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how exactly does a transformator transform energy to a lower voltage?
|
Do you mean a transformer? The EMF induced in the secondary coil is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux through the coil. More loops means a higher magnetic field (and therefore flux) inside the secondary coil. Less coils means less flux and therefore less induced EMF.
So in a step-down transformer, the primary coil has more loops than the secondary coil.
|
[
"A transformer is a static device that converts alternating current from one voltage level to another level (higher or lower), or to the same level, without changing the frequency. A transformer transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through inductively coupled conductors—the transformer's coils. A varying electric current in the first or \"primary\" winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic field through the \"secondary\" winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (emf) or \"voltage\" in the secondary winding. This effect is called mutual induction.\n",
"A transformer is a passive electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or more circuits. A varying current in one coil of the transformer produces a varying magnetic flux, which, in turn, induces a varying electromotive force across a second coil wound around the same core.\n",
"A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through its coils (windings). The properties needed for motor windings are similar to those needed for transformers, but with the additional requirement to withstand mechanical vibration and centrifugal forces at operating temperatures.\n",
"A transformer is a static electrical machine which performs the task of energy transformer from one electrical circuit to another electrical circuit through a magnetic circuit without change in frequency. It operates on AC only. It works on the principle of mutual induction. The main parts of a transformer are: windings, cores, insulating material, bushings and cooling arrangements.\n",
"A transformer is a device with two or more magnetically coupled windings (or sections of a single winding). A time varying current in one coil (called the primary winding) generates a magnetic field which induces a voltage in the other coil (called the secondary winding). A few types:\n",
"The transformer is driven by a pulse or square wave for efficiency, generated by an electronic oscillator circuit. Each pulse serves to drive resonant sinusoidal oscillations in the tuned winding, and due to resonance a high voltage can be developed across the secondary.\n",
"Usually, a transformer is placed between the lines and consumption. When a high-voltage, low-intensity current in the primary circuit (before the transformer) is converted into a low-voltage, high-intensity current in the secondary circuit (after the transformer), the equivalent resistance of the secondary circuit becomes higher and transmission losses are reduced in proportion.\n"
] |
how do people with a hearing impairment think words? i think the way words sound to me - how does it work for others?
|
You know that thing you do when you're thinking to yourself and your move your mouth as if you were speaking, but without actually speaking? That's called [subvocalization](_URL_0_), and you do it even when you don't want to. Whenever you read, whenever you think to yourself, you're subvocalizing subconsciously. When your brain is recalling language, it activates every part associated with that, including the parts required to actually speak it, even if you aren't speaking it.
Deaf people do the same thing with the muscles in their arms, hands, and fingers. They "subvocalize" whatever sign language they use (also, as an aside, there is no single universal sign language: there is American Sign Language [ASL], British Sign Language [BSL], Australian Sign Language [Auslan], French Sign Language [which for historical reasons is the basis of American Sign Language], etc.). Their muscles twitch slightly, imitating the nerve signals that would normally be required for signing, just not fully activating the muscles to sign in the same way that you don't fully activate the muscles in your mouth and larynx.
Mind, that is for those who are *Deaf* (capital D Deaf). Meaning, those who are part of the Deaf community and most likely know a sign language as their first and primary language. If someone is lower case d deaf (someone who cannot hear but isn't part of the community), or hard-of-hearing (but still capable of understanding spoken language, even if it's with a cochlear implant) they probably still think in whatever spoken language they learned before they lost their hearing. If you could magically hear their thoughts, it probably wouldn't sound very familiar, but then again, someone from the [American Southeast](_URL_2_) listening in on the thoughts of someone from [certain parts of England](_URL_1_) would probably be very confused.
|
[
"When the difficult sound is mastered, the child will then learn to say the sound in syllables, then words, then phrases and then sentences. When a child can speak a whole sentence without lisping, attention is then focused on making correct sounds throughout natural conversation. Towards the end of the course of therapy, the child will be taught how to monitor his or her own speech, and how to correct as necessary. Speech therapy can sometimes fix the problem, but however in some cases speech therapy fails to work.\n",
"Hearing plays an important part in both speech generation and comprehension. When speaking, the person can hear their speech, and the brain uses what it hears as a feedback mechanism to fix speech errors. If a single feedback correction occurs multiple times, the brain will begin to incorporate the correction to all future speech, making it a feed forward mechanism. This is apparent in some deaf people. Deafness, as well as other, smaller deficiencies in hearing, can greatly affect one's ability to comprehend spoken language, as well as to speak it. However, if the person loses hearing ability later in life, most can still maintain a normal level of verbal intelligence. This is thought to be because of the brain's feed forward mechanism still helping to fix speech errors, even in the absence of auditory feedback.\n",
"Speech impairments can seriously limit the manner in which an individual interacts with others in work, school, social, and even home environments. Inability to correctly form speech sounds might create stress, embarrassment, and frustration in both the speaker and the listener. Over time, this could create aggressive responses on the part of the listener for being misunderstood, or out of embarrassment. Alternatively, it could generate an avoidance of social situations that create these stressful situations. Language impairments create similar difficulties in communicating with others, but may also include difficulties in understanding what others are trying to say (receptive language). Because of the pervasive nature of language impairments, communicating, reading, writing, and academic success may all be compromised in these students. Similar to individuals with speech impairments, individuals with language impairments may encounter long-term difficulties associated with work, school, social, and home environments.\n",
"A person's listening vocabulary is all the words they can recognize when listening to speech. People may still understand words they were not exposed to before using cues such as tone, gestures, the topic of discussion and the social context of the conversation.\n",
"BULLET::::- For those who learn to speak by learning the whole sound of a word, phonics is not an ideal form of reading instruction, because these learners do not naturally break words into separate sounds.\n",
"Speech agnosia: Pure word deafness, or speech agnosia, is an impairment in which a person maintains the ability to hear, produce speech, and even read speech, yet they are unable to understand or properly perceive speech. These patients seem to have all of the skills necessary in order to properly process speech, yet they appear to have no experience associated with speech stimuli. Patients have reported, \"I can hear you talking, but I can't translate it\". Even though they are physically receiving and processing the stimuli of speech, without the ability to determine the meaning of the speech, they essentially are unable to perceive the speech at all.\n",
"BULLET::::- Speech perception – Another aspect of hearing involves the perceived clarity of a word rather than the intensity of sound made by the word. In humans, that aspect is usually measured by tests of speech discrimination. These tests measure one's ability to understand speech, not to merely detect sound. There are very rare types of hearing loss which affect speech discrimination alone. One example is auditory neuropathy, a variety of hearing loss in which the outer hair cells of the cochlea are intact and functioning, but sound information is not faithfully transmitted to the auditory nerve and brain properly.\n"
] |
if the worst nfl teams always get the first (or early) round draft picks, why do the same teams continue to suck year after year?
|
The overall "best" player isn't necessarily the best fit for a team and its needs. Consistently getting high draft picks and not much improvement is a sign of poor management, simple as that.
|
[
"Each NFL franchise seeks to add new players through the annual NFL draft. The draft rules were last updated in 2009. The team with the worst record the previous year picks first, the next-worst team second, and so on. Teams that did not make the playoffs are ordered by their regular-season record with any remaining ties broken by strength of schedule. Playoff participants are sequenced after non-playoff teams, based on their round of elimination (wild card, division, conference, and Super Bowl). Prior to the merger agreements in 1966, the American Football League (AFL) operated in direct competition with the NFL and held a separate draft. This led to a bidding war over top prospects between the two leagues. As part of the merger agreement on June 8, 1966, the two leagues held a multiple-round \"common draft\". Once the AFL officially merged with the NFL in 1970, the common craft became the NFL draft.\n",
"Each NFL franchise seeks to add new players through the annual NFL Draft. The draft rules were last updated in 2009. The team with the worst record the previous year picks first, the next-worst team second, and so on. Teams that did not make the playoffs are ordered by their regular-season record with any remaining ties broken by strength of schedule. Playoff participants are sequenced after non-playoff teams, based on their round of elimination (wild card, division, conference, and Super Bowl). Prior to the merger agreements in 1966, the American Football League (AFL) operated in direct competition with the NFL and held a separate draft. This led to a bidding war over top prospects between the two leagues. As part of the merger agreement on June 8, 1966, the two leagues held a multiple round \"Common Draft\". Once the AFL officially merged with the NFL in 1970, the \"Common Draft\" became the NFL Draft.\n",
"Each NFL franchise seeks to add new players through the annual NFL Draft. The draft rules were last updated in 2009. The team with the worst record the previous year picks first, the next-worst team second, and so on. Teams that did not make the playoffs are ordered by their regular-season record with any remaining ties broken by strength of schedule. Playoff participants are sequenced after non-playoff teams, based on their round of elimination (wild card, division, conference, and Super Bowl). Prior to the merger agreements in 1966, the American Football League (AFL) operated in direct competition with the NFL and held a separate draft. This led to a bidding war over top prospects between the two leagues. As part of the merger agreement on June 8, 1966, the two leagues held a multiple round \"Common Draft\". Once the AFL officially merged with the NFL in 1970, the \"Common Draft\" became the NFL Draft.\n",
"Each NFL franchise seeks to add new players through the annual NFL draft. The draft rules were last updated in 2009. The team with the worst record the previous year picks first, the next-worst team second, and so on. Teams that did not make the playoffs are ordered by their regular-season record with any remaining ties broken by strength of schedule. Playoff participants are sequenced after non-playoff teams, based on their round of elimination (wild card, division, conference, and Super Bowl). Prior to the merger agreements in 1966, the American Football League (AFL) operated in direct competition with the NFL and held a separate draft. This led to a bidding war over top prospects between the two leagues. As part of the merger agreement on June 8, 1966, the two leagues held a multiple-round \"common draft\". Once the AFL officially merged with the NFL in 1970, the common draft became the NFL draft.\n",
"Each NFL franchise seeks to add new players through the annual NFL draft. The draft rules were last updated in 2009. The team with the worst record the previous year picks first, the next-worst team second, and so on. Teams that did not make the playoffs are ordered by their regular-season record with any remaining ties broken by strength of schedule. Playoff participants are sequenced after non-playoff teams, based on their round of elimination (wild card, division, conference, and Super Bowl). Prior to the merger agreements in 1966, the American Football League (AFL) operated in direct competition with the NFL and held a separate draft. This led to a bidding war over top prospects between the two leagues. As part of the merger agreement on June 8, 1966, the two leagues held a multiple-round \"common draft\". Once the AFL officially merged with the NFL in 1970, the common draft became the NFL draft.\n",
"Each NFL franchise seeks to add new players through the annual NFL Draft. The draft rules were last updated in 2009. The team with the worst record the previous year picks first, the next-worst team second, and so on. Teams that did not make the playoffs are ordered by their regular-season record with any remaining ties broken by strength of schedule. Playoff participants are sequenced after non-playoff teams, based on their round of elimination (wild card, division, conference, and Super Bowl).\n",
"Each NFL franchise seeks to add new players through the annual NFL Draft. The draft rules were last updated in 2009. The team with the worst record the previous year picks first, the next-worst team second, and so on. Teams that did not make the playoffs are ordered by their regular-season record with any remaining ties broken by strength of schedule. Playoff participants are sequenced after non-playoff teams, based on their round of elimination (wild card, division, conference, and Super Bowl).\n"
] |
what happens when im thinking of nothing?
|
Honestly you probably just get lost in studying the visual aspects of the thing you're looking at. I don't believe you can ever be truly without a thought.
|
[
"This does not mean that at one time it thinks but at another time it does not think, but when separated it is just exactly what it is, and this alone is deathless and everlasting (though we have no memory, because this sort of intellect is not acted upon, while the sort that is acted upon is destructible), and without this nothing thinks.\n",
"This does not mean that at one time it thinks but at another time it does not think, but when separated it is just exactly what it is, and this alone is deathless and everlasting (though we have no memory, because this sort of intellect is not acted upon, while the sort that is acted upon is destructible), and without this nothing thinks.\n",
"This does not mean that at one time it thinks but at another time it does not think, but when separated it is just exactly what it is, and this alone is deathless and everlasting (though we have no memory, because this sort of intellect is not acted upon, while the sort that is acted upon is destructible), and without this nothing thinks.\n",
"Then it says, \"Lay down all thoughts, surrender to the void – it is shining. That you may see the meaning of within – it is being.\" From birth to death all we ever do is think: we have one thought, we have another thought, another thought, another thought. Even when you are asleep you are having dreams, so there is never a time from birth to death when the mind isn't always active with thoughts. But you can turn off your mind, and go to the part which Maharishi described as: \"Where was your last thought before you thought it?\"\n",
"Perseveration of thought indicates an inability to switch ideas or responses. An example of perseveration is, during a conversation, if an issue has been fully explored and discussed to a point of resolution, it is not uncommon for something to trigger the reinvestigation of the matter. This can happen at any time during a conversation.\n",
"Do not think of any good or evil whatsoever. Whenever a thought occurs, be aware of it; as soon as you are aware of it, it will vanish. If you remain for a long period forgetful of objects, you will naturally become unified.\n",
"\"Everything I Shouldn't Be Thinking About\" is a song by country music duo Thompson Square. The song is the duo's sixth single release overall, and the second from their second studio album, \"Just Feels Good\". Both members of the duo wrote the song with David Lee Murphy and Brett James.\n"
] |
How does the history of Nazi Germany and the Holocaust affect modern Germany?
|
How the past is interpreted and processed is perhaps the most important question for an historian, so I think the question is very relevant.
Germany has tried to find ways to come to terms with the past. The English language has actually used German terms for struggle, mainly [Vergangenheitsbewältigung](_URL_1_) and Geschichtsaufarbeitung. Both concepts refer to the attempt to understand what has happened and to learn from it.
That's obviously a very generalized answer. What actually happened is, as always, way more complex.
It starts with the Four Ds of the allied occupation forces. Denazification, Demilitarization, Democratization, Decentralization (sometimes also Deindustrialization and Decartellization). The Allies tried from the beginning to instill a general feeling of guilt and shame to the German people. Visits to the Camps, screenings of videos of war crimes, the whole Nuremberg-thing. On the other hand, there was an obvious continuity of personnel. Germany was a highly industrialized and bureaucratic nation... replacing all officials and elites that had already worked under the NS regime was just impossible.
What impact this had on the German people is actually very hard to say. To a certain degree, it just wasn't important. Many people had lost their homes, everybody was mourning over some lost family member, some had lost everything. They were sick of ideology and more occupied with the task of finding a new place to live and enough coal to make it through the winter. The 1950s are usually seen as a very unpolitical time in Germany... there was so much to do, so much to worry about that after the initial shock of losing the war, bigger problems took the scene.
This changes with the 1960s and especially with movement of the new left. This new generation, who were in their late teens or early twenties in 1967 and couldn't remember Hitler, started to ask questions about the past of their parents and grandparents. This is where deep and hidden conflicts between the generations break open. (See, for example, Heinrich Bölls novel "Das Vermächtnis" about a Nazi-officer who manages to easily find his way back in the post-war society. Böll wrote it in 1948, but couldn't find a publisher.)
This struggle and the inability of the older generations to properly "answer" these questions lead to the belief of the radicalized elements of the left that fascism was always lurking behind the boring lives of boring people in a capitalistic society.
Anyway... to wrap this whole thing up a bit:
On an academic level, this whole question leads to the [Historikerstreit](_URL_0_)
For that, I recommend an article by Götz Aly: The logic of horror, which tries to summarize the whole dispute:
>
> Twenty years ago the "Historikerstreit", or "historians' dispute", flared up, a decisive conflict on the historical interpretation of the Holocaust and the Germans' understanding of themselves. In the article "Vergangenheit, die nicht vergehen will" (the past that does not want to pass) in the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung on June 6, 1986, historian Ernst Nolte maintained the Holocaust should be viewed in the light of the entirety of 20th century European history. Nolte further explained the murder of the Jews as a reaction to the mechanism of extermination in Soviet Russia: "Was not the 'Gulag Archipelago' prior to 'Auschwitz'?" In an answer in Die Zeit, philosopher Jürgen Habermas accused Nolte of playing down German guilt, and insisted on the singular nature of the Holocaust. The ensuing debate on German guilt and its historical interpretation involved all major German historians.
_URL_2_
|
[
"Others like Russell Jacoby contend that the Holocaust is a product of German history with deep roots in German society ranging from, \"German authoritarianism, feeble liberalism, brash nationalism or virulent antisemitism. From A. J. P. Taylor's \"The Course of German History\" fifty-five years ago to Daniel Goldhagen's controversial work, \"Hitler's Willing Executioners\", Nazism is understood as the outcome of a long history of uniquely German traits\". While some claim that the specificity of the Holocaust was also rooted in the constant antisemitism from which Jews had been the target since the foundation of Christianity, intellectual historian George Mosse argued that the extreme form of European racism that led to the Holocaust fully emerged in the eighteenth century. Others argue that pseudo-scientific racist theories were elaborated upon in order to justify white supremacy, and that they were accompanied by the Darwinian belief in the survival of the fittest and eugenic notions of racial hygiene—particularly within the German scientific community.\n",
"German society largely responded to the enormity of the evidence for and the horror of the Holocaust with an attitude of self-justification and a practice of keeping quiet. Germans attempted to rewrite their own history to make it more palatable in the post-war era. For decades, West Germany and then unified Germany refused to allow access to its Holocaust-related archives in Bad Arolsen, citing privacy concerns. In May 2006, a 20-year effort by the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum led to the announcement that 30–50 million pages would be made available to survivors, historians and others.\n",
"About the long-term origins of the Holocaust, Browning argued that by the end of the 19th century, antisemitism was widely accepted by most German conservatives and that virtually all German conservatives supported the Nazi regime's antisemitic laws of 1933–34 (and the few who did object like President Hindenburg only objected to the inclusion of Jewish war veterans in the antisemitic laws that they otherwise supported) but that left to their own devices, would not have gone further and that for all their fierce anti-Semitism, German conservatives would not have engaged in genocide. Browning also contended that the long prior to 1933 antisemitism of German conservative elites in the military and the bureaucracy meant that they made few objections, moral or otherwise to the Nazi/völkisch antisemitism. Browning was echoing the conclusions of the German conservative historian Andreas Hillgruber who once presented at a historians' conference in 1984 a counter-factual scenario whereby, had it been a coalition of the German National People's Party and the \"Stahlhelm\" that took power in 1933 without the NSDAP, all the antisemitic laws in Germany that were passed between 1933 and 1938 would still have occurred but there would have been no Holocaust.\n",
"Historical works would turn focus on the nature and intent of Nazi policy. Heinz Heger, Gunter Grau and Richard Plant all contributed greatly to the early Holocaust discourse which emerged throughout the 1970s and early 1980s. Central to these studies was the notion that statistically speaking, homosexuals suffered greater losses than many of the smaller minorities under Nazi persecution such as the Jehovah’s Witnesses and within the camps experienced harsher treatments and ostracization as well as execution.\n",
"Most Holocaust historians define the Holocaust as the enactment, between 1941 and 1945, of the German state policy to exterminate the European Jews. In \"Teaching the Holocaust\" (2015), Michael Gray, a specialist in Holocaust education, offers three definitions: (a) \"the persecution and murder of Jews by the Nazis and their collaborators between 1933 and 1945\", which views the events of \"Kristallnacht\" in Germany in 1938 as an early phase of the Holocaust; (b) \"the systematic mass murder of the Jews by the Nazi regime and its collaborators between 1941 and 1945\", which acknowledges the shift in German policy in 1941 toward the extermination of the Jewish people in Europe; and (c) \"the persecution and murder of various groups by the Nazi regime and its collaborators between 1933 and 1945\", which includes all the Nazis' victims. The third definition fails, Gray writes, to acknowledge that only the Jewish people were singled out for annihilation.\n",
"Immediately after World War II, intense debates arose in intellectual circles about how to interpret Nazi Germany, a contested discussion that continues today. Two of the more hotly debated questions were whether Nazism was in some way part of the \"German national character\" and how much responsibility, if any, the German people bore for the crimes of Nazism. Various non-German historians in the immediate post-war era, such as A. J. P. Taylor and Sir Lewis Namier, argued that Nazism was the culmination of German history and that the vast majority of Germans were responsible for Nazi crimes. Different assessments of Nazism were common among Marxists, who insisted on the economic aspects of Nazism and conceived of it as the culmination of a capitalist crisis, and liberals, who emphasized Hitler's personal role and responsibility and bypassed the larger problem of the relation of ordinary German people to the regime. Within West Germany, then, most historians were strongly defensive. In the assessment of Gerhard Ritter and others, Nazism was a totalitarian movement that represented only the work of a small criminal clique; Germans were victims of Nazism, and the Nazi era represented a total break in German history.\n",
"The advance of the \"Einsatzgruppen\", \"Aktion Reinhardt\", and other significant events in the Holocaust did not happen in the Third Reich proper (or what is now the territory of the Federal Republic). The history of the memorials and archives which have been erected at these sites in eastern Europe is associated with the Communist regimes that ruled these areas for more than four decades after World War II. The Nazis promoted an idea of an expansive German nation extending into territories where ethnic Germans had previously settled. They invaded and controlled much of Central and Eastern Europe, unleashing violence against various Slavic groups, as well as Jews, Communists, homosexuals, Gypsies, prisoners of war, and so-called partisans. There were millions of victims in addition to Jews. After the war, the eastern European nations expelled German settlers as well as long settled ethnic Germans (the \"Volksdeutsche\") as a reaction to the Reich's attempt to claim the eastern lands on behalf of ethnic Germans.\n"
] |
What pieces of medieval/Renaissance garb still exist?
|
A room in an Austrian castle, sealed off in the 15th century, was recently opened. It contained many textiles, including undergarments and shoes. [Check out this write-up](_URL_0_)--at this point, the publicly available information seems quite scant, but I'm eager for the publication of an article on the finds!
|
[
"The unique decorated leather cover of the small Northumbrian St Cuthbert Gospel, the oldest Western bookbinding to survive unaltered, can be dated to 698 or shortly before. It uses incised lines, some colours, and relief decoration built up over cord and gesso or leather pieces. Larger prestige manuscripts had metalwork treasure bindings, several of which are mentioned, but there may well have been much decorated leatherwork for secular satchels, purses, belts and the like, which contemporaries did not bother to mention and which represents a gap in our knowledge for the Early Medieval period throughout Europe.\n",
"A surviving garment similar to the medieval tabard is the monastic scapular. This is a wide strip of fabric worn front back of the body, with an opening for the head and no sleeves. It may have a hood, and may be worn under or over a belt.\n",
"Textile works from the Middle Ages are kept in the Textile Chamber. The objects are mostly textiles used in churches or by priests and bishops. The oldest and most noted object is a 13th-century tapestry from Skog Church, the Skog tapestry. It was found in 1912, wrapped around a bridal crown. Another tapestry is the Grödinge tapestry.\n",
"Archaeological finds from medieval cities all over Europe, such as London, Newcastle, Oslo, Amsterdam, and Lübeck, as well as tax lists, prove the spread of knitted goods for everyday use from the 14th century onward. Like many archaeological textiles, most of the finds are only fragments of knitted items so that in most cases their former appearance and use is unknown. One of the exceptions is a 14th or 15th century woollen child's cap from Lübeck.\n",
"The most famous garment of early medieval Scandinavia is the so-called Apron Dress (also called a trägerrock, hängerock, or smokkr). This may have evolved from the peplos of the early Germanic Iron Age. The garment is often interpreted as a tube shape (either fitted or loose) that is worn with straps over the shoulder and large brooches (sometimes called \"turtle brooches\") at the upper chest. Examples of appliqued silk bands used as decoration have been found in a number of graves. Not all graves identified as belonging to women contain the brooches that typify this type of garment, indicating that some women wore a different style of clothing. There is evidence from Dublin that at least some Norse women wore caps or other head-coverings, it is unclear however how pervasive this practice was.\n",
"From the ninth century, enshrining items which had once belonged to saints or church leaders, such as their bones or parts of their clothing, was an important feature of religious life in early medieval Europe. The reliquary could often be in the shape of a foot, arm, bell or even a domed building. In this case, the medieval silversmith had designed the relic deposit container in the shape of St. Eustace's head, who was an important Roman military saint. The image was designed to convey the sacredness and majesty of the saint to the pious faithful. Many of these luxury items were later melted down and destroyed during the reformation.\n",
"Quilted leather open jackets and trousers were worn by Scythian horsemen before the 4th century BC, as can be seen on Scythian gold ornaments crafted by Greek goldsmiths. The European gambeson can be traced at least to the late 10th century, but it is likely to have been in use in various forms for longer than that. In Europe, its use became widespread in the 13th century, and peaked in the 14th and 15th centuries.\n"
] |
Why do things bounce?
|
Solid object deform when you apply forces to them. If an object has elasticity, it will tend to return to its original shape. Now imagine the case of a ball dropped. The ball gains some kinetic energy in its descent, and this energy, at impact serves to deform the both the ball as well as the ground. If the ground or the ball (or both) hold some elasticity, they will attempt to return to their original shape, which will apply a force opposite in direction to the initial force applied.
If an object bounces in a collision, the collision is elastic to some extent and energy is conserved in the system as it is transferred from the motion of the object into the compression of the object, into the internal restoring forces of the object, and back out into the object as kinetic energy, giving it motion in the direction opposite the initial direction
EDIT: To comment on elasticity, when an elastic object is deformed, the structure as a whole is disturbed from its minimal energy state, and will subsequently to return to this minimal energy state from the higher energy state (provided the object is not permanently deformed and a new minimal energy state created).
|
[
"The physics of a bouncing ball concerns the physical behaviour of bouncing balls, particularly its motion before, during, and after impact against the surface of another body. Several aspects of a bouncing ball's behaviour serve as an introduction to mechanics in high school or undergraduate level physics courses. However, the exact modelling of the behaviour is complex and of interest in sports engineering.\n",
"In bounce juggling, a form of tossing, silicone or rubber balls are allowed to bounce off a hard surface, typically the floor, before catching again. There are a few distinct tricks with bouncing balls, mixing up different rhythms, speeds and types of throws, but most popular is numbers bouncing. Bounce juggling may be \"easier to accomplish than is toss juggling because the balls are grabbed at the top of their trajectories, when they are moving the slowest.\"\n",
"Nevertheless, bouncing an oval-shaped ball is still a volatile skill. Even top level players will occasionally lose the ball while bouncing it, by accidentally bouncing the ball on its point, only to see it quickly skid away from him or her.\n",
"A person photographed while bouncing may appear to be levitating. This optical illusion is used by religious groups and by spiritualist mediums, claiming that their meditation techniques allow them to levitate in the air. You can usually find telltale signs in the photography indicating that the subject was in the act of bouncing, like blurry body parts, a flailing scarf, hair being suspended in the air, etc.\n",
"Some objects are in \"resting contact\", that is, in collision, but neither bouncing off, nor interpenetrating, such as a vase resting on a table. In all cases, resting contact requires special treatment: If two objects collide (\"a posteriori\") or slide (\"a priori\") and their relative motion is below a threshold, friction becomes stiction and both objects are arranged in the same branch of the scene graph.\n",
"A metal ball is retained away from an orifice by sitting upon a ring. Any shaking of the mechanism will cause the ball to roll off its ledge and fall down to block the orifice. It is reset using either an external magnetic device or an internal lift mechanism. If it is too sensitive, it may be triggered by normal vibrations such as passing vehicles. After a severe seismic event, gas piping may be damaged, requiring complete re-inspection for breaks or leaks.\n",
"Vibration in automobiles may occur for many reasons, such as wheel unbalance, imperfect tire or wheel shape, brake pulsation, and worn or loose driveline, suspension, or steering components. Foreign material, such as road tar, stones, ice, or snow, that is stuck in a tire's tread or otherwise adhered to the tire or wheel may also cause a temporary unbalance and subsequent vibration.\n"
] |
Why did Charles Cornwallis not face Washington directly after surrendering at Yorktown? Was this an attempt to slight Washington, and, if so, was it seen as dishonorable or childish?
|
Gen. Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess and 2nd Earl Cornwallis, [surrendered to American forces on October 19th, 1781](_URL_0_) after two days of a ceasefire. It came after a week of fighting where British troops failed to advance or make any dent in the American and French forces who had surrounded them and were well\-fortified. The loss was quite shocking, with over 8,000 British troops being captured by the Americans. The negotations for the surrender were held by Cornwallis' subordinates, which was not unsusual for 18th century warefare. What was unusual is that Gen. Cornwallis did not attend the surrender ceremony, claiming an illness prevented him from coming.
Brigadier General Charles O'Hara was the office in charge and led the British army onto the field. Reports say that Gen. O'Hara attempted to surrender to French General Jean\-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau , who refused to address O'Hara, and and pointed to Washington instead. O'Hara offered his sword in a ceremonial position of surrender, but Washington refused and had Major Gen. Benjamin Lincoln accept it, thus initiating the formal surrender of the British Army at Yorktown.
While it might seem dishonorable to us that Cornwallis did not take to the field, neither his loss of Yorktown nor his refusal to take to the field was largely seen as dishonorable in the eyes of his countrymen. Having just suffered the arguably most embarrasing defeat in 18th century British history \(in the eyes of the British\), Cornwallis may have very\-well been ill and unable to attend. As some historians have noted, "[Although the Yorktown capitulation decided the war in favour of the colonists, Cornwallis remained in high esteem at home.](_URL_1_)" Cornwallis went on to become governor of Indian just four years after his defeat at Yorktown. He went on to have an impressive career, including a promotion to marquess in 1792. It appears that his loss at Yorktown did not hold back his future successes.
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[
"Washington had intended for his attack to be a second Trenton. Had everything gone according to plan, Washington may have trapped and destroyed a second major British force. Coupled with Burgoyne's defeat at Saratoga, the defeat of Howe at Germantown could have compelled Lord North and the British government to sue for peace.\n",
"Washington withdrew to Manhattan without any losses in men or ordnance. Following the withdrawal, the Staten Island Peace Conference failed to negotiate peace, as the British delegates did not possess the authority to recognize independence. Howe then seized control of New York City on September 15, and unsuccessfully engaged the Americans the following day. He attempted to encircle Washington, but the Americans successfully withdrew. On October 28, the British fought an indecisive action against Washington, in which Howe declined to attack Washington's army, instead concentrating his efforts upon a hill that was of no strategic value.\n",
"When it was clear that the British were not going to make an attempt on Ticonderoga in 1776, Gates marched some of the army south to join Washington's army in Pennsylvania, where it had retreated after the fall of New York City. Though his troops were with Washington at the Battle of Trenton, Gates was not. Always an advocate of defensive action, Gates argued that Washington should retreat further rather than attack. When Washington dismissed this advice, Gates claimed illness as an excuse not to join the nighttime attack and instead traveled on to Baltimore, where the Continental Congress was meeting. Gates had always maintained that he and not Washington should have commanded the Continental Army, an opinion supported by several wealthy and prominent New England delegates to the Continental Congress. Although Gates actively lobbied Congress for the appointment, Washington's stunning successes at Trenton and Princeton subsequently left no doubt as to who should be commander-in-chief. Gates was then sent back north with orders to assist Schuyler in the Northern Department.\n",
"Washington finally forced the British to withdraw from Boston by putting Henry Knox's artillery on Dorchester Heights overlooking the city, and preparing in detail to attack the city from Cambridge if the British tried to assault the position. The British evacuated Boston and sailed away, although Washington did not know they were headed for Halifax, Nova Scotia. Believing they were headed for New York City (which was indeed Major General William Howe's eventual destination), Washington rushed most of the army there.\n",
"Washington finally forced the British to withdraw from Boston by putting Henry Knox's artillery on Dorchester Heights overlooking the city, and preparing in detail to attack the city from Cambridge if the British tried to assault the position. The British evacuated Boston and sailed away, although Washington did not know they were headed for Halifax, Nova Scotia. Believing they were headed for New York City (which was indeed Major General William Howe's eventual destination), Washington rushed most of the army there.\n",
"Blake was the mayor of Washington when British troops laid siege to the city on August 24, 1814, as part of the War of 1812. He put the city on alert a few days before the siege, insisting that \"I would exert myself to the last moment and agree to die in the streets rather than give up the city, but, if all resistance was given over, and our military abandoned it, I would then also leave it and not surrender myself a prisoner to the enemy.\" It was Blake who urged Dolley Madison, the First Lady, to flee Washington before the British arrived. He then rounded up men to defend the city, so occupied with its fortification that his wife and four children were forced to make escape on their own.\n",
"After Washington had successfully attacked the Hessians at Trenton, the British dispatched a large army under Gen. Charles Cornwallis to chase down Washington's smaller force and neutralize it. Washington again resorted to some of the same tactics he had successfully used months earlier in Brooklyn, spiriting the bulk of his troops out of harm's way with a nighttime retreat, muffling the wheels of the wagons and gun carriages to reduce their noise and leaving a rear guard to keep the campfires burning in order to fool his British pursuers. Washington was able to move his army into a position from which he was able to defeat the British at the Battle of Princeton in early 1777.\n"
] |
what is the difference between fruits and flowers?
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A flower is the reproductive structure in flowering plants (called angiosperms). The purpose of a flower is to offer up & receive pollen from other flowers.
Flowers are often brightly coloured & scented to attract animals, & offer up substances like nectar to lure insects/birds into the flower, where they can pick up pollen from the flower, that they will carry to the next flower they visit.
Pollen is the equivalent to sperm in animals. If it reaches a flower of the same type & it gets transmitted to the female part of the flower, it will fertilise it. The pollinated flower will then develop seeds that will potentially grow into another plant if it is in the right conditions.
To get to the right conditions though, the seed often needs to be protected & transported. Some plants have again encouraged animals to help transport the seeds by providing them with another incentive to collect their seeds: by encasing them inside a tasty fruit. The flower will develop into the fleshy body of the fruit surrounding the seeds, which animals will pick & carry or eat.
Most seeds in edible fruit are strong enough to pass through through an animal's digestive tract, so they will be pooped out some distance from the parent plant, where it will be able to grow without having to compete with its parent for nutrients.
Other, inedible, fruits are just there to protect the seed from being crushed or otherwise destroyed, eg. to deter them from being eaten, because the seeds wouldn't be able to survive the digestive process.
**TL;DR**: Some plants have structures called flowers to receive pollen from other plants so they can become fertilised & produce seeds. These flowers then develop into fruits that protect the seeds & help them be transported.
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[
"Plant scientists have grouped fruits into three main groups, simple fruits, aggregate fruits, and composite or multiple fruits. The groupings are not evolutionarily relevant, since many diverse plant taxa may be in the same group, but reflect how the flower organs are arranged and how the fruits develop.\n",
"Fruits are found in three main anatomical categories: simple fruits, aggregate fruits, and multiple fruits. Aggregate fruits are formed from a single compound flower and contain many ovaries or fruitlets. Examples include raspberries and blackberries. Multiple fruits are formed from the fused ovaries of multiple flowers or inflorescence. An example of multiple fruits are the fig, mulberry, and the pineapple. Simple fruit are formed from a single ovary and may contain one or many seeds. They can be either fleshy or dry. In fleshy fruit, during development, the pericarp and other accessory structures become the fleshy portion of the fruit. The types of fleshy fruits are berries, pomes, and drupes. In berries, the entire pericarp is fleshy but this excludes the exocarp which acts as more as a skin. There are berries that are known as pepo, a type of berry with an inseparable rind, or hesperidium, which has a separable rind. An example of a pepo is the cucumber and a lemon would be an example of a hesperidium. The fleshy portion of the pomes is developed from the floral tube and like the berry most of the pericarp is fleshy but the endocarp is cartilaginous, an apple is an example of a pome. Lastly, drupes are known for being one seeded with a fleshy mesocarp, an example of this would be the peach. However, there are fruits were the fleshy portion is developed from tissues that are not the ovary, such as in the strawberry. The edible part of the strawberry is formed from the receptacle of the flower. Due, to this difference the strawberry is known as a false fruit or an accessory fruit. There is a shared method of seed dispersal within fleshy fruits. These fruits depend on animals to eat the fruits and disperse the seeds in order for their populations to survive. Dry fruits also develop from the ovary but unlike the fleshy fruits they do not depend on the mesocarp but the endocarp for seed dispersal. Dry fruits depend more on physical forces, like wind and water. Dry fruits' seeds can also perform pod shattering, which involve the seed being ejected from the seed coat by shattering it. Some dry fruits are able to perform wisteria, which is an extreme case where there is an explosion of the pod, resulting the seed to be dispersed over long distances. Like fleshy fruits, dry fruits can also depend on animals to spread their seeds by adhering to animal's fur and skin, this is known as epizoochory. Types of dry fruits include achenes, capsules, follicles or nuts. Dry fruits can also be separated into dehiscent and indehiscent fruits. Dry dehiscent fruits are described as a fruit where the pod has an increase in internal tension to allow seeds to be released. These include the sweet pea, soybean, alfalfa, milkweed, mustard, cabbage and poppy. Dry indehiscent fruit differ in that they do not have this mechanism and simply depend on physical forces. Examples of species indehiscent fruit are sunflower seeds, nuts, and dandelions.\n",
"Fruits are the mature ovary of seed-bearing plants, and they include the contents of the ovary, which can be floral parts like the receptacle, involucre, calyx, and others that are fused to it. Fruits are often used to identify plant taxa, help to place the species in the correct family, or differentiate different groups within the same family.\n",
"Multiple fruits, also called collective fruits, are fruiting bodies formed from a cluster of fruiting flowers, the \"inflorescence\". Each flower in the inflorescence produces a fruit, but these mature into a single mass in which each flower has produced a true fruit. After flowering the mass is called an infructescence. Examples are the fig, pineapple, mulberry, osage-orange, and breadfruit.\n",
"A fruit is the ripened ovary or ovaries—together with seeds—from one or more flowers. The fruits of a plant are responsible for dispersing the seeds that contain the embryo and protecting the seeds as well. In many species, the fruit incorporates some surrounding tissues, or is dispersed with some non-fruit tissues.\n",
"A multiple fruit is one formed from a cluster of flowers (called an \"inflorescence\"). Each flower produces a fruit, but these mature into a single mass. Examples are the pineapple, fig, mulberry, osage-orange, and breadfruit.\n",
"Fruits are the ripened ovaries of plants, including the seeds within. Many plants and animals have coevolved such that the fruits of the former are an attractive food source to the latter, because animals that eat the fruits may excrete the seeds some distance away. Fruits, therefore, make up a significant part of the diets of most cultures. Some botanical fruits, such as tomatoes, pumpkins, and eggplants, are eaten as vegetables. (For more information, see list of fruits.)\n"
] |
How did Napoleon III's reforms affect the later development of France's economy?
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Napoleon III's probably most lasting economic reforms took place in the education and financial sectors. While in the short-term the lowering of tariffs across the board spurred productivity growth and encouraged foreign trade, in the long-term the true determinants of economic growth are threefold: population growth, human capital (i.e. education), and increased liquidity of capital. Modernizing the French agricultural industry helped to mitigate the famines that routinely decimated early-modern France and the new public education system (which competed with the existing Catholic school based system) further served to improve literacy and otherwise prepared children for the "real world."
That being said, the legacy of Napoleon III persists mostly in the form of the large number of banks that he encouraged or supported. BNP Paribas (a combination of Banque Nationale de Paris and Paris Bank), Societe-Generale, Credit Lyonnais (which merged with Credit Agricole), are all banks that were created during the Second French Empire. They quickly grew to be some of the world's largest banks and persist even to this day as some of the largest and most sophisticated financial institutions. Without the financial bedrock that they were able to provide (in tandem with a surplus of gold into global markets that increased the currency supply), it is unlikely that Napoleon III could have been able to finance any of the fiscal and infrastructure reforms that he needed to modernize France. The now-defunct Credit Mobiliere, for instance, was a major contributor to the finance of French railways, French public transit, and even the French intervention into the Crimean War. The rise of the French banking sector also worked well with the increased savings of French workers, which provided a sufficient capital base for investment and further growth.
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[
"The French swept away centuries worth of outmoded restrictions and introduced unprecedented levels of efficiency. The chaos and barriers in a land divided and subdivided among many different petty principalities gave way to a rational, simplified, centralized system controlled by Paris and run by Napoleon's relatives. The most important impact came from the abolition of all feudal privileges and historic taxes, the introduction of legal reforms of the Napoleonic Code, and the reorganization of the judicial and local administrative systems. The economic integration of the Rhineland with France increased prosperity, especially in industrial production, while business accelerated with the new efficiency and lowered trade barriers. The Jews were liberated from the ghetto. One sour point was the hostility of the French officials toward the Roman Catholic Church, the choice of most of the residents. Much of South Germany felt a similar but more muted influence of the French Revolution, while in Prussia and areas to the east there was far less impact. The reforms were permanent. Decades later workers and peasants in the Rhineland often appealed to Jacobinism to oppose unpopular government programs, while the intelligentsia demanded the maintenance of the Napoleonic Code (which was stayed in effect for a century).\n",
"The French swept away centuries worth of outmoded restrictions and introduced unprecedented levels of efficiency. The chaos and barriers in a land divided and subdivided among many different petty principalities gave way to a rational, simplified, centralized system controlled by Paris and run by Napoleon's relatives. The most important impact came from the abolition of all feudal privileges and historic taxes, the introduction of legal reforms of the Napoleonic Code, and the reorganization of the judicial and local administrative systems. The economic integration of the Rhineland with France increased prosperity, especially in industrial production, while business accelerated with the new efficiency and lowered trade barriers. The Jews were liberated from the ghetto. There was limited resistance; most Germans welcomed the new regime, especially the urban elites, but one sour point was the hostility of the French officials toward the Roman Catholic Church, the choice of most of the residents. The reforms were permanent. Decades later workers and peasants in the Rhineland often appealed to Jacobinism to oppose unpopular government programs, while the intelligentsia demanded the maintenance of the Napoleonic Code (which was stayed in effect for a century).\n",
"In 1833, France was experiencing a number of social problems arising out of the Industrial Revolution. A number of sweeping plans of reform were developed by thinkers on the left. Among the more grandiose were the plans of Charles Fourier and the followers of Henri de Saint-Simon. Fourier wanted to replace modern cities with utopian communities while the Saint-Simonians advocated directing the economy by manipulating credit. Although these programs did not have much support, they did expand the political and social imagination of their contemporaries, including Marx.\n",
"In 1833, France was experiencing a number of social problems arising out of the Industrial Revolution. A number of sweeping plans of reform were developed by thinkers on the political left. Among the more grandiose were the plans of Charles Fourier and the followers of Saint-Simon. Fourier wanted to replace modern cities with utopian communities while the Saint-Simonians advocated directing the economy by manipulating credit. Although these programs did not have much support, they did expand the political and social imagination of Marx.\n",
"Despite the return of the House of Bourbon to power, France was much changed from the era of the \"ancien régime\". The egalitarianism and liberalism of the revolutionaries remained an important force and the autocracy and hierarchy of the earlier era could not be fully restored. Economic changes, which had been underway long before the revolution, had progressed further during the years of turmoil and were firmly entrenched by 1815. These changes had seen power shift from the noble landowners to the urban merchants. The administrative reforms of Napoleon, such as the Napoleonic Code and efficient bureaucracy, also remained in place. These changes produced a unified central government that was fiscally sound and had much control over all areas of French life, a sharp difference from the complicated mix of feudal and absolutist traditions and institutions of pre-Revolutionary Bourbons.\n",
"Napoleon III also directed the building of the French railway network, which greatly contributed to the development of the coal mining and steel industry in France, thereby radically changing the nature of the French economy, which entered the modern age of large-scale capitalism. The French economy, the second largest in the world at the time (behind the British economy), experienced a very strong growth during the reign of Napoleon III. Names such as steel tycoon Eugène Schneider or banking mogul James de Rothschild are symbols of the period. Two of France's largest banks, Société Générale and Crédit Lyonnais, still in existence today, were founded during that period. The French stock market also expanded prodigiously, with many coal mining and steel companies issuing stocks. Historians credit Napoleon chiefly for supporting the railways, but not otherwise building the economy.\n",
"French economic history since its late-18th century Revolution was tied to three major events and trends: the Napoleonic Era, the competition with Britain and its other neighbors in regards to 'industrialization', and the 'total wars' of the late-19th and early 20th centuries. Quantitative analysis of output data shows the French per capita growth rates were slightly smaller than Britain. However the British population tripled in size, while France grew by only third—so the overall British economy grew much faster. François Crouzet has succinctly summarized the ups and downs of French per capita economic growth in 1815–1913 as follows: \n"
] |
Why was Theodore Roosevelt known as the "Trust Buster" when Taft broke up more trusts?
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I'm confused by this question. Roosevelt gained his reputation as a trust buster during his presidency. Taft had not served as president yet. How would people know not to declare Roosevelt a trust buster because his successor would use the Sherman Act more aggressively?
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[
"For his aggressive use of the 1890 Sherman Antitrust Act, compared to his predecessors, Roosevelt became mythologized as the \"trust-buster\"; but in reality he was more of a trust regulator. Roosevelt viewed big business as a necessary part of the American economy, and sought only to prosecute the \"bad trusts\" that restrained trade and charged unfair prices. He brought 44 antitrust suits, breaking up the Northern Securities Company, the largest railroad monopoly; and regulating Standard Oil, the largest oil and refinery company. Presidents Benjamin Harrison, Grover Cleveland, and William McKinley combined prosecuted only 18 anti-trust violations under the Sherman Antitrust Act.\n",
"From the 1890s until his death, Taft played a major role in the international legal community. He was active in many organizations, was a leader in the worldwide arbitration movement, and taught international law at the Yale Law School. One of the reasons for his bitter break with Roosevelt in 1910–12 was Roosevelt's insistence that arbitration was naïve and that only war could decide major international disputes.\n",
"Roosevelt engraved in public memory the image of Taft as a Buchanan-like figure, with a narrow view of the presidency which made him unwilling to act for the public good. Roosevelt was not alone in his negative assessment, as every major newspaper reporter of that time who left reminiscences of Taft's presidency was critical of him. Taft was convinced he would be vindicated by history. After he left office, he was estimated to be about in the middle of U.S. presidents by greatness, and subsequent rankings by historians have by and large sustained that verdict. In a 2017 C-SPAN survey 91 presidential historians ranked Taft 24th among the 43 former presidents, including then-president Barack Obama (unchanged from his ranking in 2009 and 2000). His rankings in the various categories of this most recent poll were as follows: public persuasion (31), crisis leadership (26), economic management (20), moral authority (25), international relations (21), administrative skills (12), relations with congress (23), vision/setting an agenda (28), pursued equal justice for all (22), performance with context of times (24). A 2018 poll of the American Political Science Association's Presidents and Executive Politics section ranked Taft as the 25th best president.\n",
"Hart was a devoted friend and follower of Theodore Roosevelt and was elected as a Roosevelt delegate to the Republican convention of 1912. He became an enthusiastic trustee and supporter of the Roosevelt Memorial Association, now called the Theodore Roosevelt Association and said that from the time of TR's death he had the idea to \"present in alphabetical arrangement extracts sufficiently numerous and comprehensive to display all the phases of Roosevelt's activities and opinions as expressed by him.\" This work would eventually be called the Theodore Roosevelt Cyclopedia.\n",
"Roosevelt, frustrated by his own relative inaction, showered Taft with advice, fearing that the electorate would not appreciate Taft's qualities, and that Bryan would win. Roosevelt's supporters spread rumors that the president was in effect running Taft's campaign. This annoyed Nellie Taft, who never trusted the Roosevelts. Nevertheless, Roosevelt supported the Republican nominee with such enthusiasm that humorists suggested \"TAFT\" stood for \"Take advice from Theodore\".\n",
"Theodore Roosevelt also attacked President Taft in the Chicago Tribune on June 17, 1912 with his own column. In the column Roosevelt wrote about the differences in delegates that Taft and he had. He stated that the delegates Taft had were from territories or states that had never cast a Republican electoral vote or were controlled by federal patronage. Roosevelt summed up Taft's delegates as, \"one-eighth of his delegates represent a real sentiment for him and seven-eighths represent nothing whatever but the use of patronage in his interest in certain Democratic states\". Roosevelt made it clear that Taft had turned the Republican Party for the worst and that he had no chance of winning the election.\n",
"Lurie argued that Taft did not receive the public credit for his policies that he should have. Few trusts had been broken up under Roosevelt (although the lawsuits received much publicity). Taft, more quietly than his predecessor, filed many more cases than did Roosevelt, and rejected his predecessor's contention that there was such a thing as a \"good\" trust. This lack of flair marred Taft's presidency; according to Lurie, Taft \"was boring—honest, likable, but boring\". Scott Bomboy for the National Constitution Center wrote that despite being \"one of the most interesting, intellectual, and versatile presidents ... a chief justice of the United States, a wrestler at Yale, a reformer, a peace activist, and a baseball fan ... today, Taft is best remembered as the president who was so large that he got stuck in the White House bathtub,\" a story that is not true. Taft similarly remains known for another physical characteristic—as the last president with facial hair to date.\n"
] |
"unincorporated" small town
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Some people see unincorporated as a positive. In a city, there's essentially four levels of government that people live under: city, county, state and federal. In an unincorporated region, it's just county, state and federal. Less government is a plus to some.
