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Why did France (West Francia) end up more unified than the rest of the Holy Roman Empire (East Francia)?
|
By West Francia and East Francia I am assuming you mean the kingdoms controlled by Charlemagne's descendants? After Charlemagne's death his son, Louis the Pious (co-emperor with Charles) took over and kept the kingdom intact for the most part. After Louis' death his three sons split the Empire. This was accustom of Frankish boys to split their father possessions. Since Louis was claimed the legitimate heir to Charlemagne's throne he was the only one to receive his father's blessing and the kingdom (he did rule in a kind of co-emperor deal, but he was the head honcho if you will). Since Louis had four boys, three who were "legit" they split their grandfather's empire. Lothair was named Emperor but after a series of rebellions and negotiations each took an equal piece based on economic means. They were not split by geography but by what the land, cities, and import/exports were worth. Charles the Bald received the western portion of the Empire, Louis the German received the Eastern Part, and Lothair I (eldest) received the lands between the two and that stretched to Rome. He was also named Emperor and King of the Franks. The brothers often quarreled trying to dispel one another and seize each others lands. Louis almost obtained the Western portion but was stretched too thin along his eastern border and in Western Francia.
The reason why the German part of the Frankish empire dissolved after Louis the German's death was because of his sons, nephews, and the rival duchies on his borders like the Slavs and Magyars. So it was a political and cultural differences as to why the German portion couldn't remain together, remember their sons get their possessions. As for the Western Frankish Empire his sons had a buffer zone from those rivals but also had the support of strong rulers.
sources: [Struggle for Empire: Kingship and Conflict under Louis the German](_URL_1_)
[Early Carolingian Empire: Prelude to Empire](_URL_0_)
Also the label France is just for geography reasons. But for the medieval period it should labeled Frankish Kingdoms or Gaul depending on when and where you're referring.
|
[
"After the Middle-Frankish kings died out, the rulers of the West and East-Frankish Kingdoms divided the Middle-Frankish kingdom amongst themselves in the treaty of Meerssen in 870. Now Western Europe had been divided into two sides: the solid West Francia (the later France) and the loose confederation of principalities of East Francia, that would become the Holy Roman Empire.\n",
"The Carolingian empire would eventually include France, Germany, northern Italy and much of Western Europe. In 843, the Frankish empire was divided into three parts, giving rise to West Francia in the west, East Francia in the east, and Middle Francia in the centre. Most of what is today the Netherlands became part of Middle Francia; Flanders became part of West Francia. This division was an important factor in the historical distinction between Flanders and the other Dutch-speaking areas.\n",
"Francia or the Frankish Empire was the largest post-Roman Barbarian kingdom in Western Europe. It was ruled by the Franks during Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. It is the predecessor of the modern states of France and Germany. After the Treaty of Verdun in 843, West Francia became the predecessor of France, and East Francia became that of Germany.\n",
"The Frankish lands were divided and reunified several times under the Merovingian and Carolingian dynasties, but eventually were firmly divided into France and the Holy Roman Empire. The parts of the County of Flanders stretching out west of the river Scheldt (Schelde in Dutch, Escaut in French) became part of France during the Middle Ages, but the remainders of the County of Flanders and the Low Countries were part of the Holy Roman Empire, specifically they were in the stem duchy of Lower Lotharingia, which had a period as an independent kingdom.\n",
"Francia, also called the Kingdom of the Franks (), or Frankish Empire, was the largest post-Roman barbarian kingdom in Western Europe. It was ruled by the Franks during Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. It is the predecessor of the modern states of France and Germany. After the Treaty of Verdun in 843, West Francia became the predecessor of France, and East Francia became that of Germany. Francia was among the last surviving Germanic kingdoms from the Migration Period era before its partition in 843.\n",
"The Frankish Carolingian empire modeled itself after the Roman Empire and controlled much of Western Europe. However, as of 843, it was divided into three parts—East, Middle, and West Francia. Most of present-day Netherlands became part of Middle Francia, which was a weak kingdom and subject of numerous partitions and annexation attempts by its stronger neighbours. It comprised territories from Frisia in the north to the Kingdom of Italy in the south. Around 850, Lothair I of Middle Francia acknowledged the Viking Rorik of Dorestad as ruler of most of Frisia. When the kingdom of Middle Francia was partitioned in 855, the lands north of the Alps passed to Lothair II and consecutively were named Lotharingia. After he died in 869, Lotharingia was partitioned, into Upper and Lower Lotharingia, the latter part comprising the Low Countries that technically became part of East Francia in 870, although it was effectively under the control of Vikings, who raided the largely defenceless Frisian and Frankish towns lying on the Frisian coast and along the rivers. Around 879, another Viking raided the Frisian lands, Godfrid, Duke of Frisia. The Viking raids made the sway of French and German lords in the area weak. Resistance to the Vikings, if any, came from local nobles, who gained in stature as a result, and that laid the basis for the disintegration of Lower Lotharingia into semi-independent states. One of these local nobles was Gerolf of Holland, who assumed lordship in Frisia after he helped to assassinate Godfrid, and Viking rule came to an end.\n",
"Under the reign of the Franks' Kings Clovis I, Charles Martel, Pepin the Short, and Charlemagne, the country was known as Kingdom of Franks or Francia. At the Treaty of Verdun in 843, the Frankish Empire was divided in three parts : West Francia (\"Francia Occidentalis\"), Middle Francia and East Francia (\"Francia Orientalis\").\n"
] |
How are the wave functions of antiparticles related to those of their "normal" counterparts?
|
When you're talking about particles and antiparticles, you're generally outside the regime of standard one-body, nonrelativistic quantum mechanics. So the notion of a wavefunction is sort of abandoned.
Instead you replace them with field operators. There is a mathematical operator denoted by "C" which is the "charge conjugation operator". It turns a particle into its antiparticle.
> How does one mathematically describe particle/antiparticle annihilation?
You'd use quantum field theory. For example to calculate the probability of electron/positron annihilation into two photons using perturbation theory, you'd sum over a bunch of Feynman diagrams. The lowest-order contributions look like [this](_URL_0_).
|
[
"In quantum mechanics, an antisymmetrizer formula_1 (also known as antisymmetrizing operator) is a linear operator that makes a wave function of \"N\" identical fermions antisymmetric under the exchange of the coordinates of any pair of fermions. After application of formula_1 the wave function satisfies the Pauli principle. Since formula_1 is a projection operator, application of the antisymmetrizer to a wave function that is already totally antisymmetric has no effect, acting as the identity operator.\n",
"The \"Poynting vector\" for a wave is a vector whose component in any direction is the \"irradiance\" (power per unit area) of that wave on a surface perpendicular to that direction. For a plane sinusoidal wave the Poynting vector is where and are due \"only\" to the wave in question, and the asterisk denotes complex conjugation. Inside a lossless dielectric (the usual case), and are in phase, and at right angles to each other and to the wave vector ; so, for s polarization, using the and components of and respectively (or for p polarization, using the and components of and ), the irradiance in the direction of is given simply by which is in a medium of intrinsic impedance . To compute the irradiance in the direction normal to the interface, as we shall require in the definition of the power transmission coefficient, we could use only the component (rather than the full component) of or or, equivalently, simply multiply by the proper geometric factor, obtaining .\n",
"Phasor approach refers to a method which is used for vectorial representation of sinusoidal waves like alternative currents and voltages or electromagnetic waves. The amplitude and the phase of the waveform is transformed into a vector where the phase is translated to the angle between the phasor vector and X axis and the amplitude is translated to vector length or magnitude.\n",
"A wavelet is a mathematical function used to divide a given function or continuous-time signal into different scale components. Usually one can assign a frequency range to each scale component. Each scale component can then be studied with a resolution that matches its scale. A wavelet transform is the representation of a function by wavelets. The wavelets are scaled and translated copies (known as \"daughter wavelets\") of a finite-length or fast-decaying oscillating waveform (known as the \"mother wavelet\"). Wavelet transforms have advantages over traditional Fourier transforms for representing functions that have discontinuities and sharp peaks, and for accurately deconstructing and reconstructing finite, non-periodic and/or non-stationary signals.\n",
"In terms of an antisymmetrization operator (formula_1) acting upon a product of \"N\" orthonormal spin-orbitals (with r and \"σ\" denoting spatial and spin variables), a determinantal wavefunction is \"denoted\" as\n",
"A wavelet is a wave-like oscillation with an amplitude that begins at zero, increases, and then decreases back to zero. It can typically be visualized as a \"brief oscillation\" like one recorded by a seismograph or heart monitor. Generally, wavelets are intentionally crafted to have specific properties that make them useful for signal processing. Using a \"reverse, shift, multiply and integrate\" technique called convolution, wavelets can be combined with known portions of a damaged signal to extract information from the unknown portions.\n",
"This result makes antiresonances useful in characterizing complex coupled systems which cannot be easily separated into their constituent components. The resonance frequencies of the system depend on the properties of all components and their couplings, and are independent of which is driven. The antiresonances, on the other hand, are dependent upon the component being driven, therefore providing information about how it affects the total system. By driving each component in turn, information about all of the individual subsystems can be obtained, despite the couplings between them. This technique has applications in mechanical engineering, structural analysis, and the design of integrated quantum circuits.\n"
] |
why do we grow hair in specific places?
|
Hair in armpits and groin is a dry lubricant, hair on your head is sun protection, men's facial hair is a sexual marker.
|
[
"The growth of human hair occurs everywhere on the body except for the soles of the feet, the lips, palms of the hands, some external genital areas, the navel, scar tissue, and, apart from eyelashes, the eyelids. Hair is a stratified squamous keratinized epithelium made of multi-layered flat cells whose rope-like filaments provide structure and strength to the hair shaft.\n",
"Scientists also view the ability to grow very long hair as a result of sexual selection, since long and healthy hair is a sign of fertility and youth. An evolutionary biology explanation for this attraction is that hair length and quality can act as a cue to youth and health, signifying a woman's reproductive potential. As hair grows slowly, long hair may reveal 2–3 years of a person's health status, nutrition, age and reproductive fitness. Malnutrition, and deficiencies in minerals and vitamins due to starvation, cause loss of hair or changes in hair color (e.g. dark hair turning reddish).\n",
"Hair is a protein filament that grows from follicles in the dermis, or skin. With the exception of areas of glabrous skin, the human body is covered in follicles which produce thick terminal and fine vellus hair. It is an important biomaterial primarily composed of protein, notably keratin.\n",
"Genetics and health are factors in healthy hair. Proper nutrition is important for hair health. The living part of hair is under the scalp skin where the hair root is housed in the hair follicle. The entire follicle and root are fed by a supply of arteries, and blood carries nutrients to the follicle/root. Any time an individual has any kind of health concern from stress, trauma, medications of various sorts, chronic medical conditions or medical conditions that come and then wane, heavy metals in waters and food, smoking etc. these and more can affect the hair, its growth, and its appearance.\n",
"Ayana Byrd, an editor for \"Glamour\" magazine, said, \"The point is not to say hair is good or bad, it's to say that once we work through the history behind our hair, we can get to a place where it can just be hair.\"\n",
"A woman's hair is a sign of femininity. Both thickness and length are elements that are admired by the Mende. Thickness means the woman has more individual strands of hair and the length is proof of strength. It takes time, care and patience to grow a beautiful, full head of hair. Ideas about hair root women to nature, the way hair grows is compared to the way forests grow.\n",
"The function of hair in humans has long been a subject of interest and continues to be an important topic in society, developmental biology and medicine. Of all mammals, humans have the longest growth phase of scalp hair compared to hair growth on other parts of the body. For centuries, humans have ascribed esthetics to scalp hair styling and dressing and it is often used to communicate social or cultural norms in societies. In addition to its role in defining human appearance, scalp hair also provides protection from UV sun rays and is an insulator against extremes of hot and cold temperatures. Differences in the shape of the scalp hair follicle determine the observed ethnic differences in scalp hair appearance, length and texture.\n"
] |
How did soldiers know the names of enemy weapons and equipment?
|
u/kieslowskifan has an answer to this!
