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security codes on credit cards
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It makes it harder to use stolen credit card data for online purchases without the physical card. The 3 digit code is not stored on the cards magnetic strip, it's only printed on the card itself, so if the card's data is surreptitiously stolen using a card skimmer, they don't get the code, and theoretically it should be impossible to use the card for online purchases (assuming the online store in question requires the code).
|
[
"Both of these standards are maintained and further developed by ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 17/WG 1. Credit cards have a magnetic stripe conforming to the ISO/IEC 7813. Many modern credit cards have a computer chip embedded in them as a security feature.\n",
"The card security code is typically the last three or four digits printed, not embossed like the card number, on the signature strip on the back of the card. On American Express cards, however, the card security code is the four digits printed (not embossed) on the front towards the right. The card security code is not encoded on the magnetic stripe but is printed flat.\n",
"Credit card security relies on the physical security of the plastic card as well as the privacy of the credit card number. Therefore, whenever a person other than the card owner has access to the card or its number, security is potentially compromised. Once, merchants would often accept credit card numbers without additional verification for mail order purchases. It's now common practice to only ship to confirmed addresses as a security measure to minimise fraudulent purchases. Some merchants will accept a credit card number for in-store purchases, whereupon access to the number allows easy fraud, but many require the card itself to be present, and require a signature (for magnetic stripe cards). A lost or stolen card can be cancelled, and if this is done quickly, will greatly limit the fraud that can take place in this way. European banks can require a cardholder's security PIN be entered for in-person purchases with the card.\n",
"BULLET::::- Diners Club, Discover, JCB, MasterCard, and Visa credit and debit cards have a three-digit card security code. The code is the final group of numbers printed on the back signature panel of the card.\n",
"In addition to the main credit card number, credit cards also carry issue and expiration dates (given to the nearest month), as well as extra codes such as issue numbers and security codes. Not all credit cards have the same sets of extra codes nor do they use the same number of digits.\n",
"A card security code (CSC), card verification data (CVD), card verification number, card verification value (CVV), card verification value code, card verification code (CVC), verification code (V-code or V code), or signature panel code (SPC) is a security feature for \"card not present\" payment card transactions instituted to reduce the incidence of credit card fraud.\n",
"Three improvements to card security have been introduced to the more common credit card networks, but none has proven to help reduce credit card fraud so far. First, the cards themselves are being replaced with similar-looking tamper-resistant smart cards which are intended to make forgery more difficult. The majority of smart card (IC card) based credit cards comply with the EMV (Europay MasterCard Visa) standard. Second, an additional 3 or 4 digit card security code (CSC) is now present on the back of most cards, for use in card not present transactions. Stakeholders at all levels in electronic payment have recognized the need to develop consistent global standards for security that account for and integrate both current and emerging security technologies. They have begun to address these needs through organisations such as PCI DSS and the Secure POS Vendor Alliance.\n"
] |
I've heard there was hand-to-hand fighting in Stalingrad. Is this true? If so, why weren't guns sufficient?
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Hand-to-hand can be something of a misnomer, in that it is often used as an example of hyperbole to indicate the ferocity of urban combat, and is not necessarily literal.
That being said, urban warfare gets up close and personal, and Stalingrad is in the running for most brutal urban combat of all time, and there are examples of journals from both sides where the authors specifically mention and describe hand-to-hand fighting in close quarters.
Edit: I will note that the primary source letters and journals with which I'm familiar were translated into English, and were exclusively from the Soviet perspective. I'm not sure hand-to-hand is a figure of speech in Russian the way it is in English.
|
[
"The Stalingrad counteroffensive, Operation Uranus, exposed the Red Army's urgent need for mobile heavy guns. Primary targets for these guns were German fortifications in and around Stalingrad. At the time Soviet front-line ground units did not possess sufficient firepower to deal with pillboxes and other fortifications.\n",
"During World War II, and the years building up to it, saw a surge in firearms culture in the Soviet Union. Rifle-training and marksmanship was seen as a symbol of fighting honor for the Soviet motherland, and later were a source of influence for sniping schools in the United States. During the Battle of Stalingrad, the city's fate also relied on local militias. Firearms were also part of military propaganda, such as in the case of the famous Soviet sniper Vasily Zaytsev. Soviet snipers were essential and important to the Soviet strategy against the German invasion.\n",
"Enemy at the Gates: The Battle for Stalingrad is a book written by William Craig and published in 1973 by Reader's Digest Press and in 1974 by Penguin Publishing. The 2001 film \"Enemy at the Gates\" utilized the book's title and used it as one of its sources, but was not a direct adaptation of the work.\n",
"The 2001 film \"Enemy at the Gates\" shows Soviet Red Army barrier troops using a PM M1910 to gun down the few retreating survivors of a failed charge on a German position during the Battle of Stalingrad.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Stalingrad\" (2013), a Russian film that tells the story of six Soviet reconnaissance troops and their part in the battle, holding a building along with various units to defend Stalingrad and Volga River from German attacks\n",
"In 1945, occupying troops came across two badly damaged Mk V tanks in Berlin. Photographic evidence indicates that these were survivors of the Russian Civil War and had previously been displayed as a monument in Smolensk, Russia, before being brought to Berlin after the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941. Accounts of their active involvement in the Battle of Berlin have not been verified.\n",
"Initially, the Russians were taken by surprise. Their armoured columns that were supposed to take the city without difficulty as Soviet forces had taken Budapest in 1956 were decimated in fighting more reminiscent of the Battle of Budapest in late 1944. As in the Soviet assault on Berlin, as a short term measure, they deployed self-propelled anti-aircraft guns (ZSU-23-4 and 2K22M) to engage the Chechen combat groups, as their tank's main gun did not have the elevation and depression to engage the fire teams and an armoured vehicle's machine gun could not suppress the fire of half a dozen different fire teams simultaneously.\n"
] |
Was Greek civilization derived from Egypt
|
Civilisation is one of those loose terms that, the more we think about it, the harder it is to define. I'm assuming you mean the general sense of identity/values/aesthetics/social structures and so on that we consider to be 'Greek.' The answer really isn't simple.
Firstly, to say there was a single Greek civilisation is a bit over simplistic. When most people think of Greece they think of Athenians, with their forums and philosophers, but Athens was not all of Greece nor was it often the most important. Sparta is the obvious counterpoint, but there's also Corinth, Thebes, and hundreds of other city-states with their own social structures and values. The point being that ancient Greeks were unified by a shared language (although divided by dialect) and a general region, but were not some unified cultural group by a long shot.
Okay, so let's just take a general Athenian-esque sense of Ancient Greece. Did it draw from Egypt and the Near-East? Yes, absolutely. Herodotus thanks Egypt for teaching Greece things like geometry and mathematics. Did Greece take everything? No, of course not. Its language, Athenian democracy, Greek hoplite warfare, literary/oratory works like those of Homer, or great architectural achievements like the Parthenon. Egyptians and Babylonians didn't make those. Greeks did.
There's also the fact that 'philosophy' is a very broad term. French post-modernism, Chinese Confucianism, and European renaissance humanism are all philosophises of their own but are very distinct things. Humans seem to be hard-wired to question their own existence and societies. The Egyptians were among the first, but it's by no means uniquely theirs. 'Architecture' is a similarly diverse thing. Peru's Machu Pichu is a feat of architecture just like Rome's Colosseum or Beijing's Forbidden Palace, but each one is a unique reflection of their societies and time periods using different material and methods. The same is true for Greek architecture as opposed to Egyptian or Babylonian - the Pyramids are not the Parthenon.
Cultures are not discrete nor do they exist in a vacuum. Each one builds on what came before and redefines it for its own needs. Cultural transmission is not a case of X culture meeting Y and taking all of Y's ideas. Y's ideas might take root in culture X, but culture X's unique perspectives and uses can and almost always will produce an entirely new thing Z. Think of how tea is a cornerstone of British culture despite originally being Indian, or how rice has integrated itself into Persian cuisine despite only making it to the region in the 13th century or so. Just because something comes from somewhere else, that doesn't mean a culture can't make it their own. The premise that if one culture found something first then it's forever theirs is just not appropriate. By that logic, everything is African since the basic tenants of society like language and fire was first utilised by the earliest humans spreading from the continent.
I know this answer has been more broad reaching that just Greece of Egypt, but I think taking a step back and addressing the basic assumptions implicit in the question are important.
As for some basic things that were original? I mentioned a few, but we can list more. Greek mythology, perhaps the first histories as we'd understand them from those like Herodotus or Thucydides, democracy, the Greek language and its derivatives, theatre, winches and cranes, etc etc. Of course, these ideas have changed over time. Modern democracy is not the same as ancient Athenian democracy, but that's the whole point - humanity builds on what came before and what came from elsewhere. We always have and we always will.
|
[
"Archaeological evidence suggests that the history of the ancient Greeks in Egypt dates back at least to Mycenaean times ( 1600-1100 BC) and more likely even further back into the proto-Greek Minoan age. This history is strictly one of commerce as no permanent Greek settlements have been found of these cultures to date.\n",
"Greeks have been present in Egypt since at least the 7th century BC. Herodotus visited Egypt in the 5th century BC and claimed that the Greeks were one of the first groups of foreigners that ever lived in Egypt. Diodorus Siculus claimed that Rhodian Actis, one of the Heliadae, built the city of Heliopolis before the cataclysm; likewise the Athenians built Sais. Siculus reports that all the Greek cities were destroyed during the cataclysm, but the Egyptian cities including Heliopolis and Sais survived.\n",
"Greece is home to the first advanced civilizations in Europe and is considered the birthplace of Western civilisation, beginning with the Cycladic civilization on the islands of the Aegean Sea at around 3200 BC, the Minoan civilization in Crete (2700–1500 BC), and then the Mycenaean civilization on the mainland (1600–1100 BC). These civilizations possessed writing, the Minoans writing in an undeciphered script known as Linear A, and the Mycenaeans in Linear B, an early form of Greek. The Mycenaeans gradually absorbed the Minoans, but collapsed violently around 1200 BC, during a time of regional upheaval known as the Bronze Age collapse. This ushered in a period known as the Greek Dark Ages, from which written records are absent. Though the unearthed Linear B texts are too fragmentary for the reconstruction of the political landscape and can't support the existence of a larger state contemporary Hittite and Egyptian records suggest the presence of a single state under a \"Great King\" based in mainland Greece.\n",
"Greeks have been living in Egypt since and even before Alexander the Great conquered Egypt at an early stage of his great journey of conquests. Herodotus, who visited Egypt in the 5th century BC, wrote that the Greeks were the first foreigners that ever lived in Egypt. Diodorus Siculus attested that Rhodian Actis, one of the Heliadae built the city of Heliopolis before the cataclysm; likewise the Athenians built Sais. While all Greek cities were destroyed during the cataclysm, the Egyptian cities including Heliopolis and Sais survived.\n",
"Ancient Greece () was a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th–9th centuries BC to the end of antiquity ( AD 600). Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era. Roughly three centuries after the Late Bronze Age collapse of Mycenaean Greece, Greek urban poleis began to form in the 8th century BC, ushering in the Archaic period and colonization of the Mediterranean Basin. This was followed by the period of Classical Greece, an era that began with the Greco-Persian Wars, lasting from the 5th to 4th centuries BC. Due to the conquests by Alexander the Great of Macedon, Hellenistic civilization flourished from Central Asia to the western end of the Mediterranean Sea. The Hellenistic period came to an end with the conquests and annexations of the eastern Mediterranean world by the Roman Republic, which established the Roman province of Macedonia in Roman Greece, and later the province of Achaea during the Roman Empire.\n",
"The ancient civilization and massive monuments of Egypt had \"a profound and ineradicable impression on the Greeks\". They attributed to Egyptians \"an immemorial knowledge of certain subjects\" (including geometry) and would claim Egyptian origin for some of their own ideas to try and lend them \"a respectable antiquity\" (such as the \"Hermetic\" literature of the Alexandrian period).\n",
"Ancient Greek is the historical stage in the development of the Greek language spanning the Archaic (c. 8th to 6th centuries BC), Classical (c. 5th to 4th centuries BC), and Hellenistic (c. 3rd century BC to 6th century AD) periods of ancient Greece and the ancient world. It is predated in the 2nd millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek. Its Hellenistic phase is known as Koine (\"common\") or Biblical Greek, and its late period mutates imperceptibly into Medieval Greek. Koine is regarded as a separate historical stage of its own, although in its earlier form it closely resembles Classical Greek. Prior to the Koine period, Greek of the classical and earlier periods included several regional dialects.\n"
] |
how can a baseball player throw 95 mph baseball when a boxer's top punching speed is around 25 mph?
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Because the speed of a pitch comes from the whip of the arm accelerating the ball. The punch is just arm movement. The two are not connected when it comes to speed.
|
[
"Scientists contend that the theoretical maximum speed that a pitcher can throw is slightly above . Beyond that the pitcher would cause himself a serious injury. There is no doubt that a pitcher who can throw at 100 mph+ is rare, with only a small handful of pitchers every generation being capable of this feat.\n",
"While there are other pitchers in both Japanese professional baseball (Kroon, Kubota) and the major leagues that throw harder than Fujikawa on a consistent basis in terms of absolute velocity, Fujikawa's fastball is most notable for the late life at the end of its trajectory (akin to that of Philadelphia Phillies closer Jonathan Papelbon) that makes it appear to \"hop\" in front of hitters and seem faster than radar gun readings would suggest. That hitters are frequently seen swinging and missing high fastballs by a distance of two to three balls even when they clearly end up caught out of the strike zone is a testament to how much the pitch appears to \"jump\" at them in front of the plate.\n",
"The fastball is the most common type of pitch thrown by pitchers in baseball and softball. \"Power pitchers,\" such as former American major leaguers Nolan Ryan and Roger Clemens, rely on speed to prevent the ball from being hit, and have thrown fastballs at speeds of (officially) and up to (unofficially). Pitchers who throw more slowly can put movement on the ball, or throw it on the outside of home plate where batters can't easily reach it.\n",
"The velocity of this pitch also varies greatly from pitcher to pitcher. At the major collegiate level and higher, two-seam fastballs are typically thrown in the low 90s (MPH), but with much variation. Pitchers such as Greg Maddux, Bob Stanley, Brandon McCarthy, David Price, and Eddie Guardado are notable for having success at the major-league levels with two-seam fastballs in the mid 80s to lower 90s.\n",
"What is likely happening is that the pitcher first throws a fastball at one speed, and then, using an identical arm motion, throws another fastball at a higher speed. The higher-speed fastball arrives faster and sinks less due to its high speed. The added back-spin from the higher speed further decreases the amount of sink. When the pitch is thrown, the batter expects a fastball at the same speed, yet it arrives more quickly and at a higher level. The batter perceives it as a fastball which has risen and increased in speed. A switch from a two-seam to a fastball can enhance this effect.\n",
"The fastball is the most common pitch in baseball, and most pitchers have some form of a fastball in their arsenal. Most pitchers throw four-seam fastballs. It is basically a pitch thrown very fast, generally as hard as a given pitcher can throw while maintaining control. Some variations involve movement or breaking action, some do not and are simply straight, high-speed pitches. While throwing the fastball it is very important to have proper mechanics, because this increases the chance of getting the ball to its highest velocity, making it difficult for the opposing player to hit the pitch. The cut fastball, split-finger fastball, and forkball are variations on the fastball with extra movement, and are sometimes called sinking-fastballs because of the trajectories. The most common fastball pitches are:\n",
"The four-seam fastball is the most common variant of the fastball. The pitch is used often by the pitcher to get ahead in the count or when he needs to throw a strike. This type of fastball is intended to have minimal lateral movement, relying more on its velocity. It is often perceived as the fastest pitch a pitcher throws, with recorded top speeds above 100 mph. The fastest pitch recognized by MLB was on September 25, 2010, at Petco Park in San Diego by then Cincinnati Reds left-handed relief pitcher Aroldis Chapman. It was clocked at 105.1 miles per hour.\n"
] |
when and why will the current tech boom end? what are the implications for the overall economy?
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"Tech" is a very big field with many sub genres if you like. The 70-90s boom was the personal computer, 00s-10s was the the internet era and to a certain extent it's still going. The next few years will see lots of wearables, IoT and all things 3D printing related. We expect to see interesting developments and changes in how computing as a whole is done.
It's also important to realise that tech is in everything and spills out to almost every other field from medicine to aviation.
I don't see the popularity of tech going down anytime soon as it has become a fundamental tool for facilitating almost everything in modern society
|
[
"A report published in 2013 looked at the effect of new technologies on the structure of the labour market, with repetitive jobs being replaced by automation. It predicted that over two decades, 45 percent of all jobs in the United States were at risk of replacement. A report published in early 2016, \"Industrial Renewal in the 21st Century: Evidence from US cities\" looked at how technology companies such as Facebook and Uber affect the wider economy of the United States. It showed that their effect on job creation is small and that they increase disparities in wealth.\n",
"The market has been already saturated by new \"technical wonders\" (e.g. everybody has his own mobile phone) and – what is more important - in the developed countries the economy reached limits of productivity in conditions of existing technologies. A new economic revival can come only with a new technological revolution (a hypothetical Post-informational technological revolution). Šmihula expects that it will happen in about 2014-15.\n",
"According to another point of view, the \"new economy\" is a current Kondratiev wave which will end after a 50-year period in the 2040s. Its innovative basis includes Internet, nanotechnologies, telematics and bionics.\n",
"A period of technological revolution (an innovation phase) is associated with economic revival. When new but also already-proven and reliable technologies are available, the interest in new technological development temporary declines and investments are diverted from research to their maximal practical utilization. This period we can designate as an application phase. It is also associated with economic growth and perhaps even an economic boom. However, at a certain moment profitability (profit/price ratio) from new innovations and new sectors declines to the level acquired from older traditional sectors. Markets are saturated by technological products – (market saturation – everybody has a mobile phone, every small town has a railway station) and new capital investment in this originally new sector will not bring any above-average profit (e.g. the first railways connected the biggest cities with many potential passengers, later ones had ever smaller and smaller customer potential, and the level of profit from each new railway was therefore lower than from the previous one). At this moment economic stagnation and crisis begin – but a will to risk and to try something new emerges. The stagnation and crisis are therefore overcome by a new technological revolution with new innovations which will revitalize the economy. And this new technological revolution is the beginning of a new wave.\n",
"Meanwhile, in the US the growth of new technology, particularly the internet, spawned a new generation of high tech companies, some of which became publicly traded long before any profits. As in the Japanese stock market bubble a decade earlier these stocks soared to market valuations of billions of dollars sometimes before they even had revenue. The bubble continued into 2000 and the consequent bust reduced many of these stocks to a few percent of their prior market value. Even some large and profitable tech companies lost 80% of their value during the period 2000-2003.\n",
"One theory is that the boost in growth by the internet and technological advancement in computers of the new economy does not measure up to the boost caused by the great inventions of the past. An example of such a great invention is the assembly line production method of Fordism. The general form of the argument has been the subject of papers by Robert J. Gordon. It has also been written about by Owen. C. Paepke and Tyler Cowen. \n",
"One theory is that the boost in growth by the internet and technological advancement in computers of the new economy does not measure up to the boost caused by the great inventions of the past. An example of such a great invention is the assembly line production method of Fordism. The general form of the argument has been the subject of papers by Robert J. Gordon. It has also been written about by Owen. C. Paepke and Tyler Cowen. \n"
] |
why do games nowadays get sold at normal price unfinished? is it just for money, or is the gaming industry creating such massive games they can't release all the content at once?
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I'm 33 years old and was heavily involved in gaming when I was a teenager. I'm not the most OG guy around, but I remember a "back in the day" story or two.
You are remembering with rose colored glasses what "then" was like. Back then games were routinely released with game killing bugs. While we did not see the DLC for content that should of been there by default, we saw a lot more of the "this game cannot currently be played, wait for the 2.0 patch".
In addition, expansions were often after thought content. So you'd pay nearly full price for 2 new weapons (and one of them uses the model of an old weapon) and a handful of new levels. $40 please.
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[
"However, many users stated that this is the biggest push factor to inflate, as the sellers now demand higher prices before selling an item (in order to make up for the loss of in-game money through tax system). Also, some users state that the inflation will eventually stop without the interference of the game developer. They claim that as more players achieve high levels, they would be able to hunt more monsters and deliver more equipment. Like the real world, the economy of online games are based on supply and demand. When more items are released into the market, it pushes the supply up, resulting in cheaper goods.\n",
"The game was difficult to recommend for some because of its high price. \"Computer Entertainer\" found the purchase difficult to justify as it was the highest price they had ever seen for a game on any cartridge-based system or disk-based computer. \"Computer and Video Games\" felt they could only recommend it for hardcore RPG fans for this reason. \"VideoGames & Computer Entertainment\", however, called it \"such a remarkable video game that it may justify its existence as the most expensive cartridge on the shelf.\"\n",
"Low-budget, poor-quality games, released in the hopes of being purchased by unsuspecting customers, are often referred to as \"shovelware\". This can lead to discoverability issues when a platform has no quality control. Several well-known examples were released for the Wii, including ports of PlayStation 2 games which had previously only been released in Europe. \"\n",
"In 2012, Braben explained in an interview with developer website Gamasutra his opinion that the sale of secondhand games negatively affects development of new titles, also holding the price of games in general much higher than they would otherwise be. However, later in 2014 he acknowledged: \"Piracy goes hand in hand with sales. If a game is pirated a lot it will be bought a lot. People want a connected experience, so with pirated games we still have a route in to get them to upgrade to real version. And even if someone's version is pirated, they might evangelise and their mates will buy the real thing.\"\n",
"BULLET::::- The industry has become more \"hit driven\" over the past decade. Consumers buy the game that's best-marketed but not necessarily of the highest quality, therefore buying fewer other games in that genre. This has led to much larger game development budgets, as every game publisher tries to ensure that its game is #1 in its category. It also caused publishers to on occasion force developers to focus on sequels of successful franchises instead of exploring original IP; some publishers such as Activision Blizzard and Electronic Arts have both attracted criticism for acquiring studios with original games, and assigning them to support roles in more mainstream franchises.\n",
"BULLET::::- Financial reasons. Due to high release-prices, it is often considerably cheaper for gamers to buy Japanese(non-domestic) versions of popular games that have already passed out of the \"new release\" phase of their marketing in the foreign country. Furthermore, because of variations in international exchange rates and international video game market demand, import gamers may save money by importing games instead of buying localized versions, even when shipping and handling costs and import tax are taken into consideration. This is also true within the used games market offering used import games way cheaper than local new games due to the localization delay. Before, however, the introduction of the Euro, new import games were commonly sold 40% more expensive by import shops than the European local edition. Similar price disparities exist between American and Asian markets.\n",
"GameStop has been criticized by game developers and publishers for the retailing of used game titles. By reselling used copies at a small discount on the same shelf space as new copies of the game, it is argued that GameStop is taking profits directly from organizations such as developers and publishers which are solely dependent on their intellectual property for revenue. In effect, this means that companies such as GameStop can resell used copies of a game within days of the title's release and keep all of the profit, thereby cutting directly into the critical initial sales which would otherwise go to publishers and developers.\n"
] |
How does a bit in a computer turn on or off (1 / 0) without something to do it manually?
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To add a little context to it computer memory used to be wires and magnets as in [this picture](_URL_0_). So imagine on the left the wires are 1, 2, 3, 4, etc and at the bottom the wires are a, b, c, d, etc. If you run current through wires 1 and a the memory location 1a would be on, or 1.
As /u/ramk13 noted today it is done with capacitors and transistors but the idea is basically the same, just a lot smaller and faster.
|
[
"So far the article has covered how to turn bits on and turn bits off, but not both at once. Sometimes it does not really matter what the value is, but it must be made the opposite of what it currently is. This can be achieved using the codice_21 (exclusive or) operation. codice_21 returns codice_1 if and only if an odd number of bits are codice_1. Therefore, if two corresponding bits are codice_1, the result will be a codice_8, but if only one of them is codice_1, the result will be codice_1. Therefore inversion of the values of bits is done by codice_21ing them with a codice_1. If the original bit was codice_1, it returns codice_32. If the original bit was codice_8 it returns codice_34. Also note that codice_21 masking is bit-safe, meaning that it will not affect unmasked bits because codice_36, just like an codice_2.\n",
"Stop bits sent at the end of every character allow the receiving signal hardware to detect the end of a character and to resynchronise with the character stream. Electronic devices usually use one stop bit. If slow electromechanical teleprinters are used, one-and-one half or two stop bits are required.\n",
"The bit shifts are sometimes considered bitwise operations, because they treat a value as a series of bits rather than as a numerical quantity. In these operations the digits are moved, or \"shifted\", to the left or right. Registers in a computer processor have a fixed width, so some bits will be \"shifted out\" of the register at one end, while the same number of bits are \"shifted in\" from the other end; the differences between bit shift operators lie in how they determine the values of the shifted-in bits.\n",
"The bitwise XOR may be used to invert selected bits in a register (also called toggle or flip). Any bit may be toggled by XORing it with 1. For example, given the bit pattern 0010 (decimal 2) the second and fourth bits may be toggled by a bitwise XOR with a bit pattern containing 1 in the second and fourth positions:\n",
"To turn certain bits on, the bitwise codice_2 operation can be used, following the principle that codice_3 and codice_4. Therefore, to make sure a bit is on, codice_2 can be used with a codice_1. To leave a bit unchanged, codice_2 is used with a codice_8.\n",
"When a key of the teleprinter keyboard is pressed, a 5-bit character is generated. The teleprinter converts it to serial format and transmits a sequence of a \"start bit\" (a logical 0 or space), then one after the other the 5 data bits, finishing with a \"stop bit\" (a logical 1 or mark, lasting 1, 1.5 or 2 bits). When a sequence of start bit, 5 data bits and stop bit arrives at the input of the teleprinter, it is converted to a 5-bit word and passed to the printer or VDU. With electromechanical teleprinters, these functions required complicated electromechanical devices, but they are easily implemented with standard digital electronics using shift registers. Special integrated circuits have been developed for this function, for example the Intersil 6402 and 6403. These are stand-alone UART devices, similar to computer serial port peripherals.\n",
"It is possible to use bitmasks to easily check the state of individual bits regardless of the other bits. To do this, turning off all the other bits using the bitwise codice_12 is done as discussed above and the value is compared with codice_1. If it is equal to codice_8, then the bit was off, but if the value is any other value, then the bit was on. What makes this convenient is that it is not necessary to figure out what the value actually is, just that it is not codice_8.\n"
] |
need some physics help to explain why or how this works? (xpost from r/lifehacks)
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> ...mainly just the idea as to whether the flower pots actually do help generate more heat and faster.
Definitely not. The flower pots are only insulating the heat given off by the candles, so it won't dissipate as fast (the same way a thermos works, essentially). Since the room is so small, and his desk is right next to the "heater", it could make a difference.
|
[
"Following Latour (Latour, 2007: 139), the materiality-turn is related to \"the way we move knowledge forward in order to access things that are far away or otherwise inaccessible\" (materiality) or \"the way things move to keep themselves in existence.\" We propose to call this 'matter-iality', to emphasise how things matter.\n",
"If energy is dissipated while an object is rotating, this will cause the polhode motion about the axis of maximum inertia (also called the major principal axis) to damp out or stabilize, with the polhode path becoming a smaller and smaller ellipse or circle, closing in on the axis.\n",
"In kinematics, absement (or absition) is a measure of sustained displacement of an object from its initial position, i.e. a measure of how far away and for how long. Absement changes as an object remains displaced and stays constant as the object resides at the initial position. It is the first time-integral of the displacement (the area under a displacement vs. time graph), so the displacement is the rate of change (first time-derivative) of the absement. The dimension of absement is length multiplied by time. Its SI unit is meter second (m·s), which corresponds to an object having been displaced by 1 meter for 1 second. This is not to be confused with a meter per second (m/s), a unit of velocity, the time-derivative of position.\n",
"Self-oscillation is the generation and maintenance of a periodic motion by a source of power that lacks any corresponding periodicity. The oscillator itself controls the phase with which the external power acts on it. Self-oscillators are therefore distinct from forced and parametric resonators, in which the power that sustains the motion must be modulated externally. In linear systems, self-oscillation appears as an instability associated with a negative damping term, which causes small perturbations to grow exponentially in amplitude. This negative damping is due to a positive feedback between the oscillation and the modulation of the external source of power. The amplitude and waveform of steady self-oscillations are determined by the nonlinear characteristics of the system. Self-oscillations are important in physics, engineering, biology, and economics.\n",
"A deflection, in physics, refers to the change in an object's velocity as a consequence of contact (collision) with a surface or the influence of a field. Examples of the former include a ball bouncing off the ground or a bat; examples of the latter include a beam of electrons used to produce a picture, or the relativistic bending of light due to gravity.\n",
"The experiment is described by some as a \"paradox\" as it seems, at first sight, to violate Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, because the flux through the disc appears to be the same no matter what is rotating. Hence, the EMF is predicted to be zero in all three cases of rotation. The discussion below shows this viewpoint stems from an incorrect choice of surface over which to calculate the flux.\n",
"The third power is known as Swap. This power is an extension of the echo and allows Zero's echo to swap places with an object of the player's choice. The swap power can be used as an extended warp in many situations. The power will only work when the end destination is an object. If Zero is inside an object while swap is used, the destination object will be placed inside the original object. This causes the internal object to destroy the external object and take its place. This technique can be used to destroy objects/humans and create distractions.\n"
] |
why is it that when you quit smoking you get sick and cough so much.
|
Nicotine is a physically addictive drug meaning that your body developed a physical dependence on the drug being in your system.
Without the nicotine your body starts to go through withdrawal symptoms until your nicotine dependence is gone.
|
[
"Like other physically addictive drugs, nicotine addiction causes a down-regulation of the production of dopamine and other stimulatory neurotransmitters as the brain attempts to compensate for the artificial stimulation caused by smoking. Therefore, when people stop smoking, depressive symptoms such as suicidal tendencies or actual depression may result, although a recent international study comparing smokers who had stopped for 3 months with continuing smokers found that stopping smoking did not appear to increase anxiety or depression. This side effect of smoking cessation may be particularly common in women, as depression is more common among women than among men.\n",
"Smoking cessation (also known as quitting smoking or simply quitting) is the process of discontinuing tobacco smoking. Tobacco smoke contains nicotine, which is addictive and can cause dependence. Nicotine withdrawal often makes the process of quitting difficult.\n",
"At Allen Carr Clinics during stop-smoking sessions, smokers are allowed to continue smoking while their doubts and fears are removed, with the aim of encouraging and developing the mindset of a non-smoker before the final cigarette is extinguished. A further reason for allowing smokers to smoke while undergoing counselling is Carr's belief that it is more difficult to convince a smoker to stop until they understand the mechanism of \"the nicotine trap\". This is because their attention is diminished while they continue to believe it is traumatic and extremely difficult to quit and continue to maintain the belief that they are dependent on nicotine.\n",
"Carr teaches that smokers do not receive a boost from smoking a cigarette, and that smoking only relieves the withdrawal symptoms from the previous cigarette, which in turn creates more withdrawal symptoms once \"it\" is finished. In this way the drug addiction perpetuates itself. He asserted that the \"relief\" smokers feel on lighting a cigarette, the feeling of being \"back to normal\", is the feeling experienced by non-smokers all the time. So that smokers, when they light a cigarette are really trying to achieve a state that non-smokers enjoy their whole lives. He further asserted that withdrawal symptoms are actually created by doubt and fear in the mind of the ex-smoker, and therefore that stopping smoking is not as traumatic as is commonly assumed, if that doubt and fear can be removed.\n",
"In those who smoke, stopping smoking is the only measure shown to slow down the worsening of COPD. Even at a late stage of the disease, it can reduce the rate of worsening lung function and delay the onset of disability and death. Often, several attempts are required before long-term abstinence is achieved. Attempts over 5 years lead to success in nearly 40% of people.\n",
"Tobacco Use: Cigarette smoking and other forms of tobacco use appear to increase the risk of aortic aneurysms. In addition to the damaging effects that smoking causes directly to the arteries, smoking contributes to the buildup of fatty plaques in the arteries (atherosclerosis) and high blood pressure. Smoking may also cause an aneurysm to grow faster by further damaging the aorta.\n",
"In nicotine-dependent smokers, quitting smoking can lead to symptoms of nicotine withdrawal such as nicotine cravings, anxiety, irritability, depression, and weight gain. Professional smoking cessation support methods generally attempt to address nicotine withdrawal symptoms to help the person break free of nicotine addiction.\n"
] |
If the sun suddenly disappeared from the center of the solar system, how long would it take the Earth to freeze and for life on Earth to die off? Minutes? Days? Weeks?
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There would be no gravitational interaction with the Sun, for the planets to orbi, so they would continue in a straight line in the velocity direction of when the gravitation interaction stopped, they would no longer be "falling" towards the Sun. Though if any of the planet's got close enough to eachother they could create their own system - such as an Earth > Jupiter system as opposed to an Earth > Sun system. Hopefully we would avoid crashing through material from the asteroid belt.
As far as what would happen to life:
_URL_2_
_URL_0_
_URL_1_
|
[
"In roughly 5 billion years, the Sun will cool and expand outward to many times its current diameter (becoming a red giant), before casting off its outer layers as a planetary nebula and leaving behind a stellar remnant known as a white dwarf. In the far distant future, the gravity of passing stars will gradually reduce the Sun's retinue of planets. Some planets will be destroyed, others ejected into interstellar space. Ultimately, over the course of tens of billions of years, it is likely that the Sun will be left with none of the original bodies in orbit around it.\n",
"If Earth is not destroyed by the expanding red giant Sun in 7.6 billion years, then on a time scale of 10 (10 quintillion) years the remaining planets in the Solar System will be ejected from the system by violent relaxation. If this does not occur to the Earth, the ultimate fate of the planet will be that it collides with the black dwarf Sun due to the decay of its orbit via gravitational radiation, in 10 (Short Scale: 100 quintillion, Long Scale: 100 trillion) years.\n",
"As the Sun dies, its gravitational pull on the orbiting bodies such as planets, comets and asteroids will weaken due to its mass loss. All remaining planets' orbits will expand; if Venus, Earth, and Mars still exist, their orbits will lie roughly at , , and . They and the other remaining planets will become dark, frigid hulks, completely devoid of any form of life. They will continue to orbit their star, their speed slowed due to their increased distance from the Sun and the Sun's reduced gravity. Two billion years later, when the Sun has cooled to the 6000–8000K range, the carbon and oxygen in the Sun's core will freeze, with over 90% of its remaining mass assuming a crystalline structure. Eventually, after roughly 1 quadrillion years, the Sun will finally cease to shine altogether, becoming a black dwarf.\n",
"By 2.8 billion years from now, the surface temperature of the Earth will have reached , even at the poles. At this point, any remaining life will be extinguished due to the extreme conditions. If all of the water on Earth has evaporated by this point, the planet will stay in the same conditions with a steady increase in the surface temperature until the Sun becomes a red giant. If not, then in about 3–4 billion years the amount of water vapour in the lower atmosphere will rise to 40% and a \"moist greenhouse\" effect will commence once the luminosity from the Sun reaches 35–40% more than its present-day value. A \"runaway greenhouse\" effect will ensue, causing the atmosphere to heat up and raising the surface temperature to around . This is sufficient to melt the surface of the planet. However, most of the atmosphere will be retained until the Sun has entered the red giant stage.\n",
"The Sun will evolve to become a red giant in about . Models predict that the Sun will expand to roughly , about 250 times its present radius. Earth's fate is less clear. As a red giant, the Sun will lose roughly 30% of its mass, so, without tidal effects, Earth will move to an orbit from the Sun when the star reaches its maximum radius. Most, if not all, remaining life will be destroyed by the Sun's increased luminosity (peaking at about 5,000 times its present level). A 2008 simulation indicates that Earth's orbit will eventually decay due to tidal effects and drag, causing it to enter the Sun's atmosphere and be vaporized.\n",
"Life on Earth is dependent on the Sun's light and heat in order to survive, but our Sun won't live forever and eventually it will die one day. However, the Sun's death will not happen for billions of years. What if the Sun started aging rapidly at an accelerated rate?\n",
"In theory, the loss of energy through gravitational radiation could eventually drop the Earth into the Sun. However, the total energy of the Earth orbiting the Sun (kinetic energy + gravitational potential energy) is about 1.14 joules of which only 200 watts (joules per second) is lost through gravitational radiation, leading to a decay in the orbit by about 1 meters per day or roughly the diameter of a proton. At this rate, it would take the Earth approximately 1 times more than the current age of the Universe to spiral onto the Sun. This estimate overlooks the decrease in \"r\" over time, but the majority of the time the bodies are far apart and only radiating slowly, so the difference is unimportant in this example.\n"
] |
Why is it that I can see both Venus and Jupiter in the night sky at the same time?
|
You may enjoy [this.](_URL_0_)
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[
"Because the inner moons of Jupiter are in synchronous rotation around Jupiter, the planet always appears in nearly the same spot in their skies (Jupiter would wiggle a bit because of the non-zero eccentricities). Observers on the sides of the Galilean satellites facing away from the planet would never see Jupiter, for instance.\n",
"A conjunction of Venus and Jupiter occurred on 1 December 2008, and several hours later both planets separately reached conjunction with the crescent Moon. An occultation of Venus by the Moon was visible from some locations. The three objects appeared close together in the sky from any location on the Earth.\n",
"The atmosphere of Venus is so thick that the Sun is not distinguishable in the daytime sky, and the stars are not visible at night. Color images taken by the Soviet Venera probes suggest that the sky on Venus is orange. If the Sun could be seen from Venus's surface, the time from one sunrise to the next (a solar day) would be 116.75 Earth days. Because of Venus's retrograde rotation, the Sun would appear to rise in the west and set in the east.\n",
"Venus is the brightest object in the sky (except for the sun, the moon and the International Space Station), and is often visible in the early evening and morning sky. Even experienced witnesses, especially when they are in unfamiliar surroundings or unusual atmospheric conditions, can fail to identify Venus correctly. However, the location of Venus is easily calculable, and professional astronomers report that many of the phone calls they receive from concerned citizens reporting the presence of a UFO are due to observations of the planet. Astronomer Phil Plait, in particular, has suggested that Venus is responsible for a majority of all UFO reports\n",
"Because the orbit of Jupiter is outside that of Earth, the phase angle of Jupiter as viewed from Earth never exceeds 11.5°: Jupiter always appears nearly fully illuminated when viewed through Earth-based telescopes. It was only during spacecraft missions to Jupiter that crescent views of the planet were obtained. A small telescope will usually show Jupiter's four Galilean moons and the prominent cloud belts across Jupiter's atmosphere. A large telescope will show Jupiter's Great Red Spot when it faces Earth.\n",
"Venus, Mars and Saturn appeared close together in the evening sky in early May 2002, with a conjunction of Mars and Saturn occurring on 4 May. This was followed by a conjunction of Venus and Saturn on 7 May, and another of Venus and Mars on 10 May when their angular separation was only 18 arcminutes. A series of conjunctions between the Moon and, in order, Saturn, Mars and Venus took place on 14 May, although it was not possible to observe all these in darkness from any single location on the Earth.\n",
"Because the movements of Venus appear to be discontinuous (it disappears due to its proximity to the Sun, for many days at a time, and then reappears on the other horizon), some cultures did not recognize Venus as single entity; instead, they assumed it to be two separate stars on each horizon: the morning and evening star. Nonetheless, a cylinder seal from the Jemdet Nasr period indicates that the ancient Sumerians already knew that the morning and evening stars were the same celestial object. The Sumerians associated the planet with the goddess Inanna, who was known as Ishtar by the later Akkadians and Babylonians. She had a dual role as a goddess of both love and war, thereby representing a deity that presided over birth and death.\n"
] |
how is the price of a book determined?
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Supply and demand. Books with small publishers and high demand are expensive. Famous authors are expensive. Books that are considered up-and-coming stars are given better jackets and priced higher than new books that the publisher has deemed serviceable but not amazing. However, new books cost more than old books because there is more demand for them.
|
[
"Book prices generally depend on the demand for a given book, the number of copies available for purchase, and the condition of a given copy. As with other collectibles, prices rise and fall with the popularity of a given author, title, or subject.\n",
"The price of an item is also called the \"price point\", especially where it refers to stores that set a limited number of price points. For example, Dollar General is a general store or \"five and dime\" store that sets price points only at even amounts, such as exactly one, two, three, five, or ten dollars (among others). Other stores will have a policy of setting most of their prices ending in 99 cents or pence. Other stores (such as dollar stores, pound stores, euro stores, 100-yen stores, and so forth) only have a single price point ($1, £1, €1, ¥100), though in some cases this price may purchase more than one of some very small items.\n",
"Price refers to decisions surrounding \"list pricing, discount pricing, special offer pricing, credit payment or credit terms\". Price refers to the total cost to customer to acquire the product, and may involve both monetary and psychological costs such as the time and effort spent in acquisition.\n",
"A price is the quantity of payment or compensation given by one party to another in return for one unit of goods or services.. A price is influenced by both production costs and demand for the product. A price may be determined by a monopolist or may be imposed on the firm by market conditions.\n",
"The term price usually refers to the amount of money charged for a product or service. It represents the payment made by the consumer and received by the producer when the ownership of the product or service is transferred from the seller to the buyer. The price of a product has different functions: for the producer, the most important one is to produce revenues and to cover the costs of production, distribution and sale of a product. Price also signals quality and reflects existing supply and demand. It can promote competitive advantages by helping to achieve various marketing objectives and allowing for market segmentation.\n",
"Price encompasses the amount of money paid by the consumer in order to purchase the food product. When pricing the food products, the manufacturer must bear in mind that the retailer will add a particular percentage to the price on the wholesale product. This percentage amount differs globally. The percentage is used to pay for the cost of producing, packaging, shipping, storing and selling the food product. For example, the purchasing of a food product in a supermarket selling for $3.50 generates an income of $2.20 for the manufacturer.\n",
"\"Price\"refers to money considered for sale of goods. The price in a contract of sale may be fixed by the contract, or may be left to be fixed in manner thereby agreed, or may be determined by the course of dealing between the parties. Where the price is not determined in accordance with the foregoing provisions, the buyer shall pay the seller a reasonable price. Where there is an agreement to sell goods on the terms that- the price is to be fixed by the valuation of a third party, and such third party cannot or does not make such valuation, the agreement is thereby avoided, provided the goods or any part thereof have been delivered to the buyer, and appropriated by the buyer, the buyer shall pay a reasonable price.\n"
] |
Why are face transplants so rough?
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There are so many nerve endings. Not like with most plastic surgery, where it's one area of the face that is fixed. This is an *entire face*.
I would assume there's a lot of tissue damage/tissue death involved as well. It's just a really difficult task.
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[
"An alternative to a face transplant is facial reconstruction, which typically involves moving the patient's own skin from their back, buttocks, thighs, or chest to their face in a series of as many as 50 operations to regain even limited functionality, and a face that is often likened to a mask or a living quilt.\n",
"In the Middle East, there is a growing trend for moustache transplants, which involves undergoing a procedure called follicular unit extraction in order to attain fuller, and more impressive facial hair.\n",
"The first partial face transplant surgery on a living human was performed on Dinoire on 27 November 2005 by Professor Bernard Devauchelle, assisted by Professor Jean-Michel Dubernard at the Centre hospitalier Universitaire Nord in Amiens, France. A triangle of face tissue, including the nose and mouth, was taken from a brain-dead female donor and grafted onto the patient. Scientists elsewhere had performed scalp and ear transplants, but the claim was the first for the transplant of a mouth and nose, the most difficult parts of the face to transplant. Dinoire was also given bone marrow cells to prevent rejection of the tissue. According to \"The Times\", she had signed a contract with British documentary maker Michael Hughes before the operation.\n",
"Although face transplants were not the centre of his research work, by 2004 he became increasingly interested in the subject and devoted much of his free time to it. Great incentive came when Pomahač met Isabelle Dinoire, the first person to undergo partial face transplant in 2005 in France. Dinoire told him that if the face had not been accepted, she was ready to undergo the procedure again. When Pomahač asked another patient why he sought repeated surgery, he told the doctor: “I just want a cab to stop when I’m at the curb.”\n",
"A face transplant is a medical procedure to replace all or part of a person's face using tissue from a donor. The world's first partial face transplant on a living human was carried out in France in 2005. The world's first full face transplant was completed in Spain in 2010. Turkey, France, the United States and Spain (in order of total number of successful face transplants performed) are considered the leading countries in the research into the procedure.\n",
"The first full face transplant performed in the US was done on a construction worker named Dallas Wiens in March 2011. He was burned in an electrical accident in 2008. This operation, performed by Bohdan Pomahač and Jeffrey Janis, was paid for with the help of the US defense department. They hope to learn from this procedure and use what they learn to help soldiers suffering from facial injuries. One of the top benefits of the surgery was that Dallas has regained his sense of smell.\n",
"Some news outlets speculated at the time that their team was likely to be the first to perform such a transplant. However, Butler stated in a 27 October press release that their team \"will not be rushed\" and \"It may be some time before we are ready to carry out an operation.\" The costs of the operation is funded by a charity, the Face Trust, set up by Butler in 2006. Patient selection for facial transplantation is ongoing. It has been reported by Butler that there has been significant difficulty in obtaining facial tissue donation in the UK but with more facial transplants performed worldwide that it may become more acceptable in the UK in the future.\n"
] |
How effective were ironclad warships?