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[
"An unincorporated community may be part of a census-designated place (CDP). A CDP is an area defined by the United States Census Bureau for statistical purposes only. It is a populated area that generally includes one officially designated but currently unincorporated community, for which the CDP is named, plus surrounding inhabited countryside of varying dimensions and, occasionally, other, smaller unincorporated communities as well. Otherwise, it has no legal status.\n",
"Unincorporated towns are settlements eminently governed by the county in which they are located, but who, by local referendum or by the act of the county commission, can form limited local governments in the form of a Town Advisory Board (TAB)/ Citizens Advisory Council (CAC), or a Town Board.\n",
"Towns are often annexed by neighboring cities and villages in whole or in part. In Brown County, the Town of Preble was incorporated wholly into the city of Green Bay in 1964, thus terminating its status as a town. Piecemeal annexation has left some rather small towns, such as the Town of Germantown which covers , or the Town of Brookfield covering . This contrasts with the Town of Winter which covers . Most towns are about the size of a survey township, or . The Town of Menominee is unique in that it is co-extensive with the County of Menominee, and covers ; this is due to its unique history and connection with the Menominee Indian Reservation.\n",
"An unincorporated community is one general term for a geographic area having a common social identity without municipal organization or official political designation (i.e., incorporation as a city or town). There are two main types of unincorporated communities:\n",
"In law, an unincorporated area is a region of land that is not governed by a local municipal corporation; similarly an unincorporated community is a settlement that is not governed by its own local municipal corporation, but rather is administered as part of larger administrative divisions, such as a township, parish, borough, county, city, canton, state, province or country. Occasionally, municipalities dissolve or disincorporate, which may happen if they become fiscally insolvent, and services become the responsibility of a higher administration. Widespread unincorporated communities and areas are a distinguishing feature of the United States and Canada. In most other countries of the world, there are either no unincorporated areas at all, or these are very rare; typically remote, outlying, sparsely populated or uninhabited areas.\n",
"Under this law, unincorporated towns are provided extra services by the county, paid for by property taxes or other revenue sources from the town. A town can be formed by an initiative petition by residents, or by the county commissioners.\n",
"A relatively small unincorporated community, similar to a hamlet in New York state, or even a relatively small community within an incorporated city or town, may be termed a village. This informal usage may be found even in states that have villages as an incorporated municipality and is similar to the usage of the term \"unincorporated town\" in states having town governments.\n"
] |
How is the historical argument of David Graeber's "Debt: The First 5000 Years" viewed?
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I always find it hilarious when non-lawyers discuss legal topics (e.g. money and contracts).
So, without giving this gentleman from Yale too much credit, and taking into account that only so much can be expected from him as long as he is speaking outside of his area of speciality, I present to you the first error:
"The story goes back at least to Adam Smith and in its own way it’s the founding myth of economics."
Right. If he had even done cursory research he would have discovered that the Roman jurists also regarded "purchase and sale for cash" (emptio venditio) as a sub-category of the barter transaction (permutatio). The Romans also referred to the creation of currency as being something which happened temporally later than the barter economy.
"Now, I’m an anthropologist and we anthropologists have long known this is a myth simply because if there were places where everyday transactions took the form of: “I’ll give you twenty chickens for that cow,” we’d have found one or two by now."
There are such places. I often barter with other people, even in my own town. For me, this takes the form of me offering some service in exchange for another service (e.g., my neighbor and I each receive each other's packages free of charge). Every now and then I engage in item-for-item barter as well. However, the point is: barter and trade for money co-exist and are readily observable in many contexts today. (Although perhaps not in Yale classrooms.)
"[...]how does that broad sense of ‘I owe you one’ turn into a precise system of measurement[...]"
More importantly, when does it become legally necessary to enforce the "I owe you one" if the other person refuses to comply. When do social sanctions no longer work? When is an organized system of contract enforcement necessary? All of this goes well beyond anthropology.
"You say that by the time historical records start to be written in the Mesopotamia around 3200 BC a complex financial architecture is already in place."
This is the narrator, not the author. But the Mesopotamian financial system is not excessively complex. Money lending and credit did exist but no banks or fractional reserve banking existed. Also, to say the least, there were no stocks, bonds or currency fluctuations.
"This was the great social evil of antiquity – families would have to start pawning off their flocks, fields and before long, their wives and children would be taken off into debt peonage."
Debt-peonage is under-rated. Happy to expand on this if anyone asks.
And calling slavery on account of debt a "social evil" is the worst presentism.
"Once you recognize that money is just a social construct, a credit, an IOU, then first of all what is to stop people from generating it endlessly?"
It's not, it's a mode of exchange, and that is how it functions. If you generate it endlessly it ceases to be meaningful as a mode of exchange. That stops people from generating it endlessly, as presumably those people have an interest in maintaining the mode of exchange's function.
The rest of the interview is all present-day bullshitting about the EU debt crisis.
I'll spare everybody my opinions on that kerfuffle.
|
[
"Debt: The First 5,000 Years is a book by anthropologist David Graeber published in 2011. It explores the historical relationship of debt with social institutions such as barter, marriage, friendship, slavery, law, religion, war and government; in short, much of the fabric of human life in society. It draws on the history and anthropology of a number of civilizations, large and small, from the first known records of debt from Sumer in 3500 BC until the present.\n",
"The Bible (760 BCE) and Hammurabi's Code (1763 BCE) both explain economic remediations for cyclic sixty-year recurring great depressions, via fiftieth-year Jubilee (biblical) debt and wealth resets. Thirty major debt forgiveness events are recorded in history including the debt forgiveness given to most european nations in the 1930s to 1954.\n",
"In 1771 Price published his \"Appeal to the Public on the Subject of the National Debt\" (ed. 1772 and 1774). This pamphlet excited considerable controversy, and is supposed to have influenced William Pitt the Younger in re-establishing the sinking fund for the extinction of the national debt, created by Robert Walpole in 1716 and abolished in 1733. The means proposed for the extinction of the debt are described by Lord Overstone as \"a sort of hocus-pocus machinery,\" supposed to work \"without loss to any one,\" and consequently unsound. Price's views were attacked by John Brand in 1776. When Brand returned to finance and fiscal matters, \"Alteration of the Constitution of the House of Commons and the Inequality of the Land Tax\" (1793), he used work of Price, among others.\n",
"A second major argument of the book is that, contrary to standard accounts of the history of money, debt is probably the oldest means of trade, with cash and barter transactions being later developments.\n",
"In 2005, the Make Poverty History campaign, mounted in the run-up to the G8 Summit in Scotland, brought the issue of debt once again to the attention of the media and world leaders. Some have claimed that it was the Live 8 concerts which were instrumental in raising the profile of the debt issue at the G8, but these were announced after the Summit pre-negotiations had essentially agreed the terms of the debt announcement made at the Summit, and so can only have been of marginal utility. Make Poverty History, in contrast, had been running for five months prior to the Live 8 announcement and, in form of the Jubilee 2000 campaign (of which Make Poverty History was essentially a re-branding) for ten years. Debt cancellation for the 18 countries qualifying under this new initiative has also brought impressive results on paper. For example, it has been reported that Zambia used savings to significantly increase its investment in health, education, and rural infrastructure. The fungibility of savings from debt service makes such claims difficult to establish. Under the terms of the G8 debt proposal, the funding sources available to Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) are also curtailed; some researchers have argued that the net financial benefit of the G8 proposals is negligible, even though on paper the debt burden seems temporarily alleviated.\n",
"BULLET::::- The debt held by the public rose from $6.3 trillion on January 31, 2009 to $14.4 trillion on December 31, 2016, an increase of $8.1 trillion or 128%. Measured as a % GDP, it rose from 52.3% GDP in 2009 to 76% GDP by 2016. As described above, most of the debt increase was inherited from the prior administration (e.g., tax cuts and wars) or was due to the Great Recession (e.g., declining revenue and higher automatic stabilizer spending), as opposed to Obama's policies.\n",
"By historic peacetime standards, the national debt is large and growing in overall terms though now falling as a percentage of GDP. It is currently nowhere near its historical peaks after the Napoleonic and World War eras. However, there is concern that official calculations of national debt omit many 'off-book' liabilities which mask the true nature of the debt: for example, Nick Silver of the Institute of Economic Affairs estimated the current British liabilities, including state & public pensions, as well as other commitments by the government, to be near £5 trillion, compared with the Government's estimate of £845 billion (as of 17 November 2010) These liabilities can be compared to total net assets (2010 figures) of £7.3 trillion, which equates to approximately a net worth of £120,000 per head of the population. Based on such a method of calculation, UK national debt would be equivalent to, or potentially exceed, historic highs.\n"
] |
what exactly happens to person when they're only awake during the night?
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You get really fucked up. Shift work is worse as my body can attest. But straight nights causes your body to go all haywire. Basically your body doesn't work well, not receiving Vitamin D, Metabolism diminishes, you're more likely to have heart conditions, blue like also messes you up on nights. I can't recall the article but it was State side where they studied a neighbourhood with new installed LED street lights (blue light spectrum) vs without and there were higher domestic disturbance police calls then the neighbourhoods with regular condescent or halogen street lighting same income range for households and such.
_URL_2_
_URL_1_
_URL_0_
That's just the first page of Google,
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[
"It is common for patients who have difficulty falling asleep to also have nocturnal awakenings with difficulty returning to sleep. Two-thirds of these patients wake up in the middle of the night, with more than half having trouble falling back to sleep after a middle-of-the-night awakening.\n",
"People with normal circadian systems can generally fall asleep quickly at night if they slept too little the night before. Falling asleep earlier will in turn automatically help to advance their circadian clocks due to decreased light exposure in the evening. In contrast, people with DSPD have difficulty falling asleep before their usual sleep time, even if they are sleep-deprived. Sleep deprivation does not reset the circadian clock of DSPD patients, as it does with normal people.\n",
"Affected people often report that while they do not get to sleep until the early morning, they do fall asleep around the same time every day. Unless they have another sleep disorder such as sleep apnea in addition to DSPD, patients can sleep well and have a normal need for sleep. However, they find it very difficult to wake up in time for a typical school or work day. If they are allowed to follow their own schedules, e.g. sleeping from 4:00 am to 1:00 pm, their sleep is improved and they may not experience excessive daytime sleepiness. Attempting to force oneself onto daytime society's schedule with DSPD has been compared to constantly living with jet lag; DSPD has, in fact, been referred to as \"social jet lag\".\n",
"Waking up in the middle of the night, or nocturnal awakening, is the most frequently reported insomnia symptom, with approximately 35% of Americans over 18 reporting waking up three or more times per week. Of those who experience nocturnal awakenings, 43% report difficulty in resuming sleep after waking, while over 90% report the condition persisting for more than six months. Greater than 50% contend with MOTN conditions for more than five years.\n",
"Modern humans often find themselves desynchronized from their internal circadian clock, due to the requirements of work (especially night shifts), long-distance travel, and the influence of universal indoor lighting. Even if they have sleep debt, or feel sleepy, people can have difficulty staying asleep at the peak of their circadian cycle. Conversely they can have difficulty waking up in the trough of the cycle. A healthy young adult entrained to the sun will (during most of the year) fall asleep a few hours after sunset, experience body temperature minimum at 6 a.m., and wake up a few hours after sunrise.\n",
"People with late chronotypes go to bed late and rise late. Forced to arise earlier than their circadian rhythm dictates, they have a low body temperature and may require a few hours to feel really awake. They are unable to fall asleep as early as \"larks\" can.\n",
"Disruptions in sleep can be caused by a variety of issues, including teeth grinding (bruxism) and night terrors. When a person suffers from difficulty falling asleep and/or staying asleep with no obvious cause, it is referred to as insomnia.\n"
] |
is there a correlation between how hard you blow and the size of a bubble? if not what defines the size of a bubble?
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It's liquid tension - the harder you blow the more force is pushed against the inside of the bubble which has more potential to pop it. A slow smooth bubble will allow more surface area without breaking liquid tension
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[
"When two bubbles merge, they adopt a shape which makes the sum of their surface areas as small as possible, compatible with the volume of air each bubble encloses. If the bubbles are of equal size, their common wall is flat. If they aren't the same size, their common wall bulges into the larger bubble, since the smaller one has a higher internal pressure than the larger one, as predicted by the Young–Laplace equation.\n",
"According to these statements, if the nucleation rate of bubbles is small, we will end up with bubbles that form clusters and will not collide with each other, with the heat release from vacuum decay stored in the domain-walls, quite different from what the hot Big-Bang starts from.\n",
"Clean bubbles that are sufficiently small will collapse due to surface tension if the supersaturation is low. Bubbles with semipermeable surfaces will either stabilise at a specific radius depending on the pressure, the composition of the surface layer, and the supersaturation, or continue to grow indefinitely, if larger than the critical radius.\n",
"When bubbles are disturbed, they pulsate (that is, they oscillate in size) at their natural frequency. Large bubbles (negligible surface tension and thermal conductivity) undergo adiabatic pulsations, which means that no heat is transferred either from the liquid to the gas or vice versa. The natural frequency of such bubbles is determined by the equation:\n",
"Because it is often difficult to observe intrinsic values in real-life markets, bubbles are often conclusively identified only in retrospect, once a sudden drop in prices has occurred. Such a drop is known as a \"crash\" or a \"bubble burst\". In an economic bubble, prices can fluctuate erratically and become impossible to predict from supply and demand alone.\n",
"Any increase in size of the bubble will decrease its potential energy, as the energy of the wall increases as the surface area of a sphere formula_1 but the negative contribution of the interior increases more quickly, as the volume of a sphere formula_2. Therefore, after the bubble is nucleated, it quickly begins expanding at very nearly the speed of light. The excess energy contributes to the very large kinetic energy of the walls. If two bubbles are nucleated and they eventually collide, it is thought that particle production would occur where the walls collide.\n",
"The equilibrium shapes of bubbles expanding and contracting on capillaries (blunt needles) can exhibit hysteresis depending on the relative magnitude of the maximum capillary pressure to ambient pressure, and the relative magnitude of the bubble volume at the maximum capillary pressure to the dead volume in the system. The bubble shape hysteresis is a consequence of gas compressibility, which causes the bubbles to behave differently across expansion and contraction. During expansion, bubbles undergo large non equilibrium jumps in volume, while during contraction the bubbles are more stable and undergo a relatively smaller jump in volume resulting in an asymmetry across expansion and contraction. The bubble shape hysteresis is qualitatively similar to the adsorption hysteresis, and as in the contact angle hysteresis, the interfacial properties play an important role in bubble shape hysteresis.\n"
] |
why is snot green.
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When your body first makes it, it's clear. But it's like fly paper. It's there to catch debris going into your nose. So stuff gets mixed in, and if you do have an infection, your white blood cells can turn it green (something in them is oxidizing in the atmosphere)
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[
"Malachite green is an organic compound that is used as a dyestuff and controversially as an antimicrobial in aquaculture. Malachite green is traditionally used as a dye for materials such as silk, leather, and paper. Despite its name the dye is not prepared from the mineral malachite, and the name just comes from the similarity of color.\n",
"Agent Green is the code name for a powerful herbicide and defoliant used by the U.S. military in its herbicidal warfare program during the Vietnam War. The name comes from the green stripe painted on the barrels to identify the contents. Largely inspired by the British use of herbicides and defoliants during the Malayan Emergency, it was one of the so-called \"Rainbow Herbicides\". Agent Green was only used between 1962 and 1964, during the early \"testing\" stages of the spraying program.\n",
"Quinizarine Green SS, also called Solvent Green 3 is an anthraquinone derivative. It is a black powder that is soluble in polar organic solvents, but insoluble in water. It is used as a dye for adding greenish coloring to cosmetics and medications. It is used in some colored smoke formulations.\n",
"Scheele's Green, also called Schloss Green, is chemically a cupric hydrogen arsenite (also called copper arsenite or acidic copper arsenite), . It is chemically related to Paris Green. It is a yellowish-green pigment which in the past was used in some paints, but has since fallen out of use because of its toxicity and the instability of its color in the presence of sulfides and various chemical pollutants.\n",
"Malachite green is classified in the dyestuff industry as a triarylmethane dye and also using in pigment industry. Formally, malachite green refers to the chloride salt [CHC(CHN(CH))]Cl, although the term malachite green is used loosely and often just refers to the colored cation. The oxalate salt is also marketed. The anions have no effect on the color. The intense green color of the cation results from a strong absorption band at 621 nm (extinction coefficient of ).\n",
"The Green is a mystical realm inhabited by the minds of all members of the Parliament of Trees, and it is a phenomenon that connects all forms of botanical life on earth. It is in the same category as The Red (which is connected to all animal life and run by the Parliament of Limbs), The Clear (which is associated with aquatic life and run by the Parliament of Vapors), an unnamed fire realm (which is associated with fire elementals and connected to the Parliament of Flames, which resides in the Earth's sun), The Melt (which is connected to Earth elementals and run by the Parliament of Stones), The Grey (which is connected to all fungal life), and The Black (which is associated with Death, was also called The Rot, and run by the Parliament of Decay). Various plant elementals of the DCU have been known to communicate with the Green as well and appear to have an in-tune rapport with it. These select few include the following:\n",
"Blue green alga was first used as a means of fixing nitrogen by allowing cyanobacteria to multiply in the soil. Nitrogen fixation is important as a means of allowing inorganic compounds such as nitrogen to be converted to organic forms which can then be used by plants. The use of cyanobacteria is an economically sound and environmentally friendly method of increasing productivity. Rice production in India and Iran have employed this method of using the nitrogen fixing properties of free living cyanobacteria to supplement nitrogen content in soils.\n"
] |
why did the special effects industry move from bluescreen to greenscreen?
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_URL_0_
This portion:
Processing a green backdrop[edit source | editbeta]
Green is currently used as a backdrop more than any other color because image sensors in digital video cameras are most sensitive to green, due to the bayer pattern allocating more pixels to the green channel, mimicking the human eye's increased sensitivity to green light.[6] Therefore, the green camera channel contains the least "noise" and can produce the cleanest key/matte/mask. Additionally, less light is needed to illuminate green, again because of the higher sensitivity to green in image sensors.[7] Bright green has also become favored since a blue background may match a subject's eye color or common items of clothing, such as jeans, or a dark-navy suit.
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[
"The first special effects in the cinema were created while the film was being shot. These came to be known as \"in-camera\" effects. Later, optical and digital effects were developed so that editors and visual effects artists could more tightly control the process by manipulating the film in post-production.\n",
"The film is noted for its surprising quality of the special effects which were in their infancy at the time this film was made. The film was released in black and white although a colour version of the film also exists.\n",
"A major difference between a virtual studio and the bluescreen special effects used in movies is that the computer graphics are rendered in realtime, removing the need for any post production work, and allowing it to be used in live television broadcasts.\n",
"\"The whole idea was to capture the era, since obviously the original films were shot in black and white,\" Bogdanovich says. \"My cinematographer, Laszlo Kovacs, carefully lit everything to accommodate black-and-white, which is why the lighting looks so good. We used a lot of the techniques of the silent era, irising in and out of scenes. There are no opticals at all in the film. But all the studio wanted was another broad comedy like \"What's Up, Doc?\" \"\n",
"With these special effects, the film managed to surprise and make enjoy the experience to a public of 1901, thanks to the great concentration of tricks, the fast pace of the actions or the aesthetics itself. It is a film that was not innovative in technical matters, but knew how to intelligently apply the innovations that had existed until then in a primary scenario to explain a story, instead of showing mastery of visual tricks, giving more importance to the story than to the special effects.\n",
"Special effects shots using black velvet trick photography took three weeks of post-production and were scheduled after the film completed production on July 13, 1956. Warren described the special effects as \"hard to assign correctly.\" Clifford Stine, whose field was process work and rear-screen projection, is credited with \"special photography\". The boat scene at the beginning of the film was shot on Universal's process stage which allowed for rear screen projection. Shots of Scott in certain scenes such as his encounter with the mist were shot with him against a black velvet black drop. \n",
"Special effects (often abbreviated as SFX, SPFX, or simply FX) are illusions or visual tricks used in the film, television, theatre, video game and simulator industries to simulate the imagined events in a story or virtual world.\n"
] |
citizens united v. federal election commission
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It used to be that corporations were allowed to run things called **Issue Ads**, but were not allowed to support actual candidates. So they could run an ad saying, "Support Solar Energy" but not "Support Candidate 'A.'"
Citizens United decided that this was an unreasonable restraint on a corporation's and union's rights and that they should be able to spend money in support of candidates. This has angered a lot of people who feel that the decision opened yet another door by which corporations can influence elections and buy favor with candidates. An influence that individuals can't match.
However, direct contributions from Corporations and Unions direct to candidates' campaigns were not in question and are still banned under current law.
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[
"Another Supreme Court case related to the issue is \"Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission\". The dispute was over whether Citizens United, a non-profit corporation, had the same right to fund political campaigns as a person. In this controversial case, the Supreme Court's 5-4 decision favored Citizen United, granting corporations, profit and non-profit, and unions the right to financially support political campaigns.\n",
"In 2010, the Supreme Court in \"Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission\" overturned \"Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce\" (1990), portions of \"McConnell v. Federal Election Commission\" (2003), and Section 203 of the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (2002) that prohibited electioneering communications by corporations. The Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy described the reasoning of the \"Citizens\" majority as based on two propositions. The first was that the Court has recognized that \"First Amendment protections extend to corporations,\" for which the Court cited \"Bellotti\" as an example. The Court \"returned to the principle established in \"Buckley\" and \"Bellotti\" that the Government may not suppress political speech based on the speaker's corporate identity.\" The Court cited \"Bellotti\" in arguing that political speech is \"indispensable to decision making in a democracy and [that] this is no less true because the speech comes from a corporation.\" The second proposition addressed contribution expenditure and corruption. The Court ruled that independent expenditure limits were unconstitutional because, unlike campaign contribution limits, they fail to \"serve any substantial government interest in stemming the reality or appearance of corruption in the electoral process.\" The Court argued, \"\"Austin\" upheld a corporate independent expenditure restriction\" by recognizing a \"new governmental interest\" in preventing corruption to \"bypass \"Buckley\" and \"Bellotti\".\" The Court rejected the anti-distortion reasoning argued in \"Austin\" and returned to the qui pro quo conception of corruption used in \"Buckley\", stating that \"independent expenditures, including those made by corporations, do not give rise to corruption or the appearance of corruption.\" In overruling \"Austin\", the \"Citizens\" majority insisted, \"before \"Austin\", the court had not allowed the exclusion of a class of speakers from general public dialogue.\" The Court did concede that the \"Bellotti\" case \"did not address the constitutionality\" of bans on \"corporate independent expenditures to support candidates.\" However, the court reasoned that such bans \"would have been unconstitutional under \"Bellotti's\" central principle that the First Amendment does not allow political speech restrictions based on a speaker's corporate identity.\"\n",
"The Open Our Democracy Act is a bill introduced in the United States House of Representatives by U.S. Representative John Delaney. The bill would establish Election Day as a federal holiday, mandate open and top-two primary elections so that all eligible voters can participate in them, and end gerrymandering by requiring independent commissions to draw the districts in each state.\n",
"The Commonwealth argued that Part IIID of the Act did not single out the States, nor interfere with their proper activities, since State elections were treated in exactly the same way as Federal elections were.\n",
"In explaining the litigation, Equal Citizens' chief counsel Jason Harrow argued that \"the framers of the Constitution intended presidential electors to be able to exercise independent judgment in casting their votes for president of the United States\". In March 2017, an administrative law judge rejected the arguments of the Washington plaintiffs. Thurston County Superior Court Judge Carol Murphy later denied their claim in December 2017. After the ruling, Harrow said that Murphy’s decision did not affect Equal Citizens' goal of eventually taking the case to the U.S. Supreme Court. In April 2018, U.S. District Court Senior Judge Wiley Y. Daniel rejected the Colorado plaintiffs' case, declaring that they lacked standing. Equal Citizens appealed the judge’s decision.\n",
"In 2011, Yarmuth introduced a bill alongside Republican Congressman Walter Jones that would seek to overturn key parts of the controversial court case \"Citizens United v. FEC\". The legislation would also give Congress the power to enact mandatory public financing for Congressional candidates and create a national holiday for voting purposes.\n",
"Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission, 558 U.S. 310 (2010), is a landmark United States Supreme Court case concerning campaign finance. The Court held that the free speech clause of the First Amendment prohibits the government from restricting independent expenditures for political communications by corporations, including nonprofit corporations, labor unions, and other associations.\n"
] |
How did the US Marines and National Guard come to have their own air arms?
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Let me correct a few misconceptions.
The US Marine Corps is NOT a part of the US Navy. It falls under the Department of the Navy for administrative purposes but is a separate arm in its own right for operational purposes. Furthermore, Marine Aviation did not come about in World War 2. It dates back, for all intents and purposes, to this man: _URL_0_ This is Lieutenant Colonel Alfred Austell Cunningham, and the photo was taken in 1912. As this is not directly related to your question, if you want follow-up on this, go to Wikipedia: _URL_1_ (it's a nice article with references).
Marine Aviation was created Feb 26 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, when Cunningham was instructed to organize an Aviation Company for the Advanced Base Force. In 1919, Major Cunningham was assigned to command the new Aviation Section, Headquarters Marine Corps. So, by 1941 the air arm of the USMC was already well established, even if not very powerful (they were flying goddamn Brewster Buffaloes as their main fighter aircraft).
And now to answer your question: why did the USMC (I know I'm skipping the National Guard, sorry) get its own air arm? Because it needed one. The USMC utilizes Navy ships, but it's an independent force, and thus has to rely mainly on itself in conducting operations, especially once the marines get further away from the coast. Probably if the USMC brass in 1917 hadn't thought of creating its own air arm, some provisions would have been made eventually for the Navy to provide all types of air support.
Source & further reading: *The United States Marine Corps: A Chronology, 1775 to the Present*, by John C. Fredriksen. ABC-Clio, Santa Barbara, CA, 2011.
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[
"The United States Marine Corps (USMC) is currently the largest and only marine combined-arms force in the world. Created in 1775, it was originally intended only to guard naval vessels during the American Revolutionary War. While the USMC is a component part of the US Department of the Navy in the military command structure, it is a separate military branch from the United States Navy, with its own representative on the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The Corps’ major functions include: seizure or defense of advanced naval bases and ... land operations ... essential to ... a naval campaign, ... provid[ing] detachments and organizations for service on armed vessels of the Navy ... [and] security detachments for the protection of naval property at naval stations and bases ... and such other duties as the President may direct ... [and] develop[ing] ... those phases of amphibious operations that pertain to the tactics, technique, and equipment used by landing forces. It also conducts maritime boarding operations and operates its own aviation units mainly to provide air support to the rest of its forces. It also has other missions. These include, among others, providing personnel as security guards at US diplomatic missions throughout the world, and providing helicopter transportation for the President of the United States aboard Marine One. Its motto is \"Semper Fidelis\", which means \"always faithful\" in Latin.\n",
"In May 2005, 3rd Battalion, 11th Marines, based at Marine Corps Air Ground Combat Center Twentynine Palms, became the first Marine unit to begin fielding the new M777. 580 guns were supplied to the Marines, and 421 to the U.S. Army and National Guard.\n",
"The formal and permanent use of Marines as security guards began with the Foreign Service Act of 1946, which authorized the Secretary of Navy to, upon the request of the Secretary of State, assign Marines to serve as custodians under the supervision of the senior diplomatic officer at a diplomatic post. The first joint Memorandum of Agreement was signed on 15 December 1948 regarding the provisions of assigning Marines overseas. Trained at the Foreign Service Institute, the first Marines arrived at Tangier and Bangkok in early 1949. The Marine Corps assumed the primary training responsibility in November 1954. The authority granted in the Foreign Service Act of 1946 has since been replaced by and the most recent Memorandum of Agreement was signed in August 2008.\n",
"The air arm was given the responsibility for land-based air defense of the coasts of the United States and the overseas possessions, an assignment increasing the Air Corps' requirements for long range air capabilities.\n",
"In June 1965, U.S. Coast Guard Squadron One used the range facilities for small arms training in preparation for deployment to Vietnam. Training was completed with pistols, rifles and machine guns under the auspices of the U.S. Navy.\n",
"The Congress did not dis-establish the Army Air Corps as a combat arm until 26 July 1947, when the National Security Act of 1947 (61 \"Stat.\" 502) became law. Most members of the Army Air Forces also remained members of the Air Corps. In May 1945, 88 percent of officers serving in the Army Air Forces were commissioned in the Air Corps, while 82 percent of enlisted members assigned to AAF units and bases had the Air Corps as their combat arm branch.\n",
"During World War I the Fifth and Sixth Marines fought in France as the Fourth Marine Brigade of the US Army's 2nd Infantry Division were forced to wear the Army's uniform. The Marines had only the eagle, globe, and anchor on their soft covers to distinguish themselves from their Army brothers-in-arms. As this did not sit well with the Marines, a patch was designed to distinguish them from their counterparts. A black shield with one five-pointed star and an Indian head with full war bonnet was selected. It is said that the black was for mourning and respect for their casualties, the shield for defense, and the star for the Second Division Commander, Brigadier General John A. Lejeune, and the Indian for General Lejeune's nickname \"Old Indian.\" Another source says the patch was derived from a U.S. Coin in circulation at the time.\n"
] |
Would we know if another animal on our planet reached a state of sentience/sapience to the level of reason?
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It all depends on how you define sentience:
* Elephants are known to [grieve and bury their dead.](_URL_6_)
* Apes are known to [wage war on each other,](_URL_0_) (I've seen actual footage of an attack in a forest but can't find it now) [make tools,](_URL_5_) and even [weapons](_URL_1_)
* Chimps are commonly used for studying behavior relating to humans and exhibit [jealousy and a sense of fairness](_URL_2_). I've read elsewhere that in a similar experiment, grapes were traded as currency [in one case with Capuchins in exchange for sex.](_URL_3_)
* Dolphins are known to [kill for sport/fun](_URL_4_)
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[
"\"Convergent evidence indicates that non-human animals [...], including all mammals and birds, and other creatures, [...] have the necessary neural substrates of consciousness and the capacity to exhibit intentional behaviors.\"\n",
"Wilson's (1984) biophilia hypothesis is based on the premise that our attachment to and interest in animals stems from the strong possibility that human survival was partly dependent on signals from animals in the environment indicating safety or threat. The biophilia hypothesis suggests that if we see animals at rest or in a peaceful state, this may signal to us safety, security and feelings of well-being which in turn may trigger a state where personal change and healing are possible.\n",
"In the animal kingdom, there is a gradation in the nervous complexity, taking examples from the marine sponges that lack neurons, intestinal worms with ~ 300 neurons or humans with ~ 86 billion. While the existence of neurons is not sufficient to demonstrate the existence of sentience in an animal, it is a necessary condition, without neurons there is no place where it can happen (and the fewer the neurons, the lower the maximum capacity of intelligence an organism).\n",
"It has been suggested that metacognition in some animals provides some evidence for cognitive self-awareness. The great apes, dolphins, and rhesus monkeys have demonstrated the ability to monitor their own mental states and use an \"I don't know\" response to avoid answering difficult questions. Unlike the mirror test, which reveals awareness of the condition of one's own body, this uncertainty monitoring is thought to reveal awareness of one's internal mental state. A 2007 study has provided some evidence for metacognition in rats, although this interpretation has been questioned. These species might also be aware of the strength of their memories.\n",
"In 2013, Whiten reviewed the literature and concluded that regarding the question \"Are chimpanzees truly mentalists, like we are?\", he stated he could not offer an affirmative or negative answer. A similarly equivocal view was stated in 2014 by Brauer, who suggested that many previous experiments on ToM could be explained by the animals possessing other abilities. They went on further to make reference to several authors who suggest it is pointless to ask a \"yes or no\" question, rather, it makes more sense to ask which psychological states animals understand and to what extent. At the same time, it was suggested that a \"minimal theory of mind\" may be \"what enables those with limited cognitive resources or little conceptual sophistication, such as infants, chimpanzees, scrub-jays and human adults under load, to track others' perceptions, knowledge states and beliefs.\"\n",
"Pythagoreans believed that human beings were animals, but with an advanced intellect and therefore humans had to purify themselves through training. Through purification humans could join the psychic force that pervaded the cosmos. Pythagoreans reasoned that the logic of this argument could not be avoided by killing an animal painlessly. The Pythagoreans also thought that animals were sentient and minimally rational. The arguments advanced by Pythagoreans convinced numerous of their philosopher contemporaries to adopt a vegetarian diet. The Pythagorean sense of kinship with non-humans positioned them as a counterculture in the dominant meat-eating culture. The philosopher Empedocles is said to have refused the customary blood sacrifice by offering a substitute sacrifice after his victory in a horse race in Olympia. \n",
"This relationship is not limited to humans. A number of animals consume different psychoactive plants, animals, berries and even fermented fruit, becoming intoxicated, such as cats after consuming catnip. Traditional legends of sacred plants often contain references to animals that introduced humankind to their use. Animals and psychoactive plants appear to have co-evolved, possibly explaining why these chemicals and their receptors exist within the nervous system.\n"
] |
what's up with the "num lk" on keyboards and what possible scenario would i want the number pad to not work?
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Num lock turns the numpad into arrows.
_URL_0_
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[
"Since ThinkPad computers have a nub that is responsive to pressure in a direction, and there is a patent for this, other companies have made it so a person has to move the finger a large distance to cause the nub to rock from side to side in a much less efficient way.\n",
"LOMAK is an acronym for Light Operated Mouse And Keyboard. It is an assistive technology device designed for use by people who cannot use a standard computer keyboard and mouse. The Lomak is clipped to an adjustable stand placed vertically underneath the computer screen and is operated by a small laser pointer mounted on a hat or headband. Some people who have arm movement can alternatively use the Lomak horizontally with a hand-pointer. It can be used as an additional keyboard and mouse with any desktop or laptop computer which has a spare USB port. Like many computer peripherals for people with special access needs, it is very expensive, about $1500.\n",
"Numeric sections on usual keyboards for personal computers do not comply to the standard, as they usually have a Num lock key in the upper left corner where the standard requires the “+” key, and therefore also show a different arrangement of the other arithmetic keys (usually lacking an “=” key; see the second picture). By this, the standard in its present form (ISO/IEC 9995-4:2009) can be considered outdated.\n",
"There is not yet an agreed-upon standard for the placement of the Fn key, although most manufacturers have elected to place it alongside a shrunken and/or displaced left Control key. Because the Control key is most frequently associated with OS and application shortcuts (such as Control+S to save a document, or Control+Shift+Escape to launch the Task Manager in modern versions of Microsoft Windows), altering its size and placement is often regarded as inconvenient for users accustomed to the larger left Control key on IBM PC-style keyboards commonly used for desktop computers.\n",
"The ESDF variation is an alternative to WASD and is sometimes preferred because it provides access to movement independent keys for the little finger (, , ) which generally allows for more advanced manual binding. Incidentally, it allows the left hand to remain in the home row with the advantage of the key home row marker (available on most standard keyboards) to easily return to position with the index finger.\n",
"is the palm-sized, 17-key section of a standard computer keyboard, usually on the far right. It provides calculator-style efficiency for entering numbers. The idea of a 10-key number pad cluster was originally introduced by Tadao Kashio, the developer of Casio electronic calculators. \n",
"A different solution, which side-steps the Fn key placement issue altogether, is to remap the Caps-Lock key as Control. This emulates the layout of the IBM Model F keyboard for the original IBM PC, which placed the Caps-Lock key where right Control is found on modern keyboards, a location that is favoured by some Vim and Emacs users because of its prominent location and long-time use on Unix workstations.\n"
] |
do birds stop migrating? i mean, do i have birds in my city that consider this home base, or is every bird i see just pit stopping on their way to somewhere else?
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Some birds stay all winter long. Robins and crows are 2 that I can think of. Bald eagles too.
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[
"Migrating birds can lose their way and appear outside their normal ranges. This can be due to flying past their destinations as in the \"spring overshoot\" in which birds returning to their breeding areas overshoot and end up further north than intended. Certain areas, because of their location, have become famous as watchpoints for such birds. Examples are the Point Pelee National Park in Canada, and Spurn in England.\n",
"Migratory birds are flying toward the south-west during the autumn, many of them attempt to follow land as long as they can (especially such birds that cannot land on water), and as Falsterbo is located as south-west as possible at the Scandinavian peninsula. The migratory birds tend to gather around Falsterbo for a rest or until the weather conditions are good in order to fly across the Baltic Sea to the European continent. The high number of migratory birds during September, October and November also attract birds of prey to the area.\n",
"Bird migration is the regular seasonal movement, often north and south along a flyway, between breeding and wintering grounds. Many species of bird migrate. Migration carries high costs in predation and mortality, including from hunting by humans, and is driven primarily by availability of food. It occurs mainly in the northern hemisphere, where birds are funneled on to specific routes by natural barriers such as the Mediterranean Sea or the Caribbean Sea.\n",
"These birds are altitudinal migrants; they follow the progress of flowers as they develop at increasing altitudes throughout the year. Seeking food at low elevation exposes them to low elevation disease organisms and high mortality. It has been theorized that the Iiwi can migrate between islands and it may be why the bird has not gone extinct on smaller islands such as Molokai.\n",
"Many bird populations migrate long distances twice a year. The most common pattern involves flying north in the spring to breed in the temperate parts of the northern hemisphere or the Arctic during summer and returning southward in the autumn to wintering grounds in warmer regions, often on the other side of the equator. A similar pattern occurs in the southern hemisphere with birds flying south to breed and north to overwinter, but on a much smaller scale. The flyway, or route, taken by different bird species varies, but each population has its traditional staging points along the route where birds feed to build up their energy reserves to prepare for the next migratory stage; the route used on the spring migration may be different from that used in the autumn and will depend on such factors as wind direction and the availability of food at staging points.\n",
"While migrating, these birds have been reported travelling through middle America, Florida, the West Indies, Cuba, the Caribbean and Bermuda, finally completing their journey in the wintering grounds of South America, primarily Argentina.\n",
"If a bird sets off in the opposite direction, shown by the orange arrow, it will end up in Western Europe instead of South East Asia. This is a mechanism that leads to birds such as Pallas's warbler turning up thousands of kilometres from where they should be. Keith Vinicombe suggested that birds from east of Lake Baikal in Siberia (circled) could not occur in western Europe because the migration routes were too north-south. Most of these lost young birds perish in unsuitable wintering grounds, but there is some evidence that a few survive, and either re-orient in successive winters, or even return to the same area.\n"
] |
Why are some planets / moons in our solar system so uniformly colored?
|
I might not be the best person to answer this question, but I'll take a stab at it.
Disregarding life, vegetation, atmosphere, and the ocean (none of which are present in the moon), the Earth would actually look quite a bit more homogeneous than it does now. Much of the variation that would be present would be sure to the fact that the earth is geologically active. The Grand Canyon is red because it is made of sandstone, Mauna Kea is black because it is made of basalt, etc. By contrast, the moon is largely geologically inactive. It has neither liquid water nor atmosphere, so there are no sedimentary rocks. It is not as massive as earth, so there wouldn't be much metamorphization (if that's a word). Those metamorphic rocks that did form would never be brought to the surface because the moon doesn't have tectonic activity.
In short, the moon looks homogeneous because there are not any processes that would make it heterogeneous.
|
[
"Each planet's system displays slightly different characteristics. Jupiter's irregulars are grey to slightly red, consistent with C, P and D-type asteroids. Some groups of satellites are observed to display similar colours (see later sections). Saturn's irregulars are slightly redder than those of Jupiter.\n",
"Although no images from within Jupiter's atmosphere have ever been taken, artistic representations typically assume that the planet's sky is blue, though dimmer than Earth's, because the sunlight there is on average 27 times fainter, at least in the upper reaches of the atmosphere. The planet's narrow rings might be faintly visible from latitudes above the equator. Further down into the atmosphere, the Sun would be obscured by clouds and haze of various colors, most commonly blue, brown, and red. Although theories abound on the cause of the colors, there is currently no unambiguous answer.\n",
"The red colors of the planets may be explained by the presence of iron and silicate atmospheric clouds, while their low surface gravities might explain the strong disequilibrium concentrations of carbon monoxide and the lack of strong methane absorption.\n",
"The Sun looks the same from the Moon as it does from Earth's orbit, somewhat brighter than it does from the Earth's surface, and colored pure white, due to the lack of atmospheric scattering and absorption.\n",
"BULLET::::- The planet Uranus is colored cyan because of the abundance of methane in its atmosphere. Methane absorbs red light and reflects the blue-green light which allows observers to see it as cyan.\n",
"All the inner satellites of Jupiter, Uranus, and Neptune have very dark surfaces with an albedo between 0.06 (Metis) and 0.10 (Adrastea). Saturn's satellites, in contrast, have very bright surfaces, with albedos between 0.4 and 0.6. This is thought to be because their surfaces are being coated with fresh ice particles swept up from the ring system within which they orbit. The inner satellites around the other planets may have been darkened by space weathering. None of the known inner satellites possesses an atmosphere.\n",
"Planets with equilibrium temperatures between about 350 K (170 °F, 80 °C) and 800 K (980 °F, 530 °C) do not form global cloud cover, because they lack suitable chemicals in the atmosphere to form clouds. These planets would appear as featureless azure-blue globes because of Rayleigh scattering and absorption by methane in their atmospheres, appearing like Jovian-mass versions of Uranus and Neptune. Because of the lack of a reflective cloud layer, the Bond albedo is low, around 0.12 for a class-III planet around a Sun-like star. They exist in the inner regions of a planetary system, roughly corresponding to the location of Mercury.\n"
] |
do people who speak "faster" languages think faster?
|
No, Spanish has more consonant clusters and news reporters etc will always talk really fast but they're producing the same amount of information. Another example would be written Chinese where each character has a whole meaning which is different to english which depends on an alphabet to build words. Even though a few Chinese characters can say what a lot of English words do, it takes about the same amount of time to extract the same amount of information. This is because, in reading, you skip most of the letters, ie you recognise whole words without recognising individual letters.
You can train your brain to think and react faster, just keep using it productively. Don't be stuck in the same routines all the time, read and learn more things, exercise more, challenge yourself with new ideas.
|
[
"Speedsters may at times use the ability to speed-read at incredible rates and in doing so, process vast amounts of information. Whatever knowledge they acquire in this manner is usually temporary. Their ability to think fast also allows them some immunity to telepathy, as their thoughts operate at a rate too rapid for telepaths such as Martian Manhunter or Gorilla Grodd to read or influence their minds.\n",
"In the absence of reliable evidence to support it, it seems that the widespread view that some languages are spoken more rapidly than others is an illusion. This illusion may well be related to other factors such as differences of rhythm and pausing. In another study, an analysis of speech rate and perception in radio bulletins, the average rate of bulletins varied from 168 (English, BBC) to 210 words per minutes (Spanish, RNE).\n",
"L2 speech rate is typically slower than native speech. For example, Mandarin Chinese speakers’ speech rate in an English utterance is slower than native English speakers’ speech rate (Derwing and Munro, 1995), and speech rates in a sentence by highly experienced Italian and Korean nonnative speakers of English are slower than that of native English speakers' (Guion et al., 2000). In this study, the main factor of the slower speech rate for the Italian and Korean accented English was the durations of the vowels and sonorant consonants (Guion et al., 2000). Another source of the slower speech rate in L2 speech is that L2 speakers tend to not reduce function words, such as \"the\" or \"and,\" as much as native speakers (Aoyama and Guion, 2007). The generally slower speech rate in L2 speech is correlated with the degree of perceived foreign accent by native listeners (Derwing and Munro, 1997).\n",
"Speed thinking is a type of thinking technique proposed by authors such as Dr Ken Hudson, Malcolm Gladwell and Edward de Bono that, according to the authors, could accelerate the pace of thinking and improve how an individual or group thinks, creates, solves and acts.\n",
"Speedtalk is a fictional constructed language and key plot device in Robert A. Heinlein's novella \"Gulf\" (1949). Speedtalk is a logic-based language with complex syntax, minimal vocabulary, and a rich phoneme inventory (written with letters such as œ, ħ, ø, and ʉ); it would make both communication and thought more efficient and precise. A single phoneme indicates a word, so a \"word\" indicates a sentence. In the only example given, a \"word\" means \"\"The far horizons draw no nearer.\"\"\n",
"So although it is often assumed that young children learn languages more easily than adolescents and adults, the reverse is in fact true; older learners are faster. The only exception to this rule is in pronunciation. Young children invariably learn to speak their second language with native-like pronunciation, whereas learners who start learning a language at an older age only rarely reach a native-like level.\n",
"It is often assumed that young children learn languages more easily than adolescents and adults. However, the reverse is true; older learners are faster. The only exception to this rule is in pronunciation. Young children invariably learn to speak their second language with native-like pronunciation, whereas learners who start learning a language at an older age only rarely reach a native-like level.\n"
] |
How does movement on a quantum scale work?
|
> they have to be somewhere?