_URL_0_
|
[
"Manufacturers of identification badges recognized a market and began advertising in periodicals. Their pins were usually shaped to suggest a branch of service, and engraved with the soldier's name and unit. Machine-stamped tags were also made of brass or lead with a hole and usually had (on one side) an eagle or shield, and such phrases as \"War for the Union\" or \"Liberty, Union, and Equality\". The other side had the soldier's name and unit, and sometimes a list of battles in which he had participated.\n",
"Military personnel commonly wear name badges on their uniforms, though usually displaying only the family (last) name. The use of name tags probably originated with laundry tags, used to identify clothing belonging to particular individuals. During World War II the United States military began making use of external name tags, in particular on flight clothing and combat uniforms worn by marines and paratroopers. The use of cloth name tapes became common by the Korean War and its use spread to other armies. The Canadian Army began using cloth name tapes on the combat uniform introduced in the 1960s. During this period, the use of name tags extended from combat and work clothing only, to the dress uniform (and tags made of engraved plastic rather than cloth).\n",
"Similar items for identifying civilian goods and equipment have been found as well. Signacula of this variety were not discs that were carried on one's person as with the Roman army equivalent, but are more like modern-day product labels, giving information on the item's manufacturer and affiliates.\n",
"By the time of the Second World War, the various armies did not feel a perceived need to identify individual battalions on battledress uniforms. The German Army had a system of coloured bayonet knots that identified the wearer's company, number shoulder strap buttons that identified the wearer's company/battalion, and shoulder straps that identified the wearer's regiment, but had no distinguishing divisional insignia other than the cuff titles of the 'elite' formations. The British Army prohibited all identifying marks on its Battle Dress uniforms in 1939 save for drab regimental slip-on titles, but in 1941 introduced formation patches to identify the wearer's division. They were initially referred to by the British as \"Divisional Signs\", but this was soon changed to \"Formation Badges\". By the end of the war, Corps, Armies, and Army Groups had their own insignia.\n",
"The regular thematic (provincial) and Tagmata (central) troops of the Byzantine Empire (East Roman) are the first known soldiers to have had what would now be considered regimental or unit identification. During the 10th century, each of the cavalry \"banda\" making up these forces is recorded as having plumes and other distinctions in a distinctive colour. Officers wore a waist sash or \"pekotarion\", which may have been of different colours according to rank.\n",
"\"Tabulae ansatae\" identifying soldiers' units have been found on the \"tegimenta\" (leather covers) of shields, for example in Vindonissa (Windisch, Switzerland). Sculptural evidence, for example on the metopes from the Tropaeum Traiani (Adamclisi, Romania), shows that they were also used for the\n",
"From 1903 to 1958, the U.S. Army EIC badges were known as Team Marksmanship Badges. Prior to that, the Army awarded a variety of large unique that went by a variety of names from 1880 to 1903. were awarded in gold, silver, and bronze consisting of oval pendants with enameled targets in the center that were superimposed over crossed rifles with bayonets, crossed carbines with slings, a heavy machine gun, or placed between two revolvers. Above the enameled target was the letters \"U.S.\"; but for a short time, the word \"INFANTRY\" or \"CAVALRY\" (unit dependent) appeared above the target while the letters U.S. were embossed beneath the target. The pendant hung from two different brooch designs. From 1903 to 1906 the brooch had rounded arrowhead ends (sean today in the U.S. Marine Corps's EIC badges) bearing the name \"ARMY,\" \"DEPARTMENT,\" or \"DIVISION\" reflecting the level of competition for which the badge was earned. In 1906 the brooch was redesigned with swallow-tail ends bearing the name of the Army corps marksmanship team flanked by the words \"ARMY,\" on the left, and \"TEAM,\" on the right. In 1923, the Army updated the Team Marksmanship Badges with a new three piece design which was awarded in three grades; gold, silver, and bronze for pistol, rifle, and automatic rifle. There were four components to this new badge; the brooch, clasp, Team Disk, and pendant. A plain brooch with a circular center device was used to identify an Army corps or department level award. A wreath laden brooch was used to identify a national or Army level award. A gold, silver, or bronze (score dependent) replica of either crossed Flintlock Pistols, Muskets, or M1918 Browning Automatic Rifles (BARs) hung from the brooch which supported the badge's bronze pendant. The pendant had a bow with two crossed arrows at its center surrounded by a ring of 13 stars which was encircled by an oak wreath. For national and Army level awards, an enameled ring, known as the Team Disk, was placed behind the pendant's ring of 13 stars and was colored to match the branch of service color of the awarded team. Today's Army EIC badges, which began in 1958, are almost identical to the Team Marksmanship Badges with the following exceptions: only one version of the brooch exists and bears the name \"U.S. ARMY;\" the crossed BARs, Team Disks, and gold version of the crossed weapons have been deleted. Also, the entire EIC badge is now cast in either bronze or silver, vise having just the crossed weapons being cast in the medal earned by the shooter.\n"
] |
when you suck on an m & m, why does it feel smooth, then rough, then smooth again?
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The smooth part is likely the candy glaze, the rough would be the actual shell of the m & m and then the chocolate.
|
[
"\"Foul-bite\" or \"over-biting\" is common in etching, and is the effect of minuscule amounts of acid leaking through the ground to create minor pitting and burning on the surface. This incidental roughening may be removed by smoothing and polishing the surface, but artists often leave faux-bite, or deliberately court it by handling the plate roughly, because it is viewed as a desirable mark of the process.\n",
"The first term \"rough\", \"smooth\", or \"polished\" is established by feeling the surface of the discontinuity; \"rough\" hurts when fingers are moved over the surface with some (little) force, \"smooth\" feels that there is resistance to the fingers, while \"polished\" gives a feeling about similar to the surface of glass.\n",
"\"Rough with the Smooth\" is a song by the British singer Shara Nelson. It was the first single released from her second solo album \"Friendly Fire\" in 1995. The single peaked at no.30 on the UK Singles Chart.\n",
"Petrissage (from French \"pétrir\", \"to knead\") are massage movements with applied pressure which are deep and compress the underlying muscles. Kneading, wringing, skin rolling and pick-up-and-squeeze are the petrissage movements. They are all performed with the padded palmar surface of the hand, the surface of the finger and also the thumbs.\n",
"Action: The mullen mouth and straight bar are fairly similar in action, placing pressure on the tongue, lips, and bars. The mullen provides extra space for the tongue, instead of constantly pushing into it, resulting in more tongue relief, and making it more comfortable, but the mullen does not have as high of a port as a curb, thus does not offer full tongue relief. This bit is generally considered a very mild mouthpiece, although this varies according to the type of bit leverage (snaffle, pelham or curb), and improper use may make it harsh, since the majority of the bit pressure is applied on the sensitive tongue.\n",
"\"Soft clipping\" gradually flattens the peaks of a signal which creates a number of higher harmonics which share a harmonic relationship with the original tone. \"Hard clipping\" flattens peaks abruptly, resulting in higher power in higher harmonics. As clipping increases a tone input progressively begins to resemble a square wave, which has odd number harmonics. This is generally described as sounding \"harsh\".\n",
"The scraper is made of a long shaft, frequently around in length. On one side is a small flexible rubber spatula head roughly across set perpendicular to the shaft. The head is flexible and usually has a rounded half-circle shape one side useful for scraping round bottles and jars and a flat side with two right angles useful for scraping out cartons. The head is flexible so that it can be pushed into and pulled out of bottles whose mouth is smaller than the fully expanded head of the scraper but larger than the shaft.\n"
] |
During the Spanish Reconquista, did much of the Muslim population convert to Catholicism?
|
Different states treated the Muslims differently.
Castile and it's possessions were known to be extremely aggressive towards Muslims and Jews. However, for most of the period of the Reconquista, this was in the form of a heavy tax burden placed on non-Christians, similar to the Jizya (the Muslim tax on non-Muslims) in place earlier, although probably much heavier. However, prior to the completion of the campaigns, this monetary contribution was probably more beneficial, as it encouraged conversions in the same way the Jizya did; that is, without having to resort to costly and dangerous population purges. The key thing is that any attempt to avoid the heavy (often crushing) burdens placed on them was harshly punished. This was an easy way to target individuals. In addition, huge swaths of land were appropriated by incoming Castilian nobility, which was often still worked by the formerly Muslim peasantry. This gave landowners another important leverage over those that worked their land.
In Aragon, things worked a little differently. Initially attempts were made to incorporate much of the existing leadership structure of the conquered areas of Catalonia and Valencia, but a revolt in the 13th century by Muslim leadership put the kibosh to that. However, within the coastal cities relatively lax treatment was available to Muslims and Jews, as these populations and their trading relationships were seen as very valuable.
In both Castile and Aragon, things changed drastically in the very end of the 15th and early 16th centuries. Muslims and Jews were given the option of conversion of expulsion, and this is when the Spanish Inquisition earned it's reputation. Paranoia about falsely converted Muslims and Jews was what gained them that.
I am not as familiar with Portugal however. It does seem that in the early 16th century they too took a harsher tone against Muslims by expelling all Moors, but I am not as certain as to the levels of persecution prior to that. It is important to note that Portugal completed their own Reconquista far before Castile.
As for the ultimate fate of the Muslim population of Spain, most of them would be descendents of the original inhabitants there before the invasion by the Caliphate who had converted over the centuries, and probably not all that ethnically different from their northern neighbors. The Muslims in leadership positions were the ones who would be the ones most likely to be expelled on sight or killed. Southern Spain has a population with higher 'Moorish' blood origins, likely thanks to greater intermingling of the population with North Africa's due to proximity as well as time spent under their rule (leading to the distinct 'Andalusian' ethnic/cultural group.
|
[
"During the expansion south of the northern Christian kingdoms, depending on the local capitulations, local Muslims were allowed to remain (Mudéjars) with extreme restrictions, while some were forcefully converted into the Christian faith. After the conquest of Granada, all the Spanish Muslims were under Christian rule. The new acquired population spoke Arabic or Mozarabic, and the campaigns to convert them were unsuccessful. Legislation was gradually introduced to remove Islam, culminating with the Muslims being forced to convert to Catholicism by the Spanish Inquisition. They were known as Moriscos and considered New Christians. Further laws were introduced, as on 25 May 1566, stipulating that they 'had to abandon the use of Arabic, change their costumes, that their doors must remain open every Friday, and other feast days, and that their baths, public and private, to be torn down.' The reason doors were to be left open so as to determine whether they secretly observed any Islamic festivals. King Philip II of Spain ordered the destruction of all public baths on the grounds of them being relics of infidelity, notorious for their use by Muslims performing their purification rites. The possession of books or papers in Arabic was near concrete proof of disobedience with severe repercussions. On 1 January 1568, Christian priests were ordered to take all Morisco children between the ages of three and fifteen, and place them in schools, where they were forced to learn Castillian and Christian doctrine. All these laws and measures required force to be implemented, and from much earlier.\n",
"After the fall of the city of Granada, Spain, in 1492, the Muslim population was promised religious freedom by the Treaty of Granada, but that promise was short-lived. In 1501, Granada's Muslims were given an ultimatum to either convert to Christianity or to emigrate. The majority converted, but only superficially, continuing to dress and speak as they had before and to secretly practice Islam. The Moriscos (converts to Christianity) were ultimately expelled from Spain between 1609 (Castile) and 1614 (rest of Spain), by Philip III.\n",
"Following the reconquista, a period during which Spanish and Christian culture were restored to those areas of Spain invaded by the Umayyad Caliphate, the Inquisition required Jews and Muslims to convert to Roman Catholicism, or face exile or the death penalty. Thus, the Spaniards tried to suppress Islam in areas they conquered. To this end, they attacked the Moro Muslim sultanates in the south at Mindanao. The Moro Datus and sultans raided and pillaged Spanish towns in the northern Philippine islands in retaliation for Spanish attacks, and terrorized the Spanish invaders with constant piracy. The Spanish were prepared to conquer Mindanao and the Moluccas after establishing forts in 1635, but the Chinese threatened the Spanish with invasion, forcing them to pull back to defend Manila. Several thousand Chinese who were evicted by the Spanish joined the Moros.\n",
"By 1236 AD, the Reconquista was essentially completed and Europeans had retaken the Iberian peninsula from the Muslims, but the Emirate of Granada, a small Muslim vassal of the Christian Kingdom of Castile, remained in Spain until 1492 AD. During the Reconquista, Muslims were forced to either convert to Catholicism or leave the peninsula. The descendants of Muslims who converted to Christianity were called the Moriscos (meaning \"Moor-like\") and were suspecting of secretly practicing Islam. The Moriscos used a language called Aljamiado, which was a dialect of the Spanish language (Mozarabic) but was written using the Arabic alphabet. Aljamiado played a very important role in preserving Islam and the Arabic language in the life of the Moriscos; prayers and the sayings of Muhammad were translated into Aljamiado transcriptions of the Spanish language, while keeping all Quranic verses in the original Arabic. During this period, a version of the Alexander legend was written in the Aljamaido language, building on the Arabic \"Qisas Dhul-Qarnayn\" legends as well as Romance language versions of the \"Alexander romance\".\n",
"A proclamation in 1502 extended these forced conversions to the rest of the lands of Castile, even though those outside Granada had nothing to do with the rebellion. The newly converted Muslims were known as \"nuevos cristianos\" (\"new Christians\") or \"moriscos\" (lit. \"Moorish\"). Although they converted to Christianity, they maintained their existing customs, including their language, distinct names, food, dress and even some ceremonies. Many secretly practiced Islam, even as they publicly professed and practiced Christianity. In return, the Catholic rulers adopted increasingly intolerant and harsh policies in order to eradicate these characteristics. This culminated in Philip II's \"Pragmatica\" of 1 January 1567 which ordered the Moriscos to abandon their customs, clothing and language. The \"pragmatica\" triggered the Morisco revolts in 1568–1571.\n",
"Similarly the Muslims of Iberia were forced to convert or face either death or expulsion. This happened even though the Granadan Muslims had been assured of religious freedom at the time of their surrender. Between 1500 and 1502 all remaining Muslims of Granada and Castile were converted. In 1525, Muslims in Aragon were similarly forced to convert. The Muslim communities who converted became known as Moriscos. Still they were suspected by the \"old Christians\" of being crypto-Muslims and so between 1609 and 1614 their entire population of 300,000 was forcibly expelled. All these expulsions and conversions resulted in Catholic Christianity becoming the sole sanctioned religion in the Iberian Peninsula.\n",
"The Spanish Inquisition affected the Muslims living in Spain greatly. Shortly after 1492, when the last outpost of Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula, Granada, was conquered, the Spanish decreed that all Muslims must either vacate the peninsula without their belongings or convert. Many people overtly converted to keep their possessions while secretly practicing their religion. Muslims who converted were called Moriscos. They were required to wear upon their caps and turbans a blue crescent. Traveling without a permit meant a death sentence. This systematic suppression forced the Muslims to seek refuge in mountainous regions of southern Andalusia; Ronda was one such refuge.\n"
] |
how and why did apa become the standard for referencing sources?
