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why does online shopping shipping cost so much more than personally sending packages?
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a few examples.
-amazon (not books)- free under certain conditions, reasonable when not-free. probably has a deal with ups/usps for volume discount.
-amazon - books - media mail at usps costs $2.65. there is not really a cheaper way to send a book. if you pay less than $4 for a book + shipping the seller is taking a loss.
-ebay - ebay charges fees based on final bid price not shipping, so some people mark up the shipping to hide costs
-random other website - for low volume stuff, that $8 includes troubling larry to get up, prepare your package, and drive it to the post office. or the cost of the box +tape + etc.
|
[
"One advantage of shopping online is being able to quickly seek out deals for items or services provided by many different vendors (though some local search engines do exist to help consumers locate products for sale in nearby stores). Search engines, online price comparison services and discovery shopping engines can be used to look up sellers of a particular product or service. Shipping costs (if applicable) reduce the price advantage of online merchandise, though depending on the jurisdiction, a lack of sales tax may compensate for this. Shipping a small number of items, especially from another country, is much more expensive than making the larger shipments bricks-and-mortar retailers order. Some retailers (especially those selling small, high-value items like electronics) offer free shipping on sufficiently large orders. Another major advantage for retailers is the ability to rapidly switch suppliers and vendors without disrupting users' shopping experience.\n",
"There are several obstacles towards a successful cross-border online shopping, and these include shipping and paying for orders. For instance, US online stores are popular worldwide, but some of them only ship to US addresses or they ask for high shipping international rate. So the package forwarding service helps international shoppers in shipping their purchases from the US to their home addressed or helps them place a direct order with the US retailers if they do not have a US billing address.\n",
"The survey also tracks the cost of ordering the items online; doing so is significantly more expensive, in part due to shipping costs. In 2008, PNC estimated the total cost at $31,956.62, up 2.3% from 2007, while purchasing all 364 items online would cost $131,150.76, an increase of 1.8%. However, if the buyer were to purchase each item from the least-expensive vendor, the total index would be $19,844.95, a discount of 5.86%.\n",
"More recently, the continued growth of online shopping, combined with increasing awareness of the role of transportation (including package delivery) on the environment, has contributed to the rise of emerging competition from niche carriers or rebranded incumbents. For instance, the US Postal Service claims \"greener delivery\" of parcels on the assumption that USPS letter carriers deliver to each US address, six days a week anyway, and therefore offer the industry's lowest fuel consumption per delivery. Other carriers, like ParcelPool.com, which specializes in residential package delivery to APO/FPO addresses, Hawaii, Alaska, Puerto Rico, and other US Territories, arose in response to increased demand from catalog retailers and online e-tailers for low-cost residential delivery services closely matching service standards normally associated with more expensive expedited parcel delivery.\n",
"Many shoppers also perceive shopping costs as a barrier to place the order and leave the shopping cart before purchasing. 31.6% of respondents mentioned the latter as a main barrier during the online shopping experience based on Internet Retailer / Bizrate Insight consumer survey conducted in May 2018. \n",
"Free shipping is an important factor for consumer shopping online. Based on ComScore data 65% of ecommerce transactions in Q4 2017 in the United States were with free shipping. This figure has been consistent for the last few years (ranging between 58% and 69%). Moreover US respondents asked in the survey listed free shipping (54% mentions) as a most important factor for online shipping. Next in line were exclusive online deals (23%), no sales tax (10%), fast shipping (9%) and in store pickup (5%). \n",
"In many parts of the United States, Canada, and Europe, families and individuals combine their purchasing power to buy items, typically bulk-type food, in a volume that generates a discounted price from the seller. The seller saves by having only one purchase order to manage and, possibly, less packaging and delivery to deal with. The buyers benefit from a lower per-unit cost and, incidentally, from an increased sense of community and sharing. Bulk-food sellers often provide tools so their customers can set up community buyers' clubs, for example: .\n"
] |
how can our brains, while sleeping, create images of people/things we've never met or seen before and how can dreams create deja vu/seemingly predict future occurrences?
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Dreams don't actually create déjà vu. That phenomenon is actually created by a slight delay between sensory reception and neural recognition. Basically you witness something via sight, sound, etc, but for whatever reason your brain takes a few extra nanoseconds to process the information, so you feel as though you've experienced it before, and often feel like you can "predict" what will happen next, but only as it is actually happening.
As far as creating entirely new content in dreams - that isn't possible even while awake. All of human creativity is limited to our experiences. Our minds are just able to reassemble these experiences into new combinations. (There are a few exceptions to this, such dealing with things such as scale or color, but those are debatable).
|
[
"This theory suggests that dreaming is an \"unlearning process\" in which our brains bring up material to be thrown out like a computer attempting to clean itself of things we do not need to remember. That is, the subconscious organizes things, solves these problems, and then communicates them to the individual via a dream. (see Dream interpretation) The hypnagogic state is sometimes proposed as a specific explanation of experiences such as alien abduction, apparitions, or visions.\n",
"In December 2008, Advanced Telecommunications Research Institute International's Department of Cognitive Neuroscience announced its own research into the translation of neural signals into images. In addition, Dr. Moran Cerf of UCLA published a 2010 paper for \"Nature\" which claimed that he and other fellow researchers were on the cusp of being able to allow psychologists to interpret thoughts by corroborating people's recollections of their dream with an electronic visualization of their brain activity. The research outcome has often been popularized as a device that could record dreams. However, Moran Cerf says he never made that claim and only said that such a device is a theoretical possibility.\n",
"Creator Sean Oliver is quoted, \"The dream is still a mystery. People live their lives thinking that we understand it, but the truth is we don’t, we ignore it. If we can’t accurately comprehend the dream state then perhaps some of our assumptions about normal consciousness are misguided as well. I think we should all explore that.\"\n",
"Based on the results, he claimed that they demonstrated that such precognitive fragments were common in dreams, even that they were mixed up in equal occurrence with past memories, and therefore they were difficult to identify until after the event they foresaw. He believed that the dreaming mind was not drawn wholly to the present, as it was during wakefulness, but was able to perceive events in its past and future with equal facility.\n",
"Another area thought to be involved in the generation of dreams is the Parieto-Occipito-Temporal junction (PTO). This is an area of grey cortex towards the back of the brain involved in the highest levels of perceptual processing. It is here that perceptions are converted into abstract thoughts and memories. The PTO is also vital for mental imagery. Damage specifically to this area results in complete loss of dreaming, however damage to lower levels of perceptual processing merely results in reduced aspects of dream imagery. This is the basis for the suggestion that dreaming involves a reversed sequence of perceptual events. Instead of bottom-up it is top-down (higher levels activating lower levels instead lower to higher). Activation of the motivational mechanisms in the brain would normally be directed toward goal-oriented actions. However, during sleep access to the motor system is blocked (by inactivation of the dorsolateral frontal convexity). As a result, activation moves backwards toward the perceptual areas. This is why the dreamer doesn't engage in motivated behaviours but imagines them. Furthermore, there is inactivation of the reflective system in the limbic brain which leads the dreamer to mistake the dream for reality. Damage to this area also results in the inability to distinguish dreams from reality during waking state.\n",
"The visual nature of dreams is generally highly phantasmagoric; that is, different locations and objects continuously blend into each other. The visuals (including locations, characters/people, objects/artifacts) are generally reflective of a person's memories and experiences, but conversation can take on highly exaggerated and bizarre forms. Some dreams may even tell elaborate stories wherein the dreamer enters entirely new, complex worlds and awakes with ideas, thoughts and feelings never experienced prior to the dream.\n",
"A dream has all features of primary consciousness but is produced in the brain without external stimulation. Unlike the waking state, the brain cannot recognize its own condition; that it is in the midst of the dream and is not the same as the real world. The brain has a single-minded state of primary consciousness during dreaming, which allows the brain to reach greater perception and awareness of a single scenario out of images and dreams. This is called the dream consciousness.\n"
] |
what are turkeys being pardoned from if they have not done anything?
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They are "being pardoned from the sentence of death for being a turkey at thanksgiving". It is just a silly tradition.
|
[
"A number of U.S. states have similar turkey-pardoning events, including Minnesota. The pardoning ceremonies have also been extended to other holidays; for instance, Erie County, New York's county executive facetiously pardons a butter lamb during Holy Week.\n",
"In \"The West Wing\" episode \"Shibboleth,\" when C.J. learns the alternate turkey is to be slaughtered, she appeals to President Bartlet to save it. He points out that he cannot pardon a turkey, as it had committed no crime and he has no \"judicial jurisdiction over birds\". So, he drafts the turkey into military service to spare its life. In real life, both the turkey and the alternate are spared.\n",
"A symbolic use of the presidential pardon is the National Thanksgiving Turkey Presentation each Thanksgiving, in which a domestic turkey is pardoned from being slaughtered for Thanksgiving dinner and allowed to live out its life on a farm.\n",
"George H. W. Bush, who served as vice president under Reagan, made the turkey pardon a permanent annual tradition upon assuming the presidency in 1989, a tradition that has been carried on by every president each year since. The pardoned turkeys have typically ended up in the Northern Virginia suburbs of Washington, D.C. From 1989 to 2004 they were sent to a children's farm called Frying Pan Farm Park in Herndon, Virginia. From 2009 to 2013 they were sent to George Washington's Mount Vernon estate near Alexandria, Virginia, and in 2014 they were sent to an estate in Leesburg, Virginia once owned by former state governor and turkey farmer Westmoreland Davis. However, from 2005 to 2009 they were sent to either Walt Disney World or Disneyland. The turkeys rarely live to see the next Thanksgiving due to being bred for large size.\n",
"It is the supplier of Clyde, a series of turkeys that have been ritually pardoned by the governor of Alabama on Thanksgiving since 1949 (Clyde was first pardoned by \"Big Jim\" Folsom) as well as a frozen turkey, which is eaten as the governor's Thanksgiving meal.\n",
"The president of Turkey is granted the right of pardon under certain circumstances defined in the constitution, article 104. According to the article, the president can \"remit, on grounds of chronic illness, disability, or old age, all or part of the sentences imposed on certain individuals\". After the convict's or his or her proxy's application, if the Council of Forensic Medicine determines that the convict suffers from chronic illness, disability, or old age, the Ministry of Justice presents the situation to the president, and the president can choose to grant a pardon.\n",
"The first President on record issuing a \"pardon\" to his turkey was Ronald Reagan. Reagan had been sending the turkeys presented to him to farms and zoos since at least 1982, and 1987's turkey, Charlie, was likewise headed to a petting zoo. At the time, Reagan was facing questions over the Iran-Contra affair, on whether or not he would consider pardoning Oliver North (who had yet to be tried for his involvement in the affair); Reagan conjured the notion of the turkey pardon as a joke to deflect those questions. Reagan did not make any pardon references in the 1988 presentation, but his successor, George H. W. Bush, instituted the turkey pardon as a permanent part of the presentation beginning his first year in office, 1989. The phrase \"presidential pardon\" in that ceremony was apparently inserted by a speechwriter; Bush initially was indifferent to the terminology, saying Reprieve', 'keep him going', or 'pardon': it's all the same for the turkey, as long as he doesn't end up on the president's holiday table.\" Since then, at least one of the turkeys presented to the President has been taken to a farm where it will live out the rest of its natural life. \n"
] |
How did the Norway GDP increase by ~$22k in a 4 year span?
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edit-- not an economist so maybe someone else will prove/disprove the following
GDP per capita increased by USD 22k in 4 years. The important thing to note here is that it is in USD, so let's just run a quick conversion from USD to NOK for 2009 and 2013:
77k USD - > 77/0.14 - > 550 NOK in 2009 at the rate of approx 1 NOK to 0.14 USD
99k USD - > 99/0.17 - > 582 NOK in 2013 at the rate of approx 1 NOK to 0.17 USD
I've used imprecise numbers but from this, it is absolutely clear that the increase is due to exchange rates.
|
[
"Norway's mainland GDP, which excludes the oil and gas sectors and the shipping industry, shrank 1.0% in the three months to March after a 0.8% decline in the final quarter of 2008, with recession counted as two consecutive quarterly figures showing a contraction. Mainland GDP is considered a better indicator of the Scandinavian country's economic health, since the oil and gas sector represents 25% of its economic growth but employs only about one% of its working-age population. Still, Norway's total GDP, which includes the oil, gas and shipping sectors, shrank 0.4% in the first quarter of 2009 after 0.8% growth in the fourth quarter of 2008.\n",
"As forecasted by the United Nations (UN), the Norwegian population over 65 years of age will reach a share of 25% of the country’s population by 2060, contrasting a 16% figure in 2015. In adherence to this assumption and if there had not been an effective reform to the National Insurance Scheme in Norway, government expenditure for old age pensions would have amounted to 13% of GDP by 2060, which is more than double what was spent in 2013 (6% of GDP).\n",
"Studies suggest that Norway will experience an approximately 10 cm greater rise in sea level than the global average within the year 2100. Despite great uncertainty from all data, the IPCC calculated a global increase of 10–90 cm during this century. Other studies conducted by the NOU Climate Adaptation in 2009 suggest a 40–95 cm rise in sea level in northern Norway up until 2100, corrected for land uplift. This makes infrastructure long the coast more vulnerable to damage, especially during storm surges.\n",
"The growth of gross domestic product (GDP) in 2006 was almost 8% and for the next two years, the figure ranged close to 9%, due to the effects of the global crisis in 2009 grew by 1.12% and 2010 the change was positive in 8.78%. In addition, a five-year period that saw GDP grow by 7.2%, despite its initial projections of 5.3%. Certainly, mining and international prices of metals are responsible for such important figures. With Net international reserves are U.S. $47,059 million at the end of June, according to the Central Reserve Bank (BCR). With proper management of the economy, Peru could overcome without major global recession that hit the main buyers, the U.S., China, etc.\n",
"The GDP of Oslo totalled €64 billion(€96,000 per capita) in 2016, which amounted to 20% of the national GDP. This compares with NOK166 billion (US$17 billion) in 1995. The metropolitan area, bar Moss and Drammen, contributed 25% of the national GDP in 2003 and was also responsible for more than one quarter of tax revenues. In comparison, total tax revenues from the oil and gas industry on the Norwegian Continental Shelf amounted to about 16%.\n",
"Over long periods of time, even small rates of growth, such as a 2% annual increase, have large effects. For example, the United Kingdom experienced a 1.97% average annual increase in its inflation-adjusted GDP between 1830 and 2008. In 1830, the GDP was 41,373 million pounds. It grew to 1,330,088 million pounds by 2008. A growth rate that averaged 1.97% over 178 years resulted in a 32-fold increase in GDP by 2008.\n",
"Seemingly small differences in yearly GDP growth lead to large changes in GDP when compounded over time. For instance, in the above table, GDP per Person in the United Kingdom in the year 1870 was $4,808. At the same time in the United States, GDP per Person was $4,007, lower than the United Kingdom by about 20%. \n"
] |
Why were so many large college football stadiums built in the US in the 1920's?
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The Colleseum in Los Angeles was built for the 1932 Olympics. Cleveland built their Munincipal Stadium in an attempt to augment their bid for the 1932 Olympics. Not only did they not get the Olyimpics, they could not convince the Cleveland Indians to play there until the 1950s. They did have an NFL team, the Rams, that played there from 1937 to 1945. The Rams won the 1945 championship on a fluke play. Sammy Baugh threw a pass from his own end-zone that richocheted off the goal post and scoring a safety for the Rams. The Rams moved to Los Angeles for the 1946 seaon and played in the LA Colessium until the early 1980s, when they moved to Anaheim. Al Davis moved the Raiders to Los Angles and played at the collessium for less than ten years before they moved back to Oakland, the same year the Rams moved to Saint Louis. Al Davis left because an earthquake damaged the collessium and would have been to expensive to repair.
During the 1920s, the National Football leaugue was still in an embryonic stage of development. Without television, it was not yet a popular sport. College football was popular though. Especially in the Ivy League and Big Ten states. Schools like Michigan could build a stadium with 100,000 seats and sell enough tickets to fill them all. The revenue generated by a successful football program gave the presidents of other schools an edifice complex. They want to build a stadium tha was comparable in size and get their own piece of the pie. During the 1920s college football replaced boxing and horse racing in popularity, and only baseball remained more popular. There were sound business reasons that colleges built such large stadiums.
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[
"In North America, multipurpose stadiums were built primarily during the 1960s and 1970s as shared home stadiums for Major League Baseball and National Football League or Canadian Football League teams. Some stadiums were renovated to allow multipurpose configurations during the 1980s. This type of stadium is associated with an era of suburbanization, in which many sports teams followed their fans out of large cities into areas with cheaper, plentiful land. They were usually built near highways and had large parking lots, but were rarely connected to public transit. As multipurpose stadiums were rarely ideal for both sports usually housed in them, they had fallen out of favor by the 1990s. With the completion of the Truman Sports Complex in Kansas City in 1973, a model for purpose-built stadiums was laid down. Since Oriole Park at Camden Yards opened in 1992, most major league sports stadiums have been built specifically for one sport.\n",
"Before more modern football stadiums were built in the United States, many baseball parks, including Fenway Park, the Polo Grounds, Wrigley Field, Comiskey Park, Tiger Stadium, Griffith Stadium, Milwaukee County Stadium, Shibe Park, Forbes Field, Yankee Stadium, and Sportsman's Park were used by the National Football League or the American Football League. (To a certain extent, this continues in lower football leagues as well, with TD Ameritrade Park being used as the home stadium of the United Football League's Omaha Nighthawks.) Along with today's single use stadiums is the trend for retro style ballparks closer to downtown areas. Oriole Park at Camden Yards was the first such ballpark for Major League Baseball to be built, using early-20th-century styling with 21st-century amenities.\n",
"The term \"stadium\" had been used since ancient times, typically for a running track and its seating area. As college football gained in popularity, the smaller college playing fields and/or running tracks (which also frequently had the suffix \"Field\") gave way to large stadiums, many of them built during the sport's \"boom\" of the 1920s. Major league baseball enjoyed a similar boom. One of the first major league ballparks to be called a \"stadium\" was actually the Polo Grounds, which was temporarily renamed Brush Stadium from its reconstruction in 1911 until the death of owner John T. Brush in the 1920s. By then, the most famous baseball \"stadium\" of them all had been constructed: Yankee Stadium. From that point until the retro building boom of the 1990s, the suffix \"Stadium\" was used for almost every new major league ballpark, and was sometimes applied to the old ones, such as Shibe Park, which was renamed Connie Mack Stadium in 1954.\n",
"During these decades, parallel stadium developments were taking place in the U.S. The Baker Bowl, a baseball park in Philadelphia that opened in its original form in 1887 but was completely rebuilt in 1895, broke new ground in stadium construction in two major ways. The stadium's second incarnation featured the world's first cantilevered second deck (tier) in a sports venue, and was also the first baseball park to use steel and brick for the majority of its construction. Another influential venue was Boston's Harvard Stadium, built in 1903 by Harvard University for its American football team and track and field program. It was the world's first stadium to use concrete-and-steel construction. In 1909, concrete-and-steel construction came to baseball with the opening of Shibe Park in Philadelphia and, a few months later, Forbes Field in Pittsburgh. The latter was the world's first three-tiered sporting venue. The opening of these parks marked the start of the \"jewel box\" era of park construction. The largest stadium crowd ever was 199,854 people watching the final match of the 1950 World Cup at Rio de Janeiro's Maracanã on 16 July 1950.\n",
"The largest multi-purpose stadium in North America suitable for baseball is SDCCU Stadium, the former home of the San Diego Padres, with a listed capacity for baseball of 67,544. While fourteen U.S. stadiums have capacities of over 90,000 of which nine can hold over 100,000 spectators, nearly all were built specifically for American football. A baseball field placed in any of these stadiums would have severe restrictions on its dimensions, and thousands of seats would likely need to be covered to form a suitable batter's eye.\n",
"In the 1960s, multipurpose stadiums began replacing their baseball-only and football-only predecessors, now known as \"classics\" or \"jewel box\" parks. The advantage to a multipurpose stadium is that a singular infrastructure and piece of real estate can support both teams in terms of transportation and playing area, and money (often public money) that would have been spent to support infrastructure for two stadiums could be spent elsewhere. Also playing into the advent of the multipurpose stadium was Americans' growing use of automobiles, which required professional sports stadiums surrounded by parking. Most cities lacked affordable space for such stadiums near their city centers, so multipurpose stadiums were typically built in suburbs with freeways access.\n",
"BULLET::::- Stadiums seating less than 50,000 were declared to be inadequate for professional football's needs, thus compelling teams in stadiums with capacities under that number to expand their current stadiums (most notably the expansion of the Denver Broncos' Mile High Stadium in 1968) or move to newer, larger homes—most notably the Chicago Bears' move from Wrigley Field to Soldier Field in 1971, and the opening of new stadiums for the New England Patriots (Schaefer Stadium in 1971), Kansas City Chiefs (Arrowhead Stadium in 1972), and Buffalo Bills (Rich Stadium in 1973). (The Minnesota Vikings stayed at Metropolitan Stadium, the only sub-50,000 capacity stadium after the merger, until the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome opened in 1982.) It was this stadium issue that prevented Seattle and Tampa Bay from receiving their expansion teams until 1976; both cities were recruiting the Bills and Patriots to relocate to their cities (in defiance of Rozelle's promise) should they not be able to build a compliant stadium in their home market, and only after those stadiums were built and relocation of existing teams ruled out that the league could issue expansion teams to Seattle and Tampa Bay. Since the 1970's, the league has only played occasionally in sub-50,000 seat stadiums. Exceptions include the 1998 NFL season when the Tennessee Oilers played one season at 40,550 seat Vanderbilt Stadium and also from 2017 to present when the Chargers returned to Los Angeles and temporarily moved into the 27,000 seat Dignity Health Sports Park (known as StubHub Center before 2019) until Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park opens in 2020.\n"
] |
why is computer image recognition so hard?
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I know we aren't supposed to post just links, but I don't think there's a better explanation than [this WaitButWhy article](_URL_0_). Scroll down to "The Road From ANI to AGI" paragraph.
Edit: For those about to tl;dr - over millions of years of evolution our brains became really good at recognizing objects, because that's what is useful (even necessary) for survival. Computers are very primitive in comparison to our brains, and they can't (yet) teach themselves without any human assistance, so we have to manually "wire" them for image recognition.
|
[
"The classical problem in computer vision, image processing, and machine vision is that of determining whether or not the image data contains some specific object, feature, or activity. Different varieties of the recognition problem are described in the literature:\n",
"Computer algorithms for recognizing objects in photos often learn by example. CIFAR-10 is a set of images that can be used to teach a computer how to recognize objects. Since the images in CIFAR-10 are low-resolution (32x32), this dataset can allow researchers to quickly try different algorithms to see what works. Various kinds of convolutional neural networks tend to be the best at recognizing the images in CIFAR-10.\n",
"To compound the issue, there has been a massive increase in the size of the data that the computer forensic expert needs to collect. It is now often the case that the computer hard drive is not able to be imaged, for example if the computer that contains the evidence is too big, or the system cannot be shut down to take an image as it is a mission critical server such as an email server or company file server. The rise of Cloud computing has also added challenges to the collection of evidence. The data that requires collection and review may reside in the Cloud. In this case there is no computer available to image. The forensic expert then needs to collect the information using forensic software designed to work with certain Cloud providers.\n",
"On February 9, 2016, a UCLA Engineering research group has made public the computer code for PST algorithm that helps computers process images at high speeds and \"see\" them in ways that human eyes cannot. The researchers say the code could eventually be used in face, fingerprint, and iris recognition systems for high-tech security, as well as in self-driving cars' navigation systems or for inspecting industrial products.\n",
"Computers are indispensable for the analysis of large amounts of data, for tasks that require complex computation, or for the extraction of quantitative information. On the other hand, the human visual cortex is an excellent image analysis apparatus, especially for extracting higher-level information, and for many applications — including medicine, security, and remote sensing — human analysts still cannot be replaced by computers. For this reason, many important image analysis tools such as edge detectors and neural networks are inspired by human visual perception models.\n",
"Techniques that can extract content information from images are called image analysis techniques. Computer vision is the ability of computers (or of robots) to recognize their environment and to interpret it correctly.\n",
"Object recognition – technology in the field of computer vision for finding and identifying objects in an image or video sequence. Humans recognize a multitude of objects in images with little effort, despite the fact that the image of the objects may vary somewhat in different view points, in many different sizes and scales or even when they are translated or rotated. Objects can even be recognized when they are partially obstructed from view. This task is still a challenge for computer vision systems. Many approaches to the task have been implemented over multiple decades.\n"
] |
If protons & neutrons are each composed of 3 quarks, is the atomic nucleus just a jumble of quarks, or is each set of 3 quarks a distinct particle?
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These pictures of 3 quarks making up a nucleon is a crude simplification. A proton is a very complex bound state that consists of the 3 valence quarks as well as a fluctuating part of gluons and quark anti-quark pairs.
Even though the nucleons are a seemingly a mess, they can be more or less be seen as distinct particles that bound together make up atomic nuclei. The predicitions from this assumption lead to pretty good results (shell model of the atomic nucleus).
|
[
"Inside protons and neutrons, there are fundamental particles called quarks. The two most common types of quarks are \"up quarks\", which have a charge of +/, and \"down quarks\", with a −/ charge. Quarks arrange themselves in sets of three such that they make protons and neutrons. In a proton, whose charge is +1, there are two \"up\" quarks and one \"down\" quark (/ + / − / = 1). Neutrons, with no charge, have one \"up\" quark and two \"down\" quarks (/ − / − / = 0). Via the weak interaction, quarks can change flavor from \"down\" to \"up\", resulting in electron emission. Positron emission happens when an \"up\" quark changes into a \"down\" quark. (/ − 1 = −/).\n",
"Neither the proton nor neutron is an elementary particle, meaning each is composed of smaller parts, namely three quarks each. A proton is composed of two up quarks and one down quark, while the neutron has one up quark and two down quarks. Quarks are held together by the strong force, or equivalently, by gluons, which mediate the strong force.\n",
"In the Standard Model of physics, electrons are truly elementary particles with no internal structure. However, both protons and neutrons are composite particles composed of elementary particles called quarks. There are two types of quarks in atoms, each having a fractional electric charge. Protons are composed of two up quarks (each with charge +) and one down quark (with a charge of −). Neutrons consist of one up quark and two down quarks. This distinction accounts for the difference in mass and charge between the two particles.\n",
"The above treatment compares neutrons with protons, allowing the complex behavior of quarks to be subtracted out between models, and merely exploring what the effects would be of differing quark charges (or quark type). Such calculations are enough to show that the interior of neutrons is very much like that of protons, save for the difference in quark composition with a down quark in the neutron replacing an up quark in the proton.\n",
"BULLET::::- The proton itself is a bound state of three quarks (two up and one down; one red, one green and one blue). However, unlike the case of the hydrogen atom, the individual quarks can never be isolated. See confinement.\n",
"Although protons were originally considered fundamental or elementary particles, in the modern Standard Model of particle physics, protons are classified as hadrons, like neutrons, the other nucleon (particles present in atomic nuclei), composite particles composed of three valence quarks: two up quarks of charge +\"e\" and one down quark of charge –\"e\". The rest masses of quarks contribute only about 1% of a proton's mass, however. The remainder of a proton's mass is due to quantum chromodynamics binding energy, which includes the kinetic energy of the quarks and the energy of the gluon fields that bind the quarks together. Because protons are not fundamental particles, they possess a measurable size; the root mean square charge radius of a proton is about 0.84–0.87 fm or to .\n",
"Via quantum theory, protons and neutrons were found to contain quarks—up quarks and down quarks—now considered elementary particles. And within a molecule, the electron's three degrees of freedom (charge, spin, orbital) can separate via the wavefunction into three quasiparticles (holon, spinon, orbiton). Yet a free electron—which is not orbiting an atomic nucleus and lacks orbital motion—appears unsplittable and remains regarded as an elementary particle.\n"
] |
Do eggs change weight as they develop?
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Yes, the [egg loses weight during incubation](_URL_0_).
|
[
"An average of 146 eggs are laid per batch. Each egg weighs around 1.63 mg and ranges from 1.13-1.89 mg. The specific time in which the eggs are laid does not seem to determine larval fitness. Similarly, the range of egg weight seems insignificant as there is no known information on whether or not quality/health of larvae depends on egg weight. However, female age seems to control egg weight, as the weights declined as females aged. The eggs hatch in May.\n",
"Egg size is influenced by a number of factors. As maternal age increases so does egg size. At the beginning of the breeding season females lay smaller eggs compared to the end of the breeding season. Eggs laid in the last part of the breeding season are smaller in size due to deteriorating maternal health.\n",
"The larger end of the egg contains an air cell that forms when the contents of the egg cool down and contract after it is laid. Chicken eggs are graded according to the size of this air cell, measured during candling. A very fresh egg has a small air cell and receives a grade of AA. As the size of the air cell increases and the quality of the egg decreases, the grade moves from AA to A to B. This provides a way of testing the age of an egg: as the air cell increases in size due to air being drawn through pores in the shell as water is lost, the egg becomes less dense and the larger end of the egg will rise to increasingly shallower depths when the egg is placed in a bowl of water. A very old egg will float in the water and should not be eaten.\n",
"Egg size tends to be proportional to the size of the adult bird, from the half gram egg of the bee hummingbird to the 1.5 kg egg of the ostrich. Kiwis have disproportionately large eggs, up to 20% of the female's body weight. This evolutionary trait results in kiwi chicks that can emerge from the nest days after hatching, ready to start foraging for food.\n",
"A larger egg size generally results in a larger hatchling and adult size. Eggs laid by \"C. brunneus\" from late August to early September are the heaviest, hatch the latest, and have heavier hatchlings. While earlier hatchlings are initially smaller, earlier hatchlings achieve a larger body size than later hatchlings. Maximum temperatures rather than minimum temperatures influence the weight of hatchlings unless the minimum temperature exceeds the tolerance limit. In later hatchlings warmer weather and decreased food availability promotes more rapid development resulting in a smaller body size compared to earlier hatchlings. The heaviest hatchlings come from colder habitats. Increased population density also results in decreased adult size as well as slower development.\n",
"The peak time for egg production is early May, with some birds, particularly first-time breeders, laying later in the month or in June. The clutch size is normally three eggs; larger clutches probably result from two females laying in the same nest. Egg size averages , although each successive egg in a clutch is slightly smaller than the first laid. The average egg weight is , of which 5% is shell. The egg weight depends on how well-fed the female is, as well as on its position in the clutch. The eggs are cream, buff, or pale brown, marked with streaks, spots or blotches of black, brown or grey which help to camouflage them. Incubation is by both sexes, although more often by the female, and lasts 21–22 days, extending to 25 days if there are frequent disturbances at the colony which cause the adults to leave the eggs unattended; nocturnal predation may lead to incubation taking up to 34 days. On hot days the incubating parent may fly to water to wet its belly feathers before returning to the eggs, thus affording the eggs some cooling. Except when the colony suffers disaster, 90% of the eggs hatch. The precocial downy chick is yellowish with black or brown markings, and like the eggs, is similar to the equivalent stage of the Arctic tern. The chicks fledge in 22–28 days, usually 25–26. Fledged juveniles are fed at the nest for about five days, and then accompany the adults on fishing expeditions. The young birds may receive supplementary feeds from the parents until the end of the breeding season, and beyond. Common terns have been recorded feeding their offspring on migration and in the wintering grounds, at least until the adults move further south in about December.\n",
"Research shows that when birth weights of infants are greater than the 90th percentile of the growth chart for babies of the same gestational age, they are considered large for gestational age or LGA. This indicates that these babies are weighing more than 90% of babies of the same gestational age.\n"
] |
intelligence quotient / iq, what exactly is it and what are its criticisms? why is it potentially wrong?
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IQ is a measure of how 'intelligent' you are compared to the average person your age where you live.
Having an IQ of 100 by definition means that you are exactly average for your age and area.
A 20 year old and 12 year old writing the same test and marking the exact same answers would get different results. The 12 year old having answered everything the same as the 20 year old would get a higher IQ because older people are expected to get more answers right than children.
Similarly the test is reclibrated based on region, but this is not a big difference in practice. The result however is that the average IQ in the US is exactly the same as the average IQ in for example Pakistan: 100 because that is how the whole thing is defined.
Some criticisms are based on the age thing. Some children develop faster than other which might lead to having fantastically high IQs as children which later when they reach adulthood go down to only normal 'very smart'.
Other somewhat controversial criticisms are for example about the fact that IQ test are supposedly culturally biased in some way or another.
Even more controversial theories attack the concept of intelligence itself and demand that it be more inclusive. Some people believe that certain other skills and abilities such be seen as forms of intelligence, that for example someone who is not good with numbers or words or spatial reasoning or abstract ideas but is a really good dancer should be considered to be 'intelligent' in that area. While there might be some kernel of a rational and worthwhile argument at the core of this theory it has been pretty much co-opted by people who use it unintelligently like parents who refuse to admit that their child has below average intelligence and insists that he is merely differently intelligent as evident by the fact that he is good at sports.
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[
"A large body of research indicates that intelligence measures such as intelligence quotient (IQ) varies between individuals and between certain groups, and that they correlate with socially important outcomes such as educational achievement, employment, crime, poverty and socioeconomic status.\n",
"An intelligence quotient (IQ) is a total score derived from several standardized tests designed to assess human intelligence. The abbreviation \"IQ\" was coined by the psychologist William Stern for the German term \"Intelligenzquotient\", his term for a scoring method for intelligence tests at University of Breslau he advocated in a 1912 book. Historically, IQ is a score obtained by dividing a person's mental age score, obtained by administering an intelligence test, by the person's chronological age, both expressed in terms of years and months. The resulting fraction is multiplied by 100 to obtain the IQ score. \n",
"Among the most controversial issues related to the study of intelligence is the observation that intelligence measures such as IQ scores vary between ethnic and racial groups and sexes. While there is little scholarly debate about the \"existence\" of some of these differences, their \"causes\" remain highly controversial both within academia and in the public sphere.\n",
"In psychology, human intelligence is commonly assessed by IQ scores, determined by IQ tests. However, there are critics of IQ who do not dispute the stability of IQ test scores, or the fact that they predict certain forms of achievement rather effectively. They do argue, however, that to base a concept of intelligence on IQ test scores alone is to ignore many important aspects of mental ability.\n",
"Furthermore, he dismissed the proposition that an IQ score measures the general intelligence (\"g\" factor) of a person, because cognitive ability tests (IQ tests) present different types of questions, and the responses tend to form clusters of intellectual acumen. That is, different questions, and the answers to them, yield different scores—which indicate that an IQ test is a combination method of different examinations of different things. As such, Gould proposed that IQ-test proponents assume the existence of \"general intelligence\" as a discrete quality within the human mind, and thus they analyze the IQ-test data to produce an IQ number that establishes the definitive general intelligence of each man and of each woman. Hence, Gould dismissed the IQ number as an erroneous artifact of the statistical mathematics applied to the raw IQ-test data, especially because psychometric data can be variously analyzed to produce multiple IQ scores.\n",
"Critics such as Keith Stanovich do not dispute the reliability of IQ test scores or their capacity to predict some kinds of achievement, but argue that basing a concept of intelligence on IQ test scores alone neglects other important aspects of mental ability.\n",
"Snyderman and Rothman claimed that the media had misrepresented the views of experts, so that the public now believed that it was impossible to define intelligence, that IQ or aptitude tests were outmoded and that environmentalism and hereditarianism were incompatible points of view. As they wrote: \n"
] |
when someone talks about rendering a video, or an animation, what does that mean? and how would not rendering it affect it?
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Let's compare video editing to building a car.
So you're editing your video, but really it's a collection of parts. Multiple footage clips, effects like color correction, etc. The computer is able to tell you that "yes, these parts put together make a car" but rendering is where the parts actually get put together and consolidated into one piece. It's a little more complicated than that I think, but ELI5.
If you try to play your video/move your car without rendering, the smoothness really depends on if your computer is strong enough to pick up x amount of parts at the same time. Rendering is like putting some of the car together so it can drive a little smoother.
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[
"Rendering or image synthesis is the automatic process of generating a photorealistic or non-photorealistic image from a 2D or 3D model (or models in what collectively could be called a \"scene\" file) by means of computer programs. Also, the results of displaying such a model can be called a render. A scene file contains objects in a strictly defined language or data structure; it would contain geometry, viewpoint, texture, lighting, and shading information as a description of the virtual scene. The data contained in the scene file is then passed to a rendering program to be processed and output to a digital image or raster graphics image file. The term \"rendering\" may be by analogy with an \"artist's rendering\" of a scene.\n",
"Different techniques for rendering now exist, such as ray-tracing and rasterization. Using these techniques and advanced hardware, computers can now render images quickly enough to create the illusion of motion while simultaneously accepting user input. This means that the user can respond to rendered images in real time, producing an interactive experience.\n",
"Rendering is the process of generating an image from a model, by means of computer programs. The model is a description of three-dimensional objects in a strictly defined language or data structure. It would contain geometry, viewpoint, texture, lighting, and shading information. The image is a digital image or raster graphics image. The term may be by analogy with an \"artist's rendering\" of a scene. 'Rendering' is also used to describe the process of calculating effects in a video editing file to produce final video output. Important rendering techniques are:\n",
"Rendering is used in architecture, simulators, video games, movies and television visual effects and design visualization. Rendering is the last step in an animation process, and gives the final appearance to the models and animation with visual effects such as shading, texture-mapping, shadows, reflections and motion blurs. Rendering can be split into two main categories: real-time rendering (also known as online rendering), and pre-rendering (also called offline rendering). Real-time rendering is used to interactively render a scene, like in 3D computer games, and generally each frame must be rendered in a few milliseconds. Offline rendering is used to create realistic images and movies, where each frame can take hours or days to complete, or for debugging of complex graphics code by programmers.\n",
"Rendering is the generation of a 2D image from a 3D model by means of computer programs. A scene file contains objects in a strictly defined language or data structure; it would contain geometry, viewpoint, texture, lighting, and shading information as a description of the virtual scene. The data contained in the scene file is then passed to a rendering program to be processed and output to a digital image or raster graphics image file. The rendering program is usually built into the computer graphics software, though others are available as plug-ins or entirely separate programs. The term \"rendering\" may be by analogy with an \"artist's rendering\" of a scene. Although the technical details of rendering methods vary, the general challenges to overcome in producing a 2D image from a 3D representation stored in a scene file are outlined as the graphics pipeline along a rendering device, such as a GPU. A GPU is a device able to assist the CPU in calculations. If a scene is to look relatively realistic and predictable under virtual lighting, the rendering software should solve the rendering equation. The rendering equation does not account for all lighting phenomena, but is a general lighting model for computer-generated imagery. 'Rendering' is also used to describe the process of calculating effects in a video editing file to produce final video output.\n",
"Before rendering into an image, objects must be laid out in a scene. This defines spatial relationships between objects, including location and size. Animation refers to the temporal description of an object (i.e., how it moves and deforms over time. Popular methods include keyframing, inverse kinematics, and motion capture). These techniques are often used in combination. As with animation, physical simulation also specifies motion.\n",
"Animation – rapid display of a sequence of images of 2-D artwork or model positions in order to create an illusion of movement. It is an optical illusion of motion due to the phenomenon of persistence of vision. The most common method of presenting animation is as a motion picture or video program, although several other forms of presenting animation also exist.\n"
] |
why do so many americans blame obama for practically everything?
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Because most American citizens have very little idea of how their government actually works, and how limited the president's power is, domestically and economically. The president is the most well-known governmental figure, and it's a lot simpler to blame him than to go watch C-SPAN or check voting records and see that it's actually your representatives and senators who are screwing you, in many cases, *specifically* because they know you'll blame Obama for it and they want his approval rating to go down.
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[
"Obama commented on the role of government that \"Progress does not compel us to settle centuries-long debates about the role of government for all time — but it does require us to act in our time.\" And he added while the American people never gave up their skepticism of a strong federal government, they also never believed that the government can fix all ills. In order to prepare America for a rapidly changing world he stressed the need for the political leaders of America to act in common cause. The president argued that \"now decisions are upon us and we cannot afford delay.\" Obama also made what appeared to be an oblique reference to the partisan battles between himself, the Republican-controlled House and the Senate — where Democrats had control but not a filibuster-proof majority. In reference to the unalienable rights of Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness Obama declared in the context of the partisan battles that \"[b]eing true to our founding documents does not require us to agree on every contour of life; it does not mean we will all define liberty in exactly the same way, or follow the same precise path to happiness.\" Obama said that the politically gridlocked capital — and, implicitly, the Republicans who have fought his ideas during the 2012 U.S. presidential election — was moving too slowly at a critical moment. \"We cannot mistake absolutism for principle, or substitute spectacle for politics, or treat name-calling as reasoned debate,\" Obama said. \"We must act, knowing that our work will be imperfect.\" Obama added that \"the oath I have sworn before you today, like the one recited by others who serve in this Capitol, was an oath to God and country, not party or faction — and we must faithfully execute that pledge during the duration of our service.\"\n",
"On December 9, 2012, in an interview with Al Sharpton on MSNBC, Belafonte expressed dismay that many political leaders in the United States continue to oppose the policies of President Obama even after his re-election: \"The only thing left for Barack Obama to do is to work like a third-world dictator and just put all of these guys in jail. You're violating the American desire.\"\n",
"Obama called the November 2, 2010 election, where the Democratic Party lost 63 seats in, and control of, the House of Representatives, \"humbling\" and a \"shellacking\". He said that the results came because not enough Americans had felt the effects of the economic recovery.\n",
"Shortly after the disclosures were published, President Obama asserted that the American public had no cause for concern because \"nobody is listening to your telephone calls\", and \"there is no spying on Americans\".\n",
"In \"The Washington Post\", Jennifer Rubin wrote that the statement showed that Obama \"revealed a level of resentment toward the private sector that was startling, even to his critics\", and that the speech reflects that \"the anti-business assaults \"become\" the campaign. Meanwhile, his affection for government becomes a chip on his shoulder, prompting him to dare those private-sector wise guys to deny the centrality of government in their success.\" Glenn Kessler later said that the Obama statement was taken out of context and that he was speaking about higher taxes for the wealthy, comparing individual initiative to the system of many people working to create supporting infrastructure.\n",
"In 2012, following the victory of President Barack Obama in the US presidential election, Trump tweeted a chain of disparaging comments about Obama's win. Trump began that Election Day with a flurry of familiar complaints. He mocked Obama for playing basketball and blamed the Chinese for creating \"the concept of global warming\". Trump tweeted the next day, \"but we'll have to live with it!\" and: \"We have to make America great again!\" In response, Obama quipped on \"The Tonight Show With Jay Leno\" that Trump's beef with him \"dated back to their days growing up in Kenya\".\n",
"Opponents Clinton and McCain sharply criticized and accused Obama of elitism after he said of small-town Pennsylvanians, \"And it's not surprising, then, they get bitter, they cling to guns or religion or antipathy to people who aren't like them or anti-immigrant sentiment or anti-trade sentiment as a way to explain their frustrations.\" Writer Victor Davis Hansen in the National Review also commented on these remarks, and inventoried Obama's elite credentials, vacation choices, fashion sense, and speech topics, including the cost of college tuition to conclude that Obama and his \"agenda\" were \"yuppie to the core.\"\n"
] |
Why is Neptune warmer than Uranus?
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There isn't a great deal between the two, but because of the huge distance that both are from the Sun neither gets much warmth from the Sun. Instead some heat is generated by internal motion within the planet, partially assisted by the Sun striking the pole as Neptune is "tipped over"
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[
"Neptune's more varied weather when compared to Uranus is due in part to its higher internal heating. Although Neptune lies over 50% farther from the Sun than Uranus, and receives only 40% its amount of sunlight, the two planets' surface temperatures are roughly equal. The upper regions of Neptune's troposphere reach a low temperature of . At a depth where the atmospheric pressure equals , the temperature is . Deeper inside the layers of gas, the temperature rises steadily. As with Uranus, the source of this heating is unknown, but the discrepancy is larger: Uranus only radiates 1.1 times as much energy as it receives from the Sun; whereas Neptune radiates about 2.61 times as much energy as it receives from the Sun. Neptune is the farthest planet from the Sun, yet its internal energy is sufficient to drive the fastest planetary winds seen in the Solar System. Depending on the thermal properties of its interior, the heat left over from Neptune's formation may be sufficient to explain its current heat flow, though it is more difficult to simultaneously explain Uranus's lack of internal heat while preserving the apparent similarity between the two planets.\n",
"Unlike the other giant planets, Uranus has an extreme tilt that causes its seasons to be severely pronounced. The two planets also have other subtle but important differences. Uranus has more hydrogen and helium than Neptune despite being less massive overall. Neptune is therefore denser and has much more internal heat and a more active atmosphere. The Nice model, in fact, suggests that Neptune formed closer to the Sun than Uranus did, and should therefore have more heavy elements.\n",
"Uranus' internal heat appears markedly lower than that of the other giant planets; in astronomical terms, it has a low thermal flux. Why Uranus' internal temperature is so low is still not understood. Neptune, which is Uranus' near twin in size and composition, radiates 2.61 times as much energy into space as it receives from the Sun, but Uranus radiates hardly any excess heat at all. The total power radiated by Uranus in the far infrared (i.e. heat) part of the spectrum is times the solar energy absorbed in its atmosphere. Uranus' heat flux is only , which is lower than the internal heat flux of Earth of about . The lowest temperature recorded in Uranus' tropopause is , making Uranus the coldest planet in the Solar System.\n",
"At ultraviolet and visible wavelengths, Uranus' atmosphere is bland in comparison to the other giant planets, even to Neptune, which it otherwise closely resembles. When \"Voyager 2\" flew by Uranus in 1986, it observed a total of ten cloud features across the entire planet. One proposed explanation for this dearth of features is that Uranus' internal heat appears markedly lower than that of the other giant planets. The lowest temperature recorded in Uranus' tropopause is , making Uranus the coldest planet in the Solar System.\n",
"Several solutions have been proposed to explain the calm weather on Uranus. One proposed explanation for this dearth of cloud features is that Uranus's internal heat appears markedly lower than that of the other giant planets; in astronomical terms, it has a low internal thermal flux. Why Uranus's heat flux is so low is still not understood. Neptune, which is Uranus's near twin in size and composition, radiates 2.61 times as much energy into space as it receives from the Sun. Uranus, by contrast, radiates hardly any excess heat at all. The total power radiated by Uranus in the far infrared (i.e. heat) part of the spectrum is times the solar energy absorbed in its atmosphere. In fact, Uranus's heat flux is only W/m², which is lower than the internal heat flux of Earth of about 0.075 W/m². The lowest temperature recorded in Uranus's tropopause is 49 K (−224 °C), making Uranus the coldest planet in the Solar System, colder than Neptune.\n",
"The atmosphere of Neptune is similar to that of Uranus. It is about 80% hydrogen, 19% helium, and 1.5% methane. However the weather activity on Neptune is much more active, and its atmosphere is much bluer than that of Uranus. The upper levels of the atmosphere reach temperatures of about 55 K, giving rise to methane clouds in its troposphere, which gives the planet its ultramarine color. Temperatures rise steadily deeper inside the atmosphere.\n",
"Uranus – seventh planet from the Sun. It has the third-largest planetary radius and fourth-largest planetary mass in the Solar System. Uranus is similar in composition to Neptune, and both have different bulk chemical composition from that of the larger gas giants Jupiter and Saturn. For this reason, scientists often classify Uranus and Neptune as \"ice giants\" to distinguish them from the gas giants. Uranus's atmosphere is similar to Jupiter's and Saturn's in its primary composition of hydrogen and helium, but it contains more \"ices\" such as water, ammonia, and methane, along with traces of other hydrocarbons. It is the coldest planetary atmosphere in the Solar System, with a minimum temperature of , and has a complex, layered cloud structure with water thought to make up the lowest clouds and methane the uppermost layer of clouds. The interior of Uranus is mainly composed of ice and rock.\n"
] |
why can't another wifi device interfere with another one
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> Hey, I'm the router, send me your information" as Man in the Middle Attack
They can do exactly this. It is known as an [ARP poisoning attack](_URL_0_) and it is a type of man-in-the-middle. An attacker sends spoofed ARP packets to other machines on the network, causing them to route all packets through the attacker's computer. The attacker will then forward the packets onto the actual gateway, so the connection functions normally but the attacker can intercept and modify the traffic (unless it's seperately encrypted, of course).