A tidal wave has to be somewhere, but you can't determine its location more precisely that a few meters. For a ship, you could define it's center of mass and find that location very precisely, but something like a wave doesn't even have a well-defined shape.
|
[
"In Schenkerian theory, a scale-step () is a triad (based on one of the diatonic scale degrees) that is perceived as an organizing force for a passage of music (in accordance with the principle of composing-out). In \"Harmony\", Schenker gives the following example and asserts that \n",
"Motion estimation is the process of determining motion vectors that describe the transformation from one 2D image to another; usually from adjacent frames in a video sequence. The motion vectors may relate to the whole image (global motion estimation) or specific parts, such as rectangular blocks, arbitrary shaped patches or even per pixel. The motion vectors may be represented by a translational model or many other models that can approximate the motion of a real video camera, such as rotation and translation in all three dimensions and zoom.\n",
"Motion estimation is the process of determining motion vectors that describe the transformation from one 2D image to another; usually from adjacent frames in a video sequence. It is an ill-posed problem as the motion is in three dimensions but the images are a projection of the 3D scene onto a 2D plane. The motion vectors may relate to the whole image (global motion estimation) or specific parts, such as rectangular blocks, arbitrary shaped patches or even per pixel. The motion vectors may be represented by a translational model or many other models that can approximate the motion of a real video camera, such as rotation and translation in all three dimensions and zoom.\n",
"A motion move is when a player moves one of their pieces vertically, horizontally, or diagonally along the lines of the board and into an unoccupied space. However, a piece’s move is limited by the direction(s) its indicator(s) are pointed, as well as the type of piece. A player may not move more than one piece on a turn, and a player may only move in the direction of one of the piece’s indicators. If a space is occupied by a piece of another color, the player may capture it.\n",
"A motion diagram represents the motion of an object by displaying its location at various equally spaced times on the same diagram. Motion diagrams are a pictorial description of an object's motion. They show an object's position and velocity initially, and present several spots in the center of the diagram. These spots reveal whether or not the object has accelerated or decelerated.\n",
"In scale relativity, quantum mechanical effects appear as effects of fractal structures on the movement. The fundamental indeterminism and nonlocality of quantum mechanics are deduced from the fractal geometry itself.\n",
"A motion simulator or motion platform is a mechanism that creates the feelings of being in a real motion environment. In a simulator, the movement is synchronised with a visual display of the outside world (OTW) scene. Motion platforms can provide movement in all of the six degrees of freedom (DOF) that can be experienced by an object that is free to move, such as an aircraft or spacecraft:. These are the three rotational degrees of freedom (roll, pitch, yaw) and three translational or linear degrees of freedom (surge, heave, sway).\n"
] |
When batteries run out in a Gameboy then you turn it back on, it can run for a short while. Why?
|
While the device is on it is consuming power. Placing an electrical load on the battery causes the voltage to "sag" a little. Once the voltage sags below a certain point, the device detects it as a dead battery. Turning off the device relieves the batteries of the load and the chemical reaction inside the cells quickly recovers the voltage to a point above what the device considers "dead." As soon as you turn the device on again it consumes what little power was generated in the down time and reverts to "dead" status.
|
[
"The Game Boy Battery Pack sold for about $30 USD. The battery peripheral itself is roughly 3 in. long, 2 in. wide, and 0.5 in. thick. One end sprouts a thin cable that ends by being plugged into the external power jack of the Game Boy, while the other end connects to a standard mains plug. The first version of it is gray with purple lettering, to match the colors used on the Game Boy. It also features a belt clip. The battery pack was good for several hours of gameplay per charge, providing an alternative to purchasing more AA batteries once their power had exhausted. The product used nickel-cadmium batteries, lasted about 4–5 hours per charge, and could be charged roughly 1000 times before a significant loss in effectiveness. A major drawback of the battery pack is its weight, as well as the way the plug stuck out prominently from the side of the Game Boy.\n",
"Even though third-party rechargeable batteries were available for the battery-hungry alternatives to the Game Boy, these batteries employed a nickel-cadmium process and had to be completely discharged before being recharged to ensure maximum efficiency; lead-acid batteries could be used with automobile circuit limiters (cigarette lighter plug devices); but the batteries had mediocre portability. The later NiMH batteries, which do not share this requirement for maximum efficiency, were not released until the late 1990s, years after the Game Gear, Atari Lynx, and original Game Boy had been discontinued. During the time when technologically superior handhelds had strict technical limitations, batteries had a very low mAh rating since batteries with heavy power density were not yet available.\n",
"The blue LEDs also indicate the battery's state: on pressing any button (other than the power button) while the controller is not being used to play games, four LEDs flash to indicate full battery, three for 75%, two for 50%, and one for 25% life remaining.\n",
"The \"B\" boards hold battery-backed memory containing decryption keys needed for the games to run. As time passes, these batteries lose their charge and the games stop functioning, because the CPU cannot execute any code without the decryption keys. This is known to hobbyists as the \"suicide battery\". It is possible to bypass the original battery and swap it out with a new one in-circuit, but this must be done before the original falls below 2V or the keys will be lost.\n",
"As a mixed string of new and old batteries is depleted, the string voltage will drop, and when the old batteries are exhausted the new batteries still have charge available. The newer cells may continue to discharge through the rest of the string, but due to the low voltage this energy flow may not be useful, and may be wasted in the old cells as resistance heating.\n",
"Power for the LED was provided by two AA batteries. However, because the game was mechanical, in the right light conditions, it was possible to play \"Blip\" without batteries as one could see the unlit LED under the screen.\n",
"The blue LEDs also show how much battery power remains on the Wii Remote. By pressing any button, besides the power button while the controller is not being used to play games, a certain number of the four blue LEDs will light up, showing the battery life: four of the LEDs flash when it is at, or near, full power. Three lights flash when it is at 75%, two lights when at 50%, and one light flashes when there is 25% or less power remaining.\n"
] |
why is turning your computer off at the powerpoint, rather than shutting it down properly, bad?
|
When you're done brushing your teeth, you can carefully wash your toothbrush and put it in its little holder. You can also just throw it down onto the countertop and walk away. Doing it that way will *usually* work, but there's a chance that someone will knock it onto the floor or get some hair on it.
Turning off a computer is the same way.
|
[
"To shut down or power off a computer is to remove power from a computer's main components in a controlled way. After a computer is shut down, main components such as CPUs, RAM modules and hard disk drives are powered down, although some internal components, such as an internal clock, may retain power.\n",
"The user is instructed to power on and power off all peripherals in proper order to avoid corrupting data or potentially damaging hardware components. The manuals for the TRS-80 advise turning on the monitor first, then any peripherals attached to the E/I (if multiple disk drives are attached, the last drive on the chain is to be powered on first and work down from there), the E/I, and the computer last. When powering down, the computer is to be turned off first, followed by the monitor, E/I, and peripherals. In addition, users are instructed to remove all disks from the drives during power up or down (or else leave the drive door open to disengage the read/write head from the disk). This is because a transient electrical surge from the drive's read/write head would create a magnetic pulse that could corrupt data. This was a common problem on many early floppy drives.\n",
"In Microsoft Windows and ReactOS, a PC or server is shut down by selecting the Shutdown item from the Start menu on the desktop. Options include shutting down the system and powering off, automatically restarting the system after shutting down, or putting the system into stand-by mode.\n",
"BULLET::::- Managing power states: Logging off and shutdown has always been a function of the Start menu. In Windows 8, the shutdown function was moved out of the Start screen, only to be brought back in Windows 8.1 Update (in April 2014) with a sufficiently high screen resolution. Computer power states can also be managed by pressing Alt+F4, or by pressing Ctrl+Alt+Del.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"shutdown\" is the label of an optional routine used if the system console operator has requested to shut down timesharing. The program has a short period to allow itself to clean up any necessary features and quit. When the routine completes, the program is terminated and the user automatically logged off. If no shutdown routine exists, the program is cancelled without warning and the user automatically logged off.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Idle power-down\": This technique exploits gaps in workload demand to shut off components that are idle. When shut down, components cannot do any useful work. The problems unique to this approach are: (1) it costs time and energy to transition between active and idle power-down states, (2) no work can be done in the off state, so power-up must be done to handle a request, and (3) predicting idle periods and adapting appropriately by choosing the right power state at any moment is difficult.\n",
"Shutdown Day is a global Internet experiment whose purpose is to get people to think about how their lives have changed with the increasing use of the home computer, and whether or not any good things are being lost because of this. The concept of the \"Shutdown Day\" project is to simply shutdown one's computer for one whole day each year, and become involved in other activities: outdoors, nature, sports, fun stuff with friends and family, just to remind yourself that there is a real world beyond the computer screen.\n"
] |
the legalization of marijuana in colorado.
|
According to [this article](_URL_0_) people 21 years of age can purchase it from specially regulated retail stores, and adults can grow up to 6 plants for personal use. Public use and driving under the influence is still illegal.
|
[
"Colorado is open to cannabis (marijuana) tourism. With the adoption of their 64th state amendment in 2013, Colorado became the first state in the union to legalize the medicinal (2000), industrial (2013), and recreational (2014) use of marijuana. Colorado's marijuana industry sold $1.31 billion worth of marijuana in 2016 and $1.26 billion in the first three quarters of 2017. The state generated tax, fee, and license revenue of $194 million in 2016 on legal marijuana sales. Colorado regulates hemp as any part of the plant with less than 0.3% THC.\n",
"Cannabis in Colorado refers to cannabis (the legal term for \"marijuana\") use and possession in the state of Colorado. The Colorado Amendment 64, which was passed by voters on November 6, 2012, led to legalization in January 2014. The policy has led to cannabis tourism. There are two sets of policies in Colorado relating to cannabis use: those for medicinal cannabis and for recreational drug use along with a third set of rules governing hemp.\n",
"Colorado is now 1 of 8 states that have legalized both medical and recreational marijuana, allowing them to tax the product. As of July 2014, six months after recreational shops began sales of marijuana in Colorado, the state has enjoyed a tax revenue of 45 million with 98 million expected by the end of the calendar year. This is in addition to increased economic revenues from \"pot tourists.\"\n",
"In November 2012, the Campaign to Regulate Marijuana Like Alcohol, a ballot initiative campaign backed by MPP, successfully passed Amendment 64, making legal in Colorado the possession, use, production, distribution, and personal cultivation of marijuana. MPP also played a lead role in drafting and campaigning for the historic initiative.\n",
"In January 2018, Coffman joined other Colorado congressman in criticizing a memo by Attorney General Jeff Sessions announcing his intention to rescind the Obama-era practice of allowing states to make marijuana use legal. Coffman suggested that the memo violated the constitution’s commerce clause. “The decision that was made to legalize marijuana in Colorado was made by the voters of Colorado and only applies within the boundaries of our state,” he said. “Colorado had every right to legalize marijuana and I will do everything I can do protect that right against the power of an overreaching federal government.”\n",
"The Adult Use of Marijuana Act (AUMA) (Proposition 64) was a 2016 voter initiative to legalize cannabis in California. The full name is the Control, Regulate and Tax Adult Use of Marijuana Act. The initiative passed with 57% voter approval and became law on November 9, 2016, leading to recreational cannabis sales in California by January 2018.\n",
"On November 6, 2012, voters amended the state constitution to protect \"personal use\" of marijuana for adults, establishing a framework to regulate marijuana in a manner similar to alcohol. The first recreational marijuana shops in Colorado, and by extension the United States, opened their doors on January 1, 2014.\n"
] |
why does mankind need a higher power like god to explain our existence?
|
Long story short? Fear. Fear of what we can't understand, fear of the unknown, fear of what comes next. They take comfort in having answers, even if they are completely bullshit.
|
[
"Throughout history power is typically seen to be a very dangerous and destructive element in people's lives. It is a canker to society or is wicked if you will. Some theorists believe that power itself is actually in fact morally neutral. It is the results of power that determine whether or not power is seen as good. The people in power are then also seen as not wicked in their nature, but rather the urgency for power and within the nature of it is what makes power seen as a wicked idea. Theorists believe that if men were the wicked ones in the equation then the solution to the issues at stake would be ethical improvement. In the end, it isn't power or man that are wicked, but the results of power that cause it to be wicked.\n",
"Long before Friedrich Nietzsche’s coining of a similar phrase, Emerson’s essay claims that \"life is a search after power\" and that \"a cultivated man, wise to know and bold to perform, is the end to which nature works\" (45). In this framework, power is not only a desirable end, but also a natural attribute of powerful people. Such people stand out in every circle of society. The reasons for their power are their \"causationism\", self-reliance, and health. Power is thus not necessarily with the refined elite. In fact, \"the instinct of the people is right\" (54)—the heartland’s farmers’ natural way of living and their straight approach to concrete problems makes them apt to be rulers. This is a major concession of a New England intellectual to Jacksonian Democracy and a \"popular government\". However, it comes along with the optimist prospect that after all, \"power educates the potentate\" (53). In large parts, the text conceptualizes power as an attribute of a few special people. However, there is also a more pragmatic side to the text, which claims that concentration, use, and routine can also help to develop a powerful personality: \"Practice is nine tenth\" (67). In the end, the text reconciles this practical tendency with the intellectual approach to life: \"We can easily overpraise the vulgar hero.\" (69)\n",
"I believe in a higher power which appears to us in the multiplicity of nature and of human life. We have manifestations of certain primal forces which we regard as gods and we have a division in the roles of the gods. These are powers that are visible, half-visible and sometimes invisible. One could have a long scholarly discussion on the role of individual gods, but in the end this is a question of a feeling for the different aspects of life.\n",
"Power tends to confuse itself with virtue and a great nation is particularly susceptible to the idea that its power is a sign of God's favor, conferring upon it a special responsibility for other nations—to make them richer and happier and wiser, to remake them, that is, in its own shining image. Power confuses itself with virtue and tends also to take itself for omnipotence. Once imbued with the idea of a mission, a great nation easily assumes that it has the means as well as the duty to do God's work.\n",
"\"We need a power strong enough to change human nature and build bridges between man and man, faction and faction. This starts when everyone admits his own faults instead of spot-lighting the other fellow's. God alone can change human nature. The secret lies in that great forgotten truth, that when man listens, God speaks; when man obeys, God acts; when men change, nations change.\"\n",
"In his book \"Power...\" Wrong argued:It has been argued that, like \"freedom\" or \"justice\" – those \"big words which make us so unhappy\", as Stephen Dedalus called them – \"power\" is an \"essentially contested concept\", meaning that people with different values and beliefs are bound to disagree over its nature and definition. It is claimed therefore that there cannot be any commonly accepted or even preferred meaning so long as people differ on normative issues as they are likely to do indefinitely, if not forever. \"Power\", however, does not seem to me to be an inherently normative concept. [...] its scope and pervasiveness, its involvement in any and all spheres of social life, give it almost unavoidable evaluative overtones. Positive or negative, benign or malign, auras come to envelop it, linking it still more closely to ideological controversy. Yet power as a generic attribute of social life is surely more like the concepts of \"society\", \"group\" or \"social norm\" than like such essentially and inescapably normative notions as \"justice\", \"democracy\" or \"human rights\". (Wrong 2002: viii)\n",
"BULLET::::- Power is the ability to do what one wants, regardless of the will of others. (Domination, a closely related concept, is the power to make others' behavior conform to one's commands). This refers to two different types of power, which are possession of power and exercising power. For example, some people in charge of the government have an immense amount of power, and yet they do not make much money.\n"
] |
how to plants that react to touch like the venus flytrap of the sensitive mimosa work?
|
If I remember correctly, for the Venus flytrap, there’s sensitive hairs on at the ‘clamping’ area. It takes lots of energy though, so when one hair is triggered, there’s a timing mechanism that’s set off. Only if multiple hairs are ‘moved’ within a set timeframe does the plant exert substantial energy to close the trap.
Not an explanation on the cellular scale though, hope someone can explain further too!
|
[
"Electrical signaling experiments were conducted on \"Mimosa pudica\", where 1.3–1.5 volts and 2–10 µC of charge acted as the threshold to induce closing of the leaves. This topic was further explored in 2017 by neuroscientist Greg Gage who connected \"Mimosa pudica\" to \"Dionaea muscipula\", better known as the Venus flytrap. Both plants had electrical wiring connecting them and were linked to an electrocardiogram. The results showed how causing an action potential in one plant led to an electrical response, causing both plants to respond.\n",
"Thigmonastic movements, those that occur in response to touch, are used as a defense in some plants. The leaves of the sensitive plant, \"Mimosa pudica\", close up rapidly in response to direct touch, vibration, or even electrical and thermal stimuli. The proximate cause of this mechanical response is an abrupt change in the turgor pressure in the pulvini at the base of leaves resulting from osmotic phenomena. This is then spread via both electrical and chemical means through the plant; only a single leaflet need be disturbed. This response lowers the surface area available to herbivores, which are presented with the underside of each leaflet, and results in a wilted appearance. It may also physically dislodge small herbivores, such as insects.\n",
"It is hypothesized that there is a threshold of ion buildup for the Venus flytrap to react to stimulation. The acid growth theory states that individual cells in the outer layers of the lobes and midrib rapidly move H (hydrogen ions) into their cell walls, lowering the pH and loosening the extracellular components, which allows them to swell rapidly by osmosis, thus elongating and changing the shape of the trap lobe. Alternatively, cells in the inner layers of the lobes and midrib may rapidly secrete other ions, allowing water to follow by osmosis, and the cells to collapse. Both of these mechanisms may play a role and have some experimental evidence to support them.\n",
"It has been concluded that loss of turgor pressure within the leaves of \"Mimosa pudica\" is responsible for the reaction the plant has when touched. Other factors such as changes in osmotic pressure, protoplasmic contraction and increase in cellular permeability have been observed to affect this response. It has also been recorded that turgor pressure is different in the upper and lower pulvinar cells of the plant, and the movement of potassium and calcium ions throughout the cells cause the increase in turgor pressure. When touched, the pulvinus is activated and exudes contractile proteins, which in turn increases turgor pressure and closes the leaves of the plant.\n",
"The Venus Flytrap (\"Dionaea muscipula\") presents a spectacular example of thigmonasty; when an insect lands on a trap formed by two curved lobes of a single leaf, the trap rapidly switches from an open to a closed configuration. Investigators have observed an action potential and changes in leaf turgor that accompany the reflex; they trigger the rapid elongation of individual cells. The common term for the elongation is acid growth although the process does not involve cell division.\n",
"Some plants are capable of rapid movement: the so-called \"sensitive plant\" (\"Mimosa pudica\") responds to even the slightest physical touch by quickly folding its thin pinnate leaves such that they point downwards, and carnivorous plants such as the Venus flytrap (\"Dionaea muscipula\") produce specialized leaf structures that instantaneously snap shut when touched or landed upon by insects. In the Venus flytrap, touch is detected by cilia lining the inside of the specialized leaves, which generate an action potential that stimulates motor cells and causes movement to occur.\n",
"In general, when a plant is exposed to a pathogen, or nonpathogenic microbe, there is an initial response, known as PAMP-triggered immunity (PTI), because the plant detects conserved motifs known as pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). These PAMPs are detected by specialized receptors in the host known as pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) on the plant cell surface.\n"
] |
If mesons carry the force that binds protons and neutrons together, do other composite bosons (like helium nuclei, for example) carry their own forces as well?
|
The answer is kind of yes and no. The mesons that bind nucleons together (via what's often called the residual strong force) act as gauge bosons (much like the fundamental force carriers) associated with emergent broken symmetries of QCD, so they actually play something of a special role.
But in a more general sense, the mesons aren't actually 'carrying the force' independently of the gluon (the gauge bosons of the strong force). [Here](_URL_1_) is a Feynman diagram showing the interaction between a proton and a neutron via a pion, where the pion is clearly behaving as a force-carrying particle (the proton and neutron are interacting through it). However, if you look deeper, you would see [this](_URL_0_).
In a direct strong force interaction, two color-charge carrying particles would exchange a gluon. In this pion exchange, something more complicated is going on. The individual quarks that compose the nucleons are only ever interacting directly via gluons, but the end result is analogous to trading a pion.
I suppose something similar could in principle happen with any composite particle, but the likelihood of such an interaction will vanish astonishingly quickly as the complexity of the particle increases. For example if you wanted to draw an interaction between two particles via the exchange of a helium nucleus, you would have to add *a lot* of extra quarks and gluons to that second diagram, and in general, every vertex (a point where multiple particle lines meet) in a Feynman diagram will reduce the likelihood of that interaction actually occurring, and therefore would correspond to a very weak interaction.
|
[
"The residual strong force is thus a minor residuum of the strong force that binds quarks together into protons and neutrons. This same force is much weaker \"between\" neutrons and protons, because it is mostly neutralized \"within\" them, in the same way that electromagnetic forces between neutral atoms (van der Waals forces) are much weaker than the electromagnetic forces that hold electrons in association with the nucleus, forming the atoms.\n",
"BULLET::::- Elementary particles which are thought of as carrying forces are all bosons with spin 1. They include the photon which carries the electromagnetic force, the gluon (strong force), and the W and Z bosons (weak force). The ability of bosons to occupy the same quantum state is used in the laser, which aligns many photons having the same quantum number (the same direction and frequency), superfluid liquid helium resulting from helium-4 atoms being bosons, and superconductivity where pairs of electrons (which individually are fermions) act as single composite bosons.\n",
"Therefore, another force, called the \"nuclear force\" (or \"residual strong force\") holds the nucleons of nuclei together. This force is a residuum of the strong interaction, which binds quarks into nucleons at an even smaller level of distance.\n",
"The symmetry resulting in the strong force, proposed by Werner Heisenberg, is that protons and neutrons are identical in every respect, other than their charge. This is not completely true, because neutrons are a tiny bit heavier, but it is an approximate symmetry. Protons and neutrons are therefore viewed as the same particle, but with different isospin quantum numbers; conventionally, the proton is \"isospin up,\" while the neutron is \"isospin down.\" The strong force is invariant under SU(2) isospin transformations, just as other interactions between particles are invariant under SU(2) transformations of intrinsic spin. In other words, both isospin and intrinsic spin transformations are isomorphic to the SU(2) symmetry group. There are only strong attractions when the total isospin of the set of interacting particles is 0, which is confirmed by experiment.\n",
"Nuclei are bound together by the residual strong force (nuclear force). The residual strong force is a minor residuum of the strong interaction which binds quarks together to form protons and neutrons. This force is much weaker \"between\" neutrons and protons because it is mostly neutralized within them, in the same way that electromagnetic forces \"between\" neutral atoms (such as van der Waals forces that act between two inert gas atoms) are much weaker than the electromagnetic forces that hold the parts of the atoms together internally (for example, the forces that hold the electrons in an inert gas atom bound to its nucleus).\n",
"The strong interaction is observable at two ranges and mediated by two force carriers. On a larger scale (about 1 to 3 fm), it is the force (carried by mesons) that binds protons and neutrons (nucleons) together to form the nucleus of an atom. On the smaller scale (less than about 0.8 fm, the radius of a nucleon), it is the force (carried by gluons) that holds quarks together to form protons, neutrons, and other hadron particles. In the latter context, it is often known as the color force. The strong force inherently has such a high strength that hadrons bound by the strong force can produce new massive particles. Thus, if hadrons are struck by high-energy particles, they give rise to new hadrons instead of emitting freely moving radiation (gluons). This property of the strong force is called color confinement, and it prevents the free \"emission\" of the strong force: instead, in practice, jets of massive particles are produced.\n",
"In the case of the weak interaction, fermions can exchange three distinct types of force carriers known as the W, W, and Z bosons. The mass of each of these bosons is far greater than the mass of a proton or neutron, which is consistent with the short range of the weak force. The force is in fact termed \"weak\" because its field strength over a given distance is typically several orders of magnitude less than that of the strong nuclear force or electromagnetic force.\n"
] |
Is it possible that the dark matter is actually stars with Dyson spheres around them so we can't see them?
|
Nice idea, but it won't work. There are a few reasons:
(1) We know dark matter does not feel the electromagnetic force. If the dark matter were Dyson spheres, from absorbing the energy of the stars they surround, they would radiate in the infrared, and so we'd detect this. In fact, people have looked, and [no Dyson spheres](_URL_0_) have been found.
(2) Dyson spheres would be an example of MACHOs (massive compact halo objects), which more conventionally includes things like brown dwarves (stars that didn't quite ignite). Searches for MACHOs show that the vast majority of dark matter cannot be in MACHO form.
(3) Studies of the cosmic microwave background radiation give us the ratio of ordinary to non-ordinary matter in the universe (there has to be a certain amount of matter that interacts with ordinary matter via gravitation but does not interact with photons). Without dark matter, this doesn't work.
|
[
"In 2008 a study was published showing that M94 had very little or no dark matter present. The study analyzed the rotation curves of the galaxy's stars and the density of hydrogen gas and found that ordinary luminous matter appeared to account for all of the galaxy's mass. This result was unusual and somewhat controversial, as current models do not indicate how a galaxy could form without a dark matter halo or how a galaxy could lose its dark matter. Other explanations for galactic rotation curves, such as MOND, also have difficulty explaining this galaxy. This result has yet to be confirmed or accepted by other research groups, however, and has not actually been tested against the predictions of standard galaxy formation models.\n",
"Baryonic dark matter may occur in non-luminous gas or in Massive Astrophysical Compact Halo Objects (MACHOs) - condensed objects such as black holes, neutron stars, white dwarfs, very faint stars, or non-luminous objects like planets and brown dwarfs.\n",
"On 25 August 2016, astronomers reported that Dragonfly 44, an ultra diffuse galaxy (UDG) with the mass of the Milky Way galaxy, but with nearly no discernable stars or galactic structure, may be made almost entirely of dark matter.\n",
"If dark matter is composed of weakly-interacting particles, an obvious question is whether it can form objects equivalent to planets, stars, or black holes. Historically, the answer has been it cannot,ref name=\"siegel\"\n",
"However, the dark star is capable of emitting indirect radiation – outward-aimed light and matter can leave the \"r\" = 2\"M\" surface briefly before being recaptured, and while outside the critical surface, can interact with other matter, or be accelerated free from the star through such interactions. A dark star, therefore, has a rarefied atmosphere of \"visiting particles\", and this ghostly halo of matter and light can radiate, albeit weakly. Also as Faster than light speeds are possible in Newtonian mechanics, it is possible for particles to escape.\n",
"The apparent lack of dark matter in NGC 1052-DF2 may help prove that dark matter is real: if what appears to be dark matter is really just a currently unknown effect of the gravity of ordinary matter then this apparent dark matter should also appear in this galaxy. Further study will be needed before this and any other possible implications can be confirmed. If confirmed, the absence of dark matter may also have implications for theories of galaxy formation, as dark matter has been thought to be needed for galaxy formation.\n",
"Michell suggested that there might be many \"dark stars\" in the universe, and today astronomers believe that black holes do indeed exist at the centers of most galaxies. Similarly, Michell proposed that astronomers could detect \"dark stars\" by looking for star systems which behaved gravitationally like two stars, but where only one star could be seen. Michell argued that this would show the presence of a \"dark star\". It was an extraordinarily accurate prediction. All of the dozen candidate stellar black holes in our galaxy (the Milky Way) are in X-ray compact binary systems.\n"
] |
why aren't aol-style chat rooms still a thing?
|
They are. Most proprietary formats have died out, but many people still user IRC. The Freenode network is the most popular, and many communities have channels there. You might have better luck just logging onto Freenode or looking for IRC directories.
There are more ad-hoc sites like Tinychat, or group conversations hosted on services like Discord, that are similar as well.
|
[
"Third party chat servers were used primarily to host chat rooms on the network. This is because of the improved administration systems in third party servers as well as the ability to host a chat room without having to use the winmx client. Some Third party chat clients also contained useful shortcuts or menus to make administrating a channel easier. For normal users, chat clients or the WinMX client itself could be used to view rooms independently of the server. Web listings of the chat room were also available.\n",
"BULLET::::4. \"multi-user dungeons and chat rooms\" tend to be considerably less market-oriented in their focus, containing information that is often fantasy-oriented, social, sexual and relational in nature. General search engines (e.g., Yahoo! or excite) provide good directories of these communities. Dungeons and chat rooms may still be of interest to marketing researchers (see, e.g., ) because of their ability to provide insight into particular themes (e.g., certain industry, demographic or lifestyle segments). However, many marketing researchers will find the generally more focused and more information-laden content provided by the members of boards, rings and lists to be more useful to their investigation than the more social information present in dungeons and chat rooms.\n",
"AOL customers often experience problems with the service due to AOL's proxy settings. However, Onspeed's website states that AOL customers may still use the service providing they use an alternative browser such as Mozilla Firefox.\n",
"In the manual, the creator of AOHell claims that he created the program because the AOL administrators would frequently shut down hacker and warez chatrooms for violation of AOL's terms of service while refusing to shut down the pedophilia chat rooms which regularly traded child pornography. \"Da Chronic\" claimed that when he confronted AOL's TOSAdvisor about it, he was met with an account deletion:\n",
"Similar chat rooms have sprung up as an open chat room that exchanges food pictures without a word became popular. As the popularity of the celebrity theme \" solitary chat rooms, \" celebrities went into the chat room themselves.\n",
"There have been many complaints over rules that govern an AOL user's conduct. Some users disagree with the TOS, citing the guidelines are too strict to follow coupled with the fact the TOS may change without users being made aware. A considerable cause for this was likely due to alleged censorship of user-generated content during the earlier years of growth for AOL.\n",
"Some of the advancements by the major portals in Internet search, such as Google's famous page-ranking scheme, do not apply in the wireless world since people are not searching for Web sites as much as answers to specific questions. 2006 showed a significant movement to the question-answer model. In this model answers are sent in reply to directory service queries similar to the nature of conventional 411 operators. AskMeNow, Ask.com and Bing.com all made efforts in this regard.\n"
] |
How do chemists produce a weakened state of a disease to create vaccines? How can they confidently determine the disease is ready to be used as a vaccination?
|
It depends on the vaccine.
The simplest to imagine are whole-cell vaccines against bacterial diseases: simply kill off the bacteria. Since they are dead they can no longer infect anyone - but they will still contain all the antigens (structures that antibodies can bind to) that will make the immune system recognize them, which will teach the body to fight them.
Other ones are more interesting. For example, the tetanus vaccine is an inactivated form of the toxin (tetanospasmin) produced by the bacteria that cause tetanus (*Clostridium tetani*) instead of the bacteria themselves. The toxin is a protein that can be inactivated by e.g. formaldehyde: this denatures the protein (imagine cooking an egg - heat denatures the egg white and turns it solid) enough to make it essentially harmless while still being recognizable by the immune system.
Many vaccines against viruses use another process, by first growing the viruses in the human cells that are their original hosts and then [passing them through cell cultures that they are not adapted to, like e.g. chicken cells](_URL_0_). Viruses are finely tuned, so as they adapt to those other cells, they start to lose the capacity to effectively infect the original human cells - but again, they will still contain all the bits that will make the body recognize them.
Then there are modern methods like recombinant vaccines, where you use modern gene editing techniques to create the specific antigens you are after.
As for how they can "confidently determine the disease is ready to be used as a vaccination": testing, testing, testing and more testing. Testing in cell cultures. Testing in animals. Testing in people: clinical trials upon clinical trials to determine if the vaccine is safe, if it produces the desired antibodies, and then finally to see if it actually works in practice - and works better than any alternatives already out there.
And then there is constant quality control testing of the product itself, to make sure that the plant is still making exactly what they think they are making.
|
[
"By identifying the antigens responsible for a particular immune response, it is possible to identify viable targets for novel drugs. In addition, specific antigens can further be classified based on immunoreactivity for identification of future potential vaccine preparations. In addition to the identification of vaccine candidates, immunoproteomic techniques such as western blotting can additionally be used for measuring the efficacy of a given vaccine.\n",
"A vaccine candidate drug is first identified through preclinical evaluations that could involve high throughput screening and selecting the proper antigen to invoke an immune response. The preclinical stages are also necessary to determine approximate dose ranges and proper drug formulations (i.e., tablet, injection etc…) This is also the stage in which the drug candidate may be first tested in laboratory animals prior to moving to the phase one trials. Vaccines such as the oral polio vaccine have been first tested for adverse effects and immunogenicity in monkeys as well as non-human primates. Recent scientific advances have helped to use transgenic animals as a part of vaccine preclinical protocol in hopes to more accurately determine drug reactions in humans. Understanding vaccine safety and the immunological response to the drug, such as toxicity, are necessary components of the preclinical stage. Other drug trials focus on the pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics; however, in vaccine studies it is essential to understand toxic effects at all possible dosage levels and the interactions with the immune system.\n",
"For example, scientists developing a new viral drug to treat an infection with a pathogenic virus (e.g. HIV-1) may find that a candidate drug functions to prevent viral replication in an \"in vitro\" setting (typically cell culture). However, before this drug is used in the clinic, it must progress through a series of \"in vivo\" trials to determine if it is safe and effective in intact organisms (typically small animals, primates, and humans in succession). Typically, most candidate drugs that are effective \"in vitro\" prove to be ineffective \"in vivo\" because of issues associated with delivery of the drug to the affected tissues, toxicity towards essential parts of the organism that were not represented in the initial \"in vitro\" studies, or other issues.\n",
"Conventional trials to study efficacy by exposure of humans to the pathogen are obviously not feasible in this case. For such situations, the FDA has established the \"Animal Efficacy Rule\" allowing limited licensure to be approved on the basis of animal model studies that replicate human disease, combined with evidence of safety. A number of experimental treatments are being considered for use in the context of this outbreak, and are currently or will soon undergo clinical trials. A distributed computing project, Outsmart Ebola Together, has been launched by World Community Grid in collaboration with the Scripps Research Institute to help find chemical compounds to fight the disease. It uses the idle processing capacity of volunteers' computers and tablets.\n",
"A direction of research is towards the use of drugs that target remyelinating inhibitor proteins, or other inhibitors. Possible strategies include vaccination against these proteins (active immunisation), or treatment with previously created antibodies (passive immunisation). These strategies appear promising on animal models with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), a model of MS.\n",
"Unlike traditional vaccines, in which attenuated or killed virus/bacteria is used to generate an immune response, viral immunotherapy uses genetically engineered viruses to present a specific antigen to the immune system. That antigen could be from any species of virus/bacteria or even human disease antigens, for example cancer antigens.\n",
"Identifying the biological origin of a disease, and the potential targets for intervention, is the first step in the discovery of a medicine using the reverse pharmacology approach. Potential drug targets are not necessarily disease causing but must by definition be disease modifying. An alternative means of identifying new drug targets is forward pharmacology based on phenotypic screening to identify \"orphan\" ligands whose targets are subsequently identified through target deconvolution.\n"
] |
why are / were there flag bearers in armies
|
It's to accomplish the same thing as radios and computers in today's modern armies. Communication. Imagine a battlefield filled with thousands of people, many wearing the same uniform. But each small unit with a different mission. The flag or more precisely guidon is a point of rally for those in the small unit as well as asifthatwouldhappen mentioned commanders to I'd their troops. Fun fact the guidon bearer is a place of honor only for the most ferocious warrior, if the guidon was seized by enemy forces all communication between commander and unit would cease so the guidon bearer must be able to defend all attacks. This tradition is carried in today in the us marine corps as place of honor for the most worthy marine for all other marines to follow.
|
[
"Prior to 1956 the Army was the only armed service without a flag, official or otherwise, to represent the entire service. In 1955, prompted by the need for a flag to represent the U.S. Army in joint service ceremonies, Secretary of the Army Wilber M. Brucker requested the creation of an army flag.\n",
"Military flags were not all equal. There was an order of importance. Every larger detachment of the army was honored with a flag (sancak). Smaller units had banners called bayrak, with various emblems used mainly as recognition signals. In battle they were carried in the front lines. During rest trusted into the ground placed front of the tent or on top.\n",
"Military funerals often use the nation's flag as a pall. In the United Kingdom, members of the Royal Family or the peerage may use a flag bearing their arms as a pall. The City of London Livery Companies have collections of often magnificently embroidered \"hearse-cloths\", which were from the 16th century traditionally donated by prominent members for use in covering distinguished members' coffins. An exhibition of such palls was made in the Victoria and Albert Museum in London in 1927.\n",
"In the United States Army, Air Force, and Marine Corps, the term \"flag officer\" generally is applied to all general officers authorized to fly their own command flags—i.e., brigadier general, or pay grade O-7, and above. However, as a matter of law, Title 10 of the United States Code makes a distinction between general officers and flag officers. Non-naval officers usually fly their flags from their headquarters, vessels, or vehicles, typically only for the most senior officer present. In the United States all flag and general officers must be nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate; each subsequent promotion requires renomination and re-approval. For the Navy, each flag officer assignment is usually limited to a maximum of two years, followed by either reassignment, reassignment and promotion, or retirement.\n",
"In the Army war flags are normally carried by infantry, tank and special forces regiments and battalions, by the Evelpidon Military Academy, the Non-Commissioned Officers Academy and the Presidential Guard when in battle or in parade. However, flying a war flag in battle is unlikely with current warfare tactics.\n",
"Flaggers usually operate at the state level. Their primary purpose is to make the Confederate battle flag as visible as possible. They carry it at demonstrations and other public events, and erect it on private land. These flags are frequently visible from major highways, and have often been the subject of controversy and legal efforts to have them removed. They (as individuals) lobby or appear at meetings to speak against removal of Confederate monuments and memorials. Some are anti-Abraham Lincoln and for the right of states to secede, i.e., that the Confederacy was legitimate under U.S. law. See Lost Cause of the Confederacy.\n",
"The flag which is to be presented is draped over the casket of the soldier or sailor being laid to rest, a practice dating back to the Napoleonic Wars when the dead were carried off the battlefield in flags. It is not exactly certain when the practice of presenting the flag came about but is believed to have regularly begun in the early 20th century.\n"
] |
sports eli5: why are sports playoffs like hockey and baseball best out of 7 but american football is single elimination?
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football is *way* too demanding physically to be played multiple times a week. this in addition to if they did have a series and it was played out once a week the playoffs would last months.
|
[
"Major League Baseball, the National Basketball Association, and the National Hockey League are three professional sports that feature best-of-seven games series in their playoffs. Coming back to win a seven-game series when down by three games has only been accomplished by four National Hockey League teams and only one Major League Baseball team in the history of the MLB, NBA, and NHL.BR\n",
"Aside from North American sports leagues, game sevens are also a fixture in many other sports around the world, mostly in baseball, basketball, and ice hockey leagues. Most codes of football do not employ a best-of-seven series (or any best-of-\"x\" series in general), hence game sevens are not played in those leagues.\n",
"Because each postseason series is split between the home fields of the two teams, home-field advantage does not usually play a large role in the postseason unless the series goes to its maximum number of games, giving one team an additional game at home. However, the first two games of a postseason series are hosted by the same team. That team may have an increased chance of starting the series with two wins, thereby gaining some momentum for the rest of the series.\n",
"The best teams in a given season reach a playoff tournament, and the winner of the playoffs is crowned champion of the league. American and Canadian sports leagues typically have such \"playoff\" systems. These have their roots in long travel distances common in US and Canadian sports; to cut down on travel, leagues are typically divided into geographic divisions and feature unbalanced schedules with teams playing more matches against opponents in the same division. Due to the unbalanced schedule typical in US and Canadian leagues, not all teams face the same opponents, and some teams may not meet during a regular season at all. This results in teams with identical records that have faced different opponents differing numbers of times, making team records alone an imperfect measure of league supremacy. \n",
"BULLET::::- More games against interleague opponents means fewer games against same-league and division rivals – the latter of which may be more compelling. However, the leagues currently play an unbalanced schedule that favors divisional opponents rather than teams from other divisions (which is important due to the postseason qualifying structure – only the best team from a given division is guaranteed a berth in the postseason). Now, divisional opponents meet each other 19 times per season, and each natural rivalry sees only 4 games as opposed to 6 in previous years.\n",
"The NFL is the only one of the four major professional sports leagues in the United States to use a single-elimination tournament in all rounds of its playoffs. Major League Baseball (MLB) (not including their Wild Card postseason round), the National Basketball Association (NBA), and the National Hockey League (NHL) all use a \"best-of\" series format instead.\n",
"In many sports, playoffs consist of a 'series' of games played between two teams. These series are usually a best-of-5 or best-of-7 format, where the first team to win 3 or 4 games, respectively, wins the playoff. Since these best-of series always involve an odd number of games, it is impossible to guarantee that an equal number of games will be played at each team's home venue. As a result, one team must be scheduled to have one more home game than the other. This team is said to have home-field advantage for that playoff series.\n"
] |
I'm an innkeeper during the High Middle Ages in Europe. What is my life like?
|
As far as customers at your inn are concerned, you would most often see the traveling lords and vassals, members of the church, and possibly a small number of the artisan/merchant class. Serfs themselves were forbidden from leaving their fiefs without explicit permission and instruction from their local lord, and in some respects, were thought of as property much like the land itself. The result of this restricting ownership is that the "riff-raff" is kept out of your inn (so long as its primarily not a tavern). Merchants and artisans, aside from nobles and clergymen, were the only ones that could potentially have the funds and impetus to travel.
|
[
"BULLET::::- \"The Eighteenth-century English Inn: a transient \"Golden Age\" \" in B. Kümin & B.A. Tlusty (Eds.) (2002) \"The World of the Tavern: Public Houses in Early Modern Europe\", Ashgate, Aldershot, pp. 205-226.\n",
"A traveller in the early Middle Ages could obtain overnight accommodation in monasteries, but later a demand for hostelries grew with the popularity of pilgrimages and travel. The Hostellers of London were granted guild status in 1446 and in 1514 the guild became the Worshipful Company of Innholders. A survey in 1577 of drinking establishment in England and Wales for taxation purposes recorded 14,202 alehouses, 1,631 inns, and 329 taverns, representing one pub for every 187 people.\n",
"In Europe during the Middle Ages, beer, often of very low strength, was an everyday drink for all classes and ages of people. A document from that time mentions nuns having an allowance of six pints of ale each day. Cider and pomace wine were also widely available; grape wine was the prerogative of the higher classes.\n",
"The inn is a traditional Welsh thatch roofed, with old stonework and beams which retain a medieval feel. The Good Pub Guide said of \"It's the appealing warren of little rooms and cosy corners in this character-laden, 600-year-old tavern that provide its appeal. The building has massive walls, low-beamed rooms and tiny doorways, with open fires everywhere, including one in an inglenook with antique oak seats built into its stripped stonework. Other seats and tables are worked into a series of chatty little alcoves, and the more open front bar still has an ancient lime-ash floor.\" The pub serves various ales and is also noted for its gastronomy.\n",
"A 1377 document mentions an innkeeper living in the outer bailey. The inhabitants of the castle, artisans, peasants and travelers were invited to make a stop at the inn. The café on the grounds of the castle is a modern building but it is probably situated on the site of the medieval inn.\n",
"In Europe, it is the provision of accommodation, if anything, that now distinguishes inns from taverns, alehouses and pubs. The latter tend to provide alcohol (and, in the UK, soft drinks and often food), but less commonly accommodation. Inns tend to be older and grander establishments: historically they provided not only food and lodging, but also stabling and fodder for the traveller's horse(s) and on some roads fresh horses for the mail coach. Famous London inns include The George, Southwark and The Tabard. There is, however, no longer a formal distinction between an inn and other kinds of establishment. Many pubs use \"Inn\" in their name, either because they are long established former coaching inns, or to summon up a particular kind of image, or in many cases simply as a pun on the word \"in\", as in \"The Welcome Inn\", the name of many pubs in Scotland.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Old man\" bars, whose clientele are mainly long-time male patrons who know each other well; since most patrons are retired, they often begin drinking much earlier in the day, consume inexpensive beer/whisky and may spend much of the day chatting, reading the newspaper, and watching TV\n"
] |
They say as babies our bones are mostly cartilage. How does this change occur as we grow older and why is it advantageous to do so?
|
Bone growth can occur by one of two processes: endochondral ossification and intramembranous ossification. But to understand those in detail you have to understand exactly what bone is.
Bone is a highly active tissue, with important hormonal, structural, hematological, and immunological functions. Your skeleton receives 25% of the cardiac output at rest, one of the highest of any organ. The majority of bone is composed of extracellular matrix, there are in fact very few cells in bone tissue. Additionally, there are several types of cells that make up the cells within bone tissue. The 4 major bone-cell types are osteocytes, osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and osteoprogenitor cells. Osteoprogenitor cells are like bone-stem cells. They can differentiate into different cell lines depending on the needs of the tissue. These are generally mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). MSCs can become osteoblasts or osteocytes (among a host of other cell lines including muscle and cartilage) but cannot become osteoclasts. Osteoblasts are the work horses of bone tissue, and actively secrete extracellular matrix (ECM) made up of collagen, hydroxyapatite (HA) and calcium phosphate (CaP). Osteoclasts function as a foil to osteoblasts, and actively destroy the ECM. These cells are derived from the hematapoetic cell linage (white blood cells, specifically macrophages). Osteocytes are long lived stellate-shaped cells that have become trapped within the ECM they secreted (as osteoblasts) and have terminally differentiated (essentially gone into retirement). Osteocytes have a role in hormonal regulation in bone. All these cells work in concert to actively remodel and maintain mature bone tissue.
In endochondral ossification, the ECM of bone is laid down in a sort of 'trial structure' where the collagen is laid down but the ECM is not ossified (mineralized). This occurs in the long bones such as the femur, tibia, humerus, radius, ulna, and facial bones. This first allows the general shape of the bone to come to form without wasting valuable mineral resources (collagen is a protein, and essentially ubiquitous in the body). During gestation, the collagenous structure is resorbed and then partially ossified except at the ends, the epiphyseal plate. This is the 'growth plate' visible in pediatric x-rays as a non-ossified line across the bone. It's not that the bone is discontinuous, but rather the ECM is not yet ossified. This allows the bone to grow in length by simply depositing mineralized ECM along the epiphyseal line, displacing the growth plate. At puberty, hormonal changes cause phenotypic changes in the cells at the growth plate and the growth line ossifies, or closes.
In intramenbranous ossification, there is no 'trial phase' where the collagen is resorbed but instead the ossification occurs directly. this occurs in the flat bones of the skull, sternum, vertebrae, pelvis, and ribs. While these bones do grow during life, they are much more important as protective entities and therefore their ossification is prioritized.
In all bone growth, osteoclasts help break bone down so that osteoblasts can lay more, new bone down. Essentially, you have to destroy what is already there to grow bigger.