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In research papers for publication, it's usually *not* standard (at least in most of the journals I am familiar with), partly due to the simple reason that in printed material *words cost money.* It's more common in review articles, perhaps because in primary research articles the other sources are just used for background while in reviews *most* of the content comes from other places so it makes more sense to show more of the citations.
Also, APA format has been around longer than computers, and citation-managing software specifically. Nowadays, you can automate citations in a word processor and auto-adjust the numbering pretty easily. But back in the day of typewriters and early word processors, if you wanted to number things you had to *manually* number things. So if you decide to add in another reference later, you would have to manually re-number *everything.* And if you're working with 30, 40, 50+ references... you get the idea.
|
[
"APA style uses an author-date reference citation system in the text with an accompanying reference list. That means that to cite any reference in a paper, the writer should cite the author and year of the work, either by putting both in parentheses separated by a comma (parenthetical citation) or by putting the author in the narrative of the sentence and the year in parentheses (narrative citation). \n",
"In the APA reference list, the writer should provide the author, year, title, and source of the cited work in an alphabetical list of references. If a reference is not cited in the text, it should not be included in the reference list. The reference format varies slightly depending on the document type (e.g., journal article, edited book chapter, blog post), but broadly speaking always follows the same pattern of author, date, title, source. \n",
"The more-concise author-date style (sometimes referred to as the \"reference list style\") is more common in the physical, natural, and social sciences. This style involves sources being \"briefly cited in the text, usually in parentheses, by author’s last name and year of publication\" with the parenthetical citations corresponding to \"an entry in a reference list, where full bibliographic information is provided.\"\n",
"BULLET::::- The \"i\"10-index indicates the number of academic publications an author has written that have been cited by at least ten sources. It was introduced in July 2011 by Google as part of their work on Google Scholar.\n",
"The earliest known citation index is an index of biblical citations in rabbinic literature, the \"Mafteah ha-Derashot\", attributed to Maimonides and probably dating to the 12th century. It is organized alphabetically by biblical phrase. Later biblical citation indexes are in the order of the canonical text. These citation indices were used both for general and for legal study. The Talmudic citation index \"En Mishpat\" (1714) even included a symbol to indicate whether a Talmudic decision had been overridden, just as in the 19th-century \"Shepard's Citations\". Unlike modern scholarly citation indexes, only references to one work, the Bible, were indexed.\n",
"ISO 690 prescribes a referencing scheme with a fixed order of bibliographic elements in which the publication date appears after the \"production information\" of \"place\" and \"publisher\", but it allows an exception for the Harvard system, in which the date appears after the creator name(s).\n",
"The American Psychological Association (APA) has similar guidelines as medicine for authorship. The APA acknowledge that authorship is not limited to the writing of manuscripts, but must include those who have made substantial contributions to a study such as \"formulating the problem or hypothesis, structuring the experimental design, organizing and conducting the statistical analysis, interpreting the results, or writing a major portion of the paper\". While the APA guidelines list many other forms of contributions to a study that do not constitute authorship, it does state that combinations of these and other tasks may justify authorship. Like medicine, the APA considers institutional position, such as Department Chair, insufficient for attributing authorship.\n"
] |
is a 200hp car two times faster than a 100hp car?
|
No, it just has twice as much health
|
[
"Its three-cylinder 1.5 L two-stroke engine could produce 111 hp (83 kW), which made a speed of 135 mph (217 km/h) possible. The car could accelerate from 0 to 60 mph (97 km/h) in less than eight seconds.\n",
"A 27hp BY was tested by The Motor magazine in 1934 and achieved a top speed of 72mph and accelerated from 0-60mph in 28 seconds. Autocar magazine tested a 20hp BY in 1936 and recorded 0-60 in 36.5 seconds. They did not record an actual top speed but stated that it would exceed 70mph.\n",
"The car has a 5.0 litre supercharged petrol engine producing 503 bhp, with a top speed of , and is capable of reaching from stationary in 9.4 seconds, slower than the original due to the substantially greater weight of the vehicle.\n",
"The 1000 MB’s overall performance was acceptable, especially when you remember how small an engine it had for a car of its size (as mentioned, a 1-litre engine in a car 13 feet 8 inches long by 5 feet 3 inches wide). The top speed was 120 km/h (75mph), reaching 100 km/h (62mph) from standstill in 27 seconds. Overall fuel economy was around 36 miles per gallon (6.5 litres per 100km).\n",
"For example, if an automobile typically gets 20 miles<32.19 km> per gallon with a 20% efficient engine that has a 10:1 compression ratio, a carburetor claiming 100MPG would have to increase the efficiency by a factor of 5, to 100%. This is clearly beyond what is theoretically or practically possible. A similar claim of 300MPG for any vehicle would require an engine (in this particular case) that is 300% efficient, which violates the First Law of Thermodynamics.\n",
"The car was one of the fastest production four-seaters of its era. The Mk II, capable of , ran a quarter mile (~400 m) in 14.6 seconds, and accelerated from 0– in 6.7 seconds. It was also one of the quickest cars to 60 mph in the world being significantly faster than such performance cars of the period as the Lamborghini Miura, Aston Martin DB5 and Jaguar XK-E. \n",
"The sheer bulk of the car is reflected in its performance figures. An example tested in 1938 by The English Autocar magazine returned a top speed of 140 km/h (87½ mph) and a 0 - 60 mph (0 – 96 km/h) time of 16.8 seconds. The overall fuel consumption quoted from that road test was .\n"
] |
why do actors tend to put themselves as "executive producers" & "producers" after being in a television show for a while?
|
This indicates they are not only acting in the show, but taking a stronger creative or production role *behind the scenes*. They are working on MAKING the show in addition to appearing on screen, but not every actor makes this change.
|
[
"The production company is often separate from the broadcaster. The executive producer, often the show's creator, is in charge of running the show. They pick the crew and help cast the actors, approve and sometimes write series plots—some even write or direct major episodes—while various other producers help to ensure that the show runs smoothly. Very occasionally, the executive producer will cast themselves in the show. As with filmmaking or other electronic media production, producing of an individual episode can be divided into three parts: pre-production, principal photography, and post-production.\n",
"In television, an executive producer usually supervises the creative content and the financial aspects of a production. Some writers, like Stephen J. Cannell, Tina Fey, and Ryan Murphy, have worked as both the creator and the producer of the same TV show. In case of multiple executive producers on a TV show, the one outranking the others is called the showrunner, or the leading executive producer.\n",
"In live television or \"as-live\", an executive producer seldom has any operational control of the show. His/her job is to stand back from the operational aspects and judge the show as an ordinary viewer might.\n",
"Traditionally, the executive producer of a television program was the \"chief executive\", responsible for the show's creative direction and production. Over time, the title of executive producer was applied to a wider range of roles—from someone who arranges financing to an \"angel\" who holds the title as an honorific with no management duties in return for providing backing capital. The term \"showrunner\" was created to identify the producer who holds ultimate management and creative authority for the program. The blog and book \"Crafty Screenwriting\" defines a showrunner as \"the person responsible for all creative aspects of the show and responsible only to the network (and production company, if it's not [their] production company). The boss. Usually a writer.\"\n",
"Because of the restrictions the Writers Guild of America screenwriting credit system places on writing credits, many script writers in television are credited as \"producers\" instead, even though they may not engage in the responsibilities generally associated with that title. On-screen, a \"producer\" credit for a TV series will generally be given to each member of the writing staff who made a demonstrable contribution to the final script. The actual producer of the show (in the traditional sense) is listed under the credit \"produced by\".\n",
"The series credits include several people in the role of producer. Most are credited only for a few episodes. This includes Loken (the star), who is credited as co-executive producer for several episodes.\n",
"Executive producers vary in involvement, responsibility and power. Some executive producers have hands-on control over every aspect of production, some supervise the producers of a project, while others are involved in name only.\n"
] |
Is there a historical consensus about the girls who started the accusations of the Salem Witch Trials? Were they put up to it by others? Were they psychopaths? Did they actually believe they were being afflicted by witchcraft?
|
To add to what the others have said, those accusers who had suffered from the conflict with neighbouring Indians had had their lives upended. Those who were orphaned were now living with relatives or friends of their late parents, and those whose families had been displaced lost whatever livelihoods they had previously worked. Their prospects, both for marriage and the rest of their life, were greatly diminished. They could provide little in the way of a dowry, a vital part of arranging a beneficial marriage, and their newfound benefactors (if they had them) had other priorities than their new wards. It is perfectly understandable to look at their situation from their perspective, and feel resentment and anger towards the events that had led to their diminished position; this was the problem. They had been taught that feeling this way made them perfect recruits for the Devil’s cause. He could use their resentment to slip through their defences of faith and use them to further his diabolic aims.
Richard Godbeer suggests that while these first accusers may have genuinely believed that they were the victims of the Devil, their ‘possession’ gave them a legitimate method of expressing their grievances in a society that disapproved of such self-pity. It’s hard for a modern perspective to understand how firmly held beliefs in magic and the Devil were. In other trials, some individuals willingly handed themselves over for the crimes they believed they had committed. Alexander Sussums of Long Melford, Essex had volunteered to be searched by a witch finder during the East-Anglian panic, out of a genuine belief that he had been a witch for over a decade and a half. Through his guilt and negativity, combined with a genuine belief in the power of the Devil and his mother’s reputation for witchcraft, Sussums convinced himself that he too was a witch. Such was his conviction that he actively sought out the man who could, and did, order his arrest and trial for capital crimes (although he was eventually pardoned). Of course, with a society as deeply strained as 17th century New England, there were definitely accusations driven by more mundane motivations, but it is very likely that at least some of the young women who declared their possession did so out of a genuine belief that they were the victims of the Devil.