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[
"One of the challenges of a wireless system is the possibility of interference. Radio frequency wireless systems may get interference from other wireless devices. Some wireless intercom designs reduce this interference by using \"digital spread spectrum\".\n",
"Compared to wired systems, wireless networks are frequently subject to electromagnetic interference. This can be caused by other networks or other types of equipment that generate radio waves that are within, or close, to the radio bands used for communication. Interference can degrade the signal or cause the system to fail.\n",
"Because the Bluetooth system hops over 79 channels, the probability of interfering with another Bluetooth system is less than 1.5%. This allows several Bluetooth piconets to operate in the same area at the same time with minimal interference.\n",
"To minimise collisions with Wi-Fi and non Wi-Fi devices, Wi-Fi employs Carrier-sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA), where transmitters listen before transmitting, and delay transmission of packets if they detect that other users are active on the channel. Nevertheless, Wi-Fi networks are still susceptible to the hidden node and exposed node problem.\n",
"The broadcast nature of wireless (coupled with network topology) determines the nature of interference. Simultaneous transmissions in a wireless network typically result in all of the packets being lost (i.e., collision, see Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance for Wireless). A wireless network therefore requires a scheduler (as part of the MAC functionality) to minimize such interference. Hence any gains from network coding are strongly impacted by the underlying scheduler and will deviate from the gains seen in wired networks. Further, wireless links are typically half-duplex due to hardware constraints; i.e., a node can not simultaneously transmit and receive due to the lack of sufficient isolation between the two paths.\n",
"Wi-Fi connections can be disrupted or the Internet speed lowered by having other devices in the same area. Wi-Fi protocols are designed to share channels reasonably fairly, and will often work with little to no disruption. However, many 2.4 GHz 802.11b and 802.11g access-points default to the same channel on initial startup, contributing to congestion on certain channels. Wi-Fi pollution, or an excessive number of access points in the area, can prevent access and interfere with other devices' use of other access points as well as with decreased signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) between access points. In addition interference can be caused by overlapping channels in the 802.11g/b spectrum. These issues can become a problem in high-density areas, such as large apartment complexes or office buildings with many Wi-Fi access points. Wi-Fi 6 has greatly improved power control, and suffers less from interference in congested areas.\n",
"Alternatively, users with unpatched devices can disable their wireless network connection and use a wired alternative – though this may not be practical for many scenarios, such as mobile devices or tablets.\n"
] |
if we could take a snapshot of every atom in the universe, could we effectively predict the future?
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Quantum Mechanics at least suggest, if not prove, that there may be an element of inherent randomness that cannot be eliminated. If that is the case, then it is certainly at least plausible that there is some degree of unpredictability that also cannot be eliminated in macroscopic events.
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[
"While the future can never be predicted with absolute certainty, present understanding in various scientific fields allows for the prediction of some far-future events, if only in the broadest outline. These fields include astrophysics, which has revealed how planets and stars form, interact, and die; particle physics, which has revealed how matter behaves at the smallest scales; evolutionary biology, which predicts how life will evolve over time; and plate tectonics, which shows how continents shift over millennia.\n",
"BULLET::::- To some extent at least, it is possible to predict with useful accuracy what will happen in the future, if one has sufficient experience, knowledge, and insight into the relevant causal factors at work as well as how they are related. This may be a work of science or sustained practical experience. In turn, future perspectives can importantly influence human action in the present.\n",
"This paradigm allows one to calculate the probabilities of all of the processes that we have observed in 70 years of particle collider experiments with remarkable accuracy. But many interesting physical phenomena do not obviously fit into this paradigm. For example, if one wishes to consider the dynamics inside of a neutron star sometimes one wants to know more than what it will finally decay into. In other words, one may be interested in measurements that are not in the asymptotic future. Sometimes an asymptotic past or future is not even available. For example, it is very possible that there is no past before the Big Bang.\n",
"1) \"History cannot always accurately predict the future.\" Using relations derived from historical data to predict the future implicitly assumes there are certain lasting conditions or constants in a complex system. This almost always leads to some imprecision when the system involves people.\n",
"Some (including Albert Einstein) argue that our inability to predict any more than probabilities is simply due to ignorance. The idea is that, beyond the conditions and laws we can observe or deduce, there are also hidden factors or \"hidden variables\" that determine \"absolutely\" in which order photons reach the detector screen. They argue that the course of the universe is absolutely determined, but that humans are screened from knowledge of the determinative factors. So, they say, it only appears that things proceed in a merely probabilistically determinative way. In actuality, they proceed in an absolutely deterministic way.\n",
"Thirdly, if the universe under consideration is larger than a significant horizon of uncertainty, and outcomes for these distant points are significantly different from points near the estimate, then conclusions of robustness or opportuneness analyses will generally be: \"one must be very confident of one's assumptions, else outcomes may be expected to vary significantly from projections\" – a cautionary conclusion.\n",
"Although future events are necessarily uncertain, so guaranteed accurate information about the future is in many cases impossible, prediction can be useful to assist in making plans about possible developments; Howard H. Stevenson writes that prediction in business \"... is at least two things: Important and hard.\"\n"
] |
why are males naturally attractive without make-up?
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Because we are conditioned to believe that girls need make up to be attractive, not to mention that women have used make up for a long time creating a "norm"
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[
"Regardless, by using cosmetic surgery, females can change various aspects of their body to make themselves more attractive by displaying a more desirable waist-hip ratio. This can lead to competition with other females who may be considered less attractive in comparison. When women change their appearances, such as by applying cosmetic products and wearing sexy or stylish clothes, do make a difference and has been proven to be effective.\n",
"Human males have developed an adaptation in which they find women more attractive if they show cues of fertility, such as a good waist–hip ratio. Women with a waist-to-hip ratio of 0.7 are considered more attractive to males than those with a ratio of 0.8, who are considered to have a more masculine figure. This is because they are perceived to be able to have children more and to be more fertile and healthy.\n",
"Females have also chosen males who have more feminine appearances because of an (hypothesized) inverse relationship between a male's facial attractiveness and effort willing to spend in raising offspring. That is, more attractive males often put in less work as a caretaker while less attractive males will put in more work. On average, there is a wide amount of variability in male preferences than in females. This suggests there are enough of both males more suited for short term relationships and those more suited for longer relationships. \n",
"Gendered attractiveness is the physical appearance of a male or female that is considered ideal, beautiful, attractive and having sex appeal of oneself or others. Males, for example, should be large in stature, muscular, full head of hair, straight white teeth, healthy and alluring to look at. They spend many hours trying to perfect their bodies with physical exercise. They also make changes to their appearance with hair removal, hair plugs, teeth veneers and body tanning. Males want to be seen as strong, dominant and masculine. Females, on the other hand, should be slender, tall, have long blonde hair, perfect skin and Barbie doll-like features. Females want to be characterized as petite, skinny and fit. The problem is that \"tall\" and \"petite\" are opposites. Females are concerned about how they look, what they wear and they desire to be attractive, and thus go to great lengths to make sure that they feel and look attractive and polished. Females make permanent changes to their bodies as they have cosmetic surgery on all areas of their bodies such as, nose, face, lips, chin, teeth, breast, buttock, feet and many other parts of the body. Females also make temporary changes such as cut and color hair, tanning for darker skin color, hair removal from body, paint finger and toe nails. In addition, females use clothes, shoes and accessories such as scarfs, jewelry, purses and eyeglasses to help make them feel and look attractive.\n",
"A possible explanation is that attractive women have less pressing incentives to cultivate and demonstrate their intellect in order to ensure their future, since attractiveness is an asset, or correlatively that intelligent women have less pressing incentives to dye their hair to a presumed attractive color. The validity of this explanation is corroborated by its applicability to a similar pervasiveness of the \"dumb athlete\" stereotype. The dumb blonde stereotype (and the associated cognitive bias) may have some negative consequences and it can also damage a blonde person's career prospects.\n",
"Similarly, a study investigated the capacity of women to select high quality males based on their facial attractiveness. They found that facial attractiveness correlated with semen quality (good, normal, or bad depending on sperm morphology and motility). The more attractive a man's face is, linked to his sperm being of better quality.\n",
"Many people take up strength training to improve their physical attractiveness. There is evidence that a body type consisting of broad shoulders and a narrow waist, attainable through strength training, is the most physically attractive male attribute according to women participating in the research. Most men can develop substantial muscles; most women lack the testosterone to do it, but they can develop a firm, \"toned\" (see below) physique, and they can increase their strength by the same proportion as that achieved by men (but usually from a significantly lower starting point). An individual's genetic make-up dictates the response to weight training stimuli to a significant extent. Training can not exceed a muscle's intrinsic genetically determined qualities, though polymorphic expression does occur e.g., Myosin heavy chains\n"
] |
Were Asian Americans Segregated and considered "Coloured" in the 1950's to 60's?
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Yes they were. Asians were subject to segregational practices in many cities. I wrote a bit about this topic previously [here](_URL_0_), but am always happy to add on to it or have more of a discussion on the topic. Filipinos, for example, were prominent targets of attacks by white people. This was often rooted in white men feeling threatened by Filipino masculinity; it manifested in arresting or even attacking or shooting Filipinos who were seen with white women during periods where anti-miscegenation laws were in place, as well as the invention of stereotypes about Asian men that are still widely believed today. In general, Filipinos were seen as less civilized than whites.
|
[
"The 1950s and 1960s was an era when racial discrimination against Afro-Americans was widely practiced in the state of Michigan and most of the Midwestern states. Public accommodations that could be used by black tourists and travelers were so scarce in the northern United States that New York City resident Victor Green, a postal carrier and travel agent, had published \"The Negro Motorist Green Book\" beginning in 1936. It was an annual guidebook for African Americans to use to help keep themselves from running into difficulties and embarrassments when white owned businesses would not serve them. It was well known to blacks that whites in southern states practiced Jim Crow discrimination at their hotels, restaurants, gas stations and department stores. They also quickly learned that outside of the major cities of the north, the same Jim Crow discriminatory policies were practiced by white business owners. Many small towns were even referred to as \"sunset or sundown\" towns, that is, no blacks allowed after dark.\n",
"The 19th century divided and then tied the fates of African Americans and Asian Americans together. Before the 1870 Census, Asian Americans marked themselves as “white” in the official census and began to first be called “model minorities” given a societal reputation for \"hard work\". Yet legally and politically, the judicial system found Asian Americans to be considered the same as African Americans. In the California court case, \"People v. Hall, \"the court found that people of Asian descent could not testify under existing legal acts that prohibited testimony from people of African descent. According to the California Supreme Court, the court ruled“[T]he words ‘Black person’...must be taken as contradistinguished from White, and necessarily excludes all races other than the Caucasian”. As the 19th century progressed, Acts of Congress such as the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 and the Geary Act of 1892 effectively barred further immigration of Asian Americans till the 20th century.\n",
"Asian Americans were also marginalized during much of US history. Between 1882 and 1943 the United States government instituted the Chinese Exclusion Act which prohibited Chinese immigrants from entering the nation. During the second world war roughly 120,000 Japanese Americans, 62% of whom were U.S. citizens, were imprisoned in Japanese internment camps. Hispanic Americans also faced segregation and other types of discrimination; they were regularly subject to second class citizen status, in practice if not by law.\n",
"During this period, Asian immigrants continued to face racial discrimination. In addition to first-generation immigrants whose permanent ineligibility for citizenship curtailed their civil and political rights, second-generation Asian Americans (who formally had birthright citizenship) continued to face segregation in schools, employment discrimination, and prohibitions on property and business ownership. The most severe discrimination against Asian Americans occurred during the height of the World War II, when 110,000 to 120,000 Japanese Americans (primarily on the West Coast) were incarcerated in internment camps between 1942–1946. While roughly a third of those interned were \"issei\" (first-generation immigrants) who were ineligible for citizenship, the vast majority were \"nisei\" or \"sansei\" (second- and third-generation) who were citizens by birth.\n",
"immigrated to the country. South African Chinese are dispersed throughout South African cities. During the Apartheid regime (1948–93) Chinese South Africans were classified as \"Coloureds\" or \"Asian South Africans\", while certain East Asian nationals (such as Japan and Taiwan) in South Africa were declared \"honorary whites\" and thus avoided most forms of official discriminatory laws (they could live in reserved \"white\" neighborhoods unlike native/black, and \"Asian\"-Indian South Africans), since Apartheid created a strict racial segregation system for non-white/European persons (esp. the black majority) in South Africa.\n",
"Indian American groups, through their own petitioning, successfully changed their racial classification to Asian in the 1970s to have themselves included in state and federal Asian racial categories to benefit from affirmative action. Otherwise, they would have continued to be designated as white by the government. Indian American leaders wanted to change their racial classification, so Indian Americans would have \"minority\" group status.\n",
"Two important Supreme Court cases in the exclusion era determined the citizenship status of Asian Americans. In 1922, the Court ruled in \"Takao Ozawa v. United States\" that ethnic Japanese were not Caucasian, and therefore did not meet the \"free white persons\" requirement to naturalize according to the Naturalization Act of 1790. A few months later in 1923, the Court ruled in \"United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind\" that while Indians were considered Caucasian by contemporary racial anthropology, they were not seen as \"white\" in the common understanding, and were therefore ineligible for naturalization. Whereas \"United States vs. Wong Kim Ark\" had determined that all persons born in the United States, including Asian Americans, were citizens, these cases confirmed that foreign-born Asian immigrants were legally excluded from naturalized citizenship on the basis of race.\n"
] |
in traffic, why do cyclists by default have to use the road instead of the sidewalk? aren't motor vehicles and cyclists a bigger danger to each other than cyclists and pedestrians would be?
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Bicycles and cars are supposed to follow the same rules, and both drivers and riders are responsible for maintaining situational awareness. This is intended to create a predictable flow.
As others have mentioned, while there are notions about how best to walk on a sidewalk, there aren't really any rules or regulations. A bike coming up behind a car can make a fairly accurate assumption about what the car is going to do next based on signals used by the car and/or the lane the car is in. Sidewalks are pure chaos.
|
[
"Cyclists may travel either in the street or on the sidewalk. On the sidewalk they must behave so as not to cause danger to pedestrians (which is an arbitrary judgment that seems to translate into traveling at walking pace). Moreover, in some of the cities within the greater Los Angeles region, it is illegal to cycle on the sidewalk. Cyclists in general should follow the same traffic rules and behavior as motorized vehicles. It is legal for a cyclist to \"take a lane\" within the State of California, and in the case of narrow-width lanes it is advisable to do so.\n",
"The design of road and streets has a key role in pedestrian safety. Roads are too often designed for motorized vehicle without taking into account pedestrians and bicycle needs. The non-existence of sidewalk and signals is a source of risks for pedestrians, this defect might more easily be observed on arterial roadways, intersections and fast-speed lanes without adequate attention to pedestrian facilities. For instance, an assessment of roads in countries from many continents shows that 84% of roads might miss pedestrian footpaths while maximum limited speed is greater than 40km/h.\n",
"Critics argue that putting everyday uses out of walking distance of each other leads to an increase in traffic since people have to get in their cars and drive to meet their needs throughout the day. Single-zoning and urban sprawl have also been criticized as making work–family balance more difficult to achieve, as greater distances need to be covered in order to integrate the different life domains.\n",
"Riding bicycles on sidewalks is discouraged since some research shows it to be more dangerous than riding in the street. Some jurisdictions prohibit sidewalk riding except for children. In addition to the risk of cyclist/pedestrian collisions, cyclists face increase risks from collisions with motor vehicles at street crossings and driveways. Riding in the direction opposite to traffic in the adjacent lane is especially risky.\n",
"Pedestrians use the pavement where one is available, otherwise they use the same position on the road as the cyclists: on the cycleway or lane if available, otherwise on the road (but in the latter case pedestrians preferably walk on the left, while cyclists go on the right). Roads and tunnels accessible for cyclists are also accessible for pedestrians. Most pedestrian paths are available to cyclists who dismount and walk the bike.\n",
"Some have claimed that transportation engineers in the US have become too focused on separating cyclists from pedestrians and motorists. According to an Institute of Transportation Engineers Journal piece by Martin Pion, the implementation of bike lanes can limit competent cyclists perceptions of where it is ok to cycle. He also notes some sport cyclists prefer to ride in lane, compared with a parallel path, because it reduces the risk of collision with side turning motorists assuming there is not a strong separation of road users.\n",
"In cities occasionally pedestrian railings (and barriers) are installed at the immediate side of a roads however cyclists have died when crushed against them by motor vehicles. Close \"safety barriers\" to roads have been found to increase the chances of injury to pedestrians for a number of reasons including increasing inattention of drivers and pedestrians. For these reasons some councils in the United Kingdom have removed their pedestrian railings. This was after London's Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea did so and found that the rate of injury to pedestrians decreased three times faster than elsewhere in the city.\n"
] |
why is the taste/smell of licorice so polarizing?
|
This is the same with most bitter foods like coffee and beer. People have an inherent disgust for things bitter and you have to learn that something bitter is good. After you have related the bitter taste of licorice with the sweet taste, or the bitter taste of beer with alcohol you start ignoring the bitter taste in these foods.
|
[
"Miraculin itself does not taste sweet. When taste buds are exposed to miraculin, the protein binds to the sweetness receptors. This causes normally-sour-tasting acidic foods, such as citrus, to be perceived as sweet. The effect lasts up to about an hour.\n",
"It has the unusual property that it either tastes very bitter or is virtually tasteless, depending on the genetic makeup of the taster. The ability to taste PTC is often treated as a dominant genetic trait, although inheritance and expression of this trait are somewhat more complex.\n",
"Allicin is an oily, slightly yellow liquid that gives garlic its unique odor. It is a thioester of sulfenic acid and is also known as allyl thiosulfinate. Its biological activity can be attributed to both its antioxidant activity and its reaction with thiol-containing proteins.\n",
"Some California authorities compare Teroldego to Zinfandel, with its spicy red fruits, and hints of tar, pine, and almond, but few tasters would confuse the two varieties in a blind tasting. Its snappy acidity makes it a versatile food wine.\n",
"-forms of amino acids tend to be tasteless, whereas -forms tend to taste sweet. Spearmint leaves contain the -enantiomer of the chemical carvone or \"R\"-(−)-carvone and caraway seeds contain the -enantiomer or \"S\"-(+)-carvone. These smell are different to most people because our olfactory receptors are chiral.\n",
"People in South East Asia with frequent exposures to durian are able to easily distinguish the sweet-like scent of its ketones and esters from rotten or putrescine odours which are from volatile amines and fatty acids. Some individuals are unable to differentiate these smells and find this fruit noxious, whereas others find it pleasant and appealing.\n",
"Hexanal, also called hexanaldehyde or caproaldehyde is an alkyl aldehyde used in the flavor industry to produce fruity flavors. Its scent resembles freshly cut grass, like \"cis\"-3-hexenal. It is potentially useful as a natural extract that prevents fruit spoilage. It occurs naturally, and contributes to a hay-like \"off-note\" flavor in green peas. \n"
] |
how does all dna of a fully grown human fit in a baby?
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It's better than that -- all the DNA fits in almost every one of the trillion cells in a human body! How? Because DNA Is written extremely small, using just a tiny molecule (an amino acid) to represent each "letter" of the information. And DNA takes the shape of a long string of such "letters" which is all folded up.
|
[
"Mosaic trisomy 16, a rare chromosomal disorder, is compatible with life, therefore a baby can be born alive. This happens when only some of the cells in the body contain the extra copy of chromosome 16. Some of the consequences include slow growth before birth.\n",
"During conception, the father's sperm cell and the mother's egg cell, each containing half the amount of DNA found in other body cells, meet and fuse to form a fertilized egg, called a zygote. The zygote contains a complete set of DNA molecules, a unique combination of DNA from both parents. This zygote divides and multiplies into an embryo and later, a full human being.\n",
"The DNA found in many cells can be macroscopic in length: a few centimetres long for each human chromosome. Consequently, cells must compact or \"package\" DNA to carry it within them. In eukaryotes this is carried by spool-like proteins named histones, around which DNA winds. It is the further compaction of this DNA-protein complex which produces the well known mitotic eukaryotic chromosomes.\n",
"In the human body at birth, there are over 300 bones, but many of these fuse together during development, leaving a total of 206 separate bones in the adult, not counting numerous small sesamoid bones. The largest bone in the body is the femur or thigh-bone, and the smallest is the stapes in the middle ear.\n",
"It is not possible for a child to be born alive with an extra copy of this chromosome present in all cells (full trisomy 16). It is possible, however, for a child to be born alive with the mosaic form.\n",
"All mammalian cells descended from a fertilized egg (a zygote) share a common DNA sequence (except for new mutations in some lineages). However, during development and formation of different tissues epigenetic factors change. The changes include histone modifications, CpG island methylations and chromatin reorganizations which can cause the stable silencing or activation of particular genes. Once differentiated tissues are formed, CpG island methylation is generally stably inherited from one cell division to the next through the DNA methylation maintenance machinery.\n",
"The inventors realized that the fetus had DNA derived from the father as well as the mother, and that paternal DNA was not native to the mother's blood. So they wanted to focus on genetic fragments containing paternally inherited sequences the mother did not share, but had traveled from the fetal blood into the maternal blood through the placenta. The paternal DNA in the mother's plasma had to have come from the fetus. Then, they could reliably identify fetal DNA, which would in turn allow them to diagnose certain fetal genetic conditions such as Down Syndrome, which can be detected by observing presence of extra chromosomes. The inventors now had a test that did not require amniocentesis, which is invasive and may cause miscarriages. Sequenom became the exclusive licensee of the patent. \n"
] |
If you were to ingest or inject yourself with ATP, would it provide you with energy? Would consuming more act like a sugar rush or an energy drink?
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ATP is fairly large, and it's purine functionality would make it difficult to enter the cell without transport. Outside of the cell it acts as a signalling molecule, which plays a role in regulating heart rate, blood coagulation, and inflammatory/immune response. The metabolic byproducts of ATP degradation are also signalling molecules, and would have their own psysiological effects.
So, in short, not much would make it into your cells as usable energy, and it would likely feel more like getting poisoned than a sugar rush, depending on how much you injected.
See: [This review](_URL_0_) and [this paper](_URL_1_)
|
[
"Breaking one of ATP's phosphorus bonds generates approximately 30.5 kilojoules per Mole of ATP (7.3 kcal). ADP can be converted, or powered back to ATP through the process of releasing the chemical energy available in food; in humans, this is constantly performed via aerobic respiration in the mitochondria. Plants use photosynthetic pathways to convert and store energy from sunlight, also conversion of ADP to ATP. Animals use the energy released in the breakdown of glucose and other molecules to convert ADP to ATP, which can then be used to fuel necessary growth and cell maintenance.\n",
"Adenosine triphosphate, or ATP, acts as a free energy \"currency\" in all living organisms. In a spontaneous dephosphorylation reaction 30.5 kJ/mol is released, which is harnessed to drive cellular reactions. Overall, nonspontaneous reactions coupled to the dephosphorylation of ATP are spontaneous, due to the negative free energy change of the coupled reaction. This is important in driving oxidative phosphorylation. ATP is dephosphorylated to ADP and inorganic phosphate.\n",
"Life depends on an adequate energy charge. If ATP synthesis is momentarily insufficient to maintain an adequate energy charge, AMP can be converted by two different pathways to hypoxanthine and ribose-5P, followed by irreversible oxidation of hypoxanthine to uric acid. This helps to buffer the adenylate energy charge by decreasing the total {ATP+ADP+AMP} concentration.\n",
"Living organisms produce ATP from energy sources via oxidative phosphorylation. The terminal phosphate bonds of ATP are relatively weak compared with the stronger bonds formed when ATP is hydrolyzed (broken down by water) to adenosine diphosphate and inorganic phosphate. Here it is the thermodynamically favorable free energy of hydrolysis that results in energy release; the phosphoanhydride bond between the terminal phosphate group and the rest of the ATP molecule does not itself contain this energy. An organism's stockpile of ATP is used as a battery to store energy in cells. Utilization of chemical energy from such molecular bond rearrangement powers biological processes in every biological organism.\n",
"Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the main \"energy currency\" for organisms; the goal of metabolic and catabolic processes are to synthesize ATP from available starting materials (from the environment), and to break- down ATP (into adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate) by utilizing it in biological processes. In a cell, the ratio of ATP to ADP concentrations is known as the \"energy charge\" of the cell. A cell can use this energy charge to relay information about cellular needs; if there is more ATP than ADP available, the cell can use ATP to do work, but if there is more ADP than ATP available, the cell must synthesize ATP via oxidative phosphorylation.\n",
"In working skeletal muscles and the brain, Phosphocreatine is stored as a readily available high-energy phosphate supply, and the enzyme creatine phosphokinase transfers a phosphate from phosphocreatine to ADP to produce ATP. Then the ATP releases giving chemical energy. This is sometimes erroneously considered to be substrate-level phosphorylation, although it is a transphosphorylation.\n",
"The Aerobic Energy Pathway is the third and slowest ATP producing pathway that is oxygen dependent. This energy pathway typically supplies the bulk of the body's energy during exercise after 3 minutes from the onset of exercise until the end of the exercise or when the individual experiences fatigue. This energy pathway is used for lower intensity exercise that lasts longer than 3 minutes, which corresponds to the rate at which ATP is produced using oxygen. This energy system is essential to endurance athletes such as marathon runners, triathletes, cross-country skiers, etc. The Aerobic Energy Pathway is able to produce the largest amount of ATP out of these three systems. This is largely in part to this energy system's ability to use fats, carbohydrates, and protein in conjunction with its capacity for converting these macro-nutrients into a state capable of entering the mitochondria, the site of aerobic ATP production.\n"
] |
Can we reproduce every wavelength of the electromagnetic spectrum?
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Even if I only have an LED, which emits light at one singular frequency, we can still get any wavelength we want by moving that LED and let the Doppler effect take care of the rest.
|
[
"There is a minimum possible wavelength, given by twice the equilibrium separation \"a\" between atoms. Any wavelength shorter than this can be mapped onto a wavelength longer than 2\"a\", due to the periodicity of the lattice. This can be thought as one consequence of Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem, the lattice points are viewed as the \"sampling points\" of a continuous wave.\n",
"The electromagnetic spectrum extends from below frequencies used for modern radio to gamma radiation at the short-wavelength end, covering wavelengths from thousands of kilometers down to a fraction of the size of an atom. That would be wavelengths from 10 to 10 kilometers. The long wavelength limit is the size of the universe itself, while it is thought that the short wavelength limit is in the vicinity of the Planck length, although in principle the spectrum is infinite and continuous.\n",
"Mechanisms other than atom-photon interaction can produce spectral lines. Depending on the exact physical interaction (with molecules, single particles, etc.), the frequency of the involved photons will vary widely, and lines can be observed across the electromagnetic spectrum, from radio waves to gamma rays.\n",
"Every physical body spontaneously and continuously emits electromagnetic radiation. At low frequencies (i.e. long wavelengths), Planck's law tends to the Rayleigh–Jeans law, while in the limit of high frequencies (i.e. small wavelengths) it tends to the Wien approximation, but there was no overall expression or explanation for the shape of the observed emission spectrum.\n",
"In the UV-C light spectrum (200-280 nm), the wavelength 254 nm has been proven to be the most efficient wavelength to inactivate micro-organisms by damaging the nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), which disrupts the organism's ability to replicate.\n",
"Although the function can be and often is a monochromatic sine wave, it does not have to be sinusoidal, or even periodic. In practice, cannot have infinite periodicity because any real electromagnetic wave must always have a finite extent in time and space. As a result, and based on the theory of Fourier decomposition, a real wave must consist of the superposition of an infinite set of sinusoidal frequencies.\n",
"Pairs of single photons can be generated in highly correlated states from using a single high-energy photon to create two lower-energy ones. One photon from the resulting pair may be detected to 'herald' the other (so its state is pretty well known prior to detection). The two photons need not generally be the same wavelength, but the total energy and resulting polarisation are defined by the generation process.\n"
] |
Is topical Vitaminc C effective for boosting collagen or is the beauty/skincare industry somewhat falsely claiming this?
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Vitamin C can diffuse through the cellular membranes but it's very slow and it has to be from high concentration to low.
Here's some literature about topical Vitamin C :)
_URL_2_
_URL_1_
_URL_0_
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[
"Vitamin C – specifically, in the form of \"ascorbate\" – performs numerous physiological functions in the human body by serving as an enzyme substrate and/or cofactor and an electron donor. These functions include the synthesis of collagen, carnitine, and neurotransmitters; the synthesis and catabolism of tyrosine; and the metabolism of microsome. During biosynthesis, ascorbate acts as a reducing agent, donating electrons and preventing oxidation to keep iron and copper atoms in their reduced states.\n",
"Intravenous Ascorbic Acid (also known as vitamin C or L-ascorbic acid), is a type of therapy that delivers soluble ascorbic acid directly into the bloodstream, either administered via injection or infusion. Intravenous ascorbic acid is used as a dietary supplement for nutritional deficiencies and also, as complementary therapy to cancer treatments. The efficacy of intravenous ascorbic acid as a cancer treatment has been a controversial topic since the emergence of misleading data in the 1970s; however, new research in the 21st century has shown promising potential in oncological therapeutic treatments.\n",
"Vitamin D oral supplementation and skin synthesis have a different effect on the transport form of vitamin D, plasma calcifediol concentrations. Endogenously synthesized vitamin D travels mainly with vitamin D-binding protein (DBP), which slows hepatic delivery of vitamin D and the availability in the plasma. In contrast, orally administered vitamin D produces rapid hepatic delivery of vitamin D and increases plasma calcifediol.\n",
"Under the rubric of orthomolecular medicine, \"Intravenous vitamin C is a contentious adjunctive cancer therapy, widely used in naturopathic and integrative oncology settings.\" With oral administration absorption efficiency decreases as amounts increase. Intravenous administration bypasses this. Doing so makes it possible to achieve plasma concentrations of 5 to 10 millimoles/liter (mmol/L), which far exceed the approximately 0.2 mmol/L limit from oral consumption. The theories of mechanism are contradictory. At high tissue concentrations ascorbic acid is described as acting as a pro-oxidant, generating hydrogen peroxide (HO) to kill tumor cells. The same literature claims that ascorbic acid acts as an antioxidant, thereby reducing the adverse effects of chemotherapy and radiation therapy. Research continues in this field, but a 2014 review concluded: \"Currently, the use of high-dose intravenous vitamin C [as an anticancer agent] cannot be recommended outside of a clinical trial.\" A 2015 review added: \"There is no high-quality evidence to suggest that ascorbate supplementation in cancer patients either enhances the antitumor effects of chemotherapy or reduces its toxicity. Evidence for ascorbate's anti-tumor effects was limited to case reports and observational and uncontrolled studies.\"\n",
"The use of vitamin C in high doses as a treatment for cancer was promoted by Linus Pauling, based on a 1976 study published with Ewan Cameron which reported intravenous vitamin C significantly increased lifespans of patients with advanced cancer. This trial was criticized by the National Cancer Institute for being designed poorly, and three subsequent trials conducted at the Mayo Clinic could not replicate these results. However, the trials at the Mayo Clinic were conducted with oral doses of ascorbate, not IV ascorbate as was done in the original trial. This massive difference in dosage is the most likely reason for the failure of the Mayo Clinic trials to replicate the original trial results.\n",
"Evidence for supplementation with selenium is mixed with some tentative evidence of benefit. There is some evidence that vitamin A supplementation in children reduces mortality and improves growth. For nutritionally compromised pregnant and lactating women, a multivitamin supplementation has improved outcomes for both mothers and children.\n",
"Ergocalciferol may be used as a vitamin D supplement, whereas cholecalciferol (vitamin D) is produced naturally by the skin when exposed to ultraviolet light. Ergocalciferol (D) and cholecalciferol (D) are considered to be equivalent for vitamin D production, as both forms appear to have similar efficacy in ameliorating rickets and reducing the incidence of falls in elderly patients. Conflicting reports exist, however, concerning the relative effectiveness, with some studies suggesting that ergocalciferol has less efficacy based on limitations in absorption, binding, and inactivation. A meta-analysis concluded that evidence usually favors cholecalciferol in raising vitamin D levels in blood, although it stated more research is needed.\n"
] |
Why on earth did Krushchev try to put offensive nuclear missiles in Cuba in the first place?
|
There's a lot to it, but the gambit was that a) the US had put missiles in the USSR's back yard (the Jupiter missiles in Turkey, to say nothing of the [over a dozen](_URL_0_) nuclear deployments that the US ringed the USSR and China with in the late 1950s), and this was both payback and a stimulus to remove them; b) this was also tied up with Khrushchev's feelings on the Berlin crisis, and he thought it would give him leverage there; c) Castro wanted the missiles so that the US would (once again) not try to invade his island, as they had tried to with the Bay of Pigs.
The idea that the US would freak out about this was not obvious. The US leaders themselves acknowledged, privately, that the missiles in Cuba did not in any meaningful way change the balance of military power. The US itself had been engaging in "absurdly reckless" behavior of the same order for several years. The US chose to escalate it to a full crisis; it was not obviously one, and the Kennedy administration could have had many different responses to it than the one they had (which brought them to the brink of war and was only really released because Khrushchev allowed them a way out of it). The Soviets were extremely surprised by the intensity of the US response.
Which is to say: when you look at it from an exclusively American perspective, yes, it looks crazy. But if you look at it from the Soviet perspective, the US reacted in a very dangerous and irrational way to what was, at worst, a tit-for-tat operation.
|
[
"Additionally, placing nuclear missiles on Cuba was a way for the USSR to show their support for Cuba and support the Cuban people who viewed the United States as a threatening force, as the latter had become their ally after the Cuban Revolution of 1959. According to Khrushchev, the Soviet Union's motives were \"aimed at allowing Cuba to live peacefully and develop as its people desire\".\n",
"The months preceding the Cuban Missile Crisis involved a complex deception and denial campaign. The Soviet attempt to position nuclear weapons on the island nation of Cuba in Operation Anadyr in 1962 occurred under a shroud of great secrecy, both to deny the United States information on the deployment of these missiles to the island and to deceive the United States' political leadership, military, and intelligence services about Moscow's intentions in Cuba. The parameters of Anadyr demanded that both medium- and intermediate-range ballistic missiles be deployed to Cuba and operable before their existence was discovered by the United States, and the Soviet General Staff and Soviet Communist Party leaders turned to radical measures to achieve surprise in this manner.\n",
"Operation Anadyr was not only a missile and troop deployment, but also a complex denial and deception campaign. The Soviet attempt to position nuclear weapons in Cuba occurred under a shroud of great secrecy, both to deny the United States information on the deployment of the missiles and to deceive the United States' political leadership, military, and intelligence services on the Soviets' intentions in Cuba. The parameters of Anadyr demanded that both medium- and intermediate-range ballistic missiles be deployed to Cuba and operable before their existence was discovered by the United States, and the Soviet General Staff and political leadership turned to radical measures to achieve this.\n",
"An indirect reason why Khrushchev placed missiles on Cuba would be to try to establish the extent to which the Soviet Union could threaten the United States. Prior to this, there was no clear demarcation of how the United States was willing to react, and with new president John F. Kennedy, it was unknown to the Soviet Union how far they could manipulate the United States. By placing missiles in Cuba, on the U.S.'s doorstep, the extent to which the United States would react would be clear.\n",
"By May, Khrushchev and Castro agreed to place strategic nuclear missiles secretly in Cuba. Like Castro, Khrushchev felt that a US invasion of Cuba was imminent and that to lose Cuba would do great harm to the communists, especially in Latin America. He said he wanted to confront the Americans \"with more than words... the logical answer was missiles\". The Soviets maintained their tight secrecy, writing their plans longhand, which were approved by Marshal of the Soviet Union Rodion Malinovsky on July 4 and Khrushchev on July 7.\n",
"At the time when the Kennedy administration thought that the Cuban Missile Crisis was resolved, nuclear tactical rockets stayed in Cuba since they were not part of the Kennedy-Khrushchev understandings and the Americans did not know about them. The Soviets changed their minds, fearing possible future Cuban militant steps, and on November 22, 1962, Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union Anastas Mikoyan told Castro that the rockets with the nuclear warheads were being removed as well.\n",
"During the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, LeMay clashed again with U.S. President John F. Kennedy and Defense Secretary McNamara, arguing that he should be allowed to bomb nuclear missile sites in Cuba. He opposed the naval blockade and, after the end of the crisis, suggested that Cuba be invaded anyway, even after the Soviets agreed to withdraw their missiles. Kennedy secretly agreed to remove US missiles from Turkey and Italy. Unknown to the US, the Soviet field commanders in Cuba had been given authority to launch nuclear weapons under their control. They had at least 20 nuclear warheads for medium-range R-12 Dvina (NATO Code SS-4 Sandal) ballistic missiles capable of reaching US cities (including Washington DC), each carrying a one megaton warhead (equivalent to 50 Hiroshima bombs), and nine tactical nuclear missiles. A Soviet submarine flotilla in the area commanded by Kapitan (later Vice Admiral) Vasili Arkhipov had nuclear torpedoes. Because a US Navy surface flotilla was harassing the Soviet submarines with small depth charges, both the flagship's captain and its Zampolit, believing that war had started, voted to fire a nuclear torpedo at the flotilla. But Captain Arkhipov, a veteran of the K-19 disaster, voted to wait and see, thus averting World War III. If the Soviet officers on land and at sea had chosen to launch, many millions of US citizens could have been killed. The ensuing SAC retaliatory thermonuclear strike would have killed roughly one hundred million Soviet citizens. Kennedy refused LeMay's requests, and the naval blockade was successful.\n"
] |
What is the smallest possible Goldilocks zone for any star?
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Probably a red/brown dwarf where the goldilocks zone will be close to the star itself, adjusting the mass and temperature of the star so that it's right outside of the Roche limit for a rocky planet.
|
[
"BULLET::::- In astrobiology, the Goldilocks zone refers to the habitable zone around a star: As Stephen Hawking put it, “like Goldilocks, the development of intelligent life requires that planetary temperatures be ‘just right’”. The Rare Earth Hypothesis uses the Goldilocks principle in the argument that a planet must be neither too far away from nor too close to a star and galactic center to support life, while either extreme would result in a planet incapable of supporting life. Such a planet is colloquially called a \"Goldilocks Planet\". Paul Davies has argued for the extension of the principle to cover the selection of our universe from a (postulated) multiverse: “observers arise only in those universes where, like Goldilocks’ porridge, things are by accident ‘just right’”.\n",
"Dismissing both ends, systems with a K-type stars offer the best habitable zones for life. K-type stars allow the formation of planets around them, have a long life expectancy, and provide a stable habitable zone free of the effects of excessive proximity to its star. Furthermore, the radiation produced by a K-type star is high enough to allow complex life without the need for an atmospheric ozone layer. They are also the most stable and their habitable zone does not move very much during its lifetime, so a terrestrial analog located near a K-type star may be habitable for almost all of the main sequence.\n",
"The habitable zone is also called the Goldilocks zone, a metaphor of the children's fairy tale of \"Goldilocks and the Three Bears\", in which a little girl chooses from sets of three items, ignoring the ones that are too extreme (large or small, hot or cold, etc.), and settling on the one in the middle, which is \"just right\".\n",
"Gillellus semicinctus, the half-banded stargazer, is a species of sand stargazer native to the Pacific coast of the Americas from the Gulf of California to Colombia, as well as occurring in the Galapagos Islands. It can be found on sandy substrates at depths of from . It can reach a maximum length of TL.\n",
"K-type main-sequence stars may be candidates for supporting extraterrestrial life. These stars are known as \"Goldilocks stars\" as they emit enough radiation in the non-UV ray spectrum to provide a temperature that allows liquid water to exist on the surface of a planet; they also remain stable in the main phase longer than the Sun, allowing more time for life to form on a planet around a K-type main-sequence star. The planet's habitable zone, ranging from 0.1–0.4 to 0.3–1.3 astronomical units (AU), depending on the size of the star, is often far enough from the star so as not to be tidally locked to the star, and to have a sufficiently low solar flare activity not to be lethal to life. In comparison, red dwarf stars have too much solar activity and quickly tidally lock the planets in their habitable zones, making them less suitable for life. The odds of intelligent life arising may be better on planets around K-type main-sequence stars than around Sun-like stars, given the extra time available for it to evolve. Few planets thus far have been found around K-type main-sequence stars, but those that have are potential candidates for extraterrestrial life.\n",
"Westerlund 2 is an obscured compact young star cluster (perhaps even a super star cluster) in the Milky Way, with an estimated age of about one or two million years. It contains some of the hottest, brightest, and most massive stars known. The cluster resides inside a stellar breeding ground known as Gum 29, located 20,000 light-years away in the constellation Carina. It is half a degree from the naked eye Cepheid variable V399 Carinae.\n",
"The habitable zone for this star, defined as the locations where liquid water could be present on an Earth-sized planet, is at a radius of 0.55–1.16 AU, where 1 AU is the average distance from the Earth to the Sun.\n"
] |
why can't dental crowns be whitened/have something placed over them to make them whiter?
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Crowns are made of non-porous material that is very, very hard. They don't discolor or stain, so it's uncommon for them to need to be whitened. Crowns are matched to your natural teeth colour, so if you plan on bleaching your teeth, you should bleach them prior to the crowns being colour-matched, or let the dentist know about your plans so they can take that into account (none of which helps you now).
You cannot mold something over crowns because that will alter the shape and function of your teeth, which could create a lot of problems, from misaligned bite to sores to crowns breaking or coming off. But mostly things just don't stick to crown material very well. You also probably don't want thick, fake-looking teeth.
You should ask your dentist what colour he selected for the crowns and ask him to double-check that the lab made the crown with the correct colour. If the lab messed up, they should be willing to remake the crowns and your dentist should be willing to put in the correct ones for you.
If everything was ordered correctly, you could look into "clip on" veneers if they're very bothersome. Which is basically temporary veneer, kind of like invisilign but opaque.
Also, be aware that natural teeth aren't super white -- I believe the average natural tooth colour is A3, which is substantially yellowed. Blindingly white teeth are all achieved artificially.
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[
"Preventive and restorative dental care is very important as well as considerations for esthetic issues since the crown are yellow from exposure of dentin due to enamel loss. The main objectives of treatment is pain relief, preserving patient's remaining dentition, and to treat and preserve the patient's occlusal vertical height.\n",
"Discoloration of the front teeth is one of the most common reasons people seek dental care. However, many people with teeth of normal shade ask for them to be whitened. Management of tooth discoloration depends on the cause. Most discoloration is harmless and may or may not be of cosmetic concern to the individual. In other cases it may indicate underlying pathology such as pulp necrosis or rarely a systemic disorder.\n",
"Dental whitening (bleaching) is contraindicated although it has been reported to lighten the color of DI teeth with some success; however, because the discoloration is caused primarily by the underlying yellow-brown dentin, this alone is unlikely to produce normal appearance in cases of significant discoloration.\n",
"A crown, sometimes known as dental cap, is a type of dental restoration which completely caps or encircles a tooth or dental implant. Crowns are often needed when a large cavity threatens the ongoing health of a tooth. They are typically bonded to the tooth using a dental cement. Crowns can be made from many materials, which are usually fabricated using \"indirect methods\". Crowns are often used to improve the strength or appearance of teeth. While inarguably beneficial to dental health, the procedure and materials can be relatively expensive.\n",
"BULLET::::- Persons with visible white fillings or crowns. Tooth whitening does not change the color of fillings and other restorative materials. It does not affect porcelain, other ceramics, or dental gold. However, it can slightly affect restorations made with composite materials, cements and dental amalgams. Tooth whitening will not restore color of fillings, porcelain, and other ceramics when they become stained by foods, drinks, and smoking, as these products are only effective on natural tooth structure. As such, a shade mismatch may be created as the natural tooth surfaces increase in whiteness and the restorations stay the same shade. Whitening agents do not work where bonding has been used and neither is it effective on tooth-colored filling materials. Other options to deal with such cases are the porcelain veneers or dental bonding.\n",
"Aesthetics is another reason for the removal of enamel. Removing enamel is necessary when placing crowns and veneers to enhance the appearance of teeth. In both of these instances, when unsupported by underlying dentin, that portion of the enamel is more vulnerable to fracture.\n",
"In most cases, full-coverage crowns or veneers (composite/porcelain) are needed for aesthetic appearance, as well as to prevent further attrition. Another treatment option is bonding, putting lighter enamel on the weakened enamel of the teeth and with lots of treatments of this bonding, the teeth appear whiter to the eye, but the teeth on the inside and under that cover are still the same. Due to the weakened condition of the teeth, many common cosmetic procedures such as braces and bridges are inappropriate for patients with Dentinogenesis imperfecta and are likely to cause even more damage than the situation they were intended to correct.\n"
] |
What's myth and what's truth about the legend of Rasputin?
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* /u/kieslowskifan has a fantastic post on the [creation of the Rasputin mythology](_URL_0_) out of contemporary Russian court gossip and post-Revolution anti-Romanov polemic. It addresses the "power" aspects of the legend
* /u/carlton_the_doorman addresses the rumors specifically connected to [Rasputin's assassination](_URL_2_) using Edvard Razinsky's *The Rasputin File*, a fascinating book based on the massive reports from early Soviet/Revolution interrogations of czarist political figures. One thing to note here is that he acquired some of his sources privately through an auction house, leaving a fragment of a question about reliability--[here's a review](_URL_1_) from a Russian history professor addressing that issue which is nevertheless overall positive.
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[
"BULLET::::- In the 2003 novel \"The Romanov Prophecy\" by Steve Berry, Rasputin is depicted as a mysterious and prophetic figure who predicts his own demise, as well as that of the Russian Empire, but then a return of the Romanovs to power. The first two of those prophecies are based on an actual letter that the historical Rasputin wrote.\n",
"Rasputin, the Mad Monk is a 1966 Hammer film directed by Don Sharp and starring Christopher Lee as Grigori Rasputin, the Russian peasant-mystic who gained great influence with the Tsars prior to the Russian Revolution. It also features Barbara Shelley, Francis Matthews, Suzan Farmer, Richard Pasco, Dinsdale Landen and Renée Asherson. The story is largely fictionalized, although some of the events leading up to Rasputin's assassination are very loosely based on Prince Yusupov's account of the story. For legal reasons, the character of Yusupov was replaced by Ivan (Matthews). Yusupov was still alive when the film was released, dying on 27 September 1967.\n",
"\"Prithviraj Raso\", a legendary text patronized largely by the Rajput courts, portrays Prithviraj as a great hero. Prithviraj's dynasty was classified as one of the Rajput clans in the later period, including in \"Prithviraj Raso\", although the \"Rajput\" identity did not exist during his time.\n",
"\"Prithviraj Raso\" is the earliest source that includes four different Rajput dynasties (not just the Paramaras) in this legend. Scholars such as Dasharatha Sharma and C. V. Vaidya, who analyzed the earliest available copies of \"Prithviraj Raso\", concluded that its original recension did not contain this legend at all. The earliest extant copy of \"Prithviraj Raso\", dated to 15th century, contains only one sentence regarding the origin of Chauhan dynasty: it states that Manikya Rai was the first valiant Chauhan, and he was born from Brahma's sacrifice. R. B. Singh believes that the 16th century poets came up with the legend to foster Rajput unity against the Mughal emperor Akbar.\n",
"Since the 16th century, the Rajput rulers patronized \"Prithviraj Raso\" for its elements of heroic exploits, romance and revenge. Because of this, it became the most popular biography of Prithviraj among the Rajputs. James Tod, who introduced the text to the Western scholarship, characterised it as an authentic historical source but is today considered himself not to be reliable. As a result of James Tod's writings, \"Prithviraj Raso\" overshadowed other legendary texts about Prithviraj Chauhan (such as the \"Alha Khand\" and \"Prithviraja Vijaya\"). From 1900 onwards, several Hindi-language narratives based on Prithviraj Raso were published.\n",
"Historians often suggest that Rasputin's terrible reputation helped discredit the tsarist government, and thus helped precipitate the overthrow of the Romanov dynasty, which happened a few weeks after he was assassinated. Accounts of his life and influence were often been based on hearsay and rumor.\n",
"Rasputin (French: La Tragédie impériale) is a 1938 French historical film directed by Marcel L'Herbier and starring Harry Baur, Marcelle Chantal and Pierre Richard-Willm. It depicts the rise and fall of the Russian mystic Grigori Yefimovich Rasputin, the advisor to the Romanov royal family. The film's sets were designed by the art director Guy de Gastyne.\n"
] |
how do some websites offer free returns on unwanted goods?
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Some of it is about price. Whether that comes from charging the customer more, or getting the goods cheaper. Some websites (such as Amazon) have stipulations about free returns depending on who you purchased from or what good it is, unless you pay for Prime, so it isn't actually free. And of course, there are always stipulations about the condition of the item when returned. For example, a fragrance has to be in the original cellophane. So they may eat the cost of return shipping but they get a sellable good back.
Finally, it's about a commitment to quality and a willingness to stand by their products, even if it costs them a bit. A site selling legitimate goods (as opposed to counterfeits, tampered or with undisclosed flaws or damage) seems, on average, more likely to offer free returns as they have confidence that the buyer will be satisfied with their genuine article and its condition upon arrival.
