses are often stored internally as transformation matrices. The term “pose” is largely synonymous with the term “transform”, but a transform may often include scale... | Wikipedia - Pose (computer vision) - Summary |
In the fields of cultural studies and social anthropology, cultural cringe is an internalized inferiority complex that causes the people of a country to dismiss their own culture as inferior (cringe-inducing) when compared to the cultures of other countries. In anthropology, cultural cringe is related to the concept of... | Wikipedia - Cultural cringe - Summary |
In the fields of databases and transaction processing (transaction management), a schedule (or history) of a system is an abstract model to describe execution of transactions running in the system. Often it is a list of operations (actions) ordered by time, performed by a set of transactions that are executed together ... | Wikipedia - Avoiding cascading aborts - Summary |
In the fields of digital electronics and computer hardware, multi-channel memory architecture is a technology that increases the data transfer rate between the DRAM memory and the memory controller by adding more channels of communication between them. Theoretically, this multiplies the data rate by exactly the number ... | Wikipedia - Dual-channel architecture - Summary |
The technique goes back as far as the 1960s having been used in IBM System/360 Model 91 and in CDC 6600.Modern high-end desktop and workstation processors such as the AMD Ryzen Threadripper series and the Intel Core i9 Extreme Edition lineup support quad-channel memory. Server processors from the AMD Epyc series and th... | Wikipedia - Dual-channel architecture - Summary |
In the fields of dynamical systems and control theory, a fractional-order system is a dynamical system that can be modeled by a fractional differential equation containing derivatives of non-integer order. Such systems are said to have fractional dynamics. Derivatives and integrals of fractional orders are used to desc... | Wikipedia - Fractional-order system - Summary |
In the fields of engineering and construction, resilience is the ability to absorb or avoid damage without suffering complete failure and is an objective of design, maintenance and restoration for buildings and infrastructure, as well as communities. A more comprehensive definition is that it is the ability to respond,... | Wikipedia - Resilience (engineering and construction) - Summary |
It is related to that of vulnerability. Both terms are specific to the event perturbation, meaning that a system/infrastructure/community may be more vulnerable or less resilient to one event than another one. However, they are not the same. | Wikipedia - Resilience (engineering and construction) - Summary |
One obvious difference is that vulnerability focuses on the evaluation of system susceptibility in the pre-event phase; resilience emphasizes the dynamic features in the pre-event, during-event, and post-event phases.Resilience is a multi-facet property, covering four dimensions: technical, organization, social and eco... | Wikipedia - Resilience (engineering and construction) - Summary |
In the fields of forecasting and prediction, forecasting skill or prediction skill is any measure of the accuracy and/or degree of association of prediction to an observation or estimate of the actual value of what is being predicted (formally, the predictand); it may be quantified as a skill score.In meteorology, more... | Wikipedia - Skill score - Summary |
In the fields of geoinformatics or irrigation informatics, the term -informatics usually mean information science, in context related to library science. This was the first meaning of informatics introduced in Russia in 1966 by A.I. Mikhailov, R.S. Gilyarevskii, and A.I. | Wikipedia - Informatics - Informatics as library science |
Chernyi, which referred to a scientific discipline that studies the structure and properties of scientific information. In this context, the term was also used by the International Neuroinformatics Coordinating Facility. Some scientists use this term, however, to refer to the science of information processing, not data... | Wikipedia - Informatics - Informatics as library science |
In the fields of geometry and biochemistry, a triple helix (PL: triple helices) is a set of three congruent geometrical helices with the same axis, differing by a translation along the axis. This means that each of the helices keeps the same distance from the central axis. As with a single helix, a triple helix may be ... | Wikipedia - Triple helix - Summary |
In the fields of histology, pathology, and cell biology, fixation is the preservation of biological tissues from decay due to autolysis or putrefaction. It terminates any ongoing biochemical reactions and may also increase the treated tissues' mechanical strength or stability. Tissue fixation is a critical step in the ... | Wikipedia - Heat fixation - Summary |
In the fields of horticulture and botany, the term deciduous () means "falling off at maturity" and "tending to fall off", in reference to trees and shrubs that seasonally shed leaves, usually in the autumn; to the shedding of petals, after flowering; and to the shedding of ripe fruit. The antonym of deciduous in the b... | Wikipedia - Deciduous forest - Summary |
In the fields of information technology (IT) and systems management, IT operations analytics (ITOA) is an approach or method to retrieve, analyze, and report data for IT operations. ITOA may apply big data analytics to large datasets to produce business insights. In 2014, Gartner predicted its use might increase revenu... | Wikipedia - Operational analytics - Summary |
In the fields of information technology and systems management, application performance management (APM) is the monitoring and management of the performance and availability of software applications. APM strives to detect and diagnose complex application performance problems to maintain an expected level of service. AP... | Wikipedia - Application Performance Management - Summary |
In the fields of machine learning, the theory of computation, and random matrix theory, a probability distribution over vectors is said to be in isotropic position if its covariance matrix is equal to the identity matrix. | Wikipedia - Isotropic position - Summary |
In the fields of management and organization, the terms "top–down" and "bottom–up" are used to describe how decisions are made and/or how change is implemented.A "top–down" approach is where an executive decision maker or other top person makes the decisions of how something should be done. This approach is disseminate... | Wikipedia - Bottom-up design - Management and organization |
A bottom–up approach can be thought of as "an incremental change approach that represents an emergent process cultivated and upheld primarily by frontline workers" (Stewart, Manges, Ward, 2015, p. 241).Positive aspects of top–down approaches include their efficiency and superb overview of higher levels; and external ef... | Wikipedia - Bottom-up design - Management and organization |