* Anderson, Virginia Dejohn, 'New England in the Seventeenth Century', in Canny, Nicholas (ed.) *The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume I: The Origins of Empire*
* Godbeer, Richard, ‘Witchcraft in British America’, in Levack, Brian (ed.) *The Oxford Handbook of Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe and Colonial America*
* Hansen, Chadwick, ‘Andover Witches and the Causes of the Salem Witchcraft Trials’, in Levack, Brian (ed.) *The Oxford Handbook of Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe and Colonial America*
* Le Beau, Bryan F., *The Story of the Salem Witch Trials*
* Levack, Brian, ‘State-Building and Witch-Hunting’, in Oldridge, Darren (ed.), *The Witchcraft Reader*
|
[
"Abigail Williams (July 12, 1680 – c. October 1697) was one of the initial accusers in the Salem witch trials. The trials which led to the arrest and imprisonment of more than 150 innocent people suspected of witchcraft. \n",
"A group of girls ranging in age from twelve to twenty were the main accusers in the Salem witch trials. This group, of which Elizabeth Hubbard was a part, also included Ann Putnam, Jr., Mary Walcott, Elizabeth “Betty” Parris, Abigail Williams, Elizabeth Booth, Mercy Lewis, and Mary Warren. \n",
"Booth, at age eighteen, was one of the six accusers in the 1692 Salem Witch Trials in Salem, Massachusetts, claiming that she was afflicted by witchcraft. Throughout the trials, there are records indicating that she accused ten people of witchcraft. Five of those accused are known to be executed directly due to her testimonies. Those she accused include: John and Elizabeth Proctor, their fifteen-year-old daughter Sarah, William and Benjamin Proctor (two of their sons), Woody Proctor, Giles Corey and Martha Corey, Job Tookey, and Wilmont Redd.\n",
"The most renowned trials caused by child accusations occurred in Salem, Massachusetts in 1692. Children were viewed as having an important role in convicting witches, due to their being able to identify people impulsively. Children who made such false allegations often directed them at adults with whom they had strained relationships such as teachers or puritanical neighbors.\n",
"In 1692, the Salem Witch Trials broke out after several girls claimed to be targeted by a 'devilish hand'. After several months, over 150 men, women, and children were charged with witchcraft and sorcery. The Trials were diminishing around September 1692 when the public began to resist the idea of witchcraft. Eventually, the Massachusetts General Court granted freedom to all those accused of sorcery and apologized to their families for the hardships created from the Salem Witch Trials.\n",
"Elizabeth Parris (November 28, 1682 – March 21, 1760) was one of the young women who accused other people of being witches during the Salem witch trials. The accusations made by Betty (Elizabeth) and her cousin Abigail caused the direct death of 20 Salem residents: 19 were hanged (mostly women) and one man was pressed to death.\n",
"The Salem witch trials were a series of hearings before local magistrates followed by county court trials to prosecute people accused of witchcraft in Essex, Suffolk and Middlesex counties of colonial Massachusetts, between February 1692 and May 1693. Over 150 people were arrested and imprisoned, with even more accused but not formally pursued by the authorities. The two courts convicted twenty-nine people of the capital felony of witchcraft. Nineteen of the accused, fourteen women and five men, were hanged. One man (Giles Corey) who refused to enter a plea was crushed to death under heavy stones in an attempt to force him to do so. At least five more of the accused died in prison.\n"
] |
No Irish Need Apply - how badly were Irish discriminated against in 1840's - 1930's America?
|
I am not a historian, but the Library of Congress has a good overview with source documents [here](_URL_0_).
|
[
"In the 19th century, this was particularly true because of anti-Irish prejudice, which was based on anti-Catholic sentiment, and prejudice against the Irish as an ethnicity. This was especially true for Irish Catholics who immigrated to the U.S. in the mid-19th century; the large number of Irish (both Catholic and Protestant) who settled in America in the 18th century had largely (but not entirely) escaped such discrimination and eventually blended into the white American population. During the 1830s in the U.S., riots over control of job sites broke out in rural areas among rival labor teams from different parts of Ireland, and between Irish and local American work teams competing for construction jobs.\n",
"There were also Darwinian-inspired excuses for the discrimination of the Irish in America. Many Americans believed that since the Irish were Celts and not Anglo-Saxons, they were racially inferior and deserved second-hand citizenship. The Irish being of inferior intelligence was a belief held by many Americans. This notion was held due to the fact that the Irish topped the charts demographically in terms of arrests and imprisonment. They also had more people confined to insane asylums and poorhouses than any other group. The racial supremacy belief that many Americans had at the time contributed significantly to Irish discrimination.\n",
"Irish people at home were facing discrimination from Great Britain based on the former's religion. Evictions only increased after the repeal of the British Corn Laws in 1846 and the new Encumbered Estates Act being passed in 1849 as well as the removal of existing civil rights. There had been agrarian terrorism against landlords which these new laws were implemented to stop the retribution. Any hope for change was squashed with the death of Daniel O'Connell in 1847, the political leader championing for Ireland, and the failed rising of the Young Irelanders in 1848. More was to be gained by immigrating to America from Ireland and the 1848 discovery of gold in the Sierra Nevada lured away more.\n",
"Historians have debated the issue of anti-Irish job discrimination in the United States. Some insist that the \"No Irish need apply\" signs were common, but others, such as Richard J. Jensen, argue that anti-Irish job discrimination was not a significant factor in the United States, and these signs and print advertisements were posted by the limited number of early 19th-century English immigrants to the United States who shared the prejudices of their homeland. In July 2015 the same journal that published Jensen's 2002 paper published a rebuttal by Rebecca A. Fried, an 8th-grade student at Sidwell Friends School. She listed multiple instances of the restriction used in advertisements for many different types of positions, including \"clerks at stores and hotels, bartenders, farm workers, house painters, hog butchers, coachmen, bookkeepers, blackers, workers at lumber yards, upholsterers, bakers, gilders, tailors, and papier mache workers, among others.\" While the greatest number of NINA instances occurred in the 1840s, Fried found instances for its continued use throughout the subsequent century, with the most recent dating to 1909 in Butte, Montana.\n",
"Prejudices ran deep in the north and could be seen in newspaper cartoons depicting Irish men as hot-headed, violent drunkards. The initial backlash the Irish received in America lead to their self-imposed seclusion, making assimilation into society a long and painful process.\n",
"Some writers have assumed that the Irish in 19th-century North America were impoverished. DiMatteo (1992), using evidence from probate records in 1892, shows this is untrue. Irish-born and Canadian-born Irish accumulated wealth in a similar way, and that being Irish was not an economic disadvantage by the 1890s. Immigrants from earlier decades may well have experienced greater economic difficulties, but in general the Irish in Ontario in the 1890s enjoyed levels of wealth commensurate with the rest of the populace.\n",
"Additionally, this rise in population also helped decide the outcome of the Civil War. The Irish emigrants who found their way to the South during the Great Famine saw the situation between the North and the South not unlike their previous situation between Ireland and Britain where they had felt exploited because while there was free trade between Ireland and Britain, Ireland provided potatoes and beef to England while receiving manufactured goods in return. However, while manufacturing jobs pay well the jobs of farm laborers do not; thus, the new Irish in the Southern United States felt the North exploited their new home in the South the same way. Because the Irish emigrants in the South could understand the plight of their new home many willingly took up arms against the North during the Civil War. To counter this, the Union Army employed 144,000 Irish-born troops during the War most of whom were drafted to serve. While a draftee could elude duty by paying $300 most Irish emigrants were too poor to do so, and had to fight.\n"
] |
How Are The Chauvet Cave Drawings Still There?
|
Yes, they are. It's amazing they are still preserved - there are likely countless of other drawings from the period that weren't.
Access to the drawings is very limited. Here's an account from 2015 by a reporter who was granted rare access: _URL_0_
|
[
"Except for the darkened rear wall, all the walls of the cave are covered to head height with cave paintings, some of which overlap each other. The oldest ones are red spots and handprints, probably dating from the first millennium BCE, assigned to the Lapita culture. However, most of the pictures are black line drawings. Among them are some that are 1500 years old, but most were made much later; the most recently dated ones are from the eighteenth century. The illustrations show birds, fish, and anthropomorphic figures. Abstract designs include simple and complex geometric figures such as angles, triangles and diamond shapes. The largest human representation, according to tradition, is that of Roi Mata.\n",
"There are paintings on the walls of the cave drawn in brown ocher, dating to approximately 3000 BC. The content of the paintings is complex, and includes shapes like triangles and rectangles, lines, dots, and images of people.\n",
"The cave contains a Neolithic picture, currently the oldest cave painting known in the Czech Republic. It depicts a geometrical shape resembling a grill with a size of 30x40 cm, painted in charcoal on the cave wall. The carbon was dated with the C14 radio-carbon method to be 5,200 years old. The pattern resembles the decorations on some ceramic vessels from that period. \n",
"The cave contains a Neolithic picture, currently the oldest cave painting known in the Czech Republic. It depicts a geometrical shape resembling a grill with a size of 30x40 cm, painted in charcoal on the cave wall. The carbon was dated with the C14 radio-carbon method to be 5,200 years old. The pattern resembles the decorations on some ceramic vessels from that period. \n",
"Pech Merle is a cave which opens onto a hillside at Cabrerets in the Lot département of the Occitania region in France, about 35 minutes by road east of Cahors. It is one of the few prehistoric cave painting sites in France that remain open to the general public. Extending for over a kilometre and a half from the entrance are caverns, the walls of which are painted with dramatic murals dating from the Gravettian culture (some 25,000 years BC). Some of the paintings and engravings, however, may date from the later Magdalenian era (16,000 years BC).\n",
"The cave paintings were first spotted in 1994 by the French explorer . In 2018, a team of scientists investigating the cave, led by Maxime Aubert from Griffith University and Pindi Setiawan from the Bandung Institute of Technology, published a report in the journal \"Nature\" identifying the paintings as the world's oldest known figurative art. The team had previously investigated cave paintings in the neighbouring island of Sulawesi. In order to date the paintings, the team used dating techniques on the calcium carbonate (limestone) deposits close to them.\n",
"The La Marche cave paintings were discovered in the caves in the Lussac-les-Châteaux area of France by Léon Péricard in November 1937. Péricard, and his partner Stephane Lwoff, studied these caves for five years and found etchings on more than 1,500 slabs. In 1938, they presented their discovery to the French Prehistoric Society, and published them in the Society's \"Bulletin\". Many people questioned the validity of these findings, however, stating that they made that judgment because the paintings closely resembled modern art.\n"
] |
the tingling sound in total silence
|
One form of what you're talking about is tinnitus, ringing in the ears which can be a result of age-related hearing loss, over-exposure to loud sounds (such as at frequent loud concerts or a construction job), or even sometimes brain injuries/tumors. Killing off the hair cells in your ear through loud noises leads to spontaneous activity of the neurons they're connected to, which is interpreted as sound. However, you might be referring more generally to the idea of hearing slight ringing or "tingly" noises in total silence even in people without tinnitus, something which often happens particularly after exposure to loud noises for a length of time.
Neurally, this tingly sound doesn't have a definitive explanation, but one perspective is as follows. Essentially, neurons in the ear, like most neurons (i.e., the auditory nerve) are firing regardless of whether you are hearing sounds; they just fire more in response to loud noises. The brain knows this, and so it tends to interpret overall firing rates (and some more complex patterns, etc. of firing) relative to a baseline, no-noise firing rate as 'sound.' However, this isn't a perfect process, so even in the absence of any sounds, there is some activity that might be interpreted as ringing by the brain.
This explanation isn't complete, and I'm not an expert on auditory neuroscience. Maybe someone who is can add to it!
|
[
"On occasion, a strange tingling effect is felt by them, and strange coloured lights seem to rise from the ground, and it seems to be due to a strange metal (possibly radioactive) that mysterious men are mining for unknown reasons.\n",
"\"When the Tingle Becomes a Chill\" is a song written by Lola Jean Dillon that was originally performed by American country music artist Loretta Lynn. It was released as a single in October 1975 via MCA Records.\n",
"After they contain the tingler and return to Higgins' house, it is revealed that Higgins is the murderer; he frightened his wife to death knowing that she could not scream because she was mute. The centipede-like creature eventually breaks free from the container that held it and is released into Higgins' theater. The tingler latches onto a woman's leg, and she screams until it releases its grip. Chapin controls the situation by shutting off the lights and telling everyone in the theater to scream. When the tingler has left the showing room, they resume the movie and go to the projection room, where they find the tingler and capture it.\n",
"Neuroimaging studies have found that the intensity of tingling is positively correlated with the magnitude of brain activity in specific regions of the reward system, including the nucleus accumbens, orbitofrontal cortex, and insular cortex. All three of these brain structures are known to contain a hedonic hotspot, a region of the brain that is responsible for producing pleasure cognition. Since music-induced euphoria can occur without the sensation of tingling or piloerection, the authors of one review hypothesized that the emotional response to music during a frisson evokes a sympathetic response that is experienced as a tingling sensation.\n",
"A joy buzzer (also called a hand buzzer) is a practical joke device that consists of a coiled spring inside a disc worn in the palm of the hand. When the wearer shakes hands with another person, a button on the disc releases the spring, which rapidly unwinds creating a vibration that feels somewhat like an electric shock to someone not expecting it.\n",
"Rate's tingle grows in wet forests near Walpole. It was previously confused with two other \"tingle\" species, the red tingle, \"E. jacksonii\" and the yellow tingle \"E. guilfoylei\". The name \"tingle\" or \"tingle tingle\" is thought to be of Aboriginal origin. This tingle was not previously recognised as a separate species, despite the efforts of the forester Jack Rate.\n",
"Tingle is a short, paunchy 35-year-old man who is obsessed with \"forest fairies\" and dresses up in a green costume, slightly resembling that of Link. He also wears tight red shorts and a necklace with a clock that is permanently stuck at four o'clock. Tingle is normally seen floating around on his red balloon drawing and selling maps for his father, who runs the Southern Swamp pictograph contest and sees Tingle as \"a fool\". He is also known for his catchphrase: \"Tingle, Tingle! Kooloo-Limpah!\" . Tingle appears to have a fixation for Rupees and other similar collectibles, such as Force Gems in \"\" and Kinstones in \"\". In \"Majora's Mask\", Tingle can be found selling maps, and in \"The Wind Waker\", he translates Triforce Maps for a high price, among other things. Tingle's fixation for Rupees is explained in the Nintendo DS game \"Freshly-Picked Tingle's Rosy Rupeeland\", where it is stated that he needs Rupees to live. He is known to dress as a fairy.\n"
] |
why is the metric system so perfect in regards to water mass versus weight?
|
It's originally designed this way. Units in the SI system are all defined by certain basic quantities, like a liter of water or one Kelvin, or one meter and so on.
ex: a kilocalorie (a calorie to all dieters) is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one liter of water by one kelvin.