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[
"Travel bargain websites collect and publish bargain rates by advising consumers where to find them online (sometimes but not always through a direct link). Rather than providing detailed search tools, these sites generally focus on offering advertised specials, such as last-minute sales from travel suppliers eager to deplete unused inventory; therefore, these sites often work best for consumers who are flexible about destinations and other key itinerary components.\n",
"Many retailers will accept returns provided that the customer has a receipt as a proof of purchase, and that certain other conditions, which depend on the retailer's policies, are met. These may include the merchandise being in a certain condition (usually resellable if not defective), no more than a certain amount of time having passed since the purchase, and sometimes that identification be provided (though usually only if a receipt is not provided). In some cases, only exchanges or store credit are offered, again usually only without a receipt, or after an initial refund period has passed. Some retailers charge a restocking fee for non-defective returned merchandise, but typically only if the packaging has been opened.\n",
"Cash back and reward-based websites operate using a marketing model known as affiliate marketing, which is a performance-based marketing tool. Affiliate marketing networks make it possible to track in detail where users come from (which website is referring the customers), what users buy (down to the product) and when. Rewards-based websites track and reconcile this information with their own user database, and pass on a proportion or even all of the commission received to the customer. From the customer's perspective they are getting something back, usually at no extra cost and often with an additional discount or bonus. From the retailer's perspective, the role and costs of marketing are passed on almost entirely to the affiliate. While hundreds of thousands of websites can easily use affiliate programs to advertise products and retailers (from sports blogs, fanzines through to almost any niche website), cash back and rewards-based programs are much fewer in number, because of the need to track, store, and retrieve individual customer information with a high degree of precision.\n",
"On supported e-commerce sites the customer can select to use RePack as the online order's delivery packaging, the user will then receive the goods in RePack's recyclable packaging. This packaging can be returned to RePack by dropping it to a local letter box and then can be reused, on average up to 20 times.\n",
"Users can sell clothing, shoes and handbags in two ways: request a prepaid selling kit or print out a shipping label. Twice processes the items and sends an all-or-nothing offer to the user within days, which users accept or reject. If accepted, Twice offers multiple options for immediate payout including PayPal and Venmo. If rejected, Twice charges $4.95 for return shipping. Items that are not returned are donated or recycled.\n",
"As the name implies, a give-away shop provides goods for free. There are several different models of give-away shop in popular use. One is where goods are free to any shopper; an alternative is that shoppers must provide a product before they can take a product and a third variation is where consumers have the option of taking goods for free or paying any amount that they can afford. For example, Australia's restaurant group Lentil as Anything operates on a pay whatever you feel is right model.\n",
"Another version of this scheme involves purchasing an item from a place of retail with a check, and returning it promptly for a cash refund, followed by depositing that cash into the transactional account. This is more difficult these days, as more places of retail will delay a refund on purchases made by check.\n"
] |
What is the oldest translated book?
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An actual historian can give you a more detailed answer, but you should check out the Wikipedia page on [ancient literature](_URL_1_). The short answer would be the Sumerian texts discovered in Abu Salabikh and the Akkadian legend of Etana. While there are earlier examples of writing that has been translated, these are the first things that can really be called "texts". If you're interested in reading some really old texts check out the [Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature](_URL_0_).
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[
"The translators appear to have otherwise made no first-hand study of ancient manuscript sources, even those that – like the Codex Bezae – would have been readily available to them. In addition to all previous English versions (including, and contrary to their instructions, the \"Rheimish New Testament\" which in their preface they criticized); they made wide and eclectic use of all printed editions in the original languages then available, including the ancient Syriac New Testament printed with an interlinear Latin gloss in the Antwerp Polyglot of 1573. In the preface the translators acknowledge consulting translations and commentaries in Chaldee, Hebrew, Syrian, Greek, Latin, Spanish, French, Italian, and German.\n",
"The work was translated into other languages in ancient time (Latin, Syriac, Armenian). Codex Syriac 1 housed at the National Library of Russia is one of the oldest Syriac manuscripts, dated to the year 462. The first English translation was by Mary Basset, the granddaughter of Sir Thomas More, made between 1544 and 1553; the first version to be printed was by Meredith Hanmer, in 1576.\n",
"The first complete printed translation into English, and the first complete translation into Modern English, was compiled by Myles Coverdale and published in 1535. It was much influenced by Tyndale: Coverdale took Tyndale's New Testament and the published portions of his Old Testament, and translated the remainder of the Old Testament himself from Latin and German versions.\n",
"The earliest vernacular translation is an incomplete Old English prose text from the 11th century, sometimes called the first English novel. The existence of this unique text is unusual, as secular prose fiction from that time is extremely rare. The manuscript copy may only have survived because it was bound into a book together with Archbishop Wulfstan's homilies. Various versions of the tale were later written in most European languages.\n",
"The earliest preserved translation of the Bible into the Mongolian language dates to 1827, but there is a written record of what may perhaps have been a translation existing as early as 1305. Since 1827, numerous other translations have been made.\n",
"For the Old Testament, the translators used a text originating in the editions of the Hebrew Rabbinic Bible by Daniel Bomberg (1524/5), but adjusted this to conform to the Greek LXX or Latin Vulgate in passages to which Christian tradition had attached a Christological interpretation. For example, the Septuagint reading \"They pierced my hands and my feet\" was used in (vs. the Masoretes' reading of the Hebrew \"like lions my hands and feet\"). Otherwise, however, the Authorized Version is closer to the Hebrew tradition than any previous English translation – especially in making use of the rabbinic commentaries, such as Kimhi, in elucidating obscure passages in the Masoretic Text; earlier versions had been more likely to adopt LXX or Vulgate readings in such places. Following the practice of the Geneva Bible, the books of 1 Esdras and 2 Esdras in the medieval Vulgate Old Testament were renamed 'Ezra' and 'Nehemiah'; 3 Esdras and 4 Esdras in the Apocrypha being renamed '1 Esdras' and '2 Esdras'.\n",
"The master text used for translating the Old Testament into English was Kittel's Biblia Hebraica. The Hebrew texts, Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia and Biblia Hebraica Quinta, were used for preparing the latest version of this translation. Other works consulted in preparing the translation include Aramaic Targums, the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Samaritan Torah, the Greek Septuagint, the Latin Vulgate, the Masoretic Text, the Cairo Codex, the Aleppo Codex, Christian David Ginsburg's Hebrew Text, and the Leningrad Codex.\n"
] |
posting for a friend, "so color is just a specific reflection of light, correct? would that mean that a planet under another star (ex. krypton and it's red sun) would have completely different colors?"
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No, not completely. The colour of an object is depending on what light it reflect but our eyes can only see colours within certain wavelengths. That doesn't change on another planet. Certainly a different colour from a light source changes the colour you see from an object but that can be shown on Earth no need to go to another planet. A dark room for photo development for instance is lit normally by red light. That makes the objects seem red because the only wavelengths of visible light is red so only that is getting reflected. If the sun only gave off light in a narrow wavelength then it would change our perception of things.
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[
"Astronomers originally supposed that the entire trans-Neptunian population would show a similar red surface colour, as they were thought to have originated in the same region and subjected to the same physical processes. Specifically, SDOs were expected to have large amounts of surface methane, chemically altered into complex organic molecules by energy from the Sun. This would absorb blue light, creating a reddish hue. Most classical objects display this colour, but scattered objects do not; instead, they present a white or greyish appearance.\n",
"In the infrared panel, the colors reflect what our eyes might see if we could retune them to the invisible, infrared portion of the light spectrum. The hot star is less bright in infrared light than in visible and appears fainter. The warm planet peaks in infrared light, so is shown brighter. Their hues represent relative differences in temperature. Because the star is hotter than the planet, and because hotter objects give off more blue light than red, the star is depicted in blue, and the planet, red.\n",
"In 2008, a team of astrophysicists appeared to have detected and monitored the planet's visible light using polarimetry, which would have been the first such success. This result seemed to be confirmed and refined by the same team in 2011. They found that the planet albedo is significantly larger in blue light than in the red, most probably due to Rayleigh scattering and molecular absorption in the red. The blue color of the planet was subsequently confirmed in 2013, which would have made HD 189733 the first planet to have its overall color determined by two different techniques. These measurements in polarized light have since been disputed by two separate teams using more sensitive polarimeters, with upper limits of the polarimetric signal provided therein.\n",
"BULLET::::- The planet Uranus is colored cyan because of the abundance of methane in its atmosphere. Methane absorbs red light and reflects the blue-green light which allows observers to see it as cyan.\n",
"Real stars are not monochromatic, but emit a range of wavelengths approximating a black body distribution. It is not necessarily true that stars ahead of the observer would show a bluer color. This is because the whole spectral energy distribution is shifted. At the same time that visible light is blueshifted into invisible ultraviolet wavelengths, infrared light is blueshifted into the visible range. Precisely what changes in the colors one sees depends on the physiology of the human eye and on the spectral characteristics of the light sources being observed.\n",
"Human color vision is in fact more complicated than suggested by the explanation above, and in particular the perceived color of an object depends not only on the light it emits, but also on the colors of nearby objects. For example, a blue object close to a red object may appear somewhat greenish; this effect accounts for many apparently green stars.\n",
"BULLET::::- Periodic variable stars that are invisible for most of the time, and that brighten up with a red colour for a short while once per cycle. In Doppler's opinion they are binary stars. Such a star is usually invisible because it emits infrared instead of white light. In the orbit section with the maximal radial speed in the direction of Earth, the observed frequency on Earth is shifted from infrared to visible red.\n"
] |
why is an accounting firm responsible for the academy award envelopes?
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Tabulating vote data, ensuring its accuracy, and security from disclosure are all things that fall under the realm of accounting/auditing.
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[
"Oscar (Oscar Nunez) informs Michael (Steve Carell) that the office must spend a $4300 surplus or lose it in next year's budget. When Michael opens up the floor for suggestions, factions break out and officemates square off against one another in order to get what they want. Oscar suggests that they replace the copier while Pam (Jenna Fischer) suggests they buy new chairs and Toby (Paul Lieberstein) suggests that they get the air quality in the office tested saying that there is radon coming from downstairs and asbestos coming from the ceiling. Jim (John Krasinski) takes Oscar's side, much to Pam's shock, because he started making copies himself since he and Pam started dating (asking Pam to make copies makes him feel awkward) and knows how bad the copier is, while the rest of the employees side with Pam. Pam notices the copier malfunctioning when she uses it, but still wants to replace the chairs. Michael does not choose a side, because he does not want to be the bad guy, so both sides start warming up to him to win him over. Jim and Oscar take Michael out for lunch, while Pam puts on more make-up and starts to hit on Michael.\n",
"In October 2012, Phoenix labeled the Academy Awards \"bullshit\". He later gave an interview apologizing for his earlier comments and acknowledging that the Oscars provide an important platform for many deserving filmmakers. He added more to the topic while on \"Jimmy Kimmel Live\" in 2015, saying that he is uncomfortable receiving accolades for his work in films when he considers the filmmaking process to be a collaborative one.\n",
"According to \"The Hollywood Reporter\", PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) – the accounting firm responsible for tabulating results, preparing the envelopes, and handing them to presenters – creates two sets of envelopes, which are kept on opposite sides of the stage. It is intended that each award has one primary envelope and one backup envelope that remains with one of the PwC Accountants in the wings. Video stills from the broadcast show that Beatty and Dunaway had been given the single remaining still-unopened backup envelope for Actress in a Leading Role as they walked onto the stage.\n",
"While the Oscar is owned by the recipient, it is essentially not on the open market. Michael Todd's grandson tried to sell Todd's Oscar statuette to a movie prop collector in 1989, but the Academy won the legal battle by getting a permanent injunction. Although some Oscar sales transactions have been successful, some buyers have subsequently returned the statuettes to the Academy, which keeps them in its treasury.\n",
"Oscar assigns each of its members to a “Concierge Team” which is made up of a team of three care guides and a registered nurse that handle both traditional customer service questions as well as coordination of clinical care. In an interview with the \"Phoenix Business Journal\" in 2017, Oscar's VP of Customer Care Paul Gazely said that Oscar's concierge model “helps to build a relationship and build trust with our members with their health care needs,” and that the model helps Oscar familiarize itself “with the member’s needs by looking at the entire member’s health history.”\n",
"The Academy's numerous and diverse operations are housed in three facilities in the Los Angeles area: the headquarters building in Beverly Hills, which was constructed specifically for the Academy, and two Centers for Motion Picture Study – one in Beverly Hills, the other in Hollywood – which were existing structures restored and transformed to contain the Academy's Library, Film Archive and other departments and programs.\n",
"The Oscars represent a rare slice of Hollywood where independent film distributors with their moderate and low-budget films can best the major studios and their blockbusters. Because Oscar voters gravitate to serious content that is abundant in indie films, the glossy major-studio films are usually passed over. The awards campaigns involve placed advertising labeled with the subtle “for your consideration”, talent appearances in industry seminars, by-invitation parties, soliciting press coverage, screenings of films in theaters, online or via mailed DVDs, and direct email and print mail marketing messages to voters. The Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences that confers the Oscars also sets rules limiting overt campaigning by its members, which the movie industry generally complies with.\n"
] |
Just how successful or influential was the global protest movement in shaping the course of the Vietnam War?
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Have you read Todd Gitlin's [The Whole World is Watching: Mass Media in the Making & Unmaking of the New Left](_URL_0_) (1980)? Gitlin is now an academic, but during 1963-4, he used to be the head of the SDS, the main student activist organization in the US, and was involved heavily with the anti-war movement. He wrote in detail about how the media skewed the protest movement in order to contain and control its impact. Rather than the protest movement itself, Gitlin actually credits the mass media and its distortion of the Tet Offensive with turning the national tide against the war, with implications for policy makers in Washington. He argues that the anti-war movement was heavily instrumentalized by the media in order to justify their headlines. In any case, it's worth a read, and it also points to a number of follow-up sources on the political impact of Tet, although they're a bit dated by now.
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[
"High-profile opposition to the Vietnam war turned to street protests in an effort to turn U.S. political opinion against the war. The protests gained momentum from the Civil Rights Movement that had organized to oppose segregation laws, which had laid a foundation of theory and infrastructure on which the anti-war movement grew. Protests were fueled by a growing network of independently published newspapers (known as \"underground papers\") and the timely advent of large venue rock'n'roll festivals such as Woodstock and Grateful Dead shows, attracting younger people in search of generational togetherness. The movement progressed from college campuses to middle-class suburbs, government institutions, and labor unions.\n",
"The Vietnam War, and the protracted national divide between supporters and opponents of the war, were arguably the most important factors contributing to the rise of the larger counterculture movement.\n",
"Political turmoil in the United States during the Vietnam War years of 1965-73 caused tremendous social, intellectual and cultural upheaval which reverberated with particular intensity throughout most of the countries of the Western Hemisphere, including Poland. The impact of the counterculture and the musical influence of the Woodstock generation had an immeasurable effect upon an entire generation of young Poles growing up under the restricting yoke of Communism.\n",
"Organized opposition to U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War began slowly and in small numbers in 1964 on various college campuses in the United States and quickly as the war grew deadlier. In 1967 a coalition of antiwar activists formed the National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam which organized several large anti-war demonstrations between the late-1960s and 1972. Counter-cultural songs, organizations, plays and other literary works encouraged a spirit of nonconformism, peace, and anti-establishmentarianism. This anti-war sentiment developed during a time of unprecedented student activism and right on the heels of the Civil Rights Movement, and was reinforced in numbers by the demographically significant baby boomers. It quickly grew to include a wide and varied cross-section of Americans from all walks of life. The anti-Vietnam war movement is often considered to have been a major factor affecting America's involvement in the war itself. Many Vietnam veterans, including the former Secretary of State and former U.S. Senator John Kerry and disabled veteran Ron Kovic, spoke out against the Vietnam War on their return to the United States.\n",
"In the years after the end of the Vietnam War, protest in the US came to assume more legalistic, orderly forms, and was increasingly dominated by the middle-class. This corresponded with the rise of a highly effective police strategy of crowd control called \"negotiated management.\" Many social scientists have noted the \"institutionalization of movements\" in this period. These currents largely constrained disruptive protest until 1999. In an unprecedented success for post-Vietnam era civil disobedience, the WTO Ministerial Conference opening ceremonies were shut down completely, host city Seattle declared a state of emergency for nearly a week, multilateral trade negotiations between the wealthy and developing nations collapsed, and all of this was done without fatalities. This occurred in the midst of mass rioting which had been set off by militant anarchists, some of them in a black bloc formation.\n",
"High-profile opposition to the Vietnam War increasingly turned to mass protests in an effort to shift U.S. public opinion. Riots broke out at the 1968 Democratic National Convention during protests against the war. After news reports of American military abuses, such as the 1968 My Lai Massacre, brought new attention and support to the anti-war movement, some veterans joined Vietnam Veterans Against the War. On 15 October 1969, the Vietnam Moratorium attracted millions of Americans. The fatal shooting of four students at Kent State University in 1970 led to nationwide university protests. Anti-war protests declined with the final withdrawal of troops after the Paris Peace Accords in 1973.\n",
"During the 1960s America was involved in the Vietnam War. This war was a controversial one because many people were against the United States' involvement in South Vietnam. Adding to the tension of the Americans against the war was the emergence of a generation of people who were a part of the counter-culture and believed that they should do anything possible to go against the establishment. When Central Park was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1965, this counter-culture generation decided that the park would be the perfect host for their demonstrations.\n"
] |
When in high school I remember somebody telling me the fire us made of a different sate of matter (different being not solid, liquid or gas) called plasma. Is there any truth to this statement and if so what exactly is plasma?
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> Is there any truth to this statement and if so what exactly is plasma?
Absolutely it is true!
The standard response is that plasmas are the fourth state of matter, just like you can heat a solid into a liquid and a liquid into a gas you can heat a gas into a plasma. The transition happens because individual atoms receive enough energy to ionize, ie one (or more) of their bound electrons are stripped off. You are left with a gas made up of positively charged ions and negatively charged electrons.
In a flame this happens because it is high temperature. Hot electrons collide with atoms and cause them to become ionized.
The definition actually extends broader since things like an electron+positron gas is a plasma or a collection charged dust particles with electrons is a plasma. The exact transition from gas- > plasma is also slightly blurry since we would consider things like the photosphere of the Sun (at ~6000K) to be a plasma despite it only being something like 1 part in 10^4-5 ionized. This is also the case in your flame where the gas will only be weakly ionized. However, [if you put a flame in an electric field you can easily tell it is a plasma!](_URL_0_)
Other examples of plasmas in your life are: plasma tvs and (there is a tiny plasma inside every pixel!) flourescent tube lights. Also almost everything these days has been made with plasmas at some point. All electronic chips are manufactured using plasma etching and deposition along with coatings on any number of objects...mirrors, phone screens, plastics, chrome on cars...etc.
This is how we really hone in on what makes a plasma. Plasma behaviour shares some broad similarities with a gas but due to the electric charge of the composite species it ends up very different. The reason why is simply because gasses interact mostly by short range forces during binary collisions, whereas plasmas interact via long range electromagnetic forces.
These electromagnetic forces give rise to a set of collective behaviours that are unique to plasmas, the range of these behaviours is vast. The most useful (in my opinion) definition of a plasma is that it is a gas where there are a sufficiently large fraction of charged particles to enter a regime where the collective electromagnetic response is more important than the binary collisions of a gas. This is a characteristic of all the examples of plasmas I gave before.
I could probably write several more pages on what a plasma is (and I did when I wrote my PhD thesis) but I'll stop here before every single person has stopped reading.
edit:clarity
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[
"Plasma is any gas whose atoms or molecules have been ionized, and is a separate phase of matter. This is most commonly achieved by heating the gas to extremely high temperatures, although other methods exist. Plasma becomes increasingly viscous at higher temperatures, to the point where other matter has trouble passing through.\n",
"Plasma is often called the \"fourth state of matter\" after solid, liquids and gases, despite plasma typically being an ionized gas. It is distinct from these and other lower-energy states of matter. Although it is closely related to the gas phase in that it also has no definite form or volume, it differs in a number of ways, including the following:\n",
"Plasma is a state of matter in which an ionized gaseous substance becomes highly electrically conductive to the point that long-range electric and magnetic fields dominate the behaviour of the matter. The plasma state can be contrasted with the other states: solid, liquid, and gas.\n",
"Plasma is often called the \"fourth state of matter\" after solid, liquids and gases. It is distinct from these and other lower-energy states of matter. Although it is closely related to the gas phase in that it also has no definite form or volume, it differs in a number of ways, including the following:\n",
"Plasma () is one of the four fundamental states of matter, and was first described by chemist Irving Langmuir in the 1920s. It consists of a gas of ions, atoms which have some of their orbital electrons removed, and free electrons. Plasma can be artificially generated by heating or subjecting a neutral gas to a strong electromagnetic field to the point where an ionized gaseous substance becomes increasingly electrically conductive, and long-range electromagnetic fields dominate the behaviour of the matter.\n",
"The word \"plasma\" comes or 'jelly', and describes the behaviour of the ionized atomic nuclei and the electrons within the surrounding region of the plasma. Very simply, each of these nuclei are suspended in a movable sea of electrons. Plasma was first identified in a Crookes tube, and so described by Sir William Crookes in 1879 (he called it \"radiant matter\"). The nature of this \"cathode ray\" matter was subsequently identified by British physicist Sir J.J. Thomson in 1897.\n",
"Plasma consists of a mixture of electrons, ions, radicals, neutrals and photons. Some of these species are in local thermodynamic equilibrium, while others are not. Even for simple gases like argon this mixture can be complex. For plasmas of organic monomers, the complexity can rapidly increase as some components of the plasma fragment, while others interact and form larger species. Glow discharge is a technique in polymerization which forms free electrons which gain energy from an electric field, and then lose energy through collisions with neutral molecules in the gas phase. This leads to many chemically reactive species, which then lead to a plasma polymerization reaction. The electric discharge process for plasma polymerization is the “low-temperature plasma” method, because higher temperatures cause degradation. These plasmas are formed by a direct current, alternating current or radio frequency generator.\n"
] |
Why does damped oscillation depend on velocity?
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Friction forces are not typically considered damping. You are confusing energy dissipation (which can come from anything, including friction) with damping. Damping is a type of energy dissipation, as is friction. But damping is a specific type of energy dissipation, specifucally given to energy dissipation proportional to velocity.
Damping also fits in to our differential equation models extremely nicely since it is dependent on velocity, another state that we can calculate with our existing differential equations. Friction does not fit differential equations very well; as energy dissipation due to friction is nonlinear in nature (either on or off, no middle ground). As such, friction is always modeled as an external force instead of a damping force.
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[
"In real oscillators, friction, or damping, slows the motion of the system. Due to frictional force, the velocity decreases in proportion to the acting frictional force. While in a simple undriven harmonic oscillator the only force acting on the mass is the restoring force, in a damped harmonic oscillator there is in addition a frictional force which is always in a direction to oppose the motion. In many vibrating systems the frictional force \"F\" can be modeled as being proportional to the velocity \"v\" of the object: , where \"c\" is called the \"viscous damping coefficient\".\n",
"Damped harmonic motion happens because the spring is not very efficient at storing and releasing energy so that the energy dies out. The damping force is proportional to the velocity of the object and is at the opposite direction of the motion so that the object slows down quickly. Specifically, When an object is damping, the damping force will relate to velocity with a coefficient c. The equation is \"F=-cv\".\n",
"Damped harmonic motion is a real oscillation, in which an object is hanging on a spring. Because of the existence of internal friction and air resistance, the system will over time experience a decrease in amplitude. The decrease of amplitude is due to the fact that the energy goes into thermal energy.\n",
"This velocity saturation phenomenon results from a process called \"optical phonon scattering\". At high fields, carriers are accelerated enough to gain sufficient kinetic energy between collisions to emit an optical phonon, and they do so very quickly, before being accelerated once again. The velocity that the electron reaches before emitting a phonon is:\n",
"The undulations form a standing wave pattern, relative to the undular bore front. So, the phase velocity (propagation velocity relative to still water) of the undulations is just high enough to keep the undulations stationary relative to the bore front. Now, in water waves, the group velocity (which is also the energy-transport velocity) is less than the phase velocity. Therefore, on average, wave energy of the undulations is transported away from the front, and contributing to the energy loss in the region of the front.\n",
"When a \"viscous\" damper is added to the model this outputs a force that is proportional to the velocity of the mass. The damping is called viscous because it models the effects of a fluid within an object. The proportionality constant \"c\" is called the damping coefficient and has units of Force over velocity (lbf⋅s/in or N⋅s/m).\n",
"The velocity and acceleration of a simple harmonic oscillator oscillate with the same frequency as the position, but with shifted phases. The velocity is maximal for zero displacement, while the acceleration is in the direction opposite to the displacement.\n"
] |
Why are low-pitch sounds generally relaxing while high-pitch sounds are annoying?
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Because the higher the frequency the more waves are hitting your ears (and all the stuff in them) per second and the lower the frequency the less that is.
Say I punch you in the arm at a rate of 4 times per minute, it's not as bad as being punched 400 times per minute. Just pretend the movement of your arm from my punches are like the vibrations of your ear drum!
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[
"BULLET::::5. Blowing more softly lowers the pitch; blowing harder raises it. Breath force can change the pitch by three semitones. This is why ocarinas generally have no tuning mechanism or dynamic range, and why it is hard to learn to play one in tune.\n",
"The difference in pitch of the sounds arises because the different striking techniques selectively emphasize specific vibrational modes of the drum head. A tone emphasizes the (0,1) mode while suppressing the bass (Helmholtz resonance) and higher-order modes as much as possible. A slap emphasizes the (2,1), (0,2), (3,1), (1,2), and (0,3) modes (as well as higher-order modes) while suppressing the Helmholtz resonance and the (0,1) and (1,1) modes. Skilled players can also produce a medium-pitched sound (between a tone and slap) that is variously called \"third slap\", \"tonpalo\", or \"lé\"; this sound emphasizes the (1,1) mode while suppressing all other modes as much as possible.\n",
"Since the pitch of the low tone remains more-or-less constant at the lower end of the speaker's vocal range, while the other tones shift downward, the difference in their pitches narrows, eventually obscuring the tones altogether. At this point pitch reset is required if the tone system is to continue functioning.\n",
"Sound effects emphasize the interactions between objects in the game. Having weak or quiet sound effects can lead to the game objects feeling weak and less impactful. If the sounds themselves are low quality, it can be especially distracting to the player. Good game feel requires appropriate, impactful, and pleasing (non-repetitive) sound effects.\n",
"The sound is perceived as louder than it actually is; sound designer Gary Rydstrom explains that, \"from a technical standpoint, 'Deep Note' just feels loud because it has a spectrum of frequencies that grows from small to large.\"\n",
"Whenever two different pitches are played at the same time, their sound waves interact with each other – the highs and lows in the air pressure reinforce each other to produce a different sound wave. Any repeating sound wave that is not a sine wave can be modeled by many different sine waves of the appropriate frequencies and amplitudes (a frequency spectrum). In humans the hearing apparatus (composed of the ears and brain) can usually isolate these tones and hear them distinctly. When two or more tones are played at once, a variation of air pressure at the ear \"contains\" the pitches of each, and the ear and/or brain isolate and decode them into distinct tones.\n",
"In a 2011 study, musicologists Michael Oehler and Christoph Reuter hypothesize that the unpleasantness of the sound is caused by acoustic resonance due to the shape of the human ear canal which amplifies certain frequencies, especially those in the range of 2000 to 4000 Hz (the median pitches mentioned above), at such a level that the sound would trigger pain in human ears.\n"
] |
why is a viral disease, cat leukemia, named as a cancer type?
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This virus causes the cats to get this type of cancer.
Just like some strains of HPV result in cervical/penile (and throat) cancer in humans, some viruses will integrate into the genome of some of your cells and cause them to turn cancerous.
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[
"A lymphoma is a type of cancer arising from lymphoid cells. In AIDS, the incidences of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, primary cerebral lymphoma and Hodgkin's disease are all increased. There are three different varieties of AIDS-related lymphoma: Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, B-cell immunoblastic lymphoma, and Burkitt's lymphoma (small non-cleaved cell lymphoma).\n",
"It now refers to any virus with a DNA or RNA genome causing cancer and is synonymous with \"tumor virus\" or \"cancer virus\". The vast majority of human and animal viruses do not cause cancer, probably because of longstanding co-evolution between the virus and its host. Oncoviruses have been important not only in epidemiology, but also in investigations of cell cycle control mechanisms such as the retinoblastoma protein.\n",
"Viruses are an established cause of cancer in humans and other species. Viral cancers occur only in a minority of infected persons (or animals). Cancer viruses come from a range of virus families, including both RNA and DNA viruses, and so there is no single type of \"oncovirus\" (an obsolete term originally used for acutely transforming retroviruses). The development of cancer is determined by a variety of factors such as host immunity and mutations in the host. Viruses accepted to cause human cancers include some genotypes of human papillomavirus, hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus, Epstein–Barr virus, Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus and human T-lymphotropic virus. The most recently discovered human cancer virus is a polyomavirus (Merkel cell polyomavirus) that causes most cases of a rare form of skin cancer called Merkel cell carcinoma.\n",
"It is an unrare form of cancer that originates in the lymph system and causes the destructive effects in the immune system. There are two types of lymphoma, Hodgkin’s lymphoma and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. Both types of lymphomas form from a white blood cell or lymphocyte. Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma is the more common of the two cancers. The only way to tell these two forms of lymphoma apart is to perform a biopsy in order to get a microscopic view of the cancer cells. Hodgkin’s lymphoma involves the abnormal growth of undifferentiated lymphocytes, while non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma involves differentiated immune cells like B cells and T cells for example. Lutzner cells are involved with non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma.\n",
"Lymphomas are types of cancer that develop from lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell. Risk factors include poor immune function, autoimmune diseases, \"Helicobacter pylori\" infection, hepatitis C, obesity and Epstein-Barr virus infection. The World Health Organization (WHO) classifies lymphomas into five major groups, including one for Hodgkin's lymphoma. Within the four groups for NHL, there are over 60 specific types of lymphoma. Diagnosis is by examination of a bone marrow or lymph node biopsy. Medical imaging is done to help with cancer staging.\n",
"Lymphomas in the strict sense are any neoplasms of the lymphatic tissues (\"lympho-\" + \"-oma\"). The main classes are malignant neoplasms (that is, cancers) of the lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell that belongs to both the lymph and the blood and pervades both. Thus, lymphomas and leukemias are both tumors of the hematopoietic and lymphoid tissues, and as lymphoproliferative disorders, lymphomas and lymphoid leukemias are closely related, to the point that some of them are unitary disease entities that can be called by either name (for example adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma).\n",
"Lymphoma (lymposarcoma) in animals is a type of cancer defined by a proliferation of malignant lymphocytes within solid organs such as the lymph nodes, bone marrow, liver and spleen. The disease also may occur in the eye, skin, and gastrointestinal tract.\n"
] |
Is it true that Germans didn't actually use the term Blitzkrieg themselves?
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It’s true the term “Blitzkrieg” does not come up often in German plans, old memoirs, or communiques. It’s closest word or phrase that the Germans/Prussians may have used more often was Bewegungkrieg or maneuver warfare. The term Blitzkrieg however pops up more post-war to describe the tactics of their Wehrmacht during the WW2. But to be honest the Prussians and later Germans have been practicing these kind of tactics for years and the end result was this form of warfare during WW2.
The reason Blitzkrieg is so prevalent when talking about the Germans is because it’s a buzzword that most people recognize and can understand automatically.
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[
"Despite being common in German and English-language journalism during World War II, the word was never used by the Wehrmacht as an official military term, except for propaganda. According to David Reynolds, \"Hitler himself called the term Blitzkrieg 'A completely idiotic word' (ein ganz blödsinniges Wort)\". Some senior officers, including Kurt Student, Franz Halder and Johann Adolf von Kielmansegg, even disputed the idea that it was a military concept. Kielmansegg asserted that what many regarded as blitzkrieg was nothing more than \"ad hoc solutions that simply popped out of the prevailing situation\". Student described it as ideas that \"naturally emerged from the existing circumstances\" as a response to operational challenges. The Wehrmacht never officially adopted it as a concept or doctrine.\n",
"The origin of the term \"blitzkrieg\" is obscure. It was never used in the title of a military doctrine or handbook of the German army or air force, and no \"coherent doctrine\" or \"unifying concept of blitzkrieg\" existed. The term seems rarely to have been used in the German military press before 1939 and recent research at the German \"Militärgeschichtliches Forschungsamt\" at Potsdam found it in only two military articles from the 1930s. Both used the term to mean a swift strategic knock-out, rather than a radical new military doctrine or approach to war. The first article (1935) deals primarily with supplies of food and materiel in wartime. The term \"blitzkrieg\" is used with reference to German efforts to win a quick victory in the First World War but is not associated with the use of armoured, mechanised or air forces. It argued that Germany must develop self-sufficiency in food, because it might again prove impossible to deal a swift knock-out to its enemies, leading to a long war. In the second article (1938), launching a swift strategic knock-out is described as an attractive idea for Germany but difficult to achieve on land under modern conditions (especially against systems of fortification like the Maginot Line), unless an exceptionally high degree of surprise could be achieved. The author vaguely suggests that a massive strategic air attack might hold out better prospects but the topic is not explored in detail. A third relatively early use of the term in German occurs in \"Die Deutsche Kriegsstärke\" (German War Strength) by Fritz Sternberg, a Jewish, Marxist, political economist and refugee from the Third Reich, published in 1938 in Paris and in London as \"Germany and a Lightning War\". Sternberg wrote that Germany was not prepared economically for a long war but might win a quick war (\"\"Blitzkrieg\"\"). He did not go into detail about tactics or suggest that the German armed forces had evolved a radically new operational method. His book offers scant clues as to how German lightning victories might be won.\n",
"The term \"\"Blitzkrieg\"\" is seen as an anomaly, since there was no explicit reference to such strategy, operations or tactics in German battle plans. There is no evidence in German strategic, military or industrial preparations implying the existence of a thought-out \"\"Blitzkrieg\"\" tendency. Evidence suggests that in 1939 and 1940 the German \"Reich\" was preparing the war economy for a war of attrition, not a quick war of manoeuvre, although there was no total economic mobilisation for the war. Hitler's miscalculations in 1939 forced him into war before the war economy was ready and under these circumstances, the German General Staff reverted \"Vernichtungsgedanke\", attempting to win a war quickly, with swift attacks on the flanks and rear of opposing armies, leading to their destruction before the economic and material superiority of the Allies became overwhelming. It was only after the defeat of France in 1940, that the German military intentionally pursued a \"\"Blitzkrieg\"\"-kind of warfare to achieve its ambitions in Europe. In 2005, Karl-Heinz Frieser echoed Matthew Cooper in 1978, who had called \"\"Blitzkrieg\"\" a myth and that it was the weakness of German enemies not the strength of the German army, which had led to the devastating German victories early in the war. Frieser wrote:\n",
"The strategy, operational methods and tactics of the German Army and \"Luftwaffe\" have often been labelled \"\"Blitzkrieg\"\" (Lightning War). The concept is controversial and is connected to the problem of the nature and origin of \"\"Blitzkrieg\"\" operations, of which the 1940 campaign is often described as a classic example. An essential element of \"\"Blitzkrieg\"\" was considered to be a strategic, or series of operational developments, executed by mechanised forces to cause the collapse of the defenders' armed forces. \"\"Blitzkrieg\"\" has also been looked on as a revolutionary form of warfare but its novelty and its existence have been disputed. Rapid and decisive victories had been pursued by armies well before the Second World War. In the German wars of unification and First World War campaigns, the German General Staff had attempted \"Bewegungskrieg\" (war of manoeuvre), similar to the modern perception of \"\"Blitzkrieg\"\", with varying degrees of success. During the First World War, these methods had achieved tactical success but operational exploitation was slow as armies had to march beyond railheads. The use of tanks, aircraft, motorised infantry and artillery, enabled the Germans to attempt \"Bewegungskrieg\" with a faster tempo in 1940, than that of the slow-moving armies of 1914. The internal combustion engine and radio communication solved the problem of operational-level exploitation.\n",
"In 2005, the historian Karl-Heinz Frieser summarized blitzkrieg as the result of German commanders using the latest technology in the most beneficial way according to traditional military principles and employing \"the right units in the right place at the right time\". Modern historians now understand blitzkrieg as the combination of the traditional German military principles, methods and doctrines of the 19th century with the military technology of the interwar period. Modern historians use the term casually as a generic description for the style of manoeuvre warfare practised by Germany during the early part of World War II, rather than as an explanation. According to Frieser, in the context of the thinking of Heinz Guderian on mobile combined arms formations, blitzkrieg can be used as a synonym for modern manoeuvre warfare on the operational level.\n",
"Other historians wrote that blitzkrieg was an operational doctrine of the German armed forces and a strategic concept on which the leadership of the \"Third Reich\" based its strategic and economic planning. Military planners and bureaucrats in the war economy appear rarely, if ever, to have employed the term \"blitzkrieg\" in official documents. That the German army had a \"blitzkrieg doctrine\" was rejected in the late 1970s by Matthew Cooper. The concept of a blitzkrieg \"Luftwaffe\" was challenged by Richard Overy in the late 1970s and by Williamson Murray in the mid-1980s. That the \"Third Reich\" went to war on the basis of \"blitzkrieg economics\" was criticised by Richard Overy in the 1980s and George Raudzens described the contradictory senses in which historians have used the word. The notion of a German blitzkrieg concept or doctrine survives in popular history and many historians still support the thesis.\n",
"Despite the term \"blitzkrieg\" being coined by journalists during the Invasion of Poland of 1939, historians Matthew Cooper and J. P. Harris have written that German operations during it were consistent with traditional methods. The Wehrmacht strategy was more in line with \"Vernichtungsgedanken\" a focus on envelopment to create pockets in broad-front annihilation. Panzer forces were dispersed among the three German concentrations with little emphasis on independent use, being used to create or destroy close pockets of Polish forces and seize operational-depth terrain in support of the largely un-motorized infantry which followed.\n"
] |
how would we know how much *successful* voting fraud is happening, if by definition successful attempts at fraud go undetected?
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This is a bit like Russel's Teapot--it's very difficult if not impossible to prove that there *isn't* a teapot floating around somewhere between Mars and Earth. It's more useful to focus on the fact there is no evidence to suggest that there *is*.
There are many ways we could detect large-scale in-person voter fraud if it existed. When someone votes, the fact that they voted is recorded. (Unlike in some countries, their ballot is a secret; it's that they showed up to vote that is recorded.) If fraudsters frequently impersonated registered voters, then two things would happen: when that genuine voter comes to the polling place, it will be discovered that someone has already voted in their name. And looking back at the voting records, which are public, we would find that the records reflect more frequent voting than the registered voter claims.
Both events are relatively easy to test. Any loser in an election has an incentive to investigate this, and it would be a scoop for any news organization, and both have the means to do so. Yet we do not find them occurring often, in fact rarely ever.
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[
"Electoral fraud in the country was usually done by manipulating the ballots. However, a new technique has arisen which just involves the manipulating the \"election return\" or \"ER\", which is a summary of the votes in precincts. Evidence exist showing that the 32,000 sets of overprinted ERs of the Commission of Elections could manipulate an election by as much as three million votes. Such number of votes could change a result.\n",
"If a fraud is proven by the judge, it does not cancel necessarily the elections, unless they think that the result of election without the fraud would not have been identical. The survival of the acts already performed by the elected organs would seem solved by abundant case law that protects innocent trust of third parties.\n",
"One of the simplest methods of electoral fraud is to destroy ballots for an opposing candidate or party. While mass destruction of ballots can be difficult to execute without drawing attention, in a very close election, it may be possible to destroy a very small number of ballot papers without detection, thereby changing the overall result. Blatant destruction of ballot papers can render an election invalid and force it to be re-run. If a party can improve its vote on the re-run election, it can benefit from such destruction as long as it is not linked to it.\n",
"Electoral fraud can occur in advance of voting if the composition of the electorate is altered. The legality of this type of manipulation varies across jurisdictions. Deliberate manipulation of election outcomes is widely considered a violation of the principles of democracy.\n",
"In national elections, successful electoral fraud can have the effect of a coup d'état or corruption of democracy. In a narrow election, a small amount of fraud may be enough to change the result. Even if the outcome is not affected, the revelation of fraud can have a damaging effect, if not punished, as it can reduce voters' confidence in democracy.\n",
"There is no empirical evidence that voter fraud occurs often enough to have any plausible impact on elections. One study, commonly cited by President Trump and other Republicans, purported to show that non-citizens vote in large numbers in the United States, but the findings of the study were later shown to be driven by measurement error and have been comprehensively rebutted. The authors of the study have conceded that measurement error \"may have biased our numbers\", and have also rebuked President Trump for claiming that millions voted illegally in 2016.\n",
"Several statisticians have attempted to determine whether the results (or some of the results) are significantly different from what is expected. This approach considers whether the election results can be modeled accurately; if not, this could indicate widespread fraud (though it could also indicate an inadequate model). Alternatively, it looks for specific results which do not fit the model; if found, these outliers could indicate fraud in those results (though they could also indicate deviation from the model for non-fraudulent reasons). Some statisticians have also argued for caution in examining claims of fraud based purely on statistical analysis of the results. While statistical analysis may indicate something unusual, in many cases this must be taken as an impetus for further investigation rather than conclusive evidence in and of itself.\n"
] |
why do i get automated phone calls that promptly hang up?
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I believe they're called 'robocalls' and they're done to see if your number is a live line, in which case your number is sold to spammers
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[
"Mobile phone services are prepaid. A person finding himself with inadequate prepaid time to make a call will ring up the intended recipient of the call and hang up immediately. The receiver of the call, hearing the phone ring once and seeing the number, understands himself to have been \"beeped\". Alternatively, it is called being \"flashed\" on account of the brief flashing of the screen. The understood message is \"I wish to talk to you at your expense\".\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Phone Out\" is the name of the service that allows users to make phone calls to landlines and mobile phones, paying with pre-paid credit. \"Phone In\" allows SightSpeed users to receive phone calls from regular telephones.\n",
"In the UK, Ofcom requires that predictive dialers abandon fewer than 3% of answered calls on a daily basis. Ofcom also requires that if an agent is not available within 2 seconds the call is considered \"abandoned\" and an automated message is played. The automated message must identify the company making the call, the purpose of the call, a free phone or basic rate phone number to call back on and must not contain any form of marketing. A phone call to the return number must not be treated by the company as an opportunity to market, but to be removed from the calling list. In the UK \"abandoned\" calls must not be called back within 72 hours unless there is a dedicated agent available. GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation) also requires that the purpose of any call be related to the reason for collecting data in the first place..\n",
"Call waiting is a telecommunication service offered by a telephone service provider to a subscriber by which the subscriber may suspend a telephone call already in progress to accept a second call. The subscriber may switch between calls, typically by using the hook flash signal.\n",
"The implementation of this feature is vendor-specific. In some cases, the ringer just does not ring and the called party is thus not alerted. Usually, though, the phone just acts as being busy. Depending on the infrastructure, the caller may end up on the called party's voice mailbox, sometimes after a certain delay.\n",
"Like a dial tone or busy signal, the SIT is an in-band signal intended both to be heard by the caller, and to be detected by automated dialing equipment to determine a call has failed. In North America, the AT&T/Bellcore SIT standard allows the frequency and duration of the tones to vary slightly - making eight distinct messages specifically for automated equipment; indicating not only a failed call, but also the specific reason for the failure (e.g., disconnected number, busy circuits, dialing error, etc.). The equipment can then make an intelligent choice about what to do next. If the circuits were busy, then calling again later makes sense; if the number was disconnected, then calling again is futile. The eight SIT signals are defined below and accompanied by audio files.\n",
"When you reach a station that is busy or does not answer, press CAMP. When the phone you wish to reach becomes idle, your phone will ring with five short tones. Press ITCM to cause the other phone to ring. \n"
] |
why is the lesbian/gay/transgender community referred to with so many different acronyms, many of which are long and confusing?
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Individuals don't decide these terms. We in the community are just as confused as everyone else sometimes. "Oh, so that's what we're calling ourselves now.... okay"
Any marginalized community has smaller groups in it that are further marginalized by that community and society at large. They get double hate. I know some gay people that have said horrible things about transgender people and bisexuals. There comes a point where the group says, "We shouldn't hate on ourselves". Subgroups start getting more recognized. This leads to new terminology and respect for the subgroup and redefinition/fragmentation of the group name at large. Initially, it causes confusion for everyone. Utimately, it leads to positive visibility, inclusion, and understanding. This what most people want.
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[
"An addendum to the terminology of homosexuality is the seemingly ever-changing acronym, with its roots in the 1980s when female homosexuals began to identify themselves as lesbians instead of gay. This led to references of \"gay and lesbian\" every time homosexuals were discussed in the media. Non-heterosexuals such as bisexual people and those who are transgender have also been classed alongside gay people and lesbians, resulting in the popular LGBT acronym (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender). However, the acronym is not set in stone; it has sometimes appeared as LGBTQ (to include questioning or queer people).\n",
"The names for this field are different in different parts of the world. In the UK, the acronym LGBTQ is widely used. In contrast, in the USA, LGBT is more commonly used. The terms 'lesbian', 'gay', 'bisexual', 'trans' and 'queer' are not used all around the world and definitions vary.\n",
"MSM are not limited to small, self-identified, and visible sub-populations. \"MSM\" and \"gay\" refer to different things: behaviors and social identities. \"MSM\" refers to sexual activities between men, regardless of how they identify, whereas \"gay\" can include those activities but is more broadly seen as a cultural identity. \"Homosexuality\" refers to sexual/romantic attraction between members of the same sex and may or may not include romantic relationships. \"Gay\" is a social identity and is generally the preferred social term, whereas \"homosexual\" is used in formal contexts, though the terms are not entirely interchangeable. Men who are non-heterosexual or questioning may identify with all, none, a combination of these, or one of the newer terms indicating a similar sexual, romantic, and cultural identity like \"bi-curious\".\n",
"' (or ') is an initialism that stands for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender. In use since the 1990s, the term is an adaptation of the initialism , which was used to replace the term \"gay\" in reference to the LGBT community beginning in the mid-to-late 1980s. Activists believed that the term \"gay community\" did not accurately represent all those to whom it referred.\n",
"On the other hand, there are many different styles represented within the gay community. There is much linguistic variation in the gay community, and each subculture appears to have its own distinct features. According to Podesva et al., \"gay culture encompasses reified categories such as leather daddies, clones, drag queens, circuit boys, guppies (gay yuppies), gay prostitutes, and activists both mainstream and radical, as well as more local communities of practice which may not even have names.\" Thus, each of these sub-cultures speaks with a different style than all the other sub-cultures.\n",
"LGBT culture is the common culture shared by lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people. It is sometimes referred to as \"gay culture\" or \"queer culture\", but those terms can also be specific to gay men's culture.\n",
"LGBT culture is a culture shared by lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, questioning, and queer individuals (and may also include less known identities, such as pansexual). It is sometimes referred to as queer culture (indicating people who are queer), while the term gay culture may be used to mean \"LGBT culture\" or to refer specifically to homosexual culture.\n"
] |
why do people lose their senses of hearing and sight, but not their sense of touch, taste, or smell?
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People can also lose their sense of taste and smell...you are just a lot less likely to notice them.
People also can lose there sense of touch over part of their bodies, but there are not a lot of neurological disorders to totally remove touch...at least not without also killing you.