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As /u/Superplaner pointed out, the lack of many notable clashes in the short span where Ironclad Battleships were the Queen of the Seas makes judging their effectiveness a little hard to manage. One of the few we have is the Battle of Hampton Roads, and all the evidence points to the Union Fleet's Dahlgren guns being especially ineffective for the purpose of armor penetration, while other guns available at the time might very well have torn the CSS Virginia to pieces.
I got into a friendly debate on just this matter only last week in another thread, and while I don't think we reached a truly satisfactory conclusion to it, [the chain may at least highlight some of the issues](_URL_0_).
As you can see, it was mainly centered around the states of the Royal Navy and American Navy in the mid to late 1860s, so is not terribly applicable for later developments seen in the 1880s and 1890s, when breech-loaders in turrets became the norm. One of the most notable incidents we have of wood v. iron is the Battle of Hampton Roads, and all the evidence points to the Union Fleet's Dahlgren guns being especially ineffective for the purpose of armor penetration, while other guns available at the time might very well have torn the CSS Virginia to pieces. As I quoted in the linked thread, this section from a British publication in 1869 entitled "Our Iron-clad Ships" has this to say on the merits of American guns vis-a-vis British:
> The Americans, as is well known, have followed a different system in the development of their naval guns, preferring to have a heavy projectile of large size with a comparatively low velocity, instead of an elongated projectile of less weight moving at a high velocity. The American system has been well termed the 'racking' or "battering" system, in opposition to our own method, which is known as the "punching" system. In carrying out their plan, the Americans have adopted guns of 9, 11, 13, 15, and even 20-inch calibre, and guns of 25-inch calibre and upwards are said to be contemplated. These large guns are almost without exception of cast iron, and nearly all are smooth-bores throwing cast-iron spherical shot. [...] Great differences of opinion prevail with respect to the comparative merits of our own and American guns. [...] Captain Noble shows that the American 15-inch gun, charged with 50 lbs. of our powder, and throwing a spherical steel shot weighing 484 lbs., would fail to penetrate the Lord Warden's side at any range' while our 9-inch 12-ton gun, with a 43-lb. charge, would send its 250-lb. shot through her at a range of 1000 yards. He also states that the 15-inch gun would not penetrate the 'Warrior' beyond a distance of 500 yards, while our 7-inch 6-ton guns (weighing about one-third as much as the 15-inch gun) would do the same with a charge of 22 lbs. of powder and a 115-lb. shot ; and the 12-ton gun would penetrate up to 2000 yards. It must be remembered that, instead of the steel shot hero supposed to be used with the 15-inch gun, cast-iron shot are really employed by the Americans; and this tends to increased superiority in our guns as respects penetrating power. There can be little or no doubt that the American guns have greater battering power; the real question at issue is, as before stated, the relative merits of penetration, and racking or battering.
|
[
"They were very large and fast warships for their time, displacing over 15,000 tons at full load; could make , while could achieve . Other ironclads of the era could not make more than . Their high speed, powerful main battery, and thin armor protection has led to many naval historians to characterize the ships as proto-battlecruisers.\n",
"Ironclads were designed for several roles, including as high seas battleships, coastal defence ships, and long-range cruisers. The rapid evolution of warship design in the late 19th century transformed the ironclad from a wooden-hulled vessel which carried sails to supplement its steam engines into the steel-built, turreted battleships and cruisers familiar in the 20th century. This change was pushed forward by the development of heavier naval guns (the ironclads of the 1880s carried some of the heaviest guns ever mounted at sea), more sophisticated steam engines, and advances in metallurgy which made steel shipbuilding possible.\n",
"Ironclads were designed for several roles, including as high seas battleships, coastal defense ships, and long-range cruisers. The rapid development of warship design in the late 19th century transformed the ironclad from a wooden-hulled vessel that carried sails to supplement its steam engines into the steel-built, turreted battleships and cruisers familiar in the 20th century. This change was pushed forward by the development of heavier naval guns (the ironclads of the 1880s carried some of the heaviest guns ever mounted at sea at the time), more sophisticated steam engines, and advances in metallurgy which made steel shipbuilding possible.\n",
"The \"Defence\"-class ironclads were designed as smaller and cheaper versions of the armoured frigates. This meant that they could not fit the same powerful engines of the \"Warrior\"-class ships and were therefore slower and had far fewer guns. The naval architect Sir Nathaniel Barnaby, a future Constructor of the Navy, considered that in terms of combat a \"Defence\"-class ship was worth one quarter of a \"Warrior\".\n",
"The \"Defence\"-class ironclads were designed as smaller and cheaper versions of the armoured frigates. This meant that they could not fit the same powerful engines of the \"Warrior\"-class ships and were therefore slower and had far fewer guns. The naval architect Sir Nathaniel Barnaby, a future Constructor of the Navy, considered that, in terms of combat, a \"Defence\"-class ship was worth one quarter of a \"Warrior\".\n",
"Unarmored cruising warships, built out of wood, iron, steel or a combination of those materials, remained popular until towards the end of the 19th century. The ironclad's armor often meant that they were limited to short range under steam, and many ironclads were unsuited to long-range missions or for work in distant colonies. The unarmored cruiser – often a screw sloop or screw frigate – could continue in this role. Even though mid- to late-19th century cruisers typically carried up-to-date guns firing explosive shells, they were unable to face ironclads in combat. This was evidenced by the clash between , a modern British cruiser, and the Peruvian monitor \"Huáscar\". Even though the Peruvian vessel was obsolete by the time of the encounter, it stood up well to roughly 50 hits from British shells.\n",
"The armament of ironclads tended to become concentrated in a small number of powerful guns capable of penetrating the armor of enemy ships at range; calibre and weight of guns increased markedly to achieve greater penetration. Throughout the ironclad era navies also grappled with the complexities of rifled versus smoothbore guns and breech-loading versus muzzle-loading.\n"
] |
At roughly what time in history did European weapons become technologically superior to those found in the rest of the world?
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So, apparently the people who answered you removed all their comments. So I'll try and give you some basic guidelines, but this is pretty far from my expertise:
1) First of all, the level of technology did and still does vary drastically across the world.
An important thing to realise is that technology is not just knowledge, it's also the infrastructure to use that knowledge. People like the steppe nomads wouldn't have much advanced technology, because the climate they lived in and the way of life that climate required did not support the development of the complex chains of trade and industry necessary to create more advanced technology. Not because they'd be too dumb or culturally backward to learn it if necessary. *(EDIT: or maybe it's more complicated than that, see /u/siqr below)*
Also, while I'll leave the why to actual experts, size matters. Eurasia+North Africa was one continuously connected cultural sphere, and because of its size it was generally technologically ahead of the unconnected Americas.
2) Second, technology is not one behemoth. Different people could excel in different things. When it came to shipbuilding I believe the Europeans were ahead of the rest of the world from around the 16th century. But part of this was simply that only the Europeans were interested in building large complex ocean-going vessels. For example the Japanese build a Western-style ship under Jesuit guidance, and [sailed to Mexico in 1614](_URL_0_). But never had any interest in trading with and exploring the world like the Europeans did.
3) This also moves to the heart of your question. In general, this question is difficult to answer because for a long time what was one of the centres of technology in the Eurasian sphere, East-Asia, was simply not interested in developing the same technologies Europe did. If you're talking general scientific knowledge, then assuming there weren't any highly developed scientific communities I'm not aware of, Europe began pulling ahead from the start of the Renaissance, and you could probably jot down 1600 as a year when Europe's scientific knowledge is the best. The reason I'm picking it is because around then we have the invention of the microscope and telescope, which are the easiest examples I could think of where Western inventions are reaching new horizons in human knowledge.
4) But if you want a clear and simple answer regarding European military superiority: The moment when Europe gained a truly vast and insurmountable lead over the rest of the world is the Industrial Revolution. It is no coincidence that the [Opium Wars](_URL_1_), the first time China was humiliated by a Western power, happened in 1839. Before the industrial revolution, even though the Europeans were ahead in certain respects, they were not so far ahead that China could not kick them out of their own country if they pleased.
Afterwards, European powers could do essentially what they want, as it was virtually impossible for an unindustrialised nation to withstand an industrialised one.
|
[
"Along with advancements in communication, Europe also continued to advance in military technology. European chemists made new explosives that made artillery much more deadly. By the 1880s, the machine gun had become a reliable battlefield weapon. This technology gave European armies an advantage over their opponents, as armies in less-developed countries were still fighting with arrows, swords, and leather shields (e.g. the Zulus in Southern Africa during the Anglo-Zulu War of 1879).. Some exceptions of armies that managed to get nearly on par with the European expeditions and standards include the Ethiopian armies at the Battle of Adwa, the Chinese Ever Victorious Army and the Japanese Imperial Army of Japan, but these still relied heavily on weapon imports from Europe and often on European military advisors and adventurers.\n",
"The technologies that developed in Europe during the second half of the 15th century were commonly associated by authorities of the time with a key theme in Renaissance thought: the rivalry of the Moderns and the Ancients. Three inventions in particular — the printing press, firearms, and the nautical compass — were indeed seen as evidence that the Moderns could not only compete with the Ancients, but had surpassed them, for these three inventions allowed modern people to communicate, exercise power, and finally travel at distances unimaginable in earlier times.\n",
"European technical advancements from the 12th to 14th centuries were either built on long-established techniques in medieval Europe, originating from Roman and Byzantine antecedents, or adapted from cross-cultural exchanges through trading networks with the Islamic world, China, and India. Often, the revolutionary aspect lay not in the act of invention itself, but in its technological refinement and application to political and economic power. Though gunpowder along with other weapons had been started by Chinese, it was the Europeans who developed and perfected its military potential, precipitating European expansion and eventual imperialism in the Modern Era.\n",
"Technology has been a part of war since the dawn of warfare. Neolithic tools such as daggers were used as weaponry and clan rivalry long before recorded history. The bronze age and iron age saw technological improvements namely in the advancements of weaponry and subsequently the arrival of complex industries. It was not until the late 19th and early 20th Century that weaponry advanced in leaps and bounds to the armaments mankind witnesses today, however even then industry was relatively independent of the government and military. World War I and World War II were two important factors that led to the consequent military-industrial complex. Eric Hobsbawm in his book \"Age of Extremes\" outlines how categorically countries like Japan, USA and Russia had to develop their own military industry to support their militaristic efforts, creating a complex whereby the economies then straddled on this arms industry. Consequently, the procurement of missiles, ballistics, nuclear weapons, destroyers and submarines shows a marked difference between the ancient acquisitions of countries.\n",
"The advances in gunpowder technology experienced by Western Europe around the 1500s sparks scholarly debate on whether this was a major military revolution or just an element in wider military evolutions. The debates usually focus on Western Europe but scholars such as Tonio Andrade assert that this involves other civilizations as well, noting that along with European civilizations, the 14th century Ottoman civilization constructed different gunpowder weaponry from those initial produced by the Chinese. Scholars such Andrade explain that the knowledge of guns and gunpowder alone was not what gave Western Europe an advantage in warfare; it was due to many elements, involving warfare culture, difference in fortification, and frequency of warfare.\n",
"The quality gap between locally manufactured guns and European arms continued to widen as new rapid advances in technology and mass production in Europe quickly outstripped the pace of developments in Asia. Important developments were the invention of the flintlock musket and mass production of cast-iron cannon in Europe. The flintlock was much faster, more reliable and more user-friendly than the unwieldy matchlock, which required one hand to hold the barrel, and another to adjust the match and pull the trigger.\n",
"Central to the success of the Europeans was the use of firearms. However, the advantages afforded by firearms have often been overstated. Prior to the late 19th century, firearms were often cumbersome muzzle-loading, smooth-bore, single shot muskets with flint-lock mechanisms. Such weapons produced a low rate of fire, while suffering from a high rate of failure and were only accurate within . These deficiencies may have initially given the Aborigines an advantage, allowing them to move in close and engage with spears or clubs. Yet by 1850 significant advances in firearms gave the Europeans a distinct advantage, with the six-shot Colt revolver, the Snider single shot breech-loading rifle and later the Martini-Henry rifle, as well as rapid-fire rifles such as the Winchester rifle, becoming available. These weapons, when used on open ground and combined with the superior mobility provided by horses to surround and engage groups of Aborigines, often proved successful. The Europeans also had to adapt their tactics to fight their fast-moving, often hidden enemies. Tactics employed included night-time surprise attacks, and positioning forces to drive the natives off cliffs or force them to retreat into rivers while attacking from both banks.\n"
] |
what are the major differences between aerobic and anaerobic exercise?
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Aerobic exercises are often classified as cardio and endurance work outs. They focus on doing light exercises for long periods of time to help the blood flow and help muscle groups learn to work for extended periods of time. This is what's most often recommended for people who are working out just to lose weight, because it consumes lots of calories. Aerobic exercises literally mean "pertaining to the freedom of oxygen" meaning that you are getting enough oxygen through your system to keep going for long periods of time.
The most simple aerobic exercise is jogging/running, not sprinting, not dashes, but taking the dog for a walk or going for a jog around the block. Other ones include steppers, light swimming and cycling. These are designed to get your heart racing, and leave you breathing heavy, but not cause you to pant, heave or feel dizzy.
Anaerobic exercise means "pertaining to the lack of oxygen" these are shorter, more intense work outs designed to build muscle, speed and strength. The lack of oxygen to your body causes lactic acid build up, which is what causes "the burn". If you are trying to do a power workout and don't feel it, you may need to step it up, but in contrast, if you are running and feel it, take a breather.
Some widely done anaerobic workouts are push-ups, sprints, bench press, etc. Which are done in sets which are subdivided into reps. Sets should not exceed a minute or two, with a break in between.
In all, it depends on what you want to do. If you just want to trim some fat, throw on the running shoes and start running, but if you want to build muscle you grab some weights and start pumping.
|
[
"Aerobic exercise (also known as cardio) is physical exercise of low to high intensity that depends primarily on the aerobic energy-generating process. \"Aerobic\" means \"relating to, involving, or requiring free oxygen\", and refers to the use of oxygen to adequately meet energy demands during exercise via aerobic metabolism. Generally, light-to-moderate intensity activities that are sufficiently supported by aerobic metabolism can be performed for extended periods of time. What is generally called aerobic exercise might be better termed \"solely aerobic\", because it is designed to be low-intensity enough so that all carbohydrates are aerobically turned into energy.\n",
"Aerobic exercise induces short- and long-term effects on mood and emotional states by promoting positive affect, inhibiting negative affect, and decreasing the biological response to acute psychological stress. Over the short-term, aerobic exercise functions as both an antidepressant and euphoriant, whereas consistent exercise produces general improvements in mood and self-esteem.\n",
"Aerobics is a form of physical exercise that combines rhythmic aerobic exercise with stretching and strength training routines with the goal of improving all elements of fitness (flexibility, muscular strength, and cardio-vascular fitness). It is usually performed to music and may be practiced in a group setting led by an instructor (fitness professional), although it can be done solo and without musical accompaniment. With the goal of preventing illness and promoting physical fitness, practitioners perform various routines comprising a number of different dance-like exercises. Formal aerobics classes are divided into different levels of intensity and complexity.Will have five components: warm-up (5–10 minutes), cardiovascular conditioning (25–30 minutes), muscular strength and conditioning (10–15 minutes), cool-down (5–8 minutes) and stretching and flexibility (5–8 minutes). Aerobics classes may allow participants to select their level of participation according to their fitness level. Many gyms offer a variety of aerobic classes. Each class is designed for a certain level of experience and taught by a certified instructor with a specialty area related to their particular class.\n",
"Aerobic conditioning has many advantages over anaerobic as it can increase physical endurance and lifespan. During aerobic training, the aim is to improve the blood flow to the lungs, heart, and blood vessels. This particular type of training targets large muscle groups so that as the intensity of physical activity is increased, overall fitness is improved. There are many benefits to aerobic training, and the outcomes can be very rewarding. Aerobic conditioning can increase the duration that one can endure physical activity. This type of conditioning can help with heart disease, diabetes, or anxiety. Aerobic conditioning also has many non-medical benefits, such as improving mood, alleviating fatigue and stabilizing sleeping patterns. This overall type of conditioning has the most longevity to its practice and can improve a person's health and general well being immensely.\n",
"Aerobic exercise comprises innumerable forms. In general, it is performed at a moderate level of intensity over a relatively long period of time. For example, running a long distance at a moderate pace is an aerobic exercise, but sprinting is not. Playing singles tennis, with near-continuous motion, is generally considered aerobic activity, while golf or two person team tennis, with brief bursts of activity punctuated by more frequent breaks, may not be predominantly aerobic. Some sports are thus inherently \"aerobic\", while other aerobic exercises, such as fartlek training or aerobic dance classes, are designed specifically to improve aerobic capacity and fitness. It is most common for aerobic exercises to involve the leg muscles, primarily or exclusively. There are some exceptions. For example, rowing to distances of 2,000 meters or more is an aerobic sport that exercises several major muscle groups, including those of the legs, abdominals, chest, and arms.\n",
"In contrast, aerobic exercise includes lower intensity activities performed for longer periods of time. Activities such as walking, long slow runs, rowing, and cycling require a great deal of oxygen to generate the energy needed for prolonged exercise (i.e., aerobic energy expenditure). In sports which require repeated short bursts of exercise however, the anaerobic system enables muscles to recover for the next burst. Therefore, training for many sports demands that both energy producing systems be developed.\n",
"BULLET::::- Aerobic exercise is any physical activity that uses large muscle groups and causes the body to use more oxygen than it would while resting. The goal of aerobic exercise is to increase cardiovascular endurance. Examples of aerobic exercise include running, cycling, swimming, brisk walking, skipping rope, rowing, hiking, dancing, playing tennis, continuous training, and long distance running.\n"
] |
please explain me why some people believe the world trade center catastrophy was a conspiracy act
|
No one here actually explained anything about why people believe its a conspiracy act. I, myself, **do not** believe any of this, but this is what is said. Whether any of it is true, I do not know.
1. There have been only 6 times in history that a steel building has fallen due to fires. 4 of them happened the WTC buildings. 2 were poorly constructed buildings.
2. Building 7 was located across the street from the twin towers, and also fell due to controllable fires apparently. It was hit with debris from the towers collapsing. Going back to #1 this is hard to believe given that no plane hit this building. Would a fire get spread when a building falls and rubble hits another building? WTC 7 is also said to have been the control center where all the planning was done and was taken down to destroy the evidence. Some of the floors were government controlled.
3. If you watch the videos, you can see people standing in the holes left by the plane. If people were there, the fire must not have been that strong. Combine that with #1 and #2.
4. The designer of the towers said specifically that both buildings were designed to withstand 2 planes hitting them.
5. The head of security at the WTC buildings was the younger brother of George W. Bush, whose 2 year contract ended on the day of the attacks. Also someone claimed a multimillion dollar insurance policy afterwards.
6. Some people looked at the moment the buildings were collapsing and noticed small explosions that looked like controlled demolition .
7. The Pentagon was said to have been hit by the same type of plane, a 767, yet there is no lawn damage in front of the building at all. Also some windows right next to the damaged portion of the building are in tact. Also the hole in the pentagon is smaller the width of the wings of a 767.
8. A passport was found for Mohammed Atta, one of the attackers outside the rubble of the collapsed towers. A paper passport from inside the plane, that exploded with enough fire and heat to bring down a building survived after the towers collapsed.
9. The steel after the towers collapsed was quickly destroyed. People would have liked it to have been saved so it could have been studied to find the cause of the collapse.
I'm sure there are more, but thats is all I can remember off the top of my head.
|
[
"The most prominent conspiracy theory is that the collapse of the Twin Towers and 7 World Trade Center were the result of controlled demolitions rather than structural failure due to impact and fire. Another prominent belief is that the Pentagon was hit by a missile launched by elements from inside the U.S. government or that a commercial airliner was allowed to do so via an effective stand-down of the American military. Possible motives claimed by conspiracy theorists for such actions include justifying the invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq (even though the U.S. government concluded Iraq was not involved in the attacks) to advance their geostrategic interests, such as plans to construct a natural gas pipeline through Afghanistan. Other conspiracy theories revolve around authorities having advance knowledge of the attacks and deliberately ignoring or assisting the attackers.\n",
"Between 2004 and the fifth anniversary of the September 11 attacks in 2006, mainstream coverage of the conspiracy theories increased. The U.S. government issued a formal analysis by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) of the collapse of the World Trade Center. To address the growing publicity of the theories, the State Department revised a webpage in 2006 to debunk them. A 2006 national security strategy paper declared that terrorism springs from \"subcultures of conspiracy and misinformation,\" and that \"terrorists recruit more effectively from populations whose information about the world is contaminated by falsehoods and corrupted by conspiracy theories. The distortions keep alive grievances and filter out facts that would challenge popular prejudices and self-serving propaganda.\" Al-Qaeda has repeatedly claimed responsibility for the attacks, with chief deputy Ayman al-Zawahiri accusing Shia Iran and Hezbollah of denigrating Sunni successes in hurting America by intentionally starting rumors that Israel carried out the attacks.\n",
"On September 5, 2011, \"The Guardian\" published an article entitled, \"9/11 conspiracy theories debunked\". The article noted that unlike the collapse of World Trade Centers 1 and 2 a controlled demolition collapses a building from the bottom and explains that the windows popped because of collapsing floors. The article also said there are conspiracy theories that claim that 7 World Trade Center was also downed by a controlled demolition, that the Pentagon being hit by a missile, that the hijacked planes were packed with explosives and flown by remote control, that Israel was behind the attacks, that a plane headed for the Pentagon was shot down by a missile, that there was insider trading by people who had foreknowledge of the attacks were all false.\n",
"Proponents of the conspiracy theory argue FEMA's mission is a cover up for real purpose — to assume control of the United States following a major disaster or threat — and that the organization is 'the executive arm of the coming police state'.\n",
"Popularizers of the conspiracy theory include commentators such as Alex Jones and outlets such as \"True Pundit\". In April 2018, the parents of two children killed in the Sandy Hook shooting launched a lawsuit against Alex Jones for defamation \"accusing him and his website InfoWars of engaging in a campaign of 'false, cruel, and dangerous assertions'\".\n",
"Conspiracy theorists claim that action or inaction by U.S. officials with foreknowledge was intended to ensure that the attacks took place successfully. For example, Michael Meacher, former British environment minister and member of Tony Blair's government, said that the United States knowingly failed to prevent the attacks.\n",
"The hosts of \"The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe\" (the \"SGU\") have spoken repeatedly about the \"absurdity of 9/11 conspiracy theories\". In addition to critiquing the theories using the same or similar arguments as the above, the \"SGU\" hosts say that, like most conspiracy theories, this one collapses under its own weight and contradicts itself. In order for the 9/11 conspiracy theories to be correct, the U.S. government would not only have to orchestrate the claimed false flag operation regarding the airplanes that crashed into the World Trade Center, but they would also have to orchestrate a superfluous controlled demolition and cover their tracks so flawlessly that it becomes indistinguishable to physicists from the \"official story,\" yet the plan would have to be flawed enough so that \"losers in their mothers' basement\" will discover the conspiracy.\n"
] |
My uncles were born identical twins, yet their personalities seem to contrast each other. Is this a known thing?
|
If they're identical (monozygotic) twins then technically they were the same ball of cells at some point. Monoamniotic/monochorionic monozygotic twins split at around day 10ish post-fertilization (just past the blastocyst stage), but most other twins split prior to that. Depending on when you define the start of life, that may or may not qualify for 'one person split in two.'
But in all seriousness, there's no mechanism for different personality traits to be apportioned out to each twin. It's just the interplay of various nature/nurture effects.
|
[
"Conjoined twin brothers are born in a royal family, but are separated at birth. Though they are twins, one has a blood disorder so his skin discolors and his left arm is paralyzed. Years later they discover each other and unite to free their kingdom from the traitors.\n",
"In terms of appearances, the twins are identical in every respect, wearing the same clothes, eating the same food at the same time, sleeping at the same time for the same time, and owning the same cars and the same guns. The only way they can be told apart is that they have different dominant hands: Giovanni is left-handed, whilst Eduardo is right-handed, which can add to the illusion that they are mirror images of one another, as shown in their first scene in \"Never Say Die\" where they eat breakfast by the swimming pool at their villa, sitting opposite one another, appearing like one man and his reflection. Both are described as being very \"neat and delicate, almost like schoolboys, with very round heads and black hair that could have been painted on, coming down in cowlicks over their foreheads\", but very unattractive, with dark \"always suspicious\" eyes, very small mouths and permanent dark stubble across their faces, \"like sandpaper\", giving them an almost devilish appearance.\n",
"BULLET::::- The Twins – Although one is called Eck (short for \"Alexander\"), they are always referred to collectively, with few exceptions (such as Granpaw calling them \"ae twin\" and \"the ither twin\"). They are rambunctious youngsters and usually add to the chaos with a fistfight or a good game of cowboys and Indians.\n",
"In 1919 twin brothers Michael and Lance Gallant are born in New York City. They are so alike, even down to a T-shaped birthmark on their left wrists, that their own mother cannot tell them apart. The two remain close, even for twins, as they grow up.\n",
"He and his older brother (1516–1522) are often mistakenly thought to be the same person, because both died as children and bore the same name. It was not unusual in Tudor times to name a child after a deceased sibling.\n",
"Two sets of identical twins are lost in their childhood. None of them are aware of their twin being alive. One set of twins arrive to a town on work, which is where the other set of twins live and make their living. The people of the town confuse them for the latter, who is a famous industrialist in the town. a series of misunderstandings, misplaces and confusions about the characters turn in to Hilarious situations and chaos in their lives.\n",
"If a parent is an identical twin, then the aunt or uncle who serves as the other twin, is also considered a first-degree relative because being genetically identical to the parent ultimately makes them the children's parent as well, genetically speaking.\n"
] |
if older cartoons and animated movies were drawn by hand, how did they get the coloring so even and clean, unlike paintings for example?
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You mean how they stay perfectly inside the lines? It's because the sheets the animation is drawn on are transparent. They draw the lines on one side, then paint on the backside, so even if they're off slightly, filmed from the front, the color is perfectly inside the lines.
If you mean how uniform the colors are... You can make paintings like that too if you want, but painters often go for more nuance, shading, gradients, textures, etc. So they don't paint it as flat, uniform spans of color.
|
[
"Ub Iwerks adapted xerography to eliminate the hand-inking stage in the animation process by printing the animator's drawings directly to the cels. The first animated feature film to use this process was \"One Hundred and One Dalmatians\" (1961), although the technique was already tested in \"Sleeping Beauty\", released two years earlier. At first, only black lines were possible, but in the 1980s, colored lines were introduced and used in animated features like \"The Secret of NIMH\".\n",
"The animated segment in Winsor McCay's \"Little Nemo\" (1911) was probably the first animation to use more hand-drawn images than the 700 images of Reynaud's \"Un Bon Bock\". While most early animations were black and white, a version of \"Little Nemo\" was hand-colored by McCay. Winsor McCay also used short loops of repeated images in several films, which is quite similar to Reynaud's technique of moving the film back and forth during projection.\n",
"The film was unique in utilizing a non-traditional animation technique where spots of colorful India ink were used to form the characters. This gave a great deal of plasticity to the animated characters. For example, the Black Cat would vanish from the foreground only to reappear immediately in the back, or the evil Pirate would transform into a thundercloud by inflating himself with his own malice.\n",
"Blackton's 1906 film \"Humorous Phases of Funny Faces\" is often regarded as the oldest known drawn animation on standard film. It features a sequence made with blackboard drawings that are changed between frames to show two faces changing expressions and some billowing cigar smoke, as well as two sequences that feature cutout animation. \n",
"In traditional cartoon animation, the individual frames of a movie were initially drawn on thin onionskin paper over a light source. The animators (mostly inbetweeners) would put the previous and next drawings exactly beneath the working drawing, so that they could draw the 'in between' to give a smooth motion.\n",
"In late 1950s, inspired by China's legendary painter Qi Baishi's water-ink painting, Chinese animation industry pioneers began to explore ways to turn Chinese traditional paintings into cartoon form. The first ink-wash animation film, \"Tadpoles Searching for Mother\", received the Best Animated Film Prize at the First Hundred Flowers Awards, as well as several international prizes. Since then, more ink-wash film were produced.\n",
"The films were done in Technicolor, and marked Capra's first use of color in filmmaking. Cartoon animation was an important feature; the animated characters in the films interact directly with the live-action characters, which was an innovation at the time. Capra worked with United Productions of America (UPA) for the first film, \"Our Mr. Sun\". At UPA, Bill Hurtz directed the animation for \"Our Mr. Sun\"; Hurtz had been the designer for the Oscar-winning cartoon short of Dr. Seuss' \"Gerald McBoing-Boing\" (1950) and would later direct animation for Jay Ward. In 1954, Hurtz moved to Shamus Culhane Productions, and the animation contract for the next three Capra films followed him there.\n"
] |
why does tea taste sweeter after it cools down?
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You generally tastes less when drinking really hot things or really cold things, partially due to how fast you tend to move it to parts of your mouth that are less sensitive, and others are signals being mixed with how hot/cold/pain you are feeling.
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[
"Sweet tea is tea that is brewed very strong with a large amount of sugar added while the tea is hot. The mixture of sugar and tea is then diluted with water, served over ice, and occasionally garnished with lemon. Sometimes the diluted mixture is allowed to cool to room temperature. Other times the sugar and tea mixture is diluted by pouring the hot tea and sugar over a full tumbler of ice to cool it instantly. Sweet tea is traditionally the most common variety of iced tea in the American South; elsewhere in the United States, unsweetened iced tea is more common, although there has been a growing trend of offering both sweetened and plain since the early 2000s. Because of the popularity of sweet tea in the south, plain iced tea is often called unsweet tea.\n",
"Sweet tea is a popular style of iced tea commonly consumed in the United States, but especially common in the Southern United States. Sweet tea is most commonly made by adding sugar or simple syrup to black tea either while the tea is brewing or still hot, although artificial sweeteners are also frequently used. Sweet tea is almost always served ice cold. It may sometimes be flavored, most commonly with lemon but also with peach, raspberry, or mint. The drink is sometimes tempered with baking soda to reduce its acidity. \n",
"In order to produce sakurayu, a few such dried, salt-pickled blossoms must be sprinkled into a cup of hot water. Once covered in hot water, the collapsed petals unfurl and float. The herbal tea is then allowed to steep until the flavor reaches its desired intensity. The resulting drink tastes slightly salty.The tea is a very light slightly sweet brew\n",
"Flavoured and scented teas add new aromas and flavours to the base tea. This can be accomplished through directly adding flavouring agents, such as ginger or dried ginger, cloves, mint leaves, cardamom, bergamot (found in Earl Grey), vanilla, and spearmint. Alternatively, because tea easily retains odours, it can be placed in proximity to an aromatic ingredient to absorb its aroma, as in traditional jasmine tea.\n",
"\"Sweet tea\", with sugar or corn syrup added (usually while the tea is still hot from brewing), the mixture then being cooled with ice, is ubiquitous in the Southeastern United States. In these states, when a person says \"tea\", they normally mean sweetened iced tea. The unsweetened variant is often called \"unsweet\" tea instead of unsweetened or plain. The consumption of sweet tea with many meals leads to it sometimes called the \"table wine of the South\", and this trait is considered an important marker of the culture of the Southern United States. Southern sweet tea is made by brewing tea at double strength, adding a large amount of sugar to the freshly brewed hot tea, and diluting to the proper strength. It is served over a glass full of ice cubes and is often garnished with a slice of lemon. While high fructose corn syrup is commonly used as a sweetener for commercially manufactured tea, more often consumers are unaware of this, and when made at home, refined sugar is used.\n",
"In restaurants, iced tea is usually served unsweetened except in the Southeastern United States where iced tea is much more common and is available both sweet and unsweetened and \"iced tea\" is often considered to be \"sweet tea\" unless otherwise specified. The reason for the presweetening is that it may be difficult to dissolve sugar in iced tea, even with constant stirring. The result can be insufficiently sweetened tea or gritty, undissolved sugar crystals in the tea. Some restaurants have begun serving iced tea that has been pre-flavored with fruit essences, particularly passion fruit, often as the only iced tea made available.\n",
"BULLET::::- Iced tea (sweetened) is popular mainly in the southern United States where it is ubiquitous and available freshly made, in bottles and cans or at self-serve soda fountains. Sweet tea (also known as southern table wine) is brewed very strong with a large amount of sugar added while the tea is still hot. The mixture of sugar and tea is cooled, diluted with water and served over ice garnished with lemon. Alternatively, the sugar and tea mixture is not diluted but rather poured hot over a full tumbler of ice to cool and dilute it. Due mainly to its high sugar content, canned sweet tea has been proven to cause tooth decay.\n"
] |
What would happen if two faults on opposite sides of a tectonic plate shifted simultaneously?
|
First, the Cascadia subduction zone is on the western edge of the North American plate, but the New Madrid seismic zone is an intra-continental feature, i.e. it is in the middle of the North American plate. The eastern edge of the North American plate is the [Mid-Atlantic Ridge](_URL_1_).
Going with the spirit of the question though, the short answer is nothing different than if the two earthquakes happened at different times. We can look at a [simulated scenario for a magnitude 9 event on the Cascadia subduction zone](_URL_0_) and see that the area that experiences shaking, while certainly large on a societal scale, is small compared to the entire plate. This is because seismic waves dissipate as they travel outward. An earthquake releases a set amount of energy (this amount of energy is what the magnitude is measuring) that is released as seismic waves. As those waves expand out, roughly as a half sphere from the earthquake location on a fault plane, the amount of energy gets spread out so the intensity of shaking decreases. Thus, by the time you're a few 100 km's away, let along on the other side of a plate, the earthquake waves are detectable by a seismometer, but certainly not felt. So, if you had two simultaneous earthquakes on either side of the North American plate, the only effect might be the weird behavior of a seismometer that happened to be positioned such that the arrival time of both earthquakes were exactly the same.
Obviously from a societal perspective, two large events simultaneoulsy in the same country would have lots of effects in terms of resource deployment, etc, but I think you were more asking about the geology aspects of things.
|
[
"Tectonic earthquakes occur anywhere in the earth where there is sufficient stored elastic strain energy to drive fracture propagation along a fault plane. The sides of a fault move past each other smoothly and aseismically only if there are no irregularities or asperities along the fault surface that increase the frictional resistance. Most fault surfaces do have such asperities and this leads to a form of stick-slip behavior. Once the fault has locked, continued relative motion between the plates leads to increasing stress and therefore, stored strain energy in the volume around the fault surface. This continues until the stress has risen sufficiently to break through the asperity, suddenly allowing sliding over the locked portion of the fault, releasing the stored energy. This energy is released as a combination of radiated elastic strain seismic waves, frictional heating of the fault surface, and cracking of the rock, thus causing an earthquake. This process of gradual build-up of strain and stress punctuated by occasional sudden earthquake failure is referred to as the elastic-rebound theory. It is estimated that only 10 percent or less of an earthquake's total energy is radiated as seismic energy. Most of the earthquake's energy is used to power the earthquake fracture growth or is converted into heat generated by friction. Therefore, earthquakes lower the Earth's available elastic potential energy and raise its temperature, though these changes are negligible compared to the conductive and convective flow of heat out from the Earth's deep interior.\n",
"Strike-slip tectonics differ from the dominantly vertical crust movements associated with shortening and extension, being dominantly horizontal in character (in relative terms sinistral or dextral). This kind of horizontal movement will create a shear zone and several types of fractures and faults. A typical model used for strike-slip tectonics has two (or more) horizontal basal plates moving in opposite directions (or only move one of the plates, other are fixed). The visual results are shown from bird's-eye view. Scientists used CT-analysis to collect the cross-section images for the observation of the most influenced area during the simulation.\n",
"The tectonic movements didn't stop at the close of the ductile deformations. For instance in the brittle realm lots of small, mainly NE-SW-striking strike-slip faults were initiated with left-lateral displacements in the order of about 500 meters – an exception being the Dussac Fault north of Lanouaille which has a left-lateral displacement of nearly 6 kilometers!\n",
"The interruption of the main rupture that results in a doublet earthquake has been attributed to \"asperities\", patches in the fault where harder rock resists immediate rupture. However, study of this earthquake's aftershocks shows a discontinuity in their spatial distribution. This has been interpreted as indicating a split in the subducting plate, where the plate is subducting at slightly different down angles on either side of the split.\n",
"Fault gouge forms by tectonic movement along a localized zone of brittle deformation (a fault zone) in a rock. The grinding and milling that results when the two sides of the fault zone move along each other results in a material that is made of loose fragments. First a fault breccia will form, but if the grinding continues the rock becomes fault gouge.\n",
"At the contact where two tectonic plates slip past each other every section must eventually slip, as (in the long-term) none get left behind. But they do not all slip at the same time; different sections will be at different stages in the cycle of strain (deformation) accumulation and sudden rebound. In the seismic gap model the \"next big quake\" should be expected not in the segments where recent seismicity has relieved the strain, but in the intervening gaps where the unrelieved strain is the greatest. This model has an intuitive appeal; it is used in long-term forecasting, and was the basis of a series of circum-Pacific (Pacific Rim) forecasts in 1979 and 1989–1991.\n",
"At the contact where two tectonic plates slip past each other every section must eventually slip, as (in the long-term) none get left behind. But they do not all slip at the same time; different sections will be at different stages in the cycle of strain (deformation) accumulation and sudden rebound. In the seismic gap model the \"next big quake\" should be expected not in the segments where recent seismicity has relieved the strain, but in the intervening gaps where the unrelieved strain is the greatest. This model has an intuitive appeal; it is used in long-term forecasting, and was the basis of a series of circum-Pacific (Pacific Rim) forecasts in 1979 and 1989–1991.\n"
] |
canadian's election are really close. can you explain what we should know? (young guy that knows nothing and want to make the best decision)
|
Read through the party platforms and websites to see which party you most agree with.
Personally I won't vote conservative, because they have blocked research scientist from speaking about publicly funded research results without political approval.
They also closed many research libraries, getting rid of decades wortn of research data, including climate data, and made stats-can useless for econimic planning. (Can you tell I don't like them?)
|
[
"\"Choosing Wisely Canada\" leads an international community, made up of nations who are implementing similar programs in their respective countries. At present, this community includes representation from Australia, Austria, Brazil, Denmark, England, France, Germany, India, Israel, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, New Zealand, South Korea, Switzerland, United States and Wales.\n",
"Canada's Next Great Prime Minister (formerly \"The Next Great Prime Minister\") is a national contest for young Canadians who wish to share their ideas for making Canada a better, stronger and more prosperous country.\n",
"All ten candidates reunite; the final two present their policies in front of an assembly of young people at the House of Commons in the hope of winning the title of 'Winner of Election' and the personal meeting with Prime Minister Gordon Brown.\n",
"During an election, Elections Canada informs Canadians about their right to vote, how to get on the National Register of Electors and the voters list, and where and how they can vote. Its public information activities include\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Gilles Duceppe and Stephen Harper worked together to bring down the government. Lots of late night secret meetings. Apparently, they're quite a team. Which is great. Because if Harper wins this election? He'll have to work very, very closely with Duceppe. Unfortunately, their unity won't do much for Canada's unity.\"\n",
"By mid-November 2012 the very slow pace of progress by Elections Canada in investigating the matter was causing concern among the Canadian public and the opposition parties. Interim Liberal leader Bob Rae said, \"I don't have an explanation as to why it would be taking Elections Canada so long to indicate where it's going and how it's proceeding with this investigation. I'm increasingly hearing concerns from Canadians that Elections Canada is not moving with the kind of clarity and the kind of speed that they would expect of an organization which is intended to ensure Canadians that the electoral process in Canada is fair.\"\n",
"This election, like all previous Canadian elections, was conducted under a single-member plurality (or first past the post) system in which the country was carved into 295 electoral districts, or ridings, with each one electing one representative to the House of Commons. Those eligible to vote cast their ballot for a candidate in their electoral district and the candidate with the most votes in that district became that riding's Member of Parliament. The party that elects the most candidates forms the government by appointing its party leader as Prime Minister and its Members of Parliament to the Cabinet of Canada.\n"
] |
why can't we build a car that generates its power from the wheels turn like a windmill
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Because energy transfer isn't perfect, and the energy you'd expend getting the wheels to turn is WAYYY more than the energy you'd get back trying to use the spinning wheels to turn a generator.
|
[
"On the ground, the propeller and rotor are stopped and power is diverted to the wheels, allowing it to travel as a three-wheeled car. Unusually, it leans into turns like a motorcycle, a solution pioneered by the Carver vehicle, also produced by a Dutch company.\n",
"Electric motors, when used in reverse function as generators, convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. Vehicles propelled by electric motors use them as generators when using regenerative braking, braking by transferring mechanical energy from the wheels to an electrical load.\n",
"A freewheel assembly is also widely used on engine starters as a kind of protective device. Starter motors usually need to spin at 3,000 RPM to get the engine to turn over. When the key is held in the start position for any amount of time after the engine has started, the starter can not spin fast enough to keep up with the flywheel. Because of the extreme gear ratio between starter gear and flywheel (about 15 or 20:1) it would spin the starter armature at dangerously high speeds, causing an explosion when the centripetal force acting on the copper coils wound in the armature can no longer resist the outward force acting on them. In starters without the freewheel or overrun clutch this would be a major problem because, with the flywheel spinning at about 1,000 RPM at idle, the starter, if engaged with the flywheel, would be forced to spin between 15,000 and 20,000 RPM. Once the engine has turned over and is running, the overrun clutch releases the starter from the flywheel and prevents the gears from re-meshing (as in an accidental turning of the ignition key) while the engine is running. A freewheel clutch is now used in many motorcycles with an electric starter motor. It is used as a replacement for the Bendix drive used on most auto starters because it reduces the electrical needs of the starting system.\n",
"A turbine is a set of blades that are forced to turn from an external force. When the blades start turning, the shaft which this is connected to starts to spin, and the connecting generator then creates electricity. Examples of external forces that can be used to get the turbines going include wind, water, steam and gas. Turbines can be used in creating a continual power system because as long as the turbine blades turn, electricity is being created.\n",
"Windmill: Early windmills captured wind power to generate rotary motion for milling operations. Modern wind turbines also drives a generator. This electricity in turn is used to drive motors forming the actuators of mechanical systems.\n",
"The reverse conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy is done by an electric motor, and motors and generators have many similarities. Many motors can be mechanically driven to generate electricity and frequently make acceptable manual generators.\n",
"Because water is nearly incompressible, almost all of the available energy is extracted in the first stage of the hydraulic turbine. Therefore, Pelton wheels have only one turbine stage, unlike gas turbines that operate with compressible fluid.\n"
] |
In medieval Europe how often would you encounter people who carry either a sword or bow?
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Medieval Europe is a vast area and time. People you could meet in England in the 1100s would be different than France in the 1250s, and Italy in the 1300s. Can you narrow it down a bit?
|
[
"BULLET::::- Spadonari di Venaus: Sword dance from Venaus in the Val di Susa done for the feast of San Biagio. Four men clothed in a fastastic imitation of medieval warriors perform with large two-handed swords. The dance lasts about an hour and has only a few figures: raising the sword in salute, circling the sword in the air, striking the sword of their adversary and throwing the swords in the air in exchange.\n",
"The dagger was very popular as a fencing and personal defense weapon in 17th- and 18th-century Spain, where it was referred to as the \"daga\" or \"puñal\". During the Renaissance Age the dagger was used as part of everyday dress, and daggers were the only weapon commoners were allowed to carry on their person.\n",
"BULLET::::- Ross Cowan, \"Halflang and Tua-Handit: Late Medieval Scottish Hand-and-a-Half and Two-Handed Swords\". Updated version of two articles originally published in \"Medieval Warfare\" 1.2 & 1.3 (2011).\n",
"The use of weapon combinations in each hand has been mentioned for close combat in western Europe during the Byzantine, Medieval, and Renaissance era. The use of a parrying dagger such as a main gauche along with a rapier is common in historical European martial arts. \n",
"BULLET::::- Swords: the most common swords of the era originated from southern Europe. They were one metre long, designed to cut rather than thrust, with an \"S\"-shaped crossguard. As in many medieval swords, the heavy pommel balanced the blade and could be used for striking in close combat. The other version, which became popular in the second half of the century. was of similar design except for the quillon, which was curved towards the blade for the purpose of breaking or clinching the enemy's blade. The 130–140 cm long bastardswords also came into use. As a companion weapon, daggers of saw-toothed and flame-form type were applied (both with ring-guard) and a misericordia.\n",
"The use of the bow had been on foot until around the 4th century when elite soldiers took to fighting on horseback with bows and swords. In the 10th century, samurai would have archery duels on horseback. They would ride at each other and try to shoot at least three arrows. These duels did not necessarily have to end in death, as long as honor was satisfied.\n",
"Use of the two-handed Great Sword or \"Schlachtschwert\" by infantry (as opposed to their use as a weapon of mounted and fully armoured knights) seems to have originated with the Swiss in the 14th century.\n"
] |
why are illicit drugs cut with dangerous chemicals?
