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In the first half of the 20th century, various formalisms were proposed to capture the informal concept of a computable function, with μ-recursive functions, Turing machines and the lambda calculus possibly being the best-known examples today. The surprising fact that they are essentially equivalent, in the sense that ... | Wikipedia - Process algebra - History |
Models of concurrency such as the process calculi, Petri nets in 1962, and the actor model in 1973 emerged from this line of inquiry. Research on process calculi began in earnest with Robin Milner's seminal work on the Calculus of Communicating Systems (CCS) during the period from 1973 to 1980. C.A.R. | Wikipedia - Process algebra - History |
Hoare's Communicating Sequential Processes (CSP) first appeared in 1978, and was subsequently developed into a full-fledged process calculus during the early 1980s. There was much cross-fertilization of ideas between CCS and CSP as they developed. In 1982 Jan Bergstra and Jan Willem Klop began work on what came to be k... | Wikipedia - Process algebra - History |
In the first half of the century, the development of antibiotics and artificial fertilizers improved human living standards globally. Harmful environmental issues such as ozone depletion, ocean acidification, eutrophication and climate change came to the public's attention and caused the onset of environmental studies.... | Wikipedia - Scientific knowledge - 20th century |
Substantial international collaborations were also made, despite armed conflicts.In the late 20th century, active recruitment of women and elimination of sex discrimination greatly increased the number of women scientists, but large gender disparities remained in some fields. The discovery of the cosmic microwave backg... | Wikipedia - Scientific knowledge - 20th century |
Albert Einstein's theory of relativity and the development of quantum mechanics complement classical mechanics to describe physics in extreme length, time and gravity. Widespread use of integrated circuits in the last quarter of the 20th century combined with communications satellites led to a revolution in information... | Wikipedia - Scientific knowledge - 20th century |
In the first half of the eighteenth century, French philosopher and mathematician Émilie du Châtelet made notable contributions to the emerging theoretical framework of energy, for example by emphasising Leibniz's concept of ' vis viva ', mv2, as distinct from Newton's momentum, mv.Empirical developments of the early i... | Wikipedia - First law of thermodynamics - History |
It is a movement among the particles of bodies. Whereever there is destruction of motive power, there is at the same time production of heat in quantity exactly proportional to the quantity of motive power destroyed. Reciprocally, wherever there is destruction of heat, there is production of motive power. | Wikipedia - First law of thermodynamics - History |
At that time, the concept of mechanical work had not been formulated. Carnot was aware that heat could be produced by friction and by percussion, as forms of dissipation of "motive power." As late as 1847, Lord Kelvin believed in the caloric theory of heat, being unaware of Carnot's notes. | Wikipedia - First law of thermodynamics - History |
In 1840, Germain Hess stated a conservation law (Hess's Law) for the heat of reaction during chemical transformations. This law was later recognized as a consequence of the first law of thermodynamics, but Hess's statement was not explicitly concerned with the relation between energy exchanges by heat and work. In 1842... | Wikipedia - First law of thermodynamics - History |
Also in 1842, Mayer measured a temperature rise caused by friction in a body of paper pulp. This was near the time of the 1842–1845 work of James Prescott Joule, measuring the mechanical equivalent of heat. In 1845, Joule published a paper entitled The Mechanical Equivalent of Heat, in which he specified a numerical va... | Wikipedia - First law of thermodynamics - History |
In the first half of the seventh century the Ripuarian Franks received the Ripuarian law, a law code applying only to them, from the dominating Salian Franks. The Salians, following the custom of the Romans before them, were mainly re-authorizing laws already in use by the Ripuarians, so that the latter could retain th... | Wikipedia - Germanic law - Lex Ripuaria |