This is a very brief overview so if you have further questions feel free to reply or message me. Hope this helps.
|
[
"About the time of birth in mammals, a secondary ossification center appears in each end (epiphysis) of long bones. Periosteal buds carry mesenchyme and blood vessels in and the process is similar to that occurring in a primary ossification center. The cartilage between the primary and secondary ossification centers is called the epiphyseal plate, and it continues to form new cartilage, which is replaced by bone, a process that results in an increase in length of the bone. Growth continues until the individual is about 20 years old or until the cartilage in the plate is replaced by bone. The point of union of the primary and secondary ossification centers is called the epiphyseal line.\n",
"Old people will also have a lot of symptoms. For example, healthy bones are critical to senior health. As the body ages, it begins to absorb old bone tissue faster than new bone tissue can be created, thus bones tend to become thinner and weaker. This leads to a condition known as osteoporosis, a disease in which bones become very fragile and can easily break after a fall, or even during everyday movements. More than 1.5 million fractures occur every year due to osteoporosis.\n",
"Hyaline cartilage caps the long bones and the spinal vertebrae. Most childhood limb growth takes place at the ends of the long bones, not in the shaft. Normally, as a child grows, the most interior portion of the joint cartilage converts into bone, and new cartilage forms on the surface to maintain smooth joints. The old joint margins (edges) reabsorb, so that the overall shape of the joint is maintained as growth continues. Failure of this process throughout the body results in skeletal dysplasia. It also leads to very early onset of osteoarthritis, because the defective cartilage is extremely fragile and vulnerable to normal wear and tear.\n",
"The baby's skull has seven bones. Normally, these bones don't fuse until around age 2, giving the baby's brain time to grow. Joints called cranial sutures, made of strong, fibrous tissue, hold these bones together. In the front of the baby's skull, the sutures intersect in the large soft spot (fontanel) on the top of the baby's head. Normally, the sutures remain flexible until the bones fuse. The signs of craniosynostosis may not be noticeable at birth, but they become apparent during the first few months of the baby's life. The symptoms differs from types of synostosis. First of all there is Sagittal synostosis (scaphocephaly). Premature fusion of the suture at the top of the head (sagittal suture) forces the head to grow long and narrow, rather than wide. Scaphocephaly is the most common type of craniosynostosis. The other one is called Coronal synostosis (anterior plagiocephaly). Premature fusion of a coronal suture — one of the structures that run from each ear to the sagittal suture on top of the head — may force the baby's forehead to flatten on the affected side. It may also raise the eye socket and cause a deviated nose and slanted skull. The Bicoronal synostosis (brachycephaly). When both of the coronal sutures fuse prematurely, the baby may have a flat, elevated forehead and brow.\n",
"During embryogenesis the precursor to bone development is cartilage. Much of this substance is then replaced by bone during the second and third trimester, after the flesh such as muscle has formed around it; forming the skeleton. Cartilage is a stiff and inflexible connective tissue found in many areas in the bodies of humans and other animals, including the joints between bones, the rib cage, the ear, the nose, the elbow, the knee, the ankle, the bronchial tubes and the intervertebral discs. It is not as hard and rigid as bone but is stiffer and less flexible than muscle.\n",
"During childhood, the growth plate contains the connecting cartilage enabling the bone to grow; at adulthood (between the ages of 18 to 25 years), the components of the growth plate stop growing altogether and completely ossify into solid bone. In an adult, the metaphysis functions to transfer loads from weight-bearing joint surfaces to the diaphysis.\n",
"Early in fetal development, the greater part of the skeleton is cartilaginous. This \"temporary\" cartilage is gradually replaced by bone (Endochondral ossification), a process that ends at puberty. In contrast, the cartilage in the joints remains unossified during the whole of life and is, therefore, \"permanent\".\n"
] |
Why is physics so goddamn confusing? An acceleration question.
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I don't understand what problem you're asking about. It's very possible for a mathematical function to go from zero to nonzero without its derivative jumping to infinity, so if you're modeling velocity as a mathematical function there's no problem here. In addition, there's nothing special about zero velocity; if you do claim that an object has to go through discontinuous acceleration to get from zero to nonzero velocity, then you're also claiming it has to go through discontinuous acceleration to get between *any* two velocities.
Now, if space and time do happen to be discrete, then it's true that velocity and acceleration functions won't actually be continuous. But except on very small scales, they will LOOK continuous, which is all you need for newtonian physics to make sense.
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[
"Proper acceleration (the acceleration 'felt' by the object being accelerated) is the rate of change of rapidity with respect to proper time (time as measured by the object undergoing acceleration itself). Therefore, the rapidity of an object in a given frame can be viewed simply as the velocity of that object as would be calculated non-relativistically by an inertial guidance system on board the object itself if it accelerated from rest in that frame to its given speed.\n",
"Accelerations in special relativity (SR) follow, as in Newtonian Mechanics, by differentiation of velocity with respect to time. Because of the Lorentz transformation and time dilation, the concepts of time and distance become more complex, which also leads to more complex definitions of \"acceleration\". SR as the theory of flat Minkowski spacetime remains valid in the presence of accelerations, because general relativity (GR) is only required when there is curvature of spacetime caused by the energy-momentum tensor (which is mainly determined by mass). However, since the amount of spacetime curvature is not particularly high on Earth or its vicinity, SR remains valid for most practical purposes, such as experiments in particle accelerators.\n",
"The accelerator effect fits the behavior of an economy best when either the economy is moving away from full employment or when it is already below that level of production. This is because high levels of aggregate demand hit against the limits set by the existing labour force, the existing stock of capital goods, the availability of natural resources, and the technical ability of an economy to convert inputs into products.\n",
"Unopposed acceleration due to mechanical forces, and consequentially g-force, is experienced whenever anyone rides in a vehicle because it always causes a proper acceleration, and (in the absence of gravity) also always a coordinate acceleration (where velocity changes). Whenever the vehicle changes either direction or speed, the occupants feel lateral (side to side) or longitudinal (forward and backwards) forces produced by the mechanical push of their seats.\n",
"In these books, although the word \"dynamics\" is used when acceleration is ascribed to a force, the word \"kinetics\" is never mentioned. However, clear exceptions exist. Prominent examples include \"The Feynman Lectures on Physics\".\n",
"Physical science is concerned only with mechanics. Therefore, it can be said that, in a collision, action and reaction are always opposite and equal. Such actions and forces, though, are only mathematical hypotheses. We only really know that the striking body loses motion and the struck body gains motion. We do not know if the motion is communicated from one body to another or if the motion is destroyed in the striker and is created in the struck. In the true nature of things, all bodies are passive. The truly active cause of motion is metaphysical and not the concern of physical science.\n",
"In an accelerating rocket after launch, or even in a rocket standing at the gantry, the proper acceleration is the acceleration felt by the occupants, and which is described as g-force (which is \"not\" a force but rather an acceleration; see that article for more discussion of proper acceleration) delivered by the vehicle only. The \"acceleration of gravity\" (\"force of gravity\") never contributes to proper acceleration in any circumstances, and thus the proper acceleration felt by observers standing on the ground is due to the mechanical force \"from the ground\", not due to the \"force\" or \"acceleration\" of gravity. If the ground is removed and the observer allowed to free-fall, the observer will experience coordinate acceleration, but no proper acceleration, and thus no g-force. Generally, objects in such a fall or generally any such ballistic path (also called inertial motion), including objects in orbit, experience no proper acceleration (neglecting small tidal accelerations for inertial paths in gravitational fields). This state is also known as \"zero gravity\" (\"zero-g\") or \"free-fall,\" and it produces a sensation of weightlessness.\n"
] |
My mom inherited a photo album which once belonged to a WW2 German soldier. Can anyone recognize any of these faces? (imgur link)
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Ok! I think I have something
Hitler receives a briefing on the tactical situation in Poland from General List (with glasses). Behind Hitler are General Keitel and General Yodl (with forage cap) both of the Supreme Armed Forces HQ. Sept 1939.
_URL_0_
List?
_URL_3_
_URL_4_
Keitel (back) and List?
_URL_2_
Keitel 2nd from right?
_URL_1_
Edit:
Keitel?
_URL_4_
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[
"The album contains 116 photographs, all in black and white, almost all of them featuring German officers. It is believed to have been the property of Höcker because he appears in far more of the images than any other individual. On the title page underneath a picture of Höcker and Baer written is \"With the Commandant SS Stubaf. Baer, Auschwitz 21.6.44\", identifying Höcker as the owner of the album. He is also the only person in the album to appear alone in any of the images.\n",
"As of 2010, a photo album that an American soldier took from the Berghof, Hitler's vacation home, which catalogued artwork Hitler desired for the museum, was to be returned to Germany. Of the photo albums created for Hitler, 39 of them were discovered by American armed forces at Neuschwanstein, where they had been deposited for safekeeping in April 1945. These were used as evidence in the Nuremberg trials, and are now at the United States National Archives, with two others donated by Robert Edsel in 2007 and c.2013. Edsel is the author of the book \"The Monuments Men\" about the activities of the Allied Monuments, Fine Arts, and Archives program (MFAA), on which the film of the same name was loosely based, and also the founder of the Monuments Men Foundation for the Preservation of Art. He got the two albums from the heirs of an American soldier. Nineteen other albums recovered from Berchtesgaden were in Germany on permanent loan from the German Federal Archives (\"Bundesarchiv\") to the German Historical Museum as of 2010, and 11 albums are considered to be lost.\n",
"Photo albums were prepared for higher SS commanders after anti-partisan actions. Thus, Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski readily admitted to have possessed thousands of color photographs of the fight against partisans, photos which were confiscated after the war. After \"Operation Hermann\" in the summer of 1943, Curt von Gottberg requested appropriate pictures for an album on partisan fighting, to be handed to Himmler. Some months later, he was sent an album featuring photos from Operation Heinrich, which Bach-Zelewski had dedicated to Himmler by naming it after him. The rank and file behaved in a similar manner. Many German participants had a camera in their backpack during the operations. The respective pictures mostly show rather uncompromising scenes, but often also the burning of villages.\n",
"Guy Walters asserted categorically that the soldier in the picture was not Greasley, stating that the picture is held by the US National Archives and the caption details show it was taken in Minsk (in Belarus) in mid-1941, that it was taken by a photographer for a propaganda film and identifies the soldier as Soviet from his cap, and that the officers in the picture are the same officers who appear in the film with Himmler.\n",
"In response to the allegations, Tomaszewski and Tadeusz Mazur (one of the editors of \"1939–1945 We have not forgotten\") published another image from the same source in the Polish magazine \"Świat\" on 25 February. The second image depicted five armed men, one in civilian clothes and the other four in uniform, standing and looking at the camera over a pile of corpses. It bore several similarities to the better-known photograph, but lacked the \"dramatic impact\", according to Struk. The flat, barren terrain was identical; one of the men bore a strong resemblance to a soldier in the previous photograph; and the words \"Ukraine 1942\" had been written on the back of the image in the same handwriting. In the article, Tomaszewski described the DSZ as a supporter of the Third Reich and accused the paper of \"revisionism\".\n",
"It was only around 1995 that the record was finally corrected, when Greyeyes's daughter-in-law, Melanie Fahlman Reid, learned that the photo hung in the Canadian War Museum with the incorrect caption. Reid, who had discussed the photo personally with Greyeyes, provided a more accurate explanation of the photograph from her mother-in-law's recollection.\n",
"There are unconfirmed reports of photographs of this cabinet. The rooms and the furniture were allegedly seen in 1940 by two Wehrmacht officers during the Nazi Invasion of The Soviet Union, but even if that were true, the rooms and furniture seem to have vanished since then. This account is \"dodgy\" , \"sketchy\" , and \"dubious\" at the very best. The account says the Wehrmacht officers filed a report, but no report has ever been found, nor are any other records from anyone from before, during, or after the Second World War; other than the aforementioned legend. Also, the account says the rooms and furniture were seen in 1940, during the Nazi Invasion of The Soviet Union, but the invasion of The Soviet Union by Nazi Germany did not start in 1940, but on June 22, 1941. For this reason, historical experts challenge the veracity of such claims. But being as all of these stories did not even originate until some years after Catherine the Great's death, it is most likely the cabinet never existed, and the whole story was simply fabricated as another bawdy tale.\n"
] |
how will the james webb space telescope look for alien life? where will astronomers look first and what type of life might it detect?
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So there are 2 ways we can observe planets:
1) When a planet passes between us and a distant star, the light dims. It also changes the color of the star's light. The difference in color and the amount of dimness tell us about the size of the planet and the chemical composition of it's light reflecting atmosphere (if it has on) and its surface.
2) Put a light shield between the telescope and the star. The point is to block out the star's light so it doesn't saturate the camera, even if it's a very distant star, and a mere point of light. This will allow the camera to resolve the light reflecting off the planets in its orbit. We can see these planets this way without them being directly between us and the star, and we should be able to see more light from them.
There's also a way to detect planets without seeing them, and that's to measure the wobble in a star's orbit, but this only really works with planets large enough to make a detectable wobble, so, gas giants.
If I were an astrophysicist looking for life - I'd look for atmospheric chemicals that are signs of life. There are organic compounds built from amino acids, methane, that comes from organic processes, but these might not be totally reliable. We have one example of life, and that's here on Earth. Life here is aerobic, it relies on oxygen, and plants produce it as a byproduct (life began here before we had an oxygen atmosphere as well). But the dead ringer about an oxygen atmosphere is that oxygen is chemically very reactive, so it would not exist in abundance in an atmosphere on its own, and would inevitably all react with its environment to make other compounds. If we find an oxygen rich atmosphere, the only way we know how that could happen is from life.
And that's it, our search for life is searching for life as we understand it. There may be other forms of life, like on our early Earth, but not likely. Life here is made of hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon. These also happen to be the 4 most abundant elements in the universe, aside from helium, which is chemically inert. They're also the 4 most chemically reactive - you can make more molecules out of carbon alone than you can make out of all the other elements combined. If life is going to form, it's likely going to do so using the most abundant, reactive materials around. Exotic forms of life formed out of rarer and more exotic elements aren't necessarily impossible, but unlikely. So we're looking for what we know. And if we spot something really weird, and we can't explain it any other way, maybe we just might consider the possibility of exotic life.
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[
"Interstellar spacecraft may be detectable from hundreds to thousands of light-years away through various forms of radiation, such as the photons emitted by an antimatter rocket or cyclotron radiation from the interaction of a magnetic sail with the interstellar medium. Such a signal would be easily distinguishable from a natural signal and could hence firmly establish the existence of extraterrestrial life were it to be detected. In addition, smaller Bracewell probes within the Solar System itself may also be detectable by means of optical or radio searches.\n",
"The goal of these missions is not only to detect Earth-sized planets, but also to directly detect light from the planet so that it may be studied spectroscopically. By examining planetary spectra, it would be possible to determine the basic composition of an extrasolar planet's atmosphere and/or surface. Given this knowledge, it may be possible to assess the likelihood of life being found on that planet. A NASA research group, the Virtual Planet Laboratory, is using computer modeling to generate a wide variety of virtual planets to see what they would look like if viewed by TPF or Darwin. It is hoped that once these missions come online, their spectra can be cross-checked with these virtual planetary spectra for features that might indicate the presence of life.\n",
"Announced in July 2015, the project is observing for thousands of hours every year on two major radio telescopes, the Green Bank Observatory in West Virginia and the Parkes Observatory in Australia. Previously, only about 24 to 36 hours of telescope per year was used in the search for alien life. Furthermore, the Automated Planet Finder at Lick Observatory is searching for optical signals coming from laser transmissions. The massive data rates from the radio telescopes (24 GB/s at Green Bank) necessitated the construction of dedicated hardware at the telescopes to perform the bulk of the analysis. Some of the data are also analyzed by volunteers in the SETI@home distributed computing network. Founder of modern SETI Frank Drake is one of the scientists on the project's advisory committee.\n",
"To detect extraterrestrial civilizations with radio telescopes, one must identify an artificial, coherent signal against a background of various natural phenomena that also produce radio waves. Telescopes capable of this include the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico, the Allen Telescope Array in Hat Creek, California and the new Five hundred meter Aperture Spherical Telescope in China. Various programs to detect extraterrestrial intelligence have had government funding in the past. Project Cyclops was commissioned by NASA in the 1970s to investigate the most effective way to search for signals from intelligent extraterrestrial sources, but the report's recommendations were set aside in favor of the much more modest approach of Messaging to Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence (METI), the sending of messages that intelligent extraterrestrial beings might intercept. NASA then drastically reduced funding for SETI programs, which have since turned to private donations to continue their search.\n",
"ESO's observing facilities have made astronomical discoveries and produced several astronomical catalogues. Its findings include the discovery of the most distant gamma-ray burst and evidence for a black hole at the centre of the Milky Way. In 2004, the VLT allowed astronomers to obtain the first picture of an extrasolar planet (2M1207b) orbiting a brown dwarf 173 light-years away. The High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher (HARPS) instrument installed on the older ESO 3.6 m telescope led to the discovery of extrasolar planets, including Gliese 581c—one of the smallest planets seen outside the solar system.\n",
"Seager developed a parallel version of the Drake equation to estimate the number of habitable planets in the galaxy. Instead of aliens with radio technology, Seager has revised the Drake equation to focus on simply the presence of any alien life detectable from Earth. The equation focuses on the search for planets with biosignature gases, gases produced by life that can accumulate in a planet atmosphere to levels that can be detected with remote space telescopes.\n",
"Designed to survey a portion of Earth's region of the Milky Way to discover Earth-size exoplanets in or near habitable zones and estimate how many of the billions of stars in the Milky Way have such planets, Kepler's sole scientific instrument is a photometer that continually monitored the brightness of approximately 150,000 main sequence stars in a fixed field of view. These data are transmitted to Earth, then analyzed to detect periodic dimming caused by exoplanets that cross in front of their host star. Only planets whose orbits are seen edge-on from Earth can be detected. During its over nine and a half years of service, Kepler observed 530,506 stars and detected 2,662 planets.\n"
] |
What attempts have there been throughout recent history (most likely during genocides) to specifically erase the culture of a group?
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Raphael Lemkin, the man who coined the term "genocide", defined it this way:
> Generally speaking, genocide does not necessarily mean the immediate destruction of a nation, except when accomplished by mass killings of all members of a nation. It is intended rather to signify a coordinated plan of different actions aiming at the destruction of essential foundations of the life of national groups, with the aim of annihilating the groups themselves. The objectives of such a plan would be the disintegration of the political and social institutions, of culture, language, national feelings, religion, and the economic existence of national groups, and the destruction of the personal security, liberty, health, dignity, and even the lives of the individuals belonging to such groups.
From this perspective, mass killings are an *instrument* of genocide, not the definition of it.
In any case, a case can be made that the treatment of native american groups by the US government qualifies. For the last several hundred years, one of the prevailing attitudes held by officials towards natives was the "kill the indian, save the man" ethos. In other words, initiatives focused on assimilating natives into mainstream US society, usually by abandoning previous cultural traditions. The Dawes Act of 1887, for example, granted the President the authority to divide reservation land into individually owned plots, trying to make native americans private citizens of contemporary US society rather than members of tribal organizations. For some groups, this disrupted traditions of communal living that had wide-ranging impacts on their way of life. This was one of a number of attempts to compel large, semi-sedentary native groups to become sedentary farmers and property owners.
Besides this, the Bureau of Indian Affairs regularly adopted policies to encourage the use of English and conversion to Christianity at the expense of indigenous traditions.
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[
"Some scholars, among them Lemkin, have argued that cultural genocide, sometimes called ethnocide, should also be recognized. A people may continue to exist, but if they are prevented from perpetuating their group identity by prohibitions against cultural and religious practices that are the basis of that identity, this may also be considered a form of genocide. Examples include the treatment of Tibetans by the Government of China and Native Americans by the Federal government of the United States.\n",
"In April 2000, US Congressman Bob Filner spoke of a \"cultural genocide\", stressing that \"a way of life known as Kurdish is disappearing at an alarming rate\". Mark Levene suggests that the genocidal practices were not limited to cultural genocide, and that the events of the late 19th century continued until 1990.\n",
"As early as 2015, the Allard K. Lowenstein International Human Rights Clinic at Yale Law School found \"strong evidence that genocide is being committed against Rohingya.\" After eight months of analyzing whether the persecution of the Rohingya in Rakhine State satisfy the criteria for genocide, the study found that Burmese government with the help of extremist Buddhist monks were responsible for ethnic cleansing and genocide against the Rohingya.\n",
"This type of genocide has continued into the twentieth century, with the ongoing genocide of indigenous tribes in the rain forests of South America primarily due to industrial progress and the development of resources within their territories; as these regions are exploited for economic gain the indigenous peoples are considered a \"hindrance\" and are forcibly relocated or killed.\n",
"US Congressman Bob Filner spoke of a \"cultural genocide\", stressing that \"a way of life known as Kurdish is disappearing at an alarming rate\". Mark Levene suggests that the assimilation practices were not limited to cultural assimilation, and that the events of the late 19th century continued until 1990.\n",
"In many of the genocides practiced throughout history, some of them were based on ethnic supremacy. Ethnic supremacy is assumed by one group within a culture, following some distinct action by an external group or from one of the ethnic groups. With European intervention in places like Rwanda, social institutions worked to socially construct an ethnic inferiority, distinguishing the Hutus and Tutsis from one another and causing what would be one of the most horrific demonstrations of genocide in modern history.\n",
"The report of the International Commission of Jurists (1960) claimed that there was only \"cultural\" genocide. ICJ Report (1960) page 346: \"The committee found that acts of genocide had been committed in Tibet in an attempt to destroy the Tibetans as a religious group, and that such acts are acts of genocide independently of any conventional obligation. The committee did not find that there was sufficient proof of the destruction of Tibetans as a race, nation or ethnic group as such by methods that can be regarded as genocide in international law.\"\n"
] |
if everybody has dynamic ip addresses now, how do websites ban people?
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Many people don't have dynamic IP's, and there are other ways to determine someone's identity, especially the average child who gets banned and wants back. Having said that, as you can see from the endless parade of "young" accounts in places like T_D, Politics, and anything with "New" in it... there are limits. A dedicated, informed, and slightly careful person who doesn't actually care about any one identity is essentially impossible to ban.
Most people don't want to make an endless stream of new accounts though, all while pretending to be different people. If they don't do that, then over time they're busted again and banned. In short, it can be hard for the average user to get what they want out of a site *and* be banned... even if they dodge that ban.
The problem is that if your only goal is spread a message by whatever means, spam ads, or just troll... then you don't care about any of that, do you? If that's your game, then bans are just the cost of doing business, you switch your IP (with a paid service) and roll a new account. You see a *lot* of that in any sub where politics is at play.
The thing is... *most* people using Reddit aren't just trolls (even tif they think they are) or shills... they want to interact with people, they want to be known, they want to express themselves. You can't do that under a ban on Reddit, and on a smaller site it's *much* easier to spot that NewGuy0001 sounds exactly like OldGuy1000, has the same views, etc.
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[
"Although IP addresses of government and business entities are easily added to a list of IP addresses to be blocked, there is no means for PeerGuardian to block access by a government or business using an undocumented IP address to identify people engaged in copyright infringement or other possibly unlawful activity.\n",
"Internet Service Providers are required to restrict access to addresses listed in the proposed registry. The legislation ignores the fact that the same IP address may in fact be used by several thousand sites (earlier that year some ISPs have already blocked such an IP address included in the Federal List of Extremist Materials).\n",
"In cases of banning traffic based on IP addresses, the system might block the traffic of a spamming user by banning the user's IP address. If that user happens to be behind carrier-grade NAT, other users sharing the same public address with the spammer will be mistakenly blocked. This can create serious problems for forum and wiki administrators attempting to address disruptive actions from a single user sharing an IP address with legitimate users.\n",
"Alternate accounts set up by people evading bans from websites are referred to as sockpuppets. Typically, if someone is caught evading a ban with a sockpuppet, the sockpuppet account is banned. If the original ban was temporary, it may be extended or even made permanent. Sometimes, the user's IP address may be banned as well so the user cannot access the site or create new accounts. Some sites may remove all but a few traces of the ban-evader. TV Tropes and Wikipedia, for example, may mass-delete any pages created by a ban-evader.\n",
"IP address blocking can be used to restrict access to or from a particular geographic area—for example, the syndication of content to a specific region. To achieve this, IP addresses are mapped to the countries they have been assigned to. This has been used for example to target Nigerian IP addresses due to the perception that all business originating from the country is fraudulent, thus making it extremely difficult for legitimate businesses based in the country to interact with their counterparts in the rest of the world. To make purchases abroad, Nigerians must rely on proxy servers to disguise the true origin of an Internet request.\n",
"BULLET::::- Internet Protocol (IP) address blocking: Access to a certain IP address is denied. If the target Web site is hosted in a shared hosting server, all websites on the same server will be blocked. This affects IP-based protocols such as HTTP, FTP and POP. A typical circumvention method is to find proxies that have access to the target websites, but proxies may be jammed or blocked, and some Web sites, such as Wikipedia (when editing), also block proxies. Some large websites such as Google have allocated additional IP addresses to circumvent the block, but later the block was extended to cover the new addresses. Due to challenges with geolocation, geo-blocking is normally implemented via IP address blocking.\n",
"On a website, an IP address block can prevent a disruptive address from access, though a warning and/or account block may be used first. Dynamic allocation of IP addresses by ISPs can complicate incoming IP address blocking, rendering it difficult to block a specific user without blocking many IP addresses (blocks of IP address ranges), thereby creating collateral damage.\n"
] |
Why was there no invasion by sea of the north of Germany?
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While more can be said, I've previously discussed British plans for amphibious assaults during WWI in the following threads:
* [
I was listening to the podcast on the Battle of Jutland, and "..Land a million Russians north of Berlin, and boom..The War's over in a few weeks" caught my ear.](_URL_2_)
* [Why didn't the triple entente stage a naval invasion behind the western front in WW1?](_URL_3_)
* [Had the North Sea theatre been secured by the British, could the Entente have landed in Northern Germany in WW1?](_URL_0_)
* [Was landing soldiers behind enemy trench lines ever considered by either side on the Western Front during WWI?](_URL_1_)
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[
"In the event of invasion, the Royal Navy would have sailed to the landing places, possibly taking several days. It is now known that the Germans planned to land on the southern coast of England; one reason for this site was that the narrow seas of the English Channel could be blocked with mines, submarines and torpedo boats. While German naval forces and the Luftwaffe could have extracted a high price from the Royal Navy, they could not have hoped to prevent interference with attempts to land a second wave of troops and supplies that would have been essential to German success—even if, by then, the Germans had captured a port essential for bringing in significant heavy equipment. In this scenario, British land forces would have faced the Germans on more equal terms than otherwise and it was only necessary to delay the German advance, preventing a collapse until the German land forces were, at least temporarily, isolated by the Royal Navy and then mounting a counterattack.\n",
"As the Epilogue points out, such an invasion would necessarily involve a German strategic gamble - since, after an initial confusion, the British Royal Navy could be expected to rally and regain its control of the North Sea. With that, the German invading force would be cut off from further supplies and would be dependent on what they could bring with them in the initial stage, plus whatever British resources they could capture. German success would depend on a swift exploitation of the element of surprise, breaking out of the initial landing area to quickly capture their main objective - \"the industrial heart of the [British] kingdom, the great northern and midland towns, with their teeming populations of peaceful wage earners\". The projected landing site at the Wash would place the Germans conveniently close to that industrial heartland. The plan does not include any direct attack on London (which would have necessitated a different and far more risky landing place). German hopes for a quick and decisive victory would hinge upon the loss of the industrial towns being so demoralizing to the British and dislocating to their economy that Britain would agree to sign a peace on terms favourable to Germany. Should the British prove persistent, obdurate and willing to engage in a long war (as they actually would in 1940) the German invading force, cut off from fresh supplies, might eventually end up in a dire situation.\n",
"Two of the ports used by the German light forces were heavily bombed by the Allied air forces. The larger German ships based in France, three destroyers from Bordeaux were defeated in a destroyer action well to the west of the main assault area. Larger problems were caused by U-boats and especially mines, but the U-boats were hunted down and the mines swept effectively enough to make the invasion a success.\n",
"The first two years of war saw the Royal Navy's battleships and battlecruisers regularly \"sweep\" the North Sea making sure that no German ships could get in or out. Only a few German surface ships that were already at sea, such as the famous light cruiser , were able to raid commerce. Even some of those that did manage to get out were hunted down by battlecruisers, as in the Battle of the Falklands, December 7, 1914. The results of sweeping actions in the North Sea were battles including the Heligoland Bight and Dogger Bank and German raids on the English coast, all of which were attempts by the Germans to lure out portions of the Grand Fleet in an attempt to defeat the Royal Navy in detail. On May 31, 1916, a further attempt to draw British ships into battle on German terms resulted in a clash of the battlefleets in the Battle of Jutland. The German fleet withdrew to port after two short encounters with the British fleet. Less than two months later, the Germans once again attempted to draw portions of the Grand Fleet into battle. The resulting Action of 19 August 1916 proved inconclusive. This reinforced German determination not to engage in a fleet to fleet battle.\n",
"The Germans had rapidly overwhelmed France and the Low Countries, leaving Britain to face the threat of invasion by sea. The German high command knew the difficulties of a seaborne attack and its impracticality while the Royal Navy controlled the English Channel and the North Sea. On 16 July, Adolf Hitler ordered the preparation of Operation Sea Lion as a potential amphibious and airborne assault on Britain, to follow once the Luftwaffe had air superiority over the UK. In September, RAF Bomber Command night raids disrupted the German preparation of converted barges, and the Luftwaffe's failure to overwhelm the RAF forced Hitler to postpone and eventually cancel Operation Sea Lion. Germany proved unable to sustain daylight raids, but their continued night-bombing operations on Britain became known as the Blitz.\n",
"This theory was based on the assumption that Great Britain would have to send its fleet into the North Sea to blockade the German ports (blockading Germany was the only way the Royal Navy could seriously harm Germany), where the German Navy could force a battle. However, due to Germany's geographic location, Great Britain could blockade Germany by closing the entrance to the North Sea in the English Channel and the area between Bergen and the Shetland Islands. Faced with this option a German Admiral commented, \"If the British do that, the role of our navy will be a sad one,\" correctly predicting the role the surface fleet would have during the First World War.\n",
"The seas around the German coastline were subject to very heavy allied attack during the final two years of the war, as the Royal Air Force sought to restrict German movement around their coasts by sowing thousands of air-dropped naval mines, thus delaying the production and training of new boats, disrupting coastal shipping and destroying several boats before they could become involved in the Battle of the Atlantic.\n"
] |
what was the quiet revolution in quebec?
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"The Quiet Revolution, which is a term applied to the changes that took place in Quebec from the late 1950's to the late 60's, was a time of great change in the province. The politics and social life of Quebec had been dictated by the Provincial Premier Maurice Duplessis since the 1930's and in a sense it was a throw back to the conservative movement in Quebec when Laurier was trying to break the church, business, nationalistic hold on the province in the 1890's.
Quebec had developed slowly under Duplessis and the Union Nationale and at the cost of personal freedom and real progress. A pent up demand for change was released when Duplessis died in 1959 and this was signified by the election of a Liberal government in 1960. Suddenly government action seemed to be the answer to everything. Taking control of the hydro-electric power in the province, nationalising industry and services, legislating rights for the French Canadians, many of who were beginning to describe themselves as Quebecois rather then any type of Canadian.
The sixties were a period of increased government involvement in social affairs in many western countries and Canada was no exception but in Quebec the restless energy of change incorporated a revived feeling of nationalism which Duplessis had suppressed for a generation. Young French Canadiens were looking at who ran their province and the English Canadian control over business and decision making. The general revolutionary tendencies in other countries and societies during that era took on a nationalistic twist in Quebec and a new feeling of independence and empowerment developed.
As the Liberals pushed through their dynamic changes provincially, the Federal Government plugged along under Diefenbaker and then Pearson with no real dynamic emphasis on change. Some who joined the Liberal revolution such as Rene Leveque pushed hard for the taking control of events by the government and hence, in his mind, the Quebecois, but as he came o recognize the limitations of the power of the provincial government, his believes evolved towards new frontiers and the choice between additional change through the powers of the Federal Government or re-establishing the rules and division of powers between the feds and the provinces. This was the first step towards sovereignty association or separatism.
Most Quebecers and Canadians felt that something was happening in Quebec, changes that were hard to identify, shifts in attitudes and objectives and an arising new option for French Canadians to consider. The young were ultimately influenced by the quickening pace of social change around the world and, for some, their sharp turn to the left also included the option of violence.
The term quiet really refers to change that occurred that was not announced, not broadcast, not displayed or described. It referred to the acceptance by many Quebecers that there might be another way, one that challenged the status quo, demanded equal rights for the French language, recognition of the Quebecois as a unique nationality with unique needs and aspirations and above all one in which the French Canadians were true masters in their own province.
The progression of this political change would ultimately lead to violence as objectives were not meet, aspirations unfulfilled and demands no caved into. This would lead to one of the most tumultuous and fierce confrontations in Canada over the place of the French Canadians in Canada and ironically the two leading protagonists would both be French Canadian with Pierre
Trudeau defending Canadian Federalism and Rene Levesque fighting for an independent Quebec."
Source: _URL_0_
|
[
"The Quiet Revolution (or \"Révolution tranquille\") began in Quebec when Jean Lesage became premier in 1960. It was, essentially, a peaceful nationalist movement to transform Quebec into a modern secular state. It was characterised by rapid secularization, the creation of a welfare state, and the transformation of the national identity among Francophone Quebecers (from \"Canadien français\" to the term \"Québécois\").\n",
"In the 1960s, what became known as the Quiet Revolution took place in Quebec, overthrowing the old establishment which centred on the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Quebec and led to modernizing of the economy and society. Québécois nationalists demanded independence, and tensions rose until violence erupted during the 1970 October Crisis. John Saywell says, \"The two kidnappings and the murder of Pierre Laporte were the biggest domestic news stories in Canada's history\" In 1976 the Parti Québécois was elected to power in Quebec, with a nationalist vision that included securing French linguistic rights in the province and the pursuit of some form of sovereignty for Quebec. This culminated in the 1980 referendum in Quebec on the question of sovereignty-association, which was turned down by 59% of the voters.\n",
"The Quiet Revolution, also known as La \"révolution tranquille,\" spanned roughly from 1960-1970 in Quebec, Canada. The Revolution when Jean Lesage, leader of the Liberal party, was elected on June 22, 1960 winning 51% of the popular vote. The Liberal Party of Quebec's manifesto called for a number of important changes to modernise Quebec society after Maurice Duplessis's, and prior reigns, including the creation of a modern welfare state (including garaunteed education, healthcare and income support), the intervention by the state in the economy, an Office of the French Language, as well as several proposals that would go on to form the cornerstone of Quebec-Canada relations (inter-provincial conferences, a Minister for Provincial-Federal Affairs). The beginning of the Quiet Revolution also saw the birth of Women's Liberation Movement, Black Power Movement in Quebec along with the ever-increasing influence and power of both the trade union movement and the modern Quebec nationalist movement, heavily influenced by leftist ideology. Operation McGill included or connected with all of these movements.\n",
"The Quiet Revolution was a period of unbridled economic and social development in Québec and Canada and paralleled similar developments in the West in general. It was a byproduct of Canada's 20-year post-war expansion and Québéc's position as the leading province for more than a century before and after Confederation. It witnessed particular changes to the built environment and social structures of Montreal, Québéc's leading city. The Quiet Revolution also extended beyond Québec's borders by virtue of its influence on contemporary Canadian politics. During the same era of renewed Quebecois nationalism, French Canadians made great inroads into both the structure and direction of the federal government and national policy. Moreover, certain facets of the welfare state, as they developed in Québec in the 1960s, became nationalized by virtue of Québec's acceptance and promotion. This would include rural electrification and healthcare initiatives undertaken by Tommy Douglas in Saskatchewan twenty years earlier.\n",
"The Quiet Revolution () was a period of intense socio-political and socio-cultural change in the Canadian province of Québec, characterized by the effective secularization of government, the creation of a state-run welfare state (\"état-providence\"), and realignment of politics into federalist and sovereigntist (or separatist) factions and the eventual election of a pro-sovereignty provincial government in the 1976 election. The Quiet Revolution typically refers to the efforts made by the Liberal government of Jean Lesage (elected in 1960), and sometimes Robert Bourassa (elected in 1970 after the Union Nationale's Daniel Johnson in 1966), though given the profound effect of the changes, most provincial governments since the early 1960s have maintained an orientation based on core concepts developed and implemented in that era.\n",
"In 1970, the October Crisis (5 October – 28 December 1970) occurred in Canada, a brief revolution in the province of Québec, where the actions of the separatist \"Front de libération du Québec\" (FLQ; Front for the Liberation of Québec) featured the kidnap of James Cross, the British Trade Commissioner in Canada, and the killing of Pierre Laporte, the Quebec government minister. The political manifesto of the FLQ condemned English-Canadian imperialism in French Québec, and called for a separate \"Québecois\" socialist state. The Canadian government's harsh response included the suspension of civil liberties in Quebec, which compelled the FLQ leaders' flight to Socialist Cuba.\n",
"BULLET::::- In the Quebec general election, the ruling Union Nationale, led by Antonio Barrette, was defeated by the Quebec Liberal Party, led by Jean Lesage, beginning the \"Quiet Revolution\" in the historically conservative Canadian province.\n"
] |
so, murdering is pretty illegal. in times of war, why is it not illegal to kill an enemy soldier and why aren't there ramifications for it? is there a special set of laws in place when nations are at war?
|
Yes, there are certain international 'laws' and treaties that we use to regulate a war. The two most famous ones are the Hague Conventions of 1889 and 1907. In these treaties the participating nations outlined what is wrong (a war crime) during a war, and what is considered to be acceptable. They also tried to distinguish between combatants and noncombatants, i.e. soldiers and civilians. According to those treaties it is legal for combatants of either side to kill the other sides combatants. It is generally prohibited to harm/attack/kill civilians/noncombatans, even though we know that in recent times those rules were not followed.
Feel free to ask anything more.
|
[
"BULLET::::- Killing of enemy combatants who have not surrendered by lawful combatants, in accordance with lawful orders in war, is also generally not considered murder; although illicit killings within a war may constitute murder or homicidal war crimes. (see the Laws of war article)\n",
"Proper authority is what differentiates war from murder: \"It is the rules of warfare that give the practice meaning, that distinguish war from murder and soldiers from criminals\". A soldier is treated as a prisoner of war (POW) and not a criminal because they are operating under the proper authority of the state and cannot be held individually responsible for actions committed under the orders of their military leadership.\n",
"A death ruled as homicide or unlawful killing is typically referred to police or prosecutor or equivalent official for investigation and criminal charges if warranted. Deaths caused by capital punishment, though homicides, are generally assumed to be lawful and are not prosecuted. Most deaths due to war are not prosecuted, unless there is evidence of a war crime, in which case troops on foreign territory might be prosecuted by the military justice system, domestic law enforcement, or the International Criminal Court.\n",
"War crimes (a serious violation of the laws and customs of war giving rise to individual criminal responsibility) have been committed by both sides including civilian massacres, bombings of civilian targets, terrorism, use of torture and the murder of prisoners of war. Additional common crimes include theft, arson, and the destruction of property not warranted by military necessity.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Inter arma enim silent leges\" : \"For among arms, the laws fall silent.\" A concept that during war, many illegal activities occur. Also taken to mean that in times of war, laws are suppressed, ostensibly for the good of the country.\n",
"The intentional killing of noncombatants is prohibited by modern laws of war derived from the UN Charter, the Hague Conventions and the Geneva Conventions, and constitutes a war crime. The Marines and officers were subject to possible courts martial under American military law, the Uniform Code of Military Justice.\n",
"BULLET::::- Justifiable homicide or privilege: Due to the circumstances, although a homicide occurs, the act of killing is not unlawful. For example, a killing on the battlefield during war is normally lawful, or a police officer may shoot a dangerous suspect in order to protect the officer's own life or the lives and safety of others.\n"
] |
Why is veiling a practice done today and in history almost entirely by women? Why isn't veiling done among men?
|
I'm not sure the premise of the question here is accurate for two reasons.
1) Veiling suggests a covering of the *face*. There is - to my knowledge anyway - no religion that mandates a full face covering. Even the examples you cite are not veils covering the face, but various forms of hair coverings (so hijab, "Christian veils", habits, etc.). While the niqab and the burqa both cover the face in some Islamic traditions, they are not a majority by any means, even among Muslims. But I'm going to assume that this is just an issue with terminology, which brings me to my second point:
2) There are several religions in which men are instructed to cover their heads for religious purposes. Two of the most famous would be Judaism (*Yarmulke* a.k.a. *kippah*) and Sikhism (*Dastar* a.ka. Turban). In both cases the wearing of a head covering is mandated by the religion itself for various reasons, but mostly as a sign of devotion to God. In fact, the term *yarmulke* even means "reverence to God" in ~~Hebrew~~ Yiddish, and the requirement is not limited to Jews alone. If you've ever been inside a synagogue - especially a conservative or orthodox one - you were very likely given a paper or simple cloth *kippah* to cover your head while inside the grounds/building. As for Sikhs, I know less about that religion, but as I understand it, baptized Sikhs are forbidden from cutting their hair, again as a sign of devotion to God, and are required to wear the Dastar as a sign of piety and devotion. I should note, as well, that among Catholic and some Orthodox clergy (so among men), a form of skullcap called a *Zucchetto* is also quite common, although whether its mandated or not, I couldn't say.
edit: words
edit 2: thanks for the correction u/alice-in-canada-land
|
[
"A veil is an article of clothing or hanging cloth that is intended to cover some part of the head or face, or an object of some significance. Veiling has a long history in European, Asian, and African societies. The practice has been prominent in different forms in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The practice of veiling is especially associated with women and sacred objects, though in some cultures it is men rather than women who are expected to wear a veil. Besides its enduring religious significance, veiling continues to play a role in some modern secular contexts, such as wedding customs.\n",
"Veiling did not originate with the advent of Islam. Statuettes depicting veiled priestesses precede all major Abrahamic religions (Christianity, Judaism, and Islam), dating back as far as 2500 BCE. Elite women in ancient Mesopotamia and in the Byzantine, Greek, and Persian empires wore the veil as a sign of respectability and high status. In ancient Mesopotamia, Assyria had explicit sumptuary laws detailing which women must veil and which women must not, depending upon the woman's class, rank, and occupation in society. Female slaves and prostitutes were forbidden to veil and faced harsh penalties if they did so. Veiling was thus not only a marker of aristocratic rank, but also served to \"differentiate between 'respectable' women and those who were publicly available\".\n",
"Facial veiling is not sanctioned in Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism but some sections of the society from the 1st century B.C. advocated the use of the veil for married women, which came to be known as ghoonghat. It has been both romanticized and criticized in religious and folk literature.\n",
"Although women were required to wear veils in many churches through at least the 19th century, the resurgence of the wedding veil as a symbol of the bride, and its use even when not required by the bride's religion, coincided with societal emphasis on women being modest and well-behaved.\n",
"A veil is a piece of sheer fabric that covers all or part of the face. For centuries women covered their hair, neck, ears, chin, and parts of the face with fabric. Each culture created elaborate head wraps for women and men using a shawl, headscarf, kerchief or veil. Very elaborate veiling practices are common in Islam, Africa and Eastern Europe. Women who don't cover their head on a regular basis, often use a veil in traditional wedding and funeral ceremonies.\n",
"The practice of veiling was borrowed from the elites of the Byzantine and Persian empires, where it was a symbol of respectability and high social status, during the Arab conquests of those empires. Reza Aslan argues that \"The veil was neither compulsory nor widely adopted until generations after Muhammad's death, when a large body of male scriptural and legal scholars began using their religious and political authority to regain the dominance they had lost in society as a result of the Prophet's egalitarian reforms\".\n",
"In Indian subcontinent, from 1st century B.C. societies advocated the use of the veil for married Hindu women which came to be known as Ghoonghat. Buddhists attempted to counter this growing practice around 3rd century CE. Rational opposition against veiling and seclusion from spirited ladies resulted in system not becoming popular for several centuries. Under the Medieval Islamic Mughal Empire, various aspects of veiling and seclusion of women was adopted, such as the concept of Purdah and Zenana, partly as an additional protection for women. Purdah became common in the 15th and 16th century, as both \"Vidyāpati\" and \"Chaitanya\" mention it. Sikhism was highly critical of all forms of strict veiling, Guru Amar Das condemned it and rejected seclusion and veiling of women, which saw decline of veiling among some classes during late medieval period.\n"
] |
hi, i'm not smart but i know how to read, can someone tell me why rockets/spaceships don't go straight up into space but instead curve ? and are they controlling that or does it happen naturally?
|
An orbit requires a large sideways velocity in order to avoid falling back to Earth. But air gets in the way of going that fast so they first get high then turn to the side to accelerate. They certainly control every aspect of that curved launch path.
|
[
"\"And then, once you get beyond a certain scale, you just can't make the plane big enough. When you drop...the rocket, you have the slight problem that you're not going the right direction. If you look at what Orbital Sciences did with Pegasus, they have a delta wing to do the turn maneuver but then you've got this big wing that's added a bunch of mass and you've able to mostly, but not entirely, convert your horizontal velocity into vertical velocity, or mostly vertical velocity, and the net is really not great.\"\n",
"BULLET::::- Rocket has always believed that \"just because you can't walk, doesn't mean you can't go wherever you want to go.\" A mechanical genius, Rocket built his own super-powered wheelchair to get around. He's the fastest on the scene, and his wit's is as quick as his wheels.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Rockets\" do not seek a target, so are very difficult to aim in \"Edge of Chaos\" with its Newtonian physics. However you can fit far more rockets into a launcher than you can missiles, and rockets possess similar power and range. They are best for attacking very slow or stationary targets from long range.\n",
"It is often easier, because the pilot only has to run forward, but the pilot cannot see his wing until it is above him, where he has to check it in a very short time for correct inflation and untangled lines before the launch.\n",
"Payload is the muscle of the Space Mini-Con Team, but people often forget that he's considerably smarter than most other robots out there. He doesn't really let this get to him, however. In fact, it seems one of the few things that can wear down Payload's temper is his teammate Sky Blast. He considers the youth a close friend, but one whose impulsive, act-before-thinking nature can really grind his gears.\n",
"Rockets are the only currently practical means of reaching space. Conventional airplane engines cannot reach space due to the lack of oxygen. Rocket engines expel propellant to provide forward thrust that generates enough delta-v (change in velocity) to reach orbit.\n",
"Rockets are the oldest type and are mainly used when extremely high speeds or extremely high altitudes are needed. Due to the extreme, typically hypersonic, exhaust velocity and the necessity of oxidiser being carried on board, they consume propellant extremely quickly. For this reason, they are not practical for routine transportation.\n"
] |
Has anyone in the CIA faced legal consequences for MKUltra, or for covering up MKUltra?
|
Project MK-ULTRA was first exposed in 1975 by the Church Committee and Gerald Ford's Rockefeller Commission. It got a lot of bad press, coming on the heels of Watergate at a time when outrage over the executive branch and distrust of gov't officials was already widespread ([you can see the WashPo article for it here.](_URL_1_))
A guy named John Marks read this in the Rockefeller Commission report: “The drug program was part of a much larger CIA program to study possible means for controlling human behavior. Other studies explored the effects of radiation, electric-shock, psychology, psychiatry, sociology, and harassment substances." Marks filed a FOIA request for all the information the CIA had on behavior control but it turned out that post-1963/Watergate, then-CIA director Richard Helms ordered all MK-ULTRA evidence to be burned. Marks' FOIA request turned up the only documents that were spared from the purge- some retired records of the Budget and Fiscal Section of the CIA. These documents were overlooked when the Church Committee and the Rockefeller Commission asked for the documents previously. [Source.](_URL_3_)
So following Marks' FOIA requests there's [a spate of Congressional hearings](_URL_0_). Senator Edward Kennedy spearheaded these and they weren't more than a slap on the wrist for the CIA. Plus, it had already been over a decade since MK-ULTRA had ended, and most of the employees directly involved in it had either retired or moved on to other jobs. No employees involved with MK-ULTRA ever faced repercussions for the project. Every CIA official testifying before Congress in 1977 emphasized how they were merely there to provide helpful information about the actions of the generation of agency officials before their time. Even the senators conducting the questioning stated "It should be clear we are focusing on events that happened over 12 or as long as 25 years ago." So even in these hearings, there was a distinct sense that the testing had been finished, the agents responsible all shuttled off to different projects or different jobs altogether, and the climate had entirely changed.