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When you're making drugs "at home' (ie - not a professional lab), you tend to cut corners and not buy everything from the most reputable chemical suppliers. Maybe you need a strong acid, why not grab battery acid or concrete cleaner? A strong base means you use lye-based drain cleaner. A solvent has you use gasoline.
Since there's no real standards or testing, these things get left in there. You then have anti-drug propaganda giving it the scariest possible description when they say what it is.
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[
"Historically, chemicals critical to the synthesis or manufacture of illicit drugs are introduced into various venues via legitimate purchases by companies that are registered and licensed to do business as chemical importers or handlers. Once in a country or state, the chemicals are diverted by rogue importers or chemical companies, by criminal organizations and individual violators, or acquired as a result of coercion and/or theft on the part of drug traffickers. In response to stricter international controls, drug traffickers have increasingly been forced to divert chemicals by mislabeling the containers, forging documents, establishing front companies, using circuitous routing, hijacking shipments, bribing officials, or smuggling products across international borders.\n",
"Because many legitimate industrial chemicals such as anhydrous ammonia and iodine are also necessary in the processing and synthesis of most illicitly produced drugs, preventing the diversion of these chemicals from legitimate commerce to illicit drug manufacturing is a difficult job. Governments often place restrictions on the purchase of large quantities of chemicals that can be used in the production of illicit drugs, usually requiring licenses or permits to ensure that the purchaser has a legitimate need for them.\n",
"In countries where strict chemical controls have been put in place, illicit drug production has been seriously affected. For example, few of the chemicals needed to process coca leaf into cocaine are manufactured in Bolivia or Peru. Most are smuggled in from neighbouring countries with advanced chemical industries or diverted from a smaller number of licit handlers. Increased interdiction of chemicals in Peru and Bolivia has contributed to final product cocaine from those countries being of lower, minimally oxidized quality.\n",
"With the exception of marijuana, which typically is uncut and unlaced, many illegal drugs, especially those which come in a powder or pill form are \"cut\" with other substances or \"spiked\" with other drugs. Cocaine, amphetamines and other stimulants often have caffeine powder added, as this increases the dealer's profit by bulking out the powder, so that less expensive cocaine or amphetamine has to be used in making the product. Some substances used to \"cut\" illegal drugs are not inherently harmful, as they are just used to \"pad\" or \"bulk out\" a quantity of the illegal drug and increase profits, such as lactose (milk sugar), a white powder often added to heroin. Even fairly innocuous powders that are added to illegal drugs, though, can have adverse effects with some routes of illegal drug administration, such as injection. With some drugs, adulterants are sometimes added to make the product more appealing. For example, \"flavoured cocaine\" has flavoured powder added to the drug.\n",
"The environmental impacts caused by the production of illicit drugs is an often neglected topic when analysing the effects of such substances. However, due to the clandestine nature of illicit drug production, its effects can be highly destructive yet difficult to detect and measure. The consequences differ depending upon the drug being produced but can be largely categorised into impacts caused by natural drugs or caused by synthetic/semi-synthetic drugs. Natural drugs refer to drugs which are primarily extracted from a natural source such as cocaine or cannabis. Synthetic drugs are produced from material that can’t be found in nature and semi-synthetic drugs are made from both natural and synthetic materials such as methamphetamines and MDMA. Drug policy is a large determinant on how organisations produce drugs and thereby, how their processes affect the environment, thus prompting Government bodies to analyse the current drug policy. It is inevitable that solutions to such environmental impacts are synonymous with solutions to overall illicit drug production, however many have noted the reactionary measures undertaken by government bodies and elevate the need of preventative measures instead. \n",
"Some precursor chemicals used for the production of illegal drugs are also controlled substances in many countries, even though they may lack the pharmacological effects of the drugs themselves. Substances are classified according to schedules and consist primarily of potentially psychoactive substances. The controlled substances do not include many prescription items such as antibiotics.\n",
"In 1988, the United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances introduced detailed provisions and requirements relating the control of precursors used to produce drugs of abuse.\n"
] |
Why does the temperature drop just before sunrise?
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I'm not sure what you mean. Excluding outside factors like cold fronts, the temperature doesn't suddenly drop just before sunrise.
Just before sunrise is the coldest part of the day because cooling takes place throughout the night while the sun is not up (again, excluding fronts), but there's no sudden drop just before dawn.
|
[
"Temperature inversions occur most frequently along coastal areas bordering large bodies of water. This is the result of natural onshore movement of cool, humid air shortly after sunset when the ground air cools more quickly than the upper air layers. The same action may take place in the morning when the rising sun warms the upper layers.\n",
"Due to a normal atmospheric refraction, sunrise occurs shortly before the Sun crosses above the horizon. Light from the Sun is bent, or refracted, as it enters earth's atmosphere. This effect causes the apparent sunrise to be earlier than the actual sunrise. Similarly, apparent sunset occurs slightly later than actual sunset.\n",
"Clearly, the temperature gradient may change substantially in time, as a result of diurnal or seasonal heating and cooling for instance. This most likely happens during an inversion. For instance, during the day the temperature at ground level may be cold while it's warmer up in the atmosphere. As the day shifts over to night the temperature might drop rapidly while at other places on the land stay warmer or cooler at the same elevation. This happens on the West Coast of the United States sometimes due to geography.\n",
"Sunrise actually occurs \"before\" the Sun truly reaches the horizon because Earth's atmosphere refracts the Sun's image. At the horizon, the average amount of refraction is 34 arcminutes, though this amount varies based on atmospheric conditions.\n",
"Sunset, also known as sundown, is the daily disappearance of the Sun below the horizon due to Earth's rotation. As viewed from the Equator, the equinox Sun sets exactly due west in both spring and fall. As viewed from the middle latitudes, the local summer Sun sets to the northwest for the Northern Hemisphere, but to the southwest for the Southern Hemisphere.\n",
"In late winter and spring, sunrise as seen from temperate latitudes occurs earlier each day, reaching its earliest time near the summer solstice; although the exact date varies by latitude. After this point, the time of sunrise gets later each day, reaching its latest sometime around the winter solstice. The offset between the dates of the solstice and the earliest or latest sunrise time is caused by the eccentricity of Earth's orbit and the tilt of its axis, and is described by the analemma, which can be used to predict the dates.\n",
"Sunrise (or Sun up) is the moment when the upper limb of the Sun appears on the horizon in the morning. The term can also refer to the entire process of the solar disk crossing the horizon and its accompanying atmospheric effects.\n"
] |
How Do I find out who is buried on my parents' old property when some of the graves are marked only with stones?
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Not asking you to dox yourself at all, but depending on the county it might be worth contacting the county historical society and/or the local newspaper, to see if they have archives going back to the early era of when the area was settled. If I remember correctly, UNC in Chapel Hill has a newspaper archive, and some of the older newspapers in the state have microfilm going back farther than you would think and from predecessor papers as well. (I worked at the Wilmington *Morning Star/Star-News* for awhile out of college and our archives were back to the 1860s.) If you can get an idea of which family owned the land, you may be able to research tax bills or something similar to see what (and who) they owned.
|
[
"The oldest recorded stones in the cemetery have been there since the early 1800s. Some graves have no headstone and there are no records of who is buried there, just a little X marking a burial spot. The most common symbols found on the headstones are religious crosses. The two mausoleums people visit are the ones for the Kohl family and the Sheldon family. In the cemetery, there is a section for infants and children younger than six years old. Another section was specified for the newest style headstones, which are black marble with pictures and drawings.\n",
"In Christian cultures, many families choose to mark the site of a burial of a family member with a gravestone. Typically the gravestone is engraved with information about the deceased person, usually including their name and date of death. Additional information may include date of birth, place of birth and relationships to other people (usually parents, spouses and/or children). Sometimes a verse from the Bible or a short poem is included, generally on a theme relating to love, death, grief, or heaven. \n",
"There are also grave stones for women (9) and children (18). Many of the children were infants. The most prominent of these grave markers was erected by Charles Stubbing who was the Admiralty Clerk between 1867 and 1893. He created a grave stone that lists his first and second wife and five of his children. He lost two of his children and his second wife in the same year (1882). He created another gravestone for the loss of his third wife.\n",
"The oldest gravestone in the churchyard is dated 1666. To the south of the church is a cross base of unknown age that was moved here from Cross Green in 1879. It consists of three square steps with a socket for the stem of a cross, and is designated as a Grade II listed building. There had been a wooden cross in the socket, but by 1985 it had been removed. It was replaced by a new wooden cross as a Millennium project in 2000. Further to the south is an inscribed stone about 420 mm high of unknown age that has been traditionally associated with funeral rites. It has an irregular shape with one flat face inscribed with a cross on a stepped base surmounted by a circle. It is also listed at Grade II. The third object to be designated at Grade II are the old village stocks dating from the 18th century, which were moved from a site near Cross Green to the west side of the churchyard. The stocks consist of two stone piers with slots for wooden boards, and between the piers is an iron bar. Also in the churchyard is the grave of Percy French (1854–1920), Irish songwriter and entertainer.\n",
"It is part of a long history and many more are buried in the church yard than there are gravestones for - some graves marked with just one name actually contain up to four people, since people have been buried there for hundreds and hundreds of years, grave stones only being introduced recently. \n",
"The oldest gravestones on Old Jewish cemetery are plain, yet very soon the number of ornaments (pilasters, volutes, false portals, etc.) began to increase. Most decorated gravestones come from 17th century. However, on every gravestone there are Hebrew letters that inform about the name of the deceased person and the date of his or her death or burial. Copious praise of deceased' virtues appears beside brief eulogy (\"of blessed memory\") in Renaissance time. From 16th century the gravestones characterize the deceased also through various symbols, hinting at the life, character, name or profession of the people (see the tables below for details).\n",
"Most of the marked graves in the church graveyard are grouped together in rows and aligned east-west. Approximately 68 names are recorded and dates range from the earliest in 1887 (an infant, Willy Hogan, whose name is included on a headstone with other family members) to the most recent in 2009. Dates on the headstones indicate that burials were taking place consistently from when the graveyard was first opened, peaking in the 1920s and 1930s, before declining in use after World War II; however since the 1990s burial numbers have been increasing. Headstones are made in a variety of styles and materials, some elaborate. Of note are an elaborately carved Celtic cross and several plots enclosed with wrought iron fencing. Older headstones tend to be made from marble and several have been broken. Families are generally buried together in a family plot or adjacent separate plots. Stonemasons recorded on some of the headstone include Ziegler of Toowoomba and F Williams of Ipswich. Recent burials are located along the western edge of the graveyard or in reserved family plots, and are usually marked with sandstone or concrete blocks with a granite plaque attached.\n"
] |
Was there ever a more global language than English?
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English is widely spoken throughout the world, but isn't nearly as dominant as you might think. It's second to Mandarin in terms of total speakers, and Spanish (a very global language), Arabic, and Russian aren't very far behind. A solid tip in the economy that lasted a few generations could totally upset our perception that English is the language of business in favor of, say, Mandarin. We have never had a more communicative, networked planet, and no other language has enjoyed this advantage.
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[
"Modern English, sometimes described as the first global lingua franca, is also regarded as the first world language. English is the world's most widely used language in newspaper publishing, book publishing, international telecommunications, scientific publishing, international trade, mass entertainment, and diplomacy. English is, by international treaty, the basis for the required controlled natural languages Seaspeak and Airspeak, used as international languages of seafaring and aviation. English used to have parity with French and German in scientific research, but now it dominates that field. It achieved parity with French as a language of diplomacy at the Treaty of Versailles negotiations in 1919. By the time of the foundation of the United Nations at the end of World War II, English had become pre-eminent and is now the main worldwide language of diplomacy and international relations. It is one of six official languages of the United Nations. Many other worldwide international organisations, including the International Olympic Committee, specify English as a working language or official language of the organisation.\n",
"English is often considered to be the lingua franca of the world today due to the diversity of countries and communities that have adopted English as a national, commercial, or social form of communication. Globalization, colonialism, and the capitalist system have all helped promote English as the world's dominant language, supplemented by years of British and American hegemony on the world stage. Today, nearly 1.39 billion people speak English according to the World Economic Forum, with its prominence over other languages highlighted through the geographic diversity of where it is spoken. According to Arwen Armbrecht, Mandarin Chinese is the most spoken first language in the world, however its influence lags behind English due to its limited use outside of Mandarin-speaking nations. As a result, the linguistic capital of Mandarin Chinese cannot be fully compared to that of English, which allows English to have such an important role around the globe.\n",
"English remains the dominant language of international business and global communication through the influence of global media and the former British Empire that had established the use of English in regions around the world such as North America, Africa, Australia and New Zealand. However, English is not the only language used in global organizations such as in the EU or the UN, because many countries do not recognize English as a universal language.\n",
"Through the worldwide influence of the British Empire, and later the United States, Modern English has been spreading around the world since the 17th century. Through all types of printed and electronic media, and spurred by the emergence of the United States as a global superpower, English has become the leading language of international discourse and the \"lingua franca\" in many regions and professional contexts such as science, navigation and law.\n",
"By the late 18th century, the British Empire had spread English through its colonies and geopolitical dominance. Commerce, science and technology, diplomacy, art, and formal education all contributed to English becoming the first truly global language. English also facilitated worldwide international communication. England continued to form new colonies, and these later developed their own norms for speech and writing. English was adopted in parts of North America, parts of Africa, Australasia, and many other regions. When they obtained political independence, some of the newly independent nations that had multiple indigenous languages opted to continue using English as the official language to avoid the political and other difficulties inherent in promoting any one indigenous language above the others. In the 20th century the growing economic and cultural influence of the United States and its status as a superpower following the Second World War has, along with worldwide broadcasting in English by the BBC and other broadcasters, caused the language to spread across the planet much faster. In the 21st century, English is more widely spoken and written than any language has ever been.\n",
"Extensive technological advances in the 21st century have enabled instant global communication, breaking the barriers of space and time, thereby changing the nature of globalization. With the world turned into an interconnected global system, there is a need for a mutual language. English has fulfilled this need by becoming the global lingua franca of the 21st century. Its presence in large parts of the world due to colonisation has led to it becoming the main language in which global trade, business, and cultural interactions take place. ELF is a unique lingua franca because of its global spread, its highly diverse nature, and its interactions which include native speakers.\n",
"Worldwide, English is used widely as a lingua franca and can be seen to be the dominant language at this time. The world's largest language by native speakers is Mandarin Chinese which is a first language of around 960 million people, or 12.44% of the population, predominantly in Greater China. Spanish is spoken by around 330 to 400 million people, predominantly in the Americas and Spain. Arabic is spoken by around 280 million people. Bengali is spoken by around 250 to 300 million people worldwide, predominantly in Bangladesh and India. Hindi is spoken by about 200 million speakers, mostly in India. Portuguese is spoken by about 230 million speakers in Portugal, Brazil, East Timor, and Southern Africa.\n"
] |
What are the origins of playing cards?
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Follow-up question:
How did certain cards in various games gather their names, such as the left and right "bauers" of Euchre or the "vixer" and "old lady" of Solo?
If I understand correctly, the games I gave as example are historically of German origin, which could have a role in the naming of the specific cards. In fact, "Bauer" means farmer in German, but how did the cards get these names?
|
[
"Playing cards may have been invented during the Tang dynasty around the 9th century AD as a result of the usage of woodblock printing technology. The first possible reference to card games comes from a 9th-century text known as the \"Collection of Miscellanea at Duyang\", written by Tang dynasty writer Su E. It describes Princess Tongchang, daughter of Emperor Yizong of Tang, playing the \"leaf game\" in 868 with members of the Wei clan, the family of the princess' husband. The first known book on the \"leaf\" game was called the \"Yezi Gexi\" and allegedly written by a Tang woman. It received commentary by writers of subsequent dynasties. The Song dynasty (960–1279) scholar Ouyang Xiu (1007–1072) asserts that the \"leaf\" game existed at least since the mid-Tang dynasty and associated its invention with the development of printed sheets as a writing medium. However, Ouyang also claims that the \"leaves\" were pages of a book used in a board game played with dice, and that the rules of the game were lost by 1067.\n",
"Playing cards may have been invented during the Tang dynasty around the 9th century AD as a result of the usage of woodblock printing technology. The first possible reference to card games comes from a 9th-century text known as the \"Collection of Miscellanea at Duyang\", written by Tang dynasty writer Su E. It describes Princess Tongchang, daughter of Emperor Yizong of Tang, playing the \"leaf game\" in 868 with members of the clan of Wei Baoheng, the family of the princess' husband. The first known book on the \"leaf\" game was called the \"Yezi Gexi\" and allegedly written by a Tang woman. It received commentary by writers of subsequent dynasties. The Song dynasty (960–1279) scholar Ouyang Xiu (1007–1072) asserts that the \"leaf\" game existed at least since the mid-Tang dynasty and associated its invention with the development of printed sheets as a writing medium. However, Ouyang also claims that the \"leaves\" were pages of a book used in a board game played with dice, and that the rules of the game were lost by 1067.\n",
"Playing cards may have been invented during the Tang dynasty around the 9th century AD as a result of the usage of woodblock printing technology. The first possible reference to card games comes from a 9th-century text known as the \"Collection of Miscellanea at Duyang\", written by Tang dynasty writer Su E. It describes Princess Tongchang, daughter of Emperor Yizong of Tang, playing the \"leaf game\" in 868 with members of the clan of Wei Baoheng, the family of the princess' husband. The first known book on the \"leaf\" game was called the \"Yezi Gexi\" and allegedly written by a Tang woman. It received commentary by writers of subsequent dynasties. The Song dynasty (960–1279) scholar Ouyang Xiu (1007–1072) asserts that the \"leaf\" game existed at least since the mid-Tang dynasty and associated its invention with the development of printed sheets as a writing medium. However, Ouyang also claims that the \"leaves\" were pages of a book used in a board game played with dice, and that the rules of the game were lost by 1067.\n",
"Playing cards () were most likely invented in China during the Southern Song dynasty (1127–1279). They were certainly in existence by the Mongol Yuan dynasty (1271-1368). Chinese use the word \"pái\" (), meaning \"plaque\", to refer to both playing cards and tiles. Many early sources are ambiguous if they don't specifically refer to paper \"pái\" (cards) or bone \"pái\" (tiles). In terms of game play, there is no difference; both serve to hide one face from the other players with identical backs. Card games are examples of imperfect information games as opposed to Chess or Go.\n",
"It is believed that playing cards were invented in China. Chinese playing cards, as we understand the term today, date from at least 1294, when Yen Sengzhu and Zheng Pig-Dog were apparently caught gambling in Enzhou (in modern Shandong Province). Cards entered Europe from the Islamic empire. The earliest authentic references to playing cards in Europe date from 1377. Europe changed the Islamic symbols such as scimitars and cups into graphical representations of kings, queens, knights and jesters. Different European countries adopted different suit systems. For instance, some Italian, Spanish and German decks of cards even today do not have queens. During the 15th century, German printers introduced a woodblock printing technique to produce playing cards. Lower production costs enabled the printed playing cards' quick exportation throughout Europe. The substitution of wood-block printing and hand coloring with copper-plate engraving during the 16th century was the next significant innovation in the manufacture of playing cards. The mass printing of playing cards was revolutionized by the introduction of color lithography in the early 19th century.\n",
"By the 11th century, playing cards were spreading throughout the Asian continent and later came into Egypt. The oldest surviving cards in the world are four fragments found in the Keir Collection and one in the Benaki Museum. They are dated to the 12th and 13th centuries (late Fatimid, Ayyubid, and early Mamluk periods).\n",
"Playing cards first appeared in Europe in the last quarter of the 14th century. The earliest European references speak of a Saracen or Moorish game called \"naib\", and in fact an almost complete Mamluk Egyptian deck of 52 cards in a distinct oriental design has survived from around the same time, with the four suits \"swords\", \"polo sticks\", \"cups\" and \"coins\" and the ranks \"king\", \"governor\", \"second governor\", and \"ten\" to \"one\".\n"
] |
what happens to fines paid to government?
|
Broadly speaking, it's treated as income. In that respect, you can think of it like cutting Uncle Sam a check; it's no different than paying taxes.
It might help to think of the government^1 as a big corporation: there's a highly visible point person, a 538-person board of directors, and a whole bunch of subsidiary corporations. They're all owned by the same company, they all answer to the same CEO, but they all do different things and keep track of their own business — including what they make and what they spend.
Each individual government agency has its own budget; each agency is responsible for keeping tabs on how much money comes in and how much comes out. Fines are generally paid to their relevant agencies — the DOJ would impose criminal and civil penalties, while regulatory agencies like the SEC might also impose their own fines.^2 Those incomes are accounted for in each agency's budget as a separate line item.^3 As for what the agency does with it then? Well, it's kind of up to them; after all, they're the ones who "made" the money. Usually, though, the money will stay within the agency in order to fund its operations.^4
Some specific fines are earmarked for special purposes: criminal fines and penalties are earmarked to go towards the [Crime Victims Fund](_URL_1_), a rather large^5 fund used to compensate victims of crimes.^6 The decision of what to do with the money is really on an agency level, but usually it will go to agency operations.^8
Lastly, it's worth noting that all of these supplemental sources of income are just that: supplemental. Taxes, in their various forms, make up about 91% of all federal revenue, with the bulk of that coming from income and payroll taxes. ([Here](_URL_4_) are some pretty graphs for that!)
******
^1 This is all for federal information. I presume state-level budget management is much the same. State agencies rarely levy massive fines like the DOJ does, but of course state budgets are proportionally smaller.
^2 Many agencies have the power to assess fines for violations of their rules, and I would speculate that most rule violators would rather pay a fine than take it to court and *then* pay a fine. DOJ and SEC are just the poster children for throwing down billion-dollar bills.
^3 Literally! You know how much the government loves paperwork, so you can bet your tax return it's all out there... somewhere. They key is finding it. [Here](_URL_3_) is a set of high-level budget spreadsheets which contain some examples of literal line items for different incomes.
If you take a look at the [Receipts](_URL_0_) document, you can see how the various agencies track their money. In that document, you can see that rows 149–46 represent receipts for the DOJ — and since the DOJ doesn't tax people, all of their money comes from fines and fees. 140 and 143–46 represent fee income, while 139 and 141–42 represent fines.
Various other agencies also have more interesting fees. Line 187 represents assets the Treasury seized from Iraqis — and you'll note that, farther over to the right, that only happened in FY 2003 and 2004. Big settlements might have their own line items; line 195 is the EPA's income from the Exxon Valdez settlement fund.
^4 The exception, of course, being the IRS. They're in the business of making money for everyone else to spend it.
^5 In the [above-linked spreadsheet](_URL_0_), you can see this line item on 142. According to [Wikipedia](_URL_1_), the CVF is currently sitting on about $4B.
^6 More information about the CVF, including their specific financial breakdown, is available [online](_URL_2_). I should note here that, as a general rule, victims of crime can also usually file a civil lawsuit for compensation; the CVF is designed as a gap-filler to provide compensation when the criminal^7 cannot.
^7 Well. Since the civil burden of proof is preponderance, but the criminal standard is of course beyond a reasonable doubt, you can win a civil lawsuit even if a person was not convicted of the crime... but that's a bit beyond the scope of this explanation.
^8 Agencies can't rely on fines for any significant part of their operating budget, of course; they're irregular incomes. Nevertheless, it's reasonable for an agency to expect a range of income based on those fines and to budget around that. Billion-dollar windfalls are just that: windfalls.
|
[
"One common example of a fine is money paid for violations of traffic laws. Currently in English common law, relatively small fines are used either in place of or alongside community service orders for low-level criminal offences. Larger fines are also given independently or alongside shorter prison sentences when the judge or magistrate considers a considerable amount of retribution is necessary, but there is unlikely to be significant danger to the public. For instance, fraud is often punished by very large fines since fraudsters are typically banned from the position or profession they abused to commit their crimes.\n",
"According to the provisions of the bill, any infraction against its prohibitions require offenders to pay fines, which are paid for each day of infraction. Those fines amount to $1,000–$5,000 for individuals, $7,000–$35,000 for student or union leaders, and $25,000–$125,000 per day for student or labor organizations. Fines are doubled for second and subsequent offences. Universities or institutions which do not comply with the provisions of Bill 78 are subject to the daily fees paid by student or labor organizations.\n",
"The Act also introduced criminal penalties for corrupt officialdom. An official or employee of the government who acts corruptly—as well as the person who induces the corrupt act—in the carrying out of their official duties will be fined by an amount that is not more than three times the monetary equivalent of the bribe in question. Alternatively they may be imprisoned for not more than 15 years, or they may be fined and imprisoned. Penalties apply to financial institutions who do not comply with an order to terminate any corresponding accounts within 10 days of being so ordered by the Attorney General or the Secretary of Treasury. The financial institution can be fined $US10,000 for each day the account remains open after the 10-day limit has expired.\n",
"In remote regions in which few people have paid employment it might seem that large fines would be unlikely to be paid. The system is usually extremely effective; many people will work in town at some stage in their life and then have savings. Fines are levied against the transgressor and family, who then join together to pay the fine. The victim’s family generally feel satisfied that they have received restitution when they receive the fine, reducing the risk of subsequent fighting. Having paid the fine, the transgressor’s family usually make very sure that he behaves and may well make him slowly work to pay them back. The Committee Man is paid a fee for his time, generally by the person bringing the case. \n",
"The fines are subject to recovery proceedings. If the fines are still not paid, the court may convert them to a prison sentence. Three day-fines will be converted to one day of imprisonment, ignoring the remainder for any amount of day-fines not divisible by three, and the length of the sentence must be between 4 and 60 days. This \"conversion punishment\" (, ) is only ever applied to court-ordered fines, not those issued by police.\n",
"Section 329 introduced criminal penalties for corrupt officialdom. An official or employee of the government who acts corruptly — as well as the person who induces the corrupt act — in the carrying out of their official duties will be fined by an amount that is not more than three times the monetary equivalent of the bribe in question. Alternatively they may be imprisoned for not more than 15 years, or they may be fined and imprisoned. Penalties apply to financial institutions who do not comply with an order to terminate any corresponding accounts within 10 days of being so ordered by the Attorney General or the Secretary of Treasury under Section 319. The financial institution can be fined $US10,000 for each day the account remains open after the 10-day limit has expired.\n",
"Formal sanctions are usually imposed by the government and organizations in the form of laws to reward or punish behavior. Some formal sanctions include fines and incarceration in order to deter negative behavior. \n"
] |
I read that caffeine in coffee has a half life of about 4 hours. It's this true? If so, why dies it only decay at this rate after the coffee is brewed?
|
4-5 hours. The half life is only in regards to the metabolic half life inside the body. A lot of enzymes break down caffeine into other compounds and this process takes time. Some is also expelled through the urine.
Natural degrading of compounds does not happen in the same way. It is a totally different process and it usually takes way longer depending on the enviroment. A dry coffee bean will not lose its caffeine so easily. A wet one however would be subject to bacterial processes. Or one in a very hot place could destroy the caffeine gradually though heat. Or pure caffeine in sunlight could slowly break down the molecular bounds. Some compounds can resist enviromental hazards better than others and some break down quite quickly if they are not kept in an ideal enviroment. Caffeine is on that side of compounds that can take a beating.
|
[
"The structure of caffeine allows the molecule to pass freely through biological membranes including the blood-brain barrier. Absorption in the gastrointestinal tract reaches near completion at about 99% after only 45 minutes. Half-life of caffeine for most adults is between 2.5 and 4.5 hours when consumption is limited to less than 10 mg/kg. However, during neonatal development, half-life for the fetus is significantly longer and decreases exponentially after birth to reach a normal rate at about 6 months.\n",
"Caffeine's biological half-life – the time required for the body to eliminate one-half of a dose – varies widely among individuals according to factors such as pregnancy, other drugs, liver enzyme function level (needed for caffeine metabolism) and age. In healthy adults, caffeine's half-life is between 3 and 7 hours. Smoking decreases the half-life by 30–50%, while oral contraceptives can double it and pregnancy can raise it to as much as 15 hours during the third trimester. In newborns the half-life can be 80 hours or more, dropping very rapidly with age, possibly to less than the adult value by age 6 months. The antidepressant fluvoxamine (Luvox) reduces the clearance of caffeine by more than 90%, and increases its elimination half-life more than tenfold; from 4.9 hours to 56 hours.\n",
"A March 2011 article in Consumer Reports reported that, according to a lab test, a 5-Hour Energy contained 207 milligrams of caffeine, slightly more than an serving of Starbucks coffee which contains 180 mg of caffeine. (It is not clear whether the \"Original\" or \"Extra Strength\" product was tested.) The directions on the 5-Hour bottle recommend taking half of the contents (103 mg of caffeine) for regular use, and the whole bottle for extra energy. A regular cup of coffee has less than 100 mg/250 ml cup.\n",
"It is believed that the optimum time for brewing the coffee is around four minutes, and some consider the coffee spoiled after about 20 minutes. Other approaches, such as cold brewing, require several hours of contact between the water and the grounds to achieve the desired extraction.\n",
"Butalbital has a half-life of about 35 hours. Acetaminophen has a half-life of about 1.25 to 3 hours, but may be increased by liver damage and after an overdose. Caffeine has a half-life of about 2.5 to 4.5 hours.\n",
"In 2019, it was reported that Coca-Cola have started to plan an introduction of coffee releated products across 25 markets by the end of the year. The coffee has been planned to combine Coke with coffee, which will contain less caffeine than a regular cup of coffee but more than a regular can of coke.\n",
"The caffeine content of instant coffee is generally less than that of brewed coffee. One study comparing various home-prepared samples came to the result that regular instant coffee (not decaffeinated) has a median caffeine content of 66 mg per cup (range 29–117 mg per cup), with a median cup size of 225 ml (range 170-285 ml) and a caffeine concentration of 328 µg/ml (range 102-559 µg/ml). In comparison, drip or filter coffee was estimated to have a median caffeine content of 112 mg, with a median concentration of 621 µg/ml for the same cup size.\n"
] |
How can Orcas jump so high?
|
It's all about velocity, the faster you can approach the surface of the water, the higher you can jump. However it's not an issue of being better swimmers in general, sharks are neutral buoyancy, orcas are positive buoyancy. This means orcas store energy as they dive, and this gets converted into velocity as they ascend. It makes sense from a survival perspective, sharks don't have to surface to breathe, but if orcas were neutral buoyancy and overestimated their dive endurance, they'd drown. Similarly, but less extreme, if sharks were positive buoyancy, they'd have to waste energy to maintain their depth.
|
[
"Taiwan serows can jump as high as 2 m and run as fast as 20 km per hour. Among all mammals in Taiwan, they are the best high jumpers. They can be found at an elevation as low as 50 meters, but are mostly seen at 1000 meters and as high as 3500 meters. Their habitats include conifer forest, mixed broad-leaved forests, and the steep slopes of bare rocks and gravel cliffs. They are sometimes spotted on top of Nanhu Mountain (南湖大山), Hsuehshan (雪山), Yushan (玉山), and Siouguluan Mountain (秀姑巒山). They also live in the Taroko National Park. Their hoofs separate to two sides and can easily hold on to rocks on steep slopes. They are also good tree climbers. They are solitary and territorial. They use tears to smear branches or stones as markers.\n",
"Galagos have remarkable jumping abilities. The highest reliably reported jump for a galago is 2.25 m. According to a study published by the Royal Society, given the body mass of each animal and the fact that the leg muscles amount to about 25% of this, galago's jumping muscles should perform six to nine times better than those of a frog. This is thought to be due to elastic energy storage in tendons of the lower leg, allowing far greater jumps than would otherwise be possible for an animal of their size. In mid-flight, they tuck their arms and legs close to the body; they are then brought out at the last second to grab the branch. In a series of leaps, a galago can cover ten yards in mere seconds. The tail, which is longer than the length of the head and body combined, assists the powerful leg muscles in powering the jumps. They may also hop like a kangaroo or simply run/walk on four legs. Such strong, complicated, and coordinated movements are due to the rostral half of the posterior parietal cortex that is linked to the motor, premotor, and visuomotor areas of the frontal cortex.\n",
"\"M. nigrocincta\" is an accomplished jumper with leaps ranging from . It has good vision and can be observed running amongst plants and leaves, occasionally jumping from one branch to another. It is mostly found foraging on plants, trees, and other vegetation, but it sometimes forages on the ground. It propels its jumps by a sudden extension of its middle and hind legs.\n",
"Their leaps are accomplished by synchronized abduction of the middle and hind pairs of legs. They can jump up to 2 cm high and 10 cm long. These leaps are made not only to escape, but also to catch flying prey. The workers forage only during the cool hours of the morning and afternoon with a lull in activity during mid day.\n",
"Aquatic species rarely display any particular specializations for jumping. Those that are good jumpers usually are primarily adapted for speed, and execute moving jumps by simply swimming to the surface at a high velocity. A few primarily aquatic species that can jump while on land, such as mud skippers, do so via a flick of the tail.\n",
"They are athletic creatures that run fast, and jump many times their length. They can also climb straight up almost any surface at blinding speed. They usually sit downward. Seeing a potential prey they dart down towards it. They display their dewlap and bob their head to attract sexual partners and to mark their territory. \n",
"The New Zealand entomologist Dr Tara Murray told North & South magazine in 2019: “They can actually jump, they just don’t land very well. On a hot day, an adult male can jump up to 1.5m, multiple times. Females are bulkier, so they don’t jump as far. These grasshoppers freeze as a first defence. If they do jump, it often ends as a back flop, belly flop or general ‘thock’ on the ground.” \n"
] |
how do the rsa securids work?
|
Imagine you had two matched devices that generated a series of numbers, 1 every minute, based on a secret formula. You give me one, and keep one for yourself. Later on, I text you, but you aren't sure that it is me, so you ask for the number on my device. If it matches yours, you can be pretty sure it is really me.
That's basically what is going on. The secret formula is designed so that every device can have its once unique version, and that is it is very, very hard to figure out the formula from just the numbers. One device is your key fob, and the other is a program running on the computer you are trying to connect to. This way, even if someone gets your password, they still need the device to log in.
|
[
"RSA SecurID, formerly referred to as SecurID, is a mechanism developed by Security Dynamics (later RSA Security and now RSA, The Security Division of EMC) for performing two-factor authentication for a user to a network resource.\n",
"RSA is most known for its SecurID product that provides two-factor authentication to hundreds of technologies utilizing hardware tokens, software tokens, and one time codes. In 2016, RSA re-branded the SecurID platform as RSA SecurID Access. This release added Single-Sign-On capabilities and cloud authentication for resources using SAML 2.0 and other types of federation.\n",
"In computing, Self-certifying File System (SFS) is a global and decentralized, distributed file system for Unix-like operating systems, while also providing transparent encryption of communications as well as authentication. It aims to be the universal distributed file system by providing uniform access to any available server, however, the usefulness of SFS is limited by the low deployment of SFS clients. It was developed in the June 2000 doctoral thesis of David Mazières.\n",
"In Australia, an external administrator, also called an insolvency practitioner, is an independent person that is formally appointed to control an insolvent company's affairs. External administrators can be appointed either by the company's directors, a secured creditor, or by a court, and include: provisional liquidators, liquidators, voluntary administrators, deed administrators, controllers, and receivers. A receivership is when an external administrator known as a \"receiver\" is appointed by a secured creditor to sell off a company's assets in order to repay the secured debt, or by the court to protect the company's assets or carry out other tasks.\n",
"Released under an open-source license, DACS provides a modular authentication framework that supports an array of common authentication methods and a rule-based authorization engine that can grant or deny access to resources, named by URLs, based on the identity of the requestor and other contextual information. Administrators can configure DACS to identify users by employing authentication methods and user accounts already available within their organization. The resulting DACS identities are recognized at all DACS jurisdictions that have been federated.\n",
"Acronis Backup and Acronis Backup Advanced are a disk-based backup and recovery programs. Aside from backup software, Acronis also created Acronis Disk Director which is a shareware application that partitions a machine and allows it to run multiple operating systems, Acronis Snap Deploy which creates a standard configuration to easily organize new machines, Acronis Access Advanced which secures access to files that are synced between devices, and Acronis Access Connect, which is designed for Mac clients and runs on Windows servers. Acronis Data Protection Platform includes backup, disaster recover, and secure file sync and share.\n",
"Revulytics (formerly V.I. Labs) is a privately held business intelligence company headquartered in Waltham, Massachusetts, United States. The company acquired Trackerbird Software Analytics, based in Malta, and re-branded on November 15, 2016. Revulytics provides business-to-business solutions to independent software vendors for software usage and software compliance reporting.\n"
] |
why are the french riots with the yellow vest protestors not being reported at all in u.s. media?
|
A combination of the fact that many people in the US don't care about foreign affairs to begin with and don't understand the reason for the Yellow Vest protests / riots and are therefore not interested, and that even if people did understand what the protests were about, they've been going on for so long that the media would have a hard time marketing it as clickable material.
The conspiracy part of me thinks it's because France is a NATO ally and revered democratic nation and the media doesn't want to glorify mass protests against a publicly elected government.
|
[
"Earlier in the week, France's highest court denied a request to ban police from using \"flash balls\" or \"defensive ball launchers\", known as LBDs, that shoot rubber projectiles, which have been blamed for a number of serious injuries. French Interior Minister Christophe Castaner admitted in media interviews that the weapon could cause injuries and had been used more than 9,000 times since yellow vests demonstrations began. The day before the Act XII protests, the government warned the public that police would not hesitate to use the weapons to combat violence by demonstrators, since they had been authorized by the court. On Saturday, thousands in Paris participated in a \"march of the injured\" calling for the weapon to be banned. Injured protesters marched at the front, some wearing eye patches with a target sign on them. Jerome Rodrigues, a well-known participant in the movement who lost an eye in the previous week's demonstrations, was received warmly with applause by the crowds.\n",
"Earlier in the week, France's highest court denied a request to ban police from using \"flash balls\" or \"defensive ball launchers\", known as LBDs, that shoot rubber projectiles, which have been blamed for a number of serious injuries. French Interior Minister Christophe Castaner admitted in media interviews that the weapon could cause injuries and had been used more than 9,000 times since yellow vests demonstrations began. The day before the Act XII protests, the government warned the public that police would not hesitate to use the weapons to combat violence by demonstrators, since they had been authorized by the court. On Saturday, thousands in Paris participated in a \"march of the injured\" calling for the weapon to be banned. Injured protesters marched at the front, some wearing eye patches with a target sign on them. Jerome Rodrigues, a well-known participant in the movement who lost an eye in the previous week's demonstrations, was received warmly with applause by the crowds.\n",
"It is unclear why the riot started; some sources suggest that it was as a result of police ripping a customer's trousers and refusing to pay, others that they were attacked as they removed alcohol from the café which did not have a drinks licence. According to \"The Guardian\" newspaper, 100–200 black and white youths were involved.\n",
"The BBC reported that \"hundreds\" of black and white youths participated in the riot. Rioters attacked police, ransacked shops and burned cars. According to the police \"Officers were wearing protective clothing because we had reports of missiles being thrown.\" In an attempt to contain the riot around 50 police officers in riot gear formed lines to close Brixton's main road (Brixton Road), preventing anyone from entering the area. The street had been the scene of rioting in 1981. Police also sealed off a two-mile area around the centre of Brixton and closed Brixton and Stockwell stations. A police helicopter was dispatched over Brixton. It was reported that shots were fired as the centre of the demonstration moved into the area of the Ritzy Cinema. It was also reported that a crowd of at least ten rioters pulled a police motorcyclist from his machine. The Dogstar, Coldharbour Lane was among the businesses attacked by the rioters. Formerly The Atlantic, a predominantly black pub, and recently refurbished. The riot later developed into what police called \"sporadic pockets of trouble in the area around Brixton town centre\". The police stated that \"We gave them every opportunity to move off peacefully but they hadn't done so.\"\n",
"Riots broke out in Trappes, a suburb (\"banlieue\") of Paris, France on 19 July 2013 after the police arrested a man who assaulted a police officer, who tried to check the identity of his wife wearing a Muslim veil on 18 July 2013.\n",
"The twelfth week of protests occurred as the French parliament was considering a new law proposed by Macron's governing party restricting the right to protest. The proposed law would outlaw covering one's face during a street demonstration (whether with a helmet, mask, or scarf), punishable by a €15,000 fine or imprisonment, and allow local police to establish blacklists of people not allowed to participate in street protests. The proposed law was opposed by some members of parliament inside and outside Macron's party.\n",
"The twelfth week of protests occurred as the French parliament was considering a new law proposed by Macron's governing party restricting the right to protest. The proposed law would outlaw covering one's face during a street demonstration (whether with a helmet, mask, or scarf), punishable by a €15,000 fine or imprisonment, and allow local police to establish blacklists of people not allowed to participate in street protests. The proposed law was opposed by some members of parliament inside and outside Macron's party.\n"
] |
during the war of the currents, tesla and edison battled over superiority between alternating current (ac) and direct current (dc). why is alternating current regarded as more superior than direct current?
|
It is not really superior. Automobiles use direct current.
The one really important difference up to now is that transformers can be used to step up and down the voltage with alternating current.
At the power plant the voltage is stepped up tremendously to be carried on high overhead wires. High voltage means low current. Low current means more power transmitted over same size wires with less loss due to resistance.
The voltage is stepped down before use in residential and most commercial buildings. Only alternating current can do this using transformers.
There may also be advantages in industry where triple phase alternating current can be made available.