Chapters 32-64 are taken directly from the Salic Law; the provisions follow the same arrangement; the unit of the compositions is 15 solidi; but capitularies are interpolated relating to the affranchisement and sale of immovable property. Chapters 65-89 consist of provisions of various kinds, some taken from lost capit... | Wikipedia - Germanic law - Lex Ripuaria |
In the first half of the twentieth century, almost all elevators had no automatic positioning of the floor on which the cab would stop. Some of the older freight elevators were controlled by switches operated by pulling on adjacent ropes. In general, most elevators before WWII were manually controlled by elevator opera... | Wikipedia - Residential elevator - Manual controls |
This was mounted upright or sideways on the cab wall and operated via a projecting handle, which was able to slide around the top half of the cylinder. The elevator motor was located at the top of the shaft or beside the bottom of the shaft. Pushing the handle forward would cause the cab to rise; backwards would make i... | Wikipedia - Residential elevator - Manual controls |
The harder the pressure, the faster the elevator would move. The handle also served as a dead man switch: if the operator let go of the handle, it would return to its upright position, causing the elevator cab to stop. In time, safety interlocks would ensure that the inner and outer doors were closed before the elevato... | Wikipedia - Residential elevator - Manual controls |
This lever would allow some control over the energy supplied to the motor and so enabled the elevator to be accurately positioned — if the operator was sufficiently skilled. More typically, the operator would have to "jog" the control, moving the cab in small increments until the elevator was reasonably close to the la... | Wikipedia - Residential elevator - Manual controls |
Automatic elevators began to appear as early as the 1920s, their development being hastened by striking elevator operators which brought large cities dependent on skyscrapers (and therefore their elevators) such as New York and Chicago to their knees. Self service elevators were not allowed in New York City until 1922.... | Wikipedia - Residential elevator - Manual controls |
These electromechanical systems used relay logic circuits of increasing complexity to control the speed, position and door operation of an elevator or bank of elevators. The Otis Autotronic system of the early 1950s brought the earliest predictive systems which could anticipate traffic patterns within a building to dep... | Wikipedia - Residential elevator - Manual controls |
In the first half of the twentieth century, hooding was rarely used. During World War II, the Gestapo used it especially in the Breendonk prison in Belgium. It became more popular after World War II as a means of "stealthy torture," since it makes public testimony more difficult; the victim can testify only with diffic... | Wikipedia - Hooding - Modern history |
In the first half of the twentieth century, some mathematicians (notably G. H. Hardy) believed that there exists a hierarchy of proof methods in mathematics depending on what sorts of numbers (integers, reals, complex) a proof requires, and that the prime number theorem (PNT) is a "deep" theorem by virtue of requiring ... | Wikipedia - Distribution of primes - Elementary proofs |
On the history of the elementary proofs of the PNT, including the Erdős–Selberg priority dispute, see an article by Dorian Goldfeld.There is some debate about the significance of Erdős and Selberg's result. There is no rigorous and widely accepted definition of the notion of elementary proof in number theory, so it is ... | Wikipedia - Distribution of primes - Elementary proofs |
Although it does not use complex analysis, it is in fact much more technical than the standard proof of PNT. One possible definition of an "elementary" proof is "one that can be carried out in first-order Peano arithmetic." There are number-theoretic statements (for example, the Paris–Harrington theorem) provable using... | Wikipedia - Distribution of primes - Elementary proofs |
In the first half of the twentieth century, some stag films presented bisexual content. Polissons et galipettes features several French examples, primarily L'heure du thé and Madame Butterfly (both c. 1925), which feature acts performed between both men and women. Kenneth Tynan documents many examples, including the Fr... | Wikipedia - Bisexual pornography - Pornographic film industry |
While bisexual content featuring lesbianism had been prevalent during the 1960s and 1970s, bisexual content featuring male homosexuality was first introduced by major pornographic studios in the early 1980s. Paul Norman was one of the earliest directors to gain a reputation for creating bisexual films, with his "Bi and... | Wikipedia - Bisexual pornography - Pornographic film industry |