So it's right there in the definition of the unit.
|
[
"Since trade and commerce typically involve items significantly more massive than one gram, and since a mass standard made of water would be inconvenient and unstable, the regulation of commerce necessitated the manufacture of a \"practical realisation\" of the water-based definition of mass. Accordingly, a provisional mass standard was made as a single-piece, metallic artefact one thousand times as massive as the gram—the kilogram.\n",
"Water weights are a popular alternative to solid weights as they are safer to use and can offer cost savings in transportation, storage and labour. When performing load tests using water weights, gradual application of the load allows problems to be identified prior to attaining maximum load.\n",
"One explanation begins by saying that initially the non-water weight is 1 pound, which is 1% of 100 pounds. Then one asks: 1 pound is 2% of how many pounds? In order for that percentage to be twice as big, the total weight must be half as big.\n",
"The early metric systems defined a unit of weight as a base unit, while the SI defines an analogous unit of mass. In everyday use, these are mostly interchangeable, but in scientific contexts the difference matters. Mass, strictly the inertial mass, represents a quantity of matter. It relates the acceleration of a body to the applied force via Newton's law, : force equals mass times acceleration. A force of 1 N (newton) applied to a mass of 1 kg will accelerate it at 1 m/s. This is true whether the object is floating in space or in a gravity field e.g. at the Earth's surface. Weight is the force exerted on a body by a gravitational field, and hence its weight depends on the strength of the gravitational field. Weight of a 1 kg mass at the Earth's surface is ; mass times the acceleration due to gravity, which is 9.81 newtons at the Earth's surface and is about 3.5 newtons at the surface of Mars. Since the acceleration due to gravity is local and varies by location and altitude on the Earth, weight is unsuitable for precision measurements of a property of a body, and this makes a unit of weight unsuitable as a base unit.\n",
"Together with the fact that the term \"weight\" is used for the gravitational force in some technical contexts (physics, engineering) and for mass in others (commerce, law), and that the distinction often does not matter in practice, the coexistence of variants of the FPS system causes confusion over the nature of the unit \"pound\". Its relation to international metric units is expressed in kilograms, not newtons, though, and in earlier times it was defined by means of a mass prototype to be compared with a two-pan balance which is agnostic of local gravitational differences.\n",
"In the \"engineering\" systems (middle column), the weight of the mass unit (pound-mass) on Earth's surface is approximately equal to the force unit (pound-force). This is convenient because one pound mass exerts one pound force due to gravity. Note, however, unlike the other systems the force unit is not equal to the mass unit multiplied by the acceleration unit—the use of Newton's Second Law, , requires another factor, \"g\", usually taken to be 32.174049 (lb⋅ft)/(lbf⋅s).\n",
"If the water decreases to 98%, then the solids account for 2% of the weight. The 2:98 ratio reduces to 1:49. Since the solids still weigh 1 lb, the water must weigh 49 lb for a total of 50 lbs for the answer.\n"
] |
Are 98% of the atoms in the human body replaced every year?
|
It seems to have some good basis in experiments conducted by some dude called Paul Aebersold back in the fifties:
_URL_0_ (Note the date on the article: 1954!)
I'm not surprised that it's a high percentage (the watery bits of your body should be cycled through quite rapidly), though I am surprised that it's quite as high as 98%.
|
[
"All atoms exist as stable or unstable isotopes and the latter decay at a given half-life ranging from attoseconds to billions of years; radioisotopes useful to biological and experimental systems have half-lives ranging from minutes to months. In the case of the hydrogen isotope tritium (half-life = 12.3 years) and carbon-14 (half-life = 5,730 years), these isotopes derive their importance from all organic life containing hydrogen and carbon and therefore can be used to study countless living processes, reactions, and phenomena. Most short lived isotopes are produced in cyclotrons, linear particle accelerators, or nuclear reactors and their relatively short half-lives give them high maximum theoretical specific activities which is useful for detection in biological systems.\n",
"C is present in the human body at a level of about 3700 Bq (0.1 μCi) with a biological half-life of 40 days. This means there are about 3700 beta particles per second produced by the decay of C. However, a C atom is in the genetic information of about half the cells, while potassium is not a component of DNA. The decay of a C atom inside DNA in one person happens about 50 times per second, changing a carbon atom to one of nitrogen.\n",
"Only a few atoms of Db can be produced in each experiment, and thus the measured lifetimes vary significantly during the process. During three experiments, 23 atoms were created in total, with a resulting half-life of . The second most stable isotope, Db, has been produced in even smaller quantities: three atoms in total, with lifetimes of 33.4 h, 1.3 h, and 1.6 h. These two are the heaviest isotopes of dubnium to date, and both were produced as a result of decay of the heavier nuclei Mc and Ts rather than directly, because the experiments that yielded them were originally designed in Dubna for Ca beams. For its mass, Ca has by far the greatest neutron excess of all practically stable nuclei, both quantitative and relative, which correspondingly helps synthesize superheavy nuclei with more neutrons, but this gain is compensated by the decreased likelihood of fusion for high atomic numbers.\n",
"Since the fraction of a radioisotope's atoms decaying per unit of time is inversely proportional to its half-life, the relative radioactivity of a quantity of buried human radioactive waste would diminish over time compared to natural radioisotopes (such as the decay chain of 120 trillion tons of thorium and 40 trillion tons of uranium which are at relatively trace concentrations of parts per million each over the crust's 3 * 10 ton mass). For instance, over a timeframe of thousands of years, after the most active short half-life radioisotopes decayed, burying U.S. nuclear waste would increase the radioactivity in the top 2000 feet of rock and soil in the United States (10 million km) by ≈ 1 part in 10 million over the cumulative amount of natural radioisotopes in such a volume, although the vicinity of the site would have a far higher concentration of artificial radioisotopes underground than such an average.\n",
"Since the fraction of a radioisotope's atoms decaying per unit of time is inversely proportional to its half-life, the relative radioactivity of a quantity of buried human radioactive waste would diminish over time compared to natural radioisotopes (such as the decay chains of 120 trillion tons of thorium and 40 trillion tons of uranium which are at relatively trace concentrations of parts per million each over the crust's 3 * 10 ton mass). For instance, over a timeframe of thousands of years, after the most active short half-life radioisotopes decayed, burying U.S. nuclear waste would increase the radioactivity in the top 2000 feet of rock and soil in the United States (10 million km) by ≈ 1 part in 10 million over the cumulative amount of natural radioisotopes in such a volume, although the vicinity of the site would have a far higher concentration of artificial radioisotopes underground than such an average.\n",
"Since the fraction of a radioisotope's atoms decaying per unit of time is inversely proportional to its half-life, the relative radioactivity of a quantity of buried human radioactive waste would diminish over time compared to natural radioisotopes (such as the decay chain of 120 trillion tons of thorium and 40 trillion tons of uranium which are at relatively trace concentrations of parts per million each over the crust's 3 ton mass).\n",
"The half-life of atomoxetine varies widely between individuals, with an average range of 4.5 to 19 hours. As atomoxetine is metabolized by CYP2D6, exposure may be increased 10-fold in CYP2D6 poor metabolizers.\n"
] |
Why are White House meeting minutes recorded and kept?
|
[Here is a paragraph from the University of Oregon Holden Leadership Center on record keeping during meetings:](_URL_0_)
> As you can see, the role of a secretary is more than "just taking minutes". The secretary is in effect, the historian. What he/she records will be referred to by current members as a reminder of finished and unfinished business, what needs follow-up and what actions were taken. It will also be kept for future members to read to gain an understanding of where the organization has been and why. Many organizations make it the secretary's responsibility to notify the membership about upcoming meetings-time, date, location-as well as any important items to be discussed.
Many business meetings, particularly important ones, will keep minutes with a stenographer, and government business meetings are no exception. Minutes of a meeting are useful for the principals to later refer to as an aide-memoire, to reference in the event of a later dispute of what was said by whom; for sharing with non-attending staff, possibly even for eventual publication for some types of organizations, there are a wide variety of reasons why minute-keeping is a common practice. Minutes are kept for many meetings, whether the governing board of the local floral society, all the way to the highest government councils, committees, and cabinets.
What is more interesting, is that in the modern era, there exists a delicate balance between keeping minutes or particularly audio and audiovisual recording of important meetings and deliberate obfuscation of such records. The infamous White House audio taping system was used to fix Nixon's responsibility, "what did you know and when did you know it" during the Watergate crisis and was instrumental in forcing him from office.
Watergate and the role of the taping system in bringing down a Presidency was definitely noted by later politicians of all parties. Part of the art of modern government is to keep the President and other important and public figures from being pinned down to a position, or to having learned a particular bit of knowledge. This permits "plausible deniability" in the event of a crisis. The leader can be vague or deny knowing about the decisions that led to the crisis, and on occasion, a convenient subordinate can be thrown to the wolves of the media or the legal system.
Look at the controversy over the use of personal, non-governmental email by some well-known public officials. Government records are almost always preserved and archived, and they are subject to subpoenas during judicial or congressional investigations. In the event of a scandal or crisis gone bad, without good records, a leader can testify with a high degree of vagueness or ignorance: "Of course if I had warning that this terrible event might happen, I would have taken action to prevent it."
|
[
"White House visitor logs, also known as the White House Worker and Visitor Entry System (WAVE), are the guestbook records of individuals visiting the White House to meet with the President of the United States or other White House officials.\n",
"On Friday, July 13, 1973, during a preliminary interview, deputy minority counsel Donald Sanders asked White House assistant Alexander Butterfield if there was any type of recording system in the White House. Butterfield said he was reluctant to answer, but finally admitted there was a new system in the White House that automatically recorded everything in the Oval Office, the Cabinet Room and others, as well as Nixon's private office in the Old Executive Office Building.\n",
"Minutes may be created during the meeting by a typist or court reporter, who may use shorthand notation and then prepare the minutes and issue them to the participants afterwards. Alternatively, the meeting can be audio recorded, video recorded, or a group's appointed or informally assigned secretary may take notes, with minutes prepared later. Many government agencies use minutes recording software to record and prepare all minutes in real-time.\n",
"The White House chief calligrapher is responsible for the design and execution of all social and official documents at the White House, the official residence and principal workplace of the president of the United States.\n",
"On July 16, 1973, Butterfield told the committee in a televised hearing that Nixon had ordered a taping system installed in the White House to automatically record all conversations. Special Counsel Archibald Cox, a former United States Solicitor General under President John F. Kennedy, asked District Court Judge John Sirica to subpoena nine relevant tapes to confirm the testimony of White House Counsel John Dean.\n",
"A journal clerk compiles the daily minutes of House proceedings and publishes these in the \"House Journal\" at the end of each session. The \"House Journal\" is the official record of the proceedings maintained in accordance with Article I, Section 5 of the U.S. Constitution.\n",
"The \"Congressional Record\" is the official record of the proceedings and debates of the United States Congress. It is published by the United States Government Publishing Office, and is issued when the United States Congress is in session. Indexes are issued approximately every two weeks. At the end of a session of Congress, the daily editions are compiled in bound volumes constituting the permanent edition.\n"
] |
Do LED lightbulb work in extreme cold temperatures?
|
The operating temperature of the LED will depend on the design of the device, typically -40F is at or below the lower limit of silicon devices, (this will generally be shown on the device datasheet).