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[
"This interplay of various ways of conceiving the world could be compared to the experience of synesthesia, where stimulus of one sense causes a perception by another, seemingly unrelated sense, as in musicians who can taste the intervals between notes they hear (Beeli \"et al\"., 2005), or artists who can smell colors. Many individuals who have one or more senses restricted or lost develop a sensorium with a ratio of sense which favors those they possess more fully. Frequently the blind or deaf speak of a compensating effect, whereby their sense of touch or smell becomes more acute, changing the way they perceive and reason about the world; especially telling examples are found in the cases of \"wild children\", whose early childhoods were spent in abusive, neglected, or non-human environments, both intensifying and minimizing perceptual abilities (Classen 1991).\n",
"At the sensory level, changes occur to vision, hearing, taste, touch, and smell, and taste. Two common sensory changes that begin in midlife include our ability to see close objects and our ability to hear high pitches. Other developmental changes to vision might include cataracts, glaucoma, and the loss of central visual field with macular degeneration . Hearing also becomes impaired in midlife and aging adults, particularly in men. In the past 30 years, hearing impairment has doubled. Hearing aids as an aid for hearing loss still leave many individuals dissatisfied with their quality of hearing. Olfaction can co-occur with changes in sense of taste. “Olfactory dysfunction can impair quality of life and may be a marker for other deficits and illnesses” and can also lead to decreased satisfaction in taste when eating. Losses to the sense of touch are usually noticed when there is a decline in the ability to detect a vibratory stimulus. The loss in sense of touch can harm a person’s fine motor skills such as writing and using utensils. The ability to feel painful stimuli is usually preserved in aging, but the process of decline for touch is accelerated in those with diabetes.\n",
"Humans begin to lose their senses one at a time. Each loss is preceded by an outburst of an intense feeling or urge. First, people begin suffering uncontrollable bouts of crying and this is soon followed by the loss of their sense of smell. An outbreak of irrational panic and anxiety, closely followed by a bout of frenzied gluttony, precedes the loss of the sense of taste. The film depicts people trying to adapt to each loss and trying to carry on living as best they can, rediscovering their remaining senses as they do so. Michael and his co-workers do their best to cook food for people who cannot smell nor taste.\n",
"Impaired vision and hearing loss are common chronic problems among older people. Hearing problems can lead to social isolation, depression, and dependence as the person can no longer talk to other people, receive information over the telephone, or engage in simple transactions, such as talking to a person at a bank or store. Vision problems lead to falls from tripping over unseen objects, medicine being taken incorrectly because the written instructions could not be read, and finances being mismanaged.\n",
"Humans have undergone an extraordinary loss of olfactory receptor genes during our recent evolution, which explains our relatively crude sense of smell compared to most other mammals. Evolutionary evidence suggests that the emergence of color vision in humans and several other primate species has diminished the need for the sense of smell.\n",
"When a person becomes blind or deaf they generally do not lose the ability to hear or see; they simply lose their ability to transmit the sensory signals from the periphery (retina for visions and cochlea for hearing) to brain. Since the vision processing pathways are still intact, a person who has lost the ability to retrieve data from the retina can still see subjective images by using data gathered from other sensory modalities such as touch or audition.\n",
"When patients are completely deaf in both ears they begin to rely more strongly on their other senses. Because hearing relies on external sound waves, a deaf patient will feel the vibrations, rather than relying on what would normally be perceived as sound. As a patient relies on \"feeling\" sounds rather than hearing them, they subconsciously hear with their sense of touch, therefore reacting to auditory stimuli without actually hearing sound.\n"
] |
If shoot a gun in a car at 10 m/s, and the car is travelling at 5 m/s relative to an outside observer, is the bullet really moving at exactly 15 m/s? Do velocities really transfer fully?
|
For the numbers you mention, the answer is for all intents and purposes yes. But according to special relativity velocities u and v add according to the formula w = (u+v)/(1+uv/c^2) where c is the speed of light. For small u and v this works out to very close to just w = u+v.
|
[
"From Eq. 1 we can write for the velocity of the gun/shooter: V = mv/M. This shows that despite the high velocity of the bullet, the small bullet-mass to shooter-mass ratio results in a low recoil velocity (V) although the force and momentum are equal.\n",
"BULLET::::- formula_11 = parameter calculated from a weighted arithmetic average speed in kilometers per hour theoretically reached by the vehicle at an engine speed of 1000 revolutions per minute in each gearbox ratio}}.\n",
"BULLET::::- GA16DE: 1.6 (1,597 cc) DOHC with a 6,900 rpm redline and at 6,000 rpm, 110 lb.ft at 4,000 rpm, available in 5-speed manual/4-speed automatic; 30/40mpg 5sp. man., 28/37 4sp. auto. Acceleration 0–60 mph in 8.5 seconds for a 95 GXE M/T (Car and Driver 6/95).\n",
"Note: actual velocities are dependent on many factors, such as barrel length of a given firearm and manufacturer of a given batch of ammunition, and will vary widely in practice. The above velocities are typical.\n",
"Since this type of speed gun measures the difference in speed between a target and the gun itself, the gun must be stationary in order to give a correct reading. If a measurement is made from a moving car, it will give the difference in speed between the two vehicles, not the speed of the target relative to the road, so a different system has been designed to work from moving vehicles.\n",
"Depending on the rifle, bullets typically travel between 800 and 1000 m/s (2600 and 3400 feet per second) at the moment they leave the rifle's barrel. The bullet slows down considerably due to friction with the air over a distance. The distance a bullet will travel is determined by its shape, weight, launch velocity and launch angle as with any projectile, the study of which is referred to as external ballistics.\n",
"This table demonstrates that, even with a fairly aerodynamic bullet fired at high velocity, the \"bullet drop\" or change in the point of impact is significant. This change in point of impact has two important implications. Firstly, estimating the distance to the target is critical at longer ranges, because the difference in the point of impact between 400 and is 25–32 in (depending on zero), in other words if the shooter estimates that the target is 400 yd away when it is in fact 500 yd away the shot will impact 25–32 in (635–813 mm) below where it was aimed, possibly missing the target completely. Secondly, the rifle should be zeroed to a distance appropriate to the typical range of targets, because the shooter might have to aim so far above the target to compensate for a large bullet drop that he may lose sight of the target completely (for instance being outside the field of view of a telescopic sight). In the example of the rifle zeroed at , the shooter would have to aim 49 in or more than 4 ft (1.2 m) above the point of impact for a target at 500 yd.\n"
] |
why didn't other european powers shut down hitler as soon as he violated the versailles treaty?
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That would require mobilization of troops and resources that many European powers just didn't have. World War I decimated many European countries in manpower, resources and financially and the Great Depression didn't help any.
Not to mention that many politicians wanted to avoid war because it would have been detrimental to their political career.
|
[
"Alongside this, Hertzog saw France as the main threat to peace in Europe, viewing the Treaty of Versailles as an unjust and vindictive peace treaty, and argued the French were the principal trouble-makers in Europe by seeking to uphold the Versailles treaty. Hertzog argued that if Adolf Hitler had a belligerent foreign policy, it was only because of the Treaty of Versailles was intolerably harsh towards Germany and if the international system was revised to take account of Germany's \"legitimate\" complaints against Versailles, then Hitler would become a moderate and reasonable statesman. When Germany remilitarized the Rhineland in March 1936, Hertzog informed the British government that there was no possibility of South Africa taking part if Britain decided to go to war over the issue, and in the ensuing crisis, South African diplomats took a very pro-German position, arguing that Germany was indeed right to violate the Treaty of Versailles by remilitarizing the Rhineland.\n",
"The Nazis and Germany's professional diplomats shared the goal of destroying the Treaty of Versailles and restoring Germany as a great power. In October 1933, German Foreign Minister Baron Konstantin von Neurath presented a note at the World Disarmament Conference announcing that it was unfair that Germany should remain disarmed by Part V of the Versailles treaty and demanded that the other powers either disarm to Germany's level, or that they abolish Part V and allow Germany \"Gleichberechtigung\" (\"equality of armaments\"). When France rejected Neurath's note, Germany stormed out of the League of Nations and the World Disarmament Conference. It all but announced its intention to unilaterally violate Part V. Consequently, there were several calls in France that autumn for a preventive war to put an end to the Nazi regime while Germany was still more-or-less disarmed.\n",
"The Treaty of Versailles, which ended World War I, sounded the death knell of German power and prestige. Like many Germans of the period, Hitler (who still held Austrian citizenship at the time) believed that the treaty was a betrayal, with the country having been \"stabbed in the back\" by its own government, particularly as the German Army was popularly thought to have been undefeated in the field. Germany, it was felt, had been betrayed by civilian leaders and Marxists, who were later called the \"November Criminals\".\n",
"A final attempt was made at the Geneva Disarmament Conference from 1932–37, chaired by former British Foreign Secretary Arthur Henderson. Germany demanded the revision of the Versailles Treaty and the granting of military parity with the other powers, while France was determined to keep Germany demilitarised for its own security. Meanwhile, the British and Americans were not willing to offer France security commitments in exchange for conciliation with Germany. The talks broke down in 1933, when Adolf Hitler withdrew Germany from the conference.\n",
"Following the Treaty of Versailles, Germany succumbed to a considerably weakened position in pan-European politics, losing its colonial possessions and its military assets, and committed to reparations to the Allied Powers. Upon Adolf Hitler's rise to power in 1933, Germany began a program of industrialization and rearmament. It re-occupied the Rhineland and sought to dominate neighboring countries with significant German populations.\n",
"Hitler believed that the United Kingdom's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany sooner or later. He therefore decided to try to strengthen Germany's relations with the Soviets, or failing that to attack and eliminate them as a factor. In November 1940, negotiations took place to determine if the Soviet Union would join the Tripartite Pact. The Soviets showed some interest, but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union.\n",
"The late 1930s saw a series of violations of the Versailles Treaty by Germany, however, France and Britain refused to act. In 1938, Hitler annexed Austria in an attempt to unite all German-speakers under his rule. Next, he annexed a German-speaking area of Czechoslovakia. Britain and France agreed to recognize his rule over that land and in exchange Hitler agreed not to expand his empire further. In a matter of months, however, Hitler broke the pledge and annexed the rest of Czechoslovakia. Despite this, the British and French chose to do nothing, wanting to avoid war at any cost. Hitler then formed a secret non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union, despite the fact that the Soviet Union was Communist and Germany was Nazi. Also in the 1930s, Italy conquered Ethiopia. The Soviets too began annexing neighboring countries. Japan began taking aggressive actions towards China. After Japan opened itself to trade with the West in the mid-19th century, its leaders learned to take advantage of Western technology and industrialized their country by the end of the century. By the 1930s, Japan's government was under the control of militarists who wanted to establish an empire in the Asia-Pacific region. In 1937, Japan invaded China.\n"
] |
Why did the Germans seemingly abandon their colonial holdings in Asia during WWI?
|
They were un defendable these colonies were right on the doorstep of Australia and New Zealand two British colonies with millions of people compared to the German colonies couple of thousands. If they had tried they would have failed. Any attempt to reinforce would have resulted in the ships sinking by the Royal Navy.if they had attempted to reinforce before the war then they would be blockaded and surrender. The action the Germans took was the only option.
|
[
"Germany lost control of its colonial empire when the First World War began in 1914 and many of its colonies were seized by the Allies during the first weeks of the war. However some colonial military units held out for a while longer: German South West Africa surrendered in 1915, Kamerun in 1916 and German East Africa in 1918. In the case of German East Africa, the defenders under the command of Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck, had engaged a guerrilla war against British colonial and Portuguese forces and did not surrender until after the end of the war. \n",
"Germany's colonial empire was officially confiscated with the Treaty of Versailles after Germany's defeat in the war and each colony became a League of Nations mandate under the supervision (but not ownership) of one of the victorious powers. The German colonial empire ceased to exist in 1919. Plans to regain their lost colonial possessions persisted through WW2, with many at the time suspecting that was a goal of the Third Reich all along. Despite having a short in existence compared to other colonial empires, Germany's colonial ventures changed the places and people they came into contact with. The Germans participated in medicinal and scientific research in Africa, as well as attempting to build up an infrastructure there.\n",
"World War I brought about the fall of several empires in Europe. This had repercussions around the world. The defeated Central Powers included Germany and the Turkish Ottoman Empire. Germany lost all of its colonies in Asia. German New Guinea, a part of Papua New Guinea, became administered by Australia. German possessions and concessions in China, including Qingdao, became the subject of a controversy during the Paris Peace Conference when the Beiyang government in China agreed to cede these interests to Japan, to the anger of many Chinese people. Although the Chinese diplomats refused to sign the agreement, these interests were ceded to Japan with the support of the United States and the United Kingdom.\n",
"The German Colonial empire got its start around 1884, and in those years they acquired several territories. German East Africa, German South-West Africa, Cameroon, and Togo in Africa. Germany was also active in the Pacific annexing a series of islands that would be called German New Guinea. The northwestern region of New Guinea was called Kaiser-Wilhelmsland, the Bismarck Archipelago to the islands east, this also contained two larger islands named New Mecklenburg and New Pomerania, they also acquired the Northern Solomon Islands. These islands were given the status of protectorate.\n",
"The subject of European colonies in Asia was among those discussed during the war by the Big Three Allied leaders, Roosevelt, Stalin, and Churchill at the three summit meetings held in Cairo, Tehran and Yalta. With regard to the largest colony of India, Roosevelt pressed very strongly for a declaration of grant of independence by war's end, a pressure doggedly resisted by Churchill. As regards non-British colonies in Asia, Roosevelt and Stalin had decided in Tehran that the French and the Dutch would not return to Asia after the war. Roosevelt's untimely death before even the war's end, was followed by developments very different from what Roosevelt had envisaged. The British backed the return of French and Dutch rule in Asia and even organised dispatches of Indian soldiers under British command for this purpose.\n",
"Germany's overseas empire was dismantled following defeat in World War I. With the concluding Treaty of Versailles, Article 22, German colonies were divided between Belgium, the United Kingdom, and certain British Dominions, France, and Japan with the determination not to see any of them returned to Germany – a guarantee secured by Article 119.\n",
"When the German Empire came into existence in 1871, none of its constituent states had any overseas colonies. Only after the Berlin Conference in 1884 did Germany begin to acquire new overseas possessions, but it had a much longer relationship with colonialism dating back to the 1520s. Before the end of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, various German states established chartered companies to set up trading posts; in some instances they also sought direct territorial and administrative control over these. After 1806 attempts at securing possession of territories overseas were abandoned; instead, private trading companies took the lead in the Pacific while joint-stock companies and colonial associations initiated projects elsewhere, although many never progressed beyond the planning stage.\n"
] |
how is netflix able to provide seemingly perfect subtitles to basically every show/movie on their platform and what allows them to do this so well?
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The people that make the show or movie write down the subtitles, from the script. They package that as a subtitle file inside the video file, and Netflix opens that up to show it to you if you enable subtitles.
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[
"Netflix provides both subtitles and dubbed audio with its foreign language shows, including Brazil’s dystopian “3%” and the German thriller \"Dark\". Viewer testing indicates that its audience is more likely to finish watching a series if they select to view it with dubbed audio rather than translated subtitles. Netflix now streams its foreign language content with dubbed audio as default in an effort to increase viewer retention.\n",
"BULLET::::- Content subtitles are a North American Secondary Industry (non-Hollywood, often low-budget) staple. They add content dictation that is missing from filmed action or dialogue. Due to the general low-budget allowances in such films, it is often more feasible to add the overlay subtitles to fill in information. They are most commonly seen on America's Maverick films as forced subtitles, and on Canada's MapleLeaf films as optional subtitles. Content subtitles also appear in the beginning of some higher-budget films (e.g., Star Wars) or at the end of a film (e.g., Gods and Generals).\n",
"In many Latin American countries, local network television will show dubbed versions of English-language programs and movies, while cable stations (often international) more commonly broadcast subtitled material. Preference for subtitles or dubbing varies according to individual taste and reading ability, and theaters may order two prints of the most popular films, allowing moviegoers to choose between dubbing or subtitles. Animation and children's programming, however, is nearly universally dubbed, as in other regions.\n",
"In July 2012, Netflix formed an experimental project to crowdsource the closed-captioning effort using the Amara (formerly Universal Subtitles) platform. However, this proved problematic in the face of claims that crowdsourced subtitles, regardless of whether they are transcriptions or translations, are derivative works which infringe copyright if created or distributed without consent from the film's copyright owner. Amara operates under DMCA safe-harbor provisions which indemnify it from secondary copyright infringement lawsuits over user-uploaded content, and presumably Netflix would not publish any subtitles produced by this effort without authorization. Netflix stated it is not committed to using any subtitles produced by the crowdsourcing project. In October 2012, Netflix was found to be offering the television series \"Andromeda\" to customers in Finland with unauthorized subtitles from the fansub scene. When confronted, Netflix apologized and promised to remove the unauthorized translations but did not explain how the content came to be offered in the first place, or whether other potentially copyright-infringing subtitles exist in the company's repertoire.\n",
"Netflix has still faced criticism over the quality of subtitles on some of its content and original productions; the service's video player contains a function allowing users to report issues with captioning. In one notable instance in 2018, \"Queer Eye\" contained sentences of dialogue missed by the subtitles, and censoring of expletives that were not censored in the audio. Netflix corrected these subtitles after receiving criticism via social media.\n",
"In English-speaking countries, many foreign TV series (especially anime like \"Pokémon\") are dubbed for television broadcast. However, cinematic releases of films tend to come with subtitles instead. The same is true of countries in which the local language is not spoken widely enough to make the expensive dubbing commercially viable (in other words, there is not enough market for it).\n",
"As of July 2019, Netflix officially supports 23 languages for user interface and customer support purposes: Arabic (Modern Standard), Chinese (Simplified and Traditional), Danish, Dutch, English, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hebrew, Indonesian, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Norwegian (Bokmål), Polish, Portuguese (Brazilian and European), Romanian, Spanish (Castilian and Latin American), Swahili, Swedish, Thai and Turkish.\n"
] |
how does venture capitalism work?
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On one end, there are the big money funds. Some groups that have tons of money. Enough that they've already put a lot into traditional stocks and bonds and money market stuff. Now they want to take some more and put it in a different area: new companies that aren't on the stock market yet.
On the other end, there are the entrepreneurs. These guys want to start a new company or maybe they have already started it and it's humming along. Either way, starting and growing a young business is hard. It's hard to make stuff without hiring people and it's hard to pay your hires if you haven't already made and sold the stuff. If you just had a bunch of money to start with, it would be a lot easier to get the ball rolling and make something great.
In order to bridge the gap between the funds and the entrepreneurs, the big money funds hire money managers. Those are the VCs. The VCs travel around looking for new companies that would be able grow in value by a large amount if they had a cash injection to kick it off. (There are also VCs who use their own money rather than simply representing a fund. That type of VC is traditionally called an "angel investor".)
If the VCs find a company they really like, they sit down with the company founders and hammer out a deal. There are lots of options and variations and details in VC deals, but usually it goes something like this:
> Lets argue for a long time about how much the company is currently worth. It's really hard to pin that down because your aren't making any money right now, but there's a lot of potential. OK, we all agree it's currently worth about $10 million? How about we put an additional $10 million in cash into the company? Then it will be worth $20 million and we'll both agree that moving forward 50% of the value of the company belongs to you and 50% belongs to us. Sounds fair? Hopefully, together we'll be able to use that extra $10 million to grow this company to $200 million in about 5 years or so. That would be awesome.
That would be the most straight-forward VC deal ever. Real deals have lots of details covering all of the possible events that could happen to the company. But, the general theme is that if the company takes off, gets bought by Google, has a big stock market IPO, or whatever, the fund that the VCs represent gets their share of the earnings.
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[
"Venture capital is also a way in which the private and public sectors can construct an institution that systematically creates business networks for the new firms and industries, so that they can progress and develop. This institution helps identify promising new firms and provide them with finance, technical expertise, mentoring, marketing \"know-how\", and business models. Once integrated into the business network, these firms are more likely to succeed, as they become \"nodes\" in the search networks for designing and building products in their domain. However, venture capitalists' decisions are often biased, exhibiting for instance overconfidence and illusion of control, much like entrepreneurial decisions in general.\n",
"A venture capitalist is an investor who provides funding for start-ups, early stage firms and companies with growth potential. These types of firms seek out venture capitalists, as they are too small or too new to have credit profiles, making them ineligible for bank loans and other forms of raising capital.\n",
"Venture equity is an investment strategy that includes a hybrid of venture capital and private equity approaches. Firms or individuals involved in venture equity acquire struggling startups, make improvements to the companies to help spur growth, and resell them for a profit.\n",
"Venture capital (VC) is a type of private equity, a form of financing that is provided by firms or funds to small, early-stage, emerging firms that are deemed to have high growth potential, or which have demonstrated high growth (in terms of number of employees, annual revenue, or both). Venture capital firms or funds invest in these early-stage companies in exchange for equity, or an ownership stake, in the companies they invest in. Venture capitalists take on the risk of financing risky start-ups in the hopes that some of the firms they support will become successful. Because startups face high uncertainty, VC investments do have high rates of failure. The start-ups are usually based on an innovative technology or business model and they are usually from the high technology industries, such as information technology (IT), clean technology or biotechnology.\n",
"Venture capital is risk capital invested into a start-up company at its early stages. Venture capitalists usually invest in start-ups that already have a relatively developed software product and some early sales. They look for products that have a large potential in a growing market with a competitive edge.\n",
"Venture equity firms work with early-stage startups that may have raised seed funding and are generating revenue, but may be unable to achieve the level of growth needed to secure additional funding or attract buyers. Venture equity involves companies with high growth potential, similar to venture capital. Similar to traditional private equity firms, venture equity firms acquire companies and take control in their operation. Venture equity firms invest in sales, marketing and operations in an effort to achieve greater growth.\n",
"Venture development describing economic development activity that is focused on using best-practices and activities of experienced business mentoring and pre-angel and venture capital investing in order to help create venture and angel-capital-ready firms which have the promise to create significant economic wealth for a region, state or country including entrepreneurial wealth and jobs.\n"
] |
How do you calculate the focal length of a multi-lens setup?
|
In my opinion, the cleanest formalism for linear optics is using [transfer matrices](_URL_0_). There is a fixed matrix for each type of optical element, and to find the optics of a series of optical elements, you just multiply the corresponding matrices in the right order. Then you get one final matrix that describes the transport of a ray with any initial condition. Certain elements of the final matrix can be associated with the total focal length, the magnification, etc.
If you have a doublet consisting of a thin focusing and a thin defocusing lens with a drift in between them, you can see what the matrix looks like on slide 15 [here](_URL_1_) (ignore that the slideshow is about charged particle optics for particle accelerators, it works the same way as light optics).
For two lenses, this is not really that difficult. You could just memorize that effective focal length equation like people do in Physics 101.
But this formalism gives you the power to chain together arbitrarily many cells like this. And even add other optical elements, rather than just thin lenses and drifts. There are some other nice features, like being able to analyze the stability of the system. If the focusing isn't strong enough, or if it's *too* strong, the trajectories of individual rays may not be transported through the entire optical system. Analyzing the stability of the entire system is as simple as taking the trace of the final matrix.
|
[
"Many lens manufacturers produce or produced prime lenses at or near the following focal lengths: 20mm, 24mm, 28mm, 35mm, 40mm, 50mm, 85mm, 105mm, 135mm, 200mm, 300mm, 400mm, and 600mm. For these lengths many manufacturers produce two or more lenses with the same focal length but with different maximum apertures to suit the different needs of photographers. Additional focal lengths can be created by using a teleconverter.\n",
"For a lens projecting a rectilinear image (focused at infinity, see derivation), the angle of view (\"α\") can be calculated from the chosen dimension (\"d\"), and effective focal length (\"f\") as follows:\n",
"A normal lens typically has an angle of view that is close to one radian (~57.296˚) of the optical system's image circle. For 135 format (24 x 36 mm), with an escribed image circle diameter equal to the diagonal of the frame (43.266 mm), the focal length that has an angle of one radian of the escribed circle is 39.6 mm; the focal length that has an angle of one radian of the horizontally-bound inscribed image circle, is 33 mm; the focal length that has an angle of one radian of the vertically-bound inscribed circle, is 22 mm. This correlates with the popularity of 35 and 24 mmlenses, and the existence of 40mm lenses, albeit the latter in a more restrained offer. A 50 mm lens has a vertical-bound inscribed circle angle of view of ~0.5 radians. A 70mm focal length (typically only available in zoom lenses) has a horizontally-bound inscribed circle angle of view of ~0.5 radians. An 85 mm lens has an escribed (frame diagonal) circle angle of view of ~0.5 radians. Effectively, the 24, 35 and 40 mm trio have a 1:2 relation to the 50, 70 and 85 trio of focal lengths. \"Normal\" lenses, those that cover one radian in at least one of their inscribed or escribed image circles, belong to the first group, with 35 and 40 mm lenses closer to one radian than 50mm lenses.\n",
"The design of a fixed focal length lens (also known as \"prime lenses\") presents fewer challenges than the design of a zoom lens. A high-quality prime lens whose focal length is about equal to the diameter of the film frame or sensor may be constructed from as few as four separate lens elements, often as pairs on either side of the aperture diaphragm. Good examples include the Zeiss Tessar or the Leitz Elmar.\n",
"For a \"thick\" lens (one which has a non-negligible thickness), or an imaging system consisting of several lenses or mirrors (e.g., a photographic lens or a telescope), the focal length is often called the \"effective focal length\" (EFL), to distinguish it from other commonly used parameters:\n",
"The figure shows schematically how length is determined using a Michelson interferometer: the two panels show a laser source emitting a light beam split by a \"beam splitter\" (BS) to travel two paths. The light is recombined by bouncing the two components off a pair of \"corner cubes\" (CC) that return the two components to the beam splitter again to be reassembled. The corner cube serves to displace the incident from the reflected beam, which avoids some complications caused by superposing the two beams. The distance between the left-hand corner cube and the beam splitter is compared to that separation on the fixed leg as the left-hand spacing is adjusted to compare the length of the object to be measured.\n",
"The thickness of the external ring on an adapter is equal to the difference of the flange distance between the T-mount and the corresponding lens mount in order to achieve infinity focus. Other large format camera lenses have a flange distance longer than 55 mm. They can be attached to smaller format cameras with a combination of corresponding lens-to-T-mount-adapter and a T-Ring.\n"
] |
how do they measure the visual acuity of animals?
|
One of the oldest way to test it is the following:
1. set up 2 doors: one with food and one without. Put a label on top of each door with black square (door no food) and black square with a single white stripe (door with food).
2. During the first few times, open both door and let the animal go. After a few times they'll learn that door with white stripe has food.
3. Close both doors in such a way that the animal can still open it easily, but cannot see through it. Then let the animal go. Since they remember that the one with the stripe has food, they'll pick the door they see the stripe.
4. Reduce the width of the white stripe. Then let the animal go find the food (repeat this a few times for reliability). Repeat this process until the animal is unable to reliably locate the door with a white stripe.
Source: remember watching a video of eagle vision test (couldn't find it now). The stripe was so small that humans cannot see it with naked eye. The stripe was made using computer-assisted tool.
|
[
"For a human eye with excellent acuity, the maximum theoretical resolution is 50 CPD (1.2 arcminute per line pair, or a 0.35 mm line pair, at 1 m). A rat can resolve only about 1 to 2 CPD. A horse has higher acuity through most of the visual field of its eyes than a human has, but does not match the high acuity of the human eye's central fovea region.\n",
"Visual acuity is measured by a psychophysical procedure and as such relates the physical characteristics of a stimulus to a subject's percept and his/her resulting responses. Measurement can be by using an eye chart invented by Ferdinand Monoyer, by optical instruments, or by computerized tests like the FrACT.\n",
"Teleosts possess highly developed sensory organs. Nearly all daylight fish have colour vision at least as good as a normal human's. Many fish also have chemoreceptors responsible for acute senses of taste and smell. Most fish have sensitive receptors that form the lateral line system, which detects gentle currents and vibrations, and senses the motion of nearby fish and prey. Fish sense sounds in a variety of ways, using the lateral line, the swim bladder, and in some species the Weberian apparatus. Fish orient themselves using landmarks, and may use mental maps based on multiple landmarks or symbols. Experiments with mazes show that fish possess the spatial memory needed to make such a mental map.\n",
"Rodents, like all placental mammals except primates, have just two types of light receptive cones in their retina, a short wavelength \"blue-UV\" type and a middle wavelength \"green\" type. They are therefore classified as dichromats; however, they are visually sensitive into the ultraviolet (UV) spectrum and therefore can see light that humans can not. The functions of this UV sensitivity are not always clear. In degus, for example, the belly reflects more UV light than the back. Therefore, when a degu stands up on its hind legs, which it does when alarmed, it exposes its belly to other degus and ultraviolet vision may serve a purpose in communicating the alarm. When it stands on all fours, its low UV-reflectance back could help make the degu less visible to predators. Ultraviolet light is abundant during the day but not at night. There is a large increase in the ratio of ultraviolet to visible light in the morning and evening twilight hours. Many rodents are active during twilight hours (crepuscular activity), and UV-sensitivity would be advantageous at these times. Ultraviolet reflectivity is of dubious value for nocturnal rodents.\n",
"Most fish possess highly developed sense organs. Nearly all daylight fish have color vision that is at least as good as a human's (see vision in fishes). Many fish also have chemoreceptors that are responsible for extraordinary senses of taste and smell. Although they have ears, many fish may not hear very well. Most fish have sensitive receptors that form the lateral line system, which detects gentle currents and vibrations, and senses the motion of nearby fish and prey. Some fish, such as catfish and sharks, have the Ampullae of Lorenzini, organs that detect weak electric currents on the order of millivolt. Other fish, like the South American electric fishes Gymnotiformes, can produce weak electric currents, which they use in navigation and social communication.\n",
"The precise distance at which acuity is measured is not important as long as it is sufficiently far away and the size of the optotype on the retina is the same. That size is specified as a visual angle, which is the angle, at the eye, under which the optotype appears. For 6/6 = 1.0 acuity, the size of a letter on the Snellen chart or Landolt C chart is a visual angle of 5 arc minutes (1 arc min = 1/60 of a degree). By the design of a typical optotype (like a Snellen E or a Landolt C), the critical gap that needs to be resolved is 1/5 this value, i.e., 1 arc min. The latter is the value used in the international definition of visual acuity:\n",
"Visual acuity, the clarity of vision, can be determined in arthropods by determining number of lenses in their compound eyes and the interommatidial angle (shortened as IOA and referring to the angle between the optical axes of the adjacent lenses). The IOA is especially important as it can be used to distinguish different ecological roles in arthropods, being low in modern active arthropod predators. \"Slimonia\" was very similar to the basal pterygotid \"Erettopterus\" in terms of visual acuity, with the number of lenses being comparable to those of \"Pterygotus\" and \"Jaekelopterus\" and possessing an IOA between 2 and 3 (which is higher than the IOA of \"Pterygotus\" and \"Jaekelopterus\", suggesting that the visual acuity of \"Slimonia\" was good, but not as good as in the derived pterygotids).\n"
] |
how can north korea have work camps and not get in trouble for it?
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Because they're a country. They're not a person and can be arrested by the police. The only way to force another country to do something is either from the threat or application of military or economic action.
North Korea has a military 9 million strong and doesn't have an economy to ruin.
|
[
"In October 2014, North Korea admitted for the first time that it had labor camps. Choe Myong Nam, a North Korean foreign ministry, said \"Both in law and practice, we do have reform through labor detention camps – no, detention centers – where people are improved through their mentality and look on their wrongdoings\".\n",
"Within North Korea, forced labor is part of an established system of political repression. North Koreans do not have a choice in the jobs they work and are not free to change jobs at will; the North Korean government determines what work each citizen will have. From April to September 2009, the government initiated a “150-Day Battle” campaign to boost the economy by requiring increased work hours and production targets of citizens, and implementing government-imposed programs, such as road building and construction work. The country initiated a second “labor mobilization” campaign, the “100-Day Battle,” immediately after the initial “150-Day Battle.”\n",
"Tens of thousands of North Korean workers are estimated to be employed in Russian logging camps, where they reportedly have only two days of rest per year and face punishments when they fail to meet production targets. Wages of some North Korean workers employed in Russia reportedly were withheld until the laborers returned home, in a coercive tactic by North Korean authorities to compel their labor. North Korean workers at joint ventures with foreign investors within North Korea are employed under arrangements similar to those that apply to overseas contract workers.\n",
"North Korean officials stated that there were \"no prison camps\" operating in North Korea but that there were \"detention centres where people are improved through their mentality and look on their wrongdoings.\" Officials also stated that North Korea was a \"transition society\" and as such \"there might be some problems, for example in the economic and other areas, we may need to establish more houses and social facilities in order to provide people with better living conditions.\"\n",
"With limited government-sponsored programs for migrants, North Koreans face vocational, medical, and educative difficulties assimilating in South Korea and rely on nongovernmental organizations. In addition to the traumatic circumstances of their homeland, North Koreans may face social exclusion. In a survey of over 24,000 of North Koreans who migrated to South Korea between August and December 2012, 607 identified as suffering from depression, anxiety, or suicidal ideation. Due to mistrust between both North and South Koreans, evidence from a study of 182 defectors reveal that defectors are unable to receive medical coverage from doctors. Intergovernmental organizations such as the United Nations have repeatedly urged recipient nations of North Korean defectors to increase the efforts in identifying defectors who are at high risk for poor mental health and provide appropriate medical services and social support. Neither public nor private providers have been convinced to support due to identity politics.\n",
"Conscription in North Korea occurs despite ambiguity concerning its legal status. Men are universally conscripted while females undergo selective conscription. Conscription takes place at age 17 and service ends at 30. Children of the political elites are exempt from conscription, as are people with bad \"songbun\" (ascribed social status in North Korea). Recruitment is done on the basis of annual targets drawn up by the Central Military Commission of the Workers' Party of Korea and implemented locally by schools.\n",
"North Korea has enacted laws such as the Law on Sex Equality, the Labor Law, and the Law on Nationalization of Essential Industries. Although these social systems have not entirely been successful, they have been integrated into daily life to help women. The reforms implemented provided women's rights at work, rights of inheriting and sharing of properties, and rights of free marriage and divorce. North Korea also outlawed polygamy. The state confiscated all privately owned land, eliminating property discrimination. Today, women in North Korea participate in a variety of labor forces, and there is a considerable number of women who are in high positions. Also, there are many facilities for women including sanatoria, rest homes, and maternity hospitals. \n"
] |
Does mental/emotional trauma halt maturation of the mind?
|
Clinical psychologist here. The effects aren't nearly that predictable or lawful. Various effects are possible, its not a straightforward case of arrested development. Some victims of abuse are amazingly [resilient](_URL_0_).
|
[
"Its theoretical basis emphasizes early trauma in shaping an individual's consciousness. It claims that trauma that takes place before, during and soon after birth has strong influences on how someone interprets and copes with their future life. These early preverbal traumata, as well as later difficult childhood experiences, can only be fully recognized by re-living the experience at an emotional level. This emotional expression of deep memory is called a \"primal\". Its expression begins the process of integration of the experience into the personality of the individual and the re-adjustment of his or her world view. The human mind as a self healing organic process constantly draws the individual's attention to potential situations in which these traumata can be relived and integrated. The individual unconsciously blocks these pathways in order to function in everyday life. The provision of a safe environment is enough to allow the paths to be approached. A safe environment is created through the presence of skilled facilitators and the \"Stop I Mean It\" rule which allows a participant to bring any activity to an immediate halt at any time.\n",
"There are various predisposing psycho-biological and environmental factors that go into determining whether one's earlier emotional trauma might lead to the development of a true clinical picture of post-traumatic stress disorder. One factor has to do with variation in certain brain structures. According to Jerome Kagan, some people are born with a locus coeruleus that tends to produce higher concentrations of norepinephrine, a brain chemical involved in arousal of body's self-defense response. This would lower their threshold for becoming aroused and make them more likely to become anxious when they encounter stresses in life that are reminiscent of childhood separations and fears, hence making them more prone to becoming post-traumatic.\n",
"Trauma therapy allows processing trauma-related memories and allows growth towards more adaptive psychological functioning. It helps to develop positive coping instead of negative coping and allows the individual to integrate upsetting-distressing material (thoughts, feelings and memories) and to resolve these internally. It also aids in growth of personal skills like resilience, ego regulation, empathy, etc.\n",
"A 2012 review article supports the hypothesis that current or recent trauma may affect an individual's assessment of the more distant past, changing the experience of the past and resulting in dissociative states. However, experimental research in cognitive science continues to challenge claims concerning the validity of the dissociation construct, which is still based on Freudian notions of repression. Even the claimed etiological link between trauma/abuse and dissociation has been questioned. An alternative model proposes a perspective on dissociation based on a recently established link between a labile sleep–wake cycle and memory errors, cognitive failures, problems in attentional control, and difficulties in distinguishing fantasy from reality.\"\n",
"Research has shown several cognitive behavioural therapies to be effective methods of reducing the emotional distress and negative thought patterns associated with traumatic memories in both those suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder and depression.\n",
"Janov states that neurosis is the result of suppressed pain, which is the result of trauma, usually trauma of childhood origin. According to Janov, the only way to reverse neurosis is for the neurotic to recall their trauma in a therapeutic setting. Janov contends that the neurotic can thereby re-experience their feelings in response to the original traumatic incidents but can now express the emotions that at that time were repressed, thereby resolving the trauma.\n",
"Trauma and stressor-related disorders frequently include dissociative experiences. Evidence suggests that dissociation during trauma enables affected individuals to compartmentalize the traumatic experience from their conscious awareness. In the context of BTT, dissociation is conceptualized as an adaptive process aimed to maintain self-preservation and serve as protection against psychological pain. Perspectives from the development of psychopathology paired with attachment theory cite the mechanism of dissociation as a core feature in understanding environmentally produced psychiatric disorders. Evidence has indicated that dissociation can occur in extreme cases of dissociation an alternative personality state can emerge (i.e., alters) as frequently implicated in the dissociative identity disorder (DID).\n"
] |
who pays for the plane ticket back to your home country if you’re denied entry to a country?
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The passenger legally has to pay, but the airline is required to take them back no matter what. If the airline will actually get their money is another question.
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[
"An onward ticket can be required, based on the countries' entry requirements (which may or may not include the onward ticket). Many countries insist a flight ticket be held out from their country, which must be presented upon arrival at immigration. They set this requirement, so that if travellers run out of money, the country is certain that the traveller can depart. In the past, travellers would remain in a country supporting themselves by illicit employment. Without an onward ticket, a traveller may be refused entry to these countries and subsequently placed on the next plane for the destination from where he arrived. \n",
"East of the Pacific, both America and Canada have introduced electronic travel authorisations. Travellers from visa-free countries entering Canada by air, except American nationals (including those with and without full citizenship), must obtain an Electronic Travel Authorisation prior to arrival but not if arriving by land or sea. Travellers under the American Visa Waiver Programme are required to obtain permission through the Electronic System for Travel Authorisation if arriving America by air or cruise but not if entering by land or by ferry, using a passport issued by the Government of Bermuda to a British Overseas Territories Citizen, or if entering as a Canadian citizen.\n",
"Some travelers do not need a Transit visa (subclass 771) if they depart Australia by air within 8 hours of the scheduled time of their arrival, hold confirmed onward booking and documentation necessary to enter the country of their destination and remain in the transit lounge at an airport (i.e. they do not need to clear immigration in order to re-check their luggage).\n",
"Passengers with a confirmed onward ticket for a flight on the same aircraft to a third country. They must stay in the aircraft or in the international transit area of the airport and have documents required for the next destination.\n",
"One-way travel is travel paid for by a fare purchased for a seat on an aircraft, a train, a bus, or some other mode of travel without a return trip. One way tickets may be purchased for a variety of reasons, such as if one is planning to permanently relocate to the destination, is uncertain of one's return plans, has alternate arrangements for the return, or if the traveler is planning to return, but there is no need to pay the fare in advance.\n",
"In addition, passengers must remain in the sterile international transit area when arriving from the U.S., or the post-preclearance area when arriving from a third country and have cleared U.S. immigration and customs. Leaving the designated area is not permitted.\n",
"Another advantage is that Customs and Border Protection (CBP) officers are able to ultimately exclude inadmissible passengers and prohibited goods before a flight, train journey, or voyage commences. This saves CBP the hassle of dealing with them on U.S. soil, thus helping minimise the risk of any untoward incident happening there. Therefore, when a person is denied entry into the United States, he or she is not allowed to board the US-bound flight and has to merely leave the airport by land transport instead of being put on a return flight (unless the passenger arrived at the preclearance airport from an earlier flight).\n"
] |
I heard in a PBS documentary that Napoleon's policies set the framework for what would become modern France. How specifically did he help build this framework? And to what extent did Napoleon pick up on the shortcomings of the French Revolution to spur the country into its 'modernity'?
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By "set the framework for modern France," the documentary was probably referring to the [Civil Code](_URL_0_) of 1804. That link provides the Code in its entirety, so you can peruse at your leisure.
The Civil Code standardized legal jurisdictions across all of France regarding subjects such as inheritance, civil rights, marriage, finance, etc. To understand what a monumental achievement this is, it's important to realize what law was like under the Old Regime. Each region in France was governed by a set of overlapping juridical bodies that often vied for power: local nobles argued with the king's functionaries (notably the royal tax collectors, the _intendants_), the _parlements_ (regional judicial bodies) argued with the crown over matters of authority, guilds argued with municipal authorities over labor rights, and so forth. There was no such thing as a single, universal law that applied to all of France, and such a concept would have been anachronistic under a system regulated by privilege based on social class and geographic location.
The Civil Code changed this by standardizing legal codes and partitioning France into the _départements_ (administrative units, sort of like American or British counties) it still uses today. [Here](_URL_5_) is a convenient visual of that administrative structure. Most importantly, the Code greatly facilitated a process of state centralization begun under the Old Regime that the French still debate to this day.
Bonaparte, however, didn't create a standardized law _ex nihilo_. Rather, he modified developments that were already under way during the French Revolution. The idea of a universal law was a concept articulated by [The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen](_URL_1_). Also, the system of _départements_ was originally proposed by the National Constituent Assembly in 1790. Divorce [became easier](_URL_4_) during the Revolution and [feudal privileges were abolished](_URL_2_) on August 4, 1789.
In other words, the ideas and structures that Bonaparte implemented were outgrowths of the French Revolution. Martin Lyons [makes an explicit point](_URL_3_) to view Bonaparte and his accomplishments as children of the Revolution, rather than understanding the coup on 18 _brumaire_ as a radical break or an end-point.
|
[
"Outside France the Revolution had a major impact. Its ideas became widespread. Roberts argues that Napoleon was responsible for key ideas of the modern world, so that, \"meritocracy, equality before the law, property rights, religious toleration, modern secular education, sound finances, and so on-were protected, consolidated, codified, and geographically extended by Napoleon during his 16 years of power.\"\n",
"Outside France the Revolution had a major impact. Its ideas became widespread. Roberts argues that Napoleon was responsible for key ideas of the modern world, so that, \"meritocracy, equality before the law, property rights, religious toleration, modern secular education, sound finances, and so on-were protected, consolidated, codified, and geographically extended by Napoleon during his 16 years of power.\"\n",
"In the 19th century, Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire. His subsequent Napoleonic Wars (1803–15) shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a tumultuous succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. France was a major participant in World War I, from which it emerged victorious, and was one of the Allies in World War II, but came under occupation by the Axis powers in 1940. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War. The Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains today. Algeria and nearly all the other colonies became independent in the 1960s, with most retaining close economic and military connections with France.\n",
"Napoleon's impact on the French economy was of modest importance in the long run. He did sweep away the old guilds and monopolies and trade restrictions. He introduced the metric system and fostered the study of engineering. Most important he opened up French finance by the creation of the indispensable Bank of France. However, entrepreneurs had little opportunity to take advantage of these reforms. Napoleon provided a protected continental market by systematic exclusion of all imports from Britain. This had the effect of encouraging innovation in Britain, where the Industrial Revolution was well underway, and diverting the need for innovation in France. What innovation took place focused on armaments for the army, and was of little value in peacetime. In France the business crisis in 1810-1812 undermined what successes entrepreneurs had achieved.\n",
"Napoleon's educational reforms laid the foundation of a modern system of education in France and throughout much of Europe. Napoleon synthesized the best academic elements from the \"Ancien Régime\", The Enlightenment, and the Revolution, with the aim of establishing a stable, well-educated and prosperous society. He made French the only official language. He left some primary education in the hands of religious orders, but he offered public support to secondary education. Napoleon founded a number of state secondary schools (\"lycées\") designed to produce a standardized education that was uniform across France.\n",
"The brief peace in Europe allowed Napoleon to focus on the French colonies abroad. Saint-Domingue had managed to acquire a high level of political autonomy during the Revolutionary Wars, with Toussaint Louverture installing himself as de facto dictator by 1801. Napoleon saw his chance to recuperate the formerly wealthy colony when he signed the Treaty of Amiens. During the Revolution, the National Convention voted to abolish slavery in February 1794. Under the terms of Amiens, Napoleon agreed to appease British demands by not abolishing slavery in any colonies where the 1794 decree had never been implemented. The resulting Law of 20 May never applied to colonies like Guadeloupe or Guyane, even though rogue generals and other officials used the pretext of peace as an opportunity to reinstate slavery in some of these places. The Law of 20 May officially restored the slave trade to the Caribbean colonies, not slavery itself.\n",
"Early French victories exported many ideological features of the French Revolution throughout Europe. Napoleon gained support by appealing to some common concerns of French people. These included dislike of the emigrant nobility who had escaped persecution, fear by some of a restoration of the \"ancien régime\", a dislike and suspicion of foreign countries had tried to reverse the Revolution – and a wish by Jacobins to extend France's revolutionary ideals. Seigneurial system of New France and Seigneurial system of New France were abolished, aristocratic privileges were eliminated in all places except Poland, and the introduction of the Napoleonic Code throughout the continent increased legal equality, established jury systems, and legalized divorce. Napoleon placed relatives on the thrones of several European countries and granted many noble titles, most of which expired with the fall of the Empire.\n"
] |
why african americans are not given the prefix of their country of origin while european's are?
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Because Black Americans who are descendants of slaves usually don't know their family's country of origin. Slave owners and traders were not interested in the ethnic origins of their slaves and kept only the most rudimentary records. Many Black Americans find it impossible to trace their families back more than a few generations.
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[
"Many African Americans have expressed a preference for the term \"African American\" because it was formed in the same way as the terms for the many other ethnic groups currently living in the nation. Some argued further that, because of the historical circumstances surrounding the capture, enslavement and systematic attempts to de-Africanize blacks in the United States under chattel slavery, most African Americans are unable to trace their ancestry to a specific African nation; hence, the entire continent serves as a geographic marker.\n",
"Compound constructions such as \"African Americans\" likewise refer exclusively to people in or from the United States of America, as does the prefix \"Americo-\". For instance, the Americo-Liberians and their language Merico derive their name from the fact that they are descended from African American settlers, i.e. former slaves in the United States of America.\n",
"In 1988, the civil rights leader Jesse Jackson urged Americans to use instead the term \"African American\" because it had a historical cultural base and was a construction similar to terms used by European descendants, such as German American, Italian American, etc. Since then, African American and black have often had parallel status. However, controversy continues over which if any of the two terms is more appropriate. Maulana Karenga argues that the term African-American is more appropriate because it accurately articulates their geographical and historical origin. Others have argued that \"black\" is a better term because \"African\" suggests foreignness, although Black Americans helped found the United States. Still others believe that the term black is inaccurate because African Americans have a variety of skin tones. Some surveys suggest that the majority of Black Americans have no preference for \"African American\" or \"Black\", although they have a slight preference for \"black\" in personal settings and \"African American\" in more formal settings.\n",
"By that time, the majority of black people in the United States were native-born, so the use of the term \"African\" became problematic. Though initially a source of pride, many blacks feared that the use of African as an identity would be a hindrance to their fight for full citizenship in the US. They also felt that it would give ammunition to those who were advocating repatriating black people back to Africa. In 1835, black leaders called upon Black Americans to remove the title of \"African\" from their institutions and replace it with \"Negro\" or \"Colored American\". A few institutions chose to keep their historic names, such as the African Methodist Episcopal Church. African Americans popularly used the terms \"Negro\" or \"colored\" for themselves until the late 1960s.\n",
"Black and African Americans are citizens and residents of the United States with origins in Sub-Saharan Africa. According to the Office of Management and Budget, the grouping includes individuals who self-identify as African-American, as well as persons who emigrated from nations in the Caribbean and Sub-Saharan Africa who may alternatively identify as Black or some other written-in race versus African-American given they were not part of the historic US slave system. In this case, grouping is thus based on the geography of the individual, and may contradict or misrepresent their self-identification, for instance not all immigrants from Sub-Saharan Africa are \"Black\". Among these racial outliers are persons from Cape Verde, Madagascar, various Hamito-Semitic populations in East Africa and the Sahel, and the Afrikaners of Southern Africa including such notable figures as the inventor Elon Musk and actress Charlize Theron.\n",
"Though the vast majority of African peoples are indigenous in the sense that they originate from that continent, in practice, identity as an \"indigenous people\" per the modern definition is more restrictive, and certainly not every African ethnic group claims identification under these terms. Groups and communities who do claim this recognition are those who, by a variety of historical and environmental circumstances, have been placed outside of the dominant state systems, and whose traditional practices and land claims often come into conflict with the objectives and policies implemented by governments, companies and surrounding dominant societies.\n",
"The term is used by some to emphasize the European cultural and geographical ancestral origins of Americans, in the same way as is done for African Americans and Asian Americans. A European American awareness is still notable because 90% of the respondents classified as white in the U.S. Census knew their European ancestry. Historically, the concept of an American originated in the United States as a person of European ancestry, thus excluding non-European groups.\n"
] |
why do dogs drink out of the toilet, even though you give them fresh water?
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As far as the dog's concerned, a source of water is a source of water. All he'll care about is that there's always water there, it's clean (by the dog's standards) and at a convenient head height for drinking. Dogs are also creatures of habit and will keep going back to the same places for food and water just because that's what they're used to doing.
If a dog's drinking out of the toilet, encourage him to drink from his own bowl by making sure that his bowl is always kept full of fresh water, that it contains enough water for him, that the bowl is always accessible and that it is always in the same place (preferably close to where he eats and/or sleeps). Also, reinforce good behaviour by giving him treats for drinking from his own bowl.