However the genre remains a very small proportion of the pornographic DVD market; for example at porn retailer HotMovies.com, there are only 655 bisexual titles out of a catalogue of more than 90,000 films. Bisexual DVDs sell much better online than in adult video stores, possibly due to customers in stores feeling emb... | Wikipedia - Bisexual pornography - Pornographic film industry |
Actors are mostly amateur; any well-known actors in bisexual porn tend to be from the gay pornography industry. The sex columnist Violet Blue states that bisexual pornography usually features gay male actors who are straight-for-pay. Blue says that many bisexual productions suffer from poor casting, lack of enthusiasm ... | Wikipedia - Bisexual pornography - Pornographic film industry |
"The market for bisexual pornography is not completely understood. Viewers include self-identified bisexuals, but a larger viewership may be self-identified heterosexual men who are curious about sex between men. Many viewers are also heterosexual women who enjoy gay male pornography. | Wikipedia - Bisexual pornography - Pornographic film industry |
Although including heterosexual content, bisexual pornography is often considered a "gay" genre by the pornographic industry and many of its viewers are gay men. Bisexual pornography is often placed near the gay section in adult video stores, since many consumers are gay men. As the genre has developed, it has become i... | Wikipedia - Bisexual pornography - Pornographic film industry |
By the 2000s, bisexual productions used less scenes with women together and bisexual scenes now frequently resemble gay scenes with heterosexual content added.Pornography featuring two or more men and a woman (eg, gang bang or double penetration pornography) is generally classified as "straight pornography" as long as ... | Wikipedia - Bisexual pornography - Pornographic film industry |
According to the writer Jeffrey Escoffier, bisexual pornography is usually considered a gay genre.Male performers in heterosexual porn who have appeared in bisexual porn, have had their sexuality questioned and have been stigmatized due to homophobia, and have been accused by the gay community of being in denial about ... | Wikipedia - Bisexual pornography - Pornographic film industry |
In 2021, "bisexual male" was one of Pornhub's top trending searches and bisexual videos were viewed more often by women than by men.Jim Powers, a director of bisexual pornographic films for the studio BiPhoria, says that stigma exists against bisexual pornography. Powers says that the genre is rapidly increasing in pop... | Wikipedia - Bisexual pornography - Pornographic film industry |
In the first half-reaction, two identical molecules of farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP) are bound to squalene synthase (SQS) in a sequential manner. The FPP molecules bind to distinct regions of the enzyme, and with different binding affinities. Starting at the top of the catalytic cycle below, the reaction begins with the... | Wikipedia - Farnesyl-diphosphate farnesyltransferase - FPP condensation |
Moreover, the resulting phenolate anion can stabilize the resulting carbocation through cation-π interactions, which would be particularly strong due to the highly electron-rich nature of the phenolate anion. The allylic cation generated is then attacked by the olefin of a second molecule of FPP, affording a tertiary c... | Wikipedia - Farnesyl-diphosphate farnesyltransferase - FPP condensation |
The PSPP created remains associated with SQS for the second reaction. The importance of a tyrosine residue in this process was demonstrated by mutagenesis studies with rat SQS (rSQS), and by the fact that Tyr-171 is conserved in all known SQSs (and PHSs). In rSQS, Tyr-171 was converted to aromatic residues Phe and Trp,... | Wikipedia - Farnesyl-diphosphate farnesyltransferase - FPP condensation |
In the first human genome draft the fraction of LINE elements of the human genome was given as 21% and their copy number as 850,000. Of these, L1, L2 and L3 elements made up 516,000, 315,000 and 37,000 copies, respectively. The non-autonomous SINE elements which depend on L1 elements for their proliferation make up 13%... | Wikipedia - Long interspersed nuclear element - In human |
They probably originated from the RTE family of LINEs. Recent estimates show the typical human genome contains on average 100 L1 elements with potential for mobilization, however there is a fair amount of variation and some individuals may contain a larger number of active L1 elements, making these individuals more pro... | Wikipedia - Long interspersed nuclear element - In human |