Evidence suggests this to be true regardless of the content of reforms (e.g., Dubois 2002). A bottom–up approach allows for more experimentation and a better feeling for what is needed at the bottom. Other evidence suggests that there is a third combination approach to change (see Stewart, Manges, Ward, 2015). | Wikipedia - Bottom-up design - Management and organization |
In the fields of mechanism design and social choice theory, "Gibbard's theorem" is a result proven by Gibbard in 1973. It states that for any deterministic process of collective decision, at least one of the following three properties must hold: The process is dictatorial, i.e. there exists a distinguished agent who ca... | Wikipedia - Allan Gibbard - Gibbard's theorem |
Gibbard's theorem can be proven using Arrow's impossibility theorem. Gibbard's theorem is itself generalized by Gibbard's 1978 theorem and Hylland's theorem, which extend these results to non-deterministic processes, i.e. where the outcome may not only depend on the agents' actions but may also involve an element of ch... | Wikipedia - Allan Gibbard - Gibbard's theorem |
In the fields of mechanism design and social choice theory, Gibbard's theorem is a result proven by philosopher Allan Gibbard in 1973. It states that for any deterministic process of collective decision, at least one of the following three properties must hold: The process is dictatorial, i.e. there exists a distinguis... | Wikipedia - Gibbard's theorem - Summary |
Gibbard's theorem can be proven using Arrow's impossibility theorem. Gibbard's theorem is itself generalized by Gibbard's 1978 theorem and Hylland's theorem, which extend these results to non-deterministic processes, i.e. where the outcome may not only depend on the agents' actions but may also involve an element of ch... | Wikipedia - Gibbard's theorem - Summary |
In the fields of medicine, biotechnology and pharmacology, drug discovery is the process by which new candidate medications are discovered.Historically, drugs were discovered by identifying the active ingredient from traditional remedies or by serendipitous discovery, as with penicillin. More recently, chemical librari... | Wikipedia - Reverse Pharmacology - Summary |
Once a compound that fulfills all of these requirements has been identified, the process of drug development can continue. If successful, clinical trials are developed.Modern drug discovery is thus usually a capital-intensive process that involves large investments by pharmaceutical industry corporations as well as nat... | Wikipedia - Reverse Pharmacology - Summary |
In 2010, the research and development cost of each new molecular entity was about US$1.8 billion. In the 21st century, basic discovery research is funded primarily by governments and by philanthropic organizations, while late-stage development is funded primarily by pharmaceutical companies or venture capitalists. | Wikipedia - Reverse Pharmacology - Summary |
To be allowed to come to market, drugs must undergo several successful phases of clinical trials, and pass through a new drug approval process, called the New Drug Application in the United States. Discovering drugs that may be a commercial success, or a public health success, involves a complex interaction between inv... | Wikipedia - Reverse Pharmacology - Summary |
In the fields of medicine, biotechnology, and pharmacology, drug discovery is the process by which new drugs are discovered.Historically, drugs were discovered by identifying the active ingredient from traditional remedies or by serendipitous discovery. Later chemical libraries of synthetic small molecules, natural pro... | Wikipedia - Gastrointestinal medication - Drug discovery |
Even more recently, scientists have been able to understand the shape of biological molecules at the atomic level and to use that knowledge to design (see drug design) drug candidates.Modern drug discovery involves the identification of screening hits, medicinal chemistry, and optimization of those hits to increase the... | Wikipedia - Gastrointestinal medication - Drug discovery |
Despite advances in technology and understanding of biological systems, drug discovery is still a lengthy, "expensive, difficult, and inefficient process" with a low rate of new therapeutic discovery. In 2010, the research and development cost of each new molecular entity (NME) was approximately US$1.8 billion. Drug di... | Wikipedia - Gastrointestinal medication - Drug discovery |
The "final product" of drug discovery is a patent on the potential drug. The drug requires very expensive Phase I, II, and III clinical trials, and most of them fail. Small companies have a critical role, often then selling the rights to larger companies that have the resources to run the clinical trials. | Wikipedia - Gastrointestinal medication - Drug discovery |
Drug discovery is different from Drug Development. Drug Discovery is often considered the process of identifying new medicine. At the same time, Drug development is delivering a new drug molecule into clinical practice. In its broad definition, this encompasses all steps from the basic research process of finding a sui... | Wikipedia - Gastrointestinal medication - Drug discovery |
In the fields of mergers and acquisitions and corporate finance, a material adverse change (abbreviated MAC), material adverse event (MAE), or material adverse effect (also MAE) is a change in circumstances that significantly reduces the value of a company. A contract to acquire, invest in, or lend money to a company o... | Wikipedia - Material adverse change - Summary |
For example, time may be required to obtain approval of the transaction by government agencies, shareholders, labor unions, lenders, or others. Until the transaction is completed, the companies involved go on about their business and are subject to risks. Contract terms that deal with material adverse changes are caref... | Wikipedia - Material adverse change - Summary |
Thus, the definition of material adverse changes is unique to each contract. When a party to a contract claims that a material adverse change had occurred and refuses to complete the transaction on that ground, the other party may disagree and litigation may ensue. One notable example of this was the planned acquisitio... | Wikipedia - Material adverse change - Summary |
In the fields of molecular biology and genetics, a genome is all the genetic information of an organism. It consists of nucleotide sequences of DNA (or RNA in RNA viruses). The nuclear genome includes protein-coding genes and non-coding genes, other functional regions of the genome such as regulatory sequences (see non... | Wikipedia - Genome sequences - Summary |
Almost all eukaryotes have mitochondria and a small mitochondrial genome. Algae and plants also contain chloroplasts with a chloroplast genome. The study of the genome is called genomics. The genomes of many organisms have been sequenced and various regions have been annotated. The Human Genome Project was started in O... | Wikipedia - Genome sequences - Summary |
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