Lithonia Lighting OFLR 6 MO 's datasheet quotes its minimum ambient temp as -40C.
|
[
"The low energy consumption of LED lights can pose a driving risk in some areas during winter. Unlike incandescent and halogen bulbs, which generally get hot enough to melt away any snow that may settle on individual lights, LED displays – using only a fraction of the energy – remain too cool for this to happen. As a response to the safety concerns, a heating element on the lens was developed.\n",
"Unlike combustion or incandescent lamps, LEDs only operate if they are kept cool enough. The manufacturer commonly specifies a maximum junction temperature of 125 or 150 °C, and lower temperatures are advisable in the interests of long life. At these temperatures, relatively little heat is lost by radiation, which means that the light beam generated by an LED is cool.\n",
"Compared to other lighting systems LEDs must be kept cool as high temperatures can cause premature failure and reduced light output. Thermal management of high-power LEDs is required to keep the junction temperature close to ambient temperature. LED lamps typically include heat dissipation elements such as heat sinks and cooling fins and very high power lamps for industrial uses are frequently equipped with cooling fans.\n",
"LED life span drops at higher temperatures, which limits the power that can be used in lamps that physically replace existing filament and compact fluorescent types. Thermal management of high-power LEDs is a significant factor in design of solid state lighting equipment. LED lamps are sensitive to excessive heat, like most solid state electronic components. LED lamps should be checked for compatibility for use in totally or partially enclosed fixtures before installation as heat build-up could cause lamp failure and/or fire.\n",
"The lower heat radiation compared with incandescent lamps makes LEDs ideal for stage lights , where banks of RGB LEDs can easily change color and decrease heating from traditional stage lighting. In medical lighting, infrared heat radiation can be harmful. In energy conservation, the lower heat output of LEDs also reduces demand on air conditioning systems.\n",
"LED flashlights may consume 1 watt or much more from the battery, producing heat as well as light. In contrast to tungsten filaments, which must be hot to produce light, both the light output and the life of an LED decrease with temperature. Heat dissipation for the LED often dictates that small high-power LED flashlights have aluminium or other high heat conductivity bodies, reflectors and other parts, to dissipate heat; they can become warm during use.\n",
"LED lighting systems are sensitive to heat. Due to the negative influences of heat on the stability of photometric performance and the light transmitting components, the importance of thermal design, stability tests, usage of low-UV-type LED modules and UV-resistance tests of internal materials has increased dramatically. For this reason, LED signal lamps must remain compliant with the intensity requirements for the functions they produce after one minute and after thirty minutes of continuous operation. In addition, UN Regulation 112 contains a set of tests for LED modules, including colour rendering, UV radiation, and temperature stability tests. According to UN Regulations 112 and 123, mechanical, electromechanical or other devices for headlamps must withstand endurance tests and function failure tests.\n"
] |
why didn’t the Ancient Egyptians conquer the rest of North Africa to the west of them?
|
The Western/Libyan Desert is 1000 km north to south and 1000 km east to west and largely blocks access out of the Nile and Nile Delta.
As we saw in the WW 2 desert campaign, the Western Desert makes even mechanized and motorized maneuvering problematic.
|
[
"North Africa is the seat of ancient Egypt and Carthage, civilizations with strong ties to the ancient Near East and which influenced the ancient Greek and Roman cultures. Eventually, Egypt fell under Persian rule followed by Greek and Roman rule, while Carthage was later ruled by Romans and Vandals. North Africa was later conquered by the Arabs, who established the region as the Maghreb of the Arab world.\n",
"Ancient Greece and the armies of Alexander the Great (336 BC–323 BC) invaded and conquered some parts of North Africa and his generals set up the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt. The armies of the Roman Republic (509 BC–31 BC) and the Roman Empire (31 BC–AD 476) subsequently conquered the entire coastal areas of North Africa. The people of Carthage fought the bloody and lengthy Punic Wars (264 BC–146 BC) against Rome.\n",
"The ancient history of North Africa is inextricably linked to that of the Ancient Near East. This is particularly true of Ancient Egypt and Nubia. In the Horn of Africa the Kingdom of Aksum ruled modern-day Eritrea, northern Ethiopia and the coastal area of the western part of the Arabian Peninsula. The Ancient Egyptians established ties with the Land of Punt in 2,350 BC. Punt was a trade partner of Ancient Egypt and it is believed that it was located in modern-day Somalia, Djibouti or Eritrea. Phoenician cities such as Carthage were part of the Mediterranean Iron Age and classical antiquity. Sub-Saharan Africa developed more or less independently in those times. \n",
"Neither North Africa nor the Iberian Peninsula were strangers to Semitic culture: the Phoenicians and later the Carthaginians dominated parts of the North African and Iberian shores for more than eight centuries until they were suppressed by the Romans and by the following Vandal and Visigothic invasions, and the Berber incursions. After the Arab invasion of North Africa, The Berber tribes allied themselves with the Umayyad Arab Muslim armies in invading Spain. Later, in 743 AD, the Berbers defeated the Arab Umayyad armies and expelled them for most of West North Africa (al-Maghreb al-Aqsa) during the Berber Revolt, but not the territory of Ifriqiya which stayed Arab (East Algeria, Tunisia, and West-Libya). Centuries later some migrating Arab tribes settled in some plains while the Berbers remained the dominant group mainly in desert areas including mountains. The Inland North Africa remained exclusively Berber until the 11th century; the Iberian Peninsula, on the other hand, remained Arabized, particularly in the south, until the 16th century.\n",
"In 200 BC, the combined forces of Egypt, Carthage and Abyssinia destroyed the Roman Republic, removing the last European power and paving the way for African dominance. For a thousand years the descendants of Alexander ruled much of the known world with Egypt ruling an empire stretching from Eastern Europe to India. Egypt and Abyssinia also created a major trade route along the Nile and immense networks of canals. By 420, steamboats had been invented and were used to trade with other kingdoms in Africa. Eventually, most of sub-Saharan Africa was under joint Egyptian and Abyssianian rule.\n",
"When the Roman Empire began to collapse, North Africa was spared much of the disruption until the Vandal invasion of 429 AD. The Vandals ruled in North Africa until the territories were regained by Justinian of the Eastern Empire in the 6th century. Egypt was never invaded by the Vandals because there was a thousand-mile buffer of desert and because the Eastern Roman Empire was better defended.\n",
"The Roman Exarchate of Africa was not able to withstand the seventh-century Muslim conquest of the Maghreb. The Umayyad Caliphate under Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan in 686 sent a force led by Zuhayr ibn Qays, who won a battle over the Romans and Berbers led by King Kusaila of the Kingdom of Altava on the plain of Kairouan, but he could not follow that up. In 695, Hassan ibn al-Nu'man captured Carthage and advanced into the Atlas Mountains. An imperial fleet arrived and retook Carthage, but in 698, Hasan ibn al-Nu'man returned and defeated Emperor Tiberios III at the 698 Battle of Carthage. Roman imperial forces withdrew from all of Africa except Ceuta. Fearing that the Byzantine Empire might reconquer it, they decided to destroy Roman Carthage in a scorched earth policy and establish their headquarters somewhere else. Its walls were torn down, its water supply cut off, the agricultural land was ravaged and its harbors made unusable.\n"
] |
how does keeping an avocado seed with the raw avocado 'meat' keep it from browning?
|
[Here's a pretty good write-up of why Avocados turn brown](_URL_0_)
In short, it's the exposure to oxygen that makes the flesh turn brown. Keeping the stone (seed) with the meat does not prevent this in any way.
Fun fact about avocados: the trees release enzymes preventing ripening of the fruit, once they're picked they lose the enzymes. This allows the fruits to stay "fresh" on the tree far longer.
|
[
"It can be propagated from seed, which should be planted promptly in a moist, semi-shade position. The fleshy fruit that surrounds the seed must be removed as this inhibits germination. The seed is also vulnerable to fungal infection.\n",
"The avocado tree can be grown domestically and used as a (decorative) houseplant. The pit germinates in normal soil conditions or partially submerged in a small glass (or container) of water. In the latter method, the pit sprouts in four to six weeks, at which time it is planted in standard houseplant potting soil. The plant normally grows large enough to be prunable; it does not bear fruit unless it has ample sunlight. Home gardeners can graft a branch from a fruit-bearing plant to speed maturity, which typically takes four to six years to bear fruit.\n",
"They are propagated by cuttings since they are established easily without rooting hormones. It is grown in a manner similar to its relatives such as the tomato, though it grows naturally upright by habit and can thus be cultivated as a free-standing bush, though it is sometimes pruned on . Additionally, supports are sometimes used to keep the weight of the fruit from pulling the plant down. It has a fast growth rate and bears fruit within 4 to 6 months after planting. It is a perennial, but is usually cultivated as an annual. Seedlings are intolerant of weeds, but it can later easily compete with low growing weeds. Like their relatives tomatoes, eggplants, tomatillos and tamarillos, pepinos are extremely attractive to beetles, aphids, white flies and spider mites. Pepinos are tolerant of most soil types, but require constant moisture for good fruit production. Established bushes show some tolerance to drought stress, but this typically affects yield. The plants are parthenocarpic, meaning it needs no pollination to set fruit, though pollination will encourage fruiting. The plant is grown primarily in Chile, New Zealand and Western Australia. In Chile, more than 400 hectares are planted in the Longotoma Valley with an increasing proportion of the harvest being exported. Colombia, Peru, and Ecuador also grow the plant, but on a more local scale. Outside of the Andean region, it has been grown in various countries of Central America, Morocco, Spain, Israel, and the highlands of Kenya. In the United States several hundred hectares of the fruit are grown on a small scale in Hawaii and California. More commercially viable cultivars have been introduced from New Zealand and elsewhere in more recent times. As a result, the fruit has been introduced into up-scale markets in Japan, Europe and North America and it is slowly becoming less obscure outside of South America.\n",
"Unlike most Australian \"Cryptocarya\" fruit, removal of the fleshy aril is not particularly advised to assist seed germination, as the aril is so thin. Roots and shoots usually appear within three to six months.\n",
"Although the seed is poisonous, the tree shows promise as a source of seed oil with characteristics resembling those of avocado and sunflower oils. The seed germ yields about 45% of edible oil by mass. Of this yield, the fatty acid proportions are about 18% saturated (mainly palmitic and stearic), 30% monounsaturated (mainly oleic), and 48% polyunsaturated (mainly linoleic and linolenic). It also might be of commercial interest as a component of cosmetics and pesticides.\n",
"The seed is edible, though not as valued as that of its relative the macadamia. It is not commercially cultivated but is sometimes grown as an ornamental tree. It can be difficult to establish in the garden. Germination from fresh seed is reliable with a high percentage of success. However, many juveniles soon die of fungal disease. Alexander Floyd recommends adding original leaf litter from beneath the parent tree to promote beneficial anti-fungal micro-organisms.\n",
"Inoculation of healthy fruit can be diminished and controlled by careful picking, handling, and packaging of the citrus so that the rinds are not damaged. Without of injury inflicted on the fruit, the conidia are unable to gain access, and thus unable to germinate into infectious pathogens.\n"
] |
why are tiff files so large?
|
> 18MP
> 150MP
I'm guessing that the first is actually meant to read MP, while the second should probably read "MB"? Because "MP" means "MegaPixel" (million pixels), while "MB" means "Mega Bytes" (million/ 2^(20) bytes).
So let's take a look at how much that actually is:
150/18 = 8.333…
So for every pixel, there are eight and a bit bytes used. Let's just call it an even eight and attribute the rest to metadata (when was the photo taken, what were the iso, shutter etc. settings, maybe GPS coordinates, etc.).
Depending on your colour scheme (RGB/ CMYK/ RGBa/ …) and bit-depth (8-bit/ 16-bit/ 24-bit ("true colour") / …), this leaves between one and two bytes per pixel and colour channel. That actually sounds very reasonable. Heck, it isn't even enough to give you true-colour RGB - that would need 3\*3=9 bytes per pixel (three colour channels, each of which having a precision of 24 bits = 8 bytes).