Some people who had been unwitting experimentation subjects did sue the U.S. government, including Wayne Ritchie, who had a breakdown after a Christmas party back in 1957. MK-ULTRA agent Ike Feldman, in a sworn deposition, called Ritchie "a nitwit" who "had been given a full head and deserved to suffer". But even then, the court found [insufficient evidence that Ritchie was an unwitting subject at all](_URL_2_) (this goes to the difficulty of litigating cases in which you were never supposed to have known you were being experimented on in the first place.) It's also important to note that MK-ULTRA researchers specifically targeted vulnerable populations like criminals with drug abuse backgrounds (including people in prison) or johns spending a night with prostitutes (the CIA set up [safe houses](_URL_4_) with two-way mirrors to watch prostitutes engaging with these men, with the full knowledge that the men would already be in too compromising a situation to press charges).
The only Supreme Court case related to this, CIA v. Sims, grew out of Marks' FOIA requests. The case was about whether or not the CIA should release the names of university/hospital researchers funded through MK-ULTRA outreach-type programs (there were university researchers doing work on sleep deprivation and interrogation methods and isolation's effect on self-image). The Supreme Court ruled in favor of the CIA, saying that it wouldn't be able to uphold national security if it couldn't guarantee confidentiality of intelligence sources. [Or as Chief Justice Burger wrote it](_URL_5_), "We seriously doubt whether a potential intelligence source will rest assured knowing that judges, who had little or no background in the delicate business of intelligence gathering, will order his identity revealed only after examining the facts of the case." So if anything the only major case to grow out of the entire debacle of a project only reinforced the CIA's discretionary powers.
TL;DR: Yes, it was illegal, but it was super hard to hold anyone accountable. Mostly due to a deliberate efforts by the CIA. They failed in the MK-ULTRA experiments to figure out a way to productively induce amnesia in people, but they did a great job erasing their own records and effectively employing institutional amnesia.
|
[
"Project MKULTRA was a CIA program which involved, among other projects, research on the use of drugs in behavior modification. One of the most controversial cases arising from the program was the death of Dr. Frank Olson, a scientist who worked in the Special Operations Division of the U.S. Army Biological Center in Camp Detrick, Maryland. According to the Church Committee, as part of the MK-ULTRA experiments, Olson was given a dose of LSD without his knowledge, and eventually suffered a severe psychiatric response. The CIA sent him to New York to see one of their psychiatrists, who recommended that Olson be placed into a mental institution for recovery. While spending the evening in a hotel room with another CIA employee, Olson threw himself out his hotel room window, plunging to his death. Olson's family members have contested this account.\n",
"In 1974, the journalist Seymour Hersh exposed the CIA's illegal spying on U.S. citizens and how the CIA had conducted non-consensual drug experiments. His report started the lengthy process of bringing long-suppressed details about MK-Ultra to light. Project MKULTRA came to light in the spring of 1977 during a wide-ranging survey of the CIA's technical services division. John K. Vance, a member of the CIA inspector general's staff, discovered that the agency was running a research project that included administering LSD and other drugs to unwilling human subjects.\n",
"Project MKUltra was first brought to public attention in 1975 by the Church Committee of the United States Congress and Gerald Ford's United States President's Commission on CIA activities within the United States. Investigative efforts were hampered by the fact that CIA Director Richard Helms ordered all MKUltra files to be destroyed in 1973; the Church Committee and Rockefeller Commission investigations relied on the sworn testimony of direct participants and on the relatively small number of documents that survived Helms's destruction order. In 1977, a Freedom of Information Act request uncovered a cache of 20,000 documents relating to project MKUltra which led to Senate hearings later that year. Some surviving information regarding MKUltra was declassified in July 2001. In December 2018, declassified documents included a letter to an unidentified doctor discussing work on six dogs made to run, turn and stop via remote control and brain implants.\n",
"MKULTRA activities continued until 1973 when CIA director Richard Helms, fearing that they would be exposed to the public, ordered the project terminated, and all of the files destroyed. But, a clerical error had sent many of the documents to the wrong office, so when CIA workers were destroying the files, some of them remained. They were later released under a Freedom of Information Act request by investigative journalist John Marks. Many people in the American public were outraged when they learned of the experiments, and several congressional investigations took place, including the Church Committee and the Rockefeller Commission.\n",
"This theory was heavily investigated and researched by Republican Representative Curt Weldon, vice chairman of the House Armed Services and House Homeland Security committees. However, Defense Intelligence Agency leadership had already ordered the hurried destruction of mined data, source databases, charts and resultant documents on entirely spurious legal grounds. DIA also prevented key personnel from testifying to both the Senate Judiciary and Senate Intelligence Committees, though after numerous denials did admit the program's existence.\n",
"In 1973, amid a government-wide panic caused by Watergate, CIA Director Richard Helms ordered all MKUltra files destroyed. Pursuant to this order, most CIA documents regarding the project were destroyed, making a full investigation of MKUltra impossible. A cache of some 20,000 documents survived Helms' purge, as they had been incorrectly stored in a financial records building and were discovered following a FOIA request in 1977. These documents were fully investigated during the Senate Hearings of 1977.\n",
"Most MKUltra records were destroyed in 1973 by order of CIA director Richard Helms, so it has been difficult for investigators to gain a complete understanding of the more than 150 funded research subprojects sponsored by MKUltra and related CIA programs.\n"
] |
why do automotive engines idle around the same rpm regardless of number of cylinder count?
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So the alternator can charge the battery. And you will have enough torque to move effectively.
|
[
"Idle speed (or idle) is the rotational speed an engine runs at when the engine is idling, that is when the engine is uncoupled from the drivetrain and the throttle pedal is not depressed. In combustion engines, idle speed is generally measured in revolutions per minute (rpm) of the crankshaft. At idle speed, the engine generates enough power to run reasonably smoothly and operate its ancillaries (water pump, alternator, and, if equipped, other accessories such as power steering), but usually not enough to perform useful work, such as moving an automobile.\n",
"A multiple-cylinder engine is also capable of delivering higher revolutions per minute (RPM) than a single-cylinder engine of equal displacement. This is true for two reasons. First of all, the stroke of the pistons is reduced. This decreases the distance necessary for a piston to travel back and forth per each rotation of the crankshaft, and thus limiting the piston speed for a given RPM. Secondly, in an engine with multiple cylinders, the piston mass is reduced. This reduces stress on internal components at higher RPM's. Typically, the more cylinders an engine has, the higher the RPM's it can attain for a given displacement and technology level, at a cost of increased friction losses and complexity. Peak torque is also reduced, but the total horsepower is increased due to the higher RPM's attained.\n",
"Engines that always run at a relatively high speed, such as race car engines, will have considerable overlap in their valve timings for maximum volumetric efficiency. Road car engines are different because they are required to idle at less than 1000rpm, and excessive valve overlap would make smooth idling impossible because of the mixing of fresh and exhaust gases. Variable valve timing can give both maximum power at high rpm and smooth idling at low rpm by making small changes to the relative angular position of the camshafts and thereby varying the valve overlap.\n",
"Some engines have variable valve timing. In such an engine, the ECU controls the time in the engine cycle at which the valves open. The valves are usually opened sooner at higher speed than at lower speed. This can increase the flow of air into the cylinder, increasing power and fuel economy.\n",
"A five-cylinder engine gets a power stroke every 144 degrees (720° ÷ 5 = 144°). Since due to camshaft timing each power stroke lasts approximately 120 degrees [ending when the exhaust valve opens], this means that there is a very short period of about 24 degrees when the crankshaft receives no torque. Because of uneven levels of torque during the expansion strokes divided among the five cylinders, there are increased second-order vibrations. At higher engine speeds, there is an uneven third-order vibration from the crankshaft which occurs every 144 degrees. Because the power strokes have less downtime, a five-cylinder engine may run more smoothly than a four-cylinder engine, but only at limited mid-range speeds where second and third-order vibrations are lower.\n",
"Multiple cylinder engines have their valve train and crankshaft configured so that pistons are at different parts of their cycle. It is desirable to have the piston's cycles uniformly spaced (this is called \"even firing\") especially in forced induction engines; this reduces torque pulsations and makes inline engines with more than 3 cylinders statically balanced in its primary forces. However, some engine configurations require odd firing to achieve better balance than what is possible with even firing. For instance, a 4-stroke I2 engine has better balance when the angle between the crankpins is 180° because the pistons move in opposite directions and inertial forces partially cancel, but this gives an odd firing pattern where one cylinder fires 180° of crankshaft rotation after the other, then no cylinder fires for 540°. With an even firing pattern, the pistons would move in unison and the associated forces would add.\n",
"Engines with hydraulic tappets (such as the Buick/Rover V8) often have in effect a rev limiter by virtue of their design. The tappet clearances are maintained by the flow of the engine's lubricating oil. At high engine speeds, the oil pressure rises to such an extent that the tappets 'pump up', causing valve float. This sharply reduces engine power, causing speed to drop.\n"
] |
why are there no huge animals?
|
Oxygen percentage in the atmosphere. When it was about twice as much as it is now, we had dinosaurs and insects as large as dogs. Give it a little higher percentage and who knows what could have roamed the earth
|
[
"A small bodied animal has a greater capacity to be more abundant than a large bodied one. Purely as a function of geometry many more small things can be packed into a given space than can large things into the same area. However, these limits are generally never reached in ecological systems as other resources become limiting long before the packing limits are reached. Additionally, smaller species may have many more ecological niches available to them and thus facilitating the diversification of life (Hutchinson and MacArthur, 1959).\n",
"Big animals are not very numerous but there are hundreds of reptile species, amphibians, and birds; lizards and a lot of varieties of fish in the currents. Bats and myriads of birds abound in the trees.\n",
"Since all extinct lemurs were larger than the ones that currently survive, and the remaining large forests still support large populations of smaller lemurs, large size appears to have conveyed some distinct disadvantages. Large-bodied animals require larger habitats in order to maintain viable populations, and are most strongly impacted by habitat loss and fragmentation. Large folivores typically have slower reproductive rates, live in smaller groups, and have low dispersal rates (vagility), making them especially vulnerable to habitat loss, hunting pressure, and possibly disease. Large, slow-moving animals are often easier to hunt and provide a larger amount of food than smaller prey. Leaf-eating, large-bodied slow climbers, and semiterrestrial seed predators and omnivores disappeared completely, suggesting an extinction pattern based on habitat use.\n",
"The animal's small size is reflected in its food choices. Due to its smaller mouth, body anatomy, and masseter muscle, it tends to concentrate on food items up to 3 cm in diameter, while larger species eat items up to 6 cm in diameter.\n",
"The fauna includes many endemic mammal species, most of which are now highly endangered because of deforestation. The most famous is the pygmy hippopotamus (\"Hexaprotodon liberiensis\"), whilst the royal antelope (\"Neotragus pygmaeus\") is one of the smallest hoofed mammals in the world and is remarkable for its ability to leap up to ten times its body size.\n",
"Fiorillo stated that this lack of food might explain \"Nanuqsaurus\"'s unusually small size, as a large animal cannot survive on scarce resources. However, it was also found that the normal length of \"Troodon\" increased by 50% in Alaska, although it was speculated this was caused by a larger eye size, leading to better competition. \"Nanuqsaurus\" likely shrunk in size because of the decrease in year-round food supply, caused by the colder temperatures.\n",
"Large animals include Southern White Rhino, oryx, Damara Zebra, tapir, camel, llama and Sumatran tigers; there are also smaller wild animals such as red panda, meerkat, wallaby and four species of lemur (Red Ruffed, Red Fronted, Red Bellied and Ring Tailed), and a variety of birds, principally ostrich, emu, rhea and guinea fowl.\n"
] |
how to companies benefit from letting you file your taxes for free
|
E-filing your taxes costs them basically nothing. So while you're doing your 1040EZ for free they can advertise their other services to you.
It's a good way to get your eyeballs on their site for a guaranteed 20-30 minutes.
|
[
"Individuals have the option of both free and paid tax software. Recently a feature from the IRS called FreeFile allows users to file their individual tax returns for free. It is also possible to go through an authorized efile company that files Form 1040 with a service charge. FreeFile is free, it's an easy step by step system for those who make less than $64,000 annually and a more task-heavy form of filing for those who make above $64,000. For those who make more than $64,000 a year, the FreeFile is not step-by-step but an actual Form 1040 that can be filled out, box by box, electronically.\n",
"Many Americans find the process of filling out the tax forms more onerous than paying the taxes themselves. Many companies offer free and paid options for reducing the tedious labor involved in preparing one's tax return.\n",
"The tax under consideration, as we have construed the statute, may be described as an excise upon the particular privilege of doing business in a corporate capacity, i. e., with the advantages which arise from corporate or quasi corporate organization; or, when applied to insurance companies, for doing the business of such companies. As was said in the Thomas Case, 192 U. S. supra, the requirement to pay such taxes involves the exercise of privileges, and the element of absolute and unavoidable demand is lacking. If business is not done in the manner described in the statute, no tax is payable.\n",
"Companies are tax-exempt for their first four years after making a profit, and then only charged 50% of their normal taxes for the next nine years after their exemption. Overall taxes for the area are 10% for the first 15 years of the city, and 25% after that. Imported materials used for software production are import-tax free so long as they can not yet be used domestically. Exported software products are export-tax exempt. A Value Added Tax is also waived for exported software and domestically consumed software.\n",
"Some states have licensing requirements for anyone who prepares tax returns for a fee and some for fee-based preparation of state tax returns only. The Free File Alliance provides free tax preparation software for individuals with less than $58,000 of adjusted gross income for tax year 2010. People who make more than $58,000 can use Free File Fillable Forms, electronic versions of U.S. Internal Revenue Service (IRS) paper forms.\n",
"Corporations (or other enterprises) may often be allowed to defer taxes, for example, by using accelerated depreciation. Profit taxes (or other taxes) are reduced in the current period by either lowering declared revenue now, or by increasing expenses. In principle, taxes in future periods should be higher.\n",
"Under a pure flat tax without deductions, every tax period a company would make a single payment to the government covering the taxes on the employees and the taxes on the company profit. For example, suppose that in a given year, a company called ACME earns a profit of 3 million, spends 2 million in wages, and spends 1 million on other expenses that under the tax law is taxable income to recipients, such as the receipt of stock options, bonuses, and certain executive privileges. Given a flat rate of 15%, ACME would then owe the U.S. Internal Revenue Service (IRS) (3M + 2M + 1M) × 0.15 = 900,000. This payment would, in one fell swoop, settle the tax liabilities of ACME's employees as well as the corporate taxes owed by ACME. Most employees throughout the economy would never need to interact with the IRS, as all tax owed on wages, interest, dividends, royalties, etc. would be withheld at the source. The main exceptions would be employees with incomes from personal ventures. The \"Economist\" claims that such a system would reduce the number of entities required to file returns from about 130 million individuals, households, and businesses, as at present, to a mere 8 million businesses and self-employed.\n"
] |
why do farts sometines feel like bubbles popping when they come out?
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The gases that were initially roaming free and occupying the wider breadths of your intestines now have to squeeze into the narrow constriction of your sphincter. This pressurizes them akin to packing into a bubble, and as the sphincter relaxes and contracts that gives you your pop.
|
[
"Bubbles are generated when two distinct paths start and end at the same nodes. Normally bubbles are caused by errors or biological variants. These errors are removed using the Tour Bus algorithm, which is similar to a Dijkstra's algorithm, a breadth-first search that detects the best path to follow and determines which ones should be erased. A simple example is shown in figure 4.\n",
"Bubble is awoken by a newspaper which features an advert for a funfair. Bubble is intrigued and seems eager; but Squeek would rather work. However, Squeek quickly changes his mind when he sees a shining three-tone horn for grand prize. They can't get knock the coconut down, which is how they will get the horn. Until, a fortune-teller gives them another ball to knock it down, but that does not work. Ashamed and empty-handed, Bubble tries to kill himself, but Squeek diverts the gun and ends up destroying the funfair and the coconut, which makes them win the grand prize.\n",
"Dottles are generally considered troublesome because they lessen the time one may spend smoking a bowl. Dottles can also give a sour taste to the smoke as it is approached by the hot ember. If dottle is not promptly removed after smoking using a pipe tool, the pipe may eventually give a foul taste to any tobacco smoked in it. When this happens, pipe sweetening is required.\n",
"The bubble-popping gameplay is in the tradition of \"Puzzle Bobble\" and \"Bubble Bobble\". Players aim and fire colored bubbles into a field at the top of the screen; matching three bubbles pops them. Every level-up gets Bubbles closer to finding the poachers against obstacles such as swarming bees and bubble spawners.\n",
"Because bubble wrap makes a satisfying popping sound when compressed and ruptured, it is often used as a source of amusement. Acknowledging this alternative use, some websites provide a virtual bubble wrap program which displays a sheet of bubble wrap that users may pop by clicking on the bubbles, while the Mugen Puchipuchi is a compact electronic toy simulating bubble wrap popping.\n",
"Spread of dry bubble disease is associated with insect vectors. Mites and springtails get stuck on the dry bubbles because their movement becomes impeded by globules of spores stuck to their legs. These insects fly from mushroom cap to cap and spread the conidial \"L. fungicola\" spores, which are stuck to their legs from landing on infected mushroom caps.\n",
"\"Bubble Butt\" received mixed reviews from most critics. Some complimented its engaging sound and high energy, while others criticized its lyrical content and repetitious nature. \"Bubble Butt\" found some commercial success. It was Major Lazer's first commercial single to enter the \"Billboard\" Hot 100, peaking at number 56 while reaching number eight on the Dance Club Songs chart. It has topped the charts in Lebanon and South Korea, and has been certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).\n"
] |
since we're all moving at very high speed in space caused by the 1.rotation and 2.revolution of our a.planet, b.solar system, c.galaxy, etc.. how do we know that our measurements of distance are accurate?
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That's the basis of one of Einsteins biggest theories. The gist of it goes that all observations around you are based off of the Frame of reference you are in.
For example. Two astronauts are next to each other and use a jetpack to move away in opposite directions. To one astronaut it would seem that he is standing still and the other guy is moving away. To the other it would be the same thing but he would be standing still. For a third guy looking at both astronauts, the two would be moving away from eachother. It's literally all relative.
With time it gets a little trickier. Because as you go faster time begins to slow down. But it's the same general idea. If your moving fast enough, time would seem to go normally to you. But if someone was staying still relative to you, they would see you slowing down more and more the faster you go.
So for every human being on earth going basically the same speed. It really doesn't matter because most measurements are going to be the same. We actually have to consider this with satellites in space. They are moving much faster compared to us. So we have to compensate for their clocks going a tiny bit slower than us.
|
[
"The tangential speed of Earth's rotation at a point on Earth can be approximated by multiplying the speed at the equator by the cosine of the latitude. For example, the Kennedy Space Center is located at latitude 28.59° N, which yields a speed of: cos 28.59° × 1674.4 km/h = 1470.2 km/h.\n",
"Thus, for example, if we wonder how rapidly our galaxy is rotating, we can make a model of the galaxy in which its rotation plays a part. The rate of rotation in this model that makes the observations of (for example) the flatness of the galaxy agree best with physical laws as we know them is the best estimate of the rate of rotation \n",
"The Earth's rotational velocity is not constant over time. Any motion of mass in or on the Earth causes a slowdown or speedup of the rotation speed, or a change of rotation axis. Small motions produce changes too small to be measured, but movements of very large mass, like sea currents or tides, can produce discernible changes in the rotation and can change very precise astronomical observations. Global simulations of atmosphere, ocean, and land dynamics are used to create effective angular momentum (EAM) functions that can be used to predict changes in EOP.\n",
"The surface velocity due to the Earth's rotation is a maximum at the Equator and is equal to the circumference (pi × the diameter of the Earth) per 24 hours (or 3.14159 × 12,756 ÷ 24 = 1670 km/h = 1 equatorial velocity unit, EVU). The time of an Earth's rotation is inversely related to the angular velocity and the surface velocity (T = 1 day for 2 pi radians, or at the equator, 1 circumferential unit per 1 EVU = 40,075 km ÷ 1670 km/h ÷ 24 h/day = 1 day).\n",
"Note that assuming all rotations are on the same direction and \"Ω\"\"omega;\", as time passes, the angular momentum of the planet decreases and hence that of the satellite orbit increases. Due to its relation with the planet-satellite distance, the latter increases, so the angular velocity of the satellite orbit decreases.\n",
"The angular speed of Earth's rotation in inertial space is ± . Multiplying by (180°/π radians) × (86,400 seconds/day) yields , indicating that Earth rotates more than 360° relative to the fixed stars in one solar day. Earth's movement along its nearly circular orbit while it is rotating once around its axis requires that Earth rotate slightly more than once relative to the fixed stars before the mean Sun can pass overhead again, even though it rotates only once (360°) relative to the mean Sun. Multiplying the value in rad/s by Earth's equatorial radius of (WGS84 ellipsoid) (factors of 2π radians needed by both cancel) yields an equatorial speed of . Some sources state that Earth's equatorial speed is slightly less, or . This is obtained by dividing Earth's equatorial circumference by . However, the use of only one circumference unwittingly implies only one rotation in inertial space, so the corresponding time unit must be a sidereal hour. This is confirmed by multiplying by the number of sidereal days in one mean solar day, , which yields the equatorial speed in mean solar hours given above of .\n",
"Because of a planet's rotation around its own axis, the gravitational acceleration is less at the equator than at the poles. In the 17th century, following the invention of the pendulum clock, French scientists found that clocks sent to French Guiana, on the northern coast of South America, ran slower than their exact counterparts in Paris. Measurements of the acceleration due to gravity at the equator must also take into account the planet's rotation. Any object that is stationary with respect to the surface of the Earth is actually following a circular trajectory, circumnavigating the Earth's axis. Pulling an object into such a circular trajectory requires a force. The acceleration that is required to circumnavigate the Earth's axis along the equator at one revolution per sidereal day is 0.0339 m/s². Providing this acceleration decreases the effective gravitational acceleration. At the equator, the effective gravitational acceleration is 9.7805 m/s. This means that the true gravitational acceleration at the equator must be 9.8144 m/s (9.7805 + 0.0339 = 9.8144).\n"
] |
What did Eva Perón actually do for Argentina?
|
To some extent, I agree with your assessment. The praise lavished on her, going so far as to call her a saint, goes beyond the scope of her accomplishments. She didn’t end poverty in Argentina. She didn’t destroy inequality. She didn’t create an worker-centered economy that withstood the shocks of modernity. And she didn’t somehow prevent the period of state terror that rocked Argentina in the coming decades (how could she after all?).
However, I think the accomplishments you mentioned are still worthy of significant praise. First, one cannot understand Eva without contextualizing her position within the Peronist system. The recent historiography on the Peróns demonstrates that their system offered tangible financial and workplace benefits for the average person. The working classes were not manipulated by eloquent demagogues saying whatever the people wanted to hear; their followers had a lot more agency in this movement than is often acknowledged. The working classes adored Juan and Eva because they offered viable change for people that had previously been excluded from Argentine political discourses. As a central figure of this movement, she gained a massive following who regarded her in many ways as “one of them.” Her speeches captivated audiences and rocketed her to fame because the message of the Peróns was one that people wanted to hear. She died at the peak of her popularity, which in some ways allowed Juan to use her image as a symbol that transcended her legitimate legacy.
But when we examine her accomplishments from a historical perspective, Eva contributed some important changes beyond worker involvement that resonated throughout twentieth century Argentine society. Though not the only woman involved, she played a significant role in the women’s suffrage movement, helping to break down a culture heavily influenced by machismo. She was also one of the first Argentine women to take center stage in the political arena for which she was initially ridiculed. She formed the Partido Peronista Femenino, which eventually helped more women serve in Argentina’s congress than at any other time in Argentina’s history. She championed anti-discrimination laws that guaranteed equality of the sexes before the law and within marriages. Though women’s rights struggled following Perón’s downfall, these changes were adopted by later Argentine governments. She also worked to protect the rights of the elderly, who had largely been ignored by previous governments; this included writing equality into the Argentine constitution.
In terms of welfare, her foundation constructed dozens of hospitals, retirement homes, shelters, and schools around Argentina, distributed millions of charitable items each year to needy families, and found jobs for hundreds of thousands of unemployed workers in the provinces. Her foundation also provided free medical check-ups for over 300,000 needy children. According to Tomás Eloy Martínez in *Santa Evita*, “in the first six months of 1951, Evita gave away twenty-five thousand houses and almost three million packages containing medicine, furniture, clothing, and toys.” All of this in less than a decade before she passed away. The effects of this state welfare resonated in Argentine political culture throughout the twentieth century as the government struggled to strike an appropriate balance between free market economics and the welfare culture that Eva helped establish. It would be wrong to say that Eva was the sole contributor to this phenomenon, but she certainly contributed to a period whose effects still reverberate both positively and negatively.
In this light, it is hard to ignore her influence, especially in the area of women’s rights and political culture. And perhaps this illuminates a little bit the place of women’s history in our imaginations. How much should we value personal and political accomplishments in the historical narrative? What is the place of individuals and their complicated legacies when they don’t fit as well in our traditional definitions success and failure?
|
[
"In 1951, Eva Perón announced her candidacy for the Peronist nomination for the office of Vice President of Argentina, receiving great support from the Peronist political base, low-income and working-class Argentines who were referred to as \"descamisados\" or \"shirtless ones\". Opposition from the nation's military and bourgeoisie, coupled with her declining health, ultimately forced her to withdraw her candidacy. In 1952, shortly before her death from cancer at 33, Eva Perón was given the title of \"Spiritual Leader of the Nation\" by the Argentine Congress. She was given a state funeral upon her death, a prerogative generally reserved for heads of state.\n",
"The Eva Perón Foundation was a charitable foundation begun by Eva Perón, a prominent Argentine political leader, when she was the First Lady and Spiritual Leader of the Nation of Argentina. It operated from 1948 to 1955.\n",
"Perón returned from exile and became president in 1973. He appointed Anchorena ambassador in England, and instructed him to negotiate the repatriation of Rosas's body. Great Britain authorized it, and the Argentine Congress passed a resolution for this purpose. The repatriation was imminent, but the country began a period of turmoil: Perón died in 1974, his wife Isabel Perón could not keep the Dirty War under control (a conflict between left-wing guerrillas and right-wing anti-communist groups), and a new military coup, the National Reorganization Process, deposed Isabel Perón. It is unknown if the repatriation was paused by the military or by the committee.\n",
"Eva Perón was instrumental as a symbol of hope to the common laborer during the first five-year plan. When she died in 1952, the year of the presidential elections, the people felt they had lost an ally. Coming from humble origins, she was loathed by the elite but adored by the poor for her work with the sick, elderly, and orphans. It was due to her behind-the-scenes work that women's suffrage was granted in 1947 and a feminist wing of the 3rd party in Argentina was formed. Simultaneous to Perón's five-year plans, Evita supported a women's movement that concentrated on the rights of women, the poor and the disabled.\n",
"Eva Perón has become a part of international popular culture, most famously as the subject of the musical \"Evita\" (1976). Cristina Álvarez Rodríguez claims that Evita has never left the collective consciousness of Argentines. Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, the first woman elected President of Argentina, claims that women of her generation owe a debt to Eva for \"her example of passion and combativeness\".\n",
"Upon moving in with Perón, Eva is introduced to high society only to be met with disdain from the upper classes and the Argentine Army (\"Perón's Latest Flame\"). In 1946, after launching his presidential bid, Perón discusses his chances of winning the election with Eva. After reassuring him of their chances of winning, Eva organises rallies for the \"descamisados\" and gives them hope for a better future while Perón and his allies plot to dispose of anyone who stands in their way (\"A New Argentina\").\n",
"Perón returned to Argentina from Spain in 1973 after his candidate Héctor Cámpora of the Justicialist Party was elected as president. Perón was widely understood to be the real power in the country, and the next year was elected as president after Campora stepped aside for him. His third wife, Isabel Perón, was elected as his vice-president. His death in 1974 raised uncertainty and political tensions. Isabel Peron succeeded him, becoming the first woman president in the Western Hemisphere. During the political unrest that year, Timerman received bomb threats by the Argentine Anti-Communist Alliance (also called the Triple A).\n"
] |
In the High Middle Ages, what sort of unarmed combat training did knights receive?
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I actually do some of this!* It's a lot of grappling and what is best compared to judo. You train mostly out of armor, but most of it translates very well to armored combat too. The only differences between armored and unarmored are the places you can hit and your center gravity. Punching someone in plate isn't going to accomplish much, the most you can hope for is to put them off balance (which very important actually.) That, in armor you need almost squat, since you'll be wearing so much more weight up high.
It's 2am thanksgiving where I am, but I'll try and edit in some links later.
[Grappling]( _URL_0_ )
[Illustrations from Talhoffer's second treatise]( _URL_1_)
*not very well, but still.
|
[
"In peacetime, knights often demonstrated their martial skills in tournaments, which usually took place on the grounds of a castle. Knights can parade their armour and banner to the whole court as the tournament commenced. Medieval tournaments were made up of martial sports called \"hastiludes\", and were not only a major spectator sport but also played as a real combat simulation. It usually ended with many knights either injured or even killed. One contest was a free-for-all battle called a \"melee\", where large groups of knights numbering hundreds assembled and fought one another, and the last knight standing was the winner. The most popular and romanticized contest for knights was the \"joust\". In this competition, two knights charge each other with blunt wooden lances in an effort to break their lance on the opponent's head or body or unhorse them completely. The loser in these tournaments had to turn his armour and horse over to the victor. The last day was filled with feasting, dancing and minstrel singing.\n",
"Knights were expected, above all, to fight bravely and to display military professionalism and courtesy. When knights were taken as prisoners of war, they were customarily held for ransom in somewhat comfortable surroundings. This same standard of conduct did not apply to non-knights (archers, peasants, foot-soldiers, etc.) who were often slaughtered after capture, and who were viewed during battle as mere impediments to knights' getting to other knights to fight them.\n",
"The martial skills of the knight carried over to the practice of the hunt, and hunting expertise became an important aspect of courtly life in the later medieval period (see terms of venery). Related to chivalry was the practice of heraldry and its elaborate rules of displaying coats of arms as it emerged in the High Middle Ages.\n",
"The bulk of the fighting force was made up of knights and sergeants. Knights, who usually came from the nobility, were the most prestigious and wore the white mantle and red cross over their armour, carried knightly weapons, rode horses and had the services of a squire. Sergeants filled other roles such as blacksmith or mason as well as fighting in battle. There were also squires who performed the task of caring for the horses.\n",
"But knights remained the minority of total available combat forces; the expense of arms, armour, and horses was only affordable to a select few. While mounted men-at-arms focused on a narrow combat role of shock combat, medieval armies relied on a large variety of foot troops to fulfill all the rest (skirmishing, flank guards, scouting, holding ground, etc.). Medieval chroniclers tended to pay undue attention to the knights at the expense of the common soldiers, which led early students of military history to suppose that heavy cavalry was the only force that mattered on medieval European battlefields. But well-trained and disciplined infantry could defeat knights.\n",
"For most of the Middle Ages, warfare and society were dominated by the cavalry (horse-mounted soldiers), composed of individual knights. Knights were generally drawn from the aristocracy, while the infantry levies were raised from commoners. This situation slowed the advance of infantry tactics and weapon technologies; those that were developed by the end of the Middle Ages included the use of long spears or halberds to counter the long reach of knights' lances, and the increased use of ranged weaponry to counter the cavalry's advantages of momentum, speed, height, and reach. However, from 1350 onwards the knights themselves usually dismounted for battle, becoming super-heavy infantry themselves, as a countermeasure to development of massed archery tactics which would bring their horses down. This led to development of combined arms tactics of archery and dismounted knights.\n",
"The Knights' ritual worked three degrees, based on the history of the Crusades: the first degree accented the pilgrim and taught the candidate fidelity to God and man; the second degree used the medieval knight as its role model to teach the member to revere religion, fidelity, valor, charity, courtesy and hospitality; the third degree was based on the figure of the crusader and it \"equipped the member against the evil of his enemies.\" Members of the Ladies of the Golden Eagle took one degree, the Temple Degree, upon being initiated. Oaths are sworn on an open Bible.\n"
] |
what is the difference between casualty and property insurance?
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Casualty is for people and property is for items?
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[
"Casualty insurance insures against accidents, not necessarily tied to any specific property. It is a broad spectrum of insurance that a number of other types of insurance could be classified, such as auto, workers compensation, and some liability insurances.\n",
"Casualty insurance is mainly liability coverage of an individual or organization for negligent acts or omissions. However, the term has also been used for property insurance, aviation insurance, boiler and machinery insurance, and glass and crime insurance. It may include marine insurance for shipwrecks or losses at sea, fidelity and surety insurance, earthquake insurance, political risk insurance, terrorism insurance, fidelity and surety bonds.\n",
"One of the most common kinds of casualty insurance today is automobile insurance. In its most basic form, automobile insurance provides liability coverage in the event that a driver is found \"at fault\" in an accident. This can cover medical expenses of individuals involved in the accident as well as restitution or repair of damaged property, all of which would fall into the realm of casualty insurance coverage.\n",
"Property and casualty insurance agents sell insurance policies that protect individuals and businesses from financial loss resulting from automobile accidents, fire, theft, storms, and other events that can damage property. For businesses, property and casualty insurance can also cover injured Workers Compensation Insurance, product liability claims, or medical malpractice claims.\n",
"A casualty loss is a type of tax loss that is a sudden, unexpected, or unusual event. Damage or loss resulting from progressive deterioration of property through a steadily operating cause would not be a casualty loss. “Other casualty” are events similar to “fire, storm, or shipwreck.” It is generally held that wherever force is applied to property which the owner-taxpayer is either unaware of because of the hidden nature of such application or is powerless to act to prevent the same because of the suddenness thereof or some other disability and damage results.\n",
"Property and casualty insurance companies tend to specialize because of the complexity and diversity of risks. One division is to organize around personal and commercial lines of insurance. Personal lines of insurance are for individuals and include fire, auto, homeowners, theft and umbrella coverages. Commercial lines address the insurance needs of businesses and include property, business continuation, product liability, fleet/commercial vehicle, workers compensation, fidelity & surety, and D&O insurance. The insurance industry also provides coverage for exposures such as catastrophe, weather-related risks, earthquakes, patent infringement and other forms of corporate espionage, terrorism, and \"one-of-a-kind\" (e.g., satellite launch). Actuarial science provides data collection, measurement, estimating, forecasting, and valuation tools to provide financial and underwriting data for management to assess marketing opportunities and the nature of the risks. Actuarial science often helps to assess the overall risk from catastrophic events in relation to its underwriting capacity or surplus.\n",
"Property insurance provides protection against risks to property, such as fire, theft or weather damage. This may include specialized forms of insurance such as fire insurance, flood insurance, earthquake insurance, home insurance, inland marine insurance or boiler insurance.\n"
] |
can fighter aircraft detect when they’ve been “locked on” like in the movies, if they can, how do they know?
|
Yes, it's absolutely possible for a fighter craft to know it's been locked onto.
In order to home in on something, you have to know where it is, and one way to know where things are is to use *radar* -- that is, send out a beam of radio waves that bounces off of objects and comes back to the transmitter, painting a picture of what's around it. A radar system has to scan the entire sky, so the number of times the radar track hits a target aircraft in a minute is relatively low.
When a radar system sees something it wants, it turns on a different radar that scans much more quickly to provide more accurate tracking data to the missile. Aircraft can determine how quickly they're being painted by radar; if they're being painted very rapidly, that probably means a radar-tracking missile has acquired them.
There are other types of missile guidance that are harder to detect; heat-seeking missiles, for example, don't rely on signals bounced off the target, so an aircraft can't know one's on its tail.
|
[
"Just prior to World War II, Royal Air Force tests with the new Chain Home (CH) radars had demonstrated that relaying information to the fighter aircraft directly from the radar sites was not feasible. The radars determined the map coordinates of the enemy, but could generally not see the fighters at the same time. This meant the fighters had to be able to determine where to fly to perform an interception but were often unaware of their own exact location and unable to calculate an interception while also flying their aircraft.\n",
"The Board is unable to determine why each crew failed to see and avoid the other aircraft; however, the Board believes that the ability of both crews to detect the other aircraft in time to avoid a collision was reduced because of the position of the sun, the closure angle of the aircraft,\n",
"When they find one or more potential targets they will alert the pilot(s) and display the location of each target relative to the aircraft on a screen, much like a radar. Again similarly to the way a radar works, the operator can tell the IRST to track a particular target of interest, once it has been identified, or scan in a particular direction if a target is believed to be there (for example, because of an advisory from AWACS or another aircraft).\n",
"A high-flying aircraft can be detected by defense systems at long range, giving an air defense system time to react, alerting SAM and AAA missile systems and fighter aircraft. Using NOE flight, the approach may be undetected; the aircraft \"pops up\" to attack the target and then turns to escape before the enemy can respond. Doppler radar has the potential to detect NOE flight, but the incoming aircraft has to be within radar range in the first place, and low flight minimizes this possibility by using hills and mountains to break the line of sight (terrain masking), defeating terrestrial air defense radar and in rough enough terrain also airborne early warning.\n",
"A more serious problem is that the seeker cannot tell the difference between a signal reflecting off the aircraft and one reflecting off other objects. This is not a major problem in one-on-one combat at high altitudes, but if the missile is shot at a target below the launch aircraft, it will eventually approach a point where it can no longer distinguish between the reflections from the aircraft and the ground around it. Additionally, the target aircraft can release random pulses of signal that will have the same effect, confusing the seeker which sees both the reflected signal and the ones from the jammer with no way to distinguish them.\n",
"Most military combat aircraft have an angle of attack indicator among the pilot's instruments, which lets the pilot know precisely how close to the stall point the aircraft is. Modern airliner instrumentation may also measure angle of attack, although this information may not be directly displayed on the pilot's display, instead driving a stall warning indicator or giving performance information to the flight computer (for fly by wire systems).\n",
"When the radar is on, the target cue will light up in the HUD (looking out front) where the enemy aircraft is located on the screen for a brief moment, immediately after looking out left, right or rear angles. This gives a clue where the enemy is, and the player can use this advantage to track where the target is effectively no matter the enemy is on his left, right or from behind. This appears in the DOS version, but it is not known whether it also happens in any other version.\n"
] |
Did flightless birds like ostriches evolve from surviving Dromaesaurs or flying birds?
|
There was a great article in National Geographic from May of this year that explains this. [Here it is.](_URL_0_)
Here is the basic answer though: all flightless birds likely trace their ancestry back to a flying relative. They likely began in the southern section of Pangea and when that broke up they were dispersed and each land-locked group evolved in place.
|
[
"As only tentative inferences can be made about the habits of \"Eremopezus\", it is not clear why it became extinct. Still, nothing even remotely resembling a possible descendant is known or inferred, making it rather likely that its lineage did not progress very far. It is sometimes believed that flightless birds cannot compete with carnivorous mammals, but the Phorusrhacidae prove that even carnivorous flightless birds can very well thrive in the presence of mammalian competitors. However, the rather comprehensive ecological data indicates that habitat in the Faiyum region changed at the start of the Oligocene: for some time, savanna dominated by true grasses (Poaceae) and shrubland seem to have displaced the swamp forest to a considerable extent, creating a habitat similar to that found at the less humid regions along the lower Sénégal River. When the forest expanded again, different mammals—an abundance of monkeys but far fewer of the huge Pliohyracidae hyraxes—inhabited it. In general, the emerging picture is one of an economic upheaval that lasted for perhaps 10 million years, and during which the Paleogene ecosystem at Faiyum with its numerous now-extinct lineages gave way to a more modern one, inhabited by the ancestors of animals that live in tropical Africa today. If \"Eremopezus\" was indeed a swamp forest bird, it may well have succumbed to this change. In that respect, it is notable that the \"African\" fauna found in Europe was replaced by animals originating in Asia starting at about the same time.\n",
"Turner and colleagues interpreted the presence of feathers on \"Velociraptor\" as evidence against the idea that the larger, flightless maniraptorans lost their feathers secondarily due to larger body size. Furthermore, they noted that quill knobs are almost never found in flightless bird species today, and that their presence in \"Velociraptor\" (presumed to have been flightless due to its relatively large size and short forelimbs) is evidence that the ancestors of dromaeosaurids could fly, making \"Velociraptor\" and other large members of this family secondarily flightless, though it is possible the large wing feathers inferred in the ancestors of \"Velociraptor\" had a purpose other than flight. The feathers of the flightless \"Velociraptor\" may have been used for display, for covering their nests while brooding, or for added speed and thrust when running up inclined slopes.\n",
"The genus \"Sylviornis\", a huge prehistorically extinct species of New Caledonia, was flightless, but as opposed to most other flightless birds like ratites or island rails which become flightless due to arrested development of their flight apparatus and subsequently evolve to larger size, \"Sylviornis\" seems to have become flightless simply due to its bulk, with the wing reduction following a consequence, not the reason for its flightlessness.\n",
"Though some forms like \"Paracrax wetmorei\" might have been capable of flight, most taxa were flightless, constituting examples of flightless birds in mammal dominated environments. \"Paracrax gigantea\", \"Paracrax antiqua\" and the larger \"Bathornis\" species in particular might have occupied macropredatory niches akin to that of phorusrhacids, the former and later reaching heights of over \n",
"Large, flightless birds genetically-engineered as replacements for horses, which are now entirely extinct in the world of Nausicäa. They are commonly used as beasts-of-burden and as riding animals. They were the inspiration from Hironobu Sakaguchi for the making of chocobos.\"\n",
"Large flightless birds have been found in late Paleocene deposits, including the omnivorous \"Gastornis\" in Europe and carnivorous terror birds in South America, the latter of which survived until the Pleistocene.\n",
"The ostriches are flightless birds native to Africa, and are the largest living species of bird. They are distinctive in their appearance, with a long neck and legs and the ability to run at high speeds.\n"
] |
After decolonization in Africa why did so many nations keep the native language of their colonizers as their official language rather than returning to their historic, local languages?
|
The borders you see today are not necessarily drawn based off which group of people live where. But more remnants of colonial administrative districts. Two different peoples speaking two different languages will fall back on the common one, regardless of its origins. Therefore the use of ex-colonial languages.
_URL_1_
Notice the similarities? Ethiopia, Somalia, Cameroon, Angola, The Congo, Sudan and a number of coastal west african nations are basically the same as they were drawn by the colonists. Here specifically the 1914 partitions.
Here is a very detailed ethno-linguistic map with which you can zoom in on, compare it with the borders drawn in 1914, and those present on the map, or a modern one.
_URL_0_
Even the "uniform" Green section denoting Guinean languages is fractured as each colour represents a language group, rather than a language. There is no guarantee of decent intelligibility between two languages. People speak english, French, etc because it the administrative language before independence and it was the only one with which they could seriously communicate between ethnic groups that spoke different languages.
This is somewhat of a generalization however because recent changes in borders are changing the trend. For example, in this old map, the Sudan is a single country. The country split into two in 2011. As you can see, the southern part of Sudan which split was dominated by a different ethno-linguistic group than the North.
EDIT: Added a map, elaborated a little.
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[
"After gaining independence, many African countries, in the search for national unity, selected one language, generally the former colonial language, to be used in government and education. However, in recent years, African countries have become increasingly supportive of maintaining linguistic diversity. Language policies that are being developed nowadays are mostly aimed at multilingualism.\n",
"Following the end of colonialism, nearly all African countries adopted official languages that originated outside the continent, although several countries also granted legal recognition to indigenous languages (such as Swahili, Yoruba, Igbo and Hausa). In numerous countries, English and French (\"see African French\") are used for communication in the public sphere such as government, commerce, education and the media. Arabic, Portuguese, Afrikaans and Spanish are examples of languages that trace their origin to outside of Africa, and that are used by millions of Africans today, both in the public and private spheres. Italian is spoken by some in former Italian colonies in Africa. German is spoken in Namibia, as it was a former German protectorate.\n",
"These languages often have colonial traces and \"were once imposed by a colonial power and after independence continued to be used in politics, administration, law, big business, technology and higher education\".\n",
"Little or nothing is being done to give native languages the status they deserve as vital tools for the preservation and dissemination of indigenous knowledge while, at the same time, continuing to use the languages of the former colonial powers - English, French and Portuguese - out of necessity. It is as if native languages are irrelevant to the wellbeing of Africans, reinforcing the attitude that nothing good comes out of Africa except minerals and other natural resources. And nothing good, not even indigenous knowledge and institutions, ever came from Africans except labour, especially manual labour.\n",
"Indigenous decolonization, however, is not merely psychological accommodation to occupation or colonialism. It may also incorporate a realization or consciousness that bondage still exists today. Although a nation-state's political independence from a European state may have played itself out on a limited \"battlefield,\" so-to-speak, true independence from foreign occupation has not yet occurred. Prime examples of this are the settler societies of the Americas, Australia, and New Zealand. Here direct control by British and Iberian nations respectively have ceased, yet the Anglo and Iberian descendants' political, social, moral, economic, and even racist taxonomy still exist and dominates over the true indigenous populations. Indigenous Decolonization in real-time physical terms would also mean either an expulsion or exodus of the continuing forces that occupy the indigenous territory or a complete and total elimination of the bondage that exists.\n",
"As for East Africa, extensive British settlements were established in what are now Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe, where English became a crucial language of the government, education and the law. From the early 1960s, the six countries achieved independence in succession; but English remained the official language and had large numbers of second language speakers in Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Malawi (along with Chewa).\n",
"During the imperial and colonial era, powerful nations extended their influence outside their homeland and this resulted in many colonized nations ceasing to be self-governing and have since been described as stateless nations. Some nations have been victims of \"carve out\" and their homeland was divided among several countries. Even today the colonial boundaries form modern national boundaries. These often differ from cultural boundaries. This results in situations where people of the same language or culture are divided by national borders, for example New Guinea splits as West Papua (former Dutch colony) and Papua New Guinea (former British colony). During decolonization, the colonial powers imposed a unified state structure irrespective of the ethnic differences and granted independence to their colonies as a multinational state. This led to successor states with many minority ethnic groups in them, which increased the potential for ethnic conflicts. Some of these minoritiy groups campaigned for self-determination. Stateless nations were not protected in all countries and become victims of atrocities such as discrimination, ethnic cleansing, genocide, forced assimilation, Exploitation of labour and natural resources.\n"
] |
how do cinemagraphs work?