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[
"According to Alexei Vereshchagin, a graduate student of Poyarkov's who has studied them, the dogs generally go out of their way to avoid conflict with humans, and rarely defecate in busy areas or onto pavements.\n",
"Dogs can be bathed by being sprayed with a hand-held shower head, or doused with water from a bucket. Often, one bath will not make a dog truly clean. A second bath is excellent to ensure the entire body has been cleaned. Dogs should be bathed with warm, not hot water, in order to make it a more enjoyable experience. Dogs with a heavy or matted coat should never be bathed without first being completely brushed out or clipped of any mats.\n",
"Dogs require a constant source of clean and fresh water. This is especially true for sporting dogs participating in high energy activities. High protein diets require increased water intake for removal of extra nitrogen via urination.12 Furthermore, to deposit protein within the animal, water is also an essential mediator.\n",
"Pictures have also circulated featuring two dogs in boiling water in China. It is claimed that this is because some Chinese prefer the taste of adrenaline-soaked meat. In some areas, dogs are beaten to death in order to release blood into the meat.\n",
"In dogs, these sacs (anal glands) are occasionally referred to as \"scent glands\", because they enable the animals to mark their territory and identify other dogs. For most dogs the anal glands will empty a small amount of fluid each time the dog passes faeces. But sometimes the anal glands do not empty naturally or do not empty enough and this can lead to the glands filling up and becoming uncomfortable, leaking at inconvenient times or even becoming impacted and infected if left untreated.\n",
"The sporting dog should have access to water at all times. This is due to the fact that water intake needs are constantly adapting based on body water stores, exercise, food type, and sodium intake.12,13 Sporting dogs fed a raw or wet diet receive additional water from the high moisture content of these food types. This is in comparison to those fed a dry extruded diet. However, this does not mean sporting dogs fed a raw or wet diet should be offered less water throughout the day. \n",
"Domestic dogs mark their territories by urinating on vertical surfaces (usually at nose level), sometimes marking over the urine of other dogs. When one dog marks over another dog's urine, this is known as \"counter-marking\" or \"overmarking\". Male dogs urine-mark more frequently than female dogs, typically beginning after the onset of sexual maturity. Male dogs, as well as wolves, sometimes lift a leg and attempt to urinate even when their bladders are empty – this is known as a \"raised-leg display\", \"shadow-urination\", or \"pseudo-urination\". They typically mark their territory due to the presence of new stimuli or social triggers in a dog's environment, as well as out of anxiety. Marking behavior is present in both male and female dogs, and is especially pronounced in male dogs that have not been neutered.\n"
] |
How large was the U.S involvement in the Boxer rebellion?
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The Boxer Rebellion, which took place at the start of the 20th century, was a 3-way power struggle between Chinese peasants, the Boxers (a xenophobic, anti-Christian, anti-modernization, mystic religious group), the Qing Empire and (mostly) Western foreign powers.
The United States desired to set up commercial operations in China (Open Door policy) before the rebellion to compete with other European powers, especially British dominance, but had no interest in involving itself in military matters. However, after realizing how serious the rebellion was becoming, the McKinley Administration through Secretary of State John Hay, approved military action combined with European powers (the Eight Nation Alliance included Great Britain, Austria-Hungary, Germany, Italy, Russia, France, Japan & USA), despite its diplomatic tradition of avoiding entangling alliances, and the policies of the Monroe Doctrine, to avoid getting involved in the politics of European colonial powers.
The defeat of the Qing Empire in Tianjin and siege of Beijing by the Boxer rebels in July 1900 caused major world powers to intervene more directly, and the Eight Nation Alliance arrived in Beijing (Peking) to lift the siege.
US Troops were sent from the naval base in the Philippines and included the 9th Infantry, 14th Infantry, 6th Cavalry, 5th Artillery regiments and a Marine battalion under the command of Lt. Gen Adna Romanza Chaffee and was known as the "US Army China Relief Expedition". This was the first time US forces fought on Chinese soil, and also set a historical precedent where the president could intervene in a sovereign nation's affairs without the express authorization from Congress.
Japan sent the largest contingent of troops: 20,840 and 18 warships, but they also suffered a disproportionate number of casualties: more than half of allied casualties in Tianjin, and almost two-thirds of the losses in Beijing. The reason is that (according to a British military observer), the Japanese were aggressive, used densely-packed formations and were over-willing to attack.
The British was also engaged in the Boer conflict at the same time, so they had limited troops available, and had to rely on the 'China Squadron' and troops from India. They were the third largest contingent after the Japanese.
The Russians had the second largest force, of 12,400.
Austria-Hungary sent a single cruiser and sent some sailors to defend positions in Tianjin.
The Germans initially had a garrison of about 2,000 men around Qingdao (Tsingtao), and sent a larger force of around 15,000 later in the struggle, but they arrived too late to take part in any major action.
The French sent three battalions and a brigade of marines.
The Italians had around 2,000 troops, initially made up of sailors from warships and later included troops dispatched from Italy.
After the rebellion was culled, the signing of the Boxer Protocol of 1901 which was signed between the Eight Nation Alliance and the Qing Empire then allowed Britain and the USA (and to a lesser extent the other 6 nations) to have a great deal of influence in Beijing and to be in control of how the country could be partitioned.
Before the rebellion, there was a lot of discussion in the media about the rebellion, and The Washington Post, for example, had a field day publishing reports about it, mostly factually incorrect, as they had no reporters on the ground; there was a major disconnect between the information in China and the US public and it could be argued that the public opinion in the US was shaped by American and Chinese interest groups to support the rebellion and draw US forces into the war.
After the rebellion, there was a great deal of debate about the US involvement. It was revealed that a number of atrocities were committed by foreign troops, and precious artifacts and treasures were heavily looted from places like the Forbidden City. Mark Twain gave his famous "I am a Boxer" speech that mocked and criticized Christian missionaries and the US government involvement in China. Furthermore, the reparations payments on China were extremely high and they were forced into virtual disarmament.
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[
"The Boxer Rebellion was a proto-nationalist movement in China between 1898 and 1901, so called because it was led by fighters who called themselves the Society of the Righteous and Harmonious Fists. The United States was part of an Eight-Nation Alliance that brought 20,000 armed troops to China, defeated the Imperial Chinese Army, and captured Beijing. The Eight-Nation Alliance was a military coalition formed to defeat the rebellion, and the eight nations, in addition to the US, were Japan, Russia, Britain, France, the Germany, Italy and Austria-Hungary.\n",
"In the United States, the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion was known as the \"China Relief Expedition\". The United States was able to play a major role in suppressing the Boxer Rebellion largely due to the presence of American forces deployed in the Philippines since the US annexation after the Spanish–American War in 1898. Of the foreigners under siege in Beijing, there were 56 American Sailors and Marines from the USS \"Oregon\" and USS \"Newark\". The main American formations deployed to relieve the siege were the 9th Infantry and 14th Infantry regiments, elements of the 6th Cavalry regiment, the 5th Artillery regiment, and a Marine battalion, all under the command of Adna Chaffee. Future President Herbert Hoover and Mrs. Lou Henry Hoover were living in the foreign compound during the siege when Mr. Hoover was working for the Chinese Engineering and Mining Company. Mr. Hoover helped erect barricades and formed a protective force of the able bodied men. Mrs. Hoover helped set up a hospital, nursed the wounded, set up a dairy, took part in the night watch, took tea to sentries and carried a Mauser .38 semi-automatic pistol.\n",
"The Boxer Rebellion broke out in 1900, and Dong and his Wuwei troops joined the Boxers in declaring war on the Eight-Nation Alliance. They formed the rear division, and the westerners called them the \"10,000 Islamic rabble\". They were the most effective attackers on the foreign legions, and struck fear into the minds of the westerners. His troops were responsible for so much trouble that the United States Marine Corps had to be called in.\n",
"The United States sent nine boxers to Athens. They claimed two medals, a gold and a bronze. Two boxers lost their first bouts. Four made the quarterfinals, with two falling there, one falling in the semifinal, and the fourth taking the gold by going undefeated. The combined record of the nine Americans was 12-8. The U.S. was fifth in the boxing medal count.\n",
"Most of the victims of the Boxer Rebellion were Chinese Christians, but the massacres of Chinese people were of no interest to the West, who demanded Asian blood to avenge the Western colonists killed by rebellious Chinese natives. In response, Great Britain, the U.S., Imperial Japan, France, Imperial Russia, Imperial Germany, Austria–Hungary, and Italy formed the Eight-Nation Alliance, and despatched an international military expeditionary force to end the Siege of the International Legations in Beijing.\n",
"In March 1971 Perenchio promoted the Fight of the Century at Madison Square Garden that brought together two unbeaten world heavyweight boxing champions, Muhammad Ali and Joe Frazier. Each fighter was guaranteed $2.5 million for the fight. The event blended sports with spectacle and glamorized boxing, in part because the sold-out crowd at the Garden included celebrities and politicians. Perenchio enlisted concert promoters to help sell 1.5 million closed-circuit tickets throughout the United States, and sold the rights in over 100 countries. Two years later, in September 1973, he promoted the Battle of the Sexes tennis match between Billie Jean King and Bobby Riggs that took place at the Houston Astrodome. It was the largest live audience (30,472) for any tennis match ever, and was the highest rated broadcast for that year when it was televised during prime-time on ABC.\n",
"The Boxer Rebellion in 1900 was the worst disaster in missionary history. One hundred and eighty-nine Protestant missionaries, including 53 children, (and many Roman Catholic priests and nuns) were killed by Boxers and Chinese soldiers in northern China. An estimated 2,000 Protestant Chinese Christians also were killed. The China Inland Mission lost more members than any other organization: 58 adults and 20 children were killed.\n"
] |
what is happening in our heads that allow thousands of people to sing, shout, clap or speak in almost perfect unison?
|
I haven't been able to find anything completely definitive, but the phenomenon you're talking about is called [entrainment](_URL_0_) (specifically, beat induction), and is similar to how fireflies synchronize their flashes.
There's a neural deficiency known as [beat deafness](_URL_1_) that prevents people from being able to detect the beat in music. This appears to be caused (in at least some cases) by issues with the left auditory cortex, which is involved in beat detection (as opposed to the right audio cortex, which detects harmonies).
So the short answer is "our brains are hard-wired to be able to find beats in music (including that produced by people around us in a crowd), and to coordinate our actions with that beat."
|
[
"By a sole speaker, it is a form of interjection. In a group, it takes the form of call and response: the cheer is initiated by one person exclaiming \"Three cheers for...[someone or something]\" (or, more archaically, \"Three times three\"), then calling out \"hip hip\" (archaically, \"hip hip hip\") three times, each time being responded by \"hooray\" or \"hurrah\".\n",
"In Deaf culture, Deaf audiences will use a more visually expressive variant of clapping. Instead of clapping their palms together, they raise their hands straight up with outstretched fingers and twist their wrists. However, in a situation more specific to hearing culture, the traditional clap is used.\n",
"A shout or ring shout is an ecstatic, transcendent religious ritual, first practiced by African slaves in the West Indies and the United States, in which worshipers move in a circle while shuffling and stomping their feet and clapping their hands. Despite the name, shouting aloud is not an essential part of the ritual.\n",
"This is actually a scream and not mere imagination. Just as some vessels bring the sound from your lungs to your lips, others bring it to the brain. You can draw the sound through these nerves, literally bringing it into your head. When you do this, you are actually shouting inside your brain.\n",
"The talking drum is an hourglass-shaped drum from West Africa, whose pitch can be regulated to mimic the tone and prosody of human speech. It has two drumheads connected by leather tension cords, which allow the player to modulate the pitch of the drum by squeezing the cords between their arm and body. A skilled player is able to play whole phrases. Most talking drums sound like a human humming depending on the way they are played. Similar hourglass-shaped drums are found in Asia, but they are not used to mimic speech, although the idakka is used to mimic vocal music. \n",
"\"Shouting\" often took place during or after a Christian prayer meeting or worship service. Men and women moved in a circle in a counterclockwise direction, shuffling their feet, clapping, and often spontaneously singing or praying aloud. In Jamaica and Trinidad the shout was usually performed around a special second altar near the center of a church building. In the Sea Islands of Georgia and South Carolina, shouters formed a circle outdoors, around the church building itself.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Yelling:\" When people yell, raise their voices, or talk in a mean tone, they fuel their own anger. Many are unaware when they start to raise their voices. People should ask others to respond when the volume is rising and thank them.\n"
] |
if i drive 5 miles going 40 mph vs. the same 5 miles going 80 mph, will one require more gas than the other?
|
The short answer is that at those speeds yes, air resistance increases and going 80 will take more fuel. If you stick your hand out of the car window when doing both of those speeds you will notice that the air pushes harder on your hand at 80mph. The car engine needs to output more power to hold the speed because the resistance is higher, and thus needs more fuel to do so.
Now going slower using less fuel is not always true. With a modern car the highest fuel efficiency is somewhere around 35-40mph. If for example you did that 5 miles at 5 mph the car would actually use more fuel than at 40 miles per hour. This is because there is some base amount of energy the engine needs to just keep itself running and that becomes a much higher percentage of the total energy used to travel the set distance.
|
[
"On test by \"Autocar\" average fuel consumption for the total distance of 1404 miles proved to be 14.7 miles per gallon or 19.2 L/100 km. The maximum speed of the car was a (mean) of 113.5 mph, 182.6 km/h and the best run 114 or 183.2 km/h.\n",
"BULLET::::- Gas mileage is below average (11-13L/100 km or 18.1–21.4mpg city, 10-11L/100 km or 21.4–23.5mpg highway); the small 4-cyl engine needs to work a bit harder owing to the power to weight ratio of the vehicle, compared with today's 6-cyl engines. The addition of the supercharger slightly improves power and gives better fuel consumption.\n",
"Vehicles with trailers or semis must travel at 10 km/h less than the speed limit for their category, when out of localities. Overweight automobiles, trucks and buses or those transporting oversized or dangerous products have a speed limit of 30 km/h in localities and 60 km/h out of localities. Also, drivers with less than one year of experience or learning how to drive must travel at 20 km/h less than the speed limit for their category, when out of localities, or with 10 km/h less than the speed limit when they are in a locality.\n",
"The average fuel consumption is just 4.2 litres per 100 kilometers; the emission value is 98 grams of CO2 per kilometer. In contrast, the driving values are a top speed of 227 km/h and a sprint time of 8.6 seconds from 0 to 100 km/h.\n",
"BULLET::::- A 2005 study demonstrated that cars running on lithium-ion batteries out-perform both compressed air and fuel cell vehicles more than threefold at the same speeds. MDI claimed in 2007 that an air car will be able to travel 140 km in urban driving, and have a range of 80 km with a top speed of on highways, when operating on compressed air alone but as of August 2017 have yet to produce a vehicle that matches this performance.\n",
"Widely used numbers are that a car traveling at 60 mph will require about 225 feet to stop, a distance it will cover just under 6 seconds. Nevertheless, highway travel often occurs with considerable safety with tip-to-tail headways on the order of 2 seconds. That's because the user's reaction time is about 1.5 seconds so 2 seconds allows for a slight overlap that makes up for any difference in braking performance between the two cars.\n",
"The speed limit in localities is set at 50 km/h, but the owner of the road (usually the state) can apply for permission to raise it up to 80 km/h for automobiles and motorcycles or decrease it as low as 10 km/h for tramways and 30 km/h for automobiles. It is because of this that some city boulevards have a speed limit of 60 km/h, and some National Road stretches that pass through villages have a speed limit of 55 km/h.\n"
] |
what was happening in north america during the bible?
|
Natives. Literally.
If we look at the bible as a semi-historical text, it goes back a few thousand years.
People started migrating over the Land Bridge into North America from Asia before that. Meaning that while David fought Goliath, Geronima was chasing the buffalo. While Moses led the Jews out of Egypt, Sacagawea was helping prepare food. While Jesus was sitting at the last supper, Squanto was deciding whether or not to travel to the winter camp.
The Natives have little written history, and even that which does exist, in drawings and oral history has been destroyed. We can't tell what exactly was happening, but we have a decent idea that the Native Americans were just living their lives. Like the Picts were living their lives, the Japanese were living their's, and the Australians, and Indians, etc.
Edited for political correctness, because apparently English versions of Native Names are racist.
|
[
"It seems a link between the colonial Bible Belt (the North, especially New England with its Puritan heritage) and the later Southern Bible Belt may be seen in the impact which some Northern figures had on the religious development of the South (perhaps not incomparable to the origins of Mormonism in the North, in spite of its later association with Utah). \"The centre of Particular Baptist activity in early America was in the Middle Colonies. In 1707 five churches in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware were united to form the Philadelphia Baptist Association, and through the association they embarked upon vigorous missionary activity. By 1760 the Philadelphia association included churches located in the present states of Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Virginia, and West Virginia; and by 1767 further multiplication of churches had necessitated the formation of two subsidiary associations, the Warren in New England and the Ketochton in Virginia. The Philadelphia association also provided leadership in organizing the Charleston Association in the Carolinas in 1751.\" An influential figure was Shubal Stearns: \"Shubael Stearns, a New England Separate Baptist, migrated to Sandy Creek, North Carolina, in 1755 and initiated a revival that quickly penetrated the entire Piedmont region. The churches he organized were brought together in 1758 to form the Sandy Creek Association\". Stearns was brother-in-law of Daniel Marshall, who was born in Windsor, Connecticut and \"is generally considered the first great Baptist leader in Georgia. He founded Kiokee Baptist Church, the oldest continuing Baptist congregation in the state\". Also, Wait Palmer, of Toland, Connecticut, may have influenced African American Christianity in the South: \"The Silver Bluff, South Carolina, revival was a seminal development, whose role among blacks rivalled that played by the Sandy Creek revival of the Separate Baptists, to which it was indirectly related. It was probably the same Wait Palmer who had baptized Shubal Stearns in 1751 who came to Silver Bluff in 1775, baptizing and constituting a church. Abraham Marshall, who encouraged the later offshoots, was a Separate Baptist of the Sandy Creek school. The revival at the Silver Bluff plantation of George Galphin (some twelve miles from Augusta, Georgia) had brought David George to the Afro-Baptist faith and had provided a ministry for George Liele\". According to Thomas S. Kidd, \"As early as 1758, Sandy Creek missionaries helped organize a slave congregation, the Bluestone Church, on the plantation of William Byrd III, which may have been the first independently functioning African American church in North America. The church did not last long, but it reflected the Baptists' commitment to evangelizing African Americans\". And according to Gayraud S. Wilmore, \"The preaching of New England Congregationalists such as Jonathan Edwards about the coming millennium, and his conviction that Christians were called to prepare for it, reached the slaves through the far-ranging missionary work of white evangelists such as Shubal Stearns, Wait Palmer, and Matthew Moore - all of whom left Congregationalism and became Separatist Baptist preachers in the plantation country of Virginia, North and South Carolina, and Georgia\".\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Mamusse Wunneetupanatamwe Up-Biblum God\" (aka: \"Algonquian Bible\") was the first Bible printed in the Americas in 1663. The English Puritan missionary John Eliot produced a translation of the Geneva Bible into the Indian Massachusett language.\n",
"The beginning of the church's work in North America is usually given as 1740, when Bishop August Gottlieb Spangenberg sent Christian Henry Rauch to New York City on a mission to preach and convert native peoples. Eager to learn more, the Mahican chiefs \"Tschoop\" and \"Shabash\" invited Rauch to visit their village (in present-day Dutchess County) to teach them. In September 1740, they led him to \"Shekomeko\", where he established a Moravian mission. The two Indian chiefs converted to the Christian faith. By summer 1742, Shekomeko was established as the first native Christian congregation in the present-day United States. Over the next two years, the Moravians endeavored to reconcile the ancient Indian traditions with the new ways of the western society. They made a center for missions to the native peoples. Within the next two years, several more missionaries along with their wives began to settle in the area. Among these were Gottlob Buettner and his wife, Anna Margaret Bechtel, daughter of a minister. Meanwhile, European settlers who opposed the Moravians' defense of Native Americans spread rumors that they were secret Catholic Jesuits allied with the French, British enemies. Such settlers finally were successful in persuading the colonial governor Clinton to restrict the missionaries' efforts. They were expelled in 1744. Buettner died at Shekomeko early in 1745, and the colony dwindled away soon after.\n",
"Mennonites first came to North America as early as 1644. The first permanent settlement was in the Germantown, Pennsylvania area when a group of 34 Mennonites and Quakers from Krefeld, Germany arrived in 1683. A total of 4000 Mennonites and 200 Amish, a closely related group, settled in eastern Pennsylvania by the 1820s. This group tended to separate from their neighbors because of refusal to participate in the American Revolution, opposition to public education and rejection of religious revivalism.\n",
"This movement continued in North America as various congregations arose from one coast to another, in answer to the needs of the large emigrant communities that were flooding the cities of the United States and Canada.\n",
"Christianity was introduced to North America as it was colonized by Europeans beginning in the 16th and 17th centuries. The Spanish, French, and British brought Roman Catholicism to the colonies of New Spain, New France and Maryland respectively, while Northern European peoples introduced Protestantism to Massachusetts Bay Colony, New Netherland, Virginia colony, Carolina Colony, Newfoundland and Labrador, and Lower Canada. Among Protestants, adherents to Anglicanism, Methodism, the Baptist Church, Congregationalism, Presbyterianism, Lutheranism, Quakerism, Mennonite and Moravian Church were the first to settle in the US, spreading their faith in the new country. Notwithstanding this commonplace timeline, scholars of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints assert that Christianity was first introduced to the Americas approximately 34 A.D., according to what is recorded in 3 Nephi Chapter 43, which chronicles the appearance of Jesus Christ to the Native Americans.\n",
"The last advance covered most of northern North America between c. 95,000 and c. 20,000 years before the present day and, among other geomorphological effects, gouged out the five Great Lakes and the hosts of smaller lakes of the Canadian Shield. These lakes extend from the eastern Northwest Territories, through most of northern Canada, and the upper Midwestern United States (Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan) to the Finger Lakes, through Lake Champlain and Lake George areas of New York, across the northern Appalachians into and through all of New England and Nova Scotia.\n"
] |
Humans at one point used to see slavery as a positive good. At what time did this change to where now modern humans are disgusted by its practice?
|
I can only speak of the American slave trade, and not anything that happened before 1492, but as far as the Transatlantic slave trade goes, slavery was never seen universally as a positive good.
Bartolomé de las Casas was a contemporary of Christopher Columbus's and participated in early expeditions to America. He criticized the practice of slavery vehemently, and wrote a book called [*A Brief Account of the Destruction of the Indies*](_URL_3_) that was published in 1542. The light he shed on what was happening in the Americas led to the banning of slavery by Spain, at least for the time being.
Jumping forward and north to British North America, in the first decades of colonization of the future U.S., there wasn't yet full slavery. There was indentured servitude, which still guaranteed some rights to those servants (not splitting up families, you could take your master to court, things like that). In the 1640s and 50s, outright slavery began to be instituted and it was more or less immediately criticized.
Quaker leader George Fox wrote in support of the slaves' struggle [as early as 1657](_URL_1_).
In 1673, Puritan leader Richard Baxter published [*A Christian directory, or, A summ of practical theologie and cases of conscience*](_URL_0_) which speaks against the evils of slavery.
In 1684, Thomas Tryon published ["The Negro's Complaint of Their Hard Servitude, and the Cruelties Practised upon Them"](_URL_4_), another anti-slavery text.
In 1688, the people of Germantown, Pennsylvania, signed a document now called the ["1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery"](_URL_2_) admonishing the practice of slavery and calling for its end.
From that same year, there is also ["Oroonoko or The Royal Slave"](_URL_5_), a work of fiction published in London that often ridicules the practice.
It took many decades for slavery to become normalized in the American South, and it never became normalized in the North. New York was the only state north of Maryland where it ever took off, but never to the same extent as in the slave states. Future slavery was banned in New York pretty much the moment that the American Revolution ended. But by then, it had become a widely accepted practice in Maryland, Virginia, and all points south, which led to it being protected in those states when the U.S. Constitution was written.
|
[
"In the 19th century, proponents of slavery often defended the institution as a \"necessary evil\". White people of that time feared that emancipation of black slaves would have more harmful social and economic consequences than the continuation of slavery. The French writer and traveler Alexis de Tocqueville, in \"Democracy in America\" (1835), expressed opposition to slavery while observing its effects on American society. He felt that a multiracial society without slavery was untenable, as he believed that prejudice against blacks increased as they were granted more rights. Others, like James Henry Hammond argued that slavery was a \"positive good\" stating: \"Such a class you must have, or you would not have that other class which leads progress, civilization, and refinement.\"\n",
"This represented a shift in ideology regarding the moral nature of slavery after the Missouri Compromise of 1820, in which many people began to see slavery not as a \"great evil\" as they did in the late 18th century, but rather, in the words of 19th century South Carolinian Democrat John C. Calhoun, a \"positive good\". As a result of this shift, laws began to be passed throughout southern slave states that restricted the emancipation of slaves, something that was somewhat common during the late 18th century around the time of the American Revolution, where slave owners such as Edward Coles and Robert Carter freed their slaves using the American Enlightenment principles of the colonial revolutionaries as their inspiration. Abraham Lincoln noticed this shift in ideology, writing in an 1855 letter to a friend that:\n",
"Until the middle of the 18th century, slavery was practiced with little challenge anywhere in the world. For centuries philosophers as varied as Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas, and John Locke accepted slavery as part of a proper social system. However, across Europe through the last part of the 18th century there were intellectual antislavery arguments based on Enlightenment thought, as well as moral arguments (notably among Quakers, in Great Britain and the United States) which questioned the legitimacy of slavery. Only in the American Revolutionary War era did slavery first become a significant social issue in North America. In the North, beginning during the Revolution and continuing through the first decade of the next century, state by state emancipation was achieved by legislation or lawsuit although in the larger slaveholding states such as New York and Pennsylvania emancipation was gradual. By 1810, 75% of Northern slaves had been freed and virtually all were freed within the next generation.\n",
"For Southern slave owners who were faced with the abolitionist movement to end slavery, the curse of Ham was one of the only grounds upon which Christian slave owners could formulate an ideological defense of slavery. Even before slavery, in order to promote economic motivations within Europe associated with colonialism, the curse of Ham was used to shift the common Aristotelian belief that phenotypic differentiation among humans was a result of climatic difference, to a racialist perspective that phenotypic differentiation among the species was due to there being different racial types. This latter effort started in England. Englishmen were widely afraid to further the colonial efforts of The Crown and begin a new life in lower latitude colonies for fear of becoming black. In 1578, George Best, a sea captain who was a member of the Elizabethan court, first popularized the myth of racial differences within what would be a widely read book on the search for a Northwest passage to Asia. Best uses careful ethnographic descriptions to portray the indigenous peoples of the North West as being sophisticated hunters and gatherers, not different in spirit than the white Englishmen, at the same time he presents a scathing account of Africans, saying of them that they are a \"black and loathsome\" people on account of being descendants of the “cursed chus\". Interestingly, Best doesn’t mention the curse as lying upon Ham, but rather Chus. The fact is there is no indication in Genesis proper that can be used to justify racism and slavery, but the vagueness of Genesis 9-11 coupled with a damning curse from an important biblical patriarch was used as propaganda to influence popular belief by racist Christians who were trying to further particular agendas. The historian David Whiteford writes of a “curse matrix” which was derived from the vagueness of genesis 9 and interpreted to mean that it didn’t matter who was cursed or what group of people the curse originated with, all that mattered was that there was a vague reference to a generational curse that could be exploited any which way by agenda-driven racists like George Best.\n",
"In \"The Rise of American Civilization\" (1927), Charles and Mary Beard argue that slavery was not so much a social or cultural institution as an economic one (a labor system). The Beards cited inherent conflicts between Northeastern finance, manufacturing, and commerce and Southern plantations, which competed to control the federal government so as to protect their own interests. According to the economic determinists of the era, both groups used arguments over slavery and states' rights as a cover.\n",
"In the 19th century, proponents of slavery often defended the institution as a \"necessary evil\". White people of that time feared that emancipation of black slaves would have more harmful social and economic consequences than the continuation of slavery. In 1820, Thomas Jefferson, one of the Founding Fathers of the United States, wrote in a letter that with slavery:\n",
"At the beginning of the century, strong discrimination based on race and sex was significant in general society. Although the Atlantic slave trade had ended in the 19th century, the fight for equality for non-white people in the white-dominated societies of North America, Europe, and South Africa continued. During the century, the social taboo of sexism fell. By the end of the 20th century, women had the same legal rights as men in many parts of the world, and racism had come to be seen as abhorrent. Attitudes towards homosexuality also began to change in the later part of the century.\n"
] |
Do videos and photos help children remember their early childhoods?
|
Yes and no? Depends on how you would define memory I guess.
When we recall something we rewrite said memory in the way we recalled it at that moment. Stuff we miss-remember becomes part of the memory and stuff we leave out will be forgotten. This has all kinds of implications like the setting in which we remember something influencing the content of the memory, memories that have been recalled many times tend to have more (falsely) added details etc. This is the basic function behind the false memory phenomenon.
So if you were to remind a child of an event, either through photographs or story telling or whatever, you aren't necessarily reinforcing their memory, you are reinforcing your representation of it.
|
[
"The types of childhood memories that an adult recalls may be linked to personality. Research into memory in both children and adults reminiscing about childhood memories is not well-established, but considerable attention has been devoted to assessing the validity of strategies that can be used to recall early memories, particularly in situations where the accuracy of recall is critical, such as reports of child abuse. Some people claim to have vivid memories from very early ages, while others remember life events beginning around age five. Variables that affect age of first childhood memory include early family environments. One such factor is maternal reminiscing style. There is a long-lasting improvement in autobiographical memory in children whose mothers used an elaborative style of conversation after experiencing an event with the child. Autobiographical memory improves with age along with semantic knowledge of the world and ability to construct a coherent life narrative, but age and gender may influence ability to recall early memories. One study found that older adolescents and females perform better on both episodic autobiographical memory and memory for everyday events, given that females tend to provide more emotional, accurate, vivid, and detailed recollections, although conditions of high retrieval support (probing questions) reduced this sex difference. \n",
"Moreover, children often have a limited vocabulary, a desire to please the officer, or difficulty answering questions because of trauma. Using early childhood memories in eyewitness testimony can also be challenging because for the first 1–2 years of life, brain structures such as the limbic system, which holds the hippocampus and the amygdala and is involved in memory storage, are not yet fully developed. Research has demonstrated that children can remember events from before the age of 3–4 years, but that these memories decline as children get older (see childhood amnesia).\n",
"Very few adults have memories from before 2.5 years old. Those who do report memories from before this age usually cannot tell the difference between personal memory of the event and simple knowledge of it, which may have come from other sources. Events from after the age of 10 years are relatively easy to remember correctly, whereas memories from the age of 2 are more often confused with false images and memories. Memories from early childhood (around age two) are susceptible to false suggestion, making them less trustworthy. These should be treated with caution, especially if they have severe consequences. Imagining details of a false event can encourage the generation of false memories. Studies have shown that people who merely imagine a childhood event are more likely to believe that it happened to them compared to events they did not imagine. This term has been coined imagination inflation and shows that merely imagining an event can make it seem more plausible that it really happened. Using the same paradigm, people that are shown a doctored photograph of themselves as a child in an event that never occurred can create false memories of the event by imagining the event over time. Therefore, this implies that it would be possible for false memories to be generated in and/or fed by a court case. This concern has led the APA to advise caution in accepting memories of physically and sexually abusive events from before the age of 2. However they also recommend that these memories not be entirely discounted, due to the heinous nature of the crimes.\n",
"Some research suggests that until around the age of 4, children cannot form context-rich memories. Although more evidence is needed, the relative lack of episodic memories of early childhood may be linked to maturation of prefrontal cortex. It also suggest adults can access fragment memories (isolated moments without context, often remembered as images, behaviors, or emotions) from around age 3, whereas event memories are usually recalled from slightly later. This is similar to research showing the difference between personal recollections and known events. Known memories change to more personal recollections at approximately 4.7 years old.\n",
"By school age, the typical child shows skill in recalling details of past experiences and in organizing those details into a narrative form with cohesion. Memories formed at this age and beyond are more likely to stand the test of time over the years and be recalled in adulthood, compared to earlier memories. Young children can sometimes retain information from specific episodes over very long periods of time, but the particular information a child of a particular age is likely to retain over different periods of time is unpredictable. This depends on the nature of the memory event and individual differences in the child such as gender, parental style of communication, and language ability.\n",
"\"The Children Remember\" is an 87-minute film that brings together a revealing and stirring collection of oral history spoken by thirteen candid survivors of life in the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s at the Minnesota State School for Dependent and Neglected Children. It was completed in 2002, after a two-year production process. The film was the winner of the Bill Snyder Award for Best Documentary Feature at the 2003 Fargo Film Festival Fargo Film Festival and was selected as one of the Best of Fest at the 2003 Minneapolis-St. Paul International Film Festival.\n",
"In one of her papers co-authored with Mandler, Bauer tested the ability of toddlers to remember events and whether their abilities were comparable to those of preschool-age children as well as adults. This study demonstrated the importance of causal connections and temporal structure in supporting children's earliest event memories. Toddlers, like older children and adults, are more likely to remember a series of events if causal relationships were present that linked the elements in the series. Other notable work on the development of memory is Bauer and colleagues' SRCD monograph on \"Parameters of Remembering and Forgetting in the Transition from Infancy to Early Childhood.\"\n"
] |
/r/darknetplan
|
So websites have names. The place that has all these names is called ICANN. When you type in a website name, ICANN tells you the address for you to go to so you can get to that website. A lot of other fancy stuff happens that makes the information get from one place to another.
This is good most of the time. Remember a name, get to a website. The big problem is that because all of this information runs through ICANN, among other systems, it's easy to see who was looking for what. That means people can watch what you're doing on the internet. This is important.
Now, say you don't want people to know what you're doing, whether you're talking bad about your government, peddling illegal wares, or just exercising your right to privacy. You need a new way to transfer info without the internet. A darknet will do that. It is an untraceable way to communicate with other over a network.
/r/darknetplan is a just a way for people to organize the best procedure and method of creating this theoretical "darknet".
An alternative option is an easier but less secure method, generally known as an "undernet". It's not completely untraceable like the darknet, but still has more anonymity than the normal internet. TOR is an example of this.
|
[
"Darkforest is a computer go program developed by Facebook, based on deep learning techniques using a convolutional neural network. Its updated version Darkfores2 combines the techniques of its predecessor with Monte Carlo tree search. The MCTS effectively takes tree search methods commonly seen in computer chess programs and randomizes them. With the update, the system is known as Darkfmcts3.\n",
"DarkEden is a free-to-play massively multiplayer online role-playing computer game in isometric projection or 3/4 perspective developed and published by SOFTON. The game has a horror theme based on a war between humans (Slayers), vampires and Ousters in a region called Helea located in a fictional country of Eastern Europe known as Eslania. The original version of the game, and the most advanced one, is the Korean one from which several other versions have been derived from such as the Japanese, Chinese, Thai and International versions. The Thai and international versions are currently closed.\n",
"Darken is a completed webcomic set in a \"Dungeons & Dragons\"-style fantasy world, featuring a cast of morally ambiguous or outright evil characters led by Gort, lord of hellfire. It is based on a story by Mike Foulks.\n",
"Darkforest uses a neural network to sort through the 10 board positions, and find the most powerful next move. However, neural networks alone cannot match the level of good amateur players or the best search-based Go engines, and so Darkfores2 combines the neural network approach with a search-based machine. A database of 250,000 real Go games were used in the development of Darkforest, with 220,000 used as a training set and the rest used to test the neural network's ability to predict the next moves played in the real games. This allows Darkforest to accurately evaluate the global state of the board, but local tactics were still poor. Search-based engines have poor global evaluation, but are good at local tactics. Combining these two approaches is difficult because search-based engines work much faster than neural networks, a problem which was solved in Darkfores2 by running the processes in parallel with frequent communication between the two.\n",
"Darkon is an award-winning feature-length documentary film that follows the real-life adventures of the Darkon Wargaming Club in Baltimore, Maryland, a group of fantasy live-action role-playing (LARP) gamers. The film was directed by Andrew Neel and Luke Meyer.\n",
"The \"Darkstalkers\" games take place on the planet Earth that is in the process of merging with a realm known as Makai. The reason for this merger varies depending on the continuity, but a continuing theme is that the union of realms brings the arrival of the Darkstalkers to the human world, the term being a catch-all for the various creatures of legend. The greatest of these supernatural creatures, and the greatest among those who hunt them, meet in battle to determine who will rule the night.\n",
"Darktrace was founded in 2013 by mathematicians from the University of Cambridge and individuals with cyber operations experience at intelligence agencies. Its Enterprise Immune System technology uses AI and unsupervised machine learning to autonomously detect and take action against cyber-threats across all diverse digital environments, including cloud and virtual environments, Internet of Things, and industrial control systems.\n"
] |
what causes baseball pitchers speed to be capped at approximately 105 mph?
|
I recall reading a popular mechanics article about this. One interesting aspect was that the amount of torque needed to throw the ball in excess of 105 mph corresponded roughly to the point where a certain ligament in the elbow would tear.
For reference:
_URL_0_
|
[
"How has pitch velocity gone up so much? Mostly by the development of better training and clearer communication within the baseball community that velocity is so valued. People like Tom House, Eric Cressey, Kyle Boddy, and Ron Wolforth have all pushed the edge and dedicated careers to research on what makes the ultimate pitcher. Pitchers are getting bigger, faster and stronger, and pushing their bodies in the weight room as well as with weighted ball throwing. All of this has created a faster, more powerful game for pitchers on the mound today. \n",
"Scientists contend that the theoretical maximum speed that a pitcher can throw is slightly above . Beyond that the pitcher would cause himself a serious injury. There is no doubt that a pitcher who can throw at 100 mph+ is rare, with only a small handful of pitchers every generation being capable of this feat.\n",
"In fastpitch softball, a \"windmill\" style of pitching is utilized, as the pitcher's arm makes a complete backward rotation before completing the pitch. With this style of pitching, elite male pitchers have been known to reach around 70 mph.\n",
"The velocity of this pitch also varies greatly from pitcher to pitcher. At the major collegiate level and higher, two-seam fastballs are typically thrown in the low 90s (MPH), but with much variation. Pitchers such as Greg Maddux, Bob Stanley, Brandon McCarthy, David Price, and Eddie Guardado are notable for having success at the major-league levels with two-seam fastballs in the mid 80s to lower 90s.\n",
"What is likely happening is that the pitcher first throws a fastball at one speed, and then, using an identical arm motion, throws another fastball at a higher speed. The higher-speed fastball arrives faster and sinks less due to its high speed. The added back-spin from the higher speed further decreases the amount of sink. When the pitch is thrown, the batter expects a fastball at the same speed, yet it arrives more quickly and at a higher level. The batter perceives it as a fastball which has risen and increased in speed. A switch from a two-seam to a fastball can enhance this effect.\n",
"The fastball is the most common type of pitch thrown by pitchers in baseball and softball. \"Power pitchers,\" such as former American major leaguers Nolan Ryan and Roger Clemens, rely on speed to prevent the ball from being hit, and have thrown fastballs at speeds of (officially) and up to (unofficially). Pitchers who throw more slowly can put movement on the ball, or throw it on the outside of home plate where batters can't easily reach it.\n",
"Fastpitch pitches may reach high speeds; At the 1996 Summer Olympics one pitch reached . Male pitching can reach speeds around . To compare, MLB players average around 90 mph but can reach speeds up to 100 mph.\n"
] |
Does the availability of Narcan (naloxone) encourage opioid use?
|
This [National Academy of Sciences review paper](_URL_0_) cites several studies showing that Narcan is associated with lower overall heroin use, fewer opioid-related ER visits, and fewer deaths due to opioid OD. I assume your thought process is that people are more likely to take a more risky dose if they know their buddy is there with Narcan.
Here’s an example of the thought process of some drug users that results in the opposite: opioid users are generally not happy when you hit them with Narcan. First, you’ve completely ruined what I have to imagine was great high, even if it was life-threatening. Second, not only did you ruin it, but they are now actively in withdrawal, and no one is happy to be in opioid withdrawal.
There is one way that Narcan does encourage opioid use, but not how you expect. Buprenorphine is a drug used for opioid addicts among others. It’s a very high affinity partial agonist of opioid receptors; where rubber meets road, this means it stimulates the opioid receptors enough to keep withdrawals manageable (in theory), but will out-compete any other opioids the person takes, making them useless. Buprenorphine is also given compounded with naloxone to further prevent abuse of other opioids. Because these drugs technically still stimulate opioid receptors, they do have some street value (apparently higher than methadone according to the same article). In that sense they do encourage opioid use, but they encourage use of themselves while discouraging use of other opioids.
|
[
"Naloxone is a drug used to counter an overdose from the effect of opioids; for example, a heroin or morphine overdose. Naloxone displaces the opioid molecules from the brain's receptors and reverses the respiratory depression caused by an overdose within two to eight minutes. The World Health Organization (WHO) includes naloxone on their \"List of Essential Medicines\", and recommends its availability and utilization for the reversal of opioid overdoses.\n",
"Buprenorphine/naloxone has been found to be effective for treating opioid dependence, and serves as a recommended first line medication according to the U.S. National Institute on Drug Abuse. The medication is an effective maintenance therapy for opioid dependence and has generally similar efficacy to methadone, which are both substantially more effective than abstinence-based treatment.\n",
"If naloxone is administered in the absence of concomitant opioid use, no functional pharmacological activity occurs, except the inability for the body to combat pain naturally. In contrast to direct opiate agonists, which elicit opiate withdrawal symptoms when discontinued in opiate-tolerant people, no evidence indicates the development of tolerance or dependence on naloxone. The mechanism of action is not completely understood, but studies suggest it functions to produce withdrawal symptoms by competing for opiate receptor sites within the CNS (a competitive antagonist, not a direct agonist), thereby preventing the action of both endogenous and xenobiotic opiates on these receptors without directly producing any effects itself.\n",
"Buprenorphine/naloxone is used for the treatment of opioid use disorder. Long term outcomes are generally better with use of buprenorphine/naloxone than attempts at stopping opioid use altogether. This includes a lower risk of overdose with medication use. Due to the high binding affinity and low activation at the opioid receptor, cravings and withdrawal for opioids are decreased while preventing a person from getting high and relapsing on another opioid. The combination of the two medications is preferred over buprenorphine alone for maintenance treatment due to the presence of naloxone in the formulation, which helps function as an abuse deterrent, especially against intravenous use.\n",
"Naloxone is used for the emergency treatment of an overdose. It can be given by many routes (e.g., intramuscular, intravenous, subcutaneous, intranasal, and inhalation) and acts quickly by displacing opioids from opioid receptors and preventing activation of these receptors by opioids. Naloxone kits are recommended for laypersons who may witness an opioid overdose, for individuals with large prescriptions for opioids, those in substance use treatment programs, or who have been recently released from incarceration. Since this is a life-saving medication, many areas of the United States have implemented standing orders for law enforcement to carry and give naloxone as needed. In addition, naloxone could be used to challenge a person's opioid abstinence status prior to starting a medication such as naltrexone, which is used in the management of opioid addiction.\n",
"The FDA authorized use of injectable naltrexone for opioid addiction using a single study that was led by Evgeny Krupitsky at Bekhterev Research Psychoneurological Institute, St Petersburg State Pavlov Medical University, St Petersburg, Russia, a country where opioid agonists such as methadone and buprenorphine are not available. The study was a \"double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized\", 24-week trial running \"from July 3, 2008, through October 5, 2009\" with \"250 patients with opioid dependence disorder\" at \"13 clinical sites in Russia\" on the use of injectable naltrexone (XR-NTX) for opioid dependence. The study was funded by the Boston-based biotech Alkermes firm which produces and markets naltrexone in the United States. A 2011 article reported that this single trial of naltrexone was performed not by comparing it to the best available, evidence-based treatment (methadone or buprenorphine), but by comparing it with a placebo. A subsequent RCT in Norway did compare injectable naltrexone to buprenorphine and found them to be similar in outcomes.\n",
"The distribution of naloxone to injection drug users and other opioid drug users decreases the risk of death from overdose. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that U.S. programs for drug users and their caregivers prescribing take-home doses of naloxone and training on its utilization are estimated to have prevented 10,000 opioid overdose deaths. Healthcare institution-based naloxone prescription programs have also helped reduce rates of opioid overdose in the U.S. state of North Carolina, and have been replicated in the U.S. military. Nevertheless, scale-up of healthcare-based opioid overdose interventions is limited by providers' insufficient knowledge and negative attitudes towards prescribing take-home naloxone to prevent opioid overdose. Programs training police and fire personnel in opioid overdose response using naloxone have also shown promise in the U.S.\n"
] |
how are horses taught to respond to the controls of the rider?
|
Repetition and reward. It's a long process to train a horse, and there are different methods (Western vs English mainly) but it all boils down to repetition and reward. Just like teaching a dog to sit, or a toddler to use the potty.
Thanks Pavlov
|
[
"The simulators are controlled two different ways. The instructor mode is by pressing buttons on the side of the simulators to start, speed up, slow down or stop the horse whilst the rider mode is aid sensitive in the form of squeezing his/her leg on a side sensor panel to start the ride and squeezing again to speed up. To slow down or stop, the rider has to pull the reins.\n",
"For the rider, the turn on the haunches can teach coordination of aids, as the rider must balance both the driving and restraining aids, as well as maintain the correct bend using the inside leg pushing into the outside aids.\n",
"The rider is judged on a proper classical position. This includes evaluating leg position, seat, hands, balance, and rhythm. The rider is to be relaxed and not interfere with the horse's movement, but able to make full use of all riding aids. The rider and horse should have unity, and the rider should use the aids correctly and efficiently.\n",
"Riding school horses, who hear instructors telling the pupils what do to, are known to obey spoken commands, which sometimes gives the false impression that the horse is obeying the rider. Likewise, experienced show horses will sometimes respond to the commands for changes of gait given by the announcer over the public address system rather than listening to their riders.\n",
"Riders need to be familiar with their horses' resting and working heart and respiration rates and know when an animal is stressed. This is an important part of the conditioning routine to ensure that a rider is able to anticipate the results at a P&R check in competition.\n",
"Good training of the rider will aim to produce someone with an \"independent seat\", meaning someone who is able to give the aids independent of each other (without, for example, sitting forward while adding leg). The rider's first task is to learn to ride the horse \"without\" interfering: keeping a steady contact with the bit, sitting in a balanced, relaxed position that allows them to absorb the horse's movement, and keeping a steady, quiet leg that does not pinch, bounce, or push forward or back. Only then will the rider be able to really start to influence the horse in such a way to help it.\n",
"The riders compete as a group at the same time, traveling around the outer edge of the arena. All contestants, at the command of the event's judge, are asked to have their horse walk, jog (a slow trot), and lope both directions in an arena, as well as to stand quietly and back up readily.This may seem easy to some, but actually involves more types of riding skills than the casual observer may realize. The judge looks at every detail. In addition, many judges will ask for extended gaits, particularly an extended jog and, in some breeds, the hand gallop.\n"
] |
Did Salmon Evolve From Freshwater Fish Or Saltwater Fish?
|
[This book](_URL_0_) says that there has been "considerable debate" as to whether they evolved from freshwater or saltwater fish and the most recent theories suggest that they evolved from fish that were already able to survive in fresh and salt water.