Direct current is actually less dangerous if people connect across the voltage.
|
[
"In the US the competition between direct current and alternating current took a personal turn in the late 1880s in the form of a \"War of Currents\" when Thomas Edison started attacking George Westinghouse and his development of the first US AC transformer systems, pointing out all the deaths caused by high voltage AC systems over the years and claiming any AC system was inherently dangerous. Edison's propaganda campaign was short lived with his company switching over to AC in 1892.\n",
"In the late 1880s, there was a debate within the industry about the transmission of electrical power, known as the War of the Currents. Thomas Edison supported a direct current (DC) based system, largely due to his holding many key patents and having set up some power plants supplying DC power. The rival Westinghouse Electric Corporation supported an alternating current (AC) system.\n",
"Even though the institutional war of currents had ended in a financial merger the technical difference between direct and alternating current systems followed a much longer technical merger. Due to innovation in the US and Europe, alternating current's economy of scale with very large generating plants linked to loads via long distance transmission was slowly being combined with the ability to link it up with all of the existing systems that needed to be supplied. These included single phase AC systems, poly-phase AC systems, low voltage incandescent lighting, high voltage arc lighting, and existing DC motors in factories and street cars. In the engineered \"universal system\" these technological differences were temporarily being bridged via the development of rotary converters and motor–generators that allowed the large number of legacy systems to be connected to the AC grid. These stopgaps were slowly replaced as older systems were retired or upgraded.\n",
"Thomas Edison's staunch anti-AC tactics were not sitting well with his own stockholders. By the early 1890s, Edison's company was generating much smaller profits than its AC rivals, and the War of Currents would come to an end in 1892 with Edison forced out of controlling his own company. That year, the financier J.P. Morgan engineered a merger of Edison General Electric with Thomson-Houston that put the board of Thomson-Houston in charge of the new company called General Electric. General Electric now controlled three-quarters of the US electrical business and would compete with Westinghouse for the AC market.\n",
"The fifteen electric companies that existed 5 years before had merged down to two; General Electric and Westinghouse. The war of currents came to an end and this merger of the Edison company, along with its lighting patents, and the Thomson-Houston, with its AC patents, created a company that controlled three quarters of the US electrical business. From this point on General Electric and Westinghouse were both marketing alternating current systems. Edison put on a brave face noting to the media how his stock had gained value in the deal but privately he was bitter that his company and all of his patents had been turned over to the competition.\n",
"The late 1880s and early 1890s would see the financial merger of smaller electric companies into a few larger corporations such as Ganz and AEG in Europe and General Electric and Westinghouse Electric in the US. These companies continued to develop AC systems but the technical difference between direct and alternating current systems would follow a much longer technical merger. Due to innovation in the US and Europe, alternating current's economy of scale with very large generating plants linked to loads via long distance transmission was slowly being combined with the ability to link it up with all of the existing systems that needed to be supplied. These included single phase AC systems, poly-phase AC systems, low voltage incandescent lighting, high voltage arc lighting, and existing DC motors in factories and street cars. In what was becoming a \"universal system\", these technological differences were temporarily being bridged via the development of rotary converters and motor-generators that would allow the large number of legacy systems to be connected to the AC grid. These stopgaps would slowly be replaced as older systems were retired or upgraded.\n",
"With Thomas Edison no longer involved with Edison General Electric, the war of currents came to a close with a financial merger. Edison president Henry Villard, who had engineered the merger that formed Edison General Electric, was continually working on the idea of merging that company with Thomson-Houston or Westinghouse. He saw a real opportunity in 1891. The market was in a general downturn causing cash shortages for all the companies concerned and Villard was in talks with Thomson-Houston, which was now Edison General Electric's biggest competitor. Thomson-Houston had a habit of saving money on development by buying, or sometimes stealing, patents. Patent conflicts were stymieing the growth of both companies and the idea of saving on some 60 ongoing lawsuits as well as saving on profit losses of trying to undercut each other by selling generating plants below cost pushed forward the idea of this merger in financial circles. Edison hated the idea and tried to hold it off but Villard thought his company, now winning its incandescent light patent lawsuits in the courts, was in a position to dictate the terms of any merger. As a committee of financiers, which included J.P. Morgan, worked on the deal in early 1892 things went against Villard. In Morgan's view Thomson-Houston looked on the books to be the stronger of the two companies and engineered a behind the scenes deal announced on April 15, 1892, that put the management of Thomson-Houston in control of the new company, now called General Electric (dropping Edison's name). Thomas Edison was not aware of the deal until the day before it happened.\n"
] |
Are there any measurable differences between two hydrogen atoms?
|
No. :)
That's a quite significant feature of quantum mechanics. They are completely indistinguishable. And this is a relevant feature when doing calculations in thermodynamics (more precisely in statistical mechanics).
|
[
"A single hydrogen atom can participate in two hydrogen bonds, rather than one. This type of bonding is called \"bifurcated\" (split in two or \"two-forked\"). It can exist, for instance, in complex natural or synthetic organic molecules. It has been suggested that a bifurcated hydrogen atom is an essential step in water reorientation.\n",
"Other molecules and functional groups containing two hydrogen atoms, such as water and methylene, also have ortho- and para- forms (e.g. orthowater and parawater), but this is of little significance for their thermal properties. Their ortho-para ratios differ from that of dihydrogen.\n",
"Because of this resonance, the molecule has bilateral symmetry across the plane of the shared carbon pair, as well as across the plane that bisects bonds C2-C3 and C6-C7, and across the plane of the carbon atoms. Thus there are two sets of equivalent hydrogen atoms: the \"alpha\" positions, numbered 1, 4, 5, and 8, and the \"beta\" positions, 2, 3, 6, and 7. Two isomers are then possible for mono-substituted naphthalenes, corresponding to substitution at an alpha or beta position. Bicyclo[6.2.0]decapentaene is a structural isomer with a fused 4–8 ring system.\n",
"Because all six \"a\" hydrogens, both \"c\" hydrogens, and the three \"d\" hydrogens are chemically equivalent with the others in their three classifications (i.e., any \"a\" hydrogen is equivalent with any other \"a\" hydrogen), these rates accurately reflect where a single chlorination may take place for 2-methylbutane. The single tertiary hydrogen \"b\" is nearly as susceptible as the six, primary \"a\" hydrogens, and almost doubly susceptible as any of the three, also primary \"d\" hydrogens, illustrating the radical stability differences between tertiary and primary hydrogens (the secondary \"c\" hydrogens also follow the radical stability order as previously mentioned).\n",
"A neutral hydrogen atom consists of one electron and one proton. Hydrogen's electronegativity value of 2.2 is less than the electronegativity of the atoms that hydrogen is commonly bound to, such as oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, or fluorine. When a hydrogen atom forms a covalent bond with a more electronegative atom, the more electronegative atom will have a greater affinity for the electrons and pull the electrons away from hydrogen. When a highly electronegative atom binds to a hydrogen atom it is reduced because it gains the electrons involved in the covalent bond. Conversely, when an atom loses a hydrogen atom it is oxidized because it loses electrons. For example, consider the reaction involving Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD) and succinate. In this reaction FAD is reduced to FADH2 because it accepts two hydrogen atoms from succinate. Succinate serves as the reducing equivalent because it donates electrons to FAD in the form of hydrogen atoms and is itself oxidized.\n",
"However, hydrogen atoms possess a feature unique among all the elements - they possess exactly one electron, which additionally is located on their valence shell and therefore is involved in creating strong covalent bonds with atoms of various other elements. While a bond is forming, the maximum of the electron density function moves significantly away from the nucleus and towards the other atom. This prevents any spherical approach from determining hydrogen position correctly by itself. Therefore, usually the hydrogen position is estimated basing on neutron crystallography data for similar molecules, or it is not modelled at all in the case of low-quality diffraction data.\n",
"In scheme (5), hydrogen is placed by itself on account of it being \"so different from all other elements\". The remaining nonmetals are divided into \"nonmetals\", \"halogens\", and \"noble gases\", with the unnamed category being distinguished by including nonmetals with relatively strong interatomic bonding, and the metalloids being effectively treated as a third super-category alongside metals and nonmetals.\n"
] |
a breakdown of the marvel universe leading up to avengers: age of ultron.
|
They were once all separate heroes but they were eventually all recruited by S.H.I.E.L.D., a US government agency dedicated to detecting and neutralizing threats, both on earth and elsewhere.
It is a lot to go into so I agree with homeboi in saying check out /r/marvel or /r/marvelstudios
|
[
"Avengers: Age of Ultron is a 2015 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics superhero team the Avengers, produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. It is the sequel to 2012's \"The Avengers\" and the eleventh film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). The film was written and directed by Joss Whedon and features an ensemble cast that includes Robert Downey Jr., Chris Hemsworth, Mark Ruffalo, Chris Evans, Scarlett Johansson, Jeremy Renner, Don Cheadle, Aaron Taylor-Johnson, Elizabeth Olsen, Paul Bettany, Cobie Smulders, Anthony Mackie, Hayley Atwell, Idris Elba, Stellan Skarsgård, James Spader, and Samuel L. Jackson. In the film, the Avengers fight Ultron, an artificial intelligence obsessed with causing human extinction.\n",
"In mid-November, 2012, Marvel Comics released a cryptic teaser written \"Age of Ultron\" in binary code. Three days later the event was officially announced, although by this point it had been over a year since the event had been originally announced. Neil Gaiman's Angela character was introduced into the Marvel Universe in the last issue of the \"Age of Ultron\" miniseries, although the issue was shipped in a polybag to prevent other details of the story's ending from being publicized too early. An \"Age of Ultron\" #10 A.I. one-shot by writer Mark Waid and artist Andre Lima Araujo will delve into the repercussions of the storyline for Hank Pym. Following the conclusion of \"Age of Ultron\", a new ongoing series titled \"Avengers A.I.\" by writer Sam Humphries and Andre Lima Araujo will launch in July. In addition, a miniseries originally solicited as \"Age of Ultron #10 U.C.\" but now titled \"The Hunger\" will round out the event, dealing with the implications of the changes in the Marvel Universe status quo. For example, \"The Hunger\" serves as a catalyst for the \"Cataclysm\" event in the \"Marvel\" \"Ultimate Comics\" universe, which involves its Universe's war against \"Galactus\".\n",
"In April 2014, Marvel released the five-part \"What If? Age of Ultron\" which spun out of the 2013 event and examined the consequences of Wolverine going back in time to kill Hank Pym before creating Ultron. Each issue explored what a new universe would be like which arose from the removal of another core Avenger, with Wasp in #1, Iron Man in #2, Thor in #3 and Captain America in #4. The series was concluded in #5 with a world where Hank Pym never created Ultron in the first place and thus a universe without Ultron's creation of the Vision.\n",
"A sequel, titled \"Avengers: Age of Ultron\", written and directed by Whedon, was released on May 1, 2015. Much of the cast returns, with the addition of Elizabeth Olsen as Scarlet Witch, Aaron Taylor-Johnson as Quicksilver, Paul Bettany as Vision, and James Spader as Ultron.\n",
"In April 2014 Marvel released a five-issue limited series for the 2013 event \"Age of Ultron\", focusing on Wolverine and Invisible Woman's trip back in time to kill Hank Pym in order to prevent him creating Ultron and showing the effects for the Marvel Universe if one of the other four founding Avengers had died, or if Hank had simply elected not to create Ultron.\n",
"BULLET::::- A sequel, \"Avengers: Age of Ultron\", written and directed by Whedon, was released on May 1, 2015. The film features all the Avengers returning from the first film, and introduce new team members the Scarlet Witch, portrayed by Elizabeth Olsen, Quicksilver, played by Aaron Taylor-Johnson, and the Vision, played by Paul Bettany. At the end of \"Age of Ultron\", a new roster of Avengers is established which includes Captain America, the Black Widow, the Scarlet Witch, the Falcon (portrayed by Anthony Mackie), the Vision, and War Machine (portrayed by Don Cheadle).\n",
"Between 1996 and 2004, Marvel relaunched the primary Avengers title three times. In 1996, the \"Heroes Reborn\" line, in which Marvel contracted outside companies to produce four titles, included a new volume of \"The Avengers\". It took place in an alternate universe, with a revamped history unrelated to mainstream Marvel continuity. \"The Avengers\" vol. 2 was written by Rob Liefeld and penciled by Jim Valentino, and ran for 13 issues (Nov. 1996–Nov. 1997). The final issue, which featured a crossover with the other \"Heroes Reborn\" titles, returned the characters to the main Marvel Universe.\n"
] |
Is CBD oil effective at treating anxiety/depression?
|
Neuroscience PhD here.
It might be useful for anxiety, but the evidence is nowhere near as clear as people are making it out to be in this thread. More importantly, the side effects and long term effects of chronic is are completely un-studied.
If anxiety is inhibiting your ability to live the way you would like, please see a doctor. I promise that the century of research on the treatment of anxiety will serve you better than trying CBD oil.
|
[
"Emerging evidence suggests a possible role for CBT in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD); hypochondriasis; coping with the impact of multiple sclerosis; sleep disturbances related to aging; dysmenorrhea; and bipolar disorder, but more study is needed and results should be interpreted with caution. CBT can have a therapeutic effects on easing symptoms of anxiety and depression in people with Alzheimer's disease. CBT has been studied as an aid in the treatment of anxiety associated with stuttering. Initial studies have shown CBT to be effective in reducing social anxiety in adults who stutter, but not in reducing stuttering frequency.\n",
"When compared to psychoactive medications, review studies have found CBT alone to be as effective for treating less severe forms of depression and anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), tics, substance abuse, eating disorders and borderline personality disorder. It is often recommended in combination with medications for treating other conditions, such as severe obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) and major depressive disorder, opioid use disorder, bipolar disorder and psychotic disorders. In addition, CBT is recommended as the first line of treatment for majority of psychological disorders in children and adolescents, including aggression and conduct disorder. Researchers have found that other \"bona fide\" therapeutic interventions were equally effective for treating certain conditions in adults. Along with interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT), CBT is recommended in treatment guidelines as a psychosocial treatment of choice, and CBT and IPT are the only psychosocial interventions that psychiatry residents are mandated to be trained in.\n",
"A 2010 systematic review of 14 studies reported that CBT improves self-efficacy or coping with pain and reduces the number of physician visits at post-treatment, but has no significant effect on pain, fatigue, sleep or health-related quality of life at post-treatment or follow-up. Depressed mood was also improved but this could not be distinguished from some risks of bias.\n",
"Both cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and medications (such as SSRIs) have been shown to be effective in reducing anxiety. A comparison of overall outcomes of CBT and medication on anxiety did not show statistically significant differences (i.e. they were equally effective in treating anxiety). However, CBT is significantly more effective in reducing depression severity, and its effects are more likely to be maintained in the long term, whereas the effectiveness of pharmacologic treatment tends to lessen if medication is discontinued. A combination of both CBT and medication is generally seen as the most desirable approach to treatment. Use of medication to lower extreme anxiety levels can be important in enabling patients to engage effectively in CBT.\n",
"In long-term psychoses, CBT is used to complement medication and is adapted to meet individual needs. Interventions particularly related to these conditions include exploring reality testing, changing delusions and hallucinations, examining factors which precipitate relapse, and managing relapses. Several meta-analyses suggested that CBT is effective in schizophrenia, Cochrane reviews reported CBT had \"no effect on long‐term risk of relapse\" and no evidence that CBT had an additional effect above standard care. There is also limited evidence of effectiveness for CBT in bipolar disorder and severe depression.\n",
"CBT is a psychological method of treatment that involves a therapist working with the person to understand how thoughts and feelings influence behaviour. Elements of the therapy include exposure strategies to allow the patient to confront their anxieties gradually and feel more comfortable in anxiety-provoking situations, as well as to practice the skills they have learned. CBT can be used alone or in conjunction with medication.\n",
"In adults, CBT has been shown to have effectiveness and a role in the treatment plans for anxiety disorders, body dysmorphic disorder, depression, eating disorders, chronic low back pain, personality disorders, psychosis, schizophrenia, substance use disorders, in the adjustment, depression, and anxiety associated with fibromyalgia, and with post-spinal cord injuries.\n"
] |
what is this warm feeling that starts from the top of my face and goes down towards my body.
|
Are you an alcoholic by any chance?
|
[
"Hot flashes, a common symptom of menopause and perimenopause, are typically experienced as a feeling of intense heat with sweating and rapid heartbeat, and may typically last from two to thirty minutes for each occurrence, ending just as rapidly as they began. The sensation of heat usually begins in the face or chest, although it may appear elsewhere such as the back of the neck, and it can spread throughout the whole body. Some women feel as if they are going to faint. In addition to being an internal sensation, the surface of the skin, especially on the face, becomes hot to the touch. This is the origin of the alternative term \"hot flush\", since the sensation of heat is often accompanied by visible reddening of the face. Excessive flushing can lead to rosacea.\n",
"As much as \"Emma\" is about the cold, the \"Blood Bank\" collection is about the warmth that gets you through it. You can feel the air move. Like a fire you've been stoking for hours and finally got to sustain itself, the heat blisters your face while your back is frozen solid.\n",
"Warman's feeling for people was evident in his personal life as well as his photographs. When he saw an intoxicated man fall off a subway platform, he jumped onto the tracks and dragged the victim to safety.\n",
"When a person touches a hot object and withdraws their hand from it without actively thinking about it, the heat stimulates temperature and pain receptors in the skin, triggering a sensory impulse that travels to the central nervous system. The sensory neuron then synapses with interneurons that connect to motor neurons. Some of these send motor impulses to the flexors that lead to the muscles in the arm to contract, while some motor neurons send inhibitory impulses to the extensors so flexion is not inhibited. This is referred to as reciprocal innervation.\n",
"“You dance, dance, dance. Then n/um lifts you up in your belly and lifts you in your back, and then you start to shiver. [N/um] makes you tremble, it's hot. . . . Your eyes are open but you don't look around; you hold your eyes still and look straight ahead. But when you get into !kia, you're looking around because you see everything, because you see what's troubling everybody . . . n/um enters every part of your body right to the tip of your feet and even your hair.”\n",
"Speer described the effect: \"The feeling was of a vast room, with the beams serving as mighty pillars of infinitely light outer walls\". The British Ambassador to Germany, Sir Nevile Henderson, described it as \"both solemn and beautiful... like being in a cathedral of ice\".\n",
"A cold-stimulus headache is the direct result of the rapid cooling and rewarming of the capillaries in the sinuses leading to periods of vasoconstriction and vasodilation. A similar but painless blood vessel response causes the face to appear \"flushed\" after being outside on a cold day. In both instances, the low temperature causes the capillaries in the sinuses to constrict and then experience extreme rebound dilation as they warm up again.\n"
] |
Why do some stars produce four lines that protrude from the star whenever a photograph is taken from them?
|
This is actually because the telescope that images the star has a secondary mirror that is held in place with four support beams, and that causes an interference pattern that looks like what you're describing. [See here](_URL_0_)
|
[
"Star trail photographs are possible because of the rotation of Earth about its axis. The apparent motion of the stars is recorded as mostly curved streaks on the film or detector. For observers in the Northern Hemisphere, aiming the camera northward creates an image with concentric circular arcs centered on the north celestial pole (very near Polaris). For those in the Southern Hemisphere, this same effect is achieved by aiming the camera southward. In this case, the arc streaks are centered on the south celestial pole (near Sigma Octantis). Aiming the camera eastward or westward shows straight streaks on the celestial equator, which is tilted at angle with respect to the horizon. The angular measure of this tilt depends on the photographer's latitude (), which is equal to .\n",
"Stars which are executing blue loops cross the yellow portion of the H-R diagram above the main sequence, so that many of them cross a region called the instability strip because the outer layers of stars in that region are unstable and pulsate. Stars from the asymptotic giant branch that cross the instability strip during a blue loop are thought to become W Virginis variables. More massive stars, crossing the instability strip during a blue loop from the red giant branch, are thought to make up the δ Cephei variables. Both types of star have luminous and unstable photospheres at this stage of their lives and often have the spectra of supergiants, although most are not massive enough to ever fuse carbon or reach a supernova.\n",
"In photographs taken a few days apart, rapidly moving objects such as asteroids and comets would stand out, because they would appear to be jumping back and forth between two positions, while all the other fixed stars remained stationary. Photographs taken at longer intervals could be used to detect stars with large proper motion, or variable stars, or to distinguish binary stars from optical doubles.\n",
"As the main star rotates on its axis, one quadrant of its photosphere will be seen to be coming towards the viewer, and the other visible quadrant to be moving away. These motions produce blueshifts and redshifts, respectively, in the star's spectrum, usually observed as a broadening of the spectral lines. When the secondary star or planet transits the primary, it blocks part of the latter's disc, preventing some of the shifted light from reaching the observer. This causes the observed mean redshift of the primary star as a whole to vary from its normal value. As the transiting object moves across to the other side of the star's disc, the redshift anomaly will switch from being negative to being positive, or vice versa. \n",
"The photographs produced were time exposures in which a satellite's track appeared as a long, usually slightly curved, line seen against a background of stars. If the camera were stationary, the tracks of the much more slowly moving stars appeared as much shorter lines, which were portions of arcs about the pole. If the volunteer had a motor-driven polar-axis camera mount that countered the earth's rotation, the stars were represented by dots whose sizes depended on the resolution of the camera lens and the magnitude of the star.\n",
"A star trail is a type of photograph that uses long exposure times to capture the apparent motion of stars in the night sky due to Earth's rotation. A star-trail photograph shows individual stars as streaks across the image, with longer exposures yielding longer arcs.\n",
"In the stellar locus, stars tend to align in a more or less straight feature. If stars were perfect black bodies, the stellar locus would be a pure straight line indeed. The divergences with the straight line are due to the absorptions and emission lines in the stellar spectra. These divergences can be more or less evident depending on the filters used: narrow filters with central wavelength located in regions without lines, will produce a response close to the black body one, and even filters centered at lines if they are broad enough, can give a reasonable blackbody-like behavior.\n"
] |
how is it possible that the world collective debt is bigger than world collective wealth? can't we just annul all of the debt that shouldn't be there and go on?
|
I think that debt IS wealth. If you got rid of the debt, it would remove all the wealth, because the wealth is made up of receivables. That’s one reason why you wouldn’t get a lot of support for this idea from the wealthy.
|
[
"There is much debate about whether the richer countries should be asked for money which has to be repaid. The Jubilee Debt Campaign gives six reasons why the third world debts should be cancelled. Firstly, several governments want to spend more money on poverty reduction but they lose that money in paying off their debts. Economist Jeff Rubin agrees with this stance on the basis that the money could have been used for basic human needs and says it is Odious Debt. Secondly, the lenders knew that they gave to dictators or oppressive regimes and thus, they are responsible for their actions, not the people living in the countries of those regimes. For example, South Africa has been paying off $22 billion which was lent to stimulate the apartheid regime.They have yet to recover from this, their external debt has increased to $136.6 billion while the number of people in the housing backlog has increased to 2.1 million from 1994's 1.5 million. Also, many lenders knew that a great proportion of the money would sometime be stolen through corruption. Next, the developing projects that some loans would support were often unwisely led and failed because of the lender's incompetence. Also, many of the debts were signed with unfair terms, several of the loan takers have to pay the debts in foreign currency such as dollars, which make them vulnerable to world market changes. The unfair terms can make a loan extremely expensive, many of the loan takers have already paid the sum they loaned several times, but the debt grows faster than they can repay it. Finally, many of the loans were contracted illegally, not following proper processes.\n",
"Some observers such as Professor Steve Keen of University of Western Sydney, believe that many countries are hurtling towards peak debt, fueled by excess borrowing and an addiction to credit. To such observers, it appears illogical to take on ever increasing debt just to bid against each other for the same assets. Nations must at some stage reach their maximum debt limit. The timeframe for reaching this limit is always unknown but some believe we are at that limit already, or very close, in many countries.\n",
"The World Bank and IMF hold that \"a country can be said to achieve external debt sustainability if it can meet its current and future external debt service obligations in full, without recourse to debt rescheduling or the accumulation of arrears and without compromising growth\". According to these two institutions, \"bringing the net present value (NPV) of external public debt down to about 150 percent of a country's exports or 250 percent of a country's revenues\" would help eliminating this \"critical barrier to longer-term debt sustainability\". High external debt is believed to be harmful for the economy.\n",
"The debt of developing countries refers to the external debt incurred by governments of developing countries, generally in quantities beyond the governments' ability to repay. \"Unpayable debt\" is external debt with interest that exceeds what the country's politicians think they can collect from taxpayers, based on the nation's gross domestic product, thus preventing it from ever being repaid. The debt can result from many causes.\n",
"Some people argue against forgiving debt on the basis that it would motivate countries to default on their debts, or to deliberately borrow more than they can afford, and that it would not prevent a recurrence of the problem. Economists refer to this as a moral hazard. It would also be difficult to determine which debt is odious. Moreover, investors could stop lending to developing countries entirely.\n",
"The World Bank and the IMF hold that “a country can be said to achieve external debt sustainability if it can meet its current and future external debt service obligations in full, without recourse to debt rescheduling or the accumulation of arrears and without compromising growth.” According to these two institutions, external debt sustainability can be obtained by a country “by bringing the net present value (NPV) of external public debt down to about 150 percent of a country’s exports or 250 percent of a country’s revenues.” High external debt is believed to have harmful effects on an economy.\n",
"There is debate regarding the economic nature of the intragovernmental debt, which was approximately $4.6 trillion in February 2011. For example, the CBPP argues: that \"large increases in [debt held by the public] can also push up interest rates and increase the amount of future interest payments the federal government must make to lenders outside of the United States, which reduces Americans' income. By contrast, intragovernmental debt (the other component of the gross debt) has no such effects because it is simply money the federal government owes (and pays interest on) to itself.\"\n"
] |
How long does it actually take to form a 'habit'? (Or, is there any truth to the '21 days to form a habit' axiom?)
|
Habit formation for eating, drinking, and exercise behaviors [has been shown to vary greatly](_URL_0_), taking anywhere from 18 to 254 days. Moreover, in this study, it tended to follow an asymptotic curve, and "the median time to reach 95% of asymptote was 66 days."
While this isn't neuroscience, the study nonetheless suggests that the time it takes to form a habit does not follow some axiom or absolute rule.
EDIT: Incidentally, the source of the 21 day thing is *Psycho-cybernetics* by Maltz (1960).
|
[
"There is a theory that it takes an average of 66 days to break a habit. The amount of time it takes to break a habit is generally between 18 and 254 days. This should often be repeated once or maybe twice depending on what the habit is, something small like chewing fingernail should only have to be done once. Larger habits like smoking should be repeated at twice but every one is different so it could be less. There are sources that phrase the breaking of bad habits under habit-formation and that an individual acquires a new habit within 66 days. A study found that this process is marked by an asymptomatic increase of the behavior, with the initial acceleration slowing to a plateau after the said time period. There are several variations regarding the period of development. For instance, a source stated that breaking a bad habit or changing an unhealthy behavioral pattern such as smoking takes 90 days while forming a new habit that stick requires 66 days.\n",
"Habit formation is the process by which a behavior, through regular repetition, becomes automatic or habitual. This is modelled as an increase in automaticity with number of repetitions up to an asymptote. This process of habit formation can be slow. Lally \"et al.\" (2010) found the average time for participants to reach the asymptote of automaticity was 66 days with a range of 18–254 days.\n",
"Some habituation procedures appear to result in a habituation process that last days or weeks. This is considered long-term habituation. It persists over long durations of time (i.e., shows little or no spontaneous recovery). Long-term habituation can be distinguished from short-term habituation which is identified by the nine characteristics listed above.\n",
"There are three main components to habit formation: the context cue, behavioral repetition, and the reward.The context cue can be a prior action, time of day, location, or any thing that triggers the habitual behavior. This could be anything that one's mind associates with that habit and one will automatically let a habit come to the surface. The behavior is the actual habit that one exhibits, and the reward, such as a positive feeling, therefore continues the \"habit loop\". A habit may initially be triggered by a goal, but over time that goal becomes less necessary and the habit becomes more automatic. Intermittent or uncertain rewards have been found to be particularly effective in promoting habit learning. \n",
"The habitual past tense has a few different uses. It is used for events that happened regularly, such as \"I used to eat out every day\" or \"He wrote poems when he was young\", the equivalent of an imperfect. It may also be used as a sort of conditional, such as the following: \"If you asked I would come\" or \"If you had asked I would have come\". It is easy to form the habitual past tense: simply start with the simple past tense and change the \"l\" to \"t\" (except in the \"tui\" [2 VF] form). The endings are \"-tam\", \"-tish\", \"-te\", \"-to\", \"-ten\". For example: \"ami dekhtam\", \"tui dekhtish\", \"tumi dekhte\", \"she dekhto\", \"apni dekhten\". In less standard varieties of Bengali, \"a\" is substituted for \"e\" in second-person familiar forms; thus \"tumi bolta, khulta, khelta,\" etc.\n",
"Habituation is a form of non-associative learning in which an innate (non-reinforced) response to a stimulus decreases after repeated or prolonged presentations of that stimulus. Responses that habituate include those that involve the intact organism (e.g., full-body startle response) or those that involve only components of the organism (e.g., habituation of neurotransmitter release from \"in vitro\" Aplysia sensory neurons). The broad ubiquity of habituation across all biologic phyla has resulted in it being called \"the simplest, most universal form of learning...as fundamental a characteristic of life as DNA.\" Functionally-speaking, by diminishing the response to an inconsequential stimulus, habituation is thought to free-up cognitive resources to other stimuli that are associated with biologically important events (i.e., punishment/reward). For example, organisms may habituate to repeated sudden loud noises when they learn these have no consequences. A progressive decline of a behavior in a habituation procedure may also reflect nonspecific effects such as fatigue, which must be ruled out when the interest is in habituation. Habituation may also be clinically relevant, as a number of neuropsychiatric conditions, including autism, schizophrenia, migraine, and Tourette's, show reductions in habituation to a variety of stimulus-types both simple (tone) and complex (faces).\n",
"The concept of habitus has been used as early as Aristotle but in contemporary usage was introduced by Marcel Mauss and later Maurice Merleau-Ponty. However, it was Pierre Bourdieu who turned it into a cornerstone of his sociology, and used it to address the sociological problem of agency and structure: the habitus is shaped by structural position and generates action, thus when people act and demonstrate agency they simultaneously reflect and reproduce social structure. Bourdieu elaborated his theory of the habitus while borrowing ideas on cognitive and generative schemes from Noam Chomsky and Jean Piaget dependency on history and human memory. For instance, a certain behaviour or belief becomes part of a society's structure when the original purpose of that behaviour or belief can no longer be recalled and becomes socialized into individuals of that culture.\n"
] |
In medicine can 400mg vs. 600mg of some medicine actually mean they are stronger, not just quantity ?
|
The activity of the drug molecule is unchanged.
I think the biggest concern is accidental overdose - doubling up on a 600 mg pill has a bigger impact than doubling up on a 400 mg pill.
On the flip side of things, I can see 3x 400 mg pills dissolving much faster than 2x 600 mg pill, even though the total amount is identical. However, unless we're talking about time-release formulations, it's unlikely that the solvation of the pill is the rate-limiting step in absorption.
|
[
"At the same time, only limited number of the middle-weight compounds with a molecular weight from 500 to 2000 Da is used as the therapeutics or is now under study as potent chemical compounds for drug therapy and diagnostics.\n",
"Solubility class boundaries are based on the highest dose strength of an immediate release product. A drug is considered highly soluble when the highest dose strength is soluble in 250 ml or less of aqueous media over the pH range of 1 to 7.5. The volume estimate of 250 ml is derived from typical bioequivalence study protocols that prescribe administration of a drug product to fasting human volunteers with a glass of water.\n",
"Although some medications are best dosed by actual body weight (e.g., succinylcholine), most resuscitation medications are distributed in lean body mass (e.g., epinephrine, sodium bicarbonate, calcium, magnesium, etc.) so that IBW as accurately predicted by length, not the actual body weight, would appear preferable for dosing. For most resuscitation medications, the optimal dose is not known and doses based on IBW or actual weight are likely equally effective.\n",
"BULLET::::- Molecular weight: The smaller the better, because diffusion is directly affected. The great majority of drugs on the market have molecular weights between 200 and 600 Daltons, and particularly <500; they belong to the group of small molecules.\n",
"This is a table of volume of distribution (V) for various medication. For comparison, those with a V L/kg body weight of less than 0.2 are mainly distributed in blood plasma, 0.2-0.7 mostly in the extracellular fluid and those with more than 0.7 are distributed throughout total body water.\n",
"BULLET::::- Safety margins/Safety factors. For instance, a product rated to never be required to handle more than 200 pounds might be designed to fail under at least 400 pounds, a safety factor of two. Higher numbers are used in more sensitive applications such as medical or transit safety.\n",
"BULLET::::- 0.20 g — Second-most common weight. Standard for all chronograph tests in regions, where gun power output is measured in feet per second (FPS). AEGs are able to use these, however, most players will use heavier masses due to the increased accuracy and range. Biodegradable versions made by Green Devil or G&G being one of the most popular makes in the Scandinavian countries and many other parts of Europe & UK.\n"
] |
how does an old hospital get sanitized before being turned into another kind of institution?
|
Would I be correct in understanding that you feel hospitals are DIRTIER than restaurants?
This seems to be a pretty strange thought, could you explain why you believe there needs to be extra steps taken other than the cleaning they do anyway?
|
[
"A hospital is an institution for healthcare typically providing specialized treatment for inpatient (or overnight) stays. Some hospitals primarily admit patients suffering from a specific disease or affliction, or are reserved for the diagnosis and treatment of conditions affecting a specific age group. Others have a mandate that expands beyond offering dominantly curative and rehabilitative care services to include promotional, preventive and educational roles as part of a primary healthcare approach. Today, hospitals are usually funded by the state, health organizations (for profit or non-profit), by health insurances or by charities and by donations. Historically, however, they were often founded and funded by religious orders or charitable individuals and leaders. Hospitals are nowadays staffed by professionally trained doctors, nurses, paramedical clinicians, etc., whereas historically, this work was usually done by the founding religious orders or by volunteers.\n",
"Modern hospitals are either funded by the government of the country in which they are situated, or survive financially by competing in the private sector (a number of hospitals also are still supported by the historical type of charitable or religious associations).\n",
"The hospital was established in 1965 and became a public hospital in 1991. The hospital was first developed as an infirmary to treat chronically ill elderly people. It has gradually expanded its role as an extended care institution in which intensive trans-disciplinary rehabilitative training programmes are designed for patients to facilitate their early reintegration into society.\n",
"The Hospital Elder Life Program (HELP) is an model of hospital care developed at the Yale University School of Medicine. It is designed to prevent delirium and functional decline among elderly individuals in the hospital inpatient setting. HELP uses a core team of interdisciplinary staff and targeted intervention protocols to improve patients' outcomes and to provide cost-effective care. Unique to the program is the use of specially trained volunteers who carry out the majority of the non-clinical interventions.\n",
"As the number of institutionalized mentally ill dwindled many state hospitals have been, in whole or in part, converted to other uses. Many have remained state-operated facilities, such as office buildings or correctional centers. A few former state hospitals have been completely demolished.\n",
"One relatively new service in the United States that can help keep older people in their homes longer is respite care. This type of care allows caregivers the opportunity to go on a vacation or a business trip and to know that their family member has good quality temporary care. Also, without this help the elder might have to move permanently to an outside facility. Another unique type of care cropping in U.S. hospitals is called acute care of elder units, or ACE units, which provide \"a homelike setting\" within a medical center specifically for older adults.\n",
"Many government and private hospitals provide concessions to the older persons in the treatment of the diseases like cardiac problems, diabetes, kidney problems, blood pressure, joint problems and eye problems. There is also a condition for separate queuing of reservations for hospital beds.\n"
] |
Is there ever a case where a noble gas does react
with something?
|
Sure. It's more common for the ones with higher atomic number. The outer electrons are shielded by the inner ones, so they're more free to form bonds.
Wikipedia has its own article on [noble gas compounds](_URL_0_)
|
[
"Unlike noble gases, an inert gas is not necessarily elemental and is often a compound gas. Like the noble gases the tendency for non-reactivity is due to the valence, the outermost electron shell, being complete in all the inert gases. This is a tendency, not a rule, as noble gases and other \"inert\" gases can react to form compounds.\n",
"The noble gases show extremely low chemical reactivity; consequently, only a few hundred noble gas compounds have been formed. Neutral compounds in which helium and neon are involved in chemical bonds have not been formed (although some helium-containing ions exist and there is some theoretical evidence for a few neutral helium-containing ones), while xenon, krypton, and argon have shown only minor reactivity. The reactivity follows the order Ne He Ar Kr Xe Rn.\n",
"The noble gases are generally non-reactive because they have fully filled electronic shells, which are extremely stable. Until the 1960s, no chemical bond with a noble gas was known. In 1962, Neil Bartlett used fluorine-containing platinum hexafluoride to react with xenon. He called the compound he prepared xenon hexafluoroplatinate, but since then the product has been revealed to be mixture of different chemicals. Bartlett probably synthesized a mixture of monofluoroxenyl(II) pentafluoroplatinate, [XeF][PtF], monofluoroxenyl(II) undecafluorodiplatinate, [XeF][PtF], and trifluorodixenyl(II) hexafluoroplatinate, [XeF][PtF]. Bartlett's fluorination of xenon has been called one of the ten most beautiful experiments in the history of chemistry. Later in 1962, xenon was reported to react directly with fluorine to form the di- and tetrafluorides. Since then, chemists have made extensive efforts to form other noble gas fluorides.\n",
"The noble gases are colorless, odorless, tasteless, and nonflammable under standard conditions. They were once labeled \"group 0\" in the periodic table because it was believed they had a valence of zero, meaning their atoms cannot combine with those of other elements to form compounds. However, it was later discovered some do indeed form compounds, causing this label to fall into disuse.\n",
"In addition to the compounds where a noble gas atom is involved in a covalent bond, noble gases also form non-covalent compounds. The clathrates, first described in 1949, consist of a noble gas atom trapped within cavities of crystal lattices of certain organic and inorganic substances. The essential condition for their formation is that the guest (noble gas) atoms must be of appropriate size to fit in the cavities of the host crystal lattice. For instance, argon, krypton, and xenon form clathrates with hydroquinone, but helium and neon do not because they are too small or insufficiently polarizable to be retained. Neon, argon, krypton, and xenon also form clathrate hydrates, where the noble gas is trapped in ice.\n",
"While noble gases are chemically very inert and commonly exist as individual atoms, this is not the case for nitrogen and phosphorus and so the formation of the endohedral complexes N@C, N@C and P@C is more surprising. \n",
"Noble gases can form endohedral fullerene compounds, in which the noble gas atom is trapped inside a fullerene molecule. In 1993, it was discovered that when , a spherical molecule consisting of 60 carbon atoms, is exposed to noble gases at high pressure, complexes such as can be formed (the \"@\" notation indicates He is contained inside but not covalently bound to it). As of 2008, endohedral complexes with helium, neon, argon, krypton, and xenon have been created. These compounds have found use in the study of the structure and reactivity of fullerenes by means of the nuclear magnetic resonance of the noble gas atom.\n"
] |
Why will two pendulum clocks mounted on a common wall synchronise? i.e. How does coupled oscillation work?
|
The second pendulum will make the wall move slightly, this movement is transmitted to the first pendulum. It's broadly like [two pendulums joined by a spring](_URL_0_) (a coupled oscillator), but with the wall playing the role of an extremely stiff "spring".
The fact that pendulums are "inanimate" has *absolutely* no bearing on anything. Also, I don't know how you're linking this subject with "the healing nature of sleep".
|
[
"The cause of this behavior was that the two pendulums were affecting each other through slight motions of the supporting mantlepiece. This process is called entrainment or mode locking in physics and is observed in other coupled oscillators. Synchronized pendulums have been used in clocks and were widely used in gravimeters in the early 20th century. Although Huygens only observed out-of-phase synchronization, recent investigations have shown the existence of in-phase synchronization, as well as \"death\" states wherein one or both clocks stops.\n",
"Christiaan Huygens observed that two pendulum clocks mounted next to each other on the same support often become synchronized, swinging in opposite directions. In 1665, he reported the results by letter to the Royal Society of London. It is referred to as \"an odd kind of sympathy\" in the Society's minutes. This may be the first published observation of what is now called \"coupled oscillations\". In the 20th century, \"coupled oscillators\" took on great practical importance because of two discoveries: lasers, in which different atoms give off light waves that oscillate in unison, and superconductors, in which pairs of electrons oscillate in synchrony, allowing electricity to flow with almost no resistance. \"Coupled oscillators\" are even more ubiquitous in nature, showing up, for example, in the synchronized flashing of fireflies and chirping of crickets, and in the pacemaker cells that regulate heartbeats.\n",
"Dutch physicist Christiaan Huygens, the inventor of the pendulum clock, introduced the concept after he noticed, in 1666, that the pendulums of two clocks mounted on a common board had synchronized, and subsequent experiments duplicated this phenomenon. He described this effect as \"odd sympathy\". The two pendulum clocks synchronized with their pendulums swinging in opposite directions, 180° out of phase, but in-phase states can also result. Entrainment occurs because small amounts of energy are transferred between the two systems when they are out of phase in such a way as to produce negative feedback. As they assume a more stable phase relationship, the amount of energy gradually reduces to zero. In the realm of physics, Huygens' observations are related to resonance and the resonant coupling of harmonic oscillators, which also gives rise to sympathetic vibrations.\n",
"A pendulum swinging in a vacuum without friction, at a constant amplitude free of external disturbances, theoretically keeps perfect time. However, pendulums in clocks have to be linked to the clock's mechanism, which disturbs their natural swing, and this was the main cause of error in precision clocks of the early 20th century. An ordinary clock's mechanism interacts with the pendulum each swing to perform two functions: first, the pendulum must activate some kind of linkage to record the passage of time. Second, the clock's mechanism, triggered by the linkage, must give the pendulum a push (impulse) to replace the energy the pendulum loses to friction, to keep it swinging. These two functions both disturb the pendulum's motion.\n",
"A double pendulum is a simple pendulum hanging under another one, which is an epitome of the compound pendulum system. It shows an abundant dynamic behavior. The motion of a double pendulum seems chaotic. We can hardly see a regulated routine that it is going, which makes it complicated. Also, whether the lengths and masses of the two arms are equal to each other, makes it hard to identify the centers of the two rods. Moreover, a double pendulum may exert motion without the restriction of only two-dimension (usually vertical) plane. In other words, the complex pendulum can move to anywhere within the sphere, which has the radius of the total length of the two pendulums. However, for a small angle, the double pendulum can act similar to the simple pendulum because the motion is determined by sine and cosine functions as well.\n",
"To keep time accurately, pendulum clocks must be absolutely level. If they are not, the pendulum swings more to one side than the other, upsetting the symmetrical operation of the escapement. This condition can often be heard audibly in the ticking sound of the clock. The ticks or \"beats\" should be at precisely equally spaced intervals to give a sound of, \"tick...tock...tick...tock\"; if they are not, and have the sound \"tick-tock...tick-tock...\" the clock is \"out of beat\" and needs to be leveled. This problem can easily cause the clock to stop working, and is one of the most common reasons for service calls. A spirit level or watch timing machine can achieve a higher accuracy than relying on the sound of the beat; precision regulators often have a built in spirit level for the task. Older freestanding clocks often have feet with adjustable screws to level them, more recent ones have a leveling adjustment in the movement. Some modern pendulum clocks have 'auto-beat' or 'self-regulating beat adjustment' devices, and don't need this adjustment.\n",
"Torsion clocks are capable of running much longer between windings than clocks with an ordinary pendulum, because the torsion pendulum rotates slowly and takes little energy. However they are difficult to set up and are usually not as accurate as clocks with ordinary pendulums. One reason is that the oscillation period of the torsion pendulum changes with temperature due to temperature-dependent change in elasticity of the spring. The rate of the clock can be made faster or slower by an adjustment screw mechanism on the torsion pendulum that moves the weight balls in or out from the axis. The closer in the balls are, the smaller the moment of inertia of the torsion pendulum and the faster it will turn, like a spinning ice skater who pulls in her arms. This causes the clock to speed up.\n"
] |
Why wasn't Australia conquered and split by European powers as Africa was?
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You may find this thread useful, particularly the response from /u/agentdcf:
_URL_0_
|
[
"With the exception of further Dutch visits to the west, however, Australia remained largely unvisited by Europeans until the first British explorations. John Callander put forward a proposal in 1766 for Britain to found a colony of banished convicts in the South Sea or in Terra Australis to enable the mother country to exploit the riches of those regions. He said: \"this world must present us with many things entirely new, as hitherto we have had little more knowledge of it, than if it had lain in another planet\".\n",
"The \"Scramble for Africa\" between 1870 and 1900 ended with almost all of Africa being controlled by a small number of European states. Racing to secure as much land as possible while avoiding conflict amongst themselves, the partition of Africa was confirmed in the Berlin Agreement of 1885, with little regard to local differences. By 1905, control of almost all African soil was claimed by Western European governments, with the only exceptions being Liberia (which had been settled by African-American former slaves) and Ethiopia (then occupied by Italy in 1936). Britain and France had the largest holdings, but Germany, Spain, Italy, Belgium, and Portugal also had colonies. As a result of colonialism and imperialism, a majority of Africa lost sovereignty and control of natural resources such as gold and rubber. The introduction of imperial policies surfacing around local economies led to the failing of local economies due to an exploitation of resources and cheap labor. Progress towards independence was slow up until the mid-20th century. By 1977, 54 African countries had seceded from European colonial rulers.\n",
"Because Indigenous nations were deemed to be \"uncivilized,\" European powers declared the territorial sovereignty of Africa as openly available, which initiated the Scramble for Africa in the late nineteenth century. With the continent of Africa conceptualized as effectively \"ownerless\" territory, Europeans positioned themselves as its redeemers and rightful colonial rulers. In the European colonial mindset, Africans were inferior and incapable of being \"civilized\" because they had failed to properly manage or exploit the natural resources available to them. As a result, they were deemed to be obstacles to capitalist investment, extraction, and production of natural resources in the construction of a new colonial empire and built environment. The immense diversity of the Indigenous peoples of Africa was flattened by this colonial perception, which labeled them instead as an \"unrepresentable nomadic horde of apprehensions that ran across European territories.\"\n",
"Prior to European settlement of Australia in 1788, Europeans had been to the land merely as explorers. The only exception was James Cook who in 1770 sailed up most of the east coast of Australia and then claimed the entire coastline he had just explored as British territory. The basis of the claim is not clear, but it is clear that the indigenous peoples were not consulted and no treaty was entered into. In later years the doctrine of \"terra nullius\" was invoked in justification of the act.\n",
"By 1977 European colonial rule in mainland Africa had ended. Most of Africa's island countries had also become independent, although Réunion and Mayotte remain part of France. However the black majorities in Rhodesia and South Africa were disenfranchised until 1979 in Rhodesia, which became Zimbabwe-Rhodesia that year and Zimbabwe the next, and until 1994 in South Africa. Namibia, Africa's last UN Trust Territory, became independent of South Africa in 1990.\n",
"By the middle of the 19th century Europeans had explored large parts of the Australian continent but had failed to cross the country from south to north. The need to connect the isolated settlements of the north coast, facilitate trade and communication with the rest of the world and secure grazing land culminated in a race between South Australia and Victoria across the continent.\n",
"Indigenous Australians inhabited the continent for about 65,000 years prior to European discovery with the arrival of Dutch explorers in the early 17th century, who named it New Holland. In 1770, Australia's eastern half was claimed by Great Britain and initially settled through penal transportation to the colony of New South Wales from 26 January 1788, a date which became Australia's national day. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the time of an 1850s gold rush, most of the continent had been explored and an additional five self-governing crown colonies established. On 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a stable liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy, comprising six states and ten territories.\n"
] |
why can't spinal discs be "re-hydrated" later in life?