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They are .gifs someone takes a video or a segment of a video and they cut and play with it until it's seamless.
The start of the .gif has to match the end as best the editor can perceive.
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[
"Cinemagraphs are made by taking a series of photographs or a video recording, and, using image editing software, compositing the photographs or the video frames into a seamless loop of sequential frames. This is done in such a way that motion in part of the subject between exposures (for example, a person's dangling leg) is perceived as a repeating or continued motion, in contrast with the stillness of the rest of the image.\n",
"Cinemagraphs are still photographs in which a minor and repeated movement occurs, forming a video clip. They are published as an animated GIF or in other video formats, and can give the illusion that the viewer is watching an animation. A variation is a \"video snapshot\" (clip composed like a still photo, but instead of a shutter release it is captured using the video recording function with its audio track and perhaps showing minor movement such as the subject's eye blinks). Another variation is an \"audio snapshot\" (still photo linked to an audio file created at the moment of photo capture by certain cameras that offer this proprietary function).\n",
"Film takes are often designated with the aid of a clapperboard. It is also referred to as the slate. The number of each take is written or attached to the clapperboard, which is filmed briefly prior to or at the beginning of the actual take. \n",
"To synchronize double-system footage, the clapper board which typically starts a take is used as a reference point for the editor to match the picture to the sound (provided the scene and take are also called out so that the editor knows which picture take goes with any given sound take). It also permits scene and take numbers and other essential information to be seen on the film itself. Aaton cameras have a system called AatonCode that can \"jam sync\" with a timecode-based audio recorder and prints a digital timecode directly on the edge of the film itself. However, the most commonly used system at the moment is unique identifier numbers exposed on the edge of the film by the film stock manufacturer (KeyKode is the name for Kodak's system). These are then logged (usually by a computer editing system, but sometimes by hand) and recorded along with audio timecode during editing. In the case of no better alternative, a handclap can work if done clearly and properly, but often a quick tap on the microphone (provided it is in frame for this gesture) is preferred.\n",
"BULLET::::- Camera. A camera is a device used to take pictures, either singly or in sequence. A camera that takes pictures singly is sometimes called a photo camera to distinguish it from a video camera.\n",
"Hand-held camera or hand-held shooting is a filmmaking and video production technique in which a camera is held in the camera operator's hands as opposed to being mounted on a tripod or other base. Hand-held cameras are used because they are conveniently sized for travel and because they allow greater freedom of motion during filming. Newsreel camera operators frequently gathered images using a hand-held camera. Virtually all modern video cameras are small enough for hand-held use, but many professional video cameras are designed specifically for hand-held use such as for electronic news-gathering (ENG), and electronic field production (EFP).\n",
"Originally, photographs were taken using color negative film. A selection would be made from contact sheets and prints made. The prints would be placed on a rostrum and recorded to videotape using a standard video camera. Any moves, pans or zooms would have to be made in camera. The captured scenes could then be edited.\n"
] |
in gay marriage ban challenges, why is there never a reference to the full faith and credit clause?
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Because they are not arguing for their marriages in one state to be recognized in another state (most of the time), they are arguing for the right to be married in that state. Different point on the timeline. For the Full Faith and Credit clause to be in effect, the couple would have to be married already, which is largely not the case.
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[
"The proposed legislation raises Constitutional questions in relation to the Full Faith and Credit Clause. Joanna Grossman, writing for FindLaw, emphasized \"the need for the federal courts to weigh in\", rather than for states to continue making a public-policy exception when deciding the status of same-sex relationships independently of the decisions of other states, as states have been permitted to do in the case of incestuous marriages. The Act was designed to protect DOMA by prohibiting federal courts from hearing cases like that of Nancy Wilson, who sued to have her relationship with Paula Schoenwether treated as marriage in Florida because it had been treated as marriage in Massachusetts. In that case, the federal court upheld DOMA.\n",
"The First Amendment to the United States Constitution, which is part of the United States Bill of Rights, expressly forbids laws being made \"respecting an establishment of religion\" and that prohibit the free exercise of religion. Thus, according to this argument, the state has no authority to define marriage as between one man and woman because there are various religions which hold that gay marriage is morally equivalent to heterosexual marriage.\n",
"In his article, Torcello claims that any state endorsement of marriage represents an inappropriate public endorsement of a comprehensive religious or otherwise metaphysical doctrine, which underlies any particular definition of marriage. Accordingly, taking public reason seriously leads to the idea that legalization of same-sex marriage may be just as neutrally unbalanced as its ban. In place of the public institute of marriage, Torcello, like Dershowitz, argues that civil unions providing the full extent of marital benefits under law ought to be instituted for both heterosexual and homosexual couples. According to the argument, such civil unions ought to replace the current legal institute of marriage. Once privatized, marriage is open for individuals to define and embrace or ignore as they see fit, within the scope of their private religious or philosophical belief systems:\n",
"In \"Baehr v. Miike\" (1993), the Supreme Court of Hawaii ruled that the state must show a compelling interest in prohibiting same-sex marriage. This finding prompted concern among opponents of same-sex marriage, who feared that same-sex marriage might become legal in Hawaii and that other states would recognize or be compelled to recognize those marriages under the Full Faith and Credit Clause of the United States Constitution. The House Judiciary Committee's 1996 Report called for DOMA as a response to \"Baehr\", because \"a redefinition of marriage in Hawaii to include homosexual couples could make such couples eligible for a whole range of federal rights and benefits\".\n",
"On June 6, 2014, Crabb concluded that the state's constitutional and legislative ban on same-sex marriage interferes with the fundamental right to marry, violating the due process clause of the Constitution of the United States, and discriminates on the basis of sexual orientation, violating the equal protection clause.\n",
"The article was adopted in 1997. The purpose of the article has been to ensure that legislators would not be able to legalize same-sex marriage without changing the Constitution. Jurists have generally interpreted it as a constitutional ban on same-sex marriage. A few lawyers have argued that the article does not define marriage, and while promoting opposite-sex marriages, does not in itself ban same-sex marriage.\n",
"In the case, King County Superior Court Judge William L. Downing ruled that the state law prohibiting same-sex marriages, or DOMA, was unconstitutional, finding for the plaintiffs on August 4, 2004. The judge ruled that restricting the institution of marriage to opposite sex couples \"is not rationally related to any legitimate or compelling state interest.\" The ruling was appealed to the state Supreme Court.\n"
] |
When fish take out oxygen from water, do they leave behind hydrogen? Or how does that work?
|
Fish take oxygen (O2) that is *[dissolved in the water](_URL_1_)*, not the oxygen from the water (H2O) molecule.
Further, taking out oxygen from water is a chemical reaction, not a nuclear one. While it takes a lot more energy than filtering out oxygen gas from water, [you can do it with a battery](_URL_0_) instead of a nuclear reactor.
|
[
"Laboratory tests conducted by fish culturists in recent years have demonstrated that common household hydrogen peroxide can be used safely to provide oxygen for small fish. The hydrogen peroxide releases oxygen by decomposition when it is exposed to catalysts such as manganese dioxide.\n",
"Dissolved oxygen (DO) is a major contributor to water quality. Not only do fish and most other aquatic animals need it, but aerobic bacteria help decompose organic matter. When oxygen concentrations become low, anoxic conditions may develop which can decrease the ability of the water body to support life.\n",
"Reoxygenating the system water is a crucial part to obtaining high production densities. Fish require oxygen to metabolize food and grow, as do bacteria communities in the biofilter. Dissolved oxygen levels can be increased through two methods aeration and oxygenation. In aeration air is pumped through an air stone or similar device that creates small bubbles in the water column, this results in a high surface area where oxygen can dissolve into the water. In general due to slow gas dissolution rates and the high air pressure needed to create small bubbles this method is considered inefficient and the water is instead oxygenated by pumping in pure oxygen. Various methods are used to ensure that during oxygenation all of the oxygen dissolves into the water column. Careful calculation and consideration must be given to the oxygen demand of a given system, and that demand must be met with either oxygenation or aeration equipment.\n",
"Most hydrogens in heterotrophic tissues come from water not from diet sources, but the proportion coming from water varies. In general, Hydrogen from water is transferred to NADPH and then taken up to the tissues. An apparent trophic effect (compounding effect) can be observed for δD in heterotrophs, so significant D-enrichments result from the intake of surrounding water the in aquatic food webs. The δD of proteins in animal tissues are in cases affected more by diet sources than by surrounding water.\n",
"The amount of dissolved oxygen in a water body is frequently the key substance in determining the extent and kinds of organic life in the water body. Fish need dissolved oxygen to survive, although their tolerance to low oxygen varies among species; in extreme cases of low oxygen some fish even resort to air gulping. Plants often have to produce aerenchyma, while the shape and size of leaves may also be altered. Conversely, oxygen is fatal to many kinds of anaerobic bacteria.\n",
"It just so happens that hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) are both diatomic molecules, thus we have H and O. To form water, one of the O atoms breaks off from the O molecule and react with the H compound to form HO. But, there is one oxygen atom left. It reacts with another H molecule. Since it took two of each atom to balance the compound, we put the coefficient 2 in front of HO:\n",
"Water is fully oxidized hydrogen. Hydrogen itself is a high-energy, flammable substance, but its useful energy is released when water is formed. Water will not burn. The process of electrolysis can split water into hydrogen and oxygen, but it takes as much energy to take apart a water molecule as was released when the hydrogen was oxidized to form water. In fact, some energy would be lost in converting water to hydrogen and then burning the hydrogen because some waste heat would always be produced in the conversions. Releasing chemical energy from water, in excess or in equal proportion to the energy required to facilitate such production, would therefore violate the first or second law of thermodynamics.\n"
] |
Why did soldiers in the Civil War assume aliases?
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I haven't read much about the use of aliases during the American Civil War, but something called "bounty jumping" was indeed a practice people engaged in, and this would likely involve the use of an alias. So during the war, one could earn a bonus for voluntarily enlisting in the army (the idea being that you might get drafted anyway, so you might as well sign up, and earn the bonus you'd miss out on if drafted). Some enterprising individuals took advantage of this practice by enlisting in a unit, collecting their enlistment bounty, then deserting to do it again in a different place with a different unit. And while it wasn't that difficult to do, the penalty if/when caught could be severe. Depending on where the person was, when they did it, and who the C.O. of a unit was (and how strict they were), the penalty for bounty jumping could be anything from fines, imprisonment, to summary execution for desertion.
So, while I can't answer OP's question directly about why their ancestor used an alias during the American Civil War, it MAY have been because they were collecting enlistment bounties. It may have been something like the ancestor was bounty jumping, but they eventually just settled on a unit that had tighter controls on their soldiers, and monitored movements more closely, or just because they felt like they had a good thing going in that unit and didn't want to risk another jump. It's hard to say with any certainty, but in terms of plausible, possible explanations, this is about the best I could come up with. Using an alias would allow a person to keep enlisting in different units without drawing suspicion on a name that might have started to get flagged if a bounty jumper used it enough times.
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[
"Although it is unknown what led Lanning to use an alias, aliases were common in the Civil War, often used to prevent people's families from finding them. Lanning was additionally estranged from a number of people in his family; in his widow's pension file, Lanning remarks to his aunt about his deceased parents in Iowa:\n",
"All of the Union and Confederate generals from the American Civil War have had their signatures forged. Many were faked during the 1880s, a period that included the fad of aging soldiers in collecting Civil War autographs. Most deceptions were of mere signatures on a small piece of paper, but extensively written letters were forged as well. Collectors should be cautious of \"clipped signatures\". The bogus autograph is glued onto an authentic steel-engraved portrait of the subject. Some steel engravings may have reprinted the autograph of the portrayed subject; this is known as a \"facsimile autograph\", and it may appear to be real.\n",
"During the American Civil War from 1861–1865, some soldiers pinned paper notes with their name and home address to the backs of their coats. Other soldiers stenciled identification on their knapsacks or scratched it in the soft lead backing of their army belt buckle.\n",
"Silas Chandler (1838 - September 1919) was an enslaved African American who accompanied his owners, Andrew and Benjamin Chandler, referred to as a \"manservant\" in the Confederate Army during the American Civil War. He is often falsely considered to be an example of a black Confederate soldier. He was also a carpenter and he helped found and build the first black church in his hometown, West Point, Mississippi.\n",
"Such cases led to branding becoming obsolete, and it was abolished in 1829 except in the case of deserters from the army, who were marked with the letter D, not with hot irons but by tattooing with ink or gunpowder. Notoriously bad soldiers were also branded with BC (bad character). The British Mutiny Act of 1858 provided that the court-martial might, in addition to any other penalty, order deserters to be marked on the left side, 2 inches (5 cm) below the armpit, with the letter D, such letter to be not less than an inch long. In 1879 this was abolished.\n",
"Corps badges in the American Civil War were originally worn by soldiers of the Union Army on the top of their army forage cap (kepi), left side of the hat, or over their left breast. The idea is attributed to Maj. Gen. Philip Kearny, who ordered the men in his division to sew a two-inch square of red cloth on their hats to avoid confusion on the battlefield. This idea was adopted by Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker after he assumed command of the Army of the Potomac, so any soldier could be identified at a distance.\n",
"Frances Hook (1847–March 17, 1908), disguised as a man, enlisted as a soldier in the Union Army during the U.S. Civil War. At the time, women were not allowed to serve in the Union Army so Hook had to masquerade as a man and use an alias. Her known aliases were Pvt. Frank Miller, Frank Henderson, Frank Martin and Frank Fuller.\n"
] |
how do they get bottles to break over people's heads so easily in movies?
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It's usually sugar glass. Here's [the wiki for it](_URL_1_)
IndyMogul also [has a good how-to video](_URL_0_) if you want to make your own.
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[
"The vast majority of bottle cages consist of a single hoop of metal tubing or rod bent to hold the bottle snugly and engage the top, or an indentation in the case of larger bottles, to prevent it from bouncing out.\n",
"To shotgun a beverage, a small hole is punched in the side of the can, close to the bottom. In order to prevent the liquid from spilling out while the cut is made, the can is held horizontally and the hole is made in the resulting air pocket. The hole can be made with any sharp object—typically a key, bottle opener, pen or knife. The drinker then places their mouth over the hole while rotating the can straight up. When the can's tab is pulled, the liquid will quickly drain through the hole into the drinker's mouth.\n",
"BULLET::::15. In the event that the bottle/jar is broken, they will be stronger as they are now freed and there is nothing to restrain/control them. The owner will also be punished for breaking the bottle. The owner will then have to get the bottle replaced and get it refilled with corpse oil.\n",
"Because of the seemingly paradoxical nature of the glass (being both extremely durable and extremely fragile), Bologna bottles are often used as props in magic tricks, where the bottle can be shattered by rattling a small object inside it.\n",
"BULLET::::- In folklore, taverns had a steel pin set vertically in the bar. The empty bottle would be thrust bottom-end down onto this pin, puncturing a hole in the top of the punt, guaranteeing the bottle could not be refilled.\n",
"Glass bottles have a variety of closures to seal up the bottle and prevent the contents escape. Early bottles were sealed with wax, and later stoppered with a cork. More common today are screw caps and stoppers.\n",
"BULLET::::- Side-door type. A side-door bottle trap consists of a bottle with cap of which the higher end of one upright side is cut open. A simple rectangular shape is cut out, taking care that it stays attached to the bottle on its upside. This plastic flap is then bend upward, effectively forming a rain shield over the entrance. After adding some bait the trap is put in its place.\n"
] |
why are we more attracted to a person when they're tan?
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Are we? This seems much more like a personal preference than a universal truth. I searched for your question and found an answer [here](_URL_0_).
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[
"Improving appearance is the most-cited reason. Studies show that tanned skin has semiotic power, signifying health, beauty, youth and the ability to seduce. Women, in particular, say not only that they prefer their appearance with tanned skin, but that they receive the same message from friends and family, especially from other women. They believe tanned skin makes them look thinner and more toned, and that it covers or heals skin blemishes such as acne. Other reasons include acquiring a base tan for further sunbathing; that a uniform tan is easier to achieve in a tanning unit than in the sun, and a desire to avoid tan lines. Proponents of indoor tanning say that tanning beds deliver more consistent, predictable exposure than the sun, but studies show that indoor tanners do suffer burns. In two surveys in the US in 1998 and 2004, 58% of indoor tanners said they had been burned during sessions.\n",
"Excessive tanning increases the risk of developing certain types of skin cancer. People that are addicted to tanning are dealing with a body dysmorphic disorder (BDD). People with tanorexia dislike the color of their skin but in reality the perceived defect may be only a slight imperfection or non-existent. Commonly, people who are suffering from tanorexia also suffer from anxiety disorders such as obsessive compulsive disorder, depression and eating disorders.\n",
"Studies have shown that due to societal influences, people associate beauty with lighter skin. This is especially evident in children. This belief has led dark-skinned children to feel inadequate in who they are and inferior when compared to people with lighter skin. African American women believe they would have better luck dating if they were of lighter skin especially when dating African American men.\n",
"A person's natural skin color affects their reaction to exposure to the sun. Generally, those who start out with darker skin color and more melanin have better abilities to tan. Individuals with very light skin and albinos have no ability to tan. The biggest differences resulting from sun exposure are visible in individuals who start out with moderately pigmented brown skin: the change is dramatically visible as tan lines, where parts of the skin which tanned are delineated from unexposed skin.\n",
"Reasons cited for indoor tanning include improving appearance, acquiring a pre-holiday tan, feeling good and treating a skin condition. Tanners often cite feelings of well-being; exposure to tanning beds is reported to \"increase serum beta-endorphin levels by 44%\". Beta-endorphin is associated with feelings of relaxation and euphoria, including \"runner's high\".\n",
"The wearing of clothes while tanning results in creation of tan lines, which many people regard as un-aesthetic. Many people want to avoid tan lines on those parts of the body which will be visible when they are fully clothed. Some people try to achieve an all-over tan or to maximize their tan coverage. To achieve an all-over tan, tanners need to dispense with clothing; and to maximize coverage, they need to minimize the amount of clothing they wear while tanning. For women who cannot dispense with a swimsuit, they at times tan with the back strap undone while lying on the front, or removing shoulder straps, besides wearing swimsuits which cover less area than their normal clothing. Any exposure is subject to local community standards and personal choice. Some people tan in the privacy of their backyard where they can at times tan without clothes, and some countries have set aside clothing-optional swimming areas (popularly known as nude beaches), where people can tan and swim clothes-free. Some people tan topless, and others wear very brief swimwear, such as a microkini or thong.\n",
"Another form of behavior that is still being investigated is obsessive sun tanning as a behavioral addiction. In a recent study, researchers have proved that many frequent tanners demonstrate signs and symptoms adapted from substance abuse or dependence criteria. Many people who admit to being frequent tanners say they tan to look good, feel good, and to relax. People who partake in excessive tanning are usually completely aware of the health risks associated with it, just like addicted smokers are completely aware of the health risks of smoking. The health hazards are even more severe for high-risk age groups such as teenagers and young adults. Due to the fact that the health risks do not deter tanners from their habit, they are exhibiting self-destructive behavior that resembles the characteristics of those who suffer from substance abuse.\n"
] |
The Emperor of China was believed to be the ruler of all under heaven. If so, what were their opinions of foreign rulers?
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Your understanding is exactly right. Even until the late 1800s the majority of the Chinese literati felt outraged as the notion that their Emperor is addressed as an equal by foreign entities. I will give you a few examples:
1) The rivalry of China and Japan could be traced to the point where Japanese rulers were proclaimed "Heavenly Ruler", an epithet which dwarfed the Chinese "Son of Heaven". From this alone you can see how seriously this title was treated with in the East Asian traditional culture.
2) A tutor of Empress Tongzhi of Qing, Woren, wrote, upon hearing that foreigners were to be made language teachers in the Tongwen College, actively believed that it was improper that ANY foreigner should be made a teacher, the most respected career in Chinese tradition.
3) Even until the late 1800s, Western nations were still seen as barbaric by the majority of Chinese literati. Westerners were called "dirty animals" because it was believed they had reeking body odours. Most of the Chinese simply did not believe they were "civilized", and would rather believe the military technology they demonstrated to be brutal and monstrous (linked with the nomadic empires that frequently defeated China's armies in the past) rather than a thing of intellectual and technological advancement.
4) As it could be seen from above, foreign nations were despised and the Chinese, from the Emperor to the people, believed they must be inferior. HOWEVER, the traditional, Confucian monarchical image that Chinese Emperors strived to become was "kind and generous" toward its weaker vassal states. So, if the foreign nation in question was weak and subservient, the attitude of "they are monstrous barbarians" became "they are helpless and our magnanimous selves should offer them assistance". This attitude was literally overnight for the Da Wan, for example. The hardlined, no mercy approach the Hans went with Da Wan occurred ONLY because they would not offer the Han Emperor a really fine horse. Tens of thousands of Han troops died as a result, and once the Da Wan nobility surrendered the kingdom, the Han attitude instantly changed to clemency and they left with a herd of horses, without even so far as entering the city of Da Wan and imposed nothing more to end the war. Another example would be Yang Guang. Yang Guang, Emperor of Sui, believed so much that he must shower his vassals with kindness to show how perfect of a monarch he was, that whenever he held his annual celebration with foreign diplomats, he would offer thousands and thousands of pounds of gold to his vassals. Upon accepting the allegiance of some Turkic hordes, he even went with Turkic tradition to eat in their Khans' tent, allowing them to crown him as the "Sky Khan". Similarly, clemency was pursued whenever China was at war with a foreign power that presented itself as weak.
5）Kublai Khan may not be "Chinese", but his pursuit to be the best of the "Son of Heaven" and his stubborn belief that the entire East Asian region must submit to China lead to some really stupid decisions, such as declaring war on Southeastern nations as far away as Malaysia just because they would not give their tribute on time.
Sources:
Kim, Key-Hiuk The Last Phase of the East Asian World Order: Korea, Japan, and the Chinese Empire, 1860-1882
Chang, Jung Empress Dowager Cixi: The Concubine Who Launched Modern China
Sui Shi
Yuan Shi
|
[
"The center of this world view was not exclusionary in nature, and outer groups, such as ethnic minorities and foreign people, who accepted the mandate of the Chinese Emperor were themselves received and included into the Chinese \"tianxia\". In classical Chinese political thought, the \"Son of Heaven\" (Emperor of China) (), having received the Mandate of Heaven (), would nominally be the ruler of the entire world. Although in practice there would be areas of the known world which were not under the control of the Emperor, in Chinese political theory the rulers of those areas derived their power from the Emperor.\n",
"Unlike the Japanese emperor for example, Chinese political theory allowed for a change of dynasty as imperial families could be replaced. This is based on the concept of \"Mandate of Heaven\". The theory behind this was that the Chinese emperor acted as the \"Son of Heaven\". As the only legitimate ruler, his authority extended to \"All under heaven\" and had neighbors only in a geographical sense. He holds a mandate to which he had a valid claim to rule over (or to lead) everyone else in the world as long as he served the people well. If the ruler became immoral, then rebellion is justified and heaven would take away that mandate and give it to another. This single most important concept legitimized the dynastic cycle or the change of dynasties regardless of social or ethnic background. This principle made it possible for dynasties founded by non-noble families such as Han Dynasty and Ming Dynasty or non-ethnic Han dynasties such as the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty and Manchu-led Qing Dynasty. It was moral integrity and benevolent leadership that determined the holder of the \"Mandate of Heaven.\" Every dynasty that self-consciously adopted this administrative practice powerfully reinforced this Sinocentric concept throughout the history of imperial China. Historians noted that this was one of the key reasons why imperial China in many ways had the most efficient system of government in ancient times.\n",
"Traditional Chinese political theory held that \"All lands under Heaven belong to the emperor, all people under Heaven belong, are subjects of the emperor.\" (普天之下，莫非王土;率土之濱,莫非王臣). Thus, a foreign monarch would also be referred to as \"Wang\", implying that one was inferior in rank and thus subject to the Chinese Emperor.\n",
"In premodern times, the theory of foreign relations of China held that the Chinese Empire was the Celestial Dynasty, the center of world civilization, with the Emperor of China being the leader of the civilized world. This view saw China as equivalent to \"all under heaven\". All other states were considered to be tributaries, under the suzerain rule of China. Some were direct vassals. Theoretically, the lands around the imperial capital were regarded as \"five zones of submission\", - the circular areas differentiated according to the strength of the benevolent influence from the Son of Heaven.\n",
"At the center of the system stood China, ruled by the dynasty that had gained the Mandate of Heaven (天命 Tiānmìng). This \"Celestial Dynasty\" (天朝 Tiāncháo), distinguished by its Confucian codes of morality and propriety, regarded itself as the most prominent civilization in the world; the emperor of China (\"Huangdi\") was regarded as the only legitimate Emperor of the entire world (lands \"all under heaven\" or 天下 Tiānxià).\n",
"In Imperial China, the Emperor was considered the Son of Heaven. The scion and representative of heaven on earth, he was the ruler of all under heaven, the bearer of the Mandate of Heaven, his commands considered sacred edicts. A number of legendary figures preceding the proper imperial era of China also hold the honorific title of emperor, such as the Yellow Emperor and the Jade Emperor.\n",
"This idea may be traced back to the ancient shamanic beliefs of the king being the axle between the sky, human beings, and the Earth. The emperors of China were considered agents of Heaven, endowed with the Mandate of Heaven. They hold the power to define the hierarchy of divinities, by bestowing titles upon mountains, rivers and dead people, acknowledging them as powerful and therefore establishing their cults.\n"
] |
when a large animal at a zoo dies, what is done with its body?
|
according to a roommate who worked at a zoo, they are often fed to other animals.
|
[
"The zoo witnessed a series of animal deaths in 2004 and 2005. In August 2004, a Lion-tailed macaque was found mysteriously dead. An emu and a tiger were also reported to have died mysteriously. On 4 September 2004, an elephant died, reportedly of acute hemorrhagic enteritis and respiratory distress. It was reported that the illness in elephants was due to poisoning. As a safety measure, the zoo authority suspended several staff members who were allegedly responsible for the \"gruesome killings\". Laboratory tests later confirmed that the two elephants, named Ganesha and Roopa, had been poisoned. This was followed by another elephant death (Komala) on 7 September despite heightened security. Komala had been scheduled to be transferred to Armenia in about a month.\n",
"In 2008 some 51 animals died in the zoo. A series of controversial deaths also unfolded in 2010 when the 39-year-old elephant of the zoo died on April 26, followed by a camel on May 26, and a bison on May 31. The city administration and the zoo authorities blamed poisoning of the animals as cause of the deaths, while animal rights activists accused the substandard living conditions, negligent handling and unqualified zoo administration.\n",
"The Temporary Management Team transferred 378 animals from the zoo to 6 conservation organizations. However, several of the animals were in bad condition, and eventually died. An autopsy performed on the animals found plastic and wood inside the animals. The death of Melani the tiger, one of only a few hundred Sumatran tigers left in the world, outraged animal activists when it was discovered that the tiger was suffering from extreme digestive disorders before being rescued from the zoo.\n",
"After a number of animal deaths in 2009, the zoo curator and deputy curator were temporarily suspended and a committee was formed to investigate the deaths. Zoo administration claimed that its main problem was the lack of veterinary doctors (it had only one doctor), and that it had already requested additional veterinary staff.\n",
"In the course of the next few months the situation deteriorates even more. The rain and the wind destroy the animals' cages, and subsequently they have to be kept in Pulchris's basement. One morning one of the lions gets loose and attacks and kills the singer, as well as a number of employees. As a consequence, the other lions are shot—and thus lions as a species become extinct. (There is just one surviving lion in the San Diego Zoo left.)\n",
"On January 8, 2008, a stray dog entered the Memphis Zoo through a service door and leapt into the tiger exhibit before officials could apprehend it. Zoo staff distracted the tigers, and the dog, although with various wounds, was able to walk out of the exhibit and survived.\n",
"On October 4, 2013, the zoo euthanized one of its four elephants, the matriarch, a 41-year-old female known as Connie (AKA Pinky), who had been suffering from kidney disease and had lost nearly 1,000 pounds. Later, on October 11, another one of the zoo's elephants named Patience, (who had been reported as \"hesitant and submissive\" since the death of its Matriarch,) made a sudden movement and killed the zoo's head of elephants zookeeper John Bradford, age 62, who had been with the zoo since 1990. It is thought that Patience, (not understanding the reason for the euthanasia,) may have blamed the head zookeeper for Connie's death. The city said no disciplinary action would be taken against Patience, adding: \"The animal will not be euthanized.\"\n"
] |
What are the rarest cells in the human body that have an important function?
|
Long-Term Hematopoetic stem cells - These are hematopoetic stem cells that single-handedly have the power to recreate your entire bone marrow and hematopoetic system; we do not know exactly how many of them are there in each human individual, but in mice, for example they just constitute 0.00019% of the cells in just the bone marrow. Yet, they are extremely important (neccessary AND sufficient) for the long term maintenance of the whole hematopoetic system of the mouse (meaning the bone marrow and almost everything that there is in the blood and your immune system). Analogously we might not have more than ten times of that number in humans by best estimates. The most salient aspect of these cells is that in general they almost never divide: in mice these cells seem to divide on average only 5 times in the entire lifetime of the organism.
Even therapy-wise, the study and manipulation of these cells might be the key to a huge number of treatments, including the easy cure of many cancers, HIV & other viral diseases, autoimmune diseases, organ transplant problems, and a lot more! Seriously, if we had one wish and it was that we could master the manipulation of one cell type, it would be this one!
References:
[Wilson, Anne, et al. "Hematopoietic stem cells reversibly switch from dormancy to self-renewal during homeostasis and repair." Cell 135.6 (2008): 1118-1129.](_URL_0_)
[Fuchs, Elaine. "The tortoise and the hair: slow-cycling cells in the stem cell race." Cell 137.5 (2009): 811-819.](_URL_2_)
[Nice summary](_URL_1_)
|
[
"Due to the different array of markers expressed in these cells, it is difficult to specify their exact cell-type and function. Newer findings propose that pituitary FS cells are made up of groups of cells with disparate immunophenotypes and are not a homogeneous population; however, it still isn't clear if these groups of cells are actually different or are simply cells at varying stages in their development. Multiple FS cell lines have been developed to try to observe the location and function of these cells. mRNA levels of FS cells has been investigated via laser capture microdissection and RT-PCR, so progress is being made in terms of understanding the expression and function of these non-endocrine cells of the pituitary. As they have multiple markers, it is plausible that these cells are a hybrid of several different cell types.\n",
"Memory and naïve B cells normally exist in relatively small numbers. As the body needs to be able to respond to a large number of potential pathogens, it maintains a pool of B cells with a wide range of specificities. Consequently, while there is almost always at least one B (naive or memory) cell capable of responding to any given epitope (of all that the immune system can react against), there are very few exact duplicates. However, when a single B cell encounters an antigen to which it can bind, it can proliferate very rapidly. Such a group of cells with identical specificity towards the epitope is known as a \"clone\", and is derived from a common \"mother\" cell. All the \"daughter\" B cells match the original \"mother\" cell in their epitope specificity, and they secrete antibodies with identical paratopes. These antibodies are monoclonal antibodies, since they derive from clones of the same parent cell. A polyclonal response is one in which clones of multiple B cells react to the same antigen.\n",
"Three basic categories of cells make up the mammalian body: germ cells, somatic cells, and stem cells. Each of the approximately 37.2 trillion (3.72x10) cells in an adult human has its own copy or copies of the genome except certain cell types, such as red blood cells, that lack nuclei in their fully differentiated state. Most cells are diploid; they have two copies of each chromosome. Such cells, called somatic cells, make up most of the human body, such as skin and muscle cells. Cells differentiate to specialize for different functions.\n",
"It is important to mention that Long-Term Hematopoietic Stem Cells (LT-HSCs) in mice and humans are the hematopoietic cells with the greatest self-renewal capacity. Human HSCs express the CD34 marker.\n",
"It has been reported that the limited replicative capability of human fibroblasts observed in cell culture is far greater than the number of replication events experienced by non-stem cells in vivo during a normal postnatal lifespan. In addition, it has been suggested that no inverse correlation exists between the replicative capacity of normal human cell strains and the age of the human donor from which the cells were derived, as previously argued. It is now clear that at least some of these variable results are attributable to the mosaicism of cell replication numbers at different body sites where cells were taken.\n",
"HAP1 cells are a cell line used for biomedical and genetic research. They are near haploid, having one copy of almost every chromosome and are smaller than the average human cell, growing to about 11 micrometers in diameter. HAP1 cells are derived from a line of cancerous cells, which means they are able to divide indefinitely.\n",
"BULLET::::- Senescent cells: most of the cells with DNA damages that can't be fixed do apoptosis but some cells don't. Those cells are related to many diseases such as kidney failure and diabetes. In 2016, in a study, the removal of those cells in mice has extended their lifespans by 20% to 30%. Another study shows that this issue is related to the p16 and β-galactosidase. Significant results have been obtained by some companies to extend mouse lifespan focusing on senescent cells.\n"
] |
why do phone calls consume the most battery on a cell phone?
|
The answer to both questions is related.
Transmitting a reasonable facsimile of your voice through radio waves is data-intensive. Compare, for example, the size of a digitally-compressed music file (~5 megabytes) to the size of the transcript of its lyrics (1 kilobyte, less than 1/5000 the size). You could send 5000 text messages for every minute of conversation and use a similar amount of bandwidth.
Cell phone carriers are constantly adding bandwidth to their networks, by improving technologies and installing more towers. However, there's no real incentive for them to allocate more of that bandwidth to voice calls by having them transmit at higher quality. The driver of cell network expansion is internet usage. Essentially, the voice works
And because you're transmitting so much data at once as a voice call, and receiving as well, you need to have your antenna operating at full power and your phone has to constantly compress and decompress the phone call data in real time. This takes a lot of computation and a lot of power. When using the internet, you receive small bursts at a time, then use that data. Only when you go to a new web page do you need to download again. And web pages are significantly smaller.
If you want to save battery, send texts and emails.
|
[
"The 999 phone charging myth is an urban myth which claims that if a mobile phone has low battery then dialing 999 (or any regional emergency number) charges the phone so it has more power. This was confirmed as a myth by several British police forces who publicly cited the dangers of making such calls.\n",
"The phone shipped with an extra battery and extra stylus. The supplied power cable could be used as a travel charger or to plug into the included cradle, which could charge the phone and an extra battery simultaneously. Despite two batteries, the phone needed to be plugged in regularly. Swapping charged batteries would eventually result in a phone reset---a complete loss of user data.\n",
"The phone's battery powers the phone for 300 minutes talk time, or up to 160 hours if left in stand-by mode. It is a dual-band mobile phone, supporting both GSM 900 and GSM 1800 network frequencies. It supports up to 21 monophonic ringtones. It also supports SMS sending and receiving.\n",
"The phone's built-in battery is large enough to power the phone for 330 minutes, or up to 300 hours if left in stand-by mode. It takes two hours to charge the battery to full capacity. The phone can be used to create own text files of many charactersets, create HTML pages, ZIP archive and own skins (SCS format). This phone has a fast browser and a 1.5 MB cached Java system. The phone is not equipped with Bluetooth or the ability to change covers, nor does it have an MP3 player. The network frequency of the phone is Triple Band EGSM 900 / GSM 1800 / GSM 1900.\n",
"The phone uses a GSM method of activation via a SIM card. The Nokia BL-5C battery has a long standby and talk time – this battery is used in more advanced models that have increased power needs for their features, but in the basic 1100 it consumes a fraction of the power and therefore lasts for up to 400 hours between charges. The phone is offered for use with a wide range of mobile phone networks.\n",
"Mobile phones generally obtain power from rechargeable batteries. There are a variety of ways used to charge cell phones, including USB, portable batteries, mains power (using an AC adapter), cigarette lighters (using an adapter), or a dynamo. In 2009, the first wireless charger was released for consumer use. Some manufacturers have been experimenting with alternative power sources, including solar cells.\n",
"The phone once again has the same OnePlus quick charging capabilities named Dash Charge with the ability to gain 60% of the charge in 30 minutes. According to the company, this is accomplished by doing all the power transforming required for direct input to the battery in the power brick supplied, not within the phone itself, reducing heat on the device. Additionally, the power brick can contain larger, dedicated electronics, whereas any power processing on a phone has to use smaller and cooler equipment, reducing the speed of charging.\n"
] |
What are the effects of the smoke generated by the fires in Australia?
|
Hi! Atmospheric chemistry PhD here. I researched wildfire smoke composition and health effects in graduate school. I'm currently doing postdoctoral research in medicine trying to understand the finer details of air pollution toxicity.
Here's a few quick things about wildfire smoke!
**What's in the smoke?**
A complex mixture of fine particulate matter and gasses. The composition is very complicated as there are hundreds to thousands of different compounds that transform as the smoke plume moves from the source. You will find NOx, CO, CO2, lots of organic carbon, black carbon/soot, inorganic salts and a smaller but still significant amount of transition metals (iron, copper, zinc, aluminum among others).
**How does the smoke impact climate?**
The brown and black wildfire particle absorbs incoming solar radiation and increases warming while the smoke is present. However, the magnitude of warming by wildfire smoke is uncertain and researchers are actively researching this and other impacts on the climate system. Furthermore, the wildfire smoke particles may provide a favorable surface for water molecules to condense on, thereby driving cloud formation. See pyrocumulus clouds.
**How does the smoke impact health?**
Wildfire smoke produces toxic gases and fine particulate matter. In general, long and short term exposure of fine particulate matter has been associated with chronic inflammation, increased heart diseases, lung diseases, cancer, and death rates. Recent estimates suggest that \~80% of air pollution deaths are due to cardiovascular effects. Human and animal studies have consistently shown that particulate matter inhalation produces a pro-inflammatory response. **Recent epidemiological work has suggested that wildfire smoke is MORE TOXIC than urban air pollution particles.** We still don't know the specific chemicals and biological mechanisms associated with the toxic effects of smoke inhalation.
**EDIT, PSA ABOUT RESPIRATORS:** If you are concerned about smoke exposure and are not in immediate threat of fire: Get a respirator that filters fine particulate matter and organic vapors if possible. 3M has some pretty good ones. The white dust masks that strap around your face don't block fine particles and organic gasses from entering your lungs!
Best wishes and hope for the safety of our friends in Australia.
\*\*Minor edits for grammar
\*\*Edited to say long and short term exposure to particulate matter is associated with detrimental health effects, rather than just long term.
|
[
"Haze is caused by \"hotspots\" (zones with high temperature levels as seen via satellite imagery) in Malaysia and Indonesia. Lingering smoke from forest fires on the Indonesian island of Sumatra are identified as the primary cause. Farmers regularly burn scrub and forest to clear land during the dry season for agricultural purposes, but this had been the worst haze to hit Malaysia since the 1997 haze.\n",
"The fires are caused by firms and farmers engaging in illegal slash-and-burn practices as a relatively inexpensive means to clear their land of unwanted vegetation and peat. Sumatra and Kalimantan possess large areas of peatland, which is highly combustible during dry season. Peat, which is made up of layers of dead vegetation and other organic matter, contributed heavily to carbon emissions because of the substance's high density and carbon content. The haze was particularly severe in 2015 due to the El Niño phenomenon, which caused drier conditions, causing the fires to spread more.\n",
"The haze is largely caused by illegal agricultural fires due to industrial-scale slash-and-burn practices in Indonesia, especially from the provinces of South Sumatra and Riau in Indonesia's Sumatra island, and Kalimantan on Indonesian Borneo. Burned land can be sold at a higher price illegally, and eventually used for activities including oil palm and pulpwood production. Burning is also cheaper and faster compared to cutting and clearing using excavators or other machines.\n",
"The haze was caused by Indonesian agricultural fires in Sumatra and Kalimantan. The fires are attributed to illegal slash-and-burn practices by companies and individual farmers, which remove vegetation to make way for plantations of palm oil, pulp and paper.\n",
"Climatic factors contribute to Australia's high incidence of bushfires, particularly during the summer months. Low relative humidity, wind and lack of rain can cause a small fire, either man-made or caused by lightning strikes, to spread rapidly. Low humidity, the heat of the sun and lack of water cause vegetation to dry out becoming a perfect fuel for the fire. High winds fan the flames, increasing their intensity and the speed and distance at which they can travel.\n",
"The Ash Wednesday bushfires occurred in south-eastern Australia on 16 February 1983. Over its twelve-hour rampage, more than 180 fires fanned by winds of up to 110 km/h caused widespread destruction across Victoria and South Australia. Years of severe drought and extreme weather combined to create one of Australia's worst fire days since Black Friday in 1939. In Victoria, 47 people died, while in South Australia there were a further 28 deaths. Over 16,000 firefighters combatted the blazes and a variety of equipment was used, including 400 vehicles (fire-trucks, water tankers and dozers) and 40 aircraft including 11 RAAF Iroquois and commercial helicopters. The Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser then directed the RAAF to supply a CH47 Chinook to support remote firefighting operations on Mount Buffalo transporting large quantities of personnel and cargo onto the plateau. Forests Commission annual expenditure on fire suppression for 1982-83 rose to $16.8 million.\n",
"On 19 June 2013, NASA's Terra and Aqua satellites captured images of smoke from illegal wildfires on the Indonesian island of Sumatra blowing east toward southern Malaysia and Singapore, causing thick clouds of haze in the region. As stated by a local Indonesian official, the source of the haze might be a 3,000 hectare peatland in Bengkalis Regency, Riau Province, which was set ablaze by an unknown party on 9 June. As many as 187 hotspots were picked up by satellites on 18 June, down to 85 on 20 June.\n"
] |
scary movie decisions
|
Understanding this is as simple/complicated as understanding the nature of art and catharsis itself.
If the end goal is to stimulate a psychosomatic response in the viewer, certain tropes prove effective towards that end goal. They're not painting rational life portraits--they're just storytellers, executing their craft with tools from an ancient toolkit.
|
[
"On working with feature movies: \"You need to be honest, because this way your audience will be able to identify with the topic and the hero. My role, as an artist, is to prepare a text with open questions and hide the fact that I have an answer key. Questions will provoke audience to discuss the film and seek new perspectives. The film is supposed to make a difference, and maybe offer a therapeutic effect.\"\n",
"One review from \"The Baltimore Sun\", said that it \"... is one of the most eloquent and socially conscious films the premium cable channel has ever presented,\" and \"USA Today\", said \"A small, almost perfectly realized gem of a movie, \"Taking Chance\" is also precisely the kind of movie that TV should be making.\" On the other end is \"Slant Magazine\", saying \"Instead of well-drawn characters or real human drama, we are presented with a military procedural on burial traditions. The film desperately wants the viewer to shed tears for its fallen hero without giving a single dramatic reason to do so.\"\n",
"Kenneth Turan in the \"Los Angeles Times\" wrote: \"While films are admired for making fantasy real, some manage a reverse, unwanted kind of alchemy, turning involving reality into meaningless piffle. It is that kind of regrettable transformation that \"Dangerous Minds\" achieves… none of it, with the exception of Pfeiffer's performance, seems even vaguely real. This is especially true of the film's excessively melodramatic climactic events, a bogus tragedy that does not occur in the book and has contrived written all over it… Given how few the opportunities are for women to carry a motion picture, and with the chance to be a positive role model thrown into the bargain, it's not surprising to find Pfeiffer starring in \"Dangerous Minds\", and she is as believable as the film allows her to be. But if this trivialization of involving subject matter is the best a star of her considerable abilities can latch onto, today's actresses have it worse than we've imagined.\"\n",
"The films advise the public on what to do in a multitude of situations ranging from crossing the road to surviving a nuclear attack. They are sometimes thought to concern only topics related to safety, but there are PIFs on many other subjects, including animal cruelty, protecting the environment, crime prevention and how to vote in an election or fill in a census form.\n",
"Amongst contemporary reviews, \"Variety\" noted that \"the thriller gimmicks come off with the desired impact under Reginald Le Borg's direction\"; and similarly positive, \"The Motion Picture Exhibitor\" wrote that the film \"may scare the kiddies and please the addicts of such entries\", though concluded that \"The cast is fair, the direction and production average, and the story of medium interest.\" More recently, author and film critic Leonard Maltin awarded the film two out of a possible four stars, calling it \"boring\"; and \"TV Guide\" gave it one out of five stars, calling it \"a terrible film\" On his website \"Fantastic Movie Musings and Ramblings\", Dave Sindelar criticized the film's dialogue as \"painfully self-conscious\", LeBorg's direction, and Karloff's \"clumsy\" performance; although he also stated that the actor's presence helped the film. Sindelar also noted that the film managed to avoid the usual voodoo cliches, and enjoyed the killer plants, concluding \"This is just one of those movies that calls for a little patience.\"\n",
"In the UK, Peter Bradshaw of \"The Guardian\" awarded the film a maximum five stars, calling it \"a gripping psychological thriller about big pharma and mental health that cruelly leaves you craving one last fix\". He praised the lead performance from Rooney Mara as \"compelling\" who \"lays down the law with her presence. She demonstrates a potent Hitchcockian combination: an ability to be scared and scary at the same time, and Soderbergh's film manages to introduce its effects in some insidious, almost intravenous way\". \"The A.V. Club\"'s Scott Tobias called Mara \"superb as the glue that binds this fractured psychological puzzle,\" and commended Soderbergh's sophisticated direction: \"\"Side Effects\" screws around in its own thriller architecture, toying with feints of structure and clever bits of misdirection, and otherwise playing the audience like a fiddle. At this point in his career, Soderbergh pulls it off with the unpracticed ease of a maestro.\"\" \"Robbie Collin of \"The Daily Telegraph\" awarded \"Side Effects\" a maximum five stars and also acknowledged its debt to earlier psychological thrillers. He wrote: \"There's a lot of Alfred Hitchcock in what follows, but even more Henri-Georges Clouzot, with whose classic spine-tingler \"Les Diaboliques\" (1954) Soderbergh's film shares a poisonous tang\". Peter Travers of \"Rolling Stone\" praised the film's performances, the script and direction, writing \"Soderbergh delivers ticking-bomb suspense laced with psychological acuity about a world where mood-altering meds are as disturbingly prevalent as social media\".\n",
"Todd McCarthy said, \"\"A Serious Man\" is the kind of picture you get to make after you've won an Oscar.\" Awarding the film five stars in \"The Guardian\", Peter Bradshaw said, \"this strange and wonderful film is rounded off with a gloriously well-crafted apocalyptic vision and a chilling intimation of divine retribution for earthly wrongdoing. The Coens have finished the noughties as America's preeminent filmmakers\".\n"
] |
What happens when a bee or wasp hitches a ride in your car, then gets out of the car a long distance from home?
|
According to a study by the Australian National University, bees are very good at finding their way home, even over long dustances, and often rely on the position of the sun, the polarisation of light in the sky, the panorama view of the horizon and landmarks including towers, mountains or lakes.