Originally though, all fish evolved in the sea and it must have been a strong advantage to be able to survive in fresh (or brackish) water and lay eggs there, away from predators.
|
[
"Today, many sea fish, such as fresh herring, tuna, mackerel, salmon and sardines, are well established throughout the country. Prior to the industrial revolution and the ensuing pollution of the rivers, salmon were common in the rivers Rhine, Elbe, and Oder and only slowly started to return along with a growing consciousness for environmental questions and resulting measures, such as state-of-the-art sewage plants, reduction of agricultural deposits, et cetera.\n",
"Some of the best-known anadromous fishes are the Pacific salmon species, such as Chinook (king), coho (silver), chum (dog), pink (humpback) and sockeye (red) salmon. These salmon hatch in small freshwater streams. From there they migrate to the sea to mature, living there for two to six years. When mature, the salmon return to the same streams where they were hatched to spawn. Salmon are capable of going hundreds of kilometers upriver, and humans must install fish ladders in dams to enable the salmon to get past. Other examples of anadromous fishes are sea trout, three-spined stickleback, sea lamprey and shad.\n",
"Atlantic salmon do not require saltwater. Numerous examples of fully freshwater (i.e., \"landlocked\") populations of the species exist throughout the Northern Hemisphere, including a now extinct population in Lake Ontario, which have been shown in recent studies to have spent their entire life cycle in watershed of the lake. In North America, the landlocked strains are frequently known as \"ouananiche\".\n",
"Salmon and other anadromous fish used the Salt River to get to tributaries in the Wildcat Hills where they spawned, and juveniles later matured before swimming downstream to the estuary and returning to the sea.\n",
"The smolt body chemistry changes, allowing them to live in salt water. While a few species of salmon remain in fresh water throughout their life cycle, the majority are anadromous and migrate to the ocean for maturation: in these species, smolts spend a portion of their out-migration time in brackish water, where their body chemistry becomes accustomed to osmoregulation in the ocean.\n",
"The fish lived in both freshwater and marine environments, first appearing during the Ordovician, and perishing during the Frasnian–Famennian extinction event of the Late Devonian. Traditionally they were considered predominantly deposit-feeding bottom dwellers, but more recent studies have showed they occupied various ecological roles in various parts of the water column, much like modern bony fishes and sharks. In particular, a large variety of species preferred reef ecosystems, and it has been suggested that this preference was the reason for the development of their unique scales, protecting against abrasion and allowing for the development of more flexible bodies than other jawless fish, which had inflexible armors and were restricted to open habitats.\n",
"The salmon has long been at the heart of the culture and livelihood of coastal dwellers, which can be traced as far back as 5,000 years when archeologists discovered Nisqually tribes remnants. The original distribution of the Genus Oncorhynchus covered the Pacific Rim coastline. History shows salmon used tributaries, rivers and estuaries without regard to jurisdiction for 18–22 million years. Baseline data is near impossible to recreate based on the inconsistent historical data, but confirmed there have been massive depletion since 1900s. The Pacific Northwest was once sprawled with native inhabitants who practiced eco management, to ensure little degradation was caused by their actions to salmon habitats. As animists, the indigenous people relied not only for salmon for food, but spiritual guidance. The role of the salmon spirit guided the people to respect ecological systems such as the rivers and tributaries the salmon used for spawning. Natives often used the entire fish and left no waste by creating items such turning the bladder into glue, bones for toys, and skin for clothing and shoes. The first salmon ceremony was introduced by indigenous tribes on the pacific coast, which consists of three major parts. First is the welcoming of the first catch, then comes the cooking and lastly, the return of the bones to the Sea to induce hospitality so that other salmon would give their lives to the people of that village. Many tribes such as the Yurok had a taboo against harvesting the first fish that swam upriver in summer, but once they confirmed that the salmon had returned in abundance they would begin to catch them in plentiful. The indigenous practices were guided by deep ecological wisdom, which was eradicated when Euro-American settlements began to be developed. Salmon have a much grander history than what is presently shown today. The Salmon that once dominated the Pacific Ocean are now just a fraction in population and size. The Pacific salmon population is now less than 1–3% of what it was when Lewis and Clark arrived at the region. In his 1908 State of the Union address, U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt observed that the fisheries were in significant decline:\n"
] |
Hi, taking the family on vacation to Niagra Falls soon, what was life like around the falls before the Europeans arrived?
|
There are some errors in /u/dbcanuck's post, at least if we're thinking of the area *prior* to the arrival of Europeans. A lot of what's said in that post more closely resembles a later colonial era view. The main issue is that dbcanuck skips over the people who were living in the immediate Niagara area at the time.
At the time of European contact, or perhaps slightly before, the the Erie had been living east of the Niagara River, with the Seneca being east of them (the Genesee Valley being the boundary). In traditional Iroquoian history, the Erie were once part of the Seneca - and thus part of the Haudenosaunee (the Iroquois Confederacy). Eventually they opted for autonomy and left the Haudenosaunee to form their own confederacy; there are two versions of this story - one that says the split happened during a war and another that says the split was peaceful but a war followed sometime later. Regardless, this war is said to be the reason that the Erie Confederacy moved from the eastern Niagara region to the eastern shore of Lake Erie.
Their departure left the area between the Niagara River and the Genesee River virtually uninhabited. The Seneca were eyeing it for themselves, but so were the Wenro. The Wenro were one of the nations of the Chonnonton / Neutral Nation that existed in southern Ontario west of the Niagara River. Incidentally, the Niagara are one of the other nations in this group and river and falls were named after them. I wrote more about Chonnonton culture in [this post](_URL_0_).
The Wenro crossed the Niagara River in the late 1620s, thinking the rest of the Chonnonton would back them up if they needed to fight the Seneca. Seneca called their bluff, and the Chonnonton decided to cut the Wenro loose rather than fight the entirety of the Haudenosaunee. Since they were on their own, the Wenro decided to cede the territory to the Seneca and evacuated to the Wendat (Huron) Confederacy north of Lake Ontario. [This map](_URL_1_) so the situation in 1630, just before the Wenro exodus (**EDIT**: I just notice that the map still has "St. Lawrence Iroquois" north of the Mohawk. This is inaccurate since the St. Lawrence Iroquoians lost a war against the Algonquins and ended up merging with the Wendat and the Mohawk. So in 1630, that area should be Algonquin.)
|
[
"French voyagers/explorers visited the area in the early 18th century. The first documented visit by an American (of European descent) was by Philander Prescott, who camped overnight at the falls in December 1832. Captain James Allen led a military expedition out of Fort Des Moines in 1844. Jacob Ferris described the Falls in his 1856 book \"The States and Territories of the Great West\".\n",
"Sir Walter Raleigh in his expedition to find the fabled city of El Dorado described what was possibly a \"tepui\" (table top mountain), and he is said to have been the first European to view Angel Falls, although these claims are considered far-fetched. Some historians state that the first European to visit the waterfall was , a Spanish explorer and governor from the 16th and 17th centuries. Other sources state that the first westerner to see the waterfall was the Spanish explorer Fèlix Cardona in 1927.\n",
"In 1860, Livingstone returned to the area and made a detailed study of the falls with John Kirk. Other early European visitors included Portuguese explorer Serpa Pinto, Czech explorer Emil Holub, who made the first detailed plan of the falls and its surroundings in 1875 (published in 1880), and British artist Thomas Baines, who executed some of the earliest paintings of the falls. Until the area was opened up by the building of the railway in 1905, though, the falls were seldom visited by other Europeans. Some writers believe that the Portuguese priest Gonçalo da Silveira was the first European to catch sight of the falls back in the sixteenth century.\n",
"The explorers John Speke and James Grant were the first Europeans to visit the present day MFCA in 1862. It was more thoroughly explored by Samuel and Florence Baker in 1863-4. Baker named the falls Murchison Falls after the geologist Roderick Murchison, then the president of the Royal Geographical Society.\n",
"The Campsie Fells have cemented their place in history as the birthplace of Scottish skiing, when W.W. Naismith of Glasgow skied the area, becoming the first ever man to ski in Scotland in March 1892.\n",
"Over the years since European settlement Waterfall Gully has suffered from both bushfires and flooding. The gully was severely hit by a number of bushfires in 1939 that threatened the area, and further bushfires in the early 1940s caused considerable damage because of the war effort diverting supplies and personnel from the Emergency Fire Service. Significant floods occurred in 1889 and 1931, and, on the night of 7 November 2005, Waterfall Gully was one of several areas in Adelaide to experience severe flooding. Waterfall Gully was one of the hardest hit suburbs: Bob Stevenson, Duty Officer of the State Emergency Service (SES), commented that \"There's an area called Waterfall Gully Road, in the foothills, where one of the creeks comes down, and there's quite a few houses affected there ... there was 40 or so houses affected on that one road alone.\" Properties were flooded, two bridges nearly collapsed, and of road was washed away. Burnside council workers, the Country Fire Service (CFS) and the SES repaired the initial damage on the night while reconstruction of infrastructure commenced in late November. Much of the road had been inaccessible, and the suburb was closed except to residents and emergency workers for the remainder of the month.\n",
"Spanish explorer Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca became, in 1542, the first European to discover what are now called Iguazú Falls. He was drawn by the noise of the water, which can be heard at a distance of several kilometers. When the Spanish arrived in the 16th century, the Guaraní people were the principal inhabitants of the area.\n"
] |
How did france combat the longbow?
|
If you are wondering about the 100 years war and the part the longbow played in it, I believe I can help you there. In the battle of Crecy, the English victory was due in part to the cunning leadership of King Edward III. His use of longbowmen was legendary, and the first major victory for longbows over crossbows. Their astounding success was due to the tenacity of the English archers, and their ability to **keep their bowstrings dry**. The crossbowmen could not remove their heavy strings. So, on the rain drenched field of Crecy, their crossbows were proven useless. So, their knights marched on without any cover. This allowed the English knights to move around with impunity, and strike wherever they felt necessary. That, combined with the ranged assistance of the English bowmen, won them Crecy. Apparently, it took them a century to fix their poor tactics, as they suffered yet another crushing defeat on the battlefields of Agincourt, under very similar circumstances. However, the crossbowmen were able to adapt, thus giving their army much needed consistent ranged support. That, and keep in mind that the French were able to draw troops from local conscription; the English were not. It would take amphibious landings to receive additional troops. Also, as armour became more and more advanced, they were able to withstand longbows more well. This is where the crossbow became the ultimate knight-killing machine. A crossbow has much more power in each shot than a bow. It was able to puncture armour more effectively, thus rendering English knights more vulnerable. However, both sides used the crossbow, and the longbow, respectively. The French just used the crossbow more, and were able to drive the English from their land, and keep their country.
I really hope this helps!
Source:_URL_0_
_URL_1_
|
[
"Longbowmen were used to great effect on the continent of Europe, as assorted kings and leaders clashed with their enemies on the battlefields of France. The most famous of these battles were Crecy, Poitiers and Agincourt. The English tactical system relied on a combination of longbowmen and heavy infantry, such as dismounted men-at-arms. Difficult to deploy in a thrusting mobile offensive, the longbow was best used in a defensive configuration. Against mounted enemies the bowmen took up a defensive position, and unleashed clouds of arrows into the ranks of knights and men-at-arms. The ranks of the bowmen were extended in thin lines and protected and screened by pits (e.g. Crecy), stakes (e.g. Agincourt) or trenches (e.g. Morlaix). There is some academic controversy about how the longbowmen and heavy infantry related on the battlefield. According to the traditional view articulated by A.H. Burne, the bowmen were deployed in a \"V\" between divisions of infantry, enabling them to trap and enfilade their foes. Other, more recent, historians such as Matthew Bennett dispute this, holding that the archers were normally deployed on the flanks of the army as a whole, rather than between divisions.\n",
"The English longbow was a powerful medieval type of longbow (a tall bow for archery) about long used by the English and Welsh for hunting and as a weapon in medieval warfare. English use of longbows was effective against the French during the Hundred Years' War, particularly at the start of the war in the battles of Sluys (1340), Crécy (1346), and Poitiers (1356), and perhaps most famously at the Battle of Agincourt (1415). They were less successful after this, with longbowmen having their lines broken at the Battle of Verneuil (1424), and being completely routed at the Battle of Patay (1429) when they were charged before they had set up their defensive position.\n",
"During a brief archery duel a large force of French mercenary crossbowmen was routed by English longbowmen. The French then launched a series of cavalry charges by their mounted knights. These were disordered by their impromptu nature, by having to force their way through the fleeing crossbowmen, by the muddy ground, by having to charge uphill, and by the pits dug by the English. The attacks were further broken up by the effective fire from the English archers, which caused heavy casualties. By the time the French charges reached the English men-at-arms, who had dismounted for the battle, they had lost much of their impetus. The ensuing hand-to-hand combat was described as \"murderous, without pity, cruel, and very horrible\". The French charges continued late into the night, all with the same result: fierce fighting followed by a French repulse.\n",
"The English longbow was greatly responsible for making England a major military power in the late medieval period, the English had introduced this deadly longbow during the Battle of Crecy. King Edward III was ravaging the countryside during the invasion of France, King Philip VI of France intercepted the English near the town of Crecy. The French had easily outnumbered the English. Apart from armoured knights the French army also had nearly 4,000 Genoese crossbowmen. But the English archers outnumbered the Genoese and rained arrows, the English could shoot five times faster than the Genoese crossbowmen. When the French mounted knights tried to infiltrate into the English lines, the longbowmen turned their attention to them and started to shoot, resulting in chaos. The horses started to crash into each other, cavalry was destroyed and the French army annihilated. The longbow was made of a simple piece of wood, but its design was fairly sophisticated. The bow's back, the part facing away from the archer, was the more flexible sapwood, that allowed the bow to be bent more sharply without breaking or causing any further damage.\n",
"Following the Battle of Crécy, the longbow did not always prove as effective. For example, at the Battle of Poitiers (1356), the French men-at-arms formed a shield wall with which Geoffrey le Baker recounts \"‘protecting their bodies with joined shields, [and] turned their faces away from the missiles. So the archers emptied their quivers in vain\".\n",
"The French cavalry, despite being disorganised and not at full numbers, charged towards the longbowmen, but it was a disaster, with the French knights unable to outflank the longbowmen (because of the encroaching woodland) and unable to charge through the forest of sharpened stakes that protected the archers. John Keegan argues that the longbows' main influence on the battle at this point was injuries to horses: armoured only on the head, many horses would have become dangerously out of control when struck in the back or flank from the high-elevation long range shots used as the charge started. The mounted charge and subsequent retreat churned up the already muddy terrain between the French and the English. Juliet Barker quotes a contemporary account by a monk of St. Denis who reports how the wounded and panicking horses galloped through the advancing infantry, scattering them and trampling them down in their headlong flight from the battlefield.\n",
"The standard defensive tactic of the English longbowmen was to drive pointed stakes into the ground near their positions. This prevented cavalry charges and slowed infantry long enough for the longbows to take a decisive toll on the enemy line. However, the English archers inadvertently disclosed their position to French scouts before their preparations were complete when a lone stag wandered onto a nearby field and the archers raised a hunting cry.\n"
] |
how does “i want my lawyer” work when being interrogated?
|
In the US, the right to remain silent and a request for a lawyer usually go hand and hand. You are basically saying, "I'm not talking anymore, move on to the next step or release me.
If you are arrested, you are either released after the arrest, or a bond is set. You don't need a lawyer for either of those things, although a lawyer could argue for reduction or elimination of bail.
They can also persuade the police to not charge you. If your timing is bad, you can wind up spending a night or two in jail, but that is more about waiting for a judge to set bail than finding a lawyer.
The lawyer comes into play when:
* you want to talk to the police, but be protected from yourself
* you want to negotiate with the district attorney
* you are on trial
|
[
"The person in custody must, prior to interrogation, be clearly informed that he has the right to remain silent, and that anything he says will be used against him in court; he must be clearly informed that he has the right to consult with a lawyer and to have the lawyer with him during interrogation, and that, if he is indigent, a lawyer will be appointed to represent him.\n",
"According to the court, the interrogators opted for the clarification method to determine if Davis's request for counsel was ambiguous or not. When Davis said “Maybe I should talk to a lawyer”, the interrogators replied by saying that they would not violate his rights. They made it clear that if he wanted a lawyer, they would have stopped the interrogation. When the interrogators asked for clarification, Davis answered that he was not asking for a lawyer. Therefore, the interrogators did not believe his request for counsel was ambiguous since Davis announced he was not requesting counsel in the first place.\n",
"The majority found that the purpose of the right to speak with counsel is \"to allow the detainee not only to be informed of his rights and obligations under the law but, equally if not more important, to obtain advice as to how to exercise those rights.\" In the context of a police interrogation, the purpose of the right is to support a detainee's right whether or not to cooperate with the police by giving the detainee access to legal advice about the situation he or she is facing.\n",
"Under the Criminal Procedure Code, police and prosecutors have the power to control or limit access by legal counsel when deemed necessary for the sake of an investigation. Counsel may not be present during interrogations at any time before or after indictment. As a court-appointed attorney is not approved until after indictment, suspects must rely on their own resources to hire an attorney before indictment, although local bar associations provided detainees with limited free counseling. Critics charged that access to counsel was limited both in duration and frequency; however, the Government denied that this was the case. Incommunicado detention could be used for up to 23 days.\n",
"\"To deny access to a lawyer for the first 48 hours of police questioning, in a situation where the rights of the defense may well be irretrievably prejudiced, is – whatever the justification for such denial – incompatible with the rights of the accused under Article 6.\"\n",
"In his dissenting decision, Binnie J. found that the purpose of the right to counsel is help a detainee understand his or her rights as well as how to exercise those rights in dealing with the authorities. Justice Binnie pointed out that if the purpose of the right to counsel was just to echo what the police had already said, regardless of what may emerge during the course of the interrogation, then the role of counsel could be replaced with the following recorded message: codice_1\n",
"Once the suspect obtains legal assistance, the counsel has a right to contact him from the moment he is arrested or detained. The counsel also has a right to be present at, and listen to, interrogations. This ensures that the police do not carry out unfair interrogation techniques.\n"
] |
why can't people who are very light in weight donate blood?
|
Because the medical common "unit of blood" represent too large a proportion of their total blood - it would be unsafe for them to donate.
|
[
"In patients prone to iron overload, blood donation prevents the accumulation of toxic quantities. Donating blood may reduce the risk of heart disease for men, but the link has not been firmly established and may be from selection bias because donors are screened for health problems.\n",
"Blood accounts for about 8% of body weight, so a 50 kg (110 lb) donor has about four liters of blood. No more than 50% of a donor's platelets are ever extracted in one sitting, and they can be replenished by the body in about three days.\n",
"In western societies, voluntary blood donation is a common, yet less extreme, form of risk taking. Costs associated with these donations include pain and risk of infection. If blood donation is an opportunity to send costly signals, then donors will be perceived by others as generous and physically healthy. In a survey, both donors and non-donors expressed perceptions of the health, generosity, and ability of blood donors to operate in stressful situations.\n",
"The 2012 campaign focused on the idea that any person can become a hero by giving blood. Blood cannot yet be manufactured artificially, so voluntary blood donation remains vital for healthcare worldwide. Many anonymous blood donors save lives every day through their blood donations.\n",
"There are several reasons why individuals can be deferred from donating blood, including intravenous drug use, living in the UK for certain periods of time, coming from an HIV-endemic country, as well HIV high risk activity.\n",
"Frequent blood donors are also at risk for developing iron deficiency anemia. When whole blood is donated, approximately 200mg of iron is also lost from the body. The blood bank screens people for anemia before drawing blood for donation. If the patient has anemia, blood is not drawn. Less iron is lost if the person is donating platelets or white blood cells.\n",
"Most allogeneic blood donors donate as an act of charity and do not expect to receive any direct benefit from the donation. The sociologist Richard Titmuss, in his 1970 book \"The Gift Relationship: From Human Blood to Social Policy\", compared the merits of the commercial and non-commercial blood donation systems of the US and the UK, coming down in favor of the latter. The book became a bestseller in the US, resulting in legislation to regulate the private market in blood. The book is still referenced in modern debates about turning blood into a commodity. The book was republished in 1997 and the same ideas and principles are applied to analogous donation programs, such as organ donation and sperm donation.\n"
] |
Why do antibiotics cause rapid growth in animals?
|
You're right, this is a real effect. And as of right now, we're not really sure how it works, though there are a few ideas. I'll quote verbatim from [this paper](_URL_0_):
> At least four mechanisms have been proposed as explanations of antibiotic mediated growth enhancement: [1] inhibition of sub-clinical infections, [2] reduction of growth-depressing microbial metabolites, [3] reduction of microbial use of nutrients, and [4] enhanced uptake and use of nutrients through the thinner intestinal wall associated with antibiotic-fed animals.
None of these seem like particularly satisfying explanations, but that's what we're working with.
Of course, the use of antibiotics for growth promotion alone in feed animals is a huge problem, and regulatory agencies are only starting to impose restrictions on this practice. I've written about this in more depth, [here](_URL_1_).
|
[
"Antibiotics given in concentrations too low to combat disease are called “subtherapeutic.” The administration of these drugs when there is no diagnosis of disease result in decreased mortality and morbidity and increased growth in the animals treated. It is theorized that subtherapeutic doses kill some, but not all, of the bacterial organisms in the animal – likely leaving those that are naturally antibiotic-resistant. The actual mechanism by which subtherapeutic antibiotic feed additives serve as growth promoters is still unclear. Some people have speculated that animals and fowl may have subclinical infections, which would be cured by low levels of antibiotics in feed, thereby allowing the animals to thrive.\n",
"Antibiotic use in animals is approved for treatment of sick animals. The FDA has approved responsible use of antibiotics to control disease spread in a population of animals when members of the population are sick, prevent spread of disease for at-risk animals, and treat infected animals. However, the CDC and FDA do not support the use of antibiotics for growth promotion because of evidence that suggests antibiotics for growth promotion lead to the development of resistant bacteria.\n",
"Most laboratory techniques for growing bacteria use high levels of nutrients to produce large amounts of cells cheaply and quickly. However, in natural environments, nutrients are limited, meaning that bacteria cannot continue to reproduce indefinitely. This nutrient limitation has led the evolution of different growth strategies (see r/K selection theory). Some organisms can grow extremely rapidly when nutrients become available, such as the formation of algal (and cyanobacterial) blooms that often occur in lakes during the summer. Other organisms have adaptations to harsh environments, such as the production of multiple antibiotics by \"Streptomyces\" that inhibit the growth of competing microorganisms. In nature, many organisms live in communities (e.g., biofilms) that may allow for increased supply of nutrients and protection from environmental stresses. These relationships can be essential for growth of a particular organism or group of organisms (syntrophy).\n",
"The overuse of antibiotics can create antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Antibiotic-resistant bacteria can spontaneously arise when selective pressure to survive results in changes to the DNA sequence of a bacterium allowing that bacterium to survive antibiotic treatments. Because some of the same antibiotics are used to treat fish that are used to treat human disease, pathogenic bacteria causing human disease can also become resistant to antibiotics as a result of treatment of fish with antibiotics. For this reason, the overuse of antibiotics in treatment of fish aquaculture (among other agricultural uses) could create public health issues.\n",
"The overuse of antibiotics can create antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Antibiotic-resistant bacteria can spontaneously arise when selective pressure to survive results in changes to the DNA sequence of a bacteria allowing that bacteria to survive antibiotic treatments. Because some of the same antibiotics are used to treat fish that are used to treat human disease, pathogenic bacteria causing human disease can also become resistant to antibiotics as a result of treatment of fish with antibiotics. For this reason, the overuse of antibiotics in treatment of fish aquaculture (among other agricultural uses) could create public health issues.\n",
"Antibiotics are used in aquaculture to treat diseases caused by bacteria. Sometimes the antibiotics are used to treat diseases, but more commonly antibiotics are used to prevent diseases by treating the water or fish before disease occurs. While this prophylactic method of preventing disease is profitable because it prevents loss and allows fish to grow more quickly, there are several downsides. \n",
"Antibiotics are used in aquaculture to treat diseases caused by bacteria. Sometimes the antibiotics are used to treat diseases, but more commonly antibiotics are used to prevent diseases by treating the water or fish before disease occurs. While this prophylactic method of preventing disease is profitable because it prevents loss and allows fish to grow more quickly, there are several downsides.\n"
] |
Does love (as a feeling) raise testosterone levels in men?
|
I don't know how broadly or narrowly you are asking this question. I have not spent any time recently on this literature, but I do know of one study that found that when men fall in love their testosterone goes down. When men are married or cohabiting with their partner, they have lower testosterone than when they were single or not living with their partner.
|
[
"As testosterone is critical for libido and physical arousal, alcohol tends to have deleterious effects on male sexual performance. Studies have been conducted that indicate increasing levels of alcohol intoxication produce a significant degradation in male masturbatory effectiveness (MME). This degradation was measured by measuring blood alcohol concentration (BAC) and ejaculation latency. Alcohol intoxication can decrease sexual arousal, decrease pleasureability and intensity of orgasm, and increase difficulty in attaining orgasm.\n",
"Several hormones affect sexual arousal, including testosterone, cortisol, and estradiol. However, the specific roles of these hormones are not clear. Testosterone is the most commonly studied hormone involved with sexuality. It plays a key role in sexual arousal in males, with strong effects on central arousal mechanisms. The connection between testosterone and sexual arousal is more complex in females. Research has found testosterone levels increase as a result of sexual cognitions in females that do not use hormonal contraception. Also, women who participate in polyandrous relationships have higher levels of testosterone. However, it is unclear whether higher levels of testosterone cause increased arousal and in turn multiple partners or whether sexual activity with multiple partners cause the increase in testosterone. Inconsistent study results point to the idea that while testosterone may play a role in the sexuality of some women, its effects can be obscured by the co-existence of psychological or affective factors in others.\n",
"Enhanced focus, concern and attention toward the desired other has not only been associated with increased arousal by means of testosterone, but also with elevated concentrations of central dopamine and norepinephrine, and decreased levels of central serotonin. Other forms of physiological arousal associated with enhanced levels of dopamine include increased energy, exhilaration, euphoria, sleeplessness, loss of appetite, trembling, pounding heartbeat, and accelerated breathing. This same increased arousal is also a feature of attraction, and is the suggested cause of feelings of exhilaration, ecstasy, intrusive thinking about the love object, regarding them as unique and a craving for emotional union with this partner or potential partner. Feelings of anxiety, panic and fear in the presence of a beloved may also occur, as well as susceptibility to abrupt mood swings. If a relationship should suffer negatively, this may cause the attracted individual to fall into feelings of despair and brooding, which could translate to behaviours and situations outside of the relationship.\n",
"Although some specialists disagree with this theory, menopause is still considered by the majority a factor that can cause decreased sex desire in women. The levels of estrogen decrease at menopause and this usually causes a lower interest in sex and vaginal dryness which makes intercourse painful. However, the levels of testosterone increase at menopause and this may be why some women may experience a contrary effect of an increased libido.\n",
"Falling in love decreases men's testosterone levels while increasing women's testosterone levels. There has been speculation that these changes in testosterone result in the temporary reduction of differences in behavior between the sexes. However, it is suggested that after the \"honeymoon phase\" ends—about four years into a relationship—this change in testosterone levels is no longer apparent. Men who produce less testosterone are more likely to be in a relationship or married, and men who produce more testosterone are more likely to divorce; however, causality cannot be determined in this correlation. Marriage or commitment could cause a decrease in testosterone levels. Single men who have not had relationship experience have lower testosterone levels than single men with experience. It is suggested that these single men with prior experience are in a more competitive state than their non-experienced counterparts. Married men who engage in bond-maintenance activities such as spending the day with their spouse and/or child have no different testosterone levels compared to times when they do not engage in such activities. Collectively, these results suggest that the presence of competitive activities rather than bond-maintenance activities are more relevant to changes in testosterone levels.\n",
"Certain neurologists argue that while testosterone most likely increases internal sexual stimulation, a reduction of sex drive is unlikely to result in a reduction of inappropriate sexual behavior, as reduced internal stimulation from hormones merely increases the required external stimulation to reach orgasm. These neurologists cite that spreading of brain activity that stimulate more brain activity can increase their activity and tire the circuits out, the brain's path to orgasm, enough to tire out with less external stimulation if the internal signal is stronger, and require more specific external stimulation to reach \"satisfaction\" if the internal signal is weaker. Therefore, they argue, a reduced testosterone level would make it more difficult, not easier, to manage remaining vestiges of sex drive by masturbating without the use of pornography or to otherwise get by with more socially and legally acceptable substitutes for desires that it would be unacceptable to act on. These neurologists also cite that many people, both men and women, find that higher levels of initial sexual arousal make it easier to masturbate to orgasm without the preferred type of external stimuli, as predicted by the hypothesis.\n",
"Although sufficient doses of testosterone are effective in improving sexual function in postmenopausal women, there is little support for the notion that testosterone is a critical hormone for sexual desire and function in women under normal physiological circumstances. Low doses of testosterone resulting in physiological levels of testosterone (< 50 ng/dL) have not been found to significantly increase sexual desire or function in women in most studies. Similarly, there appears to be little to no relationship between total or free testosterone levels within the normal physiological range and sex drive in premenopausal women. Only high doses of testosterone resulting in supraphysiological levels of testosterone (> 50 ng/dL) significantly increase sexual desire in women, with levels of testosterone of 80 to 150 ng/dL described as \"slightly\" increasing sex drive. In accordance, men experience sexual dysfunction at testosterone levels of below 300 ng/dL, with men that have levels of testosterone of approximately 200 ng/dL often experiencing such problems. The high doses of testosterone that are required to increase sex drive in women may have a significant risk of masculinization with long-term therapy, and may be inappropriate. In 2003, the FDA rejected Intrinsa, a 300 µg/day testosterone patch for the treatment of sexual dysfunction in postmenopausal women, due to limited efficacy (about one additional sexually satisfying event per month), concerns about safety and potential adverse effects with long-term therapy, and concerns about inappropriate off-label use. It appears that in women, rather than testosterone, estradiol may be the most important hormone involved in sexual desire, although data on the clinical use of estradiol to increase sexual desire in women is limited.\n"
] |
twitter reported a q2 loss of $144.6 million. how do they still afford to run a company and attract investors?
|
Investors think they will be very profitable in the future, so they keep investing money, despite it currently operating at a loss. At some point, it becomes necessary to monetarize Twitter, which means (you guessed it) ads.
|
[
"On January 29, 2008, Yahoo! announced that the company was laying off 1,000 employees, as the company had suffered severely in its inability to effectively compete with industry search leader Google. The cuts represented 7 percent of the company's workforce of 14,300.\n",
"On November 7, 2013, the first day of trading on the NYSE, Twitter shares opened at $26.00 and closed at US$44.90, giving the company a valuation of around US$31 billion. The paperwork from show of November 7 that among the founders, Williams received a sum of US$2.56 billion and Dorsey received US$1.05 billion, while Costolo's payment was US$345 million. On February 5, 2014, Twitter published its first results as a public company, showing a net loss of $511 million in the fourth quarter of 2013. On January 5, 2016, CEO Jack Dorsey commented on a report that Twitter planned to expand its character limit to 10,000 (private messages already had the longer limit as of July), requiring users to click to see anything beyond 140 characters. He said while Twitter would \"never lose that feeling\" of speed, users could do more with the text.\n",
"For the fiscal year 2017, Twitter reported losses of US$108 million, with an annual revenue of $2.443 billion, a decrease of 3.9% over the previous fiscal cycle. Twitter's shares traded at over $17 per share, and its market capitalization was valued at over US$25.6 billion in October 2018.\n",
"The company lost 97% of its value from October 2000 to March 2001 as the dot-com bubble burst. The company continued to lose money. By 2002, several competing internet caching companies had abandoned the market, due to slow adoption of caching technology and most of CacheFlow's revenues came from its IT security products.\n",
"By 1998, the company produced $4 million; in 1999, $20 million; and by 2000, more than $100 million. By 2001, the company was one of the few profitable dot-com companies; and by years end, it was acquired by Yahoo! for $468 million. In February 2010, it was announced that Monster.com would acquire HotJobs from Yahoo! for $225 million. HotJobs was shut down in favor of Monster.com, and Yahoo! established a traffic sharing agreement with Monster.com.\n",
"BULLET::::- On March 7, 2008, WinCapita Oy's Internet site was shut down, due to investigation of the company. The company had collected about 100 million euros by this point. This, the so-called biggest pyramid-scheme in Finland was put up by Hannu Kailajärvi and his partner Tiina Wartti. They marketed the company by saying that the company is a successful currency exchange firm and that people can join the \"club\" only by invitation. They also marketed the idea for investors by promising net profits of over 400%. In 2013, the court of appeal for Helsinki sentenced Kailajärvi to prison for 5 years and Wartti for one year and 3 months to conditional discharge.\n",
"The year 2012 was the first time that Google generated $50 billion in annual revenue, generating $38 billion the previous year. In January 2013, then-CEO Larry Page commented, \"We ended 2012 with a strong quarter ... Revenues were up 36% year-on-year, and 8% quarter-on-quarter. And we hit $50 billion in revenues for the first time last year – not a bad achievement in just a decade and a half.\"\n"
] |
github, including what branches, commit and repositories are.
|
GitHub is just a git-based code repository. It's used for maintaining a code base, including distribution and version control. There are a lot of them, but git-based ones are popular these days because they work well.
Repositories are communal places to store code and code changes. They can be free and available to all, or restricted to only certain users with certain abilities.
Commits are pieces of code that users have pushed up (committed) to the repository. These commits are changes to code by a user, published so that all other users can see them
When I branch code, I'm taking a version that exists, and creating a new version from it. My new version is going to be a new branch, which keeps your changes separate from mine until I...
Merge the branches. Which means I take your code and combine it with mine, to make a single set of code. This new single set of code can be a new head to the tree, or simply a new head to your individual branch, but it's taking multiple branches and making them one.
|
[
"GitHub was developed by Chris Wanstrath, P. J. Hyett, Tom Preston-Werner and Scott Chacon using Ruby on Rails, and started in February 2008. The company, GitHub, Inc., has existed since 2007 and is located in San Francisco.\n",
"GitHub is a web-based Git repository hosting service and is primarily used to host the source code of software and facilitate project management. As of November 2015, GitHub reports having over 11.5 million users and over 28.9 million repositories. It offers free accounts, a pastebin service called Gist, and free website hosting under its github.io domain. The GitHub terms of service prohibits illegal use and it reserves the right to remove content at its discretion. Users can fork (copy and individually develop) other projects, which GitHub does not automatically take down when served DMCA takedown notices. GitHub uses HTTPS for its connections, making data more secure against interception from third parties.\n",
"GitHub is an American company that provides hosting for software development version control using Git. It is a subsidiary of Microsoft, which acquired the company in 2018 for $7.5 billion. It offers all of the distributed version control and source code management (SCM) functionality of Git as well as adding its own features. It provides access control and several collaboration features such as bug tracking, feature requests, task management, and wikis for every project.\n",
"Mindgrub Technologies (referred to simply as Mindgrub), headquartered in Baltimore, Maryland, designs and engineers enterprise business solutions for companies. Mindgrub specializes in mobile and web development, marketing, design, user experience, augmented and virtual reality, managed services, team augmentation, robotics, systems integration, and business intelligence for clients such as Exelon, GraphicAudio, Wendy's, DELL, Yamaha Corporation, Under Armour, Crayola, Adobe, GEICO, University of Maryland, NASA, The Smithsonian, and Discovery Communications.\n",
"GitHub launched a new program called the GitHub Student Developer Pack to give students free access to popular development tools and services. GitHub partnered with Bitnami, Crowdflower, DigitalOcean, DNSimple, HackHands, Namecheap, Orchestrate, Screenhero, SendGrid, Stripe, Travis CI and Unreal Engine to launch the program.\n",
"Development of the GitHub platform began on October 19, 2007. The site was launched in April 2008 by Tom Preston-Werner, Chris Wanstrath, P. J. Hyett and Scott Chacon after it had been made available for a few months prior as a beta release.\n",
"WebORB is an integration server developed and maintained by Midnight Coders Incorporated. It is used in SOA/Rich Internet Application development projects to connect browser clients (Adobe Flex, Adobe Flash, AJAX, Java, .NET, Silverlight, JSON) and mobile clients (Android, Windows Phone 7, BlackBerry PlayBook) with backend services (.NET, Java, PHP and Ruby on Rails) and databases (MySQL, Microsoft SQL Server, SQL Azure, PostgreSQL, ODBC and Oracle database). It combines technologies that provide developer productivity tools, AMF remoting, real time messaging, code-level security and real time streaming media.\n"
] |
When will the Andromeda Galaxy be close enough to be visible to the naked eye? How big would it be in the night sky?
|
Andromeda is visible to the naked eye now, in decent light conditions. It has an apparent magnitude of 3.4. It is more than six times the width of the moon in the sky, but the full diameter is not bright enough to be seen.
|
[
"At an apparent magnitude of 8.4, comparable to that of Saturn's moon Titan, it is not visible to the naked eye but can be made out using binoculars under favourable conditions. The nebula lies in the Perseus Arm of the Milky Way galaxy, at a distance of about from Earth. It has a diameter of , corresponding to an apparent diameter of some 7 arcminutes, and is expanding at a rate of about , or 0.5% of the speed of light.\n",
"It estimated to be located at a distance of about 330,000 light-years (100 kpc) from the Earth. That is about twice the distance to the Large Magellanic Cloud; the largest and most luminous satellite galaxy of the Milky Way.\n",
"The Andromeda Galaxy is bright enough to be seen with the naked eye, even with some light pollution. Andromeda is best seen during autumn nights in the Northern Hemisphere, when from mid-latitudes the galaxy reaches zenith (its highest point at midnight) so can be seen almost all night. From the Southern Hemisphere, it is most visible at the same months, that is in spring, and away from our equator does not reach a high altitude over the northern horizon, making it difficult to observe. Binoculars can reveal some larger structures and its two brightest satellite galaxies, M32 and M110. An amateur telescope can reveal Andromeda's disk, some of its brightest globular clusters, dark dust lanes and the large star cloud NGC 206.\n",
"The Triangulum Galaxy, also known as Messier 33, was discovered by Giovanni Battista Hodierna in the 17th century. A distant member of the Local Group, it is about 2.3 million light-years away, and at magnitude 5.8 it is bright enough to be seen by the naked eye under dark skies. Being a diffuse object, it is challenging to see under light-polluted skies, even with a small telescope or binoculars, and low power is required to view it. It is a spiral galaxy with a diameter of 46,000 light-years and is thus smaller than both the Andromeda Galaxy and the Milky Way. A distance of less than 300 kiloparsecs between it and Andromeda supports the hypothesis that it is a satellite of the larger galaxy. Within the constellation, it lies near the border of Pisces, 3.5 degrees west-northwest of Alpha Trianguli and 7 degrees southwest of Beta Andromedae. Within the galaxy, NGC 604 is an H II region where star formation takes place.\n",
"NGC 4889 is probably the largest and the most massive galaxy out to the radius of 100 Mpc (326 million light years) of the Milky Way. The galaxy has an effective radius which extends at 2.9 arcminutes of the sky, translating it to the diameter of 239,000 light years, about the size of the Andromeda Galaxy. In addition it has an immense diffuse light halo extending to 17.8 arcminutes, roughly half the angular diameter of the Sun, translating to 1.3 million light years in diameter.\n",
"The Large Magellanic Cloud and its neighbour and relative, the Small Magellanic Cloud, are conspicuous objects in the southern hemisphere, looking like separated pieces of the Milky Way to the naked eye. Roughly 21° apart in the night sky, the true distance between them is roughly 75,000 light-years. Until the discovery of the Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy in 1994, they were the closest known galaxies to our own (since 2003, the Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy was discovered to be closer still, and is now considered the actual nearest neighbor). The LMC lies about 160,000 light years away, while the SMC is around 200,000. The LMC is about twice the diameter of the SMC (14,000 ly and 7,000 ly respectively). For comparison, the Milky Way is about 100,000 ly across.\n",
"The Milky Way galaxy is about 100,000 light-years in diameter, and the Sun is about 25,000 light-years from the galactic center. The small common star UDF 2457 may be one of the farthest known stars inside the main body of the Milky Way. Globular clusters (such as Messier 54 and NGC 2419) and stellar streams are located further out in the galactic halo.\n"
] |
How did Newton derive the Law of Universal Gravitation?
|
Observations demonstrated that the planets in our solar system orbited the Sun in ellipses. Newton discovered through his investigation (IE invention) of Calculus that a body undergoing acceleration proportional to the inverse square of their distance would travel in an ellipse. He then made a mental leap and realized that observable natural laws we see on Earth also are obeyed in the heavens, and thus concluded that the process that causes an apple to fall to the ground is the same force that keeps the Moon in orbit around the Earth and the planets in orbit around the Sun. He then reasoned that every particle in the universe acts on every other particle with this force, meaning that the force between two objects must be related to each of their masses.
It was this series of mental leaps that led to his deduction of the law of gravitation. There was very little theoretical derivation involved; it was mainly an assertion which turned out to be demonstrably accurate. The gravitational constant G was not known for nearly a century afterwards when it was finally empirically measured. No known first principle derivation can produce G, so it remains an empirical observation.
|
[
"Newton used Kepler's laws of planetary motion to derive his law of universal gravitation. Newton's law of universal gravitation was the first law he developed and proposed in his book \"Principia\". The law states that any two objects exert a gravitational force of attraction on each other. The magnitude of the force is proportional to the product of the gravitational masses of the objects, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Along with Newton's law of universal gravitation, the \"Principia\" also presents his three laws of motion. These three laws explain inertia, acceleration, action and reaction when a net force is applied to an object.\n",
"In 1687, Isaac Newton stated the law of universal gravitation, described earlier as a hypothesis by Robert Hooke and others. His main achievement was to mathematically derive Kepler's laws of planetary motion from the law of gravitation, thus helping to prove the latter. This introduced gravitation as the force which both kept the Earth and planets moving through the universe and also kept the atmosphere from flying away. The theory of gravity allowed scientists to rapidly construct a plausible heliocentric model for the Solar System. In his \"Principia\", Newton explained his theory of how gravity, previously thought to be a mysterious, unexplained occult force, directed the movements of celestial bodies, and kept our Solar System in working order. His descriptions of centripetal force were a breakthrough in scientific thought, using the newly developed mathematical discipline of differential calculus, finally replacing the previous schools of scientific thought, which had been dominated by Aristotle and Ptolemy. However, the process was gradual.\n",
"With the publication of his \"Principia\" roughly eighty years later (1687), Isaac Newton provided a physical theory that accounted for all three of Kepler's laws, a theory based on Newton's laws of motion and his law of universal gravitation. In particular, Newton proposed that the gravitational force between any two bodies was a central force \"F\"(\"r\") that varied as the inverse square of the distance \"r\" between them. Arguing from his laws of motion, Newton showed that the orbit of any particle acted upon by one such force is always a conic section, specifically an ellipse if it does not go to infinity. However, this conclusion holds only when two bodies are present (the two-body problem); the motion of three bodies or more acting under their mutual gravitation (the \"n\"-body problem) remained unsolved for centuries after Newton, although solutions to a few special cases were discovered. Newton proposed that the orbits of planets about the Sun are largely elliptical because the Sun's gravitation is dominant; to first approximation, the presence of the other planets can be ignored. By analogy, the elliptical orbit of the Moon about the Earth was dominated by the Earth's gravity; to first approximation, the Sun's gravity and those of other bodies of the Solar System can be neglected. However, Newton stated that the gradual apsidal precession of the planetary and lunar orbits was due to the effects of these neglected interactions; in particular, he stated that the precession of the Moon's orbit was due to the perturbing effects of gravitational interactions with the Sun.\n",
"Newton, faced in May 1686 with Hooke's claim on the inverse square law, denied that Hooke was to be credited as author of the idea. Among the reasons, Newton recalled that the idea had been discussed with Sir Christopher Wren previous to Hooke's 1679 letter. Newton also pointed out and acknowledged prior work of others, including Bullialdus, (who suggested, but without demonstration, that there was an attractive force from the Sun in the inverse square proportion to the distance), and Borelli (who suggested, also without demonstration, that there was a centrifugal tendency in counterbalance with a gravitational attraction towards the Sun so as to make the planets move in ellipses). D T Whiteside has described the contribution to Newton's thinking that came from Borelli's book, a copy of which was in Newton's library at his death.\n",
"Newton was credited with understanding that the second law is not special to the inverse square law of gravitation, being a consequence just of the radial nature of that law; while the other laws do depend on the inverse square form of the attraction. Carl Runge and Wilhelm Lenz much later identified a symmetry principle in the phase space of planetary motion (the orthogonal group O(4) acting) which accounts for the first and third laws in the case of Newtonian gravitation, as conservation of angular momentum does via rotational symmetry for the second law.\n",
"Isaac Newton's \"Principia Mathematica\", published in 1687, was the first description of the law of universal gravitation. It provided a physical mechanism for Kepler's laws and also allowed the anomalies in previous systems, caused by gravitational interaction between the planets, to be resolved. A fundamental difference between Newton's cosmology and those preceding it was the Copernican principle—that the bodies on earth obey the same physical laws as all the celestial bodies. This was a crucial philosophical advance in physical cosmology.\n",
"Before the advent of general relativity, Newton's law of universal gravitation had been accepted for more than two hundred years as a valid description of the gravitational force between masses, even though Newton himself did not regard the theory as the final word on the nature of gravity. Within a century of Newton's formulation, careful astronomical observation revealed unexplainable variations between the theory and the observations. Under Newton's model, gravity was the result of an attractive force between massive objects. Although even Newton was bothered by the unknown nature of that force, the basic framework was extremely successful at describing motion.\n"
] |
can the body repair a rupture of a spinal disk?
|
So I ruptured the disk in my neck. The doctor explained it like this:
The disk is like a krispy Kreme doughnut. When it ruptures the jam inside spills out. It could split on the inside or on the outside. On the outside is not such a problem. However on the inside it can directly apply pressure to the nerves it surrounds. After a while this jam can 'dry' out and can retract back inside. This is painful for obvious reasons.
Now the non ELI5 bit. See a doctor if you can. If you loose feeling or get pins and needles in a limb see one immediately. This is, according to my doctor 'really bad'. Now I just had extreme pain, we are talking screaming and being taken away in an ambulance high on ketamine bad. The 'jam' was only 2.6mm according to the scans. It has healed but is weaker and occasionally happens again to a less serious degree each time.
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[
"A spinal disc herniation, commonly referred to as a slipped disc, can happen when unbalanced mechanical pressures substantially deform the anulus fibrosus, allowing part of the nucleus to obtrude. These events can occur during peak physical performance, during traumas, or as a result of chronic deterioration, typically accompanied with poor posture and has been associated with a \"Propionbacterium acnes\" infection. Both the deformed anulus and the gel-like material of the nucleus pulposus can be forced laterally, or posteriorly, distorting local muscle function, and putting pressure on the nearby nerve. This can give the symptoms typical of nerve root entrapment. These symptoms can vary between parasthaesia, numbness, chronic and/or acute pain, either locally or along the dermatome served by the entrapped nerve, loss of muscle tone and decreased homeostatic performance . The disc is not physically slipped; it bulges, usually in just one direction. Risk of Cauda Equina.\n",
"It is possible to have a herniated disc without pain or noticeable symptoms if the extruded \"nucleus pulposus\" material doesn't press on soft tissues or nerves. A small-sample study examining the cervical spine in symptom-free volunteers found focal disc protrusions in 50% of participants, suggesting that a considerable part of the population might have focal herniated discs in their cervical region that do not cause noticeable symptoms.\n",
"Spinal disc herniation, more commonly called a \"slipped disc\", is the result of a tear in the outer ring (anulus fibrosus) of the intervertebral disc, which lets some of the soft gel-like material, the nucleus pulposus, bulge out in a hernia.\n",
"Spinal disc herniation, more commonly called a \"slipped disc\", is the result of a tear in the outer ring (anulus fibrosus) of the intervertebral disc, which lets some of the soft gel-like material, the nucleus pulposus, bulge out in a hernia. This may be treated by a minimally-invasive endoscopic procedure called Tessys method.\n",
"Disc herniation is normally a further development of a previously existing disc protrusion, in which the outermost layers of the \"anulus fibrosus\" are still intact, but can bulge when the disc is under pressure. In contrast to a herniation, none of the central portion escapes beyond the outer layers. Most minor herniations heal within several weeks. Anti-inflammatory treatments for pain associated with disc herniation, protrusion, bulge, or disc tear are generally effective. Severe herniations may not heal of their own accord and may require surgery. \n",
"Removal of a disc at one level can lead to disc herniation at a different level at a later time. Even the most complete surgical excision of the disc still leaves 30-40% of the disc, which cannot be safely removed. This retained disc can re-herniate sometime after surgery. Virtually every major structure in the abdomen and the posterior retroperitoneal space has been injured, at some point, by removing discs using posterior laminectomy/discectomy surgical procedures. The most prominent of these is a laceration of the left internal iliac vein, which lies in close proximity to the anterior portion of the disc. In some studies, recurrent pain in the same radicular pattern or a different pattern can be as high as 50% after disc surgery. Many observers have noted that the most common cause of a failed back syndrome is caused from recurrent disc herniation at the same level originally operated. A rapid removal in a second surgery can be curative. The clinical picture of a recurrent disc herniation usually involves a significant pain-free interval. However, physical findings may be lacking, and a good history is necessary. The time period for the emergence of new symptoms can be short or long. Diagnostic signs such as the straight leg raise test may be negative even if real pathology is present. The presence of a positive myelogram may represent a new disc herniation, but can also be indicative of a post operative scarring situation simply mimicking a new disc. Newer MRI imaging techniques have clarified this dilemma somewhat. Conversely, a recurrent disc can be difficult to detect in the presence of post op scarring. Myelography is inadequate to completely evaluate the patient for recurrent disc disease, and CT or MRI scanning is necessary. Measurement of tissue density can be helpful.\n",
"A disc protrusion is a disease condition which can occur in some vertebrates, including humans, in which the outermost layers of the anulus fibrosus of the intervertebral discs of the spine are intact, but bulge when one or more of the discs are under pressure.\n"
] |
Have there ever been a situation where a booming city or town went "out of business"?
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This sort of thing is THE hallmark (not just A hallmark!) of the Intermountain West. Towns frequently burst into existence around the discovery of an ore body with precious metals. But precious metals being what they are, they are typically rare, and so while an ore body might seem promising, it was a finite resource and typically limited at that. This resulted in a rush to the new location with people eager for an opportunity to strike a claim, find a job, or to provide essential services. This often resulted is a sudden rise in population and the building of a lot of structures. When the ore was exhausted, the population would just as suddenly dwindle. Buildings were often hauled away to the next boom - or they fell victim to a harsh environment.