& #x200B;
The reason other formats like jpeg or png will generally produce far smaller files is that they utilize (lossy) compression, which simply means that they don't save a colour value for every single pixel but instead try to save space by doing thing like saving "the next five pixels all have this colour: \[…\]" (very simplified).
|
[
"The TIFF file formats use 32-bit offsets, which limits file size to around 4 GiB. Some implementations even use a signed 32-bit offset, running into issues around 2 GiB already. BigTIFF is a TIFF variant file format which uses 64-bit offsets and supports much larger files. The BigTIFF file format specification was implemented in 2007 in development releases of LibTIFF version 4.0, which was finally released as stable in December 2011. Support for BigTIFF file formats by applications is limited.\n",
"TIFF is a flexible, adaptable file format for handling images and data within a single file, by including the header tags (size, definition, image-data arrangement, applied image compression) defining the image's geometry. A TIFF file, for example, can be a container holding JPEG (lossy) and PackBits (lossless) compressed images. A TIFF file also can include a vector-based clipping path (outlines, croppings, image frames). The ability to store image data in a lossless format makes a TIFF file a useful image archive, because, unlike standard JPEG files, a TIFF file using lossless compression (or none) may be edited and re-saved without losing image quality. This is not the case when using the TIFF as a container holding compressed JPEG. Other TIFF options are layers and pages.\n",
"Compared to GIF files, a PNG file with the same information (256 colors, no ancillary chunks/metadata), compressed by an effective compressor is normally smaller than a GIF image. Depending on the file and the compressor, PNG may range from somewhat smaller (10%) to significantly smaller (50%) to somewhat larger (5%), but is rarely significantly larger for large images. This is attributed to the performance of PNG's DEFLATE compared to GIF's LZW, and because the added precompression layer of PNG's predictive filters take account of the 2-dimensional image structure to further compress files; as filtered data encodes differences between pixels, they will tend to cluster closer to 0, rather than being spread across all possible values, and thus be more easily compressed by DEFLATE. However, some versions of Adobe Photoshop, CorelDRAW and MS Paint provide poor PNG compression, creating the impression that GIF is more efficient.\n",
"The FAT file system is a legacy file system which is simple and robust. It offers good performance even in very light-weight implementations, but cannot deliver the same performance, reliability and scalability as some modern file systems. It is, however, supported for compatibility reasons by nearly all currently developed operating systems for personal computers and many home computers, mobile devices and embedded systems, and thus is a well suited format for data exchange between computers and devices of almost any type and age from 1981 through the present.\n",
"Being TIFF-based, this format inherits all of the limitations of the TIFF format including the 4 GB file-size limit, which according to the HD Photo specification \"will be addressed in a future update\".\n",
"The mod_deflate module does not have a lower bound for file size, so it attempts to compress files that are too small to benefit from compression. This results in files smaller than approximately 120 bytes becoming larger when processed by mod_deflate.\n",
"This is useful when saving large files onto smaller volumes or breaking large files up into smaller files for network messages of limited size (email, newsgroups). It also allows the creation of parity files such as parity archive (PAR) to verify and restore missing or corrupted package files. Another advantage with this is coping with file size limits on some file systems of removable media, or coping with volume size limits of things like floppy disks.\n"
] |
how do we develop crushes on people?
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Lots of different reasons. Most influential factors include:
- Proximity: You’re more likely to have a crush on someone who you have multiple classes with each day than you are to have a crush on someone who lives across the country.
- Pheromones: Chemical signals, so to speak, that indicate a good genetic match or a person who is ovulating, to name a couple examples (there’s been a study where people use unscented soaps and deodorants and wear the same white t-shirt to bed every night for a week and then different people come to the lab and sniff the shirts to decide which person they find most attractive based on pheromones more or less. Heterosexual men prefer the shirts of women who are ovulating, and also like the smell of shirts worn by homosexual men the least)
- Similar Levels of Attractiveness: This applies a bit more to the kind of person you actually end up in a relationship in as opposed to a crush. But a person tends to pursue people who are about the same level of attractiveness as they themselves are. This way, you protect your ego because you perceive the crush to be less likely to reject you. There are obviously exceptions to this (20 year old women dating wealthy 70 year old men, as an extreme example)
- Admirable Qualities: That person has some sort of qualities that you would like to adopt in yourself or associate with your internal image of your ideal self. A person who is socially awkward and anxious and wishes they weren’t, for example, might have a secret crush on the outgoing, friendly person who strikes up conversations with the people who look like they could use a friend. This has a limitation: our egos come first - we don’t want people who we perceive as being so much better than ourselves that we feel inferior.
- Time: The more time you spend with a person (similar to proximity), the more you start to really pay attention to a person. Think of the experiment where complete strangers stare into each other’s eyes for minutes at a time, and by the end of it, they feel a bit more comfortable with them even if they never exchange words.
There are a looooot more but these are the most commonly observed in lab settings
Source: Psychology of Relationships and Intimacy class in college; also have a degree in psychology.
Edit: Pressed enter between each bullet for better readability
|
[
"Crushes often occur during religious pilgrimages and large entertainment events, as they tend to involve dense crowds, with people closely surrounded on all sides. Human stampedes and crushes also occur in episodes of panic (e.g. in response to a fire or explosion) as people try to get away.\n",
"Crush is a game show which aired on USA Network from March to August 2000. It was hosted by Andrew Krasny and was known as \"The show that begs for an answer to the question, \"Should friends try love?\".\n",
"\"Crush\" is a song by the Dave Matthews Band, released as the third single from their album \"Before These Crowded Streets\". As a single, it reached #11 on the Modern Rock Tracks chart, #75 on the Billboard Hot 100, #38 on the Top 40 Mainstream, and #20 on the Adult Top 40. As the album version is over eight minutes in length, the song time was cut almost in half for radio airplay. \n",
"Crush Injury is damage to structures as a result of crushing. Crush syndrome is a systemic result of rhabdomyolysis and subsequent release of cell contents.. The severity of crush syndrome is dependant on the duration and magnitude of the crush injury as well as the bulk of muscle affected. It can result from both short duration, high magnitude injuries (such as being crushed by a building) or from low magnitude, long duration injuries such as coma or drug induced immobility.\n",
"Crush is a platformer-puzzle video game developed by Kuju Entertainment's Zoë Mode studio and published by Sega in 2007 for the PlayStation Portable. Its protagonist is Danny, a young man suffering from insomnia, who uses an experimental device to explore his mind and discover the cause of his sleeplessness. Each level of the game, representing events from Danny's life and inspired by artists such as Tim Burton and M.C. Escher, requires the player to control Danny as he collects his \"lost marbles\" and other thoughts.\n",
"Among causes of fatal crushes, sometimes described as \"crazes\", is when a large crowd is trying to get \"toward\" something; typically occurring when members at the back of a large crowd continue pushing forward not knowing that those at the front are being crushed, or because of something that forces them to move.\n",
"Crush syndrome (also traumatic rhabdomyolysis or Bywaters' syndrome) is a medical condition characterized by major shock and renal failure after a crushing injury to skeletal muscle. Crush \"injury\" is compression of extremities or other parts of the body that causes muscle swelling and/or neurological disturbances in the affected areas of the body, while crush \"syndrome\" is localized crush injury with systemic manifestations. Cases occur commonly in catastrophes such as earthquakes, to victims that have been trapped under fallen or moving masonry.\n"
] |
why charities with similar goals don't merge to become more effective?
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Merging companies (and yes, non-profits are companies) requires a lot of work. First, just because two companies do the same thing does not mean that they could merge easily. What if one is a Catholic charity, and the other is non-religious? Is the new charity religious or not? Which of the two Presidents is going to be in charge? Are you going to fire a bunch of staff? If not, how is it more efficient to have 1 big company with twice as many workers?
Companies merge when it makes some financial sense. Since non-profits are not in it to maximize value, they don't have to worry about being the biggest and best.
|
[
"In 2013 Ken Stern's book \"With Charity for All: Why Charities are Failing and a Better Way to Give\" was published by Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. His book discusses the problems in the not for profit charity sector, and appeals to donors for more evaluation and consideration in their decision making, in order to provide support for upcoming best of class charities, so that these organizations may survive and flourish in a sector controlled by large, traditional charities with less than optimal performance. He points out that although this sector accounts for a fast-growing ten percent of U.S. economic activity with over one trillion dollars in yearly donations, it has very little transparency, accountability, or oversight. He was interviewed with a focus on his book by Ken Berger, CEO of Charity Navigator. The interview was televised on CSPAN's BookTV series \"Afterwords\" in March, 2013.\n",
"Although there are many differences between charitable for-profit entities and traditional charities, they do hold some similarities that can be said to be quite major. Both will have a strong vision in what they want from the business overall. Both will therefore have similar strategic plans in order to get the best out of the business regardless of their aims and objectives being different to an extent. For-profit entities and non-profit charities will both strive to meet their objectives that are laid out on their mission statements. They are both given limited funds, so will therefore have to aim to meet their goals with the funds provided.\n",
"In 1996, the \"Chronicle of Philanthropy\", an industry magazine, released the results of the largest study of charitable and non-profit organization popularity and credibility. The study showed that ARC was ranked as the third \"most popular charity/non-profit in America\" of over 100 charities researched with 48% of Americans over the age of 12 choosing \"Love\", and \"Like A lot\" to describe the Red Cross.\n",
"In 1994, \"The Chronicle of Philanthropy\" released the results of the largest study of charitable and non-profit organization popularity and credibility. The study showed that MADD was ranked as the \"most popular charity/non-profit in America of over 100 charities researched with 51% of Americans over the age of 12 choosing 'Love' and 'Like A Lot' for MADD\".\n",
"Face-to-face fundraising, which includes street and door-to-door fundraising, has in recent years become a major source of income for many charities around the world. The reason the technique is so popular is that charities usually get a very profitable return on their investment (often around 3:1) because the person is asked to donate on a regular basis. By securing long term donations, charities are able to plan future campaigns in the knowledge that they have a guaranteed amount of money to work with.\n",
"In 1994, the \"Chronicle of Philanthropy\", an industry publication, released the results of the largest study of charitable and non-profit organization popularity and credibility. The study showed that the American Heart Association was ranked as the 5th \"most popular charity/non-profit in America\" of over 100 charities researched with 95% of Americans over the age of 12 choosing \"Love\" and \"Like A lot\" description category.\n",
"Fundraising is a significant way that non-profit organizations may obtain the money for their operations. These operations can involve a very broad array of concerns such as religious or philanthropic groups such as research organizations, public broadcasters, political campaigns and environmental issues.\n"
] |
why are endorphins not used as the ultimate drug?
|
Endorphins can't cross the blood-brain barrier. Injecting or injesting them won't actually do anything, because they won't get to the receptors on which they exert their "feel-good" effect.
|
[
"Endorphins (contracted from \"endogenous morphine\") are endogenous opioid neuropeptides and peptide hormones in humans and other animals. They are produced by the central nervous system and the pituitary gland. The term \"endorphins\" implies a pharmacological activity (analogous to the activity of the corticosteroid category of biochemicals) as opposed to a specific chemical formulation. It consists of two parts: \"endo-\" and \"-orphin\"; these are short forms of the words \"endogenous\" and \"morphine\", intended to mean \"a morphine-like substance originating from within the body\". The class of endorphins includes three compounds—α-endorphin (alpha endorphins), β-endorphin (beta endorphins), and γ-endorphin (gamma endorphins)—which preferentially bind to μ-opioid receptors. The principal function of endorphins is to inhibit the communication of pain signals; they may also produce a feeling of euphoria very similar to that produced by other opioids.\n",
"Endorphins are substances produced by the brain as a result of various things including sexual arousal, physical exercise, strong pain, laughter, etc. They cause pleasurable sensations and are somewhat addictive; drugs like morphine attach to the same receptors as endorphins. However, endorphins do not fit Reisman's definition of erototoxins, as many things cause them to be released, not only pornography.\n",
"It has been used in movies and video games such as Troy, Poseidon and Tekken 5. As of 2014, Endorphin is no longer supported by NaturalMotion. The software is unavailable for purchase, and the user community has been removed from the company's website.\n",
"\"Endorphins\" is the fourth single by British DJ and record producer Sub Focus, released from his second studio album \"Torus\". The song features vocals from British singer Alex Clare. The song has reached number 10 on the UK Singles Chart and number seven on the UK Dance Chart.\n",
"β-Endorphin is an agonist of the opioid receptors; it preferentially binds to the μ-opioid receptor. Evidence suggests that it serves as a primary endogenous ligand for the μ-opioid receptor, the same receptor to which the chemicals extracted from opium, such as morphine, derive their analgesic properties. β-Endorphin has the highest binding affinity of any endogenous opioid for the μ-opioid receptor. Opioid receptors are a class of G-protein coupled receptors, such that when β-endorphin or another opioid binds, a signaling cascade is induced in the cell. Acytelation of the N-terminus of β-endorphin, however, inactivates the neuropeptide, preventing it from binding to its receptor. The opioid receptors are distributed throughout the central nervous system and within the peripheral tissue of neural and non-neural origin. They are also located in high concentrations in the Periaqueductal gray, Locus coeruleus, and the Rostral ventromedial medulla.\n",
"Diprenorphine is the strongest opioid antagonist that is commercially available (some 100 times more potent as an antagonist than nalorphine), and is used for reversing the effects of very strong opioids for which the binding affinity is so high that naloxone does not effectively or reliably reverse the narcotic effects. These super-potent opioids, with the single exception of buprenorphine (which has an improved safety-profile due to its partial agonism character), are not used in humans because the dose for a human is so small that it would be difficult to measure properly , so there is an excessive risk of overdose leading to fatal respiratory depression. However conventional opioid derivatives are not strong enough to rapidly tranquilize large animals, like elephants and rhinos, so drugs such as etorphine and carfentanil are available for this purpose.\n",
"Endorphins play a major role in the body's response to inhibiting pain but endorphins have also been looked at for their role in pleasure. There has been a lot of research in the euphoric state that is produced after the release of endorphins in cases such as runner's high, orgasms, and eating appetizing food. Endorphins have also been looked into as a way to aid in the treatment of anxiety and depression through exercising.\n"
] |
if pre-election polling is mostly done by phone interviews via landline, and the number of landlines is declining among most demographic groups, why are they still fairly accurate?