From that article: “In their forage trips, one way that honeybees use to find their way home is by storing distance and directional information when they venture out,” said Professor Zhang. “In other words, they try to go back the way they came."
So bees rely on landmarks, the sky, and a general bearing of what direction they have traveled and can make it back home, even if it takes them multiple days. Though this probably begins to fail the further they go from the hive.
Source: _URL_0_
|
[
"If you slowly approach a perched individual during hot weather then it may repeatedly fly up and grab any mosquitoes or freeloader flies circling around you, often returning to its original perch to feed for several minutes after each catch.\n",
"In 2010 the Australian Civil Aviation Safety Authority (CASA) issued a warning to pilots about the potential dangers of flying through a locust swarm. CASA warned that the insects could cause loss of engine power and loss of visibility, and blocking of an aircraft's pitot tubes, causing inaccurate airspeed readings.\n",
"Bee hives are transported cross-country in trucks nonstop or with little break. Bees are severely stressed from confinement, heat, weather changes and sudden change in their daily tasks. While on the road for two to three days, it is difficult for the truck driver or the beekeeper to check on the temperature and food level in the hives. Proper nutrition of the bees is affected and there is high risk of bees starving to death on the road trip. One study points to impaired food gland development in migratory bees resulting in improper feeding of brood. North Carolina State University news states that providing bees access to huge amount of food while on road may ease stress due to transportation \n",
"They are often found roaming in a home and can cover great distances in a house. They are quite a safe spider to be in a home and can deal with other insect problems because of the amount they travel in a short period of time.\n",
"On the evening of July 23, 2014 in the La Crosse, Wisconsin area, the insects were airborne in such large numbers that they were detectable on weather radar, the enormous swarm resembling a rainstorm. They are attracted to lights, and their bodies pile up in yards, on roadways and bridges. A triple vehicle accident injuring two people was reported in nearby Trenton, believed to be caused by the slippery conditions caused by the green slime from the squashed corpses.\n",
"In 2004 the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds asked British motorists to attach a PVC film to their number plate to measure the number of insects that collided with it during car journeys. This splat-o-meter estimated one insect squashed every five miles of driving, and represents one of the few pieces of data directly relevant to the windscreen phenomenon. Although the study did not have historical data for comparison, it was reported that many participants in the study were astounded by how few insects their traps collected.\n",
"The males of \"A. maculosum\" drive out all flower-visiting insects except for conspecific females. However, if the female refuses to copulate with the male, they too will be driven out. \"A. maculosum\" can expect an intruder every 3–4 minutes. As a result, they are constantly defending their territories but not to an unmanageable degree. They spend most of their day flying around their territory making sure it is not being invaded by intruders. If they come across an intruder, both insects will clash and occasionally grapple.\n"
] |
Why is it not yet economically viable to genetically engineer an organism to produce motor fuel from waste materials?
|
There are certainly gas-producing organisms that generate methane from garbage, and in fact there are efforts to commercialize this kind of technology (look up 'biogas').
The problem is these processes are not very efficient. The molecules you are talking about have an extremely high energy density, and it's difficult to coax a living organism into sacrificing its scarce energy budget to making high-energy molecules that it does not consume for its own benefit.
Meanwhile, this stuff is still coming out of the ground for relatively cheap.
|
[
"With the potential future creation of man-made unicellular organisms, some are beginning to consider the effect that these organisms will have on biomass already present. Scientists estimate that within the next few decades, organism design will be sophisticated enough to accomplish tasks such as creating biofuels and lowering the levels of harmful substances in the atmosphere. Scientist that favor the development of synthetic biology claim that the use of biosafety mechanisms such as suicide genes and nutrient dependencies will ensure the organisms cannot survive outside of the lab setting in which they were originally created. Organizations like the ETC Group argue that regulations should control the creation of organisms that could potentially harm existing life. They also argue that the development of these organisms will simply shift the consumption of petroleum to the utilization of biomass in order to create energy. These organisms can harm existing life by affecting the prey/predator food chain, reproduction between species, as well as competition against other species (species at risk, or act as an invasive species).\n",
"Modular organisms save energy by using asexual reproduction during their life. Energy reserved in this way allows them to put more energy towards colony growth, regenerating lost modules (due to predation or other cause of death), or response to environmental conditions.\n",
"A major technological application of this information is metabolic engineering. Here, organisms such as yeast, plants or bacteria are genetically modified to make them more useful in biotechnology and aid the production of drugs such as antibiotics or industrial chemicals such as 1,3-propanediol and shikimic acid. These genetic modifications usually aim to reduce the amount of energy used to produce the product, increase yields and reduce the production of wastes.\n",
"Unfortunately an 'off target' outcome of the genetic engineering process has been the creation of plastic plants, which many of the creatures, such as the Hells Angel, prefer to eat rather than our disgusting plastic waste.\n",
"A lot of people do not like genetically modified organisms. People opposed to these modified plants often claim that they are not safe for the environment or for human consumption. There are many videos and reports in circulation that discredit the safety of genetically modified organisms. King Corn is one video that claims that corn is bad for humans to consume.\n",
"Entire organisms have yet to be created from scratch, although living cells can be transformed with new DNA. Several ways allow constructing synthetic DNA components and even entire synthetic genomes, but once the desired genetic code is obtained, it is integrated into a living cell that is expected to manifest the desired new capabilities or phenotypes while growing and thriving. Cell transformation is used to create biological circuits, which can be manipulated to yield desired outputs.\n",
"Genetically modified plants have been engineered for scientific research, to create new colours in plants, deliver vaccines, and to create enhanced crops. Many plant cells are pluripotent, meaning that a single cell from a mature plant can be harvested and then under the right conditions form a new plant. This ability can be taken advantage of by genetic engineers; by selecting for cells that have been successfully transformed in an adult plant a new plant can then be grown that contains the transgene in every cell through a process known as tissue culture.\n"
] |
Why can't phone chargers/ charging ports have a higher voltage, thus charging faster?
|
They do. Various "QuickCharge" technologies use higher voltage output (compared to the default 5V) on the charger to allow for faster charging.
Since almost all phones (and other mobile devices) use a USB port (micro-USB or USB-C) for charging, most manufacturers tended to stick to the USB specifications to prevent compatibility issues. These specs have long limited the output voltage to 5V. This means that fast charging solutions tend to not be in compliance with USB specifications.
In recent year, the USB standards have been expanded with the possibility to use higher voltages for power delivery. This allows devices, such as certain MacBook models, to be charged at higher speeds using spec-compliant USB connections.
But other than adherence to standards, there's a more practical limitation on fast charging, which is heat generation. Charging requires certain hardware to transform the incoming power to the right voltage for the battery being charged and these charging electronics produce heat. The more power you run through them, the more heat they produce and this heat is detrimental for the operation of the device (especially since mobile devices are so compact and have very limited means to shed heat).
One way to combat this issue, as employed by OPPO and OnePlus, is to move as much of the power conversion electronics into the charger, which reduces heat generation in the smartphone (but makes the charger run much hotter). But even then there are limitations to how quickly you can charge a battery without it having detrimental effects.
|
[
"Since these currents are larger than in the original standard, the extra voltage drop in the cable reduces noise margins, causing problems with High Speed signaling. Battery Charging Specification 1.1 specifies that charging devices must dynamically limit bus power current draw during High Speed signaling; 1.2 specifies that charging devices and ports must be designed to tolerate the higher ground voltage difference in High Speed signaling.\n",
"Apple designed the charger so that the batteries draw less energy from the national power grid than other comparable chargers; as a result, energy efficiency is improved. According to Apple, at 30 mW, the standard power usage of the charger is ten times better than the industry average.\n",
"Some devices can use their USB ports to charge built-in batteries, while other devices can detect a dedicated charger and draw more than 500 mA (0.5 A), allowing them to charge more rapidly. OTG devices are allowed to use either option.\n",
"The port can charge the battery and power the phone while it is connected to, for example, a hands-free solution in a car. The FastPort became the only way to get external power to the phones. Chargers comes in several varieties, from 12/24 volt DC to use in cars, to 100-250 volt AC to use elsewhere. Some charger-models can only charge the phone (the cable is attached at the middle), in others all the connector pins through to the plug end, thus supporting data/signal transfer while the phone is being charged.\n",
"Since a battery charger is intended to be connected to a battery, it may not have voltage regulation or filtering of the DC voltage output; it is cheaper to make them that way. Battery chargers equipped with both voltage regulation and filtering are sometimes termed battery eliminators.\n",
"Note that the less resistance there is between the capacitor and the charging power supply, the faster it will charge. Thus, in this design, those closer to the power supply will charge quicker than those farther away. If the generator is allowed to charge long enough, all capacitors will attain the same voltage.\n",
"The battery charger can be on-board or external to the vehicle. The process for an on-board charger is best explained as AC power being converted into DC power, resulting in the battery being charged. On-board chargers are limited in capacity by their weight and size, and by the limited capacity of general-purpose AC outlets. Dedicated off-board chargers can be as large and powerful as the user can afford, but require returning to the charger; high-speed chargers may be shared by multiple vehicles.\n"
] |
What are some historians' opinions on Jan Gross' book Golden Harvest which is about Polish collaboration with Nazi atrocities against Jews?
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I'm not a historian, nor have I read the book, but.. Fear makes otherwise decent people do terrible, terrible things, like collaborating with Nazis. You could point fingers at basically any country that was controlled by the Reich for a period of time and find collaborators, even among the Jews themselves. That's not excusing their actions, of course, but a book like this could be written about any group of people during that time period.
Just my two cents.
Edit: And it seems my view of concentrating blame on one group is shared by at least one reviewer.
_URL_0_
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[
"Historian Grzegorz Rossoliński-Liebe, writing in \"H-Soz-Kult\", reviewed three books: \"Judenjagd\" by Grabowski, \"It Was Such a Beautiful Sunny Day\" by Barbara Engelking, and \"Golden Harvest\" by Jan T. Gross. He wrote that all three studies are noteworthy explorations of the Polish participation in the Holocaust, challenging both the German tendency to neglect non-German perpetrators and the Polish perspective of viewing Poles solely as victims. According to Rossoliński-Liebe, Grabowski demonstrates that a broad spectrum of Polish society took part in \"Judenjagd\" (hunts for the Jews). But Rossoliński-Liebe wrote that he did not think these 2011 works would trigger a new Holocaust debate, as had occurred following Gross's \"\", a decade prior.\n",
"When the book was published, the Nazi program of extermination of the Jews had been well documented. The fact that ordinary Poles in Jedwabne following Soviet–German invasion participated in the massacre of their Jewish neighbors in the presence of Nazi German soldiers, was less known. The book has generated much controversy and vigorous debate in Poland and abroad. It has led to more forensic studies and discussions with regards to Polish-Jewish relations.\n",
"Gross's latest book, \"Golden Harvest\", co-written with his wife Irena Grudzińska-Gross and published in March 2011, is about Poles enriching themselves at the expense of Jews murdered in the Holocaust. Critics in Poland have alleged that Gross dwelt too much on wartime pathologies emerging during wartime, drawing \"unfair generalizations\".\n",
"The book was met with mixed opinions among Polish historians. Professor Andrzej Nowak called it \"harmful and unwise\", adding that it \"fulfills the wish of Russian and other propagandists, who claim that Poland dreamed of joining Hitler to murder Jews, but did not do it because of her own stupidity.\" Professor Stanisław Salmonowicz, a renowned expert on German-Polish relations, described the ideas of the book as \"insane\", pointing out several flaws in Zychowicz's reasoning. Adam Stohnij of the military portal www.1939.pl calls the book a \"military Blitzkrieg\", writing that Zychowicz \"comes up with a daring argument. In the situation that Poland found itself right before the war, the only chance to survive was an alliance with the Third Reich.\" Piotr A. Maciążek, a publicist of portal politykawschodnia.pl, calls the book \"a Polish \"Icebreaker\"\", writing that \"Pakt Ribbentrop - Beck\" is \"undoubtedly one of the most interesting and controversial books published in Poland in 2012. A heated discussion that ensued after its publication shows that this book was much needed.\"\n",
"Historians Lucy Dawidowicz and Abraham Brumberg object to Davies' historical treatment of the Holocaust in Nazi-occupied Poland. They accuse him of minimising historic antisemitism, and of promoting an idea that academic views of the Holocaust in international historiography largely overlook the suffering of non-Jewish Poles. \n",
"Chodakiewicz's book was reviewed by Joanna B. Michlic, who wrote: \"It does not accept the complicated history of Poland and the complex image of (ethnic) Poles, which depicts them not only as heroes and victims but also as evildoers committing crimes against Polish Jews and representatives of other ethnic and cultural minorities living in Poland.\" \n",
"Gross begins the book with a subject statement: “The collusion of the Polish population in the pillaging and killing of Jews at the periphery of the Holocaust.\" He claims that the interpretation of the Polish role in pillaging and killing Jews as a \"deviant\" behavior of \"scum\" during wartime is wrong; indeed, he sees the murder of Jews and plunder of Jewish property throughout Europe as a collective \"effort\", headed by the Nazi regime but openly and visibly benefiting many others.\n"
] |
how come a sound gets longer the more of it there is?
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Sounds dont get longer the more there is, if you look at the video you can see that the videos arent all playing at the same time, there's a delay in some which can be seen by the wave like motion of the videos in the later parts of the video.
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[
"Duration is perceived as how \"long\" or \"short\" a sound is and relates to onset and offset signals created by nerve responses to sounds. The duration of a sound usually lasts from the time the sound is first noticed until the sound is identified as having changed or ceased. Sometimes this is not directly related to the physical duration of a sound. For example; in a noisy environment, gapped sounds (sounds that stop and start) can sound as if they are continuous because the offset messages are missed owing to disruptions from noises in the same general bandwidth. This can be of great benefit in understanding distorted messages such as radio signals that suffer from interference, as (owing to this effect) the message is heard as if it was continuous. Figure 2 gives an example of duration identification. When a new sound is noticed (see Figure 2, Green arrows), a sound onset message is sent to the auditory cortex. When the repeating pattern is missed, a sound offset messages is sent.\n",
"The second type of S-curve is more apt for longer cross-fades, since they are smooth and have the ability to have both of the crossfades in the overall level; so that they are audible for as long as possible. There is a short period at the start of each of the cross-fades where the outgoing sound drops toward 50% quickly (with the incoming sound rising just as fast to 50%). This acceleration of sound slows and both sounds will appear as if they are at the same level for most of the cross-fade (in the middle) before the changeover happens. \n",
"Similar to the Gestalt principle of good continuation (see: principles of grouping), sounds that change smoothly or remain constant are often produced by the same source. Sound with the same frequency, even when interrupted by other noise, is perceived as continuous. Highly variable sound that is interrupted is perceived as separate.\n",
"When the delay of the repeated sound is too large, the observer perceives an echo; when the delay of the repeated sound is generally smaller than 30 ms, he perceives the original sound only, but with a tonality (coloration, pitch) superimposed. Therefore, this perceptual phenomenon has been named Repetition Pitch (RP). In general, the perceived RP (expressed in Hz-equivalent) is equal to the reciprocal value of the delay time (T) between the original and the repeated sound, or in formula: RP = 1/T (with T expressed in seconds). RP is most salient when the original sound is wide-band in frequency content and does not produce pitch itself (like white noise, which contains all audible frequencies in equal strength).\n",
"Loudness is perceived as how \"loud\" or \"soft\" a sound is and relates to the totalled number of auditory nerve stimulations over short cyclic time periods, most likely over the duration of theta wave cycles. This means that at short durations, a very short sound can sound softer than a longer sound even though they are presented at the same intensity level. Past around 200 ms this is no longer the case and the duration of the sound no longer affects the apparent loudness of the sound. Figure 3 gives an impression of how loudness information is summed over a period of about 200 ms before being sent to the auditory cortex. Louder signals create a greater 'push' on the Basilar membrane and thus stimulate more nerves, creating a stronger loudness signal. A more complex signal also creates more nerve firings and so sounds louder (for the same wave amplitude) than a simpler sound, such as a sine wave.\n",
"BULLET::::- Sound duration: The duration of the sound varies among patients. While the ISCD-2 established limits between 2 and 49 s, authors have described other ranges including short duration as of 0.5 s. Review of reported cases indicates two types of patients whose produced sound can either be short lasting (0.5 to 1.5 s) or longer lasting (2 to 20 s). Nonetheless, it is not clear if the sounds are in fact single long noises fragmented by brief expirations.\n",
"The concept of Reverberation Time implicitly supposes that the decay rate of the sound is exponential, so that the sound level diminishes regularly, at a rate of so many dB per second. It is not often the case in real rooms, depending on the disposition of reflective, dispersive and absorbing surfaces. Moreover, successive measurement of the sound level often yields very different results, as differences in phase in the exciting sound build up in notably different sound waves. In 1965, Manfred R. Schroeder published \"A new method of Measuring Reverberation Time\" in the \"Journal of the Acoustical Society of America\". He proposed to measure, not the power of the sound, but the energy, by integrating it. This made it possible to show the variation in the rate of decay and to free acousticians from the necessity of averaging many measurements.\n"
] |
what would happen if the federal reserve/congress placed a forever permanent "cap" on the amount of dollar bills in circulation?
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Just based on a supply and demand logic, I imagine that money would get more valuable...a dollar bill would be equal to a greater amount of commodities. As more "things" were produced but the amount of money remained the same, it would seem to me that one unit of money ($1) would be worth an increasing share of product "X". I realize my scenario is very simplistic and assumes that more "things" would be produced as well as leaving out other factors. Maybe an economist could help.
|
[
"The United States Government Accountability Office (GAO) has stated that discontinuing the dollar bill in favor of the dollar coin would save the U.S. government approximately $5.5 billion over thirty years primarily through seigniorage. The Federal Reserve has refused to order the coin from the mint for distribution citing a lack of demand, according to ex-Mint director Philip Diehl in November 2012.\n",
"The Federal Reserve announced the removal of large denominations of United States currency from circulation on July 14, 1969. The one-hundred-dollar bill was the largest denomination left in circulation. All the Federal Reserve Notes produced from \"Series 1928\" up to before \"Series 1969\" (i.e. 1928, 1928A, 1934, 1934A, 1934B, 1934C, 1934D, 1950, 1950A, 1950B, 1950C, 1950D, 1950E, 1963, 1966, 1966A) of the $100 denomination added up to $23.1708 billion. Since some banknotes had been destroyed, and the population was 200 million at the time, there was less than one $100 banknote per capita circulating.\n",
"In 1979, President Carter appointed Paul Volcker Chairman of the Federal Reserve. The Federal Reserve tightened the money supply and inflation was substantially lower in the 1980s, and hence the value of the U.S. dollar stabilized.\n",
"The Federal Reserve does not publish an average life span for the $2 bill. This is likely due to its treatment as a collector's item by the general public; it is, therefore, not subjected to normal circulation.\n",
"By mid October 2010, the dollar had dropped 7% since a 27 August speech by Federal Reserve Chairman Ben Bernanke in which he said there was a possibility of further easing monetary policy. On 18 October, US Treasury Secretary Tim Geithner stated \"It is very important for people to understand that the United States of America and no country around the world can devalue its way to prosperity and competitiveness.\" Following this statement the value of the dollar rose as speculators calculated that at least in the short term it would be less likely for the US to intentionally devalue its currency.\n",
"The Federal Reserve began taking high-denomination currency out of circulation (destroying large bills received by banks) in 1969. , only 336 $10,000 bills were known to exist; 342 remaining $5,000 bills; and 165,372 remaining $1,000 bills. Due to their rarity, collectors pay considerably more than the face value of the bills to acquire them. Some are in museums in other parts of the world.\n",
"In 1970, rising inflation and inflow of foreign exchange led to pressures on the dollar. The government was concerned that massive and expensive interventions in the foreign exchange market would be required to maintain the dollar within the fixed rate band. In May 1970, the government announced that it would allow the dollar to float. Although the decision was criticised by the International Monetary Fund, which continued to favour the Bretton Woods approach, within three years all major currencies were floating against the United States dollar. The Canadian dollar has had a floating exchange rate ever since.\n"
] |
how do record players and records work? they constantly spin, but if you lift the needle off and put it back down it knows where it left off, right? or am i way off there and it does actually skip ahead if that happens
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It goes down near where it went up but not precisely, the rotation is variable, but the arm is normally still in the position across the record (from the edge to the centre). Basically the needle follows the grove on the record which is a tight spiral moving in towards the centre, with the bumps in the grooves being where the music is recorded.
|
[
"The mechanism causes the lower portion of the spindle to rotate clockwise like an ordinary record player, while the top half of the spindle rotates counterclockwise to permit the bottom of the record to be played in the correct direction. The spindle contains three sets of retractable claws which hold the records in the upper and lower playing positions, and permit one record at a time to be dropped from the upper to the lower playing position.\n",
"Most records have a locked groove at the end of each side or individual band. It is usually a silent loop that keeps the needle and tonearm from drifting into the label area. However, it is possible to record sound in this groove, and some artists have included looping audio in the locked groove.\n",
"Unlike the rubber mat which is made to hold the record firmly in sync with the rotating platter, slipmats are designed to slip on the platter, allowing the DJ to manipulate a record on a turntable while the platter continues to rotate underneath. This is useful for holding a record still for slip-cueing, making minute adjustments during beatmatching and mixing and pulling the record back and forth for scratching. They are also very commonly used simply as decoration for when a record isn't on the turntable.\n",
"In addition to recreating recorded sounds by placing the stylus on the cylinder or disc and rotating it in the same direction as during the recording, one could hear different sounds by rotating the cylinder or disc backwards. In 1878, Edison noted that, when played backwards, \"the song is still melodious in many cases, and some of the strains are sweet and novel, but altogether different from the song reproduced in the right way\". The backwards playing of records was advised as training for magicians by occultist Aleister Crowley, who suggested in his 1913 book \"Magick (Book 4)\" that an adept \"train himself to think backwards by external means\", one of which was to \"listen to phonograph records, reversed\". In the movie \"Gold Diggers of 1935\", the end of the dancing pianos musical number \"The Words Are in My Heart\" is filmed in reverse motion with the accompanying instrumental score incidentally being reversed.\n",
"Slip-cueing is a turntable-based DJ technique which consists of holding a record still while the platter rotates underneath the slipmat and releasing it at the right moment. In this way the record attains the right speed almost immediately, with no need to wait for the heavy platter to accelerate.\n",
"Typically, a new steel needle is required for every record played on an old acoustic phonograph. This is because the record contains abrasive material. In the first few silent tracks this abrasion hones the steel needle to a profile that tracks the grooves properly. The needle continues to wear as it plays the record, so that by the end its diameter has increased to the point where the sharp edges may damage the grooves on subsequent plays.\n",
"The records were played on turntables, but since the timing – the clock synchronization – between the two SIGSALY terminals had to be precise, the turntables were by no means just ordinary record-players. The rotation rate of the turntables was carefully controlled, and the records were started at highly specific times, based on precision time-of-day clock standards. Since each record only provided 12 minutes of key, each SIGSALY had two turntables, with a second record \"queued up\" while the first was \"playing\".\n"
] |
What's worse for your body: a bottle of soda, or a bottle of beer
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A little bit of alcohol might actually be good for you.
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[
"However, the most striking feature of \"Beer Bad\" is the twin moral: Beer and casual sex are bad. In a BBC interview, Petrie states: \"Well, very young people get unlimited access to alcohol and become horrible! We all do it — or most of us do it — and live to regret it, and we wanted to explore that.\"\n",
"Beer bottles are sometimes used as makeshift clubs, for instance in bar fights. As with pint glasses, the use of glass bottles as weapons is known as glassing. Pathologists determined in 2009 that beer bottles are strong enough to crack human skulls, which requires an impact energy of between 14 and 70 joules, depending on the location. Empty beer bottles shatter at 40 joules, while full bottles shatter at only 30 joules because of the pressure of the carbonated beer inside the bottle. A test performed by the television show \"MythBusters\" suggested that full bottles are significantly more dangerous than empty bottles. They concluded that full bottles inflict more damage in terms of concussion and skull fracture. However, they found that both full and empty bottles do the same amount of scalp damage.\n",
"The perception that bottles lead to a taste that is superior to canned beer is outdated, as most aluminum cans are lined with a polymer coating that protects the beer from the problematic metal. However, since drinking directly from a can may still result in a metallic taste, most craft brewers recommend pouring beer into a glass prior to consumption. In June 2014, the BA estimated 3% of craft beer is sold in cans, 60% is sold in bottles, and kegs represent the remainder of the market.\n",
"Food critic and writer Waverley Root described the common American near beer as \"such a wishy-washy, thin, ill-tasting, discouraging sort of slop that it might have been dreamed up by a Puritan Machiavelli with the intent of disgusting drinkers with genuine beer forever.\"\n",
"Most 500 mL beer bottles (local brands such as Goldstar and Maccabee plus certain imported ones like Carlsberg and Tuborg) have a deposit of ₪1.20, and are willingly accepted even by smaller businesses (plastic water bottles, glass wine bottles and soda cans are mostly accepted by larger supermarket chains, some of which possess reverse vending machines).\n",
"This popular cola comes in a 12-ounce bottle as well as larger, 20 ounce bottles and aluminum cans. It is a common drink with older adults, but is more heavily marketed to teens and young adults. One can contains as much caffeine as one cup of coffee.\n",
"In January 2017, Sierra Nevada issued a voluntary recall of certain 12-ounce bottles of different beers in 36 states due to a manufacturing defect that had possibly introduced chipped pieces of glass into the bottle.\n"
] |
why do people put gold on food, other than the purpose of showing off how rich they are?
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Flaunting wealth is often one reason. However, if you consider food to be an art form, putting gold on the plate could be completely a creative expression of the chef. We eat first with our eyes, gorgeous plating goes a long way towards creating a multisensual dining experience.
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[
"Gold has worked to evaluate the hypothesis that hedonistic overeating is a pathological attachment to food like any other addiction. Gold is a co-editor of the 2012 textbook, \"Food and Addiction\", published by Oxford Press. More recently, Gold also co-authored: Why are we consuming so much sugar despite knowing too much can harm us? and Overlaps in the nosology of substance abuse and overeating: the translational implications of “food addiction”.\n",
"Like most commodities, the price of gold is driven by supply and demand, including speculative demand. However, unlike most other commodities, saving and disposal play larger roles in affecting its price than its consumption. Most of the gold ever mined still exists in accessible form, such as bullion and mass-produced jewelry, with little value over its fine weight — so it is nearly as liquid as bullion, and can come back onto the gold market. At the end of 2006, it was estimated that all the gold ever mined totalled . The investor Warren Buffett has said that the total amount of gold in the world that is above ground could fit into a cube with sides of just (which is roughly consistent with 158,000 tonnes based on a specific gravity of 19.3). However, estimates for the amount of gold that exists today vary significantly and some have suggested the cube could be a lot smaller or larger.\n",
"\"Don't try to get rich with gold because the corresponding risk is too high. Gold is a volatile asset whose daily price action can be far more dramatic than blue-chip stocks and many other asset classes\"\n",
"Gold has been used as money for many reasons. It is fungible, with a low spread between the prices to buy and sell. Gold is also easily transportable, as it has a high value to weight ratio, compared to other commodities, such as silver. Gold can be re-coined, divided into smaller units, or re-melted into larger units such as gold bars, without destroying its metal value. The density of gold is higher than most other metals, making it difficult to pass counterfeits. Additionally, gold is extremely unreactive, hence it does not tarnish or corrode over time.\n",
"Gold played a role in western culture, as a cause for desire and of corruption, as told in children's fables such as Rumpelstiltskin—where Rumpelstiltskin turns hay into gold for the peasant's daughter in return for her child when she becomes a princess—and the stealing of the hen that lays golden eggs in Jack and the Beanstalk.\n",
"Gold farming has been discussed as a tool for socioeconomic development by the United Kingdom's Department for International Development and University of Manchester professor Richard Heeks. The money involved is small enough to flow easily from many first-world players but large enough to make a difference to the people doing the work. Gold farmers receive a higher percentage of sale revenue from their work than do farmers of fair trade coffee.\n",
"Then I asked further, \"Why should we not eat the gold and silver which are already in existence instead of taking the trouble to make them? What are made will not be real gold and silver but just make-believes.\"\n"
] |
What happened to people in jail during the Great Depression? If the public could barely afford to live how could prisoners? Did any of them die from starvation or were they all adequately fed?
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I have an add-on question. How true was it that the average person 'could barely afford to live'? I've heard anecdotal stories from older relatives of small southern towns being basically unaffected by the depression.
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[
"Overcrowding soon became a big concern, as well as poor sanitation. The jails turned into breeding houses of illness. Furthermore, the jails were even unable to fulfill their basic purpose of containing offenders within its walls. Escapes were very frequent. The prisons held not only those who were awaiting trial but also people who owed money, called debtors. These people were free during the day so they could work to pay off their debt but they returned to the jail at night. Other prisoners included the homeless, unemployed, or impoverished. They were expected to learn good work ethic during their stay.\n",
"Conditions in most large prisons were harsh and life-threatening. During the year an unknown number of persons died in prisons due to neglect; MONUC reports indicated that at least one person died each month in prisons in the country. The penal system continued to suffer from severe shortages of funds, and most prisons were severely overcrowded, in poor a state of repair, lacked sanitation facilities, or were not designed to be used as detention facilities. Health care and medical attention remained inadequate and infectious diseases were rampant. In rare cases, prison doctors provided care; however, they often lacked medicines and supplies.\n",
"The onset of the Great Depression flooded the prison with new inmates, and Montana state further curtailed the use of inmate labor to provide jobs for civilians. In another blow to the prisoners, in 1934, the state prohibited the sale of convict-made goods to civilians. Prisoners now had almost no legitimate, worthwhile industries to keep themselves busy, and to exacerbate the situation further, most of the prison yard within the walls had been converted into a vegetable garden, eliminating exercise as a pastime.\n",
"Prisoners would often take their families with them, which meant that entire communities sprang up inside the debtors' jails. The community created its own economy, with jailers charging for room, food, drink and furniture, or selling concessions to others, and attorneys charging fees in fruitless efforts to get the debtors out. Prisoners' families, including children, often had to find employment simply to cover the cost of the imprisonment.\n",
"Employment rates and earnings histories of people in prisons and jails are often low before incarceration as a result of limited education experiences, low skill levels, and the prevalence of physical and mental health problems; incarceration only exacerbates these challenges.\n",
"Prisoners had to pay rent, feed and clothe themselves and, in the larger prisons, furnish their rooms. One man found not guilty at trial in 1669 was not released because he owed prison fees from his pre-trial confinement, a position supported by the judge, Matthew Hale. Jailers sold food or let out space for others to open shops; the Marshalsea contained several shops and small restaurants. Prisoners with no money or external support faced starvation. If the prison did supply food to its non-paying inmates, it was purchased with charitable donations—donations sometimes siphoned off by the jailers—usually bread and water with a small amount of meat, or something confiscated as unfit for human consumption. Jailers would load prisoners with fetters and other iron, then charge for their removal, known as \"easement of irons\" (or \"choice of irons\"); this became known as the \"trade of chains\".\n",
"The unfortunates in prisons felt that there was no chance for regaining liberty once the prison doors closed upon them. This hopelessness kindled prison revolts, which led to fearful slaughter, to the destruction of all that the years of earnest work had done to modify conditions by building up humane prisons, caring for juvenile offenders, and giving the condemned hope or opportunity once more to be free. \n"
] |
Does Earth experience a tidal force from Sun?
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Yes, we experience a tidal force from everything, it's just question of magnitude.
[The tidal force from the Sun is about ~~3%~~ 44% as strong as from the Moon](_URL_0_), because unlike the basic gravitational force, the tidal force drops like 1/r^3
Edit: 44%
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[
"The tidal force on Earth due to a perturbing body (Sun, Moon or planet) is expressed by Newton's law of universal gravitation, whereby the gravitational force of the perturbing body on the side of Earth nearest is said to be greater than the gravitational force on the far side by an amount proportional to the difference in the cubes of the distances between the near and far sides. If the gravitational force of the perturbing body acting on the mass of the Earth as a point mass at the center of Earth ( which provides the centripetal force causing the orbital motion ) is subtracted from the gravitational force of the perturbing body everywhere on the surface of Earth, what remains may be regarded as the tidal force. This gives the paradoxical notion of a force acting away from the satellite but in reality it is simply a lesser force towards that body due to the gradient in the gravitational field. For precession, this tidal force can be grouped into two forces which only act on the equatorial bulge outside of a mean spherical radius. This couple can be decomposed into two pairs of components, one pair parallel to Earth's equatorial plane toward and away from the perturbing body which cancel each other out, and another pair parallel to Earth's rotational axis, both toward the ecliptic plane. The latter pair of forces creates the following torque vector on Earth's equatorial bulge:\n",
"The tidal accelerations at the surfaces of planets in the Solar System are generally very small. For example, the lunar tidal acceleration at the Earth's surface along the Moon-Earth axis is about 1.1 × 10 g, while the solar tidal acceleration at the Earth's surface along the Sun-Earth axis is about 0.52 × 10 g, where g is the gravitational acceleration at the Earth's surface. Hence the tide-raising force (acceleration) due to the Sun is about 45% of that due to the Moon. The solar tidal acceleration at the Earth's surface was first given by Newton in the \"Principia\".\n",
"The Earth is in free fall but the presence of tides indicates that it is in a non-uniform gravitational field. This non-uniformity is more due to the moon than the sun. The total gravitational field due to the sun is much stronger than that of the moon but it has a minor tidal effect compared with that of the moon because of the relative distances involved. Weight of the earth is essentially due to the sun's gravity. But its state of stress and deformation, represented by the tides, is more due to non uniformity in the gravitational field of the nearby moon.\n",
"Note that although solar heating is responsible for the largest-amplitude atmospheric tides, the gravitational fields of the Sun and Moon also raise tides in the atmosphere, with the lunar gravitational atmospheric tidal effect being significantly greater than its solar counterpart.\n",
"The gravitational effects of the Moon and the Sun (also the cause of the tides) have a very small effect on the apparent strength of Earth's gravity, depending on their relative positions; typical variations are 2 µm/s (0.2 mGal) over the course of a day.\n",
"One additional tidal constituent results from the centrifugal forces due, in turn, to the so-called polar motion of the Earth. The latter has nothing to do with the gravitational torques acting on the Earth by the Sun and Moon, but is \"excited\" by geophysical mass transports on or in the Earth itself given the (slight) oblateness of the Earth's shape, which actually gives rise to an Euler-type rotational motion with a period of about 433 days for the Earth known as the Chandler wobble (after its first discoverer Seth Chandler in the late 1900s). Incidentally the Eulerian wobble is analogous to the wobbling motion of a spinning frisbee thrown not-so-perfectly. Observationally, the (excited) Chandler wobble is a major component in the Earth's polar motion. One effect of the polar motion is to perturb the otherwise steady centrifugal force felt by the Earth, causing the Earth (and the oceans) to deform slightly at the corresponding periods, knowns as the pole tide. Like the long period tides the pole tide has been assumed to be in equilibrium and an examination of the pole tide at ocean-basin scales seems to be consistent with that assumption. The equilibrium amplitude of the pole tide is about 0.5 cm at it maximum at 45 degrees N. and S. latitudes. At regional scales, though, the observational record is less clear. For example, tide gauge records in the North Sea show a signal that seemed to be non-equilibrium pole tide which Wunsch has suggested is due to a resonance connected with the excitation of barotropic Rossby waves, but O'Connor and colleagues suggest it is actually wind-forced instead.\n",
"Earth tides or terrestrial tides affect the entire Earth's mass, which acts similarly to a liquid gyroscope with a very thin crust. The Earth's crust shifts (in/out, east/west, north/south) in response to lunar and solar gravitation, ocean tides, and atmospheric loading. While negligible for most human activities, terrestrial tides' semi-diurnal amplitude can reach about at the Equator— due to the Sun—which is important in GPS calibration and VLBI measurements. Precise astronomical angular measurements require knowledge of the Earth's rotation rate and polar motion, both of which are influenced by Earth tides. The semi-diurnal \"M\" Earth tides are nearly in phase with the Moon with a lag of about two hours.\n"
] |
single variable calculus, specifically the differentiation of elementary functions.
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Do you mean taking derivatives using the definition, or using the tricks and rules you can memorize to make it easier/faster?
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[
"Elementary calculus is the calculus of real-valued functions of one real variable, and the principal ideas of differentiation and integration of such functions can be extended to functions of more than one real variable; this extension is multivariable calculus.\n",
"Elementary Functions- a study of the elementary functions (power functions, polynomials, rational, exponential, logarithmic and trigonometric) with an emphasis on their behavior and applications. Some analytic geometry and elements of the calculus as well as the application of matrices to the solution of linear systems is also included.\n",
"The mathematical definition of an elementary function, or a function in elementary form, is considered in the context of differential algebra. A differential algebra is an algebra with the extra operation of derivation (algebraic version of differentiation). Using the derivation operation new equations can be written and their solutions used in extensions of the algebra. By starting with the field of rational functions, two special types of transcendental extensions (the logarithm and the exponential) can be added to the field building a tower containing elementary functions.\n",
"In mathematics, an elementary function is a function of one variable which is the composition of a finite number of arithmetic operations , exponentials, logarithms, constants, trigonometric functions, and solutions of algebraic equations (a generalization of \"n\"th roots).\n",
"Most elementary functions, including the exponential function, the trigonometric functions, and all polynomial functions, extended appropriately to complex arguments as functions formula_21, are holomorphic over the entire complex plane, making them \"entire\" \"functions\", while rational functions formula_22, where \"p\" and \"q\" are polynomials, are holomorphic on domains that exclude points where \"q\" is zero. Such functions that are holomorphic everywhere except a set of isolated points are known as \"meromorphic functions\". On the other hand, the functions formula_23, formula_24, and formula_25 are not holomorphic anywhere on the complex plane, as can be shown by their failure to satisfy the Cauchy–Riemann conditions (see below).\n",
"The fundamental theorem of calculus states that differentiation and integration are inverse operations. More precisely, it relates the values of antiderivatives to definite integrals. Because it is usually easier to compute an antiderivative than to apply the definition of a definite integral, the fundamental theorem of calculus provides a practical way of computing definite integrals. It can also be interpreted as a precise statement of the fact that differentiation is the inverse of integration.\n",
"The \"fundamental theorem of calculus\" is the statement that differentiation and integration are inverse operations: if a continuous function is first integrated and then differentiated, the original function is retrieved. An important consequence, sometimes called the \"second fundamental theorem of calculus\", allows one to compute integrals by using an antiderivative of the function to be integrated.\n"
] |
why after a good long cry can't we take a big deep breath without that huh-huh-huh tracheal contraction?
|
Intense crying can cause less oxygen to enter the brain, therefore the contractions are like yawning, it’s supposed to allow more oxygen to enter.
Source: I’ve cried once. And took an anatomy class once.
|
[
"This happens due to elastic properties of the lungs, as well as the internal intercostal muscles which lower the rib cage and decrease thoracic volume. As the thoracic diaphragm relaxes during exhalation it causes the tissue it has depressed to rise superiorly and put pressure on the lungs to expel the air. During forced exhalation, as when blowing out a candle, expiratory muscles including the abdominal muscles and internal intercostal muscles generate abdominal and thoracic pressure, which forces air out of the lungs.\n",
"Injury to the external laryngeal nerve causes weakened phonation because the vocal folds cannot be tightened. Injury to one of the recurrent laryngeal nerves produces hoarseness, if both are damaged the voice may or may not be preserved, but breathing becomes difficult.\n",
"During heavy breathing, exhalation is caused by relaxation of all the muscles of inhalation. But now, the abdominal muscles, instead of remaining relaxed (as they do at rest), contract forcibly pulling the lower edges of the rib cage downwards (front and sides) (Fig. 8). This not only drastically decreases the size of the rib cage, but also pushes the abdominal organs upwards against the diaphragm which consequently bulges deeply into the thorax (Fig. 8). The end-exhalatory lung volume is now well below the resting mid-position and contains far less air than the resting \"functional residual capacity\". However, in a normal mammal, the lungs cannot be emptied completely. In an adult human there is always still at least 1 liter of residual air left in the lungs after maximum exhalation.\n",
"It occurs during forced expiration when intrapleural pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure (positive barometric values), and not during passive expiration when intrapleural pressure remains at subatmospheric pressures (negative barometric values). Clinically, dynamic compression is most commonly associated to the wheezing sound during forced expiration such as in individuals with chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder (COPD).\n",
"The main symptom is choking and difficulty or inability to breathe or speak, a feeling of suffocation, which may be followed by hypoxia-induced loss of consciousness. As the airway reopens, breathing may cause a high-pitched sound called stridor. The episode seldom lasts over a couple of minutes before breathing is back to normal.\n",
"During the occlusion of the stop, pulling the glottis downward rarefies the air in the vocal tract. The stop is then released. In languages whose implosives are particularly salient, that may result in air rushing into the mouth before it flows out again with the next vowel. To take in air sharply in that way is to implode a sound.\n",
"Respiratory symptoms and signs that may be present include shortness of breath, wheezes, or stridor. The wheezing is typically caused by spasms of the bronchial muscles while stridor is related to upper airway obstruction secondary to swelling. Hoarseness, pain with swallowing, or a cough may also occur.\n"
] |
why is it ok for generic brands to blatantly rip off brand name companies for their own profit?
|
Its not, I cant call my cereal frosted flakes. I cant use the image of tony the tiger. But There is nothing to stop me from making "Frosted cereal shards" putting them in a blue box and having my mascot be a lion, why would there be?
|
[
"Some generic products may try to leverage their existing cost advantage (due to lack of promotion) further by using inferior ingredients for production. This can damage the reputation and lead to customers avoiding future purchase. Prevalence of such acts necessitates the customer crosschecking the crimp for list of ingredients and verifying that it is comparable to a name-brand.\n",
"Branding emerged as a top management priority in the last decade due to the growing realization that a brand is one of the most valuable assets that firms can have. A brand is more than just a name on a stationery, clothes, plant, or equipment. It carries meaning to all stakeholders and represents a set of values, promises, even a personality of its own. Most companies with the biggest increases in brand value operate as single brands all over the world. \n",
"\"Branded generics\" on the other hand are defined by the FDA and NHS as \"products that are (a) either novel dosage forms of off-patent products produced by a manufacturer that is not the originator of the molecule, or (b) a molecule copy of an off-patent product with a trade name.\" Since the company making branded generics can spend little on research and development, it is able to spend on marketing alone, thus earning higher profits and driving costs down. For example, the largest revenues of Ranbaxy, now owned by Sun Pharma, came from branded generics. \n",
"Manufacturers may be able to leverage their existing brand names by developing new product lines. For example, Heinz started out as a brand for pickles but branched out into ketchup. Some brand extensions may involve a risk of damage to the original brand if the quality is not good enough. Coca-Cola, for example, refused to apply the Coke name to a diet drink back when artificial sweeteners had a significantly less attractive taste. Coke created Tab Cola, but only when aspartame (NutraSweet) was approved for use in soft drinks did Coca-Cola come out with a Diet Coke.\n",
"BULLET::::- Debranding (transitioning into \"generic\") occurs when a company with a well-known brand opts to appear more generic. This means the company will eliminate advertising and reduce prices and debranding in this sense can increase profit margins.\n",
"This approach usually results in higher promotion costs and advertising. This is due to the company being required to generate awareness among consumers and retailers for each new brand name without the benefit of any previous impressions. Multibranding strategy has many advantages. There is no risk that a product failure will affect other products in the line as each brand is unique to each market segment. Although, certain large multiband companies have come across that the cost and difficulty of implementing a multibranding strategy can overshadow the benefits. For example, Unilever, the world's third-largest multination consumer goods company recently streamlined its brands from over 400 brands to centre their attention onto 14 brands with sales of over 1 billion euros. Unilever accomplished this through product deletion and sales to other companies. Other multibrand companies introduce new product brands as a protective measure to respond to competition called fighting brands or fighter brands.\n",
"Private branding (also known as reseller branding, private labelling, store brands, or own brands) have increased in popularity. Private branding is when a company manufactures products but it is sold under the brand name of a wholesaler or retailer. Private branding is popular because it typically produces high profits for manufacturers and resellers. The pricing of private brand product are usually cheaper compared to competing name brands. Consumers are commonly deterred by these prices as it sets a perception of lower quality and standard but these views are shifting.\n"
] |
Who are some of the better known Chinese artists?
|
The answer is that we know quite a lot about many of the great Chinese masters. However, the history of art in China goes back a deal further than europe. So provenance becomes a major issue. This is particularly the case with the monumental landscape masters of the 10th and 11th centuries. I will mention a few of them below, but first I will mention an exemplary problem - that of Zhang Daqian - a brilliant 20th century painter, scholar and trickster. He was the top chinese scholar in the field, so when he brought out a newly discovered 10th century masterpiece, all had to take note. But he clearly was the *10th century master* behind several of them. He would paint them, then take them to the basement, get them all dusty, stomp on them, burn some edges, forge some imperial seals, etc, then he would unveil them with much fanfare. You seriously have to love this guy! Anyway, on to the original masters:
Li Cheng - the true father of monumental landscape, but also the most difficult to attribute. His ink on silk work is well documented in writings, but the authenticity of each of the surviving pictures themselves is doubted by at least some art historians. I remember looking at two different Li Cheng attributions at the Metropolitan museum (grad seminar on Song dynasty art). One was entirely vexing. It just seemed disjunct, as if of two minds. Though some had argued vigorously for its authenticity, it just never settled with me. But the other was spectacular. It was mesmerizing, truly, as much or more so than the Leonardos and Raphaels I had seen in florence and rome in years past. I remember thinking that I didn't care whether it was a Li Cheng, because, in the words of my professor, it was what a Li Cheng "Ought to look like". He also said that we should all become comfortable with ambiguity if we were to look at chinese pictures.
The second master worth looking at is Fan Kuan. [this](_URL_1_) is his most famous work. I cannot add much about him. Great painter.
The greatest of all though was Guo Xi. His [Early Spring](_URL_0_) is that rarest of early chinese paintings - signed, dated, almost universally accepted as authentic, and hanging in the Taipei palace museum. This painting is truly the landscape to measure all others both that came before and after.
I have seen a handful of song dynasty paintings up close, due to sheer luck in choosing the right course! I count those moments among my very luckiest and most special experiences with visual art. Although these artists are extremely well known in China, Korea, and Japan, they are sadly almost totally unknown in the art loving west.