If the community was sufficiently long-lived and promising, it might succeed in establishing itself as the seat of county government, with the promise of a few jobs when the boom subsided. That said, seats of government can be moved - and they frequently are - so even this source of revenue and employment was vulnerable, and some communities went from shadows of their former selves to complete oblivion.
There are hundreds of instances of all of this in the vast uninhabited outback of Nevada, the seventh largest state in the nation (with roughly 87% of its land under federal management). In the nineteenth century, Hamilton was home to an important mining boom and became the county seat of White Pine County. It yielded that title to Ely, which retains it to this day. Dayton prospered as a result of it being able to offer milling to the Comstock Mining District, but as the mines failed, so did Dayton. It retained the title of Lyon County seat until its courthouse burned in 1910 (locals maintain it was arson caused by someone who wanted to move the seat of government). Dayton subsequently dwindled, although it has enjoyed a recent resurgence as a bedroom community. Yerington took the seat of government, and it retains that title.
Austin in central Nevada became a boomtown with such promise that everyone thought it would overtake Virginia City, which was suffering a slump (Virginia City's mines prospered for an astounding two decades before it also crashed). An entrepreneur even moved Virginia City's International Hotel to Austin in the mid 1860s, and Austin became the seat of government for Lander County (building what is likely the nation's last Greek revival courthouse, erected in 1872). Its mines quickly failed. It lost a part of Lander County to neighboring Eureka County (experiencing another mining boom-bust cycle), but it retained its government for nearly another century until Battle Mountain was able to take the seat of Lander County government.
One of the most dramatic examples of this phenomenon involved Goldfield, often put forward as the site of the last gold rush in the continental US. Shortly after the turn of the century, thousands flooded into remote south-central Nevada and established the town of Goldfield, which quickly took the title of Esmeralda County government from Hawthorne (which had earlier taken it from failing Aurora, now a ghost town). At one point Goldfield had about 25,000 people and was the largest city in Nevada. Its mines failed within a decade, and eventually Hawthorne began a fight to regain its seat of government: although its mines had also failed, it was able to claim other means of support. Ultimately, the Nevada government split the enormous Esmeralda County to form two new counties, so both places could have the benefit of county government. Goldfield and its diminished Esmeralda County declined until that enormous piece of real estate (rivalling the size of some smaller states) had only a little more than 300 residents.
This cycle of boom and bust has resulted in what may be a record for the most times that "largest community in the territory/state" has been exchanged: That title has moved from Dayton (AKA Chinatown) to Mormon Station (AKA Genoa) to Carson City to Virginia City to Reno, to Goldfield, back to Reno, and finally (or so far!!!) to Las Vegas. That's eight times that the title has moved; whether that is record could be contested here, but it is certainly remarkable.
This is a pattern throughout the mining West, caused by an industry with resources located in remote, often inhabitable land, where cities boomed into existence because of the attraction of wealth, and then just as quickly disappear. Two state parks are dedicated to this phenomenon: California's Bodie State Park and Nevada's Berlin State Park both commemorate the nineteenth-century quest for wealth and ingenuity that it took to scrape together an existence where nature provided little - together with the inevitable abandonment of the towns when it was no longer possible tor resist the effects of gravity.
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[
"With limited infrastructure, resources and people, the town's economy fell into decline. Most of the merchant and business class left, resulting in the town's decay and ruin. By the end of the 18th century, John Wesley noted during his visit how: \"Two-thirds of the old town is in ruins or has entirely vanished. Pigs roam among the abandoned houses and Tenby presents a dismal spectacle.\"\n",
"Riede continued to operate his business until 1908. As the city's population continued to decline, many of its buildings from the boom years became vacant and neglected. They fell victim to fire or the effects of the severe winters at nearly of elevation in the mountains. The bakery building, still referred to by the name of its onetime owner, remained. It was a second-hand shop during the Great Depression.\n",
"The town had a brief life; it was not developed until after the American Revolutionary War and after 1810 its population started declining, until it was abandoned. After the last person left, the buildings deteriorated, and the area finally reverted to agricultural land. The last known sale of a numbered lot occurred in 1837 (Elliott 1988:113-116). Several reasons have been advanced for the decline. The tobacco monopoly was squeezed out by cotton, which was 'thrown upon boats all along the river without being inspected' (Sherwood 1837:215). Other reasons given were the advent of steamboats (which were not practicable above Augusta). Later, the rivers proved to be obstacles to construction of railroads through the area, considered essential for the economic life of towns after 1850. But above all, the opportunity of new land to the west available for development attracted its inhabitants to keep moving west.(Coulter 1965:167-173). The Petersburg post office was moved to nearby Lisbon, Georgia in 1844, and closed in 1855 (Kraków 1999:174-175). The town of Vienna, South Carolina also declined and disappeared.\n",
"The resort and town prospered, and with a population of around 1000, it was the largest town in the county. Businesses included a sawmill, a gristmill, a bank and tomato cannery. However, the boom did not last and by 1885, damage by flash floods and other economic problems led to decay and loss of population.\n",
"By 1925, the market ran out of buyers to pay the high prices, and soon the boom became a bust. The 1926 Miami Hurricane, which nearly destroyed the city further depressed the real estate market. In 1928 another hurricane struck Southern Florida. The 1928 Okeechobee hurricane made landfall near Palm Beach, severely damaging the local infrastructure. In townships near Lake Okeechobee, the storm breached a dike separating the water from land, creating a storm surge that killed over 2,000 people and destroying the towns of Belle Glade and Pahokee.\n",
"Like many towns and cities throughout the United States, the Great Depression adversely affected the population. The Bank of Cary, which had been founded in 1921, closed down. The town went bankrupt in 1932. However, due to the efforts of Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal, several areas of Cary were conserved as green space. For example, the William B. Ulmstead State Park was created by the CCC by repurposing abandoned farmland along the Crabtree Creek.\n",
"BULLET::::- Industry/employment – Towns that catered to a specific industry like coal mining or military housing were boom towns that quickly died when their markets collapsed. Some towns were abandoned in the 1930s during the Dust Bowl period which mainly relied on Agriculture.\n"
] |
why does your body temperature increase when you're nauseous and or vomiting?
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Body temperature doesn't increase because you're nauseous or vomiting.
It rises so it can kill the intruder, like bacteria.
Vomiting happens so the body can get rid of the bacteria. I assume the main reason for vomiting is that the body tries to get rid of the material that has the intruder in it. Like spoiled food.
It also happens even if you ingest safe substance because the body doesn't know it's safe.
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[
"Another possible cause of exercise induced nausea is overhydration. Drinking too much water before, during, or after extreme exercise (such as a marathon) can cause nausea, diarrhea, confusion, and muscle tremors. Excessive water consumption reduces or dilutes electrolyte levels in the body causing hyponatremia.\n",
"The \"temperature\" component is caused by water drawing heat away from the body and causing vasoconstriction of the cutaneous blood vessels within the body to conserve heat. The body detects an increase in the blood pressure and inhibits the release of vasopressin (also known as antidiuretic hormone (ADH)), causing an increase in the production of urine. The \"pressure\" component is caused by the hydrostatic pressure of the water directly increasing blood pressure. Its significance is indicated by the fact that the temperature of the water does not substantially affect the rate of diuresis. Partial immersion of only the limbs does not cause increased urination. Thus, the hand in warm water trick (immersing the hand of a sleeping person in water to make him/her urinate) has no support from the mechanism of immersion diuresis. On the other hand, sitting up to the neck in a pool for a few hours clearly increases the excretion of water, salts, and urea.\n",
"Symptoms often include vomiting, fever, and aches, and may include diarrhea. Bouts of vomiting can be repeated with an extended delay in between, because even if infected food was eliminated from the stomach in the first bout, microbes, like bacteria, (if applicable) can pass through the stomach into the intestine and begin to multiply. Some types of microbes stay in the intestine, some produce a toxin that is absorbed into the bloodstream, and some can directly invade deeper body tissues.\n",
"Prolonged and excessive vomiting depletes the body of water (dehydration), and may alter the electrolyte status. Gastric vomiting leads to the loss of acid (protons) and chloride directly. Combined with the resulting alkaline tide, this leads to hypochloremic metabolic alkalosis (low chloride levels together with high and and increased blood pH) and often hypokalemia (potassium depletion). The hypokalemia is an indirect result of the kidney compensating for the loss of acid. With the loss of intake of food the individual may eventually become cachectic. A less frequent occurrence results from a vomiting of intestinal contents, including bile acids and , which can cause metabolic acidosis.\n",
"Osmotic diarrhea occurs when too much water is drawn into the bowels. If a person drinks solutions with excessive sugar or excessive salt, these can draw water from the body into the bowel and cause osmotic diarrhea. Osmotic diarrhea can also be the result of maldigestion (e.g. pancreatic disease or coeliac disease), in which the nutrients are left in the lumen to pull in water. Or it can be caused by osmotic laxatives (which work to alleviate constipation by drawing water into the bowels). In healthy individuals, too much magnesium or vitamin C or undigested lactose can produce osmotic diarrhea and distention of the bowel. A person who has lactose intolerance can have difficulty absorbing lactose after an extraordinarily high intake of dairy products. In persons who have fructose malabsorption, excess fructose intake can also cause diarrhea. High-fructose foods that also have a high glucose content are more absorbable and less likely to cause diarrhea. Sugar alcohols such as sorbitol (often found in sugar-free foods) are difficult for the body to absorb and, in large amounts, may lead to osmotic diarrhea. In most of these cases, osmotic diarrhea stops when the offending agent (e.g. milk, sorbitol) is stopped.\n",
"A more common cause is excessive loss of potassium, often associated with heavy fluid losses that \"flush\" potassium out of the body. Typically, this is a consequence of diarrhea, excessive perspiration, or losses associated with muscle-crush injury, or surgical procedures. Vomiting can also cause hypokalemia, although not much potassium is lost from the vomitus. Rather, heavy urinary losses of K in the setting of post-emetic bicarbonaturia force urinary potassium excretion (see Alkalosis below). Other gastrointestinal causes include pancreatic fistulae and the presence of adenoma.\n",
"Diarrhea, also spelled diarrhoea, is the condition of having at least three loose, liquid, or watery bowel movements each day. It often lasts for a few days and can result in dehydration due to fluid loss. Signs of dehydration often begin with loss of the normal stretchiness of the skin and irritable behaviour. This can progress to decreased urination, loss of skin color, a fast heart rate, and a decrease in responsiveness as it becomes more severe. Loose but non-watery stools in babies who are exclusively breastfed, however, are normal.\n"
] |
why do kids and some adults jump up and down when excited or happy?
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Have you never done this? Never gotten so excited and filled with energy you just have to move? It's an energy release. We're also social animals and this is a way to express our excitement.
Plus it's good for ventilation, moves the air around.
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[
"While these children often came off as happy due to their sociable nature, often there are internal drawbacks to the way they act. 76–86% of these children were reported as believing that they either had few friends or problems with their friends. This is possibly due to the fact that although they are very friendly to strangers and love meeting new people, they may have trouble interacting on a deeper level. 73–93% were reported as unreserved with strangers, 67% highly sensitive to rejection, 65% susceptible to teasing, and the statistic for exploitation and abuse was unavailable. This last one is a significant problem. People with Williams syndrome are frequently very trusting and want more than anything to make friends, leading them to submit to requests that under normal circumstances would be rejected. There are external problems as well. 91–96% demonstrate inattention, 75% impulsivity, 59–71% hyperactivity 46–74% tantrums, 32–60% disobedience, and 25–37% fighting and aggressive behavior.\n",
"The young people have fun, they adventure together and achieve, overcoming their fears, changing their self-perception and feeling important, and because they socialise with others like them they feel like they belong, are more positive, don't feel judged, feel their anxiety reduce and start to think differently about themselves and what they are capable of.\n",
"One becomes conscious of their emotions during adolescence. Most children are aware of emotions such as shame, guilt, pride and embarrassment by the age of two, but do not fully understand how those emotions affect their life. By age 13, children become more in touch with these emotions and begin to apply them to their own lives. A study entitled \"The Construction of the Self\" found that many adolescents display happiness and self-confidence around friends, but hopelessness and anger around parents due to the fear of being a disappointment. Teenagers were also shown to feel intelligent and creative around teachers, and shy, uncomfortable and nervous around people they were not familiar with.\n",
"Happy that they are save, they start laughing and mocking each other. The principal tells the parents that they are not worried about what happened and are happy. Feeling ashamed, the parents leave the children alone. \n",
"Beginning at birth, newborns have the capacity to signal generalized distress in response to unpleasant stimuli and bodily states, such as pain, hunger, body temperature, and stimulation. They may smile, seemingly involuntarily, when satiated, in their sleep, or in response to pleasant touch. Infants begin using a “social smile,” or a smile in response to a positive social interaction, at approximately 2 to 3 months of age, and laughter begins at 3 to 4 months. Expressions of happiness become more intentional with age, with young children interrupting their actions to smile or express happiness to nearby adults at 8–10 months of age, and with markedly different kinds of smiles (e.g., grin, muted smile, mouth open smile) developing at 10 to 12 months of age.\n",
"BULLET::::- Happy - young people experience a positive change in perspective on their illness and life. Fun is important, the trips are life changing and an escape from daily life. 91% of parents say their child is happier.\n",
"This happy state of life is that generally experienced by the pre-school child and is gradually lost when duties and responsibilities of school life and subsequently the adult work-life enter into the picture.\n"
] |
Did the U.S. Government encourage people to move to the suburbs during the Cold War in order to avert catastrophic population losses from nuclear attacks?
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I've never found any evidence suggesting it did.
Kathleen Tobin has written [an article](_URL_0_) claiming that policymakers' fears of atomic attack was a significant factor in population dispersal. I find it to be an astonishing piece of rhetorical sleight-of-hand, using a few magazine articles discussing the *concept* of dispersion to prove that it was federal policy—despite the absence of a single federal law or regulation on the subject.
As for the role of Interstate highways, those were proposed long before the Cold War, and throughout the years of congressional debate, military strategists repeatedly testified that they didn't need any particular routes or geometric specifications, always saying that highways built to promote commerce would also serve their needs. To Pres. Eisenhower, the public-works and job-creation aspects of the system were about as important as defense aspects. I am not aware of any serious civil defense or military rationale that was part of Congressional debate. The words "and Defense" were added to the name of the "National System of Interstate Highways" in conference committee, almost as an afterthought, and played no role in congressional voting. See *Congressional Record* 102, Part 8, pp. 10991-10997. The definitive source on this history is Rose, Mark H. *Interstate: Express Highway Politics, 1939-1989.*
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[
"The government began making evacuation plans in late 1943, and started removing entire schools from industrial cities to the countryside, where they were safe from bombing and had better access to food supplies. In all 1.3 million children were moved—with their teachers but not their parents. When the American bombing began in earnest in late 1944, 10 million people fled the cities to the safety of the countryside, including two-thirds of the residents of the largest cities and 87% of the children. Left behind were the munitions workers and government officials. By April 1945, 87% of the younger children had been moved to the countryside.\n",
"At the dawn of the nuclear age, evacuation was opposed by the federal government. The Federal Civil Defense Administration produced a short movie called \"Our Cities Must Fight.\" It argued that in the event of a nuclear war, people need to stay in cities to help repair the infrastructure and man the recovering industries. \"Nuclear radiation,\" it advised, \"would only stay in the air a day or two.\"\n",
"During the Cold War, the governments of the U.S., the USSR, Great Britain, and China attempted to educate their citizens about surviving a nuclear attack by providing procedures on minimizing short-term exposure to fallout. This effort commonly became known as Civil Defense.\n",
"During World War II, the population of the District of Columbia rose by about 30 percent to 861,000 people. The terrible overcrowding and traffic jams in the city convinced many that not only was a subway system needed, but that vastly enlarged and improved highways were required as well. Post-war projections showed D.C. losing population to the suburbs, and planning for nuclear war emphasized moving many federal agencies into the suburbs as a means of reducing the government's vulnerability to attack. These and other factors meant that new superhighways would be needed to bring workers into town to work, and to move them from agency to agency throughout the day quickly and efficiently.\n",
"Between the 1960s and 70s, Germany and the Axis powers have defeated the United States and Canada in the Third World War with the nuclear bombs they developed first. The key American cities of Washington, D.C. and Philadelphia were destroyed by the bombs and their environments are rendered uninhabitable for years to come. Other cities such as New York City, St. Louis, and Chicago are damaged by bombing raids. The capital of the US was moved to Omaha, Nebraska, where a pro-Nazi puppet government was set up, and the Reich maintains Wehrmacht occupation forces in New York City, Chicago, St. Louis, and Omaha itself. Upon conquering the US, the Einsatzkommandos and the American white supremacists systematically kill the country's Jewish and most of the Black populations with any remaining Black people being used for slave labor by the Reich.\n",
"During World War II, the United States federal government forced the evacuation of Japanese nationals and Japanese Americans, including citizens born in the United States, to numerous camps built in the interior of California and inland states. They were forced to sell their businesses and homes, and suffered enormous economic and psychological losses by being treated as potential enemies. The Tule Lake War Relocation Center, a Japanese American internment camp, is located to the east in neighboring Modoc County. Following World War II, the federal government awarded 86 farm sites on land reclaimed by the drainage of Tule Lake to returning veterans using a Land Lottery. A lottery was used because the number of applicants was greater than the number of homesteads available.\n",
"The Post–World War II economic expansion created a gradual exodus from city core areas in the United States, and federally funded urban renewal projects empowered communities to demolish historic downtown areas and build new, modern structures. With dramatic increases in automobile purchases accompanied by a post-WWII decline in public transportation, many communities accepted urban renewal financing to demolish buildings and install much-needed parking areas.\n"
] |
how are roads on steep cliffs built?
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Dynamite. I remember going on a hike somewhere in Utah and there was a trail that was originally going to be turned into a road but they just left it unfinished and made it a trail instead. You could see where they drilled the holes and were going to blow the cliffside. It takes a lot of precision to keep it somewhat level and prevent the whole side of the cliff from just crumbling. To level the road, they'll just use all the dirt and small rock debris to make a flat surface, then pour asphalt over it
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[
"The actual building of the road involved the definition of a trafficable route which was then cleared of vegetation (trees being cut-off below ground level but rarely \"grubbed out\"), boulders and rocky outcrops. The formation of the road itself was as minimal as the terrain allowed, with low side-cuttings and embankments as necessary. In very rocky terrain cuttings were made into the mountain itself, the natural rock providing the road surface or pavement. It is possible that some of the stepped rock platforms may have initially been partly filled or levelled with earthen ramps, although Karskens (1988) suggests that Cox mostly left the road pavement in an unformed, natural state due to the haste with which the road was being constructed.\n",
"The actual building of the road involved the definition of a trafficable route which was then cleared of vegetation (trees being cut-off below ground level but rarely \"grubbed out\"), boulders and rocky outcrops. The formation of the road itself was as minimal as the terrain allowed, with low side-cuttings and embankments as necessary. In very rocky terrain cuttings were made into the mountain itself, the natural rock providing the road surface or pavement. It is possible that some of the stepped rock platforms may have initially been partly filled or levelled with earthen ramps, although Karskens (1988) suggests that Cox mostly left the road pavement in an unformed, natural state due to the haste with which the road was being constructed.\n",
"Access to Steep Point is by four-wheel drive vehicles only, as tracks to the point are through sand dunes. The North West Coastal Highway is the closest sealed road and is 200 kilometres east of the point. An entry permit is required to travel to the point, which can be purchased at the rangers house in Edel Land National Park, which is about 20 kilometres east of Steep Point. Camping areas and basic facilities are also available in the park and can be purchased at the rangers house.\n",
"In this Roadblock, one team member had to climb down a rocky cliff using a rope ladder, retrieve their clue from the tops of the trees at the bottom, and then climb back up the rope ladder to complete the task.\n",
"Just east of Poling is a large rock formation referred to locally as \"Hanging Rock.\" The cliff extends out over and along Replete Road for several hundred feet. Formed of sandstone, the rock was deposited around 313 million years ago and undercut by water erosion from the adjacent Left Fork Holly River.\n",
"The craggy face of the hill provides many routes for rock climbers at a range of grades from easy climbs suitable for beginners (some of which do not require ropes), to challenging climbs up to a grade 6c. The cliff is also split into two lateral sections. The main face is easily accessible from the ground. At the top is a large grassy area, followed by an easily accessible 10-foot (or thereabouts) cliff to the summit, which is excellent for bouldering. Despite its often slimy appearance, the cliff's sandstone composition means it dries out quickly after rain, and, after several accidents, several large metal spikes were placed at the top of the main cliff for top-rope climbing that offer extra safety for climbers worried about the sandstone's crumbly nature.\n",
"The rock cliffs are made of Wissahikon Mica-schist and range from , with the majority of the climbs about . They pack over 100 established climbs within approximately of the cliff. The rock has form of friction slabs, overhangs, and cracks. Most of the routes are easy and moderate top-rope routes, with a few harder climbs as well as numerous eliminate routes and boulder problems. Traditional climbing is not recommended since protection is often difficult to place and the schist has a reputation for being friable and breakable if a piece of gear is subjected to a leader fall. The area known for its esoteric bouldering, often very different in character from other bouldering areas and relying heavily on delicate footwork between quartz crystal knobs and nubbins imbedded in polished schist wall.\n"
] |
Why is it so hard to distinguish between something that is cold versus something that is wet?
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Gonna take a shot here.
An object feels cold because we're feeling heat transfer away from our skin. This is dependent on both the temperature difference between our skin and the object, and the heat insulation/transmission properties of both. The faster heat transfers, the colder a contact feels.
Water has a very high specific heat and transfers heat quickly, so a small temperature difference still transfers heat quickly as opposed to touching something like titanium with a large difference, since titanium transfers very slowly. A wet object with a ten degree difference will feel colder than titanium with a twenty degree difference.
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[
"Wetting is a measure of the thermodynamic compatibility of two surfaces. If the surfaces are well-matched, the surfaces will \"desire\" to interact with each other, minimizing the surface energy of both phases, and the surfaces will come into close contact. Because the intermolecular attractions strongly correlate with distance, the closer the interacting molecules are together, the stronger the attraction. Thus, two materials that wet well and have a large amount of surface area in contact will have stronger intermolecular attractions and a larger adhesive strength due to the dispersive mechanism.\n",
"Differences in wettability between surfaces that are similar in structure are due to differences in the packing of the atoms. For instance, if a surface has branched chains, it will have poorer packing than a surface with straight chains. \n",
"The prefix \"wet\" is a reference to the water found in living creatures. Wetware is used to describe the elements equivalent to hardware and software found in a person, especially the central nervous system (CNS) and the human mind. The term wetware finds use both in works of fiction, in scholarly publications and in popularizations.\n",
"Another important factor is humidity. Water is a better conductor of heat than air, thus if clothes are damp — because of sweat, rain, or immersion — water replaces some or all of the air between the fibres of the clothing, causing thermal loss through conduction and/or evaporation.\n",
"The wetness of skin in different areas also affects perceived thermal comfort. Humidity can increase wetness on different areas of the body, leading to a perception of discomfort. This is usually localized in different parts of the body, and local thermal comfort limits for skin wettedness differ by locations of the body. The extremities are much more sensitive to thermal discomfort from wetness than the trunk of the body. Although local thermal discomfort can be caused from wetness, the thermal comfort of the whole body will not be affected by the wetness of certain parts.\n",
"There has been controversy over why damp cold air feels colder than dry cold air. Some believe it is because when the humidity is high, our skin and clothing become moist and are better conductors of heat, so there is more cooling by conduction.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Wet cold\" – From . Wet cold conditions occur when wet snow and rain often accompany wet cold conditions. This type of environment is \"more dangerous to troops and equipment\" than the colder, dry cold environments because the ground becomes slushy and muddy and clothing and equipment becomes perpetually wet and damp.\n"
] |
If I lived in the USSR during the purges, were there any choices or steps that I could take to guarantee my survival, and to what extent could this not require moral compromises like denouncing innocent neighbors?
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There wasn't anything that would guarantee survival, but there were things you could do to increase your chances. Even in the worst years, 1937-1939, the number of people who were "repressed" (contemporary term for those that were arrested and either deported, imprisoned, or executed) was between 1.5 and 2 million -- about 1% of the total population of the country. So your chances to survive we're pretty good -- unless you were one of the priesthood, or a relative of former czarist civil servants or officers, or rich, or Jewish, or a supporter of the wrong political movement du jour, or, funnily enough, being a communist party member -- in 1936-39 arrest rate among those was 50%!
Generally, not being one of the above, and not getting yourself noticed (e.g. making political statements in front of others, having a business or trading "under the table", being in someone's way (always a good chance of being denounced)), you would have very good chances to survive, above 99.9% I would say.
Sources: born there and know history; Conquest's "The Great Terror" (1990), Rogovin "The Party of the Executed" (in Russian).
|
[
"In addition, sizable resources were employed in the purge, such as in Hungary, where almost one million adults were employed to record, control, indoctrinate, spy on and sometimes kill targets of the purge. Unlike the repressions under Nazi occupation, no ongoing war existed that could bring an end to the tribulations of the Eastern Bloc, and morale severely suffered as a consequence. Because the party later had to admit the mistakes of much that occurred during the purges after Stalin's death, the purges also destroyed the moral base upon which the party operated. In doing so, the party abrogated its prior Leninist claim to moral infallibility for the working class.\n",
"The purges often coincided with the introduction of the first \"Five Year Plans\" in the non-Soviet members of the Eastern Bloc. The objectives of those plans were considered beyond political rapproche even where they were absurd, such that workers that did not fulfill targets were targeted and blamed for economic woes, while at the same time, the ultimate responsibility for the economic shortcomings would be placed on prominent victims of the political purge. In Romania, Gheorghiu-Dej admitted that 80,000 peasants had been accused of siding with the class enemy because they resisted collectivization, while purged party elite Ana Pauker was blamed for this \"distortion\".\n",
"The Great Purge mainly operated from December 1936 to November 1938, although the features of arrest and summary trial followed by execution were well entrenched in the Soviet system since the days of Lenin as Stalin systematically destroyed the older generation of pre-1918 leaders, usually on the grounds they were enemy spies or simply because they were enemies of the people. In the Red Army, a majority of generals were executed and hundreds of thousands of other enemies of the people were sent to the gulag, where terrible conditions in Siberia led quickly to death.\n",
"Stalin’s vision and plan for Collectivization led to the death of millions of people due to famines and the imprisonment of others into labor camps. While some dangerous prisoners were released and forced into labor camps others were now set free in a failing economy with no work and no fair chance of survival and making ends meet. People were forced to live in communal apartments with many other families who also faced the horrors of being hungry, without work and the danger of being robbed for the possessions that they did manage to keep. With such living quarters people shared tight spaces with strangers accompanied by many other horrors such as theft, violence and stripped of privacy.\n",
"Following Stalin's death in 1953 purges as systematic campaigns of expulsion from the party ended; thereafter, the center's political control was exerted instead mainly through loss of party membership and its attendant nomenklatura privileges, which effectively downgraded one's opportunities in societysee Trade unions in the Soviet Union#Role in the Soviet class system, chekism, and party rule. Recalcitrant cases could be reduced to nonpersons via involuntary commitment to a psychiatric institution.\n",
"The first five year plans, intensive industrialization and militarization programs in the USSR required educated human resources and many Jews were able to find employment. On the other hand, collectivization in the USSR resulted in the failure of Soviet agriculture and many starving peasants of all ethnic backgrounds found escape in cities.\n",
"Set against this, the purges of the Red Army leadership, in which Molotov participated, weakened the Soviet Union's defence capacity and contributed to the military disasters of 1941 and 1942, which were mostly caused by unreadiness for war. The purges also led to the dismantling of privatised agriculture and its replacement by collectivised agriculture. This left a legacy of chronic agricultural inefficiencies and under-production which the Soviet regime never fully rectified.\n"
] |
how does 50% sodium salt exist?
|
They displace sodium chloride with potassium chloride. It doesn’t taste exactly the same, which is why light salt tastes a bit strange.
Source: _URL_0_
|
[
"Table salt is made up of just under 40% sodium by weight, so a 6g serving (1teaspoon) contains about 2,300mg of sodium. Sodium serves a vital purpose in the human body: via its role as an electrolyte, it helps nerves and muscles to function correctly, and it is one factor involved in the osmotic regulation of water content in body organs (fluid balance). Most of the sodium in the Western diet comes from salt. The habitual salt intake in many Western countries is about 10 g per day, and it is higher than that in many countries in Eastern Europe and Asia. The high level of sodium in many processed foods has a major impact on the total amount consumed. In the United States, 75% of the sodium eaten comes from processed and restaurant foods, 11% from cooking and table use and the rest from what is found naturally in foodstuffs.\n",
"Sodium and potassium occur in all known biological systems, generally functioning as electrolytes inside and outside cells. Sodium is an essential nutrient that regulates blood volume, blood pressure, osmotic equilibrium and pH; the minimum physiological requirement for sodium is 500 milligrams per day. Sodium chloride (also known as common salt) is the principal source of sodium in the diet, and is used as seasoning and preservative, such as for pickling and jerky; most of it comes from processed foods. The Dietary Reference Intake for sodium is 1.5 grams per day, but most people in the United States consume more than 2.3 grams per day, the minimum amount that promotes hypertension; this in turn causes 7.6 million premature deaths worldwide.\n",
"The minimum physiological requirement for sodium is between 115 and 500 milligrams per day depending on sweating due to physical activity, and whether the person is adapted to the climate. Sodium chloride is the principal source of sodium in the diet, and is used as seasoning and preservative, such as for pickling and jerky; most of it comes from processed foods. The Adequate Intake for sodium is 1.2 to 1.5 grams per day, but on average people in the United States consume 3.4 grams per day, the minimum amount that promotes hypertension. (Note that salt contains about 39.3% sodium by massthe rest being chlorine and other trace chemicals; thus the UL of 2.3g sodium would be about 5.9g of saltabout 1 teaspoon)\n",
"As an essential nutrient, sodium is involved in numerous cellular and organ functions. Salt intake that is too low, below 3 g per day, may also increase risk for cardiovascular disease and early death.\n",
"Sodium and potassium are very abundant in earth, both being among the ten most common elements in Earth's crust; sodium makes up approximately 2.6% of the Earth's crust measured by weight, making it the sixth most abundant element overall and the most abundant alkali metal. Potassium makes up approximately 1.5% of the Earth's crust and is the seventh most abundant element. Sodium is found in many different minerals, of which the most common is ordinary salt (sodium chloride), which occurs in vast quantities dissolved in seawater. Other solid deposits include halite, amphibole, cryolite, nitratine, and zeolite. Many of these solid deposits occur as a result of ancient seas evaporating, which still occurs now in places such as Utah's Great Salt Lake and the Dead Sea. Despite their near-equal abundance in Earth's crust, sodium is far more common than potassium in the ocean, both because potassium's larger size makes its salts less soluble, and because potassium is bound by silicates in soil and what potassium leaches is absorbed far more readily by plant life than sodium.\n",
"BULLET::::3. Many sodium salts are used in industrial and domestic applications such as Sodium carbonate, Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda), Sodium sulphate, Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda), Sodium hypochlorite (bleaching powder), etc. in huge quantities. These salts are mainly produced from Sodium chloride (common salt). All the sodium in these salts enter into the river / ground water during their production process or consumption enhancing water sodicity. The total global consumption of sodium chloride is 270 million tons in the year 2010. This is nearly equal to the salt load in the mighty Amazon River. Man made sodium salts contribution is nearly 7% of total salt load of all the rivers. Sodium salt load problem aggravates in the downstream of intensively cultivated river basins located in China, India, Egypt, Pakistan, west Asia, Australia, western US, etc. due to accumulation of salts in the remaining water after meeting various transpiration and evaporation losses.\n",
"In humans, sodium is an essential mineral that regulates blood volume, blood pressure, osmotic equilibrium and pH; the minimum physiological requirement for sodium is 500 milligrams per day. Sodium chloride is the principal source of sodium in the diet, and is used as seasoning and preservative in such commodities as pickled preserves and jerky; for Americans, most sodium chloride comes from processed foods. Other sources of sodium are its natural occurrence in food and such food additives as monosodium glutamate (MSG), sodium nitrite, sodium saccharin, baking soda (sodium bicarbonate), and sodium benzoate. The US Institute of Medicine set its Tolerable Upper Intake Level for sodium at 2.3 grams per day, but the average person in the United States consumes 3.4 grams per day. Studies have found that lowering sodium intake by 2 g per day tends to lower systolic blood pressure by about two to four mm Hg. It has been estimated that such a decrease in sodium intake would lead to between 9 and 17% fewer cases of hypertension.\n"
] |
If only one photon goes through a double-slit, is there an interference pattern on the other side?
|
Yes. Have a look [here](_URL_0_) for more information.
It's not so much that the photon has multiple positions as that its position is not known accurately. This uncertainty in the position allows the photon's wavefunction to interfere with itself, because its probability distribution is spread over both slits.
If you observe the photon going through one slit, you lose your interference pattern because there's no longer any probability that the photon went through the other slit.
|
[
"It was shown experimentally in 1972 that in a double-slit system where only one slit was open at any time, interference was nonetheless observed provided the path difference was such that the detected photon could have come from either slit. The experimental conditions were such that the photon density in the system was much less than unity.\n",
"This result is similar to that of the double-slit experiment, since interference is observed when it is not known from which slit the photon originates, while no interference is observed when the path is known.\n",
"A second kind of experiment resembles the ordinary double-slit experiment. The schematic diagram of this experiment shows that a lens on the far side of the double slits makes the path from each slit diverge slightly from the other after they cross each other fairly near to that lens. The result is that at the two wavefunctions for each photon will be in superposition within a fairly short distance from the double slits, and if a detection screen is provided within the region wherein the wavefunctions are in superposition then interference patterns will be seen. There is no way by which any given photon could have been determined to have arrived from one or the other of the double slits. However, if the detection screen is removed the wavefunctions on each path will superimpose on regions of lower and lower amplitudes, and their combined probability values will be much less than the unreinforced probability values at the center of each path. When telescopes are aimed to intercept the center of the two paths, there will be equal probabilities of nearly 50% that a photon will show up in one of them. When a photon is detected by telescope 1, researchers may associate that photon with the wavefunction that emerged from the lower slit. When one is detected in telescope 2, researchers may associate that photon with the wavefunction that emerged from the upper slit. The explanation that supports this interpretation of experimental results is that a photon has emerged from one of the slits, and that is the end of the matter. A photon must have started at the laser, passed through one of the slits, and arrived by a single straight-line path at the corresponding telescope.\n",
"Wheeler's version of the double-slit experiment is arranged so that the same photon that emerges from two slits can be detected in two ways. The first way lets the two paths come together, lets the two copies of the wavefunction overlap, and shows interference. The second way moves farther away from the photon source to a position where the distance between the two copies of the wavefunction is too great to show interference effects. The technical problem in the laboratory is how to insert a detector screen at a point appropriate to observe interference effects or to remove that screen to reveal the photon detectors that can be restricted to receiving photons from the narrow regions of space where the slits are found. One way to accomplish that task would be to use the recently developed electrically switchable mirrors and simply change directions of the two paths from the slits by switching a mirror on or off. As of early 2014 no such experiment has been announced.\n",
"The double-slit experiment is an illustration of wave-particle duality. In it, a beam of particles (such as electrons) travels through a barrier that has two slits. If one puts a detector screen on the side beyond the barrier, the pattern of detected particles shows interference fringes characteristic of waves arriving at the screen from two sources (the two slits); however, the interference pattern is made up of individual dots corresponding to particles that had arrived on the screen. The system seems to exhibit the behaviour of both waves (interference patterns) and particles (dots on the screen).\n",
"Given the interpretation of quantum physics that says a photon is either in its guise as a wave or in its guise as a particle, the question arises: When does the photon decide whether it is going to travel as a wave or as a particle? Suppose that a traditional double-slit experiment is prepared so that either of the slits can be blocked. If both slits are open and a series of photons are emitted by the laser then an interference pattern will quickly emerge on the detection screen. The interference pattern can only be explained as a consequence of wave phenomena, so experimenters can conclude that each photon \"decides\" to travel as a wave as soon as it is emitted. If only one slit is available then there will be no interference pattern, so experimenters may conclude that each photon \"decides\" to travel as a particle as soon as it is emitted.\n",
"If waves are emitted from an extended source, this can lead to incoherence in the transversal direction. When looking at a cross section of a beam of light, the length over which the phase is correlated is called the transverse coherence length. In the case of Young's double slit experiment, this would mean that if the transverse coherence length is smaller than the spacing between the two slits, the resulting pattern on a screen would look like two single slit diffraction patterns.\n"
] |
Why can you rename, or change the path of, an open file in OS X but not Windows?
|
The Windows filesystem identifies files by their paths (including the file names)—if you change a file’s path, applications and the operating system will perceive it as a new file with no connection to the original.
The OS X filesystem identifies files by an independent file ID, which remains fixed if the file is moved or renamed.
|
[
"When moving or copying files from one folder to another, if two files have the same name, an option is now available to rename the file; in previous versions of Windows, the user was prompted to choose either a replacement or cancel moving the file. Also, when renaming a file, Explorer only highlights the filename without selecting the extension. Renaming multiple files is quicker as pressing Tab automatically renames the existing file or folder and opens the file name text field for the next file for renaming. Shift+Tab allow renaming in the same manner upwards.\n",
"Normally, when using compatible Windows programs which use standard Windows methods of reading the disk, the I/O subsystem returns the long filename to the program — however, if an old DOS application or an old Windows application tries to address the file, it will use the older, 8.3-only APIs, or work at a lower level and perform its own disk access, which results in the return of an 8.3 filename. In this case, the filenames become mangled by taking the first six non-space characters in the filename and adding a tilde (~) and then a number to ensure the uniqueness of the 8.3 filename on the disk. This mangling scheme can turn (for example) codice_4 into codice_5. This technique persists today when people use DOSBox to play classic DOS games or use Windows 3.1 in conjunction to play Win16 games on 64-bit Windows.\n",
"In Windows utilities, the space and the period are not allowed as the final character of a filename. The period is allowed as the first character, but some Windows applications, such as Windows Explorer, forbid creating or renaming such files (despite this convention being used in Unix-like systems to describe hidden files and directories). Workarounds include appending a dot when renaming the file (that is then automatically removed afterwards), using alternative file managers, or saving a file with the desired filename from within an application.\n",
"Template files may restrict users from saving changes with the original file name, such as with the case of Microsoft Office (.dot) filename extensions. In those cases, users are prompted to save the file with a new name as if it were a new file.\n",
"One artifact of this approach is that the system can easily be tricked into treating a file as a different format simply by renaming it—an HTML file can, for instance, be easily treated as plain text by renaming it from to . Although this strategy was useful to expert users who could easily understand and manipulate this information, it was often confusing to less technical users, who could accidentally make a file unusable (or \"lose\" it) by renaming it incorrectly.\n",
"When renaming a file, even when extensions are being displayed, Explorer highlights only the filename without selecting the extension. Renaming multiple files is quicker as pressing Tab automatically renames the existing file or folder and opens the file name text field for the next file for renaming. Shift+Tab allow renaming in the same manner upwards.\n",
"Note that \".\" is used to separate the parts of a hierarchic file name. A leading asterisk denotes a local name for a library, bound using the ASSIGN_LIBRARY command. The number in parentheses after a file name is a version number. The operating system associates a version number with every file, and requests for a file get the latest version unless specified otherwise. Creating a new file will by default create the next version and leave the previous version intact; this program however is deliberately choosing to create version 101, to identify a public release.\n"
] |
Is it just complete coincidence that the outline of the moon fits nicely inside that of the sun during an eclipse? And if so, what an amazing coincidence it is...
|
The fact that the Moon and Sun are very similar angular sizes in our sky is indeed a complete coincidence. The Moon has retreated somewhat from the Earth over time, and earlier on it would have fully covered the Sun, including most of the corona.
|
[
"Another thing to consider is that the motion of the Moon is not a perfect circle. Its orbit is distinctly elliptic, so the lunar distance from Earth varies throughout the lunar cycle. This varying distance changes the apparent diameter of the Moon, and therefore influences the chances, duration, and type (partial, annular, total, mixed) of an eclipse. This orbital period is called the anomalistic month, and together with the synodic month causes the so-called \"full moon cycle\" of about 14 lunations in the timings and appearances of full (and new) Moons. The Moon moves faster when it is closer to the Earth (near perigee) and slower when it is near apogee (furthest distance), thus periodically changing the timing of syzygies by up to ±14 hours (relative to their mean timing), and changing the apparent lunar angular diameter by about ±6%. An eclipse cycle must comprise close to an integer number of anomalistic months in order to perform well in predicting eclipses.\n",
"The Moon's orbit around the Earth is inclined at an angle of just over 5 degrees to the plane of the Earth's orbit around the Sun (the ecliptic). Because of this, at the time of a new moon, the Moon will usually pass to the north or south of the Sun. A solar eclipse can occur only when new moon occurs close to one of the points (known as nodes) where the Moon's orbit crosses the ecliptic.\n",
"BULLET::::- An annular eclipse occurs when the Sun and Moon are exactly in line with the Earth, but the apparent size of the Moon is smaller than that of the Sun. Hence the Sun appears as a very bright ring, or annulus, surrounding the dark disk of the Moon.\n",
"Because the orbit of the Moon is inclined only about 5.145° to the ecliptic and the Sun is always very near the ecliptic, eclipses always occur on or near it. Because of the inclination of the Moon's orbit, eclipses do not occur at every conjunction and opposition of the Sun and Moon, but only when the Moon is near an ascending or descending node at the same time it is at conjunction (new) or opposition (full). The ecliptic is so named because the ancients noted that eclipses only occur when the Moon is crossing it.\n",
"The moon's orbit is not in the same plane as the Earth's orbit around the sun, but crosses it in two places. The moon crosses the ecliptic plane twice a month, once when it goes up above the plane, and again 15 or so days later when it goes back down below the ecliptic. These two locations are the ascending and descending lunar nodes. Solar and lunar eclipses will occur only when the moon is positioned near one of these nodes, because at other times the moon is either too high or too low for an eclipse to be noticed from earth. Some astronomical clocks keep track of the position of the lunar nodes with a long pointer that crosses the dial. This so-called dragon hand makes one complete rotation around the ecliptic dial every 19 years. When the dragon hand and the new moon coincide, the moon is on the same plane as the earth and sun, and so there is every chance that an eclipse will be visible from somewhere on earth.\n",
"If the Moon were in a perfectly circular orbit, a little closer to the Earth, and in the same orbital plane, there would be total solar eclipses every new moon. However, since the Moon's orbit is tilted at more than 5 degrees to the Earth's orbit around the Sun, its shadow usually misses Earth. A solar eclipse can only occur when the moon is close enough to the ecliptic plane during a new moon. Special conditions must occur for the two events to coincide because the Moon's orbit crosses the ecliptic at its orbital nodes twice every draconic month (27.212220 days) while a new moon occurs one every synodic month (29.530587981 days). Solar (and lunar) eclipses therefore happen only during eclipse seasons resulting in at least two, and up to five, solar eclipses each year; no more than two of which can be total eclipses.\n",
"outer atmosphere of the Sun seen during a total eclipse; he proposes that the corona must belong to the Sun, not the Moon, because of its great size. Ferrer also states, that during the total eclipse of 1806, the irregularities of the moon's surface were plainly discernible.\n"
] |
If someone died and had their brain preserved, could we map their entire neural network?
|
Yes, but a dead brain may look very different than a live brain.
Currently, in vivo techniques (MRI, PET, CT, etc...) do not have the resolution required to do this. Serial block imaging along with automated taping lathe ultramicrotome and heavy duty custom neural imaging software can reconstruct every synapse and connection, but the data file would be in the petabyes.
Essentially, here is how this works: a brain is frozen in a big block of ice, and a VERY thin blade shaves off a very small section at a time. Something in the micrometer range. After every time a piece of brain is shaved, an electron microscope takes an image. From there, computer software can reconstruct the brain in 3d and trace individual neurons and their connections. It is an exciting time for the field of connectomics.
Check out these links:
[Quest for the connectome](_URL_0_)
[Sebastian Seung's](_URL_1_) I am my connectome. His [faculty webpage at MIT](_URL_2_) is also a great read.
Edit: Also to further answer your question, this cannot be done in an alive human. In alive people, the best resolution we can get is 1.5-2 mm, which contains thousands of neurons and other types of cells (such as glial cells)
|
[
"Some patients with anterograde amnesia can still acquire some semantic information, even though it might be more difficult and might remain rather unrelated to more general knowledge. H.M. could accurately draw a floor plan of the home in which he lived after surgery, even though he had not lived there in years. The reason patients could not form new episodic memories is likely because the CA1 region of the hippocampus was a lesion, and thus the hippocampus could not make connections to the cortex. After an ischemic episode following surgery, an MRI of patient R.B. showed his hippocampus to be intact except for a specific lesion restricted to the CA1 pyramidal cells.\n",
"The research teams at USC and Wake Forest are working to possibly make this system applicable to humans whose brains suffer damage from Alzheimer's, stroke, or injury, the disruption of neural networks often stops long-term memories from forming. The system designed by Berger and implemented by Deadwyler and Hampson allows the signal processing to take place that would occur naturally in undamaged neurons. Ultimately, they hope to restore the ability to create long-term memories by implanting chips such as these into the brain.\n",
"He proposes that every memory, skill, and passion is encoded somehow in the connectome. And when the brain is not wired properly it can result in mental disorders such as autism, schizophrenia, Alzheimer's, and Parkinson's. Understanding the human connectome may not only help cure such diseases with treatments but also possibly help doctors prevent them from occurring in the first place. And if we can represent the sum of all human experiences and memories in the connectome, then we can download human brains on to flash drives, save them indefinitely, and replay those memories in the future, thereby granting humans a kind of immortality.\n",
"This is also true of her other work such as that showing that patients with amnesia cannot imagine the future which several years ago was rated as one of the scientific breakthroughs of the year; and her other studies demonstrating that it is possible to decode people's memories from the pattern of fMRI activity in the hippocampus.\n",
"While it has been claimed that human memory seems to be capable of storing a great amount of information, to the extent that some had thought an infinite amount, the presence of such ever-growing matrix within human memory sounds implausible. In addition, the model suggests that to perform the recall process, parallel-search between every single trace that resides within the ever-growing matrix is required, which also raises doubt on whether such computations can be done in a short amount of time. Such doubts, however, have been challenged by findings of Gallistel and King who present evidence on the brain’s enormous computational abilities that can be in support of such parallel support.\n",
"The medial temporal lobes and their surrounding structures are of immense importance to memory in general. The hippocampus is of particular interest. It has been well documented that damage here can result in severe retrograde or anterograde amnesia, the patient is unable to recollect certain events from their past or create new memories respectively. However, the hippocampus does not seem to be the \"storehouse\" of memory. Rather, it may function more as a relay station. Research suggests that it is through the hippocampus that short term memory engages in the process of consolidation (the transfer to long term storage). The memories are transferred from the hippocampus to the broader lateral neocortex via the entorhinal cortex. This helps explain why many amnesics have spared cognitive abilities. They may have a normal short term memory, but are unable to consolidate that memory and it is lost rapidly. Lesions in the medial temporal lobe often leave the subject with the capacity to learn new skills, also known as procedural memory. If experiencing anterograde amnesia, the subject cannot recall any of the learning trials, yet consistently improves with each trial. This highlights the distinctiveness of recognition as a particular and separate type of memory, falling into the domain of declarative memory.\n",
"Current non-invasive imaging techniques cannot capture the brain's activity on a neuron-by-neuron level. Mapping the connectome at the cellular level in vertebrates currently requires post-mortem (after death) microscopic analysis of limited portions of brain tissue. Non-optical techniques that rely on high-throughput DNA sequencing have been proposed recently by Anthony Zador (CSHL).\n"
] |
What percentage of lift is generated by the shape of an airplane wing and what percent is generated by the angle of attack?
|
Well, depends what kind of wing it is, first of all. Secondly, speed, pressure altitude, temperature, etc. Tons of variables to consider here aside from the shape of the airfoil and the AoA.