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If your doctor didn't explain why, get a new one. He/she obviously doesn't care
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[
"This water loss makes the discs less flexible and results in the gradual collapse and narrowing of the gap in the spinal column. As the space between vertebrae gets smaller, extra pressure can be placed on the discs causing tiny cracks or tears to appear in the anulus. If enough pressure is exerted, it's possible for the nucleus pulposus material to seep out through the tears in the anulus and can cause what is known as a herniated disc.\n",
"A spinal disc herniation, commonly referred to as a slipped disc, can happen when unbalanced mechanical pressures substantially deform the anulus fibrosus, allowing part of the nucleus to obtrude. These events can occur during peak physical performance, during traumas, or as a result of chronic deterioration, typically accompanied with poor posture and has been associated with a \"Propionbacterium acnes\" infection. Both the deformed anulus and the gel-like material of the nucleus pulposus can be forced laterally, or posteriorly, distorting local muscle function, and putting pressure on the nearby nerve. This can give the symptoms typical of nerve root entrapment. These symptoms can vary between parasthaesia, numbness, chronic and/or acute pain, either locally or along the dermatome served by the entrapped nerve, loss of muscle tone and decreased homeostatic performance . The disc is not physically slipped; it bulges, usually in just one direction. Risk of Cauda Equina.\n",
"A disc protrusion is a disease condition which can occur in some vertebrates, including humans, in which the outermost layers of the anulus fibrosus of the intervertebral discs of the spine are intact, but bulge when one or more of the discs are under pressure.\n",
"An intervertebral disc has a gelatinous core surrounded by a fibrous ring. When in its normal, uninjured state, most of the disc is not served by either the circulatory or nervous systems – blood and nerves only run to the outside of the disc. Specialized cells that can survive without direct blood supply are in the inside of the disc. Over time, the discs lose flexibility and the ability to absorb physical forces. This decreased ability to handle physical forces increases stresses on other parts of the spine, causing the ligaments of the spine to thicken and bony growths to develop on the vertebrae. As a result, there is less space through which the spinal cord and nerve roots may pass. When a disc degenerates as a result of injury or disease, the makeup of a disc changes: blood vessels and nerves may grow into its interior and/or herniated disc material can push directly on a nerve root. Any of these changes may result in back pain.\n",
"There is a disc between each of the vertebrae in the spine. A healthy, well-hydrated disc will contain a great deal of water in its center, known as the nucleus pulposus, which provides cushioning and flexibility for the spine. Much of the mechanical stress that is caused by everyday movements is transferred to the discs within the spine and the water content within them allows them to effectively absorb the shock. At birth, a typical human nucleus pulposus will contain about 80% water. However natural daily stresses and minor injuries can cause these discs to gradually lose water as the anulus fibrosus, or the rigid outer shell of a disc, weakens.\n",
"Removal of a disc at one level can lead to disc herniation at a different level at a later time. Even the most complete surgical excision of the disc still leaves 30-40% of the disc, which cannot be safely removed. This retained disc can re-herniate sometime after surgery. Virtually every major structure in the abdomen and the posterior retroperitoneal space has been injured, at some point, by removing discs using posterior laminectomy/discectomy surgical procedures. The most prominent of these is a laceration of the left internal iliac vein, which lies in close proximity to the anterior portion of the disc. In some studies, recurrent pain in the same radicular pattern or a different pattern can be as high as 50% after disc surgery. Many observers have noted that the most common cause of a failed back syndrome is caused from recurrent disc herniation at the same level originally operated. A rapid removal in a second surgery can be curative. The clinical picture of a recurrent disc herniation usually involves a significant pain-free interval. However, physical findings may be lacking, and a good history is necessary. The time period for the emergence of new symptoms can be short or long. Diagnostic signs such as the straight leg raise test may be negative even if real pathology is present. The presence of a positive myelogram may represent a new disc herniation, but can also be indicative of a post operative scarring situation simply mimicking a new disc. Newer MRI imaging techniques have clarified this dilemma somewhat. Conversely, a recurrent disc can be difficult to detect in the presence of post op scarring. Myelography is inadequate to completely evaluate the patient for recurrent disc disease, and CT or MRI scanning is necessary. Measurement of tissue density can be helpful.\n",
"Some authors favour degeneration of the intervertebral disc as the major cause of spinal disc herniation and cite trauma as a minor cause. Disc degeneration occurs both in degenerative disc disease and aging. With degeneration, the disc components – the \"nucleus pulposus\" and \"anulus fibrosus\" – become exposed to altered loads. Specifically, the nucleus becomes fibrous and stiff and less able to bear load. Excess load is transferred to the \"anulus\", which may then develop fissures as a result. If the fissures reach the periphery of the \"anulus\", the nuclear material can pass through as a disc herniation.\n"
] |
how does this .jpg file move like a .gif but when downloaded shows up as a .jpeg
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It's lies.
The filetype isn't determined by the extension - not in this context anyway - it's determined by metadata in the file that says it's a gif.
My image reader on the desktop chokes trying to read it because it naively trusts file extensions, but the file utility shows clearly it's marked as a GIF in the metadata.
|
[
"A JPEG image consists of a sequence of \"segments\", each beginning with a \"marker\", each of which begins with a 0xFF byte, followed by a byte indicating what kind of marker it is. Some markers consist of just those two bytes; others are followed by two bytes (high then low), indicating the length of marker-specific payload data that follows. (The length includes the two bytes for the length, but not the two bytes for the marker.) Some markers are followed by entropy-coded data; the length of such a marker does not include the entropy-coded data. Note that consecutive 0xFF bytes are used as fill bytes for padding purposes, although this fill byte padding should only ever take place for markers immediately following entropy-coded scan data (see JPEG specification section B.1.1.2 and E.1.2 for details; specifically \"In all cases where markers are appended after the compressed data, optional 0xFF fill bytes may precede the marker\").\n",
"Like all files, image files (.jpg .bmp .gif etc) are all made up of text. Unlike some other files, like .svg (vectors) or .html (web pages), when an image is opened in a text editor all that comes up is gobbldygook!\n",
"Conceptually, a GIF file describes a fixed-sized graphical area (the \"logical screen\") populated with zero or more \"images\". Many GIF files have a single image that fills the entire logical screen. Others divide the logical screen into separate sub-images. The images may also function as animation frames in an animated GIF file, but again these need not fill the entire logical screen.\n",
"In multimedia, Motion JPEG (M-JPEG or MJPEG) is a video compression format in which each video frame or interlaced field of a digital video sequence is compressed separately as a JPEG image. Originally developed for multimedia PC applications, M-JPEG is now used by video-capture devices such as digital cameras, IP cameras, and webcams, as well as by non-linear video editing systems. It is natively supported by the QuickTime Player, the PlayStation console, and web browsers such as Safari, Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox and Microsoft Edge.\n",
"JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group) is a lossy compression method; JPEG-compressed images are usually stored in the JFIF (JPEG File Interchange Format) file format. The JPEG/JFIF filename extension is JPG or JPEG. Nearly every digital camera can save images in the JPEG/JFIF format, which supports eight-bit grayscale images and 24-bit color images (eight bits each for red, green, and blue). JPEG applies lossy compression to images, which can result in a significant reduction of the file size. Applications can determine the degree of compression to apply, and the amount of compression affects the visual quality of the result. When not too great, the compression does not noticeably affect or detract from the image's quality, but JPEG files suffer generational degradation when repeatedly edited and saved. (JPEG also provides lossless image storage, but the lossless version is not widely supported.)\n",
"The most common filename extensions for files employing JPEG compression are .jpg and .jpeg, though .jpe, .jfif and .jif are also used. It is also possible for JPEG data to be embedded in other file types – TIFF encoded files often embed a JPEG image as a thumbnail of the main image; and MP3 files can contain a JPEG of cover art in the ID3v2 tag.\n",
"A JFIF file consists of a sequence of markers or marker segments (for details refer to JPEG, Syntax and structure). The markers are defined in part 1 of the JPEG Standard. Each marker consists of two bytes: an codice_1 byte followed by a byte which is not equal to codice_2 or codice_1 and specifies the type of the marker. Some markers stand alone, but most indicate the start of a marker segment that contains data bytes according to the following pattern:\n"
] |
Can somebody build up a tolerance to electricity?
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There is a difference between "not being in pain from x" and "being immune to x."
Pain tolerance is one thing, but a taser works by using electricity to create physical convulsions. This is direct stimulation of the muscles we're talking about. Adapting to THAT would require evolution to provide us with electrical insulation to sheath our skins/muscles/organs.
Just get a heavy jacket with metallic filaments in it attached to a capacitor. Put that electricity to USE. :-)
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[
"To some degree, g-tolerance can be trainable, and there is also considerable variation in innate ability between individuals. In addition, some illnesses, particularly cardiovascular problems, reduce g-tolerance.\n",
"Zero tolerance policies violate principles of health and human services, and standards of the education and healthy growth of children, families and communities. Even traditional community service providers in the 1970s aimed for \"services for all\" (e.g., zero reject) instead of 100% societal exclusion(zero tolerance). Public administration and disability has supported principles which include education, employment, housing, transportation, recreation and political participation in the community. which zero tolerance groups claim are not a right in the US.\n",
"There is no credible evidence that zero tolerance reduces violence or drug abuse by students. Furthermore, school suspension and expulsion result in a number of negative outcomes for both schools and students. The American Bar Association finds that the evidence indicates that minority children are the most likely to suffer the negative consequences of zero tolerance policies. Analysis of the suspension rate of students show that black females and other racial minorities are suspended at a greater rate. The American Psychological Association concluded that the available evidence does not support the use of zero tolerance policies as defined and implemented, that there is a clear need to modify such policies, and that the policies create a number of unintended negative consequences, including making schools \"less safe\".\n",
"Little evidence supports the claimed effectiveness of zero-tolerance policies. One underlying problem is that there are a great many reasons why people hesitate to intervene, or to report behavior they find to be unacceptable or unlawful. Zero-tolerance policies address, at best, only a few of these reasons.\n",
"Less well known is the \"paradox of tolerance\": Unlimited tolerance must lead to the disappearance of tolerance. If we extend unlimited tolerance even to those who are intolerant, if we are not prepared to defend a tolerant society against the onslaught of the intolerant, then the tolerant will be destroyed, and tolerance with them. — In this formulation, I do not imply, for instance, that we should always suppress the utterance of intolerant philosophies; as long as we can counter them by rational argument and keep them in check by public opinion, suppression would certainly be unwise. But we should claim the right to suppress them if necessary even by force; for it may easily turn out that they are not prepared to meet us on the level of rational argument, but begin by denouncing all argument; they may forbid their followers to listen to rational argument, because it is deceptive, and teach them to answer arguments by the use of their fists or pistols. We should therefore claim, in the name of tolerance, the right not to tolerate the intolerant.\n",
"Zero-tolerance policies are studied in criminology and are common in formal and informal policing systems around the world. The policies also appear in informal situations where there may be sexual harassment or Internet misuse in educational and workplace environments. In 2014, the mass incarceration in the United States based upon minor offenses has resulted in an outcry on the use of zero tolerance in schools and communities.\n",
"The recent U.S. Government policy known as \"Zero-tolerance\" was implemented in April 2018. In response, a number of scientific organizations released statements on the negative impact of child separation, a form of childhood trauma, on child development, including the American Psychiatric Association, the American Psychological Association, the American Academy of Pediatrics, the American Medical Association, and the Society for Research in Child Development.\n"
] |
difference between nightmares and night terrors
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The basics are that nightmares you wake up from and remember.
Night Terrors you don't wake up, can call out / yell in your sleep, yet you won't remember that particular dream ( although you can remember the feeling the dream gave you )
Source: Have had both Nightmares and Night Terrors consistently for years. I was explained this concept this simply the first time I asked.
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[
"A night terror, also known as a sleep terror or \"pavor nocturnus\", is a parasomnia disorder that predominantly affects children, causing feelings of terror or dread. Night terrors should not be confused with nightmares, which are bad dreams that cause the feeling of horror or fear.\n",
"We have to distinguish night terrors from nightmares. In fact, in nightmares there are almost never vocalization or agitation, and if there are any, they are less strong in comparison to night terrors. In addition, nightmares appear ordinarily during REM sleep in contrast to night terrors, which occur in NREM sleep. Finally, individuals with nightmares can wake up completely and easily and have clear and detailed memories of their dreams.\n",
"Night terrors in adults have been reported in all age ranges. Though the symptoms of night terrors in adolescents and adults are similar, the cause, prognosis and treatment are qualitatively different. These night terrors can occur each night if the sufferer does not eat a proper diet, get the appropriate amount or quality of sleep (e.g. sleep apnea), is enduring stressful events, or if he or she remains untreated. Adult night terrors are much less common, and often respond to treatments to rectify causes of poor quality or quantity of sleep. Night terrors are classified as a mental and behavioral disorder in the ICD. A study done about night terrors in adults showed that other psychiatric symptoms were prevalent in most patients experiencing night terrors hinting at the comorbidity of the two. There is some evidence of a link between night terrors and hypoglycemia.\n",
"Though the symptoms of night terrors in adolescents and adults are similar, their causes, prognoses, and treatments are qualitatively different. There is some evidence that suggests that night terrors can occur if the sufferer does not eat a proper diet, does not get the appropriate amount or quality of sleep (e.g., because of sleep apnea), or is enduring stressful events. Adults who have experienced sexual abuse are more likely to receive a diagnosis of sleep disorders, including night terrors. Overall, though, adult night terrors are much less common and often respond best to treatments that rectify causes of poor quality or quantity of sleep.\n",
"Sleep terrors usually begin in childhood and usually decrease with age. Factors which may lead to sleep terrors are young age, sleep deprivation, medications, stress, fever and intrinsic sleep disorders. Though the frequency and severity vary between individuals, the episodes can occur in intervals of days or weeks, but can also occur over consecutive nights or multiple times in one night. This has created a situation in which any type of nocturnal attack or nightmare may be confused with and reported as a night terror.\n",
"While nightmares (bad dreams that cause feelings of horror or fear) are relatively common during childhood, night terrors occur less frequently. The prevalence of sleep terrors in general is unknown. Sleep terror episodes (not similar to sleep terror disorder which is recurrent and causes distress or impairment ) are estimated at 36.9% at 18 months of age and at 19.7% at 30 months of age. In adults the prevalence is lower, and rises up to 2.2%. Night terrors have been known since ancient times, although it was impossible to differentiate them from nightmares until rapid eye movement was discovered.\n",
"Night terrors tend to happen during periods of arousal from delta sleep, also known as slow-wave sleep. Delta sleep occurs most often during the first half of a sleep cycle, which indicates that people with more delta sleep activity are more prone to night terrors. However, they can also occur during daytime naps. Night terrors can often be mistaken for confusional arousal.\n"
] |
how do we know that gravity curves spacetime and is not a force?
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The theory which describes gravity as the curvature of spacetime (Einstein's general theory of relativity) makes a lot of predictions. And many of those predictions [have been verified](_URL_0_), which lends support to the theory.
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[
"In general relativity, gravity can be regarded as not a force but a consequence of a curved spacetime geometry where the source of curvature is the stress–energy tensor (representing matter, for instance). Thus, for example, the path of a planet orbiting a star is the projection of a geodesic of the curved 4-D spacetime geometry around the star onto 3-D space.\n",
"In general relativity, gravity can be regarded as not a force but a consequence of a curved spacetime geometry where the source of curvature is the stress–energy tensor (representing matter, for instance). Thus, for example, the path of a planet orbiting around a star is the projection of a geodesic of the curved 4-dimensional spacetime geometry around the star onto 3-dimensional space.\n",
"In order to map a body's gravitational influence, it is useful to think about what physicists call probe or test particles: particles that are influenced by gravity, but are so small and light that we can neglect their own gravitational effect. In the absence of gravity and other external forces, a test particle moves along a straight line at a constant speed. In the language of spacetime, this is equivalent to saying that such test particles move along straight world lines in spacetime. In the presence of gravity, spacetime is non-Euclidean, or curved, and in curved spacetime straight world lines may not exist. Instead, test particles move along lines called geodesics, which are \"as straight as possible\", that is, they follow the shortest path between starting and ending points, taking the curvature into consideration.\n",
"Some of the differences between the familiar Newtonian equation of gravity and the predictions of general relativity flow from the fact that gravity in general relativity bends both time and space, not just space. In normal circumstances, gravity bends time so slightly that the differences between Newtonian gravity and general relativity are detectable only with precise instruments.\n",
"These objections were explained by Einstein's theory of general relativity, in which gravitation is an attribute of curved spacetime instead of being due to a force propagated between bodies. In Einstein's theory, energy and momentum distort spacetime in their vicinity, and other particles move in trajectories determined by the geometry of spacetime. This allowed a description of the motions of light and mass that was consistent with all available observations. In general relativity, the gravitational force is a fictitious force due to the curvature of spacetime, because the gravitational acceleration of a body in free fall is due to its world line being a geodesic of spacetime.\n",
"In Einstein's general theory of relativity, gravity is treated as a phenomenon resulting from the curvature of spacetime. This curvature is caused by the presence of mass. Generally, the more mass that is contained within a given volume of space, the greater the curvature of spacetime will be at the boundary of its volume. As objects with mass move around in spacetime, the curvature changes to reflect the changed locations of those objects. In certain circumstances, accelerating objects generate changes in this curvature, which propagate outwards at the speed of light in a wave-like manner. These propagating phenomena are known as gravitational waves.\n",
"Like the force carriers of the other forces (see charged black hole), gravitation plays a role in general relativity, in defining the spacetime in which events take place. In some descriptions energy modifies the \"shape\" of spacetime itself, and gravity is a result of this shape, an idea which at first glance may appear hard to match with the idea of a force acting between particles. Because the diffeomorphism invariance of the theory does not allow any particular space-time background to be singled out as the \"true\" space-time background, general relativity is said to be background-independent. In contrast, the Standard Model is \"not\" background-independent, with Minkowski space enjoying a special status as the fixed background space-time. A theory of quantum gravity is needed in order to reconcile these differences. Whether this theory should be background-independent is an open question. The answer to this question will determine our understanding of what specific role gravitation plays in the fate of the universe.\n"
] |
what do doctors do with the empty space after a half brain removing surgery
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The procedure is called a hemispherectomy (hemi = half, sphere, ectomy = removal) and they don't do anything with the empty space. It ends up filling up with cerebrospinal fluid. It's not like they are going to put a prosthetic brain in there for cosmetic purposes, haha.
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[
"Another way a lobectomy can be performed is through a video assisted surgery. With this type the surgeon does not need to pry the two ribs open in order to get in. A few small incisions are made and surgical tools are inserted into the chest cavity. A small camera with a light will then be inserted. What the camera sees will be projected onto a screen that the surgeon can see. Once the problem area is located the small tools that were previously inserted will be utilized to perform the surgery. Once the surgery is complete, the patient will remain in the intensive care unit of the hospital for a day. They will then remain in a regular hospital room for about 4 to 7 days.\n",
"Each year, about 400,000 people undergo brain mapping during neurosurgery. This procedure is often required for people with tumors or epilepsy that do not respond to medication. During this procedure, electrodes are placed on the brain to precisely identify the locations of structures and functional areas. Patients may be awake during neurosurgery and asked to perform certain tasks, such as moving fingers or repeating words. This is necessary so that surgeons can remove only the desired tissue while sparing other regions, such as critical movement or language regions. Removing too much brain tissue can cause permanent damage, while removing too little tissue can leave the underlying condition untreated and require additional neurosurgery. Thus, there is a strong need to improve both methods and systems to map the brain as effectively as possible.\n",
"In surgery the doctor breaks the fused sutures to allow for brain growth. Doctors remove the cranial plates of the skull, reshape them and replace them back onto the skull in an attempt to reshape the head to appear more normal. Although the sutures are broken during surgery they will quickly refuse, and in some cases holes form in the plates allowing cerebral spinal fluid to escape into cyst like structures on the external surface of the head.\n",
"Surgery is typically used to prevent the closure of sutures of the skull from damaging the brain's development. Without surgery, blindness and intellectual disability are typical outcomes. To move the orbits forward, surgeons expose the skull and orbits and reshape the bone. To treat the midface deficiency, surgeons can move the lower orbit and midface bones forward.\n",
"If resected, the surgeon will remove as much of this tumor as possible, without disturbing eloquent regions of the brain (speech/motor cortex) and other critical brain structure. Thereafter, treatment may include chemotherapy and radiation therapy of doses and types ranging based upon the patient's needs. Subsequent MRI examination are often necessary to monitor the resection cavity.\n",
"Surgery is needed to prevent the closing of the coronal sutures from damaging brain development. In particular, surgeries for the LeFort III or monobloc midface distraction osteogenesis which detaches the midface or the entire upper face, respectively, from the rest of the skull, are performed in order to reposition them in the correct plane. These surgeries are performed by both plastic and oral and maxillofacial (OMS) surgeons, often in collaboration.\n",
"Decompressive craniectomy (\"crani-\" + \"-ectomy\") is a neurosurgical procedure in which part of the skull is removed to allow a swelling brain room to expand without being squeezed. It is performed on victims of traumatic brain injury, stroke and other conditions associated with raised intracranial pressure. Use of the surgery is controversial.\n"
] |
the different types of pencils 2b,b,whatever else there is
|
Pencil leads come in a variety of hardnesses, obtained by altering the ratio of clay to graphite in the pencil. More clay makes the lead harder, but also means it makes a lighter mark. They are often used for engineering drawings because they produce a sharp, clean line without much variation in the darkness of the line.
Pencils with less clay are darker (blacker) & softer. They smudge easier, & can produce a range of darkness. They're often popular with artists because they can produce a variety of marks.
Pencils are often graded using the HB system in much of the world. B stands for Black, & H stands for Hard. The higher H numbers have more clay, & are lighter & harder, & the higher B numbers have less clay & are darker & softer. HB is a balance between the two. Sometimes you see F too, which is between HB & H, & is used for fine details in drawings. [Here's a diagram of the various shades.](_URL_0_)
American pencils use a number system, with #1 equal to B, #2 equal to HB, #3 equal to H, & #4 equal to 2H. The tests you hear about are filled out by colouring in bubbles corresponding to answers, & are marked by computers. The pencil used needs to be dark enough for the computer to be able to recognise which bubble was filled out, yet hard enough not to smudge outside the bubble & confuse the computer, so they use a pencil in the middle of the range.
|
[
"Dixon Ticonderoga makes a variety of pencils, including the Classic, Black, Noir, Tri-Conderoga, Microban, Laddie, My First (formerly Beginners), SenseMatic, and colored pencils. The pencils are available in different grades: #1 (Extra Soft), #2 (Soft), #2½ (Medium), #3 (Hard), and #4 (Extra Hard).\n",
"A mechanical pencil (US English) or propelling pencil (UK English), also clutch pencil, is a pencil with a replaceable and mechanically extendable solid pigment core called a \"lead\" . The lead, often made of graphite, is not bonded to the outer casing, and can be mechanically extended as its point is worn away as it is being used. Other names include microtip pencil, automatic pencil, drafting pencil, technical pencil, click pencil, pump pen, pump pencil, leadholder, pacer (Australian English), pen pencil (Indian English), and lead pencil (Bangladeshi and American English).\n",
"The most common pencil casing is thin wood, usually hexagonal in section but sometimes cylindrical or triangular, permanently bonded to the core. Casings may be of other materials, such as plastic or paper. To use the pencil, the casing must be carved or peeled off to expose the working end of the core as a sharp point. Mechanical pencils have more elaborate casings which are not bonded to the core; instead, they support separate, mobile pigment cores that can be extended or retracted through the casing's tip as needed. These casings can be reloaded with new cores (usually graphite) as the previous ones are exhausted.\n",
"However, most modern \"lead pencils\" have a nonpoisonous core of greyish-black graphite mixed with various proportions of clay for consistency, enclosed within an outer wooden casing to protect the fragile graphite from being snapped apart or from leaving marks on the user's hand.\n",
"A colored pencil (American English), coloured pencil (Commonwealth English), pencil crayon, lead or coloured/colouring lead (Canadian English, Newfoundland English) is an art medium constructed of a narrow, pigmented core encased in a wooden cylindrical case. Unlike graphite and charcoal pencils, colored pencils’ cores are wax- or oil-based and contain varying proportions of pigments, additives, and binding agents. Water-soluble (watercolor) pencils and pastel pencils are also manufactured as well as colored leads for mechanical pencils.\n",
"BULLET::::- Solid graphite pencils: These are solid sticks of graphite and clay composite (as found in a 'graphite pencil'), about the diameter of a common pencil, which have no casing other than a wrapper or label. They are often called \"woodless\" pencils. They are used primarily for art purposes as the lack of casing allows for covering larger spaces more easily, creating different effects, and providing greater economy as the entirety of the pencil is used. They are available in the same darkness range as wood-encased graphite pencils.\n",
"BULLET::::- Graphite pencils: These are the most common types of pencil, and are encased in wood. They are made of a mixture of clay and graphite and their darkness varies from light grey to black. Their composition allows for the smoothest strokes.\n"
] |
LCD screens and Duck Hunt
|
As you already know, light guns need a CRT to work. Using a silicon (or any other covering) sadly wouldn't help at all.
When a CRT screen draws the image, it draws each pixel at a time - usually starting at the top, working left to right and then down a line until the whole screen is drawn. It then starts again. The whole time taken is called the 'refresh rate' and this is commonly done around 50 times a second*.
The light gun only 'sees' when a pixel is lit up on the screen that you're aiming at.
The time difference is calculated between you pulling the trigger. and the 'pixel' you're aiming at is lit up. The computer then calculates how long it has been since the screen was drawn and works out which pixel you were aiming at.
LCD/Plasma and other screens do still draw pixel-by-pixel, but the pixel is never completely off, so there is no single pixel that the light gun can see.
There's plenty of other alternatives, such as the infrared bulbs and camera that the Nintendo Wii has, but the old Zapper light guns need a CRT screen, sadly.
This is a slight simplification, but [Wikipedia](_URL_0_)'s is a bit weirdly worded but should fill in any further questions you might have.
|
[
"\"Duck Hunt\" is a shooter game in which the objective is to shoot moving targets on the television screen in mid-flight. The game is played from a first-person perspective and requires the NES Zapper light gun, which the player aims and fires at the screen. It also requires a CRT television screen since the Zapper gun will not work with LCD or HDTV's. Each round consists of a total of ten targets to shoot. Depending on the game mode the player selects prior to beginning play, one or two targets will appear on the screen at any given time and the player has three attempts to hit them before they disappear.\n",
"Ultimate Duck Hunting is a duck hunting video game developed by American studio Mid Carolina Media for Windows. The goal of the game is to shoot ducks and then collect them with hunting dogs, a concept similar to that of the classic NES game, \"Duck Hunt\". On October 19, 2007 a Nintendo Wii version was released by publisher Detn8, it was originally planned for release on July 10, 2007, but it was delayed to October due to the E3 announcement of the Wii port.\n",
"\"Duck Hunt\" has three different game modes to choose from. In \"Game A\" and \"Game B\", the targets are flying ducks in a woodland area, and in \"Game C\" the targets are clay pigeons that are launched away from the player's perspective into the distance. In \"Game A\", one duck will appear on the screen at a time while in \"Game B\" two ducks will appear at a time. \"Game A\" allows a second player to control the movement of the flying ducks by using a normal NES controller. The gameplay starts at Round 1 and may continue up to Round 99. If the player completes Round 99, he or she will advance to Round 0, which is a kill screen (in \"Game A\") where the game behaves erratically, such as targets that move haphazardly or do not appear at all, and eventually ends.\n",
"In \"Duck Hunt\", players use the NES Zapper in combination with a CRT television to shoot ducks that appear on the screen. The ducks appear one or two at a time, and the player is given three shots to shoot them down. The player receives points upon shooting each duck. If the player shoots the required number of ducks in a single round, the player will advance to the next round; otherwise, the player will receive a game over.\n",
"Despite the game box's assurances that Ultimate Duck Hunting is \"the most realistic duck-hunting game ever made\", it has earned harsh criticisms both based on the game itself and the professionalism shown by its publisher.\n",
"\"Duck Hunt\" was released as an arcade game in the \"Nintendo Vs.\" series in 1984 as \"Vs. Duck Hunt\", and is included in the PlayChoice-10 arcade console. The console supports two light guns, allowing two players at once.\n",
"A shooting game similar to \"Duck Hunt\" in which players go through several consecutive rounds of shooting objects that appear on the screen, including balloons, bullseye targets, clay disks, tin cans, and UFOs which descend from the sky and attempt to abduct tiny copies the player's Mii, by pointing the Wii Remote at the Wii's sensor bar to aim and firing with the controller's trigger button. Extra points can be earned by shooting several objects consecutively without missing, and ducks also occasionally fly across the screen which can be shot for additional points. The game's multiplayer mode has two players competing to earn the highest number of points; conversely, a second player can join during single player mode and help player one earn points.\n"
] |
How do you tell how long has a person been dead?
|
One way is by measuring body temperature. Given someone's weight and the temperature of their surroundings and their current temperature one can extrapolate how long the body has been cooling down from normal body temperature. Hopefully others can step in and explain other methods.
|
[
"In some cases, a person will be declared dead even without any remains or doctor's declaration. This is under one of two circumstances. First, if a person was known to be in mortal peril when last seen, they can often be declared dead shortly after. Examples would be the passengers of the \"Titanic\" that were not rescued after the ship sank. Second, if a person has not been seen for a certain period of time and there has been no evidence that they are alive. The amount of time that has passed varies by jurisdiction, from as little as four years in the US state of Georgia to twenty years in Italy.\n",
"BULLET::::- medico-legal researches have demonstrated that the age of the corpses is 3.5–5 years. From the study of several identity papers found, it follows that some of the victims were from 4.5–5 years (1938)\n",
"The count also received other information of another man dead for more than thirty years that was reported by family to have come back to his house on three separate occasions during meal time. On the first he had sucked the blood from the neck of his brother, the second time from one of his sons, and the third from one of the servants in the house; all three of which had died immediately after. Upon this disposition, the commissary took the suspected corpse from the grave finding it to be like the first corpse discovered with a living blood-flow and he ordered them to run a large nail through the temple then placed back into the grave.\n",
"formula_42 is the starting point for formula_40: the number of people alive at age 0. This is known as the radix of the table. Some mortality tables begin at an age greater than 0, in which case the radix is the number of people assumed to be alive at the youngest age in the table.\n",
"Examination indicated the victims were deceased for at least two weeks prior. Decomposition and animal activity had made it difficult to estimate the time or cause of death, although authorities presumed they were murdered. The remains may have also been deposited at the location at different times. Several missing persons at the time were considered, including Patty Hearst (who was later found alive). \n",
"When a person dies in a place which is not a house, or a dead body is found elsewhere than in a house, every relative of the deceased person having knowledge of any particulars required to be registered concerning the death, and every person present at the death, and every person taking charge of the body, and, if the death occurs in a ship or vessel the master or other person having charge of the ship or vessel, and the person causing the body to be buried must, within 24 hours after the death or finding of the body, give to the authorities such information that the informant has concerning the death that is required to be registered.\n",
"It takes 20 years in Italy to declare a missing person dead. After ten years from somebody's disappearance, a motion to declare the person legally dead can be filed in a court of law. After that, another ten years must pass before the person can eventually be declared legally dead.\n"
] |
What's the difference between Deep Blue's algorithm and Monte Carlo Tree Search?
|
The difference is in how they decide which move to take.
Deep Blue has a function to tell how good the board is for him. He uses this function to decide which move to take.
On the other hand, for some games no well working function to rate a board is known (like go). For such one uses the MCTS. Each legal play is done and then the game is finished n-times with both sides taking random moves. The play that has the highest number of wins will be taken.
So, Monte Carlo Tree Search is purly "random" while Deep Blue depends on a rating function.
|
[
"In computer science, Monte Carlo tree search (MCTS) is a heuristic search algorithm for some kinds of decision processes, most notably those employed in game play. MCTS was introduced in 2006 for computer Go. It has been used in other board games like chess and shogi, games with incomplete information such as bridge and poker, as well as in real-time video games (such as 's implementation in the high level campaign AI).\n",
"Although it has been proven that the evaluation of moves in Monte Carlo tree search converges to minimax, the basic version of Monte Carlo tree search converges very slowly. However Monte Carlo tree search does offer significant advantages over alpha–beta pruning and similar algorithms that minimize the search space.\n",
"The game tree in Monte Carlo tree search grows asymmetrically as the method concentrates on the more promising subtrees. Thus it achieves better results than classical algorithms in games with a high branching factor.\n",
"There are also tree traversal algorithms that classify as neither depth-first search nor breadth-first search. One such algorithm is Monte Carlo tree search, which concentrates on analyzing the most promising moves, basing the expansion of the search tree on random sampling of the search space.\n",
"The basic idea of the algorithm is this: a depth-first search begins from an arbitrary start node (and subsequent depth-first searches are conducted on any nodes that have not yet been found). As usual with depth-first search, the search visits every node of the graph exactly once, declining to revisit any node that has already been visited. Thus, the collection of search trees is a spanning forest of the graph. The strongly connected components will be recovered as certain subtrees of this forest. The roots of these subtrees are called the \"roots\" of the strongly connected components. Any node of a strongly connected component might serve as the root, if it happens to be the first node of the component that is discovered by the search.\n",
"Depth-first search (DFS) is an algorithm for traversing or searching tree or graph data structures. The algorithm starts at the root node (selecting some arbitrary node as the root node in the case of a graph) and explores as far as possible along each branch before backtracking.\n",
"This algorithm is expected to be faster than a traditional interval tree (augmented tree) for search operations. Adding elements is a little slower in practice, though the order of growth is the same.\n"
] |
given the fragmented instant messaging market and the failure to create a standard protocol, why aren't there email clients that make using email more like instant messaging?
|
Huh?
Email essentially already is instant messaging, if the user utilizes it in that way. You can get notifications that pop up on your computer that tell you that you just got an email, and it's essentially instance. Your phone can tell you that you just got an email, and it's essentially instant.
I sometimes use email like that with my less Tech Savvy family members. I will have a 10 or 20 email long chain in only a few minutes, because we are just emailing back one or two sentences to each other.
Today, I don't think there is an issue with email clients or technology. It's simply how the users utilize it.
Also, instant messaging it's probably not as popular as it once was, since the Advent and popularity of phones and texting has taken over from that.
|
[
"Empirical studies demonstrated that all team members on a software development team used this tool effectively. Unlike instant messaging, email messages are intended to be more stand-alone and less sensitive to the context of communication, and thus producing email messages requires more time than traditional IM messages.\n",
"The use of proprietary protocols has meant that many instant messaging networks have been incompatible and users have been unable to reach users on other networks. This may have allowed social networking with IM-like features and text messaging an opportunity to gain market share at the expense of IM.\n",
"According to the developers the current standards for email protocols, namely IMAP and SMTP (for client-server communication, since server-server communication is not part of JMAP), are too complicated and are not well-suited for modern mobile networks and in high-latency scenarios. They believe that this has additionally led to stagnation in the quality of (especially free) e-mail clients, as well as to a proliferation of proprietary protocols developed by market-leading companies, e.g. for Google’s Gmail or Microsoft Outlook, all of which are meant to mitigate the various shortcomings of the current generation of protocols.\n",
"WhatsApp is not the only messaging service that provides end-to-end encryption; among others, Threema, Wickr, Signal, Silent Phone, and Line also provide such encryption by default. iMessage and Viber provide it under special circumstances. Telegram provides end-to-end encryption as an opt-in feature, but does not support end-to-end encrypted group messaging.\n",
"Because SMTP proxies do not store messages like a mail transfer agent (MTA) does, they can reject SMTP connections or message content in real-time, doing away with the need for out-of-band non delivery reports (NDRs), which are the cause of backscatter email, a serious problem in the Internet email system.\n",
"Critics have also disputed claims by Telegram that it is \"more secure than mass market messengers like WhatsApp and Line\", because WhatsApp applies end-to-end encryption to all of its traffic by default and uses the Signal Protocol, which has been \"reviewed and endorsed by leading security experts\", while Telegram does neither and insecurely stores all messages, media and contacts in their cloud. Since July 2016, Line has also applied end-to-end encryption to all of its messages by default.\n",
"As of 2016, typical server-based communications systems do not include end-to-end encryption. These systems can only guarantee the protection of communications between clients and servers, meaning that users have to trust the third parties who are running the servers with the original texts. End-to-end encryption is regarded as safer because it reduces the number of parties who might be able to interfere or break the encryption. In the case of instant messaging, users may use a third-party client to implement an end-to-end encryption scheme over an otherwise non-E2EE protocol.\n"
] |
Zebras in the middle east?
|
There are some zebra-like fossils known from Asia, but it's obviously hard to know if they had stripes!
|
[
"The plains zebra's range stops short of the Sahara from South Sudan and southern Ethiopia extending south along eastern Africa, as far as Zambia, Mozambique, and Malawi, before spreading into most southern African countries. They may have lived in Algeria in the Neolithic era. Plains zebras generally live in treeless grasslands and savanna woodlands, but can be found in a variety of habitats, both tropical and temperate. However, they are generally absent from deserts, dense rainforests, and permanent wetlands. They generally prefer Acacieae woodlands over \"Commiphora\". They are water-dependent and live in more mesic environments than other African equids. They seldom wander from a water source. Zebras also live in elevations from sea level to on Mount Kenya.\n",
"The plains zebra (\"Equus quagga\", formerly \"Equus burchellii\"), also known as the common zebra, is the most common and geographically widespread species of zebra. Its range is fragmented, but spans much of southern and eastern Africa south of the Sahara. Six subspecies have been recognised including the extinct quagga which was thought to be a separate species. However, more recent research supports variations in zebra populations being clines rather than subspecies.\n",
"Zebras ( , ) are several species of African equids (horse family) united by their distinctive black-and-white striped coats. Their stripes come in different patterns, unique to each individual. They are generally social animals that live in small harems to large herds. Unlike their closest relatives, horses and donkeys, zebras have never been truly domesticated.\n",
"The plains zebra is intermediate in size between the larger Grévy's zebra and the smaller mountain zebra; and tends to have broader stripes than both. Great variation in coat patterns exists between clines and individuals. The plain zebra's habitat is generally, but not exclusively, treeless grasslands and savanna woodlands, both tropical and temperate. They generally avoid desert, dense rainforest, and permanent wetlands. Zebras are preyed upon by lions and spotted hyenas and to a lesser extent crocodiles, cheetahs, and African wild dogs. The plains zebra is a highly social species, forming harems with a single stallion, several mares, and their recent offspring; bachelor groups also form. Groups may come together to form herds. The animals keep watch for predators; they bark or snort when they see a predator, and the harem stallion attacks predators to defend his harem.\n",
"Crawshay's zebra (\"Equus quagga crawshayi\") is a subspecies of the plains zebra native to eastern Zambia, east of the Luangwa River, Malawi, southeastern Tanzania, and northern Mozambique south to the Gorongoza District. Crawshay's zebras can be distinguished from other subspecies of plains zebras in that its lower incisors lack an infundibulum. Crawshay's zebra has very narrow stripes compared to other forms of the plains zebra.\n",
"The plains zebra (\"Equus quagga\", formerly \"Equus burchelli\") is the most common, and has or had about six subspecies distributed across much of southern and eastern Africa. It, or particular subspecies of it, have also been known as the common zebra, the dauw, Burchell's zebra (actually the subspecies \"Equus quagga burchellii\"), Chapman's zebra, Wahlberg's zebra, Selous' zebra, Grant's zebra, Boehm's zebra and the quagga (another extinct subspecies, \"Equus quagga quagga\").\n",
"The maneless zebra (\"Equus quagga borensis\") is a subspecies of the plains zebra, spread over the northern parts of eastern Africa. It ranges in north-west Kenya, from Uasin Gishu and Lake Baringo to the Karamoja district of Uganda. It is also found in eastern South Sudan, east of the Nile River, for example in Boma National Park. It is the northernmost subspecies of the plains zebra.\n"
] |
Is it better for a computer to never turn it off, or to turn it off regularly?
|
The TL;DR on all of the responses is essentially "If you build a System correctly, it doesn't matter whether you leave it on or off, it will outlive its usefulness long before it stops working".
|
[
"Modern interactive computers require that the computer constantly be monitoring for user input or device activity, so at some fundamental level there is an infinite processing [[idle loop]] that must continue until the device is turned off or reset. In the [[Apollo Guidance Computer]], for example, this outer loop was contained in the Exec program, and if the computer had absolutely no other work to do it would loop run a dummy job that would simply turn off the \"computer activity\" indicator light.\n",
"Changing some parameters in the BIOS will cause this issue, even for items as simple as initializing the current CPU and memory clocks. At such times, a reboot will be required. If the computer did not have any power and had just been plugged in, the same parameters would need to be implemented again, and since these parameters require a reboot, the computer will do a quick reset to implement the parameters that are set in the BIOS. Even after the computer is turned off, these parameters will not need to be re-entered for as long as the power supply is still receiving power.\n",
"Most computers have a reset line that brings the device into the startup state and is active for a short time after powering on. For example, in the x86 architecture, asserting the RESET line halts the CPU; this is done after the system is switched on and before the power supply has asserted \"power good\" to indicate that it is ready to supply stable voltages at sufficient power levels. Reset places less stress on the hardware than power cycling, as the power is not removed. Many computers, especially older models, have user accessible \"reset\" buttons that assert the reset line to facilitate a system reboot in a way that cannot be trapped (i.e. prevented) by the operating system. Out-of-band management also frequently provides the possibility to reset the remote system in this way.\n",
"BULLET::::- Turning on/off: Tethered Aptus automatically turns on when the computer is turned on, and autocratically turns off when the computer is turned off. Credo must be turned on and off manually, and also turns off automatically after a period of idle time.\n",
"Fast user switching allows additional users to log into a Windows XP machine without existing users having to close their programs and logging out. Although only one user at the time can use the console (i.e. monitor, keyboard and mouse), previous users can resume their session once they regain control of the console.\n",
"Imagine a busy business office having 100 desktop computers that send emails to each other using synchronous message passing exclusively. Because the office system does not use asynchronous message passing, one worker turning off their computer can cause the other 99 computers to freeze until the worker turns their computer back on to process a single email.\n",
"Modern computers also typically do not halt the processor or motherboard circuit-driving clocks when they crash. Instead they fall back to an error condition displaying messages to the operator, and enter an infinite loop waiting for the user to either respond to a prompt to continue, or to reset the device.\n"
] |
what is an elementary function?
|
The elementary functions are a set of well known functions such as powers of x, roots of x, exponentials, trigonometric functions and their inverses, and most importantly any combinations of them, for example e^sinx + x^(2).