|
It is not accurate that "... poling is mostly done by phone interviews via landline". Actual polling companies call cellphones and have non-phone ways of reaching people. "Polls" limited to landlines are badly disguised political activism.
|
[
"This issue was first identified in 2004, but came to prominence only during the 2008 US presidential election. In previous elections, the proportion of the general population using cell phones was small, but as this proportion has increased, there is concern that polling only landlines is no longer representative of the general population. In 2003, only 2.9% of households were wireless (cellphones only), compared to 12.8% in 2006. This results in \"coverage error\". Many polling organisations select their sample by dialling random telephone numbers; however, in 2008, there was a clear tendency for polls which included mobile phones in their samples to show a much larger lead for Obama, than polls that did not.\n",
"Delays at polling places are widely regarded as being a greater problem in urban areas. In 2012, polling places in minority neighborhoods in Maryland, South Carolina, and Florida were systematically deprived of the resources they needed to operate effectively, leading to long lines on election day.\n",
"Polling organizations have developed many weighting techniques to help overcome these deficiencies, with varying degrees of success. Studies of mobile phone users by the Pew Research Center in the US, in 2007, concluded that \"cell-only respondents are different from landline respondents in important ways, (but) they were neither numerous enough nor different enough on the questions we examined to produce a significant change in overall general population survey estimates when included with the landline samples and weighted according to US Census parameters on basic demographic characteristics.\" \n",
"There were 828,804 Polling Stations around the country – a 20% increase over the number from the 2004 election. This was done mainly to avoid vulnerability to threat and intimidation, to overcome geographical barriers and to reduce the distance travelled by voters.\n",
"The former director of Newspoll, Martin O'Shannessy, cited changes in demographics and telephone habits which have changed the nature of polling from calling random samples of landlines to calling random mobile numbers and automated \"robocalls\"—with the ensuing drop in response rates resulting in lower quality data due to smaller samples and bias in the sample due to who chooses to respond.\n",
"This is a list of notable polling organizations by country. All the major television networks, alone or in conjunction with the largest newspapers or magazines, in virtually every country with elections, operate their own versions of polling operations, in collaboration or independently through various applications.\n",
"On November 8, the Rasmussen Reports daily presidential tracking poll analysis said \"The 2012 election was very likely the last presidential election of the telephone polling era. While the industry did an excellent job of projecting the results, entirely new techniques will need to be developed before 2016. The central issue is that phone polling worked for decades because that was how people communicated. In the 21st century, that is no longer true.\"\n"
] |
What makes meth labs so dangerous?
|
because they're attempting to replicate processes that are normally carried out in a _URL_2_, but without the design of engineers, construction with appropriate materials or operation by trained experts. Instead they're copying instructions from the internet or passed down orally, using whatever is cheapest and available and running the processes without necessarily understanding the details, especially the energies, of the reactions.
I'm not interested in looking up the specific synthetic steps involved, but I expect at least a few of them are exothermic, meaning that when that reaction happens, one of the products is heat. If that reaction happens faster than expected, then you get lots of heat, all at once, and if that happens in a liquid solution like water, the liquid turns to gas, and expands violently, as in _URL_1_
There's nothing intrinsically dangerous about making meth, or any other pharmaceutical, but some of the reactions can be quite dangerous, even putting aside the potential for violently energetic reactions. One scary example: _URL_0_
|
[
"Although the prevalence of domestic meth labs continues to be high in western states, they have spread throughout the United States. It has been suggested that \"do-it-yourself\" meth production in rural areas is reflective of a broader DIY approach that includes activities such as hunting, fishing, and fixing one’s cars, trucks, equipment, and house. Toxic chemicals resulting from methamphetamine production may be hoarded or clandestinely dumped, damaging land, water, plant life and wild life, and posing a risk to humans. Waste from methamphetamine labs is frequently dumped on federal, public, and tribal lands. The chemicals involved can explode and clandestine chemistry has been implicated in both house and wild land fires.\n",
"The process of synthesizing methamphetamine (also known as \"cooking\") can be dangerous as it involves poisonous, flammable, and explosive chemicals. When the lab is mobile, it presents a risk to wherever it happens to be, as demonstrated in November 2001, a rolling meth lab that was carrying anhydrous ammonia exploded on Interstate 24 in southwest Kentucky, prompting law enforcement to shut down the highway. Such incidents have not only injured the meth producers, but have injured passing motorists and police officers, who are also exposed to dangerous fumes.\n",
"The region has also been noted as a center of methamphetamine drug production. The Riverside and San Bernardino county sheriffs' departments busted 635 meth labs in 2000; law enforcement has driven most of the meth production industry to Mexico since 2007, but many of the homes discovered to have been used as meth labs before 2006 have since been sold on the market before California law required rigorous decontamination, leading to a legacy of health hazards for unsuspecting renters and home-buyers in the area.\n",
"Short-term exposure to high concentrations of chemical vapors that exist in black-market methamphetamine laboratories can cause severe health problems and death. Exposure to these substances can occur from volatile air emissions, spills, fires, and explosions. Such methamphetamine labs are sometimes discovered when emergency personnel respond to fires due to improper handling of volatile or flammable materials. Single-pot \"shake and bake\" syntheses are particularly prone to explode and ignite, and, when abandoned, still pose a severe hazard to firefighters.\n",
"Methamphetamine cooks, their families, and first responders are at high risk of experiencing acute health effects from chemical exposure, including lung damage and chemical burns to the body. After the seizure of a methamphetamine lab, a low exposure risk to chemical residues often exists, but this contamination can be sanitized. Chemical residues and lab wastes that are left behind at a former methamphetamine lab can cause severe health problems for people who use the property.\n",
"Meth lab waste is toxic and extremely hazardous, making cleanup a major problem for authorities and property owners. Common wastes include brake cleaner, ammonia, soda bottles, cat litter, lithium batteries, engine starter, matches and pseudoephedrine blister packs.\n",
"Much of the methamphetamine consumed in the US is manufactured domestically by amateur chemists in meth labs from common household drugs and chemicals such as lye, lithium, and ammonia. Since the passage of the Combat Methamphetamine Epidemic Act of 2005, the Drug Enforcement Administration has reported a sharp decline in domestic meth lab seizures, but drug cartels continue to meet demand by manufacturing meth in Mexico and smuggling it across the border. In 2012, the DEA seized a total of 3,898 kg of methamphetamine and 11,210 meth labs. , the Sinaloa Cartel is the most active drug cartel involved in smuggling illicit drugs like methamphetamine into the United States and trafficking them throughout the United States.\n"
] |
What is the affect of aging on sex cells in humans, and how is DNA preserved to pass on to offspring?
|
The [germ cell line](_URL_2_) is separated from the rest of the developing organism early in development, and is kept in a state of minimal cell division and protection from metabolic damage. There is still degradation of the genetic material in [males](_URL_1_) and [females](_URL_0_), but it doesn't become an issue until past the age of 40.
|
[
"Cells of affected individuals have reduced lifespan in culture, more chromosome breaks and translocations and extensive deletions. These DNA damages, chromosome aberrations and mutations may in turn cause more RecQ-independent aging phenotypes.\n",
"However, in the presence of a fairly stable environment, individuals surviving to reproductive age have genomes that function well in their current environment. They raise the question of why such individuals should risk shuffling their genes with those of another individual, as occurs during meiotic recombination? Considerations such as this have led many investigators to question whether genetic diversity is the adaptive advantage of sex.\n",
"Crow also did research and writing in how DNA in sperm degrades as men age, through repeated copying, and can then be passed along to children in permanently degraded form, which they likely then pass on as well. As a result, he said in 1997 that the \"greatest mutational health hazard to the human genome is fertile older males\". He described mutations that have a direct visible effect on the child's health and also mutations that can be latent or have minor visible effects on the child's health; many such mutations allow the child to reproduce, but cause more serious problems for grandchildren, great-grandchildren and later generations However, evidence to support Crow's \"greatest mutational health hazard\" claim appears to be weak; a 2009 review concludes that the absolute risk from paternal age for genetic anomalies in offspring is low, and states that \"there is no clear association between adverse health outcome and paternal age but longitudinal studies are needed.\"\n",
"Common inherited variants in genes that encode enzymes employed in DNA mismatch repair are associated with increased risk of sperm DNA damage and male infertility. As men age there is a consistent decline in semen quality, and this decline appears to be due to DNA damage. The damage manifests by DNA fragmentation and by the increased susceptibility to denaturation upon exposure to heat or acid, the features characteristic of apoptosis of somatic cells. These findings suggest that DNA damage is an important factor in male infertility.\n",
"In the asexual fission phase of growth, during which cell divisions occur by mitosis rather than meiosis, clonal aging occurs leading to a gradual loss of vitality. In some species, such as the well studied \"Paramecium tetraurelia\", the asexual line of clonally aging paramecia loses vitality and expires after about 200 fissions if the cells fail to undergo meiosis followed by either autogamy (self-fertilizaion) or conjugation (outcrossing) (see aging in \"Paramecium\"). DNA damage increases dramatically during successive clonal cell divisions and is a likely cause of clonal aging in \"P. tetraurelia\".\n",
"Male reproductive function declines with increasing age as indicated by decreased sperm quality and fertility. As rats age, undifferentiated spermatogonial cells undergo numerous changes in gene expression. These changes include upregulation of several genes involved in the DNA damage response. This finding suggests that during aging there is an increase in DNA damage leading to an upregulation of DNA damage response proteins to help repair these damages. Thus it appears that reproductive aging originates in undifferentiated spermatogenic cells.\n",
"The production of sperm cells involves DNA methylation, an epigenetic process that regulates the expression of genes. Improper genomic imprinting and other errors sometimes occur during this process, which can affect the expression of genes related to certain disorders, increasing the offspring's susceptibility. The frequency of these errors appears to increase with age. This could explain the association between paternal age and schizophrenia.\n"
] |
Can anyone identify the markings on this rock in my front yard? (Buffalo, NY)
|
You'll probably get more help over at /r/whatisthisthing, the appropriate subreddit for these kinds of questions.
|
[
"In the southwest corner lies a rock called \"The Goldstone\". Legend has it that the devil threw the approximately 20 ton rock there while excavating Devil's Dyke. Towards the north is a sculpture by the environmental artist Chris Drury; \"Fingermaze\" is a labyrinth-like design based on a fingerprint, consisting of stones set into the turf.\n",
"The design on the rocks are clearly American Indian, despite unfounded speculation attributing the origins of the “mysterious carvings” to Vikings, Chinese, or others. Similar rock art sites are found in Roche Percee and Kamsack, Saskatchewan; Longview and Writing-on-Stone Provincial Park, Alberta; Pictograph Cave near Billings, Montana; Dinwoody, Wyoming; Ludlow Cave, South Dakota; and at numerous archeological sites in the upper midwestern United States. Thunderbirds, mythological creatures responsible for lightning and thunder, are central to stories told by Algonquian and Siouan-speaking tribes. Many Plains Indians such as Plains Cree, Plains Ojibwa, Gros Ventre, Crow, Dakota (Sioux) Mandan, and Hidatsa used thunderbirds in their art. \n",
"Red Rock is a rock formation in southwestern Wyoming that was used by travelers on the Overland Trail to record signature inscriptions from passersby. The wind-smoothed red rock stands about high and has a circumference of about . The sandstone formation records signatures dating to at least the 1850s. The signatures on the upwind side of the rock have weathered to faint traces. The rock is on privately owned land.\n",
"The name \"Indian Head Rock\" comes from a carving on the bottom of the boulder with the features of a human face. It has been theorized that the face was carved by a Native American artist as a petroglyph, a boatman as a river gauge, or was carved by John Book from Portsmouth, Ohio who later fought in the Battle of Shiloh. Other theories include that a band of robbers used it to mark their nearby stash and that a quarryman carved