Would be a good question for [/r/AskEngineers](/r/AskEngineers) or [/r/aviation](/r/aviation).
|
[
"The graph shows that the greatest amount of lift is produced as the critical angle of attack is reached (which in early-20th century aviation was called the \"burble point\"). This angle is 17.5 degrees in this case, but it varies from airfoil to airfoil. In particular, for aerodynamically thick airfoils (thickness to chord ratios of around 10%), the critical angle is higher than with a thin airfoil of the same camber. Symmetric airfoils have lower critical angles (but also work efficiently in inverted flight). The graph shows that, as the angle of attack exceeds the critical angle, the lift produced by the airfoil decreases.\n",
"The angle of attack is the angle between the chord line of an airfoil and the oncoming airflow. A symmetrical airfoil will generate zero lift at zero angle of attack. But as the angle of attack increases, the air is deflected through a larger angle and the vertical component of the airstream velocity increases, resulting in more lift. For small angles a symmetrical airfoil will generate a lift force roughly proportional to the angle of attack.\n",
"In most situations an aircraft's lift comes chiefly from the low pressure generated on the upper surface by the locally enhanced higher air velocity. This latter may be the result of the movement of the aircraft through the air or, when lift at low air speeds is important for short take-off performance, produced by engine power. The channel wing, the brainchild of Willard Ray Custer, is an example of the latter, where the air velocity over the upper surface velocity in a U-shaped channel formed out of the wing was increased with a pusher propeller at the trailing edge. This near semi-circular channel laterally constrained the airflow produced by the propeller, even when the aircraft was at rest, producing higher flow velocities than over a conventional pusher wing. The need for wing mounted pusher engines made a pusher twin a natural configuration, and for his third channel wing design Custer chose to modify the existing Baumann Brigadier, a 5-seat mid wing pusher twin which itself did not reach production.\n",
"The thrust axis for an airplane is the line of action of the total thrust at any instant. It depends on the location, number, and characteristics of the jet engines or propellers. It usually differs from the drag axis. If so, the distance between the thrust axis and the drag axis will cause a moment that must be resisted by a change in the aerodynamic force on the horizontal stabiliser. Notably, the Boeing 737 MAX, with larger, lower-slung engines than previous 737 models, had a greater distance between the thrust axis and the drag axis, causing the nose to rise up in some flight regimes, necessitating a pitch-control system, MCAS.\n",
"Lift-to-drag ratios for practical aircraft vary from about 4:1 for vehicles and birds with relatively short wings, up to 60:1 or more for vehicles with very long wings, such as gliders. A greater angle of attack relative to the forward movement also increases the extent of deflection, and thus generates extra lift. However a greater angle of attack also generates extra drag. \n",
"At low angles of attack, the lift is generated primarily by the wings, fins and the nose region of the body. The total lift acts at a distance formula_35 ahead of the centre of gravity (it has a negative value in the figure), this, in missile parlance, is the centre of pressure . If the lift acts ahead of the centre of gravity, the yawing moment will be negative, and will tend to increase the angle of attack, increasing both the lift and the moment further. It follows that the centre of pressure must lie aft of the centre of gravity for static stability. formula_35 is the static margin and must be negative for longitudinal static stability. Alternatively, positive angle of attack must generate positive yawing moment on a statically stable missile, i.e. formula_37 must be positive. It is common practice to design manoeuvrable missiles with near zero static margin (i.e. neutral static stability).\n",
"The lift-to-drag ratio, or \"L/D ratio\", is the amount of lift generated by a wing or vehicle, divided by the drag it creates by moving through the air. A higher or more favourable L/D ratio is typically one of the major goals in aircraft design; since a particular aircraft's needed lift is set by its weight, delivering that lift with lower drag leads directly to better fuel economy and climb performance.\n"
] |
Is everything at least a tiny bit soluble in water?
|
Enough energy isn't the problem, there's more than enough in a macroscopic amount of water, it's the probability of having enough energy in one spot (e.g. a single carbon atom) to cause the reaction you want (the carbon atom dissociating). The probability of that decreases exponentially with the (energy required)/(absolute temperature), so it's never an exactly zero probability except for the fictional situation where the substance would be at absolute zero. But since it's exponential, it also means it quickly becomes an astronomically small number if the energy required is large.
The equation in question that describes this is the Boltzmann distribution.
|
[
"By contrast, substances are said to be immiscible if there are certain proportions in which the mixture does not form a solution. For example, oil is not soluble in water, so these two solvents are immiscible, while butanone (methyl ethyl ketone) is significantly soluble in water, these two solvents are also immiscible because they are not soluble in all proportions.\n",
"The following chart shows the solubilities of multiple independent and various compounds, in water, at a pressure of 1 atm and at room temperature (approx. 293.15 K). Any box that reads \"soluble\" results in an aqueous product in which no precipitate has formed, while \"slightly soluble\" and \"insoluble\" markings mean that there is a precipitate that will form (usually, this is a solid), however, \"slightly soluble\" compounds such as calcium sulfate may require heat to form its precipitate. Boxes marked \"other\" can mean that many different states of products can result. For more detailed information of the exact solubility of the compounds, see the solubility table.\n",
"The solubility of the various alums in water varies greatly, sodium alum being readily soluble in water, while caesium and rubidium alums are only sparingly soluble. The various solubilities are shown in the following table.\n",
"Another common macromolecular property that does not characterize smaller molecules is their relative insolubility in water and similar solvents, instead forming colloids. Many require salts or particular ions to dissolve in water. Similarly, many proteins will denature if the solute concentration of their solution is too high or too low.\n",
"Veratridine has a pKa of 9.54. It is slightly soluble in ether, soluble in ethanol and DMSO, and freely soluble in chloroform. Solubility in water is pH-dependent; the free base form is slightly soluble, but easily dissolves in 1 M HCl. Its nitrate salt is slightly soluble in water. Its sulfate salt is very hygroscopic.\n",
"The extent of solubility ranges widely, from infinitely soluble (without limit) (fully miscible) such as ethanol in water, to poorly soluble, such as silver chloride in water. The term \"insoluble\" is often applied to poorly or very poorly soluble compounds. A number of other descriptive terms are also used to qualify the extent of solubility for a given application. For example, U.S. Pharmacopoeia gives the following terms:\n",
"Water-soluble: BS3 is hydrophilic due to its terminal sulfonyl substituents and as a result dissociates in water, eliminating the need to use organic solvents which interfere with protein structure and function. Because organic solvents need not be used when BS3 is used as the crosslinker, it is ideal for investigations into protein structure and function in physiologic conditions.\n"
] |
How does physics address the situation in Zeno's arrow paradox? (This is not the same as the Achilles and tortoise paradox)
|
Velocity cannot be determined by the position of the arrow at one given instant of time. So you can't say "at an instant in time, the arrow is still and not moving". You have no idea whether the arrow is moving or not moving. You need at least two positions to calculate its average velocity over the time elapsed. As the time elapsed goes to zero, the average velocity goes to the exact instantaneous velocity.
|
[
"The archer's paradox is the phenomenon of an arrow traveling in the direction it is pointed at full draw, when it seems that the arrow would have to pass through the starting position it was in before being drawn, where it was pointed to the side of the target.\n",
"In physics, Carroll's paradox arises when considering the motion of a falling rigid rod that is specially constrained. Considered one way, the angular momentum stays constant; considered in a different way, it changes. It is named after Michael M. Carroll who first published it in 1984.\n",
"In the arrow paradox, Zeno states that for motion to occur, an object must change the position which it occupies. He gives an example of an arrow in flight. He states that in any one (duration-less) instant of time, the arrow is neither moving to where it is, nor to where it is not.\n",
"The origins of the paradoxes are somewhat unclear. Diogenes Laërtius, a fourth source for information about Zeno and his teachings, citing Favorinus, says that Zeno's teacher Parmenides was the first to introduce the Achilles and the tortoise paradox. But in a later passage, Laërtius attributes the origin of the paradox to Zeno, explaining that Favorinus disagrees.\n",
"\"What the Tortoise Said to Achilles\", written by Lewis Carroll in 1895 for the philosophical journal \"Mind\", is a brief allegorical dialogue on the foundations of logic. The title alludes to one of Zeno's paradoxes of motion, in which Achilles could never overtake the tortoise in a race. In Carroll's dialogue, the tortoise challenges Achilles to use the force of logic to make him accept the conclusion of a simple deductive argument. Ultimately, Achilles fails, because the clever tortoise leads him into an infinite regression.\n",
"Zeno's paradoxes are a set of philosophical problems generally thought to have been devised by Greek philosopher Zeno of Elea (c. 490–430 BC) to support Parmenides' doctrine that contrary to the evidence of one's senses, the belief in plurality and change is mistaken, and in particular that motion is nothing but an illusion. It is usually assumed, based on Plato's \"Parmenides\" (128a–d), that Zeno took on the project of creating these paradoxes because other philosophers had created paradoxes against Parmenides' view. Thus Plato has Zeno say the purpose of the paradoxes \"is to show that their hypothesis that existences are many, if properly followed up, leads to still more absurd results than the hypothesis that they are one.\" Plato has Socrates claim that Zeno and Parmenides were essentially arguing exactly the same point.\n",
"In Classical times the story was annexed to a philosophical problem by Zeno of Elea in one of many demonstrations that movement is impossible to define satisfactorily. The second of Zeno's paradoxes is that of Achilles and the Tortoise, in which the hero gives the Tortoise a head start in a race. The argument attempts to show that even though Achilles runs faster than the Tortoise, he will never catch up with her because, when Achilles reaches the point at which the Tortoise started, the Tortoise has advanced some distance beyond; when Achilles arrives at the point where the Tortoise was when Achilles arrived at the point where the Tortoise started, the Tortoise has again moved forward. Hence Achilles can never catch the Tortoise, no matter how fast he runs, since the Tortoise will always be moving ahead.\n"
] |
how does preloading games on apps such as steam work?
|
Two ways:
1. The game files are encrypted, and the decryption key is given only when the game is released.
2. Most of the game files are assets such as music, textures and models. The actual game executable is relatively small. Preloading downloads these assets but not the executable.
|
[
"Valve added the ability for developers to sell games under an early access model with a special section of the Steam store, starting in March 2013. This program allows for developers to release functional, but not finished, products such as beta versions to the service to allow users to buy the games and help provide testing and feedback towards the final production. Early access also helps to provide funding to the developers to help complete their games. The early access approach allowed more developers to publish games onto the Steam service without the need for Valve's direct curation of games, significantly increasing the number of available games on the service.\n",
"Players can add non-Steam games to their libraries, allowing the game to be easily accessed from the Steam client and providing support where possible for Steam Overlay features. The Steam interface allows for user-defined shortcuts to be added. In this way, third-party modifications and games not purchased through the Steam Store can use Steam features. Valve sponsors and distributes some modifications free-of-charge; and modifications that use Steamworks can also use VAC, Friends, the server browser, and any Steam features supported by their parent game. For most games launched from Steam, the client provides an in-game overlay that can be accessed by a keystroke. From the overlay, the user can access his or her Steam Community lists and participate in chat, manage selected Steam settings, and access a built-in web browser without having to exit the game. Since the beginning of February 2011 as a beta version, the overlay also allows players to take screenshots of the games in process; it automatically stores these and allows the player to review, delete, or share them during or after his or her game session. As a full version on February 24, 2011, this feature was reimplemented so that users could share screenshots on websites of Facebook, Twitter, and Reddit straight from a user's screenshot manager.\n",
"Since SteamOS is solely for playing games without use of mouse or keyboard, it does not have many built-in functions beyond web browsing and playing games; for example, there is no file manager or image viewer installed by default. Users can, however, access the GNOME desktop environment and perform tasks like installing other software. Though the OS does not, in its current form, support streaming services, Valve is in talks with streaming companies such as Spotify and Netflix to bring their features to SteamOS. However Steam does have full-length films from indie movie makers available from their store. The OS natively supports Nvidia, Intel, and AMD graphics processors.\n",
"In September 2008, Valve added support for Steam Cloud, a service that can automatically store saved game and related custom files on Valve's servers; users can access this data from any machine running the Steam client. Games must use the appropriate features of Steamworks for Steam Cloud to work. Users can disable this feature on a per-game and per-account basis. In May 2012, the service added the ability for users to manage their game libraries from remote clients, including computers and mobile devices; users can instruct Steam to download and install games they own through this service if their Steam client is currently active and running. Product keys sold through third-party retailers can also be redeemed on Steam. For games that incorporate Steamworks, users can buy redemption codes from other vendors and redeem these in the Steam client to add the title to their libraries. Steam also offers a framework for selling and distributing downloadable content (DLC) for games.\n",
"In August 2014, the game was removed from the Steam store, due to a lack of time from Futuremark, two years after the company was bought by Rovio Entertainment, however, you can still use keys bought from resellers to download and play the game from Steam.\n",
"Rather than employing a separate client like Steam, users download purchased games directly from the Playism website. They have also started to distribute on a variety of platforms including Steam, GOG, Gamefly, PlayStation Store, Google Play and iOS. They have also announced that they are planning to bring some titles to PlayStation.\n",
"Kongregate announced plans in October 2016 to help developers bring their games to the Steam distribution platform with an updated software development kit to make it easy to port games between their web, mobile, and the Steam platforms (Windows, macOS, and Linux), and to support data sharing between these for players. This enabled games to take advantage of microtransactions through the Steam store for titles otherwise normally free-to-play.\n"
] |
Are there any nuclear fusion processes that don't give off excess energy?
|
Yes, many fusion reactions don't release energy, but *take* energy instead. Generally, fusion of two heavy nuclei will be endothermic.
|
[
"The fusion process alone currently does not achieve sufficient gain (power output over power input) to be viable as a power source. By using the excess neutrons from the fusion reaction to in turn cause a high-yield fission reaction (close to 100%) in the surrounding subcritical fissionable blanket, the net yield from the hybrid fusion–fission process can provide a targeted gain of 100 to 300 times the input energy (an increase by a factor of three or four over fusion alone). Even allowing for high inefficiencies on the input side (i.e. low laser efficiency in ICF and Bremsstrahlung losses in Tokamak designs), this can still yield sufficient heat output for economical electric power generation. This can be seen as a shortcut to viable fusion power until more efficient pure fusion technologies can be developed, or as an end in itself to generate power, and also consume existing stockpiles of nuclear fissionables and waste products.\n",
"This is a key concept in the hybrid concept, known as \"fission multiplication\". For every fusion event, several fission events may occur, each of which gives off much more energy than the original fusion, about 11 times. This greatly increases the total power output of the reactor. This has been suggested as a way to produce practical fusion reactors in spite of the fact that no fusion reactor has yet reached break-even, by multiplying the power output using cheap fuel or waste. However, a number of studies have repeatedly demonstrated that this only becomes practical when the overall reactor is very large, 2 to 3 GWt, which makes it expensive to build.\n",
"As a source of power, nuclear fusion is expected to have several theoretical advantages over fission. These include reduced radioactivity in operation and little high-level nuclear waste, ample fuel supplies, and increased safety. However, achieving the necessary temperature/pressure/duration combination has proven to be difficult to produce in a practical and economical manner. Research into fusion reactors began in the 1940s, but to date, no design has produced more fusion power output than the electrical power input, defeating the purpose.\n",
"Fusion reactors generally use hydrogen isotopes such as deuterium and tritium, which react more easily than hydrogen. The designs aim to heat their fuel to tens of millions of degrees using a wide variety of methods. The major challenge in realising fusion power is to engineer a system that can confine the plasma long enough at high enough temperature and density for many reactions to occur. A second issue that affects common reactions, is managing neutrons that are released during the reaction, which over time degrade many common materials used within the reaction chamber.\n",
"Fusion power is the process driving the sun and other stars. It generates large quantities of heat by fusing the nuclei of hydrogen or helium isotopes, which may be derived from seawater. The heat can theoretically be harnessed to generate electricity. The temperatures and pressures needed to sustain fusion make it a very difficult process to control. Fusion is theoretically able to supply vast quantities of energy, with relatively little pollution. Although both the United States and the European Union, along with other countries, are supporting fusion research (such as investing in the ITER facility), according to one report, inadequate research has stalled progress in fusion research for the past 20 years.\n",
"Fusion rockets, powered by nuclear fusion reactions, would \"burn\" such light element fuels as deuterium, tritium, or He. Because fusion yields about 1% of the mass of the nuclear fuel as released energy, it is energetically more favorable than fission, which releases only about 0.1% of the fuel's mass-energy. However, either fission or fusion technologies can in principle achieve velocities far higher than needed for Solar System exploration, and fusion energy still awaits practical demonstration on Earth.\n",
"In principle, fusion power could be produced by nuclear fusion of elements such as the deuterium isotope of hydrogen. While an ongoing rich research topic since at least the 1940s, no self-sustaining fusion reactor for power generation has ever been built.\n"
] |
when you google a certain store or restaurant and it gives you a bar chart of peak times, where does the data come from?
|
When you have Google Maps, you can turn on location tracking to help Google learn certain tasks. For example, it will learn where your home and work are, and what route you usually take to get there, so then it will send you a message when it's time for you to leave for work based on current traffic.
When you have location tracking enabled, Google can use GPS to determine that you're probably at a particular store or restaurant if you linger in that location for a while. So if Google notices that around 6pm, not many phones are announcing their location at a particular restaurant, but at 7pm, a lot are, then at 8pm, not many are pinging again, they can surmise that 6pm and 8pm aren't very busy, but 7pm is.
Repeat that over weeks and weeks and they can build a pretty good idea of how busy a restaurant or store will be at any given time.
If you use google Maps, you can even look at where Google thinks/knows you have been. Go to Menu > Your Timeline and it will show a history if you have location tracking enabled. For instance,[ here's some of my tracking from yesterday.](_URL_0_) I didn't have to do anything or even confirm I was at those places. Google Maps just knew from my GPS.
|
[
"Assume the database is owned by a book retailer franchise that has several franchisees that own shops in different locations. And therefore the retailer decided to add a table that contains data about availability of the books at different locations:\n",
"At the same time, though, the same page indicates store's period of operation is with dates (May 5 through May 22 (no year indicated)) and times. This operation appeared to have a very restricted term of occupancy, often referred to as a \"pop up\" shop.\n",
"Location data allows Google to provide information based upon current location and places that the user has visited in the past, based upon GPS location from an Android smartphone or the user's IP address. Google uses this location data to provide local listings grouped with search results using the Google Local platform featuring detailed reviews and ratings from Zagat.\n",
"Google Trends is a website by Google that analyzes the popularity of top search queries in Google Search across various regions and languages. The website uses graphs to compare the search volume of different queries over time.\n",
"On September 29, 2011, Google Analytics launched Real Time analytics, enabling a user to have insight about visitors currently on the site. A user can have 100 site profiles. Each profile generally corresponds to one website. It is limited to sites which have traffic of fewer than 5 million pageviews per month (roughly 2 pageviews per second) unless the site is linked to a Google Ads campaign. Google Analytics includes Google Website Optimizer, rebranded as \"Google Analytics Content Experiments\". Google Analytics' Cohort analysis helps in understanding the behaviour of component groups of users apart from your user population. It is beneficial to marketers and analysts for successful implementation of a marketing strategy.\n",
"The OCC website contains the Top 100 chart. Some media outlets only list the Top 40 (such as the BBC) or the Top 75 (such as \"Music Week\" magazine) of this list. The chart week runs from 00:01 Friday to midnight Thursday, with most UK physical and digital singles being released on Fridays. From 3 August 1969 until 5 July 2015, the chart week ran from 00:01 Sunday to midnight Saturday.\n",
"The database should include things like retailer, date, quantity, quality, degree of advertising and the time taken until sold out. This will make sure that the future employees can learn from the past experience while making decisions. For example, if the manager want to hold a big discount event to clear the products that have been left in stock for a long time. Then he can go through the past data to find out if there is any event like this before and how was the result. The manager would be able to forecast the budget and make some improvements base on the past events’ record.\n"
] |
Why do we get frustrated?
|
Just because we do it, doesn't mean there is an evolutionary advantage or that it is even related to evolution.
We get frustrated because we are inherently selfish beings who want to succeed. Failure to succeed or proceed at a pace we like causes frustration.
|
[
"In psychology, frustration is a common emotional response to opposition, related to anger, annoyance and disappointment, frustration arises from the perceived resistance to the fulfillment of an individual's will or goal and is likely to increase when a will or goal is denied or blocked. There are two types of frustration; internal and external. Internal frustration may arise from challenges in fulfilling personal goals, desires, instinctual drives and needs, or dealing with perceived deficiencies, such as a lack of confidence or fear of social situations. Conflict, such as when one has competing goals that interfere with one another, can also be an internal source of frustration and can create cognitive dissonance. External causes of frustration involve conditions outside an individual's control, such as a physical roadblock, a difficult task, or the perception of wasting time. There are multiple ways individuals cope with frustration such as passive–aggressive behavior, anger, or violence, although frustration may also propel positive processes via enhanced effort and strive. This broad range of potential outcomes makes it difficult to identify the original cause(s) of frustration, as the responses may be indirect. However, a more direct and common response is a propensity towards aggression.\n",
"Frustration can be considered a problem–response behavior and can have a number of effects, depending on the mental health of the individual. In positive cases, this frustration will build until a level that is too great for the individual to contain or allow to continue, and thus produce action directed at solving the inherent problem in a disposition that does not cause social or physical harm. In negative cases, however, the individual may perceive the source of frustration to be outside their control, and thus the frustration will continue to build, leading eventually to further problematic behavior (e.g. violent reaction against perceived oppressors or enemies).\n",
"Frustration originates from feelings of uncertainty and insecurity which stems from a sense of inability to fulfill needs. If the needs of an individual are blocked, uneasiness and frustration are more likely to occur. When these needs are constantly ignored or unsatisfied, anger, depression, loss of self-confidence, annoyance, aggression, and sometimes violence are likely to follow. Needs can be blocked two different ways; internally and externally. Internal blocking happens within an individual's mind, either through lack of ability, confidence, conflicting goals and desires, and/or fears. External blocking happens to an individual outside their control such as physical roadblocks, difficult tasks, or perceived waste of time.\n",
"Fidgeting may be a result of nervousness, frustration, agitation, boredom, ADHD, excitement or a combination of these. When interested in a task, a seated person will suppress their fidgeting, a process described as Non-Instrumental Movement Inhibition. Some education researchers consider fidgeting along with noise-making as clear signs of inattention or low lecture quality, although educators point out that active engagement can take place without constantly directing attention to the instructor (i.e. engagement and attention are related but not equivalent ). Fidgeting is often a subconscious act and is increased during spontaneous mind-wandering. Some researchers have proposed that fidgeting is not only an indicator of diminishing attention, but is also a subconscious attempt to increase arousal in order to improve attention. While inattention is strongly associated with poor learning and poor information recall, research by Dr. Karen Pine and colleagues found that children that are allowed to fidget with their hands performed better in memory and learning tests.\n",
"Panic, phobias, conversions, obsessions, compulsions and depressions (analysts call these \"neurotic symptoms\") are not usually caused by deficits in functions. Instead, they are caused by intrapsychic conflicts. The conflicts are generally among sexual and hostile-aggressive wishes, guilt and shame, and reality factors. The conflicts may be conscious or unconscious, but create anxiety, depressive affect, and anger. Finally, the various elements are managed by defensive operations – essentially shut-off brain mechanisms that make people unaware of that element of conflict. \"Repression\" is the term given to the mechanism that shuts thoughts out of consciousness. \"Isolation of affect\" is the term used for the mechanism that shuts sensations out of consciousness. Neurotic symptoms may occur with or without deficits in ego functions, object relations, and ego strengths. Therefore, it is not uncommon to encounter obsessive-compulsive schizophrenics, panic patients who also suffer with borderline personality disorder, etc.\n",
"In depression, exaggerated all-or-nothing thinking can form a self-reinforcing cycle: these thoughts might be called \"emotional amplifiers\" because, as they go around and around, they become more intense. Here are some typical all-or-nothing thoughts:\n",
"In depression, exaggerated all-or-nothing thinking can form a self-reinforcing cycle: these thoughts might be called \"emotional amplifiers\" because, as they go around and around, they become more intense. Typical all-or-nothing thoughts:\n"
] |
why can we listen to music at a loud volume, but once it cuts to a commercial or someone talking, it sounds a lot louder?
|
You know how at the loud volume of your music the music itself has variations in loudness?
Some sounds are louder some are softer.
So, without changing the volume of your speakers you can encode and change the volume of the music.
Advertisers know this and just make their sound super loud.
Its illegal in most media in the US. There is a max encoded volume for television commercials, at any rate.
|
[
"Sound around mode allows for real time overlapping of music and the sounds surrounding the listener in her environment, which are captured by a microphone and mixed into the audio signal. As a result, the user may hear playing music and external sounds of the environment at the same time. This can increase user safety (especially in big cities and busy streets), as a user can hear a mugger following her or hear an oncoming car.\n",
"The signal to noise ratio is simply how large the music signal is compared to the low level of the \"noise\" with no signal. When the music is loud, the low hiss is not noticeable, but when the music is soft or in silence, most of what can be heard is the noise. If the recording level is adjusted so that the music is always loud, then it could in theory be turned down later, and the noise volume would also be turned down. The idea is for electronics to automatically increase the recording volume when it is soft, but reduce the volume on playback. Some schemes like Dolby B concentrate only on the high frequencies so that the \"hiss\" sound of noise will be masked when volume is turned down for playback.\n",
"Loud music is music that is played at a high volume, often to the point where it disturbs others and/or causes hearing damage. It may include music that is sung live with one or more voices, played with instruments, or broadcast with electronic media, such as radio, CD, or MP3 players.\n",
"To the listener the overall sound appears louder, which is useful to commercial broadcasters as it draws attention to them when the casual listener is tuning across the band. It does introduce artifacts to the sound, which is an irritation to those with a good musical ear, especially for classical music.\n",
"BULLET::::- Speak in a normal, clear, calm voice. Talking loudly or shouting does not increase the volume of your voice at the receiving radios, but will distort the audio, because loud sounds result in over-modulation, which directly causes distortion.\n",
"There are also applications that do not only adapt the sound of music to the user's hearing but also include some hearing aid functions. Such types of applications include sound amplification mode in accordance with the user's hearing characteristics as well as noise suppression mode and the mode allowing to hear the surrounding sounds without pausing the music.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"When you hear some music or hear some sound, if for some reason you like it very well; the reason is that sound is in balance or in harmony with your pulse. And so making a sound, you try to make various different sounds that imitate various different sounds of the universe, but what you are finally making is your own sound, the sound of yourself.\"\n"
] |
Can ohms law be applied to any circuit?
|
No, Ohm's law is a special case. In general, the relationship between the voltage you apply across a given circuit element to the current that flows through it (or current density to electric field) is not linear.
For example, see diodes, transistors, operational amplifiers, etc.
|
[
"Ohm's law is one of the basic equations used in the analysis of electrical circuits. It applies to both metal conductors and circuit components (resistors) specifically made for this behaviour. Both are ubiquitous in electrical engineering. Materials and components that obey Ohm's law are described as \"ohmic\" which means they produce the same value for resistance (R = V/I) regardless of the value of V or I which is applied and whether the applied voltage or current is DC (direct current) of either positive or negative polarity or AC (alternating current).\n",
"Ohm's law, in the form above, is an extremely useful equation in the field of electrical/electronic engineering because it describes how voltage, current and resistance are interrelated on a \"macroscopic\" level, that is, commonly, as circuit elements in an electrical circuit. Physicists who study the electrical properties of matter at the microscopic level use a closely related and more general vector equation, sometimes also referred to as Ohm's law, having variables that are closely related to the V, I, and R scalar variables of Ohm's law, but which are each functions of position within the conductor. Physicists often use this continuum form of Ohm's Law:\n",
"Ohm's law holds for circuits containing only resistive elements (no capacitances or inductances) for all forms of driving voltage or current, regardless of whether the driving voltage or current is constant (DC) or time-varying such as AC. At any instant of time Ohm's law is valid for such circuits.\n",
"The ohm is defined as an electrical resistance between two points of a conductor when a constant potential difference of one volt, applied to these points, produces in the conductor a current of one ampere, the conductor not being the seat of any electromotive force.\n",
"A \"legal\" ohm, a reproducible standard, was defined by the international conference of electricians at Paris in 1884 as the resistance of a mercury column of specified weight and 106 cm long; this was a compromise value between the B. A. unit (equivalent to 104.7 cm), the Siemens unit (100 cm by definition), and the CGS unit. Although called \"legal\", this standard was not adopted by any national legislation. The \"international\" ohm was recommended by unanimous resolution at the International Electrical Congress 1893 in Chicago. The unit was based upon the ohm equal to 10 units of resistance of the C.G.S. system of electromagnetic units. The international ohm is represented by the resistance offered to an unvarying electric current in a mercury column of constant cross-sectional area 106.3 cm long of mass 14.4521 grams and 0 °C. This definition became the basis for the legal definition of the ohm in several countries. In 1908, this definition was adopted by scientific representatives from several countries at the International Conference on Electric Units and Standards in London. The mercury column standard was maintained until the 1948 General Conference on Weights and Measures, at which the ohm was redefined in absolute terms instead of as an artifact standard.\n",
"Ohm's law is an empirical law, a generalization from many experiments that have shown that current is approximately proportional to electric field for most materials. It is less fundamental than Maxwell's equations and is not always obeyed. Any given material will break down under a strong-enough electric field, and some materials of interest in electrical engineering are \"non-ohmic\" under weak fields.\n",
"In the 1820s Georg Ohm formulated Ohms Law which can be extended to relate power to current, electric potential (voltage) and resistance. During the following decades the realisation of a coherent system of units that incorporated the measurement of electromagnetic phenomena and Ohm's law was beset with problems – several different systems of units were devised.\n"
] |
How long did it take for Poland's post-WWI borders to be established?
|
The Versailles Treaty in 1919 assigned to Poland the territories of Poznan (Great Poland) and Gdansk Pomerania (is Germany and the West also known as Western Prussia or Danzig Corridor) and decided that Upper Silesia and southern part of the Eastern Prussia will be plebiscite territories.
Greater Poland was already controlled by local Polish authorities since the uprsing in December 1918; Pomerania was taken over in July 1919.
The Prussian plebiscite took part in July 1920 and was quite a disaster for Poland who only won a few villages.
Upper Silesia was finally was divided after 3 Polish uprising and a plebiscite in October 1921.
Polish southern borders were created after heavy disputes (sometimes open conflict) with Czechoslovakia over the former Duchy of Teschen/Cieszyn and Spis(z) and Orava regions. The conflict was somehow resolved in 1920 with the arbitration of the Western Powers, on terms that were rather unfavorable to Poland. Some very small border changes were later made in 1924.
Polish eastern border largely defined by the March 1921 Riga Peace Treaty with the Soviet republics of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus (USSR not yet existing)
This didn't include the important areas of Vilnius and Eastern Galicia through. Vilnius was taken over by a "rebellious" (actually acting on the orders of Polish supreme leader Józef Piłsudski) Polish general in 1920; for some times it functioned as an "independent" state of Middle Lithuania before it was officially annexed in 1922.
Eastern Galicia was captured by Poles in 1919 but its legal status was complicated: Western allies only consented to Polish administration for the period of 25 years, not incorporation. Polish ownership was offically recognized in 1923.
|
[
"After more than a century of foreign rule, Poland regained its independence at the end of World War I as one of the outcomes of the negotiations that took place at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919. The Treaty of Versailles that emerged from the conference set up an independent Polish nation with an outlet to the sea, but left some of its boundaries to be decided by plebiscites. The largely German-inhabited Free City of Danzig was granted a separate status that guaranteed its use as a port by Poland. In the end, the settlement of the German-Polish border turned out to be a prolonged and convoluted process. The dispute helped engender the Greater Poland Uprising of 1918–1919, the three Silesian uprisings of 1919–1921, the East Prussian plebiscite of 1920, the Upper Silesia plebiscite of 1921 and the 1922 Silesian Convention in Geneva.\n",
"The territorial changes of Poland immediately after World War II were very extensive, the Oder–Neisse line became Poland's western border and the Curzon Line its eastern border. In 1945, after the defeat of Nazi Germany, Poland's borders were redrawn in accordance with the decisions made first by the Allies at the Tehran Conference of 1943 where the Soviet Union demanded the recognition of the military outcome of the top secret Nazi–Soviet Pact of 1939 of which the West was unaware.\n",
"The Treaty of Versailles of 1919 that ended World War I restored the independence of Poland, known as the Second Polish Republic, and Germany was compelled to cede territories to it, most of which were taken by Prussia in the three Partitions of Poland, and had been part of the Kingdom of Prussia and later the German Empire for over 100 years. The territories ceded to Poland in 1919 were those with an apparent Polish majority, such as the Province of Posen, the east-southern part of Upper Silesia and the Polish Corridor.\n",
"After a century of foreign rule, the Second Polish Republic was reborn in the aftermath of World War I. The borders of the republic were ratified by the Treaty of Versailles signed on 28 June 1919. They were a result of several cross-national conflicts including Polish–Ukrainian War (November 1918 – July 1919), the Greater Poland Uprising (December 1918 – February 1919), as well as Polish–Soviet War (May – October 1920), resulting from Semyon Budyonny's August 1920 military foray into former Russian Poland as far as Warsaw. The Soviets withdrew in panic during the 1920 major Polish counter-offensive. The newly re-established sovereign Poland created Wołyń Voivodeship as one of the 16 main administrative divisions of the country.\n",
"After Poland regained independence following World War I and the 123 years of partitions, a long German-Polish border was settled on, long (including a border with East Prussia). The border was partially shaped by the Treaty of Versailles and partially by plebiscites (East Prussian plebiscite and the Silesian plebiscite, the former also affected by the Silesian Uprisings). The shape of that border roughly resembled that of pre-partition Poland.\n",
"Initially the Polish government in exile envisioned territorial changes after the war which would incorporate East Prussia, Danzig (Gdańsk) and the Oppeln (Opole) Silesian region into post-war Poland, along with a straightening of the Pomeranian border and minor acquisition in the Lauenburg (Lębork) area. The border changes were to provide Poland with a safe border and to prevent the Germans from using Eastern Pomerania and East Prussia as strategic assets against Poland. Only with the changing situation during the war were these territorial proposals modified. In October 1941 the exile newspaper \"Dziennik Polski\" postulated a postwar Polish western border that would include East Prussia, Silesia up to the Lausitzer Neisse and at least both banks of the Oder's mouth. While these territorial claims were regarded as \"megalomaniac\" by the Soviet ambassador in London, in October 1941 Stalin announced the \"return of East Prussia to Slavdom\" after the war. On 16 December 1941 Stalin remarked in a meeting with the British Foreign Minister Anthony Eden, though inconsistent in detail, that Poland should receive all German territory up to the river Oder. In May 1942 General Władysław Sikorski, Prime Minister of the Polish government in exile, sent two memoranda to the US government, sketching a postwar Polish western border along the Oder and Neisse (inconsistent about the Eastern Glatzer Neisse and the Western Lausitzer Neisse). However, the proposal was dropped by the government-in-exile in late 1942.\n",
"World War I removed former imperial borders across Europe. In 1918, after the Russian Revolution had renounced Tsarist claims to Poland in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and the war had ended with Germany's surrender, Poland was able to re-establish its independence after a century of foreign rule.\n"
] |
Has there been a change in how academic history is written over the years?
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There have been overall shifts, but there is also a "horizontal" diversity in the approach taken by historians, based on different theoretical models. Today, almost any good academic history will contain a section discussing its methodology. Academic history essentially consists of writing _narratives_ which are then critiqued, rejected, amended and so forth in the broader historiographical discussion.
One broad shift that I always think of is from the Rankean paradigm of figuring out history "as it really was" based on identifying the most reliable sources or harmonizing diverging narratives. This kind of presupposes that a history should always represent what a historian think is, overall, the most plausible account of everything. The problem is that this generally leads to a prohibitively broad scope (or more likely, vastly suboptimal criteria for choosing how to read sources), and therefore, historians will often deliberately write histories from a particular perspective. For example, Richard Payne's "A State of Mixture: Christians, Zoroastrians and Iranian Political Culture in Late Antiquity" re-examines the notion of the zealous, theocratic Sasanians oppressing their Christian and Jewish minorities by reading the traditional Armenian and Aramaic martyrdoms as situated in an Iranian political context, and discussing how the Sasanian Empire could be understood as a pluralistic society under a supreme monarch, submission to whom was paramount. For instance, this perspective suggests that Khusrau II's pilfering of the True Cross from Jerusalem was not merely intended to humiliate his Christian adversaries, but also to yield a glorious trophy for his Christian subjects and a banner for his legitimacy among the Christians of the Eastern Mediterranean he intended to subjugate.
This reading has various advantages, such as highlighting potential tensions between a more pluralistic monarch and religiously conservative high nobility and clergy, and yielding a potential explanation of the dissolution of noble support for Khusrau at the zenith of his empire's power. But it isn't necessarily the most plausible or palatable narrative in all regards - it has a tendency to gloss over real religious violence and persecutions as a necessity to uphold the barriers Payne takes as essential to this "state of mixture". However, Payne's monograph is far more useful in this form as a point of reference, than would be the likely outcome of an attempt to consider _every possible angle and implication_ of _every single source_ to highlight _every single possible implication of interest_.
So yes, the era a history is written in should absolutely be taken into account, but writing will differ not just based on time but also on the individual historian and their preferences, whether they have a degree in history or something like philology, and so forth. Ultimately, you should look at the historian's argument for reading a source in a particular way, as well as why what that reading yields might be interestikng. In most cases, you are unlikely to find a single monograph that is a truly satisfactory account of an era; studying the actual historiography and differences between accounts is necessary to get a strong understanding.
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[
"The early history is of the gradual replacement during the middle of the eighteenth century of a traditional method of oral examination by written papers, with a simultaneous switch in emphasis from Latin disputation to mathematical questions. That is, all degree candidates were expected to show at least competence in mathematics. A long process of development of coaching—tuition usually outside the official University and college courses—went hand-in-hand with a gradual increase in the difficulty of the most testing questions asked. The standard examination pattern of \"bookwork\" (mostly memorised theorems) plus \"rider\" (problems to solve, testing comprehension of the bookwork) was introduced.\n",
"Gutch's main act of scholarship was his edition of Anthony Wood's History of Oxford University, which had an involved publication history. By around 1668 Wood had finished a large manuscript, written in English, of the university's history. It was divided into two parts: the first dealt with the general history of the University up to 1648, and the second with the Schools, Lectureships, the Colleges and Halls, Libraries, and the chief Magistrates (\"Fasti\") - Chancellors, Provosts etc. \n",
"The most significant adoption of academic tenure occurred after 1945, when the influx of returning GIs returning to school led to quickly expanding universities with severe professorial faculty shortages. These shortages dogged the Academy for ten years, and that is when the majority of universities started offering formal tenure as a side benefit. The rate of tenure (percent of tenured university faculty) increased to 52 percent. In fact, the demand for professors was so high in the 1950s that the American Council of Learned Societies held a conference in Cuba noting the too-few doctoral candidates to fill positions in English departments. During the McCarthy era, loyalty oaths were required of many state employees, and neither formal academic tenure nor the Constitutional principles of freedom of speech and association were protection from dismissal. Some professors were dismissed for their political affiliations. During the 1960s, many professors supported the anti-war movement against the Vietnam War, and more than 20 state legislatures passed resolutions calling for specific professorial dismissals and a change to the academic tenure system.\n",
"As the interests of historians in colleges and universities gained prominence in the association, other areas and activities tended to fall by the wayside. The Manuscripts and Public Archives Commissions were abandoned in the 1930s, while projects related to original research and the publication of scholarship gained ever-greater prominence.\n",
"The following describes the situation in the United States. In many fields, such as literature and history, several published articles are typically required for a first tenure-track job, and a published or forthcoming \"book\" is now often required before tenure. Some critics complain that this \"de facto\" system has emerged without thought to its consequences; they claim that the predictable result is the publication of much shoddy work, as well as unreasonable demands on the already limited research time of young scholars. To make matters worse, the circulation of many humanities journals in the 1990s declined to almost untenable levels, as many libraries cancelled subscriptions, leaving fewer and fewer peer-reviewed outlets for publication; and many humanities professors' first books sell only a few hundred copies, which often does not pay for the cost of their printing. Some scholars have called for a publication subvention of a few thousand dollars to be associated with each graduate student fellowship or new tenure-track hire, in order to alleviate the financial pressure on journals.\n",
"Academic journal publishing reform is the advocacy for changes in the way academic journals are created and distributed in the age of the Internet and the advent of electronic publishing. Since the rise of the Internet, people have organized campaigns to change the relationships among and between academic authors, their traditional distributors and their readership. Most of the discussion has centered on taking advantage of benefits offered by the Internet's capacity for widespread distribution of reading material.\n",
"What gives this concept of \"academic history\" its own historicity, or \"cubbyhole in time\", challenged by progress, is that an academic history was intended to be \"definitive\" even though its subject matter, unlike the marine biology mentioned above, was not \"objective\". When the volume on the Regency was published, for example, some may have thought that such would be the complete history of that era, and no one would need to do as much work in that field, because the best people with the best resources would already have written it down. Subsequent changes in scholarly perspective can alter that perception; for example the work of Lewis Namier on mid-18th century British politics caused one of the \"Oxford History\" volumes to appear outdated.\n"
] |
What happened to Supersymmetry?
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A little background info first: in particle physics you begin with the so-called "Standard Model". It's kind of like the periodic table of the elements, cataloguing and grouping the known fundamental particles. It's not just a table though, it's also a mathematical model that predicts how all particles behave. It predicts what you'll see when you smash, say, protons together (as they do at the LHC). Then you go smash the particles and see what actually happens. The prediction is called the background, and anything different is called an excess. Excesses are an indicator the SM might be overlooking something, a suppersymetric (SUSY) particle for instance.
The most recent LHC upgrade promised to show all sorts of new excesses but there really wasn't anything. Each time we upgrade to higher energy and don't see any evidence of SUSY, the SUSY models have to be changed and eventually you start running into problems like, say, violation of conservation of energy. The models are getting flimsier. It's becoming harder for SUSY to hold it's promises of unification and a potential explanation of dark energy. There are many different models theorists have made that use SUSY. The most prevalent is the minimally supersymmetric model or MSSM, and it's taken quite a beating from the lack of excess.
The hot thing in High Energy Physics (HEP) now is neutrinos which are known to exist but not much else is known about them. A great deal of effort is being expended just to determine their mass. All that's known right now is that it's between zero and the mass of an electron.
|
[
"The only unambiguous way to claim discovery of supersymmetry is to produce superparticles in the laboratory. Because superparticles are expected to be 100 to 1000 times heavier than the proton, it requires a huge amount of energy to make these particles that can only be achieved at particle accelerators. The Tevatron was actively looking for evidence of the production of supersymmetric particles before it was shut down on 30 September 2011. Most physicists believe that supersymmetry must be discovered at the LHC if it is responsible for stabilizing the weak scale. There are five classes of particle that superpartners of the Standard Model fall into: squarks, gluinos, charginos, neutralinos, and sleptons. These superparticles have their interactions and subsequent decays described by the MSSM and each has characteristic signatures.\n",
"In particle physics, supersymmetry breaking is the process to obtain a seemingly non-supersymmetric physics from a supersymmetric theory which is a necessary step to reconcile supersymmetry with actual experiments. It is an example of spontaneous symmetry breaking. In supergravity, this results in a slightly modified counterpart of the Higgs mechanism where the gravitinos become massive.\n",
"In optics, a supercontinuum is formed when a collection of nonlinear processes act together upon a pump beam in order to cause severe spectral broadening of the original pump beam, for example using a microstructured optical fiber. The result is a smooth spectral continuum (see figure 1 for a typical example). There is no consensus on how much broadening constitutes a supercontinuum; however researchers have published work claiming as little as 60 nm of broadening as a supercontinuum. There is also no agreement on the spectral flatness required to define the bandwidth of the source, with authors using anything from 5 dB to 40 dB or more. In addition the term supercontinuum itself did not gain widespread acceptance until this century, with many authors using alternative phrases to describe their continua during the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s.\n",
"Superdiamagnetism is a feature of superconductivity. It was identified in 1933, by Walther Meissner and Robert Ochsenfeld, but it is considered distinct from the Meissner effect which occurs when the superconductivity first forms, and involves the exclusion of magnetic fields that already penetrate the object.\n",
"Superlenses are made from negative index metamaterials and claim to produce images at spatial resolutions exceeding the diffraction limit. The first superlenses were made in 2004 using such a metamaterial for microwaves. Improved versions have been made by other researchers. the superlens has not yet been demonstrated at visible or near-infrared wavelengths.\n",
"The main reasons for supersymmetry being supported by physicists is that the current theories are known to be incomplete and their limitations are well established, and supersymmetry would be an attractive solution to some of the major concerns. Direct confirmation would entail production of superpartners in collider experiments, such as the Large Hadron Collider (LHC). The first runs of the LHC found no previously-unknown particles other than the Higgs boson which was already suspected to exist as part of the Standard Model, and therefore no evidence for supersymmetry. Indirect methods include the search for a permanent electric dipole moment (EDM) in the known Standard Model particles, which can arise when the Standard Model particle interacts with the supersymmetric particles. The current best constraint on the electron electric dipole moment put it to be smaller than 10 e·cm, equivalent to a sensitivity to new physics at the TeV scale and matching that of the current best particle colliders. A permanent EDM in any fundamental particle points towards time-reversal violating physics, and therefore also CP-symmetry violation via the CPT theorem. Such EDM experiments are also much more scalable than conventional particle accelerators and offer a practical alternative to detecting physics beyond the standard model as accelerator experiments become increasingly costly and complicated to maintain.\n",
"A superinsulator is a material that at low temperatures under certain conditions has an infinite resistance and no current will pass through it. The superinsulating state has many parallels to the superconducting state, and can be destroyed (in a sudden phase transition) by increased temperature, magnetic fields and voltage.\n"
] |
After the Big Bang, why does matter only exist in pockets of galaxies? Why is it not more 'homogeneous'?
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Gravity. If there's any initial fluctuation at all, everything condenses down to points and filaments under gravity.
Here's a cool video of a calculation exploring how this happens. Dark matter's role in large-scale structure formation in the universe is a big topic in computational astrophysics right now.
_URL_2_
More here:
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[
"While the universe began with homogeneously distributed matter, enormous structures have since coalesced over billions of years: hundreds of billions of stars inside of galaxies, clusters of galaxies, superclusters, and vast filaments of matter. These denser regions and the voids between them must, under general relativity, have some effect, as matter dictates how space-time curves. So the extra mass of galaxies and galaxy clusters (and dark matter, should particles of ever it be directly detected) must cause nearby space-time to curve more positively, and voids should have the opposite effect, causing space-time around them to take on negative curvatures. The question is whether these effects, called backreactions, are negligible or together comprise enough to change the universe's geometry. Most scientists have assumed that they are negligible, but this has partly been because there has been no way to average space-time geometry in Einstein's equations.\n",
"In the immediate aftermath of the Big Bang, the expanding matter was so hot and dense that protons and neutrons could not exist. Instead, the early universe comprised a plasma of quarks and gluons, which in today's cool universe are confined and exist only within composite particles (bound states) – the hadrons, such as protons and neutrons. Collisions of heavy nuclei at sufficiently high energies allow physicists to study whether quarks and gluons become deconfined at high densities, and if so, what the properties of this matter (i.e. quark–gluon plasma) are.\n",
"In terms of its application, the distribution of hot dark matter could also help explain how clusters and superclusters of galaxies formed after the Big Bang. Theorists claim that there exist two classes of dark matter: 1) those that \"congregate around individual members of a cluster of visible galaxies\" and 2) those that encompass \"the clusters as a whole.\" Because cold dark matter possesses a lower velocity, it could be the source of \"smaller, galaxy-sized lumps,\" as shown in the image. Hot dark matter, then, should correspond to the formation of larger mass aggregates that surround whole galaxy clusters. However, data from the cosmic microwave background radiation, as measured by the COBE satellite, is highly uniform, and such high-velocity hot dark matter particles cannot form clumps as small as galaxies beginning from such a smooth initial state, highlighting a discrepancy in what dark matter theory and the actual data are saying. Theoretically, in order to explain relatively small-scale structures in the observable Universe, it is necessary to invoke cold dark matter or WDM. In other words, Hot dark matter being the sole substance in explaining cosmic galaxy formation is no longer viable, placing hot dark matter under the larger umbrella of mixed dark matter (MDM) theory.\n",
"More recent theories include the clustering of dark matter halos in the bottom-up process. Instead of large gas clouds collapsing to form a galaxy in which the gas breaks up into smaller clouds, it is proposed that matter started out in these “smaller” clumps (mass on the order of globular clusters), and then many of these clumps merged to form galaxies, which then were drawn by gravitation to form galaxy clusters. This still results in disk-like distributions of baryonic matter with dark matter forming the halo for all the same reasons as in the top-down theory. Models using this sort of process predict more small galaxies than large ones, which matches observations.\n",
"Compact groups of galaxies readily show the effect of dark matter, as the visible mass is greatly less than that needed to gravitationally hold the galaxies together in a bound group. Compact galaxy groups are also not dynamically stable over Hubble time, thus showing that galaxies evolve by merger, over the timescale of the age of the universe.\n",
"Kinematic studies of matter in the Milky Way and other galaxies have demonstrated that there is more mass than can be accounted for by visible matter. A dark matter halo appears to dominate the mass, although the nature of this dark matter remains undetermined.\n",
"Observations made by Edwin Hubble during the 1920s–1950s found that galaxies appeared to be moving away from each other, leading to the currently accepted Big Bang theory. This suggests that the universe began – very small and very dense – about 13.8 billion years ago, and it has expanded and (on average) become less dense ever since. Confirmation of the Big Bang mostly depends on knowing the rate of expansion, average density of matter, and the physical properties of the mass–energy in the universe.\n"
] |
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