Non elementary functions are those that can't be written like that. For example if I define the function:
f(x) = 1 if x is rational and f(x) = 0 otherwise
Then f is a non elementary function. This function has a specific name - Dirichlet function - but most non elementary functions don't have a name or an easy way to describe them.
|
[
"In mathematics, an elementary function is a function of one variable which is the composition of a finite number of arithmetic operations , exponentials, logarithms, constants, trigonometric functions, and solutions of algebraic equations (a generalization of \"n\"th roots).\n",
"Elementary Functions- a study of the elementary functions (power functions, polynomials, rational, exponential, logarithmic and trigonometric) with an emphasis on their behavior and applications. Some analytic geometry and elements of the calculus as well as the application of matrices to the solution of linear systems is also included.\n",
"The elementary functions are constructed by composing arithmetic operations, the exponential function (exp), the natural logarithm (log), trigonometric functions (sin, cos), and their inverses. The complexity of an elementary function is equivalent to that of its inverse, since all elementary functions are analytic and hence invertible by means of Newton's method. In particular, if either exp or log in the complex domain can be computed with some complexity, then that complexity is attainable for all other elementary functions.\n",
"Elementary arithmetic is the simplified portion of arithmetic that includes the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. It should not be confused with elementary function arithmetic.\n",
"An elementary number is one formalization of the concept of a closed-form number. The elementary numbers form an algebraically closed field containing the roots of arbitrary equations using field operations, exponentiation, and logarithms.\n",
"In proof theory, a branch of mathematical logic, elementary function arithmetic, also called EFA, elementary arithmetic and exponential function arithmetic, is the system of arithmetic with the usual elementary properties of 0, 1, +, ×, \"x\", together with induction for formulas with bounded quantifiers.\n",
"Elementary arithmetic starts with the natural numbers and the written symbols (digits) that represent them. The process for combining a pair of these numbers with the four basic operations traditionally relies on memorized results for small values of numbers, including the contents of a multiplication table to assist with multiplication and division.\n"
] |
if temperature affects air pressure, would the temperature on a planet with a thinner atmosphere feel different than the same temperature on a planet with a thicker atmosphere?
|
How temperature feels is subjective because it is a feeling. Factors such as humidity may impact how temperature feels but humidity is related to much more than how thick the atmosphere is and its quite localized.
|
[
"In the field of planetary atmospheres, David Catling and Tyler Robinson have proposed a general explanation for a curious observation: the minimum air temperature between the troposphere (the lowest atmospheric layer where temperature declines with altitude) and stratosphere (where temperature increases with altitude in an 'inversion') occurs a pressure of about 0.1 bar on Earth, Titan, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. This level is the tropopause. Robinson and Catling used the physics of radiation to explain why the tropopause temperature minimum in these extremely different atmospheres occurs at a common pressure. They propose that a pressure around 0.1 bar could be a fairly general rule for planets with stratospheric temperature inversions. This rule could constrain the atmospheric structure on exoplanets and hence their surface temperature and habitability.\n",
"Despite the harsh conditions on the surface, the atmospheric pressure and temperature at about 50 km to 65 km above the surface of the planet is nearly the same as that of the Earth, making its upper atmosphere the most Earth-like area in the Solar System, even more so than the surface of Mars. Due to the similarity in pressure and temperature and the fact that breathable air (21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen) is a lifting gas on Venus in the same way that helium is a lifting gas on Earth, the upper atmosphere has been proposed as a location for both exploration and colonization.\n",
"Pressure differences depend, in turn, the average temperature in the air column. As the sun does not heat the Earth evenly, there is a temperature difference between the poles and the equator, creating air masses with more or less homogeneous temperature with latitude. Differences in atmospheric pressure are also at the origin of the general atmospheric circulation while the air masses are separated by ribbons where temperature changes rapidly. These are the fronts. Along these areas, higher winds aloft form. These horizontal jets (jet streams) can reach speeds of several hundred kilometers per hour and can span thousands of kilometers in length, but can only have a few tens or hundreds of kilometers of width.\n",
"Stars, planets, and moons retain their atmospheres by gravitational attraction. Atmospheres have no clearly delineated upper boundary: the density of atmospheric gas gradually decreases with distance from the object until it becomes indistinguishable from outer space. The Earth's atmospheric pressure drops to about Pa at of altitude, compared to 100,000 Pa for the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) definition of standard pressure. Above this altitude, isotropic gas pressure rapidly becomes insignificant when compared to radiation pressure from the Sun and the dynamic pressure of the solar wind. The thermosphere in this range has large gradients of pressure, temperature and composition, and varies greatly due to space weather.\n",
"Stars, planets, and moons keep their atmospheres by gravitational attraction, and as such, atmospheres have no clearly delineated boundary: the density of atmospheric gas simply decreases with distance from the object. The Earth's atmospheric pressure drops to about at of altitude, the Kármán line, which is a common definition of the boundary with outer space. Beyond this line, isotropic gas pressure rapidly becomes insignificant when compared to radiation pressure from the Sun and the dynamic pressure of the solar winds, so the definition of pressure becomes difficult to interpret. The thermosphere in this range has large gradients of pressure, temperature and composition, and varies greatly due to space weather. Astrophysicists prefer to use number density to describe these environments, in units of particles per cubic centimetre.\n",
"The pressure of the atmosphere is maximum at sea level and decreases with altitude. This is because the atmosphere is very nearly in hydrostatic equilibrium so that the pressure is equal to the weight of air above a given point. The change in pressure with altitude can be equated to the density with the hydrostatic equation\n",
"At high altitude, atmospheric pressure is lower than that at sea level. This is due to two competing physical effects: gravity, which causes the air to be as close as possible to the ground; and the heat content of the air, which causes the molecules to bounce off each other and expand.\n"
] |
where does water pressure come from?
|
I'll just try to elaborate a bit. There are only 2 common ways to increase the pressure of any fluid (including water). Pressure is equal to the density of the liquid times the height, it doesn't matter how wide or deep the pipe is, the water pressure at the bottom of a 2 inch diameter tube that's 100 feet tall will be the same as a 2000 inch diameter tube that is 100 feet tall. So water is either collected at high elevation (rain collecting) or pumped to a higher elevation (tank at the top of a tower). Pumping is the second method to increase pressure, which is pretty obvious, using electrical power, to turn mechanical parts that apply force to the fluid to increase pressure.
|
[
"The perception of water pressure is actually the speed of the water as it hits a surface, (the hands, in the case of hand washing). When an aerator is added to the faucet (or fluid stream), there is a region of high pressure created behind the aerator. Because of the higher pressure behind the aerator and the low pressure in front of it (outside the faucet), due to Bernoulli's Principle there is an increase in velocity of the fluid flow.\n",
"Pressure is distributed to solid boundaries or across arbitrary sections of fluid \"normal to\" these boundaries or sections at every point. It is a fundamental parameter in thermodynamics, and it is conjugate to volume.\n",
"Pressure is a very important concept in the oil and gas industry. Pressure can be defined as: the force exerted per unit area. Its SI unit is newtons per square metre or pascals. Another unit, bar, is also widely used as a measure of pressure, with 1 bar equal to 100 kilopascals. Normally pressure is measured in the U.S. petroleum industry in units of pounds force per square inch of area, or psi. 1000 psi equals 6894.76 kilo-pascals.\n",
"Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure exerted by a fluid at rest – for example, on the sides of a swimming pool, a glass of water or the bottom of the ocean. Its value at any given location within the fluid is the product of the fluid density (\"ρ\"), the depth (\"d\"), and the forces applied by gravity (\"g\") plus any background pressures, such as atmospheric pressure.\n",
"Since buoyant force points upwards, in the direction opposite to gravity, then pressure in the fluid increases downwards. Pressure in a static body of water increases proportionally to the depth below the surface of the water. The surfaces of constant pressure are planes parallel to the surface, which can be characterized as the plane of zero pressure.\n",
"Pressure is a scalar quantity. It relates the vector area element (a vector normal to the surface) with the normal force acting on it. The pressure is the scalar proportionality constant that relates the two normal vectors:\n",
"It is also called \"hydrostatic pressure\", and defined as the pressure measured by a fluid, measured at a certain point within itself when at equilibrium. Generally, turgor pressure is caused by the osmotic flow of water and occurs in plants, fungi, and bacteria. The phenomenon is also observed in protists that have cell walls. This system is not seen in animal cells, seeing how the absence of a cell wall would cause the cell to lyse when under too much pressure. The pressure exerted by the osmotic flow of water is called turgidity. It is caused by the osmotic flow of water through a selectively permeable membrane. Osmotic flow of water through a semipermeable membrane is when the water travels from an area with a low-solute concentration, to one with a higher-solute concentration. In plants, this entails the water moving from the low concentration solute outside the cell, into the cell's vacuole.\n"
] |
why does an emergency door have a grill / bars inside its window?
|
> I'm almost certain that every emergency door have a window and a grill in it.
Many do not, but it is a common feature in such doors to allow some vision of what is past them. You can avoid walking into a fire or smoke hazard with such a feature.
> Why does it have those? It doesn't mean like the grill will make the door stronger, right?
The grid of wire does not make the door stronger. It does however make the *window* stronger. Wire mesh can keep even shattered glass mostly in place, and keep both debris and intruders from passing through.
|
[
"The U.S. State Department often uses steel grillwork much like a jail to seal off parts of a home used by U.S. Foreign Service members overseas when they are living in cities with a high crime threat. In some cities, the entire upstairs area is grilled off, as well as every window and door to the home. Other homes have steel doors to one or more bedrooms that can be bolted closed to provide time for security forces to arrive.\n",
"The double cylinder design raises a safety issue. In the event of a fire, occupants will be prevented from escaping through double-cylinder locked doors unless the correct key is used. This is often an avoidable cause of death in house fires. The risk can be mitigated by locking the deadlock only when there are no occupants inside the building, or leaving the key near the keyhole. Some fire departments suggest putting the key on a small nail or screw near the door at floor level, since the cleanest air is at floor level and you may be crawling to get to the exit, thus placing the key where it is easiest to find. \n",
"Box Alarms are the other main assignment utilized by the Chicago Fire Department. A Box Alarm is the standard protocol response for fire alarm activations in a hospital, nursing home, theater or other potentially high risk structure. If the fire is reported to have persons trapped or the Fire Alarm Office receives numerous calls for the same location, then a \"Still & Box Alarm\" is automatically transmitted by Fire Alarm Office.\n",
"Many buildings are built with fire-resistant doors to separate different parts of buildings and to allow people to be protected from fire and smoke. When using a cabin hook in such a situation, one should keep in mind that a fire-resistant door is an expensive and heavy item, and it only works as a fire door if it is always closed. To open the often heavy fire door easily, magnetic door holders are used that are released when the buildings electrical fire alarm system is activated by a fire. As cabin hooks must be activated manually, they are impractical for fire doors.\n",
"A grille or grill (French word from Latin \"craticula\", small grill) is an opening of several slits side-by-side in a wall, metal sheet or another barrier, usually to allow air or water to enter and/or leave and prevent larger objects (such as animals) from going in or out.\n",
"Some fire experts have questioned why the exterior front windows were taken out by firefighters while crews were committed inside, an action that could have increased the amount of oxygen being fed to the fire and drawn flames to the front of the store. Assistant Fire Chief Larry Garvin stated that fire blew out the windows, at which time firefighters broke open more windows to allow firefighters to escape.\n",
"An emergency exit window is a window big enough and low enough so that occupants can escape through the opening in an emergency, such as a fire. In many countries, exact specifications for emergency windows in bedrooms are given in many building codes. Specifications for such windows may also allow for the entrance of emergency rescuers. Vehicles, such as buses and aircraft, frequently have emergency exit windows as well.\n"
] |
- the recent hate on nbc
|
From the sounds of it, their coverage has been somewhat uneven, between cuts, camerawork and adverts.
However it seems the most notable culmination that has got people riled is the replacement a tribute to victims of a terrorist incident in the UK on the 7th of July in 2005 that took place during the opening ceremony. As the replacement was seen as somewhat trivial in comparison (an interview with Michael Phelps by Ryan Seacrest, if what I'm hearing is correct?), some people are disappointed and offended at NBC's broadcast choices.
For a contextual comparison, some choose to parallel it with the outcry that might follow a national broadcaster sidelining a 9/11 tribute to cover something trivial instead.
|
[
"General manager Mike Pumo refused to elaborate on the decision, other than the show's content did not \"raise the red flag\" during pre-screening. Stratton Pollitzer, deputy director of Equality Florida, considered the show hate speech, saying, \"I think this program is a piece of homophobic propaganda and it has no place on a major network like NBC\" despite the fact that NBC is merely the network that WFLA is affiliated with.\n",
"NBC's coverage received sharp criticism from some longtime AFL fans and owners such as Jon Bon Jovi. The complaints were mostly because the network had severely cut back from their initial promotion of the AFL in 2003 and 2004, to barely promoting it at all in 2005 and 2006. NBC also tended to massively advertise select teams such as the Philadelphia Soul, Chicago Rush, Colorado Crush and the Dallas Desperados, while smaller-market teams such as the Austin Wranglers, San Jose Sabercats, Grand Rapids Rampage and the then-Columbus Destroyers were massively underpromoted or not broadcast at all.\n",
"The programme broadcast on 13 September 2001, which was devoted to the political implications of the 11 September 2001 attacks, featured many contributions from members of the audience who were anti-American, expressing the view that \"the United States had it coming\". The BBC received more than 2,000 complaints and later apologised to viewers for causing offence, stating that the edition should not have been broadcast live, but rather should have been recorded and edited.\n",
"BULLET::::- 13 September – An edition of the political debate show \"Question Time\" devoted to the political implications of the 9/11 attacks, features many contributions from members of the audience expressing strong anti-American views. The BBC receives more than 2,000 complaints in the show's aftermath and later apologises to viewers for causing offence, stating that the edition should not have been broadcast live, but rather should have been recorded and edited.\n",
"Notable personalities on the network include \"Morning Joe\" co-hosts Joe Scarborough and Mika Brzezinski, daytime anchors Chuck Todd and Andrea Mitchell, and evening commentators Chris Matthews and Rachel Maddow. The network was noted in the mid-2000s for its harsh criticism of then-President George W. Bush, most notably the 'special comment' segment of former anchor Keith Olbermann's show, \"Countdown\". This, combined with accusations of support for then-President Barack Obama, have led to MSNBC being criticized for a liberal bias, a reputation it has increasingly embraced with its \"Lean Forward\" slogan (which it adopted in 2011) and open promotion of progressive and liberal ideas.\n",
"The Parents Television Council, a media watchdog group noted for filing the majority of FCC complaints for controversial programs like the Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show that featured the brief exposure of one of Janet Jackson's breasts, is a frequent target of criticism by the group for inaccurate reporting on the media, support of increased government regulation of television, and using \"sensationalism\" in their reporting to reinforce their views. TV Watch has also objected to the PTC's annual list of the \"Best and Worst Shows for Primetime Viewing\". In June 2007, the organization released an in-depth survey that concluded that most parents take their own responsibility for their children's TV viewing, thus challenging the PTC's views that most parents want increased government regulation of TV.\n",
"In the aftermath of September 11, MSNBC began calling itself \"America’s NewsChannel\" and hired opinionated hosts like Alan Keyes, Phil Donahue, Pat Buchanan, and Tucker Carlson; This branding makeover, however, was followed by declining ratings.\n"
] |
Why can't people with O-Negative blood donate platelets?
|
O- is in short supply due to the demand as universal donor.
B- is just an insanely rare blood type, less than 1% in caucasians if I remember right. Important because the only 2 types this type can receive (without risking sensitization to D) is b neg and o neg.
Theres no reason they couldnt donate platelets, but since platelet type is mostly a non issue these days it's much more useful to donate red blood cells. However, platelets are also in demand because of their short date, so I hadn't realized they were refusing those platelet donations though
|
[
"Platelets are the clotting cells of the blood, and when donated, frequently go to cancer patients, because due to chemotherapy many cancer patients are unable to generate enough platelets of their own.\n",
"Problems with apheresis include the expense of the equipment used for collection. Whole blood platelets also do not require any additional donor recruitment, as they can be made from blood donations that are also used for packed red blood cells and plasma components.\n",
"Most platelet donations are given to patients who are unable to make enough platelets in their bone marrow. For example, patients with leukaemia or other cancers may have too few platelets as the result of their disease or treatment. Also after major surgery or extensive injury, patients may need platelet transfusions to replace those lost through bleeding. Platelets are often life-saving and special in that they can help up to 3 adults or even 12 children. As platelets can only be stored for a few days, regular and frequent donors are in great demand and that is why platelet donors are asked to attend at least 8 - 10 times per year.\n",
"Apheresis platelets are collected using a mechanical device that draws blood from the donor and centrifuges the collected blood to separate out the platelets and other components to be collected. The remaining blood is returned to the donor. The advantage to this method is that a single donation provides at least one therapeutic dose, as opposed to the multiple donations for whole-blood platelets. This means that a recipient is not exposed to as many different donors and has less risk of transfusion-transmitted disease and other complications. Sometimes a person such as a cancer patient who requires routine transfusions of platelets will receive repeated donations from a specific donor to further minimize the risk. Pathogen reduction of platelets using for example, riboflavin and UV light treatments can also be carried out to reduce the infectious load of pathogens contained in donated blood products, thereby reducing the risk of transmission of transfusion transmitted diseases. Another photochemical treatment process utilizing amotosalen and UVA light has been developed for the inactivation of viruses, bacteria, parasites, and leukocytes that can contaminate blood components intended for transfusion. In addition, apheresis platelets tend to contain fewer contaminating red blood cells because the collection method is more efficient than “soft spin” centrifugation at isolating the desired blood component.\n",
"Platelets are very small cells. They work with the clotting factors in plasma to form a mesh \"plug\" to stop or prevent bleeding. Plasma is the fluid part of the blood. It contains protein, salts and clotting factors. White cells fight harmful bacteria and help prevent infection. Red cells carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues.\n",
"These donor-recipient relationships arise due to the fact that type O-negative blood possesses neither antigens of blood group A nor of blood group B. Therefore, the immune systems of persons with blood group A, B or AB do not refuse the donation.\n",
"Platelets do not need to belong to the same A-B-O blood group as the recipient or be cross-matched to ensure immune compatibility between donor and recipient unless they contain a significant amount of red blood cells (RBCs). The presence of RBCs imparts a reddish-orange color to the product, and is usually associated with whole-blood platelets. An effort is sometimes made to issue type specific platelets, but this is not critical as it is with RBCs.\n"
] |
If you can't hear thunder (but can see distant bolts of lightning) are you still in danger?
|
The odds of getting hit by lightning are pretty low no matter the conditions, but if you're super scared of things, it is very remotely possible to be struck by a [bolt from the blue](_URL_0_) 15 or 20 miles from a thunderhead.
I've been a lightning watcher all my life (56 y) and so was my dad. Neither of us ever even got close to being struck by it.
|
[
"The U.S. National Lightning Safety Institute advises American citizens to have a plan for their safety when a thunderstorm occurs and to commence it as soon as the first lightning is seen or thunder heard. This is important as lightning can strike without rain actually falling. If thunder can be heard at all, then there is a risk of lightning. The safest place is inside a building or a vehicle. Risk remains for up to 30 minutes after the last observed lightning or thunder.\n",
"BULLET::::- Example 3: An occurrence of thunder is a sufficient condition for the occurrence of lightning in the sense that hearing thunder, and unambiguously recognizing it as such, justifies concluding that there has been a lightning bolt.\n",
"Lightning at a sufficient distance may be seen and not heard; there is data that a lightning storm can be seen at over 100 miles whereas the thunder travels about 20 miles. Anecdotally, there are many examples of people saying 'the storm was directly overhead or all-around and yet there was no thunder'. There is no coherent data available.\n",
"The shockwave in thunder is sufficient to cause property damage and injury, such as internal contusion, to individuals nearby. Thunder can rupture the eardrums of people nearby, leading to permanently impaired hearing. Even if not, it can lead to temporary deafness.\n",
"Anaximander attributed some phenomena, such as thunder and lightning, to the intervention of elements, rather than to divine causes. In his system, thunder results from the shock of clouds hitting each other; the loudness of the sound is proportionate with that of the shock. Thunder without lightning is the result of the wind being too weak to emit any flame, but strong enough to produce a sound. A flash of lightning without thunder is a jolt of the air that disperses and falls, allowing a less active fire to break free. Thunderbolts are the result of a thicker and more violent air flow.\n",
"Although commonly associated with thunderstorms at close range, lightning strikes can occur on a day that seems devoid of clouds. This occurrence is known as \"A Bolt From the Blue\"; lightning can strike up to 10 miles from a cloud.\n",
"BULLET::::- Example 3: Consider thunder, the sound caused by lightning. We say that thunder is necessary for lightning, since lightning never occurs without thunder. Whenever there's lightning, there's thunder. The thunder \"does not cause\" the lightning (since lightning causes thunder), but because lightning always comes with thunder, we say that thunder is necessary for lightning. (That is, in its formal sense, necessity doesn't imply causality.)\n"
] |
Why did some areas of Africa quickly convert to Islam, some convert slowly to Christianity, and others keep worshipping tribal gods?
|
The answer is that they didn't convert all that quickly at all. Those areas that did convert to Islam did so quite gradually. Much of Northern Africa, as former Roman provinces, were Christian during the Arab conquests, but gradually became more Muslim over time, often thanks in part to economic pressures. Similarly, non-Roman city states in East Africa with deep connections to Muslim areas through trade over the Indian Ocean gradually converted to Islam over centuries. It's no mere accident of history that Islam's spread mirrors trade routes: it was easier to find trust and economic security between trading partners when they shared a religion.
However, you are mistaken in saying that Christianity has been slow to spread in Africa. There are hundreds of millions of African Christians thanks to heavy-handed and concerted evangelism efforts. Native religions are much less common. Of course, as with Europe, native beliefs are often incorporated into the way they practice Christianity. Typically, Christianity is more prevalent in areas that never developed strong Muslim communities and received heavy evangelism efforts, while Islam is found spread out along ancient trade routes. This isn't to discount communities like the Christians in Egypt, who have been there since Roman times.
|
[
"Islam came to North Africa at a moment when there was nothing of a calibre sufficient to oppose it, while there were many native elements favourable to its advance. The Romans were largely obliterated except in Berenice and the rest of the small area under Byzantine rule. Civilisation in Berenice was almost extinct, due to depopulation under the Emperor Trajan in the 2nd century fearful of a Jewish rising, and its equally fearful suppression. The towns were deserted and prey to marauding bands of Berbers. Berber peasantry was exploited by crushing taxation and were keen for new rule. The official Church had alienated the mass of the population by its intransigent attitude to what it considered as heresies.\n",
"Generations before the advent of the Atlantic slave trade, Islam was a thriving religion in West Africa due to its peaceful introduction via the lucrative Trans-Saharan trade between prominent tribes in the southern Sahara and the Arabs and Berbers in North Africa. In his attesting to this fact the West African scholar Cheikh Anta Diop explained: \"The primary reason for the success of Islam in Black Africa [...] consequently stems from the fact that it was propagated peacefully at first by solitary Arabo-Berber travelers to certain Black kings and notables, who then spread it about them to those under their jurisdiction\". Many first-generation slaves were often able to retain their Muslim identity, their descendants were not. Slaves were either forcibly converted to Christianity as was the case in the Catholic lands or were besieged with gross inconveniences to their religious practice such as in the case of the Protestant American mainland.\n",
"Traditional African religions are tolerant of other gods, which allows general co-existence for multiple religions. This has been regarded by some authors to be another reason behind the rise of other religions in Africa. Most followers of traditional religions accommodated Islam during the start of its spread in Africa, but in West Africa, it was not until the coming of colonialism that Islam gained mass appeal, transforming even groups with historical animosity towards Islamic domination into Muslim communities.\n",
"Similarly, in the Swahili coast, Islam made its way inland – spreading at the expense of traditional African religions. This expansion of Islam in Africa not only led to the formation of new communities in Africa, but it also reconfigured existing African communities and empires to be based on Islamic models. Indeed, in the middle of the 11th century, the Kanem Empire, whose influence extended into Sudan, converted to Islam. At the same time but more toward West Africa, the reigning ruler of the Bornu Empire embraced Islam. As these kingdoms adopted Islam, their subjects thereafter followed suit. In praising the Africans' zealousness to Islam, the 14th-century explorer Ibn Battuta stated that mosques were so crowded on Fridays, that unless one went very early, it was impossible to find a place to sit.\n",
"After the establishment of Islam, its rapid expansion and conquests displaced traditional African religions either by conversion or conquest. Traditional African religions have influenced Islam in Africa, and Islam is considered as having more commonality with traditional African religions, but conflict has occurred, especially due to Islam's monotheistic stance and the rise of Muslim reformers such as Askia.\n",
"During the Postclassical Era, Africa was both culturally and politically affected by the introduction of Islam and the Arabic empires. This was especially true in the north, the Sudan region, and the east coast. However, this conversion was not complete nor uniform among different areas, and the low-level classes hardly changed their beliefs at all. Prior to the migration and conquest of Muslims into Africa, much of the continent was dominated by diverse societies of varying sizes and complexities. These were ruled by kings or councils of elders who would control their constituents in a variety of ways. Most of these peoples practiced spiritual, animistic religions. Africa was culturally separated between Saharan Africa (which consisted of North Africa and the Sahara Desert) and Sub-Saharan Africa (everything south of the Sahara). Sub-Saharan Africa was further divided into the Sudan, which covered everything north of Central Africa, including West Africa. The area south of the Sudan was primarily occupied by the Bantu peoples who spoke the Bantu language. From 1100 onward Christian Europe and the Islamic World became dependent on Africa for gold.\n",
"The spread of Islam towards Central and West Africa had until the early 19th century has been consistent but slow. Previously, the only connection was through Trans-Saharan trade routes. The Mali Empire, consisting predominantly of African and Berber tribes, stands as a strong example of the early Islamic conversion of the Sub-Saharan region. The gateways prominently expanded to include the aforementioned trade routes through the Eastern shores of the African continent. With the European colonization of Africa, missionaries were almost in competition with the European Christian missionaries operating in the colonies.\n"
] |
what happens to the human body when it experiences spontaneous decompression? does it just pop?
|
"Coward, Lucas and Bergersen were exposed to the effects of explosive decompression and died in the positions indicated by the diagram. Subsequent investigation by forensic pathologists determined Hellevik, being exposed to the highest pressure gradient, violently exploded due to the rapid and massive expansion of internal gases. **All of his thoracic and abdominal organs, and even his thoracic spine, were ejected, as were all of his limbs.** Simultaneously, his remains were expelled through the narrow trunk opening left by the jammed chamber door, less than 60 centimetres (24 in) in diameter. Fragments of his body were found scattered about the rig. One part was even found lying on the rig's derrick, 10 metres (30 ft) directly above the chambers. The deaths of all four divers were most likely instantaneous."
[Byford Dolphin Accident](_URL_0_)
There is a picture of what was left of one of the divers, but I couldn't find it. Essentially, if you read the above, what was left on the stretcher didn't amount to much,
Edit: This was an extreme situation obviously.
|
[
"The term \"decompression\" derives from the reduction in ambient pressure experienced by the organism and refers to both the reduction in pressure and the process of allowing dissolved inert gases to be eliminated from the tissues during and after this reduction in pressure. The uptake of gas by the tissues is in the dissolved state, and elimination also requires the gas to be dissolved, however a sufficient reduction in ambient pressure may cause bubble formation in the tissues, which can lead to tissue damage and the symptoms known as decompression sickness, and also delays the elimination of the gas.\n",
"The physiology of decompression involves a complex interaction of gas solubility, partial pressures and concentration gradients, diffusion, bulk transport and bubble mechanics in living tissues. Gas is breathed at ambient pressure, and some of this gas dissolves into the blood and other fluids. Inert gas continues to be taken up until the gas dissolved in the tissues is in a state of equilibrium with the gas in the lungs, (see: \"Saturation diving\"), or the ambient pressure is reduced until the inert gases dissolved in the tissues are at a higher concentration than the equilibrium state, and start diffusing out again.\n",
"The physiology of decompression involves a complex interaction of gas solubility, partial pressures and concentration gradients, diffusion, bulk transport and bubble mechanics in living tissues. Gas is breathed at ambient pressure, and some of this gas dissolves into the blood and other fluids. Inert gas continues to be taken up until the gas dissolved in the tissues is in a state of equilibrium with the gas in the lungs, (see: \"Saturation diving\"), or the ambient pressure is reduced until the inert gases dissolved in the tissues are at a higher concentration than the equilibrium state, and start diffusing out again.\n",
"Saturation decompression is a physiological process of transition from a steady state of full saturation with inert gas at raised pressure to standard conditions at normal surface atmospheric pressure. It is a long process during which inert gases are eliminated at a very low rate limited by the slowest affected tissues, and a deviation can cause the formation of gas bubbles which can produce decompression sickness. Most operational procedures rely on experimentally derived parameters describing a continuous slow decompression rate, which may depend on depth and gas mixture.\n",
"Saturation decompression is a physiological process of transition from a steady state of full saturation with inert gas at raised pressure to standard conditions at normal surface atmospheric pressure. It is a long process during which inert gases are eliminated at a very low rate limited by the slowest affected tissues, and a deviation can cause the formation of gas bubbles which can produce decompression sickness. Most operational procedures rely on experimentally derived parameters describing a continuous slow decompression rate, which may depend on depth and gas mixture.\n",
"As a consequence of rapid decompression, oxygen dissolved in the blood empties into the lungs to try to equalize the partial pressure gradient. Once the deoxygenated blood arrives at the brain, humans lose consciousness after a few seconds and die of hypoxia within minutes. Blood and other body fluids boil when the pressure drops below 6.3 kPa, and this condition is called ebullism. The steam may bloat the body to twice its normal size and slow circulation, but tissues are elastic and porous enough to prevent rupture. Ebullism is slowed by the pressure containment of blood vessels, so some blood remains liquid. Swelling and ebullism can be reduced by containment in a pressure suit. The Crew Altitude Protection Suit (CAPS), a fitted elastic garment designed in the 1960s for astronauts, prevents ebullism at pressures as low as 2 kPa. Supplemental oxygen is needed at to provide enough oxygen for breathing and to prevent water loss, while above pressure suits are essential to prevent ebullism. Most space suits use around 30–39 kPa of pure oxygen, about the same as on the Earth's surface. This pressure is high enough to prevent ebullism, but evaporation of nitrogen dissolved in the blood could still cause decompression sickness and gas embolisms if not managed.\n",
"Rapid decompression can be much more dangerous than vacuum exposure itself. Even if the victim does not hold his or her breath, venting through the windpipe may be too slow to prevent the fatal rupture of the delicate alveoli of the lungs. Eardrums and sinuses may be ruptured by rapid decompression, soft tissues may bruise and seep blood, and the stress of shock will accelerate oxygen consumption leading to hypoxia. Injuries caused by rapid decompression are called barotrauma. A pressure drop of 13 kPa (100 Torr), which produces no symptoms if it is gradual, may be fatal if it occurs suddenly.\n"
] |
Why can't I cleanly wipe the condensation off my bathroom mirror after a shower?
|
Condensation is caused by the relatively cool surface of the mirror pulling moisture out of the air. The water vapor in the air essentially loses energy, that is, cools off and phase changes into water, when it encounters this surface.
When you wipe it, you get rid of the droplets that have formed on the surface of the mirror. What you haven't addressed is whats causing it in the first place - the cool mirror. So a new layer of droplets quickly forms. If you take a hairdryer on hot and blast the mirror THEN wipe it, it will no longer form condensation. This is known as the female solution. You can also spit on the mirror and wipe it around. The body temperature phlegm should slow/stop the condensation. This is known as the male solution.
Some fancy hotels actually have mirror heaters to avoid this problem altogether.
|
[
"The simplest version of a mirror coating is a single layer of a deposited thin film of a suitable metal, usually prepared by ion beam deposition, sputter deposition or vapor deposition. However, this kind of coating is very prone to scratching, and degrades, especially in a corrosive environment like salt water.\n",
"Automated chilled mirror devices provide significantly more repeatable results, but these measurements can be affected by contaminants that may compromise the mirror's surface. In many instances it is important to incorporate an effective filtration system that prepares the gas for analysis. On the other hand, filtration may alter the gas composition slightly and filter elements are subject to clogging and saturation. Advances in technology have led to analyzers that are less affected by contaminants and certain devices can also measure the dew point of water that may be present in the gas. One recent innovation is the use of spectroscopy to determine the nature of the condensate at dewpoint. Another device user laser interferometry to register extremely tenuous amounts of condensation. It is asserted that these technologies are less affected by interference from contaminants. Another source of error is the speed of the cooling of the mirror and the measurement of the temperature of the mirror when the condensation is detected. This error can be minimized by controlling the cooling speed, or having a fast condensation detection system.\n",
"The mirror is aluminized by placing it in a vacuum chamber with electrically heated tungsten or nichrome coils that can evaporate aluminum. In a vacuum, the hot aluminum atoms travel in straight lines. When they hit the surface of the mirror, they cool and stick. Some mirror coating shops then evaporate a layer of quartz onto the mirror, whereas others expose it to pure oxygen or air in an oven so that the mirror will form a tough, clear layer of aluminum oxide.\n",
"Similar to GC analysis, the experimental method is subject to potential sources of error. The first error is in the detection of condensation. A key component in chilled mirror dew point measurements is the subtlety with which condensate can be detected — in other words, the thinner the film is when detected, the better. A manual chilled mirror device relies on the operator to determine when a mist has formed on the mirror, and, depending on the device, can be highly subjective. It is also not always clear what is condensing: water or hydrocarbons. Because of the low resolution that has traditionally been available, the operator has been prone to under report the dew point, in other words, to report the dew point temperature as being below what it actually is. This is due to the fact that by the time condensation had accumulated enough to be visible, the dew point had already been reached and passed. The most modern manual devices make possible greatly improved reporting accuracy. There are two manufacturers of manual devices, and each of their devices meet the requirements for dew point measurement apparatus as defined in the ASTM Manual for Hydrocarbon Analysis. However, there are significant differences between the devices – including the optical resolution of the mirror and the method of mirror cooling – depending on the manufacturer. \n",
"Items contaminated by chemicals such as wax, cigarette ash, poisons, mineral oils, wet paints, oiled tools, furnace filters, etc. can contaminate a dishwasher, since the surfaces inside small water passages cannot be wiped clean as surfaces are in hand-washing, so contaminants remain to affect future loads. Objects contaminated by solvents may explode in a dishwasher.\n",
"Chilled mirror analyzers are subject to the confounding effects of some contaminants, however, usually no more so than other types of analyzers. With proper filtration and gas analysis preparation systems, other condensables such as heavy hydrocarbons, alcohol, and glycol need not impair the reliable function of these devices. It is also worth noting that in the case of natural gas, in which the afore mentioned contaminants are an issue, on-line analyzers routinely measure the water dew point at line pressure, which reduces the likelihood that any heavy hydrocarbons, for example, will condense before water. \n",
"Once off the bath, the glass sheet passes through a lehr kiln for approximately 100 m, where it is cooled gradually so that it anneals without strain and does not crack from the temperature change. On exiting the \"cold end\" of the kiln, the glass is cut by machines.\n"
] |
During timeperiods with more oxygen in the atmosphere, did fires burn faster/hotter?
|
Yes. And during periods with lower oxygen levels, fires burned more slowly or not at all. Some natural fuels will burn at high oxygen concentrations but not low. [This article](_URL_0_) examines these relationships. Wildfires may actually act to stabilize atmospheric oxygen levels. If the concentration increases, fires will burn faster and consume the excess. If the concentration decreases, fires slow down and consume less oxygen, allowing the concentration to rise again. Check out [this excellent paper(PDF)](_URL_1_) to learn more about this and other relationships between fire and climate, ecology, evolution, etc.
|
[
"It is not necessary but highly likely that this kindling phase took place in an oxidising atmosphere: an oxygen-rich fire is likely in any case, since it is much more effective in producing heat. Further, the fact that reducing fires are extremely smoky would probably have been considered as undesirable, and was thus limited to the relatively short 2nd phase.\n",
"If widespread fires occurred, they would have increased the content of the atmosphere and caused a temporary greenhouse effect once the dust clouds and aerosol settled, and, this would have exterminated the most vulnerable organisms that survived the period immediately after the impact.\n",
"Highly concentrated sources of oxygen promote rapid combustion. Oxygen itself is not flammable, but the addition of concentrated oxygen to a fire greatly increases its intensity, and can aid the combustion of materials (such as metals) which are relatively inert under normal conditions. Fire and explosion hazards exist when concentrated oxidants and fuels are brought into close proximity; however, an ignition event, such as heat or a spark, is needed to trigger combustion. A well-known example of an accidental fire accelerated by pure oxygen occurred in the Apollo 1 spacecraft in January 1967 during a ground test; it killed all three astronauts. A similar accident killed Soviet cosmonaut Valentin Bondarenko in 1961.\n",
"Global firestorms may have resulted as incendiary fragments from the blast fell back to Earth. Analyses of fluid inclusions in ancient amber suggest that the oxygen content of the atmosphere was very high (30–35%) during the late Cretaceous. This high O level would have supported intense combustion. The level of atmospheric O plummeted in the early Paleogene Period. If widespread fires occurred, they would have increased the CO content of the atmosphere and caused a temporary greenhouse effect once the dust cloud settled, and this would have exterminated the most vulnerable survivors of the \"long winter\".\n",
"Global firestorms may have resulted as incendiary fragments from the blast fell back to Earth. Analyses of fluid inclusions in ancient amber suggest that the oxygen content of the atmosphere was very high (30–35%) during the late Cretaceous. This high level would have supported intense combustion. The level of atmospheric plummeted in the early Paleogene Period. If widespread fires occurred, they would have increased the content of the atmosphere and caused a temporary greenhouse effect once the dust cloud settled, and this would have exterminated the most vulnerable survivors of the \"long winter\".\n",
"Oxygen is not flammable, but when it is present in increased concentrations it will enable fires to start much more easily. Once a fire has started, if supplemental oxygen is present it will burn more fiercely, based on the principle of the fire triangle. Materials that do not burn in ambient air may burn when there is a greater concentration of oxygen present than there is in air.\n",
"Most current analyses of the fire assume ignition due to some form of electricity as the cause. However, there is still much controversy over whether the fabric skin of the airship, or the hydrogen used for buoyancy, was the initial fuel for the resulting fire.\n"
] |
How accurate is the information that Leif Erickson actually discovered North America?
|
Hi, not discouraging others from answering here, but you may be interested in a few earlier posts
* /u/400-Rabbits in [Did Vikings ever make contact with North America before Christopher Columbus?](_URL_2_)
* /u/textandtrowel in [What do we know about Vinland?](_URL_3_)
* /u/A_Crazy_Canadian in [What information about Leif Ericsson can be verified as historically accurate?](_URL_4_)
For reference, L'Anse aux Meadows is a [Canadian National Historic Site](_URL_0_) and [Unesco World Heritage Site](_URL_1_)
|
[
"After quitting Hanover Beamish devoted much attention to Norse antiquities, and in 1841 published a summary of the researches of Professor Carl Christian Rafn, relative to the discovery of America by the Northmen in the tenth century. Although the fact had been notified as early as 1828 (in a letter in Niles' Register, Boston, U.S.), it was very little known. Beamish's modest volume not only popularised the discovery by epitomising the principal details in Rafn's great work \"Antiquitates Americanæ\" (Copenhagen, 1837), but it contains, in the shape of translations from the Sagas, one of the best summaries of Icelandic historical literature anywhere to be found within an equal space. Beamish, like his younger brother, Richard, who was at one time in the Grenadier guards, was a Fellow of the Royal Society and an associate of various learned bodies.\n",
"Beyond this, it gives a description of the coast of Scandinavia and of the \"northern isles\" including Iceland, Greenland and notably (in chapter 39) Vinland (North America), being the oldest extant written record of the Norse discovery of North America. Adam of Bremen had been at the court of Danish king Sven Estridson and was informed about the Viking discoveries in the North Atlantic there.\n",
"BULLET::::- Donald L. McGuirk, Jr. \"The Presumed North America on the Waldseemüller World Map (1507): A Theory of Its Discovery by Christopher Columbus\", \"Terrae Incognitae,\" Volume 46, Issue 2 (September 2014), pp. 86–102.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"A Map Exhibiting All the New Discoveries in the Interior Parts of North America\", 1 January 1795, with numerous other editions, most notably 1802, 1811, 1814, and 1818. The 1802 version of this map was studied closely by Meriwether Lewis prior to the Lewis and Clark Expedition and the 1811 edition was updated with the published information from that expedition in the 1814 edition.\n",
"In 1960, archaeological evidence of the only known Norse site in North America (outside Greenland) was found at L'Anse aux Meadows on the northern tip of the island of Newfoundland. Before the discovery of archaeological evidence, Vinland was known only from Old Norse sagas and medieval historiography. The 1960 discovery proved the pre-Columbian Norse exploration of mainland North America. L'Anse aux Meadows may correspond to the camp \"Straumfjörð\" mentioned in the \"Saga of Erik the Red\".\n",
"According to a literal interpretation of Einar Haugen's translation of the two sagas in the book \"Voyages to Vinland\", Leif was not the first European to discover America: he had heard the story of merchant Bjarni Herjólfsson who claimed to have sighted land to the west of Greenland after having been blown off course. Bjarni reportedly never made landfall there, however. Later, when travelling from Norway to Greenland, Leif was also blown off course, to a land that he did not expect to see, where he found \"self-sown wheat fields and grapevines\". He next rescued two men who were shipwrecked in this country and went back to Greenland (and Christianised the people there). Consequently, if this is to be trusted, Bjarni Herjólfsson was the first European to see America beyond Greenland, and the two unnamed shipwrecked men were the first people known to Europeans to have made landfall there.\n",
"\"The Saga of Erik the Red\" and \"The Saga of the Greenlanders\" both contain different accounts of Norse voyages to Vinland. The name Vinland meaning \"Wineland,\" is attributed to the discovery of grapevines upon the arrival of Leif Eiriksson in North America. \"The Vinland Sagas\" represent the most complete information we have about the Norse exploration of the Americas although due to Iceland's oral tradition, they cannot be deemed completely historically accurate and include contradictory details. However, historians commonly believe these sources contain substantial evidence of Viking exploration of North America through the descriptions of topography, natural resources and native culture. In comparing the events of both books, a realistic timeline can be created.\n"
] |
why fat forms where it does
|
I'm sorry if the answer is incorrect but my lecturer told me that it has to do with gender.
Male: The stomach.
Female: Buttocks.
|
[
"Adipose tissue, commonly known as fat, is a depository for energy in order to conserve metabolic homeostasis. As the body takes in energy in the form of glucose, some is expended, and the rest is stored as glycogen primarily in the liver, muscle cells, or fat.\n",
"Fat body (\"Corpus adiposum\") is a loosely organized tissue or organ in some arthropods, composed primarily of storage cells and distributed throughout the animal's body. Its main functions are nutrient storage and conversion (intermediary metabolism), for which it is commonly compared to a combination of adipose tissue and liver in humans. However, it may also serve a variety of other roles, such as regulation of metabolism through hormone synthesis, systemic immunity, vitellogenesis, and housing of microbial symbionts. The fat body is of mesodermal origin and is normally composed of a network of thin sheets, ribbons or small nodules suspended in hemocoel by connective tissue and tracheae, so that most of its cells are in direct contact with hemolymph. It is closely associated with epidermis, digestive organs and ovaries.\n",
"Fats are one of the three main macronutrients, along with carbohydrates and proteins. Fat molecules consist of primarily carbon and hydrogen atoms and are therefore hydrophobic and are soluble in organic solvents and insoluble in water. Examples include cholesterol, phospholipids, and triglycerides.\n",
"Once fat particles enter the blood circulation, it can lodge at various sites of the body, most commonly in the lungs (up to 75% of the cases). However, it can also enter the brain, skin, eyes, kidneys, liver, and heart circulation, causing capillary damage, and subsequently organ damage in these areas. There are two theories that describes the formation of a fat embolus:\n",
"BULLET::::- Fats consist of a glycerin molecule with three fatty acids attached. Fatty acid molecules contain a -COOH group attached to unbranched hydrocarbon chains connected by single bonds alone (saturated fatty acids) or by both double and single bonds (unsaturated fatty acids). Fats are needed for construction and maintenance of cell membranes, to maintain a stable body temperature, and to sustain the health of skin and hair. Because the body does not manufacture certain fatty acids (termed essential fatty acids), they must be obtained through one's diet.\n",
"In biology, adipose tissue, body fat, or simply fat is a loose connective tissue composed mostly of adipocytes. In addition to adipocytes, adipose tissue contains the stromal vascular fraction (SVF) of cells including preadipocytes, fibroblasts, vascular endothelial cells and a variety of immune cells such as adipose tissue macrophages. Adipose tissue is derived from preadipocytes. Its main role is to store energy in the form of lipids, although it also cushions and insulates the body. Far from being hormonally inert, adipose tissue has, in recent years, been recognized as a major endocrine organ, as it produces hormones such as leptin, estrogen, resistin, and cytokine (especially TNFα). The two types of adipose tissue are white adipose tissue (WAT), which stores energy, and brown adipose tissue (BAT), which generates body heat. The formation of adipose tissue appears to be controlled in part by the adipose gene. Adipose tissue – more specifically brown adipose tissue – was first identified by the Swiss naturalist Conrad Gessner in 1551.\n",
"Fats are also sources of essential fatty acids, an important dietary requirement. They provide energy as noted above. Vitamins A, D, E, and K are fat-soluble, meaning they can only be digested, absorbed, and transported in conjunction with fats. Fats play a vital role in maintaining healthy skin and hair, insulating body organs against shock, maintaining body temperature, and promoting healthy cell function. Fat also serves as a useful buffer against a host of diseases. When a particular substance, whether chemical or biotic, reaches unsafe levels in the bloodstream, the body can effectively dilute—or at least maintain equilibrium of—the offending substances by storing it in new fat tissue. This helps to protect vital organs, until such time as the offending substances can be metabolized or removed from the body by such means as excretion, urination, accidental or intentional bloodletting, sebum excretion, and hair growth.\n"
] |
What are the differences in the metabolisms of someone who can't get fat and someone who gains weight easily?
|
While this doesn't quite answer your question, perhaps it will give you some information that is part of the answer.
Human microbiota (all the microbes in and on you) work has exploded in the last 10 years. One huge piece of research to come out of this is that [lean people and obese](_URL_0_) people harbor different profiles of bacteria (and different bacterial genes) in their gut. They took identical and non-identical twins, and their mothers, compared who was lean or obese, what microbes they had in their gut, and what the gene content of those microbes was. The idea of looking at twins is then you can control for the gene content of the host. What they found in short is that obese people had less diversity of bacteria (and their genes) in their gut along with a different assortment of bacteria. Some thoughts for why this might be is that the obese profile helps the host get more energy from their food.
However, at this point, it's kind of a chicken/egg discussion. We know what an obese microbiota looks like. Do people get inoculated with an obese microbiota and then become obese because of it? This could explain why we see obesity in families. Or is there something that individuals do that shift their microbiota towards that of an obese one, and it "helps" them become obese?
I'm going to speculate now based on what I've read, and the people I've talked to about this (I've actually met and had a conversation with the lead author on that paper I linked to). I think this all might actually be a combination of things. Perhaps mom eats in a way that not only encourages weight gain, but also encourages an obese microbiota. She gets stuck in a cycle where her microbiota requires more food, so she eats more, maintaining her obesity. She then inoculates her kids with that profile, while maintaining the necessary external things that support their obese profile and that keeps them obese. And you can look at it from the flip side, lean people doing the things that maintain a lean profile AND inoculating their kids with it AND teaching them the habits that maintain that leanness. I have to wonder if part of the difficulty for some in losing weight isn't totally that it's "hard" to lose weight, but that it's hard to shift your microbiota back to that of a lean person.
|
[
"All body shapes are different, meaning, people carry fat in different places. Some locations on the body are more metabolically active than others, and those areas will lose weight quicker than those that are not as metabolically active. For many people, abdominal fat is more metabolically active, and can be reduced easier than fat in the lower regions of the body. The reduction of these metabolically active sites are not due to an increase in abdominal muscle contractions. While exercising, fatty acids are being mobilized due to the presence of hormones and enzymes. These create a negative energy balance in the body. Fat is reduced over the whole body. Exercise of certain muscles cannot signal a specific release of fatty acids for the specific fat deposits above those muscles being activated. \n",
"Studies have shown that people losing weight with a low-carbohydrate diet, compared to a low-fat diet, have very slightly more weight loss initially, equivalent to approximately 100kcal/day, but that the advantage diminishes over time and is ultimately insignificant. The Endocrine Society state that \"when calorie intake is held constant [...] body-fat accumulation does not appear to be affected by even very pronounced changes in the amount of fat vs carbohydrate in the diet.\"\n",
"Evidence to support the view that some obese people eat little yet gain weight due to a slow metabolism is limited; on average, obese people have a greater energy expenditure than their healthy-weight counterparts due to the energy required to maintain an increased body mass.\n",
"BULLET::::- There is no evidence that obesity is related to slower resting metabolism. Resting metabolic rate does not vary much between people. Weight gain and loss are directly attributable to diet and activity. Overweight people tend to underestimate the amount of food they eat, and underweight people tend to overestimate.\n",
"Body fat can impact on an individual mentally, for example high levels of android fat have been linked to poor mental wellbeing, including anxiety, depression and body confidence issues. On the reverse, psychological aspects can impact on body fat distribution too, for example women classed as being more extraverted tend to have less android body fat.\n",
"Caloric restriction diets typically lead to reduced body weight, yet reduced weight can come from other causes and is not in itself necessarily healthy. In some studies, low body weight has been associated with increased mortality, particularly in late middle-aged or elderly subjects. Low body weight in the elderly can be caused by pathological conditions associated with aging and predisposing to higher mortality (such as cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder, or depression) or of the cachexia (wasting syndrome) and sarcopenia (loss of muscle mass, structure, and function). One study linked a body mass index lower than 18 in women with increased mortality from noncancer, non−cardiovascular disease causes. The authors attempted to adjust for confounding factors (cigarette smoking, failure to exclude pre-existing disease); others argued that the adjustments were inadequate.\n",
"In regard to adipose tissue increases, a person generally gains weight by increasing food consumption, becoming physically inactive, or both. When energy intake exceeds energy expenditure (when the body is in positive energy balance), the body can store the excess energy as fat. However, the physiology of weight gain and loss is complex involving numerous hormones, body systems and environmental factors. Other factors beside energy balance that may contribute to gaining weight include:\n"
] |
how does a build up of lactic acid in an athlete's muscles cause them to sometimes thow up
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Throwing up is one of a few things the body just defaults to when it senses something is geberally wrong. Better safe than sorry, maybe it's something you ate, let's throw up just to be sure. Makes sense from an evolutionary stand point.