Beyond the Song there are many wonderful artists, and luckily we know much more about them. Do some searching for great painters of the Ming and Qing, and you will find more than enough to keep you in a wiki vortex for several days. Enjoy!
|
[
"Zhang Daqian or Chang Dai-chien (; 10 May 1899 – 2 April 1983) was one of the best-known and most prodigious Chinese artists of the twentieth century. Originally known as a \"guohua\" (traditionalist) painter, by the 1960s he was also renowned as a modern impressionist and expressionist painter. In addition, he is regarded as one of the most gifted master forgers of the twentieth century.\n",
"About present day Songzhuang, native artist Cheng Da Qing said, “ The future of Chinese fine art is in Songzhuang ”. The artistic community now has over one thousand artists, centered mainly in the village of Xiaopu and spreading throughout Tuanli, Liuhe, Daxing, Xindian, Lamazhuang, Renzhuang, Beisi, Baimiao and Xiaoyang. Painters, sculptors, photographers, writers, conceptual/new media artists and dreamers live side-by-side, the largest gathering of contemporary artists certainly in China if not in the world.\n",
"Fan Tchunpi or Fang Junbi (; 1898–1986), was a Chinese artist known for her brush-and-ink paintings in the traditional \"guóhuà\" style. Trained in Western painting techniques while living in France, her work is known for its combination of European and Chinese formal elements. Called \"one of the most important and prolific Chinese artists of the modern era,\" her work has been the subject of retrospective exhibitions at the Hood Museum of Art, the Musée Cernuschi, and the Fung Ping Shan Museum.\n",
"Li Keran (; 26 March 1907 – 5 December 1989), art name Sanqi, was a contemporary Chinese \"guohua\" painter and art educator. Considered one of the most important Chinese artists in the latter half of the 20th century, he was also an influential professor at the Central Academy of Fine Arts where he taught a generation of Chinese artists. Although trained in Western oil painting, he was known for his traditional literati paintings with influences from Qi Baishi and Huang Binhong, two renowned masters in Chinese painting.\n",
"Hung Liu (刘虹) (born February 17, 1948) is a Chinese-born American contemporary artist. One of the first Chinese artists to establish a career in the West, Liu is regarded by many as \"the greatest Chinese painter in the US.\"\n",
"Tang Yin is one of the most notable painters in the history of Chinese art. He is one of the \"Four Masters of Ming dynasty” (Ming Si Jia), which also includes Shen Zhou (1427–1509), Wen Zhengming (1470–1559) and Qiu Ying (c. 1495-1552). His influence on the art of contemporaries, like Cai Han, is notable. Tang was also a talented poet, and together with his contemporaries Wen Zhengming, Zhu Yunming (1460–1526), and Xu Zhenqing, he was one of the \"Four Literary Masters of the Wuzhong Region\".\n",
"World Artists Association (Chinese 世界艺术家协会{}, is an organization of artists around the world and is one of the largest with a broad international influence of arts groups. It promotes the development of arts in the world and hosts international art exchanges. It has organized “International Chinese Artists’ Art Exhibition\" successfully for 12 years. The \"Reference News\" of Xinhua News Agency said in 1998: “This is the largest exchange of Chinese art in the world”. This exhibition has become an important stage for the art exchange of world artists.\n"
] |
magnet torrent links. what are they?
|
A magnet torrent link is a unique set of numbers and letters that describe a specific file, like a fingerprint. Torrent clients can use this fingerprint to ask other clients if they have a file with the same fingerprint. If they do, they can send it from them (peer) to you (peer).
|
[
"the original research are implemented. Other file sharing networks, such as the Kad network, use distributed hash tables to index files and for keyword searches. BitTorrent creates individual overlay networks for sharing individual files (or archives). Searches are \"performed\" by other mechanisms, such as locating torrent files indexed on a web site. A similar mechanism can be use on the Gnutella network with magnet links. For instance Bitzi provides a web interface to search for magnet links.\n",
"Public or open trackers can be used by anyone by adding the tracker address to an existing torrent, or they can be used by any newly created torrent, like OpenBitTorrent. The Pirate Bay operated one of the most popular public trackers until disabling it in 2009 amid legal trouble, and thereafter offered only magnet links.\n",
"A small torrent file is created to represent a file or folder to be shared. The torrent file acts as the key to initiating downloading of the actual content. Someone interested in receiving the shared file or folder first obtains the corresponding torrent file, either by directly downloading it, or by using a magnet link. The user then opens that file in a BitTorrent client, which automates the rest of the process. In order to learn the Internet locations of peers which may be sharing pieces, the client connects to the trackers named in the torrent file, and/or achieves a similar result through the use of distributed hash tables. Then the client connects directly to the peers in order to request pieces and otherwise participate in a swarm. The client may also report progress to trackers, to help the tracker with its peer recommendations.\n",
"The eXeem network used super-peers that were used to track torrents (as ordinary bittorrent trackers). These super-peers were also responsible for maintaining file lists, comments and ratings for part of the files in the network. When a peer that was tracking a torrent was closed or went down, a new peer was assigned to be the tracker for that particular torrent.\n",
"This system also allows webmasters to easily distribute files using the BitTorrent protocol without requiring the visitors of their sites to install and know how to use a BitTorrent client. To do that, a webmaster needs to find a tracker that directs the BitTorrent downloads and uploads of his file, host the .torrent file, and then display a link in his site, prefixing a URL code to the torrent's online location. The BitLet site provides a code generator to create the HTML for that link; some sites that distribute torrent files already provide such links along with the URL to their torrents, including Fenopy and Suprnova. However, no means of embedding the applet and player into third-party sites exists as of July 2009.\n",
"1337x is a website that provides a directory of torrent files and magnet links used for peer-to-peer file sharing through the BitTorrent protocol. According to the TorrentFreak news blog, 1337x is the third most popular torrent website as of 2018.\n",
"A bittorrent client is capable of preparing, requesting, and transmitting any type of computer file over a network, using the protocol. Up until 2005, the only way to share files was by creating a small text file called a \"torrent\". These files contain metadata about the files to be shared and the trackers which keep track of the other seeds and peers. Users that want to download the file first obtain a torrent file for it, and connect to the tracker or seeds. In 2005, first Vuze and then the Bittorrent client introduced distributed tracking using distributed hash tables which allowed clients to exchange data on swarms directly without the need for a torrent file. In 2006, peer exchange functionality was added allowing clients to add peers based on the data found on connected nodes.\n"
] |
How did it come to be that all of the genes relating to sex are on the same chromosome?
|
They aren't: the genes that **trigger** (specifically, SRY) the male phenotype are on the Y chromosome, but males also have a complete set of female DNA, and ~~many~~ almost all of the distinctly male characteristics are side effects of this trigger alone. And even this is a little bit of a misnomer, as SRY (or lack of SRY) and the Y chromosome do not clearly cut human gender:
[_URL_0_]
[_URL_2_]
[_URL_5_]
[_URL_4_]
SRY makes it easier to be a different gender, which arose from a selection for ansiogamy (different types of gametes). This is because having a low energy cost, low success gamete (in humans, male sperm) and a high energy, high success rate gamete (in humans, the female egg) had an overall higher chance of being fertilized and "mitigate fertilization risks". There are also theories that competition between the low-cost male gametes contributes to the selection for anisogamy.
[_URL_1_]
[_URL_3_]
|
[
"Many species have so-called sex chromosomes that determine the gender of each organism. In humans and many other animals, the Y chromosome contains the gene that triggers the development of the specifically male characteristics. In evolution, this chromosome has lost most of its content and also most of its genes, while the X chromosome is similar to the other chromosomes and contains many genes. The X and Y chromosomes form a strongly heterogeneous pair.\n",
"The Y chromosome was identified as a sex-determining chromosome by Nettie Stevens at Bryn Mawr College in 1905 during a study of the mealworm \"Tenebrio molitor\". Edmund Beecher Wilson independently discovered the same mechanisms the same year. Stevens proposed that chromosomes always existed in pairs and that the Y chromosome was the pair of the X chromosome discovered in 1890 by Hermann Henking. She realized that the previous idea of Clarence Erwin McClung, that the X chromosome determines sex, was wrong and that sex determination is, in fact, due to the presence or absence of the Y chromosome. Stevens named the chromosome \"Y\" simply to follow on from Henking's \"X\" alphabetically.\n",
"All animals have a set of DNA coding for genes present on chromosomes. In humans, most mammals, and some other species, two of the chromosomes, called the X chromosome and Y chromosome, code for sex. In these species, one or more genes are present on their Y chromosome that determine maleness. In this process, an X chromosome and a Y chromosome act to determine the sex of offspring, often due to genes located on the Y chromosome that code for maleness. Offspring have two sex chromosomes: an offspring with two X chromosomes will develop female characteristics, and an offspring with an X and a Y chromosome will develop male characteristics.\n",
"The X and Y chromosomes are thought to have evolved from a pair of identical chromosomes, termed autosomes, when an ancestral animal developed an allelic variation, a so-called \"sex locus\" – simply possessing this allele caused the organism to be male. The chromosome with this allele became the Y chromosome, while the other member of the pair became the X chromosome. Over time, genes that were beneficial for males and harmful to (or had no effect on) females either developed on the Y chromosome or were acquired through the process of translocation.\n",
"The X chromosome carries hundreds of genes but few, if any, of these have anything to do directly with sex determination. Early in embryonic development in females, one of the two X chromosomes is randomly and permanently inactivated in nearly all somatic cells (cells other than egg and sperm cells). This phenomenon is called X-inactivation or Lyonization, and creates a Barr body. If X-inactivation in the somatic cell meant a complete de-functionalizing of one of the X-chromosomes, it would ensure that females, like males, had only one functional copy of the X chromosome in each somatic cell. This was previously assumed to be the case. However, recent research suggests that the Barr body may be more biologically active than was previously supposed.\n",
"Allosomes not only carry the genes that determine male and female traits, but also those for some other characteristics as well. Genes that are carried by either sex chromosome are said to be sex linked. Sex linked diseases are passed down through families through one of the X or Y chromosomes. Since only men inherit Y chromosomes, they are the only ones to inherit Y-linked traits. Men and women can get the X-linked ones since both inherit X chromosomes. \n",
"Other species that do not follow the previously discussed conventions of XX females and XY males must find alternative ways to equalize X-linked gene expression among differing sexes. For example, in \"Caenorhabditis elegans\" (or \"C. elegans\"), sex is determined by the ratio of X chromosomes relative to autosomes; worms with two X chromosomes (XX worms) develop as hermaphrodites, whereas those with only one X chromosome (XO worms) develop as males. This system of sex determination is unique, because there is no male specific chromosome, as is the case in XX/XY sex determination systems. However, as is the case with the previously discussed mechanisms of dosage compensation, failure to express X-linked genes appropriately can still be lethal.\n"
] |
Do bra-less women have lower rates of breast cancer?
|
_URL_0_
*Factors not likely related to risk*
*Although not as well-studied as the factors described above, based on the research to date, the factors below are not likely related to breast cancer risk.*
*Bras/underwire bras*
*Scientific evidence does not support a link between wearing an underwire bra (or any type of bra) and an increased risk of breast cancer. There is no biological reason the two would be linked, and any observed relationship is likely due to other factors. A 1991 case-control study found that premenopausal women who did not wear bras had a lower risk of breast cancer than women who did wear bras [487]. However, the authors stated this link was likely due to factors related to wearing a bra rather than the bra itself. The women in the study who did not wear a bra were more likely to be lean and have small breasts, which the authors concluded might account for the link [487].*
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[
"HRT has been more strongly associated with risk of breast cancer in women with a lower range body mass indices (BMIs). No breast cancer association has been found with BMIs of over 25. It has been suggested by some that the absence of significant effect in some of these studies could be due to selective prescription to overweight women who have higher baseline estrone, or to the very low progesterone serum levels after oral administration leading to a high tumor inactivation rate.\n",
"Certain health problems in men such as liver disease, kidney failure, or low testosterone can cause breast growth in men. Drugs and liver disease are the most common cause in adults. Other medications known to cause gynecomastia include methadone; aldosterone antagonists (spironolactone and eplerenone); HIV medication; cancer chemotherapy; hormone treatment for prostate cancer; heartburn and ulcer medications; calcium channel blockers; antifungal medications such as ketoconazole; antibiotics such as metronidazole; tricyclic antidepressants such as amitriptyline; and herbals such as lavender, tea tree oil, and dong quai. The insecticide phenothrin possesses antiandrogen activity and has been associated with gynecomastia.\n",
"A contemporary woman's lifetime probability of developing breast cancer is approximately one in seven; yet there is no causal evidence that fat grafting to the breast might be more conducive to breast cancer than are other breast procedures; because incidences of fat tissue necrosis and calcification occur in every such procedure: breast biopsy, implantation, radiation therapy, breast reduction, breast reconstruction, and liposuction of the breast. Nonetheless, detecting breast cancer is primary, and calcification incidence is secondary; thus, the patient is counselled to learn self-palpation of the breast and to undergo periodic mammographic examinations. Although the mammogram is the superior diagnostic technique for distinguishing among cancerous and benign lesions to the breast, any questionable lesion can be visualized ultrasonically and magnetically (MRI); biopsy follows any clinically suspicious lesion or indeterminate abnormality appeared in a radiograph.\n",
"Although a number of independent reviews, including the Institute of Medicine in the United States, subsequently indicated that silicone breast implants do not cause breast cancers or any identifiable systemic diseases, on 21 March 2017, the FDA issued a statement indicating that women with breast implants have a \"very low but increased risk\" of getting a rare form of cancer called anaplastic large-cell lymphoma (ALCL). The cancer is associated with nine deaths, the FDA said. These findings have caused an uptick in breast implant removal surgeries.\n",
"The authors' proposal that bras block the lymphatic system which leads to accumulated toxins and cancer was likewise contradicted by scientific study. The National Institutes of Health examined cancer rates among women who had their underarm lymph nodes removed as part of melanoma treatment: \"The surgery, which is known to block lymph drainage from breast tissue, did not detectably increase breast cancer rates, the study found, meaning that it is extremely unlikely that wearing a bra, which affects lymph flow minimally if at all, would do so.\"\n",
"Obesity has been linked to an increased risk of developing breast cancer by many scientific studies. There is evidence to suggest that excess body fat at the time of breast cancer diagnosis is associated with higher rates of cancer recurrence and death. Furthermore, studies have shown that obese women are more likely to have large tumors, greater lymph node involvement, and poorer breast cancer prognosis with 30% higher risk of mortality.\n",
"~90% of females with LFS develop breast cancer by age 60 years; the majority of these occur before age 45 years. Females with this syndrome have almost a 100% lifetime risk of developing cancer. This compares with 73% for affected males. The difference may be due to much smaller breast tissue in males as well as increased estrogen levels in females.\n"
] |
why some metals glow brightly when hot (i.e., steel or iron) when others just look like liquid metal (i.e., aluminum or mercury)?
|
Aluminum and mercury will glow too if you get them hot enough. Pretty much everything glows (incandesces) at the same temperature, aluminum and mercury just happen to melt before that temperature whereas steel melts at a higher temperature.
|
[
"Iron or steel, when heated to above 900 °F (460 °C), glows with a red color. The color of any heated object changes predictably (due to black-body radiation) from dull red through orange and yellow to white, and can be a useful indicator of its temperature. Good quality iron or steel at and above this temperature becomes increasingly malleable and plastic. Iron or steel having too much sulfur, on the other hand, becomes crumbly and brittle. This is due to the sulfur forming iron sulfide/iron mixtures in the grain boundaries of the metal which have a lower melting point than the steel.\n",
"Metals are only transparent to light with a frequency higher than the metal's plasma frequency. For typical metals such as aluminium or silver, \"formula_3\" is approximately 10 cm, which brings the plasma frequency into the ultraviolet region. This is why most metals reflect visible light and appear shiny.\n",
"Most metals show more plasticity when hot than when cold. Lead shows sufficient plasticity at room temperature, while cast iron does not possess sufficient plasticity for any forging operation even when hot. This property is of importance in forming, shaping and extruding operations on metals. Most metals are rendered plastic by heating and hence shaped hot.\n",
"Often, the metal's sensitivity to heat must also be considered. Even a relatively routine workshop procedure involving heating is complicated by the fact that aluminium, unlike steel, will melt without first glowing red. Forming operations where a blow torch is used can reverse or remove heat treating, therefore is not advised whatsoever. No visual signs reveal how the material is internally damaged. Much like welding heat treated, high strength link chain, all strength is now lost by heat of the torch. The chain is dangerous and must be discarded.\n",
"Metal fires represent a unique hazard because people are often not aware of the characteristics of these fires and are not properly prepared to fight them. Therefore, even a small metal fire can spread and become a larger fire in the surrounding ordinary combustible materials. Certain metals burn in contact with air or water (for example, sodium), which exacerbates this risk. Generally speaking, masses of combustible metals do not represent great fire risks because heat is conducted away from hot spots so efficiently that the heat of combustion cannot be maintained. In consequence, significant heat energy is required to ignite a contiguous mass of combustible metal. Generally, metal fires are a hazard when the metal is in the form of sawdust, machine shavings or other metal \"fines\", which combust more rapidly than larger blocks. Metal fires can be ignited by the same ignition sources that would start other common fires.\n",
"Metals are heat resistant materials, marking metals requires high-density laser irradiation. Basically, the average laser power leads to melting and the peak power causes evaporation of the material .\n",
"Because of its cryogenic nature, liquid oxygen can cause the materials it touches to become extremely brittle. Liquid oxygen is also a very powerful oxidizing agent: organic materials will burn rapidly and energetically in liquid oxygen. Further, if soaked in liquid oxygen, some materials such as coal briquettes, carbon black, etc., can detonate unpredictably from sources of ignition such as flames, sparks or impact from light blows. Petrochemicals, including asphalt, often exhibit this behavior.\n"
] |
how do wammy bars (on guitars) work?
|
Basically you use the bar to add extra tension to the strings to shift the pitch as you play.
|
[
"The \"barbat\" is held similar to a guitar, but care must be taken to have the face vertical so that it is not visible to the player, and to support the weight with the thigh and right arm so that the left hand is free to move around the fingerboard. Note the idiosyncratic manner of holding the \"mizrab\" (Turkish) or \"risha\" (Arabic, lit. \"feather\") or pick; although it seems awkward it is in reality easier than a conventional flatpick and gives the \"right\" tonal shading to the plucked note.\n",
"Some Rickenbacker models feature a stereo \"Rick-O-Sound\" output socket, allowing each pickup to be routed to different amplifiers or effects chains. Another feature is the use of two truss rods to correct twists and curvature in the neck. Rickenbacker guitars typically have a set neck made of multiple pieces of wood laminated together lengthwise, while their basses have a one-piece neck that extends through the entire body. Rickenbacker instruments are known for narrower necks (41.4 mm versus 43 mm at the nut for most competitors) and lacquered rosewood fingerboards, giving them a different feel.\n",
"The cümbüş is shaped like an American banjo, with a spun-aluminum resonator bowl and skin soundboard. Although originally configured as an oud, the instrument has been converted to other instruments by attaching a different set of neck and strings. The standard cümbüş is fretless, but guitar, mandolin and ukulele versions have fretboards. The neck is adjustable, allowing the musician to change the angle of the neck to its strings by turning a screw. One model is made with a wooden resonator bowl, with the effect of a less tinny, softer sound.\n",
"Chime bars can be arranged on a table to be played by a single player, or played by a group in a similar fashion to handbells, with each member holding a chime in one hand and a mallet in the other. They are used from professional music to classrooms. \n",
"A turnbuckle, stretching screw or bottlescrew is a device for adjusting the tension or length of ropes, cables, tie rods, and other tensioning systems. It normally consists of two threaded eye bolts, one screwed into each end of a small metal frame, one with a left-hand thread and the other with a right-hand thread. The tension can be adjusted by rotating the frame, which causes both eye bolts to be screwed in or out simultaneously, without twisting the eye bolts or attached cables.\n",
"Unlike a standard 6-string guitars, Babicz anchors their strings fanned out along the edge of the soundboard near the side. The strings pass through the string retainer and over the saddle. By anchoring the strings in this fashion the overall tension of the strings is spread across the top and not concentrated in the center, which is the weakest part of the top. This allows Babicz to use a lighter form of bracing on the top other than the rigid X-brace which can impede the vibration of the top often dampening the sound of the guitar.\n",
"The top, back and sides of a classical guitar body are very thin, so a flexible piece of wood called \"kerfing\" (because it is often scored, or \"kerfed\" so it bends with the shape of the rim) is glued into the corners where the rim meets the top and back. This interior reinforcement provides 5 to 20 mm of solid gluing area for these corner joints.\n"
] |
why do some people have no sense of rhythm whatsoever?
|
As an audio engineer, I've broken this down a few times. There are two types of people: 1. People who dance to the beat (kick drum and snare) 2. People who dance to the vocal melody/lyrics.
|
[
"An individual with this condition has an especially difficult time maintaining a steady beat, and even has difficulty following along to a steady rhythm. Before it was a known disorder, it was thought that these individuals were just severely uncoordinated, and therefore were unable to follow along with the music. It has been discovered recently that problems with rhythm in Schizophrenia, Parkinson's, and Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder are also found to have a correlation to rhythm deficiencies.\n",
"Recent studies have found people who do not have any issue processing musical tones or beat, yet receive no pleasure from listening to music. Specific musical anhedonia is distinct from Melophobia, the fear of music.\n",
"Generally, humans have the ability to hear musical beat and rhythm beginning in infancy. Some people, however, are unable to identify beat and rhythm of music, suffering from what is known as beat deafness. Beat deafness is a newly discovered form of congenital amusia, in which people lack the ability to identify or “hear” the beat in a piece of music. Unlike most hearing impairments in which an individual is unable to hear any sort of sound stimuli, those with beat deafness are generally able to hear normally, but unable to identify beat and rhythm in music. Those with beat deafness are also unable to dance in step to any type of music. Even people who do not dance well can at least coordinate their movements to the song they are listening to, because they can easily keep time to the beat.\n",
"Auditory arrhythmia can also be confused with something called beat deafness. Beat deafness is a form of congenital amusia, which is a person's inability to move in time to the music, or feel a musical rhythm. It is believed by researchers that beat deafness stems from a connection problem between the brain's auditory cortex and inferior frontal lobe. A postdoctoral researcher with the International Laboratory for Brain, Music, and Sound Research at the University of Montreal studied a case where a man could not feel a rhythm in any sense. Not only did he have difficulty dancing, but he was unable to tap his foot or snap his fingers along with the beat of the music. The major difference between beat deafness and auditory arrhythmia, however, is that beat deafness is most likely something you are born with, whereas the arrhythmia most likely comes from damage, which was the case in the research done on \"Mathieu,\" the first known case of beat-deafness. In another case, a former musician known as H.J. suffered damage from a temporoparietal infarct, which is an area of dead tissue due to lack of adequate blood supply. The infarct was believed to have been caused by a problem during a coronary angiography, which is a test to show the insides of an individual's coronary arteries. H.J. suffered difficulties with creating a steady beat, an inability to distinguish between different sets of rhythms, and also experienced difficulties when playing his instruments.\n",
"In his television series \"How Music Works\", Howard Goodall presents theories that human rhythm recalls the regularity with which we walk and the heartbeat . Other research suggests that it does not relate to the heartbeat directly, but rather the speed of emotional affect, which also influences heartbeat. Yet other researchers suggest that since certain features of human music are widespread, it is \"reasonable to suspect that beat-based rhythmic processing has ancient evolutionary roots\" . Justin London writes that musical metre \"involves our initial perception as well as subsequent anticipation of a series of beats that we abstract from the rhythm surface of the music as it unfolds in time\" . The \"perception\" and \"abstraction\" of rhythmic measure is the foundation of human instinctive musical participation, as when we divide a series of identical clock-ticks into \"tick-tock-tick-tock\" (; ).\n",
"One starting point is to notice that we rely on a sense of rhythm to perform ordinary activities such as walking, running, hammering nails or chopping vegetables. Even speech and thought has a rhythm of sorts. So one way to work on rhythms is to work on bringing these into music, becoming a \"rhythm antenna\" in Andrew Lewis's words. Until the nineteenth century in Europe, people used to sing as they worked, in time to the rhythms of their work. Musical rhythms were part of daily life, Cecil Sharp collected some of these songs before they were forgotten. For more about this see Work song and Sea shanties. In many parts of the world music is an important part of daily life even today. There are many accounts of people (especially tribal people) who sing frequently and spontaneously in their daily life, as they work, and as they engage in other activities.\n",
"Rhythm is marked by the regulated succession of opposite elements, the dynamics of the strong and weak beat, the played beat and the inaudible but implied rest beat, the long and short note. As well as perceiving rhythm humans must be able to anticipate it. This depends on repetition of a pattern that is short enough to memorize.\n"
] |
Does the Cambrian Explosion coincide with the move from ocean-based to land-based life forms?
|
In general it is presumed that the Cambrian Explosion happened essentially in the ocean and maybe to some degree in lakes and rivers. According to wikipedia (_URL_0_) land plants began spreading 490 mya ago and I am quite sure that multicellular animals on land needed those for nutrition.
Anyways, your theory would not work: The mutation rate is in general a parameter that evolves towards an optimum. If the environment leads to increased mutation rate, all species will evolve some protection mechanisms to the point where the risk of harmful and advantageous mutations is again balanced.
|
[
"The \"Cambrian explosion\" can be viewed as two waves of metazoan expansion into empty niches: first, a coevolutionary rise in diversity as animals explored niches on the Ediacaran sea floor, followed by a second expansion in the early Cambrian as they became established in the water column. The rate of diversification seen in the Cambrian phase of the explosion is unparalleled among marine animals: it affected all metazoan clades of which Cambrian fossils have been found. Later radiations, such as those of fish in the Silurian and Devonian periods, involved fewer taxa, mainly with very similar body plans. Although the recovery from the Permian-Triassic extinction started with about as few animal species as the Cambrian explosion, the recovery produced far fewer significantly new types of animals.\n",
"The end of the 2nd series of the Cambrian is marked by the first major biotic extinction of the Paleozoic. Changes in ocean chemistry and the marine environment are posited as the most likely cause of these extinctions.\n",
"The Cambrian explosion was the relatively rapid appearance around of most major animal phyla as demonstrated in the fossil record, and many more phyla now extinct. This was accompanied by major diversification of other organisms. Prior to the Cambrian explosion most organisms were simple, composed of individual cells occasionally organized into colonies. Over the following 70 or 80 million years the rate of diversification accelerated by an order of magnitude and the diversity of life began to resemble that of today, although they did not resemble the species of today.\n",
"The fossil record of the earliest Cambrian, just after the Ediacaran period, shows a sudden increase in burrowing activity and diversity. However, the Cambrian explosion of animals that gave rise to body fossils did not happen instantaneously. This implies that the \"explosion\" did not represent animals \"replacing\" the incumbent organisms, and pushing them gradually to extinction; rather, the data are more consistent with a radiation of animals to fill in vacant niches, left empty as an extinction cleared out the pre-existing fauna.\n",
"The Cambrian is the first period of the Paleozoic Era and starts from . The Cambrian sparked a rapid expansion in evolution in an event known as the Cambrian Explosion during which the greatest number of creatures evolved in a single period in the history of Earth. Plants like algae evolved, and the fauna was dominated by armored arthropods, such as trilobites. Almost all marine phyla evolved in this period. During this time, the super-continent Pannotia began to break up, most of which later recombined into the super-continent Gondwana.\n",
"As understanding of the events of the Cambrian becomes clearer, data have accumulated to make some postulated causes for the Cambrian explosion look improbable. Some examples are the evolution of herbivory, vast changes in plate tectonic rates or orbital motion, or different evolutionary mechanisms in force.\n",
"The opening of the Cambrian period is marked by a number of biological changes, including the extinction of the Ediacara biota, the preponderance of armoured organisms (e.g. the small shelly fossils), and a \"widening of the behavioural repertoire\" indicated primarily by an increase in vertical burrowing, first for protection and later for feeding - the Cambrian substrate revolution.\n"
] |
how can rocket boosters push things foreward and navigate in space when there is no atmosphere to use?
|
You would need an atmosphere for things like paddles and propellers. Because they have to push air to work.
Rocket thrust is different. Equal and opposite reaction, right? The rocket fuel or exhaust goes out the back *and pushes the rocket forward*. The force only has to act on the rocket, not against another medium.
|
[
"Rocket propellant may be expelled through an expansion nozzle as a cold gas, that is, without energetic mixing and combustion, to provide small changes in velocity to spacecraft by the use of cold gas thrusters.\n",
"The rocket booster would place the vehicle onto a suborbital, but exoatmospheric, trajectory, resulting in a brief spaceflight followed by recontact with the atmosphere. Instead of a full reentry and landing, the vehicle would use the lift from its wings to redirect its glide angle upward, trading horizontal velocity for vertical velocity. In this way, the vehicle would be \"bounced\" back into space again. This skip-glide method would repeat until the speed was low enough that the pilot of the vehicle would need to pick a landing spot and glide the vehicle to a landing. This use of hypersonic atmospheric lift meant that the vehicle could greatly extend its range over a ballistic trajectory using the same rocket booster.\n",
"A low-propellant space drive has long been a goal for space exploration, since the propellant is dead weight that must be lifted and accelerated with the ship all the way from launch until the moment it is used (see Tsiolkovsky rocket equation). Gravity assists, solar sails, and beam-powered propulsion from a spacecraft-remote location such as the ground or in orbit, are useful because they allow a ship to gain speed without propellant. However, some of these methods do not work in deep space. Shining a light out of the ship provides a small force from radiation pressure, i.e., using photons as a form of propellant, but the force is far too weak, for a given amount of input power, to be useful in practice.\n",
"Kourou is located approximately north of the equator, at a latitude of 5°. It is a common misconception that the main advantage of launching a rocket from the equator is the extra boost provided by the speed of the Earth's rotation. For example, the eastward boost provided by the Earth's rotation is about at the Guiana Space Centre, as compared to about at the United States east coast Cape Canaveral and Kennedy Space Center spaceports which are at 28°27′N latitude in Florida. This means that rockets need around 60 m/s more delta-v to reach Low Earth Orbit (LEO) from Cape Canaveral, which is an insignificant disadvantage.\n",
"The high accelerations that rockets naturally possess means that rocket vehicles are often capable of vertical takeoff, and in some cases, with suitable guidance and control of the engines, also vertical landing. For these operations to be done it is necessary for a vehicle's engines to provide more than the local gravitational acceleration.\n",
"In fact, rockets work more efficiently in space than in an atmosphere. Multistage rockets are capable of attaining escape velocity from Earth and therefore can achieve unlimited maximum altitude. Compared with airbreathing engines, rockets are lightweight and powerful and capable of generating large accelerations. To control their flight, rockets rely on momentum, airfoils, auxiliary reaction engines, gimballed thrust, momentum wheels, deflection of the exhaust stream, propellant flow, spin, or gravity.\n",
"Therefore, another trick to achieve lower stresses is that rather than picking up a cargo from the ground at zero velocity, a rotovator could pick up a moving vehicle and sling it into orbit. For example, a rotovator could pick up a Mach 12 aircraft from the upper atmosphere of the Earth and move it into orbit without using rockets, and could likewise catch such a vehicle and lower it into atmospheric flight. It is easier for a rocket to achieve the lower tip speed, so \"single stage to tether\" has been proposed. One such is called the Hyper-sonic Airplane Space Tether Orbital Launch (HASTOL). Either air breathing or rocket to tether could save a great deal of fuel per flight, and would permit for both a simpler vehicle and more cargo.\n"
] |
Does evolution ever stop?
|
Correct, since Evolution is a slow process in which the traits of a given generation are passed on (due to their survival), as the Environment changes, so too would the requisites of survival change.
Consider an organism that exists in an ecosystem that is devoid of outside influences:
As the organism evolves through the generations, its mortality rate drops and there are more organisms in the environment. Eventually the population would reach critical mass, and the organisms would start dying off, except for those who are uniquely adapted to a high population colony, limited food supply or some other feature.
The previously 'optimal' traits are no longer relevant, as the organisms themselves changed the environment, ergo the system of trait selection continues under the new paradigm.
TLDR; Evolution will always continue as systems are prone to break down and change.
|
[
"Bateson suggested that all evolution is driven by the double bind, whenever circumstances change: If any environment becomes toxic to any species, that species will die out unless it transforms into another species, in which case, the species becomes extinct anyway.\n",
"According to Thomas S. Ray and others, this may allow for more \"open-ended\" evolution, in which the dynamics of the feedback between evolutionary and ecological processes can itself change over time (see evolvability), although this claim has not been realized – like other digital evolution systems, it eventually reaches a point where novelty ceases to be created, and the system at large begins either looping or ceases to 'evolve'. The issue of how true open-ended evolution can be implemented in an artificial system is still an open question in the field of artificial life.\n",
"The dictionary definition of Evolution is any process of formation, growth or development. In biological evolution the main principle behind this development is survival, we evolved to become stronger and quicker, we also evolved to become intelligent. But as we became intelligent biological evolution subsided to a new concept, cultural evolution. Cultural evolution moves at a much faster rate than biological evolution and this is one reason why it isn't very well understood. But as survival is still the main driving force behind life and that intelligence and knowledge is currently the most important factor for that survival, we can reasonably assume that cultural evolution will progress in the direction of furthering intelligence and knowledge.\n",
"Around 1890, he formulated a hypothesis on the irreversible nature of evolution, known later as \"Dollo's law\". According to his hypothesis, a structure or organ lost during the course of evolution would not reappear in that organism. This hypothesis was largely accepted until Michael F. Whiting's 2003 discovery that certain insects that had lost their wings regained them millions of years later. However, it was redeemed on the molecular level in 2009 as a result of a study on glucocorticoid receptors.\n",
"The alternatives in question do not deny that evolutionary changes over time are the origin of the diversity of life, nor deny that the organisms alive today share a common ancestor from the distant past (or ancestors, in some proposals); rather, they propose alternative mechanisms of evolutionary change over time, arguing against mutations acted on by natural selection as the most important driver of evolutionary change. (In most cases, they do not deny that mutations or natural selection occur, or that they play a role in evolutionary change, but instead deny that they are fully sufficient primary causes for the evidence of evolutionary change that is observed in the natural world.)\n",
"Ideas that evolution might proceed along pre-ordained patterns or that evolutionary lineages might age, deteriorate, and die like individual animals became popular starting in the late , but were superseded by the Neo-Darwinian synthesis. The aftermath of this transition brought renewed interest to the extinction at the end of the Cretaceous. Paleontologists began dabbling in the subject, proposing environmental changes during the Cretaceous like mountain-building, dropping temperatures or volcanic eruptions as explanation for the extinction of the dinosaurs. Nevertheless, much of the research occurring during this period lacked rigor, evidential support or depended on tenuous assumptions. Michael J. Benton called the years between 1920 and 1970 the \"Dilettante Phase\" of Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction research.\n",
"Evolution has no privilege line of descent and no designated end. Evolution has arrived at many millions of interim ends and organisms are still evolving. Evolution is directional, progressive and even predictable.\n"
] |
What was the average day like for an allied soldier in post WWII Germany before the rise of the Soviet threat?
|
I've not done research in the matter, but my grandfather volunteered to stay on occupation duty with the Canadian Army.
From what he said the days were fairly boring. He was around Baden, so not a Nazi stronghold like Bavaria. The people were broken, trying to rebuild some semblance of life after the war. He was a universal carrier driver, so he ran a lot of errands for his CO, jockeyed engineers around the countryside, went on patrols. The biggest problem they ran into was crime. Society was basically ripped apart, so they spent a lot of time making sure there was no looting. They ran checkpoints looking for war criminals (SS I assume), and basically just went about their days overseeing people trying to get back to normal. He said it wasn't terribly exciting, though one day his CO and some other bigwigs made an announcement that there was going to be a trial and they wanted there to be guards there from every allied country. He declined, because, who cares, right? Turned out it was the Nuremberg Trials. He kicked himself for that one, even though if he went he probably would just have been manning roadblocks on the Pegnitz instead of in Baden, but still, it would have been neat to be a part of.
From what I understand, the German people were quite happy to put the war behind them and try to move on with their lives, and the biggest threats were crime, food shortages, and drunkeness driving/outbursts.
|
[
"During World War II, between 1941 and 1944, the german Wehrmacht ran a prisoner-of-war camp (Stalag 333) there for Soviet soldiers. More than 30,000 of them died from harsh treatment and malnutrition.\n",
"During 1945 it was estimated that the average German civilian in the U.S. and the United Kingdom occupation zones received 1,200 calories a day. Meanwhile, non-German Displaced Persons were receiving 2,300 calories through emergency food imports and Red Cross help.\n",
"In total, the number of German soldiers who surrendered to the Western Allies in northwest Europe between D-Day and April 30 1945 was over 2,800,000 (1,300,000 surrendered up to March 31 1945, and over 1,500,000 surrendered in the month of April).\n",
"During World War II, German prisoners of war began arriving and at peak numbered 10,000. At the same time, the camp held 90,000 GIs, making it \"one of the largest army training and transshipment camps in Texas\" according to Krammer.\n",
"At the time of the end of World War II in Europe on 8 May 1945, there were twenty-one Fw 28s, one Bf 110 and two or three Storchs at Herdla. The German troops organized their own evacuation, which went via Voss. On 20 May a \n",
"By the end of World War II, the Soviet Union amassed a huge number of German and Japanese and other Axis Powers POW, estimated over 5 million(of which estimated 15% died in captivity), as well as interned German civilians used as part of the reparations.\n",
"Immediately after the German attack on the Soviet Union in June 1941 the conditions in camps worsened drastically: quotas were increased, rations cut, and medical supplies came close to none, all of which led to a sharp increase in mortality. The situation slowly improved in the final period and after the end of the war.\n"
] |
why are some men able to grow a beard and others not? is growing a beard a sign of of wellness?
|
some of it is diet but more of it is gentics. Asians for example tend to have a lot harder time and are less likely to grow a full on beard as you see it other races
fun fact it was seen as very special if you could in many asian cultures
|
[
"Many men in Western cultures shave their facial hair, so only a minority of men have a beard, even though fast-growing facial hair must be shaved daily to achieve a clean-shaven or hairless look. Some men shave because they cannot grow a \"full\" beard (generally defined as an even density from cheeks to neck) because their beard color is different from their scalp hair color, or because their facial hair grows in many directions, making a groomed look difficult. Some men shave because their beards are very coarse, causing itchiness and irritation. Some men grow a beard or moustache from time to time to change their appearance.\n",
"A relatively small number of women are able to grow enough facial hair to have a distinct beard. It is usually the result of a fairly common condition: polycystic ovary syndrome, which causes excess testosterone, and also an over-sensitivity to testosterone, and thus (to a greater or lesser extent) results in male pattern hair growth, among other symptoms. In some cases, female beard growth is the result of a hormonal imbalance (usually androgen excess), or a rare genetic disorder known as hypertrichosis. In some cases a woman’s ability to grow a beard can be due to hereditary reasons without anything medically being wrong.\n",
"Throughout the course of history, societal attitudes toward male beards have varied widely depending on factors such as prevailing cultural-religious traditions and the current era's fashion trends. Some religions (such as Islam, Traditional Christianity, Orthdox Judaism and Sikhism) have considered a full beard to be absolutely essential for all males able to grow one and mandate it as part of their official dogma. Other cultures, even while not officially mandating it, view a beard as central to a man's virility, exemplifying such virtues as wisdom, strength, sexual prowess and high social status. In cultures where facial hair is uncommon (or currently out of fashion), beards may be associated with poor hygiene or an uncivilized, dangerous demeanor. In countries with colder climates, beards help protect the wearer's face from the elements.\n",
"Evolutionary psychology explanations for the existence of beards include signalling sexual maturity and signalling dominance by the increasing perceived size of jaws, and clean-shaved faces are rated less dominant than bearded. Some scholars assert that it is not yet established whether the sexual selection leading to beards is rooted in attractiveness (inter-sexual selection) or dominance (intra-sexual selection). A beard can be explained as an indicator of a male's overall condition. The rate of facial hairiness appears to influence male attractiveness. The presence of a beard makes the male vulnerable in hand-to-hand fights (it provides an easy way to grab and hold the opponent's head), which is costly, so biologists have speculated that there must be other evolutionary benefits that outweigh that drawback. Excess testosterone evidenced by the beard may indicate mild immunosuppression, which may support spermatogenesis.\n",
"A beard is the unshaven hair that grows on the chin, upper lip, cheeks and neck of humans and some non-human animals. In humans, usually only pubescent or adult males are able to grow beards. Some women with hirsutism, a hormonal condition of excessive hairiness, may develop a beard.\n",
"Facial hair grows primarily on or around one's face. Both men and women experience facial hair growth. Like pubic hair, non-vellus facial hair will begin to grow in around puberty. Moustaches in young men usually begin to grow in at around the age of puberty, although some men may not grow a moustache until they reach late teens or at all. For some cases facial hair development may take longer to mature than in the late teens but a lot of men experience no facial development even at an older age. Facial hair development has often been associated with stress levels.\n",
"Some relationship to \"beardism\" discrimination based on facial hair is claimed, and a difference in cultures is noted. Some association with claims of unhygienic beards (\"e.g.\", among homeless men) and fashion preferences of women. That various religious groups treat beards more or less reverently is also a factor, for example in Judaism and in Islam. Similarly, some groups require beards and forbid shaving, which has an effect on that society's norms and perceptions.\n"
] |
[Physics] Where does the mass come from in fusion or fission?
|
The mass difference comes from the binding energy of the nuclei, via E=mc^(2).
|
[
"Due to spontaneous fission a supercritical mass will undergo a chain reaction. For example, a spherical critical mass of pure uranium-235 will have a mass of 52 kg and will experience around 15 spontaneous fission events per second. The probability that one such event will cause a chain reaction depends on how much the mass exceeds the critical mass. If there is uranium-238 present, the rate of spontaneous fission will be much higher. Fission can also be initiated by neutrons produced by cosmic rays.\n",
"Nuclear fusion occurs when the nuclei of two atoms approach closely enough for the nuclear force to pull them together into a single larger nucleus. The strong force is opposed by the electrostatic force created by the positive charge of the nuclei's protons, pushing the nuclei apart. The amount of energy that is needed to overcome this repulsion is known as the Coulomb barrier. The amount of energy released by the fusion reaction when it occurs may be greater or less than the Coulomb barrier. Generally, lighter nuclei with a smaller number of protons and greater number of neutrons will have the greatest ratio of energy released to energy required, and the majority of fusion power research focusses on the use of deuterium and tritium, two isotopes of hydrogen.\n",
"The energy given off during either nuclear fusion or nuclear fission is the difference of the binding energies of the \"fuel,\" i.e. the initial nuclide(s), from that of the fission or fusion products. In practice, this energy may also be calculated from the substantial mass differences between the fuel and products, which uses previous measurements of the atomic masses of known nuclides, which always have the same mass for each species. This mass difference appears once evolved heat and radiation have been removed, which is required for measuring the (rest) masses of the (non-excited) nuclides involved in such calculations.\n",
"In nuclear chemistry, nuclear fusion is a reaction in which two or more atomic nuclei are combined to form one or more different atomic nuclei and subatomic particles (neutrons or protons). The difference in mass between the reactants and products is manifested as either the release or absorption of energy. This difference in mass arises due to the difference in atomic \"binding energy\" between the atomic nuclei before and after the reaction. Fusion is the process that powers active or \"main sequence\" stars, or other high magnitude stars.\n",
"Nuclear fusion produces energy by combining the very lightest elements into more tightly bound elements (such as hydrogen into helium), and nuclear fission produces energy by splitting the heaviest elements (such as uranium and plutonium) into more tightly bound elements (such as barium and krypton). Both processes produce energy, because middle-sized nuclei are the most tightly bound of all.\n",
"The total energy output, 17.6 MeV, is one tenth of that with fission, but the ingredients are only one-fiftieth as massive, so the energy output per unit mass is approximately five times as great. In this fusion reaction, 14 of the 17.6 MeV (80% of the energy released in the reaction) shows up as the kinetic energy of the neutron, which, having no electric charge and being almost as massive as the hydrogen nuclei that created it, can escape the scene without leaving its energy behind to help sustain the reaction – or to generate x-rays for blast and fire.\n",
"Nuclear energy is released by the splitting (fission) or merging (fusion) of the nuclei of atom(s). The conversion of nuclear mass-energy to a form of energy, which can remove some mass when the energy is removed, is consistent with the mass-energy equivalence formula:\n"
] |
why does boiling contaminated water make it drinkable?
|
The heat kills bacteria and other potentially icky things in the water. It's not fool proof but it's better than nothing.
|
[
"Water must be purified of harmful living organisms and chemicals. Some commercial filters can remove most organisms and some harmful chemicals, but they are not 100% effective. Distillation filters, purifies, and removes some harmful chemicals. Chemicals with a lower or about equal boiling point of water are not eliminated by distilling. Iodine or chlorine dioxide solutions or tablets can be used to purify water. It can be boil water in a fire-resistant pot or water bottle. Water can be boiled in some flammable materials like bark because the water absorbs the heat. Pasteurization takes place at temperatures lower than boiling point, but knowing the temperature of the water and calculating the duration of treatment can be difficult. This technique is useful when only non-durable containers are available. Sunlight can be used with a clear container. Filters made from heat-treated diatomaceous earth can also be used.\n",
"In general, non-purified water could cause or interfere with chemical reactions as well as leave mineral deposits after boiling away. One method of removing impurities from water and other fluids is distillation.\n",
"A significant problem with using any sort of water as a coolant is that the water tends to dissolve the fuel and other components and ends up becoming highly radioactive. This is mitigated by using particular alloys for the tubes and processing the fuel into a ceramic form. While effective at reducing the rate of dissolution, this adds to the cost of processing the fuel while also requiring materials that are susceptible to neutron embrittlement. More of an issue is the fact that water has a low boiling point, limiting the operating temperatures. A material with a higher boiling point can be run at higher temperatures, increasing the efficiency of the power extraction and allowing the core to be smaller.\n",
"Boiling suspect water for one minute is the surest method to make water safe to drink and kill disease-causing microorganisms such as \"Giardia lamblia\" if in doubt about whether water is infected. Chemical disinfectants or filters may be used.\n",
"As a method of disinfecting water, bringing it to its boiling point at , is the oldest and most effective way since it does not affect the taste, it is effective despite contaminants or particles present in it, and is a single step process which eliminates most microbes responsible for causing intestine related diseases. Water's boiling point rests at around 100.0 degrees Celsius, when at an elevation of 0. In places having a proper water purification system, it is recommended only as an emergency treatment method or for obtaining potable water in the wilderness or in rural areas, as it cannot remove chemical toxins or impurities.\n",
"Heat kills disease-causing micro-organisms, with higher temperatures and/or duration required for some pathogens. Sterilization of water (killing all living contaminants) is not necessary to make water safe to drink; one only needs to render enteric (intestinal) pathogens harmless. Boiling does not remove most pollutants and does not leave any residual protection.\n",
"Purified water has many uses, largely in the production of medications, in science and engineering laboratories and industries, and is produced in a range of purities. It can be produced on site for immediate use or purchased in containers. Purified water in colloquial English can also refer to water which has been treated (\"rendered potable\") to neutralize, but not necessarily remove contaminants considered harmful to humans or animals.\n"
] |
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