In the first hypothesis, if individuals heterozygous at the MHC are more resistant to parasites than those that are homozygous, then it is beneficial for females to choose mates with MHC genes different from their own, and would result in MHC-heterozygous offspring—this is known as disassortative mating. The hypothesis... | Wikipedia - Major Histocompatibility Complex and Sexual Selection - Hypotheses |
A non-MHC immune genes across species exhibit heterozygote disadvantage, or no advantage. In mice, increased MHC heterozygosity reduces fitness, challenging this hypothesis. MHC-heterozygous females had significantly reduced fitness compared to homozygotes. | Wikipedia - Major Histocompatibility Complex and Sexual Selection - Hypotheses |
This finding has been replicated in another study in mice and again in fish In some cases, excess heterozygosity can lead to decreased fitness.The optimality hypothesis states too much variability in the MHC can result in a failure of T-cells to distinguish themselves non-selves, and thereby increase the risk of autoim... | Wikipedia - Major Histocompatibility Complex and Sexual Selection - Hypotheses |
In humans, those with greater MHC diversity have a greater risk for autoimmune disorders. MHC diversity may be low "because foreign peptides have to stand out against the self-background." On an individual level, MHC diversity tends to be low. | Wikipedia - Major Histocompatibility Complex and Sexual Selection - Hypotheses |
Across many species, there is intermediate heterozygosity in the MHC. Overall evidence supports intermediate MHC heterozygosity is best.The Red Queen hypothesis asserts that MHC diversity is maintained by parasites. If individuals' MHC alleles render different resistances to a particular parasite, then the allele with ... | Wikipedia - Major Histocompatibility Complex and Sexual Selection - Hypotheses |
Recombination and mutation cause generation of new variants among offspring, which may facilitate a quick response to rapidly evolving parasites or pathogens with much shorter generation times. However, if this particular allele becomes common, selection pressure on parasites to avoid recognition by this common allele ... | Wikipedia - Major Histocompatibility Complex and Sexual Selection - Hypotheses |
This enables the parasite to escape this cycle of frequency-dependent selection, and such a cycle eventually leads to a co-evolutionary arms race that may support the maintenance of MHC diversity. This hypothesis has empirical support. The inbreeding avoidance hypothesis has less to do with host-parasite relationships ... | Wikipedia - Major Histocompatibility Complex and Sexual Selection - Hypotheses |
The extreme diversity in the MHC would cause individuals sharing MHC alleles to be more likely to be related. As a result, one function of MHC-disassortative mating would be to avoid mating with family members and any harmful genetic consequences that could occur as a result. The hypothesis states that inbreeding incre... | Wikipedia - Major Histocompatibility Complex and Sexual Selection - Hypotheses |
Animals only rarely avoid inbreeding. The inbreeding avoidance hypothesis has been "ruled out as an explanation for the observed pattern of MHC-dependent mate preference" because relatedness is not associated with mate choice.In the course of searching for potential mates, it would benefit females to be able to discrim... | Wikipedia - Major Histocompatibility Complex and Sexual Selection - Hypotheses |
Furthermore, one would presume that said difference in genes would impart a difference in fitness as well, which could potentially be chosen or selected for. Generally, the extreme polymorphism of MHC genes is selected for by host-parasite arms races (the Red Queen hypothesis); however, disassortative mate choice may m... | Wikipedia - Major Histocompatibility Complex and Sexual Selection - Hypotheses |
If this is the case, either through the heterozygote advantage hypothesis or the Red Queen hypothesis, then selection also favors mating practices that are MHC-dependent. Therefore, mate choice—with respect to the MHC—has probably evolved so that females choose males either based on diverse genes (heterozygote advantag... | Wikipedia - Major Histocompatibility Complex and Sexual Selection - Hypotheses |
As a result of female choice, sexual selection is imposed on males. This is evidenced by genetic "advertisement"—an example of this would be the existence of exaggerated traits, such as the elaborate tail-feathers of male peacocks. However, in humans, both sexes exert mate choice. | Wikipedia - Major Histocompatibility Complex and Sexual Selection - Hypotheses |
In the first images of Titan's surface taken by Earth-based telescopes in the early 2000s, large regions of dark terrain were revealed straddling Titan's equator. Prior to the arrival of Cassini, these regions were thought to be seas of liquid hydrocarbons. Radar images captured by the Cassini spacecraft have instead r... | Wikipedia - Titan (moon) - Dark equatorial terrain |
In the case of Titan, steady zonal (eastward) winds combine with variable tidal winds (approximately 0.5 meters per second). The tidal winds are the result of tidal forces from Saturn on Titan's atmosphere, which are 400 times stronger than the tidal forces of the Moon on Earth and tend to drive wind toward the equator... | Wikipedia - Titan (moon) - Dark equatorial terrain |
The dunes break up around mountains, where the wind direction shifts.The longitudinal (or linear) dunes were initially presumed to be formed by moderately variable winds that either follow one mean direction or alternate between two different directions. Subsequent observations indicate that the dunes point to the east... | Wikipedia - Titan (moon) - Dark equatorial terrain |
Recent computer simulations indicate that the dunes may be the result of rare storm winds that happen only every fifteen years when Titan is in equinox. These storms produce strong downdrafts, flowing eastward at up to 10 meters per second when they reach the surface.The "sand" on Titan is likely not made up of small g... | Wikipedia - Titan (moon) - Dark equatorial terrain |
Studies of dunes' composition in May 2008 revealed that they possessed less water than the rest of Titan, and are thus most likely derived from organic soot like hydrocarbon polymers clumping together after raining onto the surface. Calculations indicate the sand on Titan has a density of one-third that of terrestrial ... | Wikipedia - Titan (moon) - Dark equatorial terrain |
In the first infrageneric arrangement of Banksia, that of Brown in 1830, B. spinulosa was placed in subgenus Banksia verae, the "true banksias", because its inflorescence is a typical Banksia flower spike. It was placed next to B. cunninghamii and B. collina, both now considered varieties of B. spinulosa; these three w... | Wikipedia - Banksia spinulosa - Placement within Banksia |
When George Bentham published his 1870 arrangement in Flora Australiensis, he discarded Meissner's series, placing all the species with hooked styles together in a section that he named Oncostylis. B. cunninghamii was reduced to synonymy with B. collina, as was the western species B. littoralis (western swamp banksia).... | Wikipedia - Banksia spinulosa - Placement within Banksia |
Alex George published a new taxonomic arrangement of Banksia in his landmark 1981 monograph The genus Banksia L.f. (Proteaceae). Endlicher's Eubanksia became B. subg. | Wikipedia - Banksia spinulosa - Placement within Banksia |
Banksia, and was divided into three sections, one of which was Oncostylis. Oncostylis was further divided into four series, with B. spinulosa placed in series Spicigerae because its inflorescences are cylindrical.In 1996, Kevin Thiele and Pauline Ladiges published a new arrangement for the genus, after cladistic analys... | Wikipedia - Banksia spinulosa - Placement within Banksia |
Spinulosae. This arrangement stood until 1999, when George effectively reverted to his 1981 arrangement in his monograph for the Flora of Australia series. Under George's taxonomic arrangement of Banksia, B. spinulosa's taxonomic placement may be summarised as follows: Genus Banksia Subgenus Banksia Section Banksia Sec... | Wikipedia - Banksia spinulosa - Placement within Banksia |
spinulosa B. spinulosa var. collina B. spinulosa var. neoanglica B. spinulosa var. | Wikipedia - Banksia spinulosa - Placement within Banksia |
cunninghamii B. ericifolia B. verticillata B. seminuda B. littoralis B. occidentalis B. brownii Series Tricuspidae Series Dryandroidae Series Abietinae Subgenus IsostylisMore recent molecular research suggests that B. spinulosa and B. ericifolia may be more closely related to series Salicinae, with Banksia integrifolia... | Wikipedia - Banksia spinulosa - Placement within Banksia |
Spathulatae for the species having spoon-shaped cotyledons. They foreshadowed publishing a full arrangement once DNA sampling of Dryandra was complete; in the meantime, if Mast and Thiele's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement, then B. spinulosa is placed in B. subg. Spathulatae. | Wikipedia - Banksia spinulosa - Placement within Banksia |
In the first instance military science is concerned with who will participate in military operations, and what sets of skills and knowledge they will require to do so effectively and somewhat ingeniously. | Wikipedia - Military science - Employment of military skills |
In the first instar the caterpillar feeds entirely on its own egg-shell and is unusual in that it mimics an ant or small spider. This is due to the long thoracic legs "and caudal appendages which are ever nervously twisting about". If the larva is disturbed during this period it wriggles about violently in the same man... | Wikipedia - Lobster moth - Life history |
They keep nervously moving around and about this, and if perchance another caterpillar should approach within touch of it, a vigorous attack is made to drive off the intruder." After the first skin change the larvae feed on the leaves of Acer (Japan), Betula (British Isles, Finland, Japan), Carpinus (Japan), Castanea (... | Wikipedia - Lobster moth - Life history |
The general colour is reddish brown and if in its resting position provides perfect cryptic camouflage. The larvae can grow to a length of 70 mm and if disturbed by a potential predator can put on a menacing display with the thoracic legs splayed out and the head arched back over the body. The moth pupates in a strong ... | Wikipedia - Lobster moth - Life history |
In the first integral above, which defines the gamma function, the limits of integration are fixed. The upper and lower incomplete gamma functions are the functions obtained by allowing the lower or upper (respectively) limit of integration to vary. The gamma function is related to the beta function by the formula The ... | Wikipedia - Euler Gamma Function - Relation to other functions |
The reciprocal gamma function is an entire function and has been studied as a specific topic. The gamma function also shows up in an important relation with the Riemann zeta function, ζ ( z ) {\displaystyle \zeta (z)} . It also appears in the following formula: which is valid only for ℜ ( z ) > 1 {\displaystyle \Re (z)... | Wikipedia - Euler Gamma Function - Relation to other functions |
The logarithm of the gamma function satisfies the following formula due to Lerch: where ζ H {\displaystyle \zeta _{H}} is the Hurwitz zeta function, ζ {\displaystyle \zeta } is the Riemann zeta function and the prime (′) denotes differentiation in the first variable. The gamma function is related to the stretched expon... | Wikipedia - Euler Gamma Function - Relation to other functions |
In the first issue of what was then ST/Amiga Format, Ben Taylor reviewed a wide array of word processors on both the Atari ST and Amiga. WordUp received very high marks for every category, except performance which got 2 out of 5. He also points out that the quality of printing on common 9-pin printers was not very good... | Wikipedia - WordUp (program) - Reception |
He concludes that "WordUp is not as fast as Word Writer, but the multiple faces/point sizes and ability to import graphics makes it ideal for writing which must include pictures. Be prepared for the very slow output." Plotkin wrote a second review dedicated to WordUp in the March 1989 edition. | Wikipedia - WordUp (program) - Reception |
Its opening statement summarizes his entire review: "WordUp is a powerful word processor for the Atari ST that utilizes GDOS to produce high-quality printed output, as well as multiple sizes and typefaces, both on the screen and in print. It has many features not found in other word processors in its price range, altho... | Wikipedia - WordUp (program) - Reception |
It is not so slow that it is unusable, but scrolling over long distances can be cumbersome. "In a November 1990 comparison review, ST Format referred to WordUp as "the cheapest and oldest of graphic output WPs". | Wikipedia - WordUp (program) - Reception |
They praised its simplicity and the end results when printed on a good printer, either a laser or 24-pin dot matrix printer. They complain about its slow scrolling, which made it hard to use on large documents, but conclude "it's a fine, cheap WP for letters and reports." In spite of this mixed review, it receives a 79... | Wikipedia - WordUp (program) - Reception |
It opens by noting WordUp was "the first word processor for the ST to marry text and graphics in a true WYSIWYG (what you see is what you get) environment" and then pointing out the improvements for 2.0 that included GEM metafiles (a vector graphics format), outdents, the ability to add accents to characters, and scali... | Wikipedia - WordUp (program) - Reception |
In the first language, children do not respond to systematic correction. Furthermore, children who have limited input still acquire the first language, which is a significant difference between input and output. Children are exposed to a language environment of errors and lack of correction but they end up having the c... | Wikipedia - Second language - Correction |
Error correction does not seem to have a direct influence on learning a second language. Instruction may affect the rate of learning, but the stages remain the same. | Wikipedia - Second language - Correction |
Adolescents and adults who know the rule are faster than those who do not. In the learning of a second language the correction of errors remains a controversial topic with many differing schools of thought. Throughout the last century much advancement has been made in research on the correction of students' errors. | Wikipedia - Second language - Correction |
In the 1950s and 60s, the viewpoint of the day was that all errors must be corrected at all costs. Little thought went to students' feelings or self-esteem in regards to this constant correction.In the 1970s, Dulay and Burt's studies showed that learners acquire grammar forms and structures in a pre-determined, inalter... | Wikipedia - Second language - Correction |
Researchers asserted that correction was often unnecessary and that instead of furthering students' learning it was hindering them. The main concern at this time was relieving student stress and creating a warm environment for them. Stephen Krashen was a big proponent in this hands-off approach to error correction.The ... | Wikipedia - Second language - Correction |
At this time, more research started to be undertaken to determine exactly which kinds of corrections are the most useful for students. In 1998, Lyster concluded that "recasts" (when the teacher repeats a student's incorrect utterance with the correct version) are not always the most useful because students do not notic... | Wikipedia - Second language - Correction |
In the first lecture, Kripke introduced a schematic semi-formal version of the kind of "theory of naming" he was criticising (1980:64–65). He began the second lecture by recapitulating the "theses" of this theory, together with the "noncircularity condition" he had discussed in closing the first lecture. Apparently, th... | Wikipedia - Naming and Necessity - A theory of naming |
71). To every name or designating expression 'X', there corresponds a cluster of properties, namely the family of those properties φ such that A believes 'φX'. One of the properties, or some conjointly, are believed by A to pick out some individual uniquely. | Wikipedia - Naming and Necessity - A theory of naming |
If most, or a weighted most, of the φ's are satisfied by one unique object y, then y is the referent of 'X'. If the vote yields no unique object, 'X' does not refer. The statement, 'If X exists, then X has most of the φ's' is known a priori by the speaker. | Wikipedia - Naming and Necessity - A theory of naming |
The statement, 'If X exists, then X has most of the φ's' expresses a necessary truth (in the idiolect of the speaker). (C) For any successful theory, the account must not be circular. The properties which are used in the vote must not themselves involve the notion of reference in such a way that it is ultimately imposs... | Wikipedia - Naming and Necessity - A theory of naming |
In the first line, one cannot simply substitute t = 0 {\textstyle t=0} for both limits of integration. The singularity (in this case, a vertical asymptote) of t = tan x 2 {\textstyle t=\tan {\tfrac {x}{2}}} at x = π {\textstyle x=\pi } must be taken into account. Alternatively, first evaluate the indefinite integral,... | Wikipedia - Tangent half-angle substitution - A definite integral |
In the first loop, the original (parent) process forks 10 copies of itself. Each of these child processes (detected by the fact that fork() returned zero) prints a message, sleeps, and exits. All of the children are created at essentially the same time (since the parent is doing very little in the loop), so it is somew... | Wikipedia - Zombie process - Explanation |
There is a copy of the pids array in all 11 processes, but only in the parent is it complete - the copy in each child will be missing the lower-numbered child PIDs, and have zero for its own PID. (Not that this really matters, as only the parent process actually uses this array.) The second loop executes only in the pa... | Wikipedia - Zombie process - Explanation |
It waits for the child that slept 10 seconds first; all the others have long since exited, so all of the messages (except the first) appear in quick succession. There is no possibility of random ordering here, since it is driven by a loop in a single process. The first parent message actually appeared before any of the... | Wikipedia - Zombie process - Explanation |
This again is just the random behavior of the process scheduler - the "parent9" message could have appeared anywhere in the sequence prior to "parent8". Child0 through Child8 spend one or more seconds in this state, between the time they exited and the time the parent did a waitpid() on them. The parent was already wai... | Wikipedia - Zombie process - Explanation |
In the first millennium BC, the Persian armies used a sword that was originally of Scythian design called the akinaka (acinaces). However, the great conquests of the Persians made the sword more famous as a Persian weapon, to the extent that the true nature of the weapon has been lost somewhat as the name akinaka has b... | Wikipedia - Double-edged sword - Persian antiquity |
The design was not uniform and in fact identification is made more on the nature of the scabbard than the weapon itself; the scabbard usually has a large, decorative mount allowing it to be suspended from a belt on the wearer's right side. Because of this, it is assumed that the sword was intended to be drawn with the ... | Wikipedia - Double-edged sword - Persian antiquity |
In the first mode, events are ordered as future, present, and past. Futurity and pastness allow of degrees, while the present does not. When we speak of time in this way, we are speaking in terms of a series of positions which run from the remote past through the recent past to the present, and from the present through... | Wikipedia - A-theory of time - A series |
Moreover, the assertions made according to this modality correspond to the temporal perspective of the person who utters them. This is the A series of temporal events. Although originally McTaggart defined tenses as relational qualities, i.e. qualities that events possess by standing in a certain relations to something... | Wikipedia - A-theory of time - A series |
In the first modern democracies, governments restricted the vote to those with property and wealth, which almost always meant a minority of the male population. In some jurisdictions, other restrictions existed, such as requiring voters to practice a given religion. In all modern democracies, the number of people who c... | Wikipedia - Universal Suffrage - History |
Female suffrage was largely ignored until the latter half of the century, when movements began to thrive; the first of these was in New Zealand, in which all adult women of all ethnicities gained the right to vote in 1893. From there, the movement for the idea of universal suffrage which included women's suffrage sprea... | Wikipedia - Universal Suffrage - History |
Congress, together with the Warren Court, continued to protect and expand the voting rights of all Americans, especially African Americans, through the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Voting Rights Act of 1965 and several Supreme Court rulings. In addition, the term "suffrage" is also associated specifically with women's suf... | Wikipedia - Universal Suffrage - History |
In the first moment after an enzyme is mixed with substrate, no product has been formed and no intermediates exist. The study of the next few milliseconds of the reaction is called pre-steady-state kinetics. Pre-steady-state kinetics is therefore concerned with the formation and consumption of enzyme–substrate intermed... | Wikipedia - Enzyme reaction rate - Pre-steady-state kinetics |
Often, the detection of an intermediate is a vital piece of evidence in investigations of what mechanism an enzyme follows. For example, in the ping–pong mechanisms that are shown above, rapid kinetic measurements can follow the release of product P and measure the formation of the modified enzyme intermediate E*. In t... | Wikipedia - Enzyme reaction rate - Pre-steady-state kinetics |
In the figure to the right, the enzyme produces E* rapidly in the first few seconds of the reaction. The rate then slows as steady state is reached. This rapid burst phase of the reaction measures a single turnover of the enzyme. Consequently, the amount of product released in this burst, shown as the intercept on the ... | Wikipedia - Enzyme reaction rate - Pre-steady-state kinetics |
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