Also, when so much lactic acid is built up, it'll sometimes end up in your actual stomach. This will irritate the stomach and throwing up gets rid of it.
|
[
"The presence of lactic acid has an inhibitory effect on ATP generation within the muscle; though not producing fatigue, it can inhibit or even stop performance if the intracellular concentration becomes too high. However, long-term training causes neovascularization within the muscle, increasing the ability to move waste products out of the muscles and maintain contraction. Once moved out of muscles with high concentrations within the sarcomere, lactic acid can be used by other muscles or body tissues as a source of energy, or transported to the liver where it is converted back to pyruvate. In addition to increasing the level of lactic acid, strenuous exercise causes the loss of potassium ions in muscle and causing an increase in potassium ion concentrations close to the muscle fibres, in the interstitium. Acidification by lactic acid may allow recovery of force so that acidosis may protect against fatigue rather than being a cause of fatigue.\n",
"Lactic acid tends to accumulate in the muscles, which causes pain of the muscle and joint as well as fatigue. It also creates a gradient which induces water to flow out of cells and increases blood pressure. Research suggests that lactic acid may also play a role in lowering levels of potassium in the blood. It can also be converted back to pyruvate or converted back to glucose in the liver and fully metabolized by aerobic respiration.\n",
"It was once believed that lactic acid build-up was the cause of muscle fatigue. The assumption was lactic acid had a \"pickling\" effect on muscles, inhibiting their ability to contract. The impact of lactic acid on performance is now uncertain, it may assist or hinder muscle fatigue.\n",
"It was once believed that lactic acid build-up was the cause of muscle fatigue. The assumption was lactic acid had a \"pickling\" effect on muscles, inhibiting their ability to contract. Though the impact of lactic acid on performance is now uncertain, it may assist or hinder muscle fatigue.\n",
"The onset of acidosis during periods of intense exercise is commonly attributed to accumulation of lactic acid. From this reasoning, the idea of lactate production being a primary cause of muscle fatigue during exercise has been widely adopted. A closer, mechanistic analysis of lactate production under anaerobic conditions shows that there is no biochemical evidence for the production of lactate through LDH contributing to acidosis. While LDH activity is correlated to muscle fatigue, the production of lactate by means of the LDH complex works as a system to delay the onset of muscle fatigue.\n",
"Lactic acidosis is also a consequence of the processes causing \"rigor mortis\". In the absence of oxygen, tissue in the muscles of the deceased carry out anaerobic metabolism using muscle glycogen as the energy source, causing acidification. With depletion of muscle glycogen, the loss of ATP causes the muscles to grow stiff, as the actin-myosin bonds cannot be released. (Rigor is later resolved by enzymatic breakdown of the myofibers.)\n",
"Lactic acidosis is a medical condition characterized by the buildup of lactate (especially L-lactate) in the body, with formation of an excessively low pH in the bloodstream. It is a form of metabolic acidosis, in which excessive acid accumulates due to a problem with the body's oxidative metabolism.\n"
] |
is paying off a mortgage like paying rent?
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...Sort of? It is a regular bill which needs to be paid so it seems similar. However a major difference is that the money paid into the mortgage isn't really gone in the same way as rent. You are gaining equity or ownership of the property so when it is sold you get that money back. You can even sell before the mortgage is done and pocket the difference between the mortgage and sale price.
|
[
"Some mortgage companies also charge early payment penalties if the homeowner pays more than is due in order to reduce the interest owed and to shorten the remaining term of the loan. The fees typically negate this advantage at least in part.\n",
"The mortgage part was typically on an interest only basis, while the unsecured loan was on a repayment basis. This meant that when making monthly payments, only the balance for the unsecured part would reduce. This arrangement often resulted in the borrowers becoming \"mortgage prisoners\" after the lenders stopped operating (for example Northern Rock), property prices were not rising and the customers were (or still are) unable to remortgage (due to the high loan to value) or sell their property. If they sold the property, the sale price would not cover the mortgage and the unsecured loan, so they would be left without a home and still carry some debt.\n",
"The borrower after deciding to not make payments any more can live free of the costs of payment or rent until the lender forecloses, which may take from several months to years. A borrower may use this time to extinguish or negotiate other debt. Mortgage lenders may negotiate with defaulting borrowers to assure maintenance and occupancy of the property until the lender can take title and market the house, and may provide the defaulting borrower with greater than the minimum legal notice to quit (which can be as little as three days) and may even agree to pay a fee to leave the home in pristine condition.\n",
"Costs are generally considered on a cash (not accrual) basis. Thus a person making the last payment on a large home mortgage might live in officially unaffordable housing one month, and very affordable housing the following month, when the mortgage is paid off. This distortion can be significant in areas where real estate costs are high, even if incomes are similarly high, because a high income allows a higher proportion of the income to be dedicated towards buying an expensive home without endangering the household's ability to buy food or other basic necessities.\n",
"Under a capital lease, the lessee does not record rent as an expense. Instead, the rent is reclassified as interest and obligation payments, similarly to a mortgage (with the interest calculated each rental period on the outstanding obligation balance). At the same time, the asset is depreciated. If the lease has an ownership transfer or bargain purchase option, the depreciable life is the asset's economic life; otherwise, the depreciable life is the lease term. Over the life of the lease, the interest and depreciation combined will be equal to the rent payments.\n",
"A tenant's duty to pay rent was traditionally thought of as an independent covenant, meaning that the tenant was required to pay rent regardless of whether the landlord fulfilled their duties of performance. Now the duty of a tenant to pay rent is considered to be a dependent covenant, and the tenant can be freed from the duty to pay rent if the landlord breaches the covenant of repair or warranty of habitability.\n",
"With regard to the former of these classes, it may be noticed that although apportioned rent becomes payable only when the whole rent is due, the landlord, in the case of the bankruptcy of an ordinary tenant, may prove for a proportionate part of the rent up to the date of the receiving order; and that a similar rule holds good in the winding up of a company; and further that the act of 1870 applies to the liability to pay, as well as to the right to receive, rent. Accordingly, where an assignment of a lease is made between two half-yearly rent-days, the assignee is not liable to pay the full amount of the half-year's rent falling due on the rent-day next after the date of the assignment, but only an apportioned part of that half-year's rent, computed from the last mentioned date. If you pay a ground rent on a leasehold property or a rentcharge on a freehold property that is also payable on other neighbouring properties, you can apply to the Department for Communities and Local Government for an ‘order of apportionment’ that legally separates your share of the ground rent or rentcharge.\n"
] |
why are veterans held in such high regard in america and why do some veterans walk around in uniform when not on duty?
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Because they fought for our country. They risked their lives for us. I think they deserve a little damn respect.
|
[
"Because of intense group solidarity and unique daily hardships brought by combat, many veterans feel alienated from citizens, family, and friends when they return. They often feel they have little in common with civilian peers; issues that concern friends and family seem trivial after combat. There is a clarity of focus and purpose that comes with war that few in civilian life will ever know. Afghanistan veteran Brendon O'Byrne says, \"We were really close. Physically and emotionally close. It's kind of terrifying being in such an emotionally safe environment and then suddenly be expelled into an alienated, fractured society.\" The challenges of re-entering a civilian life where few people have experienced combat may contribute to the sense of loneliness. As filmmaker and war correspondent Sebastian Junger says, \"They didn't want to go back because it was traumatic, but because it was a place where they understood what they were supposed to do. They understood who they were. They had a sense of purpose. They were necessary. All these things that young people strive for are answered in combat.\" Veterans often see their wartime experience as the most selfless and meaningful period of their lives. Some veterans have expressed the sentiment that \"even in the quiet moments, war is brighter, louder, brasher, more fun, more tragic, more wasteful. More. More of everything.\"\n",
"In the postwar period, veterans of all groups were looking to re-enter the work force despite the post-war economic slump. Some whites resented African-American veterans. At the same time, African-American veterans exhibited greater militancy and pride as a result of having served to protect their country. They expected to be treated as full citizens after fighting for the nation. Meanwhile, younger black men rejected the deference or passivity traditional of the South and promoted armed self-defense and control of their neighborhoods.\n",
"Veteran groups are not as developed as in the United States which has numerous well known national organizations such as the Veterans of Foreign Wars. World War II veterans, and even persons who have lived through the war are generally treated with the highest respect. Other veterans are not as well known. Ukrainian veterans from the Soviet War of Afghanistan are strikingly similar to the Vietnam veterans of the United States, although the Soviet Union generally kept the public in the dark through the war, unlike in Vietnam, where coverage was very high. Afghanistan is often labeled as a mistake by the Soviet Union and its successor states, but the lack of media coverage, and the censorship through the war have ensured that many still remain unaware of their nation's involvement in the conflict. Despite Ukraine having the 3rd largest contingent of troops in Iraq in 2004, few also realize that their nation has many veterans of the Iraq war.\n",
"The most common usage is for former armed services personnel. A veteran is one who has served in the armed forces, especially one who has served in combat. The National Guard and Reserve is included. It is especially applied to those who served for an entire career, usually of 20 years or more, but may be applied for someone who has only served one tour of duty. A common misconception is that only those who have served in combat or those who have retired from active duty can be called military veterans.\n",
"Veteran groups are not as developed as in the United States which has numerous well known national organizations such as the Veterans of Foreign Wars. World War II veterans, and even persons who have lived through the war are generally treated with the highest respect. Other veterans are not as well known. Ukrainian veterans from the Soviet War of Afghanistan are strikingly similar to the Vietnam veterans of the United States. The Soviet Union generally kept the public in the dark through the war, unlike in Vietnam where coverage was very high, Afghanistan is often labeled as a mistake by the Soviet Union and its successor states, the lack of media coverage and censorship through the war also ensured that many still remain unaware of their nations involvement in the conflict. Despite Ukraine having the 3rd largest contingent of troops in Iraq in 2004, few also realize that their nation has many veterans of the Iraq war.\n",
"Veterans for America is \"an advocacy and humanitarian organization that works with its affiliate group, the Justice Project to engage the American public in support of policies addressing the needs of veterans, those currently in the armed services, and victims of war overseas, and to develop initiatives to make the world more secure.\"\n",
"Veterans often display a high degree of disdain for the term \"police action\", as it somehow implies that their sacrifices were not legitimate and perhaps also that they are not even veterans of a true \"war\".\n"
] |
How did kingdoms with two simultaneous kings come about and how did it work?
|
On your tangent: "state" is just a generic (and somewhat ill-defined) word for a sovereign political entity, it doesn't imply anything about the form of government. Kingdoms are states.
|
[
"For years both kingdoms were involved in wars until the kingdom of Tallo was defeated. During the reign of King of Gowa X, \"I Manriwagau Daeng Bonto Karaeng Lakiung Tunipalangga Ulaweng\" (1512-1546), the two kingdoms were reunified to become twin kingdoms under a deal called \"Rua Kareng se're ata\" (\"dual kings, single people\" in Makassarese) and enforced with a binding treaty. Since then, when someone becomes a king of Tallo, he also becomes the king of Gowa. Many historians then simply call these \"Gowa-Tallo\" twin kingdoms as \"Makassar\" or just \"Gowa.\"\n",
"All these different kingdoms were ruled together, or separately in personal union, but maintained their particular ethnic differences, regardless of similarities through common origins or borrowed customs. These kingdoms sometimes collaborated when they fought against Al-Andalus and sometimes allied themselves with the Muslims against rival Christian neighbors.\n",
"Dual monarchy occurs when two separate kingdoms are ruled by the same monarch, follow the same foreign policy, exist in a customs union with each other and have a combined military but are otherwise self-governing. The term is typically used to refer to Austria-Hungary, a dual monarchy that existed from 1867 to 1918 that spanned across parts of Central and Eastern Europe.\n",
"The Three Kingdoms was founded after the fall of Wiman Joseon, and gradually conquered and absorbed various other small states and confederacies. After the fall of Gojoseon, the Han dynasty established four commanderies in present Liaoning. Three fell quickly to the Samhan, and the last was destroyed by Goguryeo in 313.\n",
"New kingdoms were formed when a major clan produced more than one King in a generation. The Kuru (kingdom) clan of Kings was very successful in governing throughout North India with their numerous kingdoms, which were formed after each successive generation. Similarly, the Yadava clan of kings formed numerous kingdoms in Central India.\n",
"New kingdoms were formed when a major clan produced more than one King in a generation. The Kuru clan of Kings was very successful in governing throughout North India with their numerous kingdoms, which were formed after each successive generation. Similarly, the Yadava clan of kings formed numerous kingdoms in Central India.\n",
"The two countries had shared a monarch since the Union of the Crowns in 1603, when King James VI of Scotland inherited the English throne from his double first cousin twice removed, Queen Elizabeth I. Although described as a Union of Crowns, until 1707 there were in fact two separate Crowns resting on the same head (as opposed to the implied creation of a single Crown and a single Kingdom, exemplified by the later Kingdom of Great Britain). Prior to the Acts of Union there had been three previous attempts (in 1606, 1667, and 1689) to unite the two countries by Acts of Parliament, but it was not until the early 18th century that both political establishments came to support the idea, albeit for different reasons.\n"
] |
why does our teeth not erode away when we are brushing our teeth (and using them in other ways) every single day?
|
If the tooth enamel is only gently weakened it can regenerate. Toothpaste is specifically made to help your teeth do this regeneration. If you significantly damage your tooth enamel it is gone forever and your tooth underneath will likely begin to rot.
|
[
"Brushing teeth properly helps prevent cavities, and periodontal, or gum disease, which causes at least one-third of adult tooth loss. If teeth are not brushed correctly and frequently, it could lead to the calcification of saliva minerals, forming tartar. Tartar hardens (then referred to as 'calculus') if not removed every 24 hours. Poor dental health has been associated with heart disease and shortened life expectancy.\n",
"Daily brushing must include brushing of both the teeth and gums. Effective brushing itself, will prevent progression of both dental decay and gum diseases. Neutralising acids after eating and at least twice a day brushing with fluoridated toothpaste will assist preventing dental decay. Stimulating saliva flow assists in the remineralisation process of teeth, this can be done by chewing sugar free gum. Using an interdental device once daily will assist prevention of gum diseases.\n",
"Routine tooth brushing is the principal method of preventing many oral diseases, and perhaps the most important activity an individual can practice to reduce plaque buildup. Controlling plaque reduces the risk of the individual suffering from plaque-associated diseases such as gingivitis, periodontitis, and caries – the three most common oral diseases. The average brushing time for individuals is between 30 seconds and just over 60 seconds. Many oral health care professionals agree that tooth brushing should be done for a minimum of two minutes, and be practiced at least twice a day. Brushing for at least two minutes per session is optimal for preventing the most common oral diseases, and removes considerably more plaque than brushing for only 45 seconds\n",
"It is beneficial, when using a straight bristled brush, not to scrub horizontally over the necks of teeth, not to press the brush too hard against the teeth, to choose a toothpaste that is not too abrasive, and to wait at least 30 minutes after consumption of acidic food or drinks before brushing.\n",
"Tooth brushing is the most common cause of dental abrasion, which is found to develop along the gingival margin, due to vigorous brushing in this area. The type of toothbrush, the technique used and the force applied when brushing can influence the occurrence and severity of resulting abrasion. Further, brushing for extended periods of time (exceeding 2-3 min) in some cases, when combined with medium/hard bristled toothbrushes can cause abrasive lesions.\n",
"The front and backs of teeth should be brushed with the toothbrush at a 45 degree angle towards the gum line, moving the brush in a back and forth rolling motion that makes contact with the gum line and tooth. To brush the backs of the front teeth the brush should be held vertically to the tooth and moved in an up and down motion. The chewing surfaces of the teeth are brushed with a forward and back motion, with the toothbrush pointing straight at the tooth.\n",
"There are a number of common oral hygiene misconceptions. It is not correct to rinse the mouth with water after brushing. It is also not recommended to brush immediately after drinking acidic substances, including sparkling water. It is also recommended to floss once a day, with a different piece of floss at each flossing session. The Effectiveness of Tooth Mousse is in debate. Visits to a dentist for a checkup every year at least are recommended.\n"
] |
what's the significance of the queen's guard's hats? bonus explanation: what purpose do they serve in a modern attack with glowing uniforms and massive heads?
|
The queen's guard aren't commandos that get sent on covert Missions.
They're meant to stand out, and be a very visible show. They aren't just ceremonial, though. They're full trained soldiers in their own right on full guard duty.
But to do their job there is no need to hide or blend in. They want to be a very visible deterrent.
|
[
"BULLET::::- Various as the Knights, several near-identical knights who serve as background characters and comedy relief. Their features are obscured by their helmets, while the Queen's personal guard wear sunglasses and headsets in parody of the Secret Service. It is not uncommon for them to appear in their undergarments-wife beaters and boxer shorts-as a gag.\n",
"The traditional headdress of the \"Guardia\" is the \"tricornio\" hat, originally a tricorne. Its use now is reserved for parades or ceremonies. For other occasions a cap, a beret or the characteristic \"gorra teresiana\" is worn. A wide range of clothing is worn according to the nature of the duties being performed. The historic blue, white and red uniform of the \"Guardia\" is now retained only for the Civil Guard Company of the Royal Guard and the \"gastadores\" (parade markers) of the Civil Guard Academy.\n",
"The Queen's Body Guard of the Yeomen of the Guard are a bodyguard of the British Monarch. The oldest British military corps still in existence, it was created by King Henry VII in 1485 at the Battle of Bosworth. As a token of this venerability, the Yeomen still wear red and gold uniforms of Tudor style. There are 60 Yeomen of the Guard (plus six officers), drawn from retired members of the British Army, Royal Marines and Royal Air Force, but traditionally not the Royal Navy. This ban on Royal Navy Personnel was lifted in 2011 and two sailors joined the ranks of the Yeomen of the Guard. However, the role of the Captain of the Queen's Body Guard of the Yeomen of the Guard is a political appointment — the captain is always the government Deputy Chief Whip in the House of Lords.\n",
"Today, the Yeomen of the Guard have a purely ceremonial role. Armed with a Wilkinson sword and an ornamental partizan, they accompany the sovereign and are in attendance at various occasions such as at the annual royal maundy service, investitures, garden parties at Buckingham Palace, and so on. One of their most famous duties is to 'ceremonially' search the cellars of the Palace of Westminster prior to the opening of parliament, a tradition that dates back to the Gunpowder Plot of 1605, when Guy Fawkes attempted to blow up Parliament. In modern times officers from the Metropolitan Police carry out a more sophisticated additional search.\n",
"The Royal Guards are red versions of the Bruisers that are always seen in pairs and are stronger than Bruisers. They are part of the elite squadron of warriors, serving as bodyguards to the royal family.\n",
"The royal uniform of the Royal Guard consists of four models: the official form of the shirt, the dark green trousers, the green headgear, the green shirt, the green shirt, the dark green trousers, the green headgear, the combat model: the camouflage cap, Black hat and black hat for the unit and battalion of protection and promotion and the protection units close to the King and senior guests of kings and heads of state. \n",
"The Queen's Guard is primarily made up of units from the Household Division for royal palaces and public monuments—namely Buckingham Palace, St James's Palace, Windsor Castle, and the Tower of London—and other units from all three services of the British Armed Forces filling in when not deployed; in Scotland, Holyrood Palace and Edinburgh Castle are usually the responsibility of Scottish regiments or units based in Edinburgh. Occasionally units from Commonwealth militaries are given the honour.\n"
] |
Origins of Japanese and Korean, and why they sound similar?
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Korean and Japanese are both *language isolates*, that is, languages not provably related to any other language. Okay, recently a dialect of Japanese has been moved to related language, but so far there are no ties between Korean and Japanese. A proposed Altaic superfamily would still leave them less connected than Gaelic and Sanskrit.
So your mind is messing with you.
What you may be hearing is a little sprachbund effect, where disparate languages approach each other because a lot of people use both. This usually shows up in vocabulary borrowing, so it shows how slight the sprachbund is in that you heard nothing reasonable.
You see, Korea was part of the Japanese Empire from the later 1890s, ending the Joseon Dynasty's rule, until the end of WWII. So they had half a century of Japanese influence, but of a hostile memory, so they may have purged any borrowings.
|
[
"In 2017 Martine Robbeets proposed that Japanese (and possibly Korean) originated as a hybrid language. She proposed that the ancestral home of the Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic languages was somewhere in northwestern Manchuria. A group of those proto-Altaic (\"Transeurasian\") speakers would have migrated south into the modern Liaoning province, where they would have been mostly assimilated by an agricultural community with an Austronesian-like language. The fusion of the two languages would have resulted in proto-Japanese and proto-Korean.\n",
"According to Martine Robbeets (Robbeets et al. 2017) Japanese (and Korean) originated as a hybrid language, in the today Liaoning province, between an Austronesian-like language and Altaic (Transeurasian) elements. She suggests that proto-Japanese had an additional influence from Austronesian on the Japanese archipelago.\n",
"There are similarities between the Japanese language and the Korean language in lexicon and grammatical features, but there is dispute over whether these denote a common origin, or mere linguistic borrowing due to a sprachbund of neighboring languages that are adjacent to each other. Samuel E. Martin, Roy Andrew Miller, and Sergei Starostin are linguists who have argued that they have common origins. In contrast, Alexander Vovin has argued for a regional borrowing model to explain the linguistic similarities.\n",
"The geographically close Japanese and Korean languages share considerable similarity in typological features of their syntax and morphology while having a small number of lexical resemblances and different native scripts (although they both use the Chinese characters, called hanja in Korea and kanji in Japan; see \"Writing\" section). Observing the said similarities and probable history of Korean influence on Japanese culture, linguists have formulated different theories proposing a genetic relationship between them, though these studies either lack conclusive evidence or were subsets of theories that have suffered large discredit (like versions of the well-known Altaic hypothesis that mainly attempted to group the Turkic, Mongolian and Tungusic languages together).\n",
"The two languages have previously been thought to not share any cognates (other than loanwords), for their vocabularies do not phonetically resemble each other. However, a recent 2016 paper proposing a common lineage between Korean and Japanese traces around 500 core words thought to share a common origin. Most resembling lexicon in the study has been observed between Middle Korean (15th century) and earlier Old Japanese (8th century), some of which is shown in the following table:\n",
"According to Juha Janhunen, the ancestral languages of Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic, Korean, and Japanese were spoken in a relatively small area comprising present-day North Korea, Southern Manchuria, and Southeastern Mongolia. However Janhunen is sceptical about an affiliation of Japanese to Altaic, while András Róna-Tas remarked that a relationship between Altaic and Japanese, if it ever existed, must be more remote than the relationship of any two of the Indo-European languages. Ramsey stated that \"the genetic relationship between Korean and Japanese, if it in fact exists, is probably more complex and distant than we can imagine on the basis of our present state of knowledge\".\n",
"The Korean language is an East Asian language spoken by about 80 million people. It is a member of the Koreanic language family and is the official and national language of both Koreas: North Korea and South Korea, with different standardized official forms used in each country. It is also one of the two official languages in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture and Changbai Korean Autonomous County of Jilin province, China. Historical and modern linguists classify Korean as a language isolate; however, it does have a few extinct relatives, which together with Korean itself and the Jeju language (spoken in the Jeju Province and considered somewhat distinct) form the Koreanic language family. This implies that Korean is not an isolate, but a member of a micro-family. The idea that Korean belongs to the controversial Altaic language family is discredited in academic research. Korean is agglutinative in its morphology and SOV in its syntax.\n"
] |
Can you actually hear bullets whizzing past your head?
|
Yes you can. I've heard it.
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[
"A bullet bow shockwave will be heard by any witness as long as the bullet speed is faster than the speed of sound, whether the bullet was fired from a weapon giving off an openly audible muzzle blast, or a mechanically-suppress-fired muzzle (Suppressed weapon) blast. If a bullet is fired from a suppressed weapon, a witness can mistake the bullet bow audible shockwave whip-crack for the weapon muzzle blast audible wave, which is a separate audible event. It might be noted here that if one is involved in such an event, that the sound you hear from a suppressed weapon will not be from the point of origin. Most humans will perceive the sound as being omnidirectional or as emanating from the bullet as it passes by.\n",
"BULLET::::- physiological noises heard when ear is occluded by an earphone during minimal audible pressure measurements. When the ear is covered the subject hears body noises, such as heart beat, and these may have a masking effect.\n",
"BULLET::::- Listening to external breath sounds a short distance from the patient can reveal dysfunction such as a rattling noise (indicative of secretions in the airway) or stridor (which indicates airway obstruction)\n",
"BULLET::::- Psychic forces are sufficient in most bodies for a shock to propel them directly away from the surface. A spooky noise or an adversary's signature sound will introduce motion upward, usually to the cradle of a chandelier, a treetop or the crest of a flagpole. The feet of a running character or the wheels of a speeding auto need never touch the ground, ergo fleeing turns to flight.\n",
"BULLET::::- When Terry mentions an object with potentially injurious consequences, such as a Taser or a pneumatic nail gun, a sound effect of the device in action is played, followed by a man with a low-pitched voice quietly saying, \"Ow.\"\n",
"The bullet bow shockwave is the result of air being greatly compressed at the front-most tip of the bullet as it slices through the air. As the bullet moves forward a broadening wave of compressed air trails out diagonally from the bullet tip. The sides of the bullet create a conical waveform. This conical waveform may be audible to a witness as a whip-crack sound. If the bullet passes close enough to a person (typically 2 feet), it can be felt against the skin.\n",
"BULLET::::2. With percussive sounds, the impact can be noticed on the skin (usually torso). The strongest and earliest sensory stimulus comes from the skin regions which are aligned perpendicular to the sound source direction.\n"
] |
How did Native American tribes’ tactics to resist European encroachment evolve? With expulsion being a common fate for those lucky enough to survive, did streams of survivors travel to Western tribes, warning them of U.S. strength and brutality? If so, how did this change Native responses?
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I think this question assumes a homogeneity among native tribes. Often tribes were fighting amongst themselves. Europeans often played a role as another tribe to be reckoned with, either as an ally or as an enemy, as a trading partner and/or arms supplier. The long term narrative is of the constant invasion and rape of the tribes and land doesn’t accurately reflect the day-to-day interactions.
You only need to read about something like [King Philip’s War](_URL_0_) and all its background and aftermath to see the complexity. Tribes would engage with and ally with settlers for their own advantage, and vice versa, trying to get a leg up on historical enemies.
The biggest advantage Europeans had was they had an endless supply of reinforcements. Sometimes the natives were horrified and upset by the extreme lengths the Europeans would go to, like completely destroying whole villages including non-belligerents, women, children, animals, crops, and houses would all be destroyed. But they often got terrible retribution for that, to the point of failure and near extinction of early colonies.
Europeans also had many technological advantages. They also brought a sense of superiority in the white race and inferiority of natives, and a mandate to convert and uplift the heathen. Don’t underestimate the power of even a misguided and erroneous philosophy in the hands of zealots.
Disease also played a role, especially smallpox. There are stories of intentional infection, but that doesn’t reflect the day to day reality. Europeans had centuries of innate immunity in their genetic code, and natives were never going to be able to obtain that. The losses and decimation were brutal in some cases.
All this took more than two centuries to happen, the image of a big war with massive migration that many people picture when viewing the whole of “New World” history just doesn’t apply. Remember, for decades, places like the middle of what is now the middle of Massachusetts was completely native territory which if any white person ventured would not live. It’s why banishment from a colony was such a huge deal as a punishment. It was basically a death sentence, either by exposure, dehydration, starvation, or disease. If you were lucky, you got a quick death at the hands of an animal or native tribe, though frequently people would be tortured to death or enslaved for entering native territory.
Caveat: I am not a professional historian, but this particular topic has always been of great interest to me (ie, How did what started out as a small group of people come to dominate an entire continent that was already occupied, sometimes by advanced peoples)
|
[
"Interference or resistance from local inhabitants was a concern going back to the first explorations by France and Spain. This was especially of concern to Anglo-American settlers in the 19th century as they pushed the frontier ever westward. While Native Americans of coastal regions and East Texas were relatively easily assimilated, displaced, or eliminated, some Native American tribes were more actively resistant. This was most famously true for the Comanche and Apache tribes.\n",
"Proposals for Indian Removal heightened the tensions of cultural changes, due to the increase in the number of mixed-race Native Americans in the South. Full bloods, who tended to live in areas less affected by colonial encroachment, generally worked to maintain traditional ways, including control of communal lands. While the traditional members often resented the sale of tribal lands to Anglo-Americans, by the 1830s they agreed it was not possible to go to war with the colonists on this issue.\n",
"During this violent period, tribes were often forced to move to geographic areas unfamiliar to them, most commonly from Eastern states to Western states. Reservations were created on lands that were deemed worthless to white settlers. Reservations were placed on lands considered resource deficient, unfit for agriculture or cultivation, and which were isolated from urban centers and transportation networks. Mainstream political discourse of this era favored removing tribes from areas populated by or desirable to the white population. During the nineteenth century, many Native American nations resisted forced migration by mounting upheavals which often turned bloody. Known as the American Indian Wars, these battles between American settlers or the United States government and Native Americans culminated in the Massacre at Wounded Knee of 1890, during which US military forces killed more than 150 Lakota men, women, and children.\n",
"The new policy intended to concentrate Native Americans in areas away from encroaching settlers, but it caused considerable suffering and many deaths. During the nineteenth century, Native American tribes resisted the imposition of the reservation system and engaged with the United States Army in what were called the Indian Wars in the West for decades. Finally defeated by the US military force and continuing waves of encroaching settlers, the tribes negotiated agreements to resettle on reservations. Native Americans ended up with a total of over of land, ranging from arid deserts to prime agricultural land.\n",
"The movement into the reductions had highly disruptive effects on indigenous societies. Traditional family and kinship ties that existed for centuries were severely disturbed as small villages were forced to consolidate into poorly organized and often oversized settlements. This fundamentally different living environment forced natives to acclimate to a new socioeconomic order in which their power was severely curbed by the violent coercion of Spanish forces.\n",
"The Indian Removal Act and the Trail of Tears led to a major enumeration of Native Americans, and many controversies and misunderstandings about blood quantum that persist to this day. As they were being forcibly driven out of their ancestral homelands and subjected to genocide, many Natives understandably feared and distrusted the government and tried to avoid being enumerated. But the only way to do this was to completely flee the Indian community, during a time of persecution and war. Indians who tried to refuse, if they were not already in a prison camp, had warrants issued for their arrests; they were forcibly rounded up and documented against their will. It is a modern-day misconception that this enumeration was the equivalent of contemporary tribal \"enrollment\" and in any way optional.\n",
"In addition, the huge numbers of newcomers were driving Native Americans out of their traditional hunting, fishing and food-gathering areas. To protect their homes and livelihood, some Native Americans responded by attacking the miners. This provoked counter-attacks on native villages. The Native Americans, out-gunned, were often slaughtered. Those who escaped massacres were many times unable to survive without access to their food-gathering areas, and they starved to death. Novelist and poet Joaquin Miller vividly captured one such attack in his semi-autobiographical work, \"Life Amongst the Modocs.\"\n"
] |
how do snakes grow?
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The number of vertebrae is genetically determined, as with us, and does not increase during the snake's lifetime. Their bones grow, just as with ours, and judging from the skeleton on-hand at work, although the relative space seems to remain more or less constant, indeed, in absolute terms the spacing increases.
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[
"These snakes range in size from the diminutive hump-nosed viper, \"Hypnale hypnale\", that grows to an average total length (including tail) of only , to the bushmaster, \"Lachesis muta\", a species known to reach a maximum total length of in length.\n",
"Growth is rapid; snakes may reach in total length at 1 year and at 2 years. The largest reported specimen was in total length. Sexual maturity may be attained at a minimal total length of and an age of at least 3 years. The species is oviparous, with a gestation period around 21 days, followed by 60 days of incubation. This species exhibits a remarkably low reproductive rate, which magnifies other threats to the Louisiana pine snake. It has the smallest clutch size (three to five) of any North American colubrid and the largest eggs, generally long by wide, of any snake in the United States. It also produces the largest hatchlings reported for any North American snake, ranging in total length, and up to in weight. The large size of the pine snake hatchlings may be an adaptation to enable young to feed relatively early.\n",
"These snakes are ambush predators, lurking at the bottom of rivers, streams and estuaries, and waiting for fish to approach, which they grip with their coils. The rough scales allow them to hold the fish despite the mucus coating. Adults grow to between 60 cm and 2.43 m in length.\n",
"Snake scales are formed by the differentiation of the snake's underlying skin or epidermis. Each scale has an outer surface and an inner surface. The skin from the inner surface hinges back and forms a free area which overlaps the base of the next scale which emerges below this scale. A snake hatches with a fixed number of scales. The scales do not increase in number as the snake matures nor do they reduce in number over time. The scales however grow larger in size and may change shape with each moult.\n",
"These relatively small snakes rarely exceed 30 cm in length; only \"Trilepida macrolepis\" and \"Leptotyphlops occidentalis\" grow larger. The cranium and upper jaws are immobile and no teeth are in the upper jaw. The lower jaw consists of a much elongated quadrate bone, a tiny compound bone, and a relatively larger dentary bone. The body is cylindrical with a blunt head and a short tail. The scales are highly polished. The pheromones they produce protect them from attack by termites. Among these snakes is what is believed to be the world's smallest: \"L. carlae\" .\n",
"These snakes are medium in length, with a medium, cylindrical body and a short tail. Their average length is , but they can grow to lengths of . Their head is moderately small, broad, flattened and slightly distinct from the neck. The snout is broad, sharply edged with a distinct canthus rostralis. The eyes are small in size with round pupils. Dorsal scales are smooth anteriorly and weakly keeled on the posterior part of the body and tail. They are very glossy throughout. Dorsal scale count 27 (24 to 29) - 23 (21 - 25) - 17. Unlike other snakes commonly referred to as \"cobras\", the black desert cobra rarely rear up or produces a hood before striking in defense.\n",
"Snakes have smaller scales around the mouth and sides of the body which allow expansion so that a snake can consume prey of much larger width than itself. Snake scales are made of keratin, the same material that hair and fingernails are made of. They are cool and dry to touch.\n"
] |
how do tv game shows tax people who get cash on the spot?
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Any cash prize (including lotteries) is generally considered income in the eyes of the IRS (or similar entity for other countries).
The person/entity giving the money will report the transfer of money to the IRS (and in some cases, offer to withhold the expected taxes) , and it becomes the responsibility of the recipient to submit a payment of the expected owed taxes in a timely manner and to report the earnings when the time comes to file taxes for the year.
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[
"Games that are not paid for will show a pop-up every time you play it—asking whether you’d like to try the free trial or either purchase, enter an unlock code (purchased or given through promotions), or rent the game. More on this below.\n",
"BULLET::::- Game Show: A television show depicting a real contest, typically a trivia competition or physical challenge, with rewards in prizes or money. Examples: \"Let's Make a Deal\", \"The Price Is Right\", \"Family Feud\", \"Wheel of Fortune\" and \"Jeopardy!\". On other game shows, such as \"Match Game\" and \"Hollywood Squares\", the players may include celebrities.\n",
"Many episodes have to do with cheats who illegally take money from the casino using sleight-of-hand tricks or some sort of gizmo. Namely, these scams include pastposting and card marking. Other episodes include famous examples of legal money-making techniques such as card counting. Some episodes are about legal strategies like winning at the craps table by throwing at certain angles using a certain grip with certain numbers at the top, or taking advantage of a worn-out ball bearing and a thus tilted roulette wheel.\n",
"A game show, it promises the contestants the chance to bring home big cash prizes if the contestant called the Bida survives the barrage of heckling from the Kontrabidas known as the Sulsuleros. A celebrity guest will act as the head heckler who will be called Kapitan Kontra.\n",
"Near the end of the game at the player's destination Ben Bailey or Beth Melewski appears to present the cash won. In reality, this cash is a prop and used for on-air purposes only. The winnings, which must be taxed, are sent via check.\n",
"In April 2013, Betonline.ag launched a real money skill game room. Their game room includes Yahtzee, Tonk, gin rummy, spades and dominoes. Betonline claimed to be the only gambling site to offer real money skill games to Americans; however, the games being offered are considered illegal in most U.S. states.\n",
"There are also special jobs that earn the player a secondary in-game currency called \"Bux\". This currency can be used to buy coins, allow more jobs to be held in yards at stations, speed up trains, and open crates. Bux can also be purchased with money.\n"
] |
why did civil war soldiers not use revolvers exclusively?
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First of all, I'm not sure why you think accuracy doesn't matter. Direct, close range, charges were not common and when they did occur the two lines would be separated by hundreds of yards to start. The Napoleonic line tactics fell out of favor pretty early in the war and the small unit tactics that developed were not that different from modern warfare (in fact, the number of shots per causality was much lower than it is now). Late in the war, many battles turned into long sieges in which snipers accounted for a large percentage of the casualties.
Secondly, a revolver is a relatively low power weapon. A revolver fires a small ball with about 250 ft-lbs of energy. By comparison a rifle firing a minie ball might have over 1000 ft-lbs of energy and offer superior ballistics (so it kept it's energy for a longer distance). Beyond 50 yards a revolver was fairly ineffective.
Lastly, they developed much better solutions than percussion cap revolvers in either handgun or rifle form. Most notably the Spencer rifle and similar lever actions guns were developed which were cartridge fed and so much faster to reload than a cap and ball revolver. These might have completely replaced the muzzle loading rifle in the North if not for limited manufacturing capacity.
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[
"For a Civil War soldier, owning a revolver as a Backup-Gun was important, so Smith & Wesson's cartridge revolvers, the \"Army Model 2\" and the Model 1 1/2 in caliber .32 rimfire came into popular demand with the outbreak of the American Civil War. Soldiers and officers on both sides of the conflict made private purchases of the revolvers for self-defense. Specimens under serial number 35,731 (produced by May 1. 1865) were eventually used in the Civil War.\n",
"After the Civil War, revolvers using fixed metallic cartridges came into widespread use. The Colt Navy remained in production until 1873, being replaced in the Colt line with what would become one of the manufacturer's most famous handguns, the Colt Single Action Army (also known as the \"Peacemaker\" and \"Colt 45\").\n",
"The original revolver, constructed of blued steel with grips of checkered walnut, was not considered to be a very accurate weapon although it was deadly at close range. Civil War cavalrymen, particularly in the South, preferred to carry several pistols, as it was faster to draw another loaded weapon than it was to try to reload a cap and ball revolver in combat.\n",
"Revolvers were issued to cavalrymen, artillery troops, and officers during the Civil War, which was one of the first conflicts to see such arms used in quantity. N-SSA revolver competition is limited to revolvers using percussion cap ignition. The major types of revolver used were the Colt Model 1851 and 1860, and the Remington Models of 1858 and 1863.\n",
"Both the Confederate and Federal forces used Lefaucheux revolvers in the American Civil War. The Union Army typically issued them to cavalry soldiers, especially in the states of Illinois, Kansas, Kentucky, Missouri, and Wisconsin. Some of the models sold to the American powers kept the original designation, M1854, and were produced either at Lefaucheux Paris, Liege, or local producers under license (Chollet, Merton, Merton via Bond, Gunther at Liege). However, these pinfire revolvers were replaced in service later in the war as more Colt and Remington revolvers became available. Among American troops, the weapon was often referred to as the \"French Tranter\".\n",
"It was also used during the early years of the American Civil War until around 1862. The large majority of Model 1816 muskets had been converted to percussion firing by 1860. Muskets made prior to 1821 were considered too outdated to be serviceable weapons and were not converted. Most of them were in Southern arsenals and a large number of Confederate soldiers for the first year of the Civil War had the misfortune of carrying flintlock muskets, some of which dated back to the War of 1812.\n",
"The Artillery Single Actions were issued to the Infantry, the Light Artillery, the Volunteer Cavalry and other troops because the standard issue .38 caliber Colt M 1892 double-action revolver was lacking in stopping power. For that reason, the .45 Artillery SAA Revolvers were used successfully by front troops in the Spanish–American War and the Philippine–American War. Theodore Roosevelt's Rough Riders charged up San Juan Hill wielding the .45 caliber Artillery Model.\n"
] |
Since kittens are born in litters from one pregnancy, does that make them twins/triplets/quadruplets?
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They would be fraternal, not identical quadruplets/septuplets/whathaveyou. Unlike humans, female cats don't release eggs until after they have mated, sometimes after multiple times. With the sperm of several tom cats floating around in there, it is easy to have litters with very different looking kittens- definitely not identical cat twins. I think the closest human phenomenon is fraternal twins/triplets but in that case there is only 1 father.
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[
"A litter is the live birth of multiple offspring at one time in animals from the same mother and usually from one set of parents, particularly from three to eight offspring. The word is most often used for the offspring of mammals, but can be used for any animal that gives birth to multiple young. In comparison, a group of eggs and the offspring that hatch from them are frequently called a clutch, while young birds are often called a brood. Animals from the same litter are referred to as litter-mates.\n",
"Multiple gestation. Pregnancy with twins, triplets, or more, referred to as a multiple gestation, increases the risk of infants being born prematurely (before 37 weeks of pregnancy). Having infants after age 30 and taking fertility drugs both have been associated with multiple births. Having three or more infants increases the chance that a woman will need to have the infants delivered by cesarean section. Twins and triplets are more likely to be smaller for their size than infants of singleton births. If infants of multiple gestation are born prematurely, they are more likely to have difficulty breathing.\n",
"Breeding season normally occurs between December and March, with a three-month gestation period resulting in a litter size up to six kittens. After mating, male and female part ways; the male continues on to mate with other females for the duration of the mating season, while the female cares for the kittens on her own. Like most other felines, kittens are born blind and remain completely helpless for about 2 weeks until their eyes open. Kittens are born with spots and eventually lose all of them as they reach adulthood. The spots allow the kittens to hide better from predators. Kittens are able to eat solid food when they reach 2–3 months of age, and remain with their mother for about a year. The life expectancy of individuals in the wild averages 12 years, but can reach up to 25 years in captivity.\n",
"Large mammals, such as primates, cattle, horses, some antelopes, giraffes, hippopotamuses, rhinoceroses, elephants, seals, whales, dolphins, and porpoises, generally are pregnant with one offspring at a time, although they may have twin or multiple births on occasion. In these large animals, the birth process is similar to that of a human, though in most the offspring is precocial. This means that it is born in a more advanced state than a human baby and is able to stand, walk and run (or swim in the case of an aquatic mammal) shortly after birth. In the case of whales, dolphins and porpoises, the single calf is normally born tail first which minimises the risk of drowning. The mother encourages the newborn calf to rise to the surface of the water to breathe.\n",
"Twins are two offspring produced by the same pregnancy. Twins can be either \"monozygotic\" ('identical'), meaning that they develop from one zygote, which splits and forms two embryos, or \"dizygotic\" ('fraternal'), meaning that each twin develops from a separate egg and each egg is fertilized by its own sperm cell.\n",
"Gestation lasts 170 to 180 days, and usually results in the birth of a single kid, although twins occur in up to 14% of births, and triplets are born on rare occasions. Newborn kids weigh about , and grow rapidly during their first year. The horns are visible after about three to four weeks. They begin to eat grass as little as eight days after birth, but do not do so regularly until they are about one month old, and are not fully weaned until six months.\n",
"Giant pandas give birth to twins in about half of pregnancies. If twins are born, usually only one survives in the wild. The mother will select the stronger of the cubs, and the weaker cub will die due to starvation. The mother is thought to be unable to produce enough milk for two cubs since she does not store fat. The father has no part in helping raise the cub.\n"
] |
how commonly known would the story of the Iliad, have been in the second century BC classical world?
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A cup with a depiction of a scene of the Illiad was found in a grave of the first century AD in Denmark. I guess they knew what the scene meant.
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[
"Oral tales have been formed into classic literature centuries later so that the historicity of the events is left to uncertainty. The Greek Heroic Age as described in the Iliad is dated to historic events in 1460 to 1103 BC according to the chronology of Saint Jerome.\n",
"The main ancient source for the story is the \"Aeneid\" of Virgil, a Latin epic poem from the time of Augustus. The event is also referred to in Homer's \"Odyssey\". In the Greek tradition, the horse is called the \"wooden horse\" (δουράτεος ἵππος \"dourateos hippos\" in Homeric/Ionic Greek (\"Odyssey\" 8.512); δούρειος ἵππος, \"doureios hippos\" in Attic Greek).\n",
"At the beginning of Greek literature stand the two monumental works of Homer, the \"Iliad\" and the \"Odyssey\". The figure of Homer is shrouded in mystery. Although the works as they now stand are credited to him, it is certain that their roots reach far back before his time (see Homeric Question). \"The Iliad\" is a narrative of a single episode spanning over the course of a ten-day-period from near the end of the ten years of the Trojan War. It centers on the person of Achilles, who embodied the Greek heroic ideal.\n",
"The \"Iliad\" was a standard work of great importance already in Classical Greece and remained so throughout the Hellenistic and Byzantine periods. Subjects from the Trojan War were a favourite among ancient Greek dramatists. Aeschylus' trilogy, the \"Oresteia\", comprising \"Agamemnon\", \"The Libation Bearers\" and \"The Eumenides\", follows the story of Agamemnon after his return from the war. Homer also came to be of great influence in European culture with the resurgence of interest in Greek antiquity during the Renaissance, and it remains the first and most influential work of the Western canon. In its full form the text made its return to Italy and Western Europe beginning in the 15th century, primarily through translations into Latin and the vernacular languages.\n",
"The Little Iliad (Greek: , \"Ilias mikra\"; ) is a lost epic of ancient Greek literature. It was one of the Epic Cycle, that is, the \"Trojan\" cycle, which told the entire history of the Trojan War in epic verse. The story of the \"Little Iliad\" comes chronologically after that of the \"Aethiopis\", and is followed by that of the \"Iliou persis\" (\"Sack of Troy\"). The \"Little Iliad\" was variously attributed by ancient writers to Lesches of Pyrrha (7th century BCE), Cinaethon of Sparta (8th century BCE), Diodorus of Erythrae, Thestorides of Phocaea, or Homer himself (8th century BCE) (see Cyclic poets). The poem comprised four books of verse in dactylic hexameter, the heroic meter.\n",
"For the ancient Greeks, the tale of the Trojan War and the surrounding events appeared in its most definitive form in the \"Epic Cycle\" of eight narrative poems from the archaic period in Greece (750 BC – 480 BC). The story of Troilus is one of a number of incidents that helped provide structure to a narrative that extended over several decades and 77 books from the beginning of the \"Cypria\" to the end of the \"Telegony\". The character's death early in the war and the prophecies surrounding him demonstrated that all Trojan efforts to defend their home would be in vain. His symbolic significance is evidenced by linguistic analysis of his Greek name \"Troilos\". It can be interpreted as an elision of the names of Tros and Ilos, the legendary founders of Troy, as a diminutive or pet name \"little Tros\" or as an elision of \"Troië\" (Troy) and \"lyo\" (to destroy). These multiple possibilities emphasise the link between the fates of Troilus and of the city where he lived. On another level, Troilus' fate can also be seen as foreshadowing the subsequent deaths of his murderer Achilles, and of his nephew Astyanax and sister Polyxena, who, like Troilus, die at the altar in at least some versions of their stories.\n",
"The stories in the Theban Cycle were traditional ones: the two Homeric epics, the \"Iliad\" and \"Odyssey\", display knowledge of many of them. The most famous stories in the Cycle were those of Oedipus and of the \"Seven against Thebes\", both of which were heavily drawn on by later writers of Greek tragedy.\n"
] |
Was it common to actually eat the bizarre dishes seen in the cookbooks of the 1970s and earlier?
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Yes, they were certainly a thing. Taste is capricious. /u/searocksandtrees has collected [answers about jello oddities before](_URL_1_), feat. /u/gothwalk, et al.
/u/PeculiarLeah interprets it as [part of the recovery from rationing in World War II](_URL_0_), specifically mentioning bananas and ham with hollandaise.
|
[
"The most frequently ordered meal, even as late as the 1980s, was prawn cocktail, steak and Black Forest gateau. This is sometimes called the \"Great British Meal\". As Simon Hopkinson and Lindsey Bareham note in their 1997 book \"The Prawn Cocktail Years\", \"cooked as it should be, this much derided and often ridiculed dinner is still something very special indeed\".\n",
"The original series went through more than 20 editions and sold more than 295,000 copies. The book gave instructions for elaborate dishes like suckling pig, Madeira cake, and hazel grouse. Other recipes included soups, fritters, tortes, mushrooms, aspics, mousses, and dumplings. There were also instructions on making jam, mustard, and vodka. Although the number of recipes varied by edition, there were as many as 3,218 in the 1897 edition. The 1904 (24th) edition contained 4163 recipes. In addition to recipes, the book covered cooking techniques, utensils and cooking equipment, stoves and ovens, household management, relations with servants, menus for feast days, and nutrition; it also gave time- and money-saving hints.\n",
"The book offered elaborate dishes, described with French terminology such as bisque, entrées, entremets, vol-au-vent, timbale and soufflé. It included bills of fare for meals for up to 300 people, and for a series of eight- or nine-course dinners served to Queen Victoria; one exceptional royal dinner in 1841 had sixteen entrées and sixteen entremets, including truffles in Champagne.\n",
"Foods of the World was a series of 27 cookbooks published by Time-Life, beginning in 1968 and extending through the late 1970s, that provided a broad survey of many of the world's major cuisines. The individual volumes were written by well-known experts on the various cuisines and included significant contemporary food writers, including Craig Claiborne, Pierre Franey, James Beard, Julia Child, and M.F.K. Fisher, and was overseen by food writer Michael Field who died before the series was complete. The series combined recipes with food-themed travelogues in an attempt to show the cultural context from which each recipe sprang. \n",
"In 2007, that period of American culinary history was recreated in an elaborate dinner using the Victorian cooking methods outlined in this book. The extensive preparations and the ultimate results were described in a book entitled \"Fannie's Last Supper\" by Christopher Kimball; and an American public television program of the same name was broadcast in 2010.\n",
"Early recipes for the dish date from the 1930s, with the earliest being in New Zealand newspaper \"New Zealand Truth\" from 1935. Though known from this period, the popularity of the delicacy seems to have taken off with the widespread availability of sliced bread from the 1950s. Early recipes referred to the dish under the seemingly disparaging name of \"Rat traps\", a play on the longstanding nickname of \"Mouse traps\" used for cheese on toast, but also likely a reference to the cylindrical shape, which was similar to commercial rodent traps of the era. The earliest known cookbook recipe for cheese rolls dates from Dunedin's Roslyn Church \"Jubilee Cookery Book\" in 1951, with numerous other South Island community cookbooks listing the recipe in the decade that followed. Cheese rolls were not found in any North Island cookbooks, however, until the late 1970s, and the food is still little known north of Waitaki River.\n",
"American Cookery, by Amelia Simmons, is the first known cookbook written by an American, published in Hartford, Connecticut in 1796. Until then, the cookbooks printed and used in the Thirteen Colonies were British. Its full title is: \"American Cookery, or the art of dressing viands, fish, poultry, and vegetables, and the best modes of making pastes, puffs, pies, tarts, puddings, custards, and preserves, and all kinds of cakes, from the imperial plum to plain cake: Adapted to this country, and all grades of life.\"\n"
] |
how is it that i'm left handed but do some activities like a right handed person would?
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As I understand it, left/right-handedness isn't a 100% binary thing. You can be left-handed for *most* activities, but still be right-handed on a few/some others depending on how you were taught, how you grew up, etc.
|
[
"Also, it is not uncommon that people preferring to use the right hand prefer to use the left leg, e.g. when using a shovel, kicking a ball, or operating control pedals. In many cases, this may be because they are disposed for left-handedness but have been trained for right-handedness. In the sport of cricket, some players may find that they are more comfortable bowling with their left or right hand, but batting with the other hand.\n",
"Most left-handed people prefer to draw circles and circulate in buildings clockwise, while most right-handed people prefer to draw circles and circulate in buildings counterclockwise. This is believed to result from dominant brain hemispheres, though some attribute it to muscle mechanics.\n",
"A left-handed individual may be known as a southpaw, particularly in a sports context. It is widely accepted that the term originated in the United States, in the game of baseball. Ballparks are often designed so that batters are facing east, so that the afternoon or evening sun does not shine in their eyes. This means that left-handed pitchers are throwing with their south-side arm. The \"Oxford English Dictionary\" lists a non-baseball citation for \"south paw\", meaning a punch with the left hand, as early as 1848, just three years after the first organized baseball game, with the note \"(orig. U.S., in Baseball).\" A left-handed advantage in sports can be significant and even decisive, but this advantage usually results from a left-handed competitor's unshared familiarity with opposite-handed opponents. Baseball is an exception since batters, pitchers, and fielders in certain scenarios are physically advantaged or disadvantaged by their handedness. Some baseball players like Christian Yelich of the Milwaukee Brewers bat left-handed and throw right-handed.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Right-handedness\" is by far the most common type. Right-handed people are more skillful with their right hands when performing tasks. Studies suggest that approximately 90% of the world's population is right-handed.\n",
"Many tools and procedures are designed to facilitate use by right-handed people, often without realizing the difficulties incurred by the left-handed. John W. Santrock has written, \"For centuries, left-handers have suffered unfair discrimination in a world designed for right-handers.\"\n",
"Handedness in and of itself tends to be a grey area. The requirements for someone to be right- as opposed to left-handed have been debated, and because individuals who identify as left-handed may also use their right hand for a large number of tasks, identifying two clearcut groups of subjects is a challenging task. The Edinburgh Handedness Inventory is a common parametric test used to determine handedness, by comparing individuals to the population at large. However use of this inventory varies between researchers, and it has been criticized for its use in modern research. This means that an individual which one research group may classify as a left-hander, may be classified as ambidextrous in another; leading to difficulties in comparison between the two.\n",
"A player's handedness is determined by which side of their body they hold their stick. A player who shoots left (alternatively called a \"left-handed shot\") holds the stick such that the blade is (normally) to the left of their body, with the left hand on the bottom and the right hand on top; a player who shoots right (a \"right-handed shot\") holds the stick such that the blade is to their right, with the right hand at the bottom and left hand on top. The bottom hand delivers most of the power while the top hand is responsible for control and stickhandling, as well as the \"whip\" of your shots. Of the 852 players who skated in the 2007–08 NHL regular season, 554 of 852 (65%) shoot left. Many natural right handed players shoot left and vice versa. This is due to the fact that if someone is naturally right handed, they may shoot left because the top hand (right hand on a lefty stick) controls most of the stick's action.\n"
] |
if some humans have neanderthal dna while others don't, does that mean some humans are at least somewhat of a different species than others.
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The definition of species is indeed somewhat loose but most agree on the basic that successfully interbreeding and having fertile offspring means that you are part of the the same species.
This is why many people now think that Neanderthals should be considered a different subspecies of humans not a different species altogether.
It is similar to wolves and dogs which can interbreed and are the same species but still obviously different enough to tell them apart.
|
[
"The following is a list of physical traits that distinguish Neanderthals from modern humans. However, not all of them distinguish specific Neanderthal populations from various geographic areas, evolutionary periods, or other extinct humans. Also, many of these traits are present in modern humans to varying extent due to both archaic admixture and the retention of ancestral hominid traits shared with Neanderthals and other archaic humans. Nothing is certain (from unearthed bones) about the shape of soft parts such as eyes, ears, and lips of Neanderthals.\n",
"Ever since the discovery of the Neanderthal fossils, expert opinion has been divided as to whether Neanderthals should be considered a separate species (\"Homo neanderthalensis\") or a subspecies (\"Homo sapiens neanderthalensis\") relative to modern humans.\n",
"Nearly all modern non-African humans have 1% to 4% of their DNA derived from Neanderthal DNA, and this finding is consistent with recent studies indicating that the divergence of some human alleles dates to one Ma, although the interpretation of these studies has been questioned. Neanderthals and \"Homo sapiens\" could have co-existed in Europe for as long as 10,000 years, during which human populations exploded vastly outnumbering Neanderthals, possibly outcompeting them by sheer numerical strength.\n",
"Neanderthals had the same DNA-coding region of the FOXP2 gene as living humans, but are different in one position of the gene's regulatory regions, and the extent of FOXP2 expression might hence have been different in Neanderthals. Although the gene appears necessary for language—living humans who don't have the normal human version of the gene have serious language difficulties—it is not necessarily sufficient. It is not known whether FOXP2 evolved for or in conjunction with language, nor whether there are other language-related genes that Neanderthals may or may not have had. Similarly, the size and functionality of the Neanderthal Broca's and Wernicke's areas, used for speech generation in modern humans, is debated.\n",
"There is evidence of hybridisation between modern humans and other species of the genus \"Homo\". In 2010, the Neanderthal genome project showed that 1–4% of DNA from all people living today, apart from most Sub-Saharan Africans, is of Neanderthal heritage. Analyzing the genomes of 600 Europeans and East Asians found that combining them covered 20% of the Neanderthal genome that is in the modern human population. Ancient human populations lived and interbred with Neanderthals, Denisovans, and at least one other extinct \"Homo\" species. Thus, Neanderthal and Denisovan DNA has been incorporated into human DNA by introgression.\n",
"Neanderthal mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences from Feldhofer and Vindija Cave are substantially different from modern human mtDNA. Multiregionalists however have discussed the fact that the average difference between the Feldhofer sequence and living humans is less than that found between chimpanzee subspecies, and therefore that while Neanderthals were different subspecies, they were still human and part of the same lineage.\n",
"The Neanderthal populations seem to have been physically superior to AMH populations. These differences may have been sufficient to give Neanderthal populations an environmental superiority to AMH populations from 75,000 to 45,000 years BP. With these differences, Neanderthal brains show a smaller area was available for social functioning. Plotting group size possible from endocrainial volume, suggests that AMH populations (minus occipital lobe size), had a Dunbars number of 144 possible relationships. Neanderthal populations seem to have been limited to about 120 individuals. This would show up in a larger number of possible mates for AMH humans, with increased risks of inbreeding amongst Neanderthal populations. It also suggests that humans had larger trade catchment areas than Neanderthals (confirmed in the distribution of stone tools). With larger populations, social and technological innovations were easier to fix in human populations, which may have all contributed to the fact that modern Homo sapiens replaced the Neanderthal populations by 28,000 BP.\n"
] |
How do dogs make ATP?
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Gluconeogenesis is the production of glucose from protein-rich sources. This is quite commonly used for production of energy across all living beings (plant and animal alike). In humans this is frequently seen in ketogenic diets or diets treating diabetes (and, to an extent, also the Atkins diet that was popular in the early 2000s).
Glycogen can be produced in this manner from fatty acids and amino acids with pyruvate (as well as lactate). It is also associated with the Cori cycle as a part of the larger Krebs cycle.
While carbohydrates are more easily converted to glucose/glycogen, gluconeogenesis fills the pathway to ATP production in the absence of sugar stores.
|
[
"ATP is a molecule found only in and around living cells, and as such it gives a direct measure of biological concentration and health. ATP is quantified by measuring the light produced through its reaction with the naturally-occurring firefly enzyme Luciferase using a Luminometer. The amount of light produced is directly proportional to the amount of biological energy present in the sample.\n",
"ATP is a molecule found in and around living cells, and as such it gives a direct measure of biological concentration and health. ATP is quantified by measuring the light produced through its reaction with the naturally occurring firefly enzyme luciferase using a luminometer. The amount of light produced is directly proportional to the amount of ATP present in the sample. \n",
"An ATP test is the process of rapidly measuring active microorganisms in water through detection adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is a molecule found only in and around living cells, and as such it gives a direct measure of biological concentration and health. ATP is quantified by measuring the light produced through its reaction with the naturally occurring enzyme firefly luciferase using a luminometer. The amount of light produced is directly proportional to the amount of biological energy present in the sample.\n",
"In terms of its structure, ATP consists of an adenine attached by the 9-nitrogen atom to the 1′ carbon atom of a sugar (ribose), which in turn is attached at the (100) vbdå carbon atom of the sugar to a triphosphate group. In its many reactions related to metabolism, the adenine and sugar groups remain unchanged, but the triphosphate is converted to di- and monophosphate, giving respectively the derivatives ADP and AMP. The three phosphoryl groups are referred to as the alpha (α), beta (β), and, for the terminal phosphate, gamma (γ).\n",
"ATP is an essential mediator of life. It is used to overcome unfavorable energy barriers to initiate and fuel chemical reactions. It is also used to drive biological machinery and regulate a number of processes via protein-phosphorylation. However, the proteins that bind ATP for both regulation and enzymatic reactions are very diverse—many yet undiscovered—and for many proteins their relationship to ATP in terms of number of binding sites, binding constants, and dissociation constants remain unclear.\n",
"From the perspective of biochemistry, ATP is classified as a nucleoside triphosphate, which indicates that it consists of three components: a nitrogenous base (adenine), the sugar ribose, and the triphosphate.\n",
"ATP citrate lyase (ACLY) is an enzyme that in animals represents an important step in fatty acid biosynthesis. ATP citrate lyase is important in that, by converting citrate to acetyl-CoA, it links the metabolism of carbohydrates, which yields citrate as an intermediate, and the production of fatty acids, which requires acetyl-CoA.\n"
] |
on gawker websites i need to spam the back button to actually go back, why?
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What happens when you click on one of their links is you get taken to a proxy page. This proxy page basically acts like a handler for requests. It then passes you on to the relevant page. When you press back on any webpage the browser you use automatically re-enters any data it did the first time around. An example of this is like when you enter data on an internet form. Lets say I'm entering a username and password. I then get somewhere. I then decide to go somewhere else. When I press back to go to the page where I went *after* I entered the data my browser automatically re-enters that same username and password I entered. The same thing is happening on sites like gawker. Personally I feel that it is often a very poor way of handling things and results in forcing people, as you have noticed, to either open a new tab or window, or to mash the back button.
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[
"Backscatter occurs because worms and spam messages often forge their sender addresses. Instead of simply rejecting a spam message, a misconfigured mail server sends a bounce message to such a forged address. This normally happens when a mail server is configured to relay a message to an after-queue processing step, for example, an antivirus scan or spam check, which then fails, and at the time the antivirus scan or spam check is done, the client already has disconnected. In those cases, it is normally not possible to reject the SMTP transaction, since a client would time out while waiting for the antivirus scan or spam check to finish. The best thing to do in this case, is to silently drop the message, rather than risk creating backscatter.\n",
"For years, end users have been told not to trust email unsubscribe links, so many users hit the spam button as an alternative to unsubscribing. Consequently, \"report spam\" may act as unsubscribe in some cases. One of the reasons not to hit unsubscribe links is to avoid confirming that the message had been received and opened.\n",
"Backscatter is a side-effect of email spam, viruses, and worms. It happens when email servers are mis-configured to send a bogus bounce message to the envelope sender when rejecting or quarantining email (rather than simply rejecting the attempt to send the message).\n",
"Some individuals or companies have abused the TrackBack feature to insert spam links on some blogs. This is similar to comment spam but avoids some of the safeguards designed to stop the latter practice. As a result, TrackBack spam filters similar to those implemented against comment spam now exist in many weblog publishing systems. Many blogs have stopped using trackbacks because dealing with spam became too much of a burden.\n",
"Spammers often regard responses to their messages—even responses like \"Don't spam me\"—as confirmation that an email address is valid. Likewise, many spam messages contain Web links or addresses which the user is directed to follow to be removed from the spammer's mailing list. In several cases, spam-fighters have tested these links, confirming they do not lead to the recipient address's removal—if anything, they lead to more spam. This removal request of filing a complaint may get the address list washed. To lower complaints so the spammer can stay active before having to acquire new accounts and/or internet provider.\n",
"Spam in blogs is the placing or solicitation of links randomly on other sites, placing a desired keyword into the hyperlinked text of the inbound link. Guest books, forums, blogs, and any site that accepts visitors' comments are particular targets and are often victims of drive-by spamming where automated software creates nonsense posts with links that are usually irrelevant and unwanted.\n",
"A malicious person can easily attempt to subscribe another user to a mailing list — to harass them, or to make the company or organisation appear to be spamming. To prevent this, all modern mailing list management programs (such as GNU Mailman, LISTSERV, Majordomo, and qmail's ezmlm) support \"confirmed opt-in\" by default. Whenever an email address is presented for subscription to the list, the software will send a confirmation message to that address. The confirmation message contains no advertising content, so it is not construed to be spam itself, and the address is not added to the live mail list unless the recipient responds to the confirmation message.\n"
] |
often people say when you get a splinter your body will learn to push it out at some point. how does it happen?
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Your body doesn't learn to push it out, it's just that tissue regrows in such a way that the splinter is eventually moved towards the outside of the body, which eventually results in the splinter emerging from the skin.
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[
"Generally, a splinter causes an initial feeling of pain as the sharp object makes its initial penetration through the body. Through this penetration, the object cuts through the cutaneous layer of the skin, and settles in the subcutaneous layer of the skin, and can even penetrate further down, breaking the sub-cutaneous layer, settling in muscle tissue, or even the bone. Some splinters will remain in place, but most will continue to migrate through the body, further damaging their surroundings.\n",
"Tearing of the labrum can occur from either acute trauma or repetitive shoulder motion such as in the sports of swimming, baseball and football. Acute trauma may be from dislocation of the shoulder, direct blows to the shoulder, and other accidents of the sort. Tears are classified as either superior or inferior in regards to where the tear is in the glenoid cavity. A SLAP lesion (superior labrum, anterior to posterior) is a tear where the glenoid labrum meets the tendon of the long head of the biceps muscle. Symptoms include increased pain with overhead activity, popping or grinding, loss of strength, and trouble localizing a specific point of pain. Because a SLAP lesion involves the biceps, pain and weakness may also be felt when performing elbow flexion with resistance.\n",
"A splinter (also known as a sliver) is a fragment of a larger object (especially wood), or a foreign body that penetrates or is purposely injected into a body. The foreign body must be lodged inside tissue to be considered a splinter. Splinters may cause initial pain through ripping of flesh and muscle, infection through bacteria on the foreign object, and severe internal damage through migration to vital organs or bone over time.\n",
"BULLET::::- Wood: this type of splinter is contracted from lumber or other vegetative materials. Wood splinters must be removed from wounds because they are associated with inflammation and risk of infection. Larger or deeper splinters can result in difficult removal, or localization of the foreign body.\n",
"The cavity surface is covered with cartilage in the fresh state, and its margins, slightly raised, give attachment to a fibrocartilaginous structure, the glenoid labrum, which deepens the cavity. This cartilage is very susceptible to tearing. When torn, it is most commonly known as a SLAP lesion which is generally caused by repetitive shoulder movements.\n",
"Qualification for piece removal after each turn: If a piece is lying on its side, the piece is removed. If a piece is bumped, it is left alone. If a Hero is killed before all the warriors are eliminated, the hero is put back into place; the player who owned the hit hero will lose an action on their next turn.\n",
"A partial pulpotomy for traumatic exposures is also called a Cvek Pulpotomy. When a baby tooth or young permanent tooth is traumatised - say, hitting your teeth on the handlebars of a bike - it can be broken in such a way that the pulp is exposed. Again, a partial pulpotomy may help it to finish developing and be saved.\n"
] |
how do prince rupert's drops work?
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Because the glass is rapidly cooled it sets up a state of high residual stress, compressive stress on the surface and tensile stress in the center. This effectively toughens the glass of the head similar to how Gorilla glass is toughened on cell phone screens. The residual compressive stress in the glass resists crack propagation and shattering.
Since the tail is very thin it isn't subject to the differential cooling effect and doesn't set up residual stresses. So it's just ordinary glass. A hammer blow here will shatter it and the crack propagation through the inner tensile stressed material of the head will release the enormous potential energy in the head making it disintegrate.
|
[
"Prince Rupert's drops are produced by dropping molten glass drops into cold water. The water rapidly cools and solidifies the glass from the outside inward. This thermal quenching may be described using a simplified model of a rapidly cooled sphere. Prince Rupert's drops have remained a scientific curiosity for nearly 400 years due to two unusual mechanical properties: when the tail is snipped, the drop disintegrates explosively into powder, whereas the bulbous head can withstand compressive forces of up to .\n",
"Prince Rupert's drops (also known as Dutch or Batavian tears) are toughened glass beads created by dripping molten glass into cold water, which causes it to solidify into a tadpole-shaped droplet with a long, thin tail. These droplets are characterized internally by very high residual stresses, which give rise to counter-intuitive properties, such as the ability to withstand a blow from a hammer or a bullet on the bulbous end without breaking, while exhibiting explosive disintegration if the tail end is even slightly damaged. In nature, similar structures are produced under certain conditions in volcanic lava and are known as Pele's tears.\n",
"A scholarly account of the early history of Prince Rupert's drops is given in the \"Notes and Records\" of the Royal Society of London. Most of the early scientific study of the drops was performed at the Royal Society.\n",
"The drop swindle was a confidence trick commonly used during the 19th and 20th centuries. Employing a variety of techniques the con usually consists of the \"dropper\", who purposely drops a wallet containing counterfeit money near a potential victim. As the victim goes to pick it up the \"dropper\" turns to pick it up at the same moment pretending to have found the wallet as well. Acting as if he is in a hurry the \"dropper\" offers to give the wallet to the victim in exchange for money while the victim can claim the reward from the owner. One of the leading practitioners of this confidence trick was \"Kid Dropper\" Nathan Kaplan, an early twentieth century gangster. \n",
"Although Prince Rupert did not discover the drops, he played a role in their history by bringing them to Britain in 1660. He gave them to King Charles II, who in turn delivered them in 1661 to the Royal Society (which had been created the previous year) for scientific study. Several early publications from the Royal Society give accounts of the drops and describe experiments performed. Among these publications was \"Micrographia\" of 1665 by Robert Hooke, who later would discover Hooke's Law. His publication laid out correctly most of what can be said about Prince Rupert's drops without a fuller understanding than existed at the time, of elasticity (to which Hooke himself later contributed) and of the failure of brittle materials from the propagation of cracks. A fuller understanding of crack propagation had to wait until the work of A. A. Griffith in 1920.\n",
"In 1994, Srinivasan Chandrasekar, an engineering professor at Purdue University, and Munawar Chaudhri, head of the materials group at the University of Cambridge, used high-speed framing photography to observe the drop-shattering process and concluded that while the surface of the drops experiences highly compressive stresses, the inside experiences high tension forces, creating a state of unequal equilibrium which can easily be disturbed by breaking the tail. However, this left the question of how the stresses are distributed throughout a Prince Rupert's drop.\n",
"Prince Rupert is taken by the Roundheads; held captive at a country house, he falls in love with his captor's niece, Jennifer. One of his troopers, Will Fairweather, followed him to the house where he was held captive; with the help of Jennifer, Will brings him to Oberon and Titania, who offer magical aid. Rupert and Jennifer exchange magic rings that will aid them as long as they are true to each other. Rupert sets out with Will to find the books that Prospero sank, in order to aid King Charles.\n"
] |
why/how did smoking become less painful on my throat and lungs over time?
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You destroyed the nerves that were on the surface, and the cilia that are in your lungs that cause coughing when a foreign substance is introduced. Cilia are fine hairs in your lungs that move out mucous. Smoking burns them away.
If you stop smoking/weed for a length of time, you will regain your lung response to the smoke you are breathing into them.
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[
"Smoking has been linked to a variety of disorders of the stomach. Tobacco is known to stimulate acid production and impairs production of the protective mucus. This leads to development of ulcers in the majority of smokers.\n",
"Smoking also increases the chance of heart disease, stroke, atherosclerosis, and peripheral vascular disease. Several ingredients of tobacco lead to the narrowing of blood vessels, increasing the likelihood of a blockage, and thus a heart attack or stroke. According to a study by an international team of researchers, people under 40 are five times more likely to have a heart attack if they smoke.\n",
"Smoking also causes major damages to the heart, causing coronary heart disease, which is the number-1 killer in the United States. Cigarette smoke causes shrinkage in the arteries, which heightens their chance of developing peripheral vascular disease. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, also known as the CDC, smoking can increase a person's risk of developing heart disease and getting a stroke as much as 2 to 4 times more than an average non-smoker.\n",
"Inhalation of tobacco smoke causes several immediate responses within the heart and blood vessels. Within one minute the heart rate begins to rise, increasing by as much as 30 percent during the first 10 minutes of smoking. Carbon monoxide in tobacco smoke exerts negative effects by reducing the blood's ability to carry oxygen.\n",
"Pipe smoking gradually became generally accepted as a cause of mouth cancers following work done in the 1700s. An association between a variety of cancers and tobacco use was repeatedly observed from the late 1800s into the early 1920s. An association between tobacco use and vascular disease was reported from the late 1800s onwards.\n",
"consumers \"Do You Inhale?\" from the 1930s. As cigarette tobacco became milder and more acidic, inhaling may have become perceived as more agreeable. However, Moltke noticed in the 1830s (cf. \"Unter dem Halbmond\") that Ottomans (and he himself) inhaled the Turkish tobacco and Latakia from their pipes (which are both initially sun-cured, acidic leaf varieties).\n",
"Smoking increases the risk of developing gastric cancer significantly, from 40% increased risk for current smokers to 82% increase for heavy smokers. Gastric cancers due to smoking mostly occur in the upper part of the stomach near the esophagus. Some studies show increased risk with alcohol consumption as well.\n"
] |
how is a glass of wine everyday good for you? :)
|
It is not. There is proof to suggest that the antioxidants in wine are good for you.
But with that said, current consensus is that *any* alcohol is bad for you, and for virtually all drinks, the downsides outweigh any upsides. Drinking is always bad and should be avoided for optimal health.
|
[
"Wine is a popular and important drink that accompanies and enhances a wide range of cuisines, from the simple and traditional stews to the most sophisticated and complex haute cuisines. Wine is often served with dinner. Sweet dessert wines may be served with the dessert course. In fine restaurants in Western countries, wine typically accompanies dinner. At a restaurant, patrons are helped to make good food-wine pairings by the restaurant's sommelier or wine waiter. Individuals dining at home may use wine guides to help make food–wine pairings. Wine is also drunk without the accompaniment of a meal in wine bars or with a selection of cheeses (at a wine and cheese party).\n",
"Wine is important in cuisine not just for its value as a drink, but as a flavor agent, primarily in stocks and braising, since its acidity lends balance to rich savory or sweet dishes. Wine sauce is an example of a culinary sauce that uses wine as a primary ingredient. Natural wines may exhibit a broad range of alcohol content, from below 9% to above 16% ABV, with most wines being in the 12.5–14.5% range. Fortified wines (usually with brandy) may contain 20% alcohol or more.\n",
"Historically, house wine was usually poor quality, possibly \"jug wine\" derived from a second pressing of the grapes, and sold by the glass, promoted by a restaurant primarily on the basis of the wine's low cost. A 1979 article asserted that \"so called 'fine' restaurants, those serving the \"haute cuisine\" or those considered posh or plush, will not carry a house wine\". Recently, due to a general rise in the availability of high quality wine, house wines have improved in quality in restaurants in the United States, and frequently may be produced by or for a specific restaurant, although house wines will still usually be on the cheaper end of the wine list for any given restaurant.\n",
"Wine is important in cuisine not just for its value as an accompanying beverage, but as a flavor agent, primarily in stocks and braising, since its acidity lends balance to rich savory or sweet dishes. Wine sauce is an example of a culinary sauce that uses wine as a primary ingredient. Natural wines may exhibit a broad range of alcohol content, from below 9% to above 16% ABV, with most wines being in the 12.5–14.5% range. Fortified wines (usually with brandy) may contain 20% alcohol or more.\n",
"Wine glasses are a type of glass stemware that are used to drink and taste wine from. Selection of a particular wine glass for a wine style is important, as the glass shape can influence its perception.\n",
"BULLET::::- Wine sold by the glass is often served in nearly full glasses. Wine served at home, or when bought by the bottle in, say, a restaurant, is usually served in glasses less than half filled; the capacity of a wine glass is not the only criterion for judging quantity.\n",
"In reply to the Italian magazine \"Gentleman\" on \"what really makes a fine wine\", he replied, \"wine is like music\" and therefore in the same way that most musical enjoyment comes not from knowledge of music but music's appeal to the emotions, wine too should be thought of emotionally by wine drinkers, not scientifically. He added that each and every good wine should be able \"to move you\" in some kind of way \"like with music, literature and love\".\n"
] |
What are some recent major depopulation events?
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European discovery of the Americas. Close to 90% of Native Americans died to diseases.
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[
"Depopulation began in the early 1900s, accelerated in the Dust Bowl years of the 1930s, and has generally continued through the most recent national census in 2010. The population decline has been broadly attributed to numerous factors, especially changes in agricultural practices, rapid improvements in urban transit and regional connectivity, and a steadily faltering rural job market.\n",
"A metapopulation is generally considered to consist of several distinct populations together with areas of suitable habitat which are currently unoccupied. In classical metapopulation theory, each population cycles in relative independence of the other populations and eventually goes extinct as a consequence of demographic stochasticity (fluctuations in population size due to random demographic events); the smaller the population, the more chances of inbreeding depression and prone to extinction.\n",
"A population decline (or depopulation) in humans is a reduction in a human population caused by events such as long-term demographic trends, as in sub-replacement fertility, urban decay, white flight, or rural flight, or due to violence, disease, or other catastrophes. Depopulation can be largely beneficial for a region, allocating more resources and less competition for the new population, in addition to exempting the disadvantages of overpopulation, such as increased traffic, pollution, real estate prices, and environmental destruction. Per-capita wealth may increase in depopulation scenarios, in addition to improvement of environmental quality-of-life indicators such as improved air and water quality, reforestation, return of native species, etc. The accompanying benefits of depopulation have been termed shrink and prosper, with benefits being similar to the post-Civil War Gilded Age, post-World War I economic boom, and the post-World War II economic boom.\n",
"A more controversial definition of overpopulation, as advocated by Paul Ehrlich, is a situation where a population is in the process of depleting non-renewable resources. Under this definition, changes in lifestyle could cause an overpopulated area to no longer be overpopulated without any reduction in population, or vice versa.\n",
"In recent years, rapid decline of the population has been observed in the United Kingdom, as the population size has decreased by 55% over the past 30 years. Human activities such as modern farming altered their main habitat – England's damp meadows – and have changed the climate as well. This loss of major habitats has led to fragmentation and isolation of \"E. aurinia\" populations, thus leading to metapopulation formation. \"E. aurinia\" is more vulnerable to extinction in the small subpopulations that comprise the metapopulation.\n",
"\"Human overpopulation\" occurs when the ecological footprint of a human population in a specific geographical location exceeds the carrying capacity of the place occupied by that group. Overpopulation can further be viewed, in a long term perspective, as existing when a population cannot be maintained given the rapid depletion of non-renewable resources or given the degradation of the capacity of the environment to give support to the population.\n",
"The concept of metapopulations was defined in 1969 as \"a population of populations which go extinct locally and recolonize\". Metapopulation ecology is another statistical approach that is often used in conservation research. Metapopulation models simplify the landscape into patches of varying levels of quality, and metapopulations are linked by the migratory behaviours of organisms. Animal migration is set apart from other kinds of movement; because, it involves the seasonal departure and return of individuals from a habitat. Migration is also a population-level phenomenon, as with the migration routes followed by plants as they occupied northern post-glacial environments. Plant ecologists use pollen records that accumulate and stratify in wetlands to reconstruct the timing of plant migration and dispersal relative to historic and contemporary climates. These migration routes involved an expansion of the range as plant populations expanded from one area to another. There is a larger taxonomy of movement, such as commuting, foraging, territorial behaviour, stasis, and ranging. Dispersal is usually distinguished from migration; because, it involves the one way permanent movement of individuals from their birth population into another population.\n"
] |
how does motorcycle rpm and gearing work.
|
The RPM of a motorcycle engine as well as how the gearing works, functions on the same principles as any other engine. The whole system is setup slightly different as space is an issue. But the basics are all the same. To answer if your engine is doing the same work at 5k RPM on 2nd gear vs 5th simply, is no, it's not doing the same work. If you ever owned a Bicycle with gears it's the same principle.
At the low gears, it's super easy to pedal because the rotation is very small. However, you don't output very much energy on the lower gears. At high gears it's the opposite, it's difficult to pedal, but you output much more energy than you're putting in.
Breaking the inertia of a bicycle/motorcycle/car can be a very difficult task, that's why we start at low gears and work up to high gears.
|
[
"The clutch in a manual-shift motorcycle transmission is typically an arrangement of plates stacked in alternating fashion, one geared on the inside to the engine and the next geared on the outside to the transmission input shaft. Whether wet (rotating in engine oil) or dry, the plates are squeezed together by a spring, causing friction build up between the plates until they rotate as a single unit, driving the transmission directly. A lever on the handlebar exploits mechanical advantage through a cable or hydraulic arrangement to release the clutch spring(s), allowing the engine to freewheel with respect to the transmission.\n",
"Making a turn on a single-track vehicle such as a two-wheeled motorcycle requires the driver to lean the bike. The amount of the lean is dependent upon the speed. Faster speeds require more leaning than slower speeds do. When making a turn with a trailer attached, the mechanism that joins the trailer to the motorcycle must allow for an appreciable lean in order for a trailer to stay upright. Without the ability to freely rotate on a vertical axis, the coupler will bind and the trailer will jack-knife or flip.\n",
"The shift pattern for most underbone or miniature motorcycles with an automatic centrifugal clutch is also modified for two key reasons—to enable the less-experienced riders to shift the gears without problems of \"finding\" neutral, and also due to the greater force needed to \"lift\" the gearshift lever (because the gearshift pedal of an underbone motorcycle also operates the clutch). The gearshift lever of an underbone has two ends. The rider clicks down the front end with the left toe all the way to the top gear and clicks down the rear end with the heel all the way down to neutral, while miniatures still retain a single-end lever, with the rider clicks down to upshift and lift the lever up to downshift (or vice versa). Some underbone models such as the Honda Wave have a \"rotary\" shift pattern, which means that the rider can shift directly to neutral from the top gear, but for safety reasons this is only possible when the motorcycle is stationary. Some models also have gear position indicators for all gear positions at the instrument panel.\n",
"Many modern motorcycles feature a device called quickshifter for up-shifts without pressing the clutch lever or closing the throttle. The special sensor recognizes pressure on the gear shift rod and quickshifter sends a signal to the ECU to either stop fuelling for a short time (milliseconds) or suppress the spark at the plug, which unloads the gearbox and allows a gear change. The idea came from racing where it helps to minimize the time when the motorcycle is not at full power. An alternative device for down-shifts is called auto-blipper and is less widespread. It artificially \"blips\" the throttle to match engine speed to speed of the rear wheel to avoid sudden spikes in torque transfer.\n",
"Most manual transmission two-wheelers use a sequential gearbox. Most modern motorcycles (except scooters) change gears (of which they increasingly have five or six) by foot lever. On a typical motorcycle either first or second gear can be directly selected from neutral, but higher gears may only be accessed in order – it is not possible to shift from second gear to fourth gear without shifting through third gear. A five-speed of this configuration would be known as \"one down, four up\" because of the placement of the gears with relation to neutral, though some motorcycle gearboxes and/or shift mechanisms can be reversed so that a \"one up, four down\" shifting pattern can be used. Neutral is to be found \"half a click\" away from first and second gears, so shifting directly between the two gears can be made in a single movement.\n",
"Motorcycles typically employ sequential transmissions, although the shift pattern is modified slightly for safety reasons. In a motorcycle the gears are usually shifted with the left foot pedal, the layout being this:\n",
"Broadsiding is the method used in motorcycle speedway for travelling round the bends on the speedway track. The rider skids his rear wheel by spinning it at such a speed that it sets up a gyroscopic action and this opposes the natural tendencies of centrifugal force. Then he controls the slide by throttle control to maintain, increase or decrease the rate of which the rear wheel spins. Motorcycle speedway bikes have no brakes or suspension. The rider can scrub-off speed while still providing the drive to power the bike forward and around the bend.\n"
] |
what would happen if coke stopped advertising for a year?
|
I'm assuming you mean advertising as in media (TV, radio, billboards, etc). You should note that Coke advertises EVERYWHERE and you may not even realize it. The soda machine with a giant coke bottle on the front? Glasses with a coke logo at TGIF? That's all advertising too. Even if they stopped all "ads", stopped endorsing NASCAR and sporting events, etc, there would still be Coke logo's in your face all over the place.
Lets look at 2 scenarios:
1. Coke stops advertising but Pepsi does not: Pepsi's market share increases, as people get bombarded with Pepsi marketing and try it out. However, there's only so far they can go because restaurants with existing Coke equipment aren't going to switch because of TV ads. Coke's revenue decreases more than Pepsi's increases because without advertising, some people will just drink less soda.
2. Both companies agree to stop advertising: People drink less soda in general. Would it offset the amount that they each spend? Who knows, my guess is not because if it did, then the companies would already have stopped advertising.
Advertising at that level is not about "making people know about Coke" it's about having Coke be the first thing you think of when you think "I want a drink"
|
[
"The tobacco industry appealed against this decision, but it was upheld by the United States Court of Appeals and the United States Supreme Court declined to hear the case. \"Various governmental and voluntary health organizations made extremely creative spots and provided them to stations.\" In response, tobacco companies offered to stop all advertising on television, if this coordinated action was granted immunity from antitrust laws; they further agreed to have warning labels on cigarette packages and advertising. Tobacco ads ceased to appear on television in the United States at the end of 1970 (on 1 January 1971). Cigarette advertising shifted to print media. Consequently, anti-smoking announcements were no longer required to satisfy the FCC's fairness doctrine.\n",
"Since the ban on tobacco advertising in the UK (which banned tobacco adverts on television in 1991) and much of Europe was implemented during the 1990s, the adverts are no longer aired; they are also no longer shown in cinemas, with the final cinema advert shown in 1999, with the special slogan \"Happiness will always be a cigar called Hamlet.\"\n",
"A 30-second television commercial promoting sustainability, showing soda bottles exploding each time a person makes a drink using a SodaStream machine, was banned in the United Kingdom in 2012. Clearcast, the organization that approves TV advertising in the UK, explained that they \"thought it was a denigration of the bottled drinks market\". The same ad, crafted by Alex Bogusky, ran in the United States, Sweden, Australia, and other countries. An appeal by SodaStream to reverse Clearcast's decision to censor the commercial was rejected. A similar advertisement, which featured a pair of Coca-Cola and Pepsi deliverymen reacting to the exploding bottles, was expected to air during Super Bowl XLVII in February 2013, but was rejected by CBS for its direct references to Coke and Pepsi. The previous SodaStream ad was shown in its place. SodaStream CEO said \"The banned ad was a win because of the quality as well as the quantity of the exposure we received\".\n",
"Nearly 20 years before the passing of the act, in 1969, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, Canada's national broadcasting service eliminated all tobacco advertising on both its radio and TV networks.\n",
"A 30-second commercial promoting sustainability, showing soda bottles exploding each time a person makes a drink using his Sodastream machine, was banned in the United Kingdom in 2012. Clearcast, the organization that preapproves TV advertising in the U.K., explained that they \"thought it was a denigration of the bottled drinks market.\" The same ad, crafted by Alex Bogusky, ran in the United States, Sweden, Australia, and other countries. An appeal by Sodastream to reverse Clearcast's decision to censor the commercial was rejected. A similar ad was expected to air during Super Bowl XLVII in February 2013 but was banned by CBS for jabbing at Coke and Pepsi (two of CBS's largest sponsors).\n",
"In 1995 all remaining tobacco advertising and sponsorship was banned except for point-of-sale advertising and some tobacco sponsorship exemptions. Point-of-sale advertising ceased on 11 December 1998.\n",
"When Coca-Cola began receiving complaints about the faulty cans, it temporarily halted distribution of the MagiCans to local bottlers. The plan was to test MagiCans before distribution by shaking them to detect faulty mechanisms. Coca-Cola's own initial estimate was that 120,000 MagiCans were on store shelves or in bottler inventories at the initial release, of which less than 1 percent, or fewer than 1,200 cans, were faulty. Ultimately, Coke ended the campaign after only three weeks due to the negative publicity regarding faulty cans. Negative publicity about the promotion included an editorial cartoon showing a man in sunglasses outdoors opening a soda can standing near a billboard hyping MagiCans, then he removes his sunglasses in surprise when a small sign from his can emerges saying \"Buy Pepsi\". The ads also drew fire from a 1990 issue of \"Zillions\", the juvenile version of \"Consumer Reports\" magazine, in their annual \"ZAP Awards\" segments detailing the worst ads of 1990. The main complaint of the ads actually was not the association with New Kids on the Block, but rather the deceptive nature of showing people opening cans and every time it turning out to be a MagiCan, in that \"MagiCans & MagiCups\" made it look so easy to win when it was not in actuality (the magazine shared that view with an ad of Burger King's \"Whopper & Wheels\" promotion, which received far less publicity).\n"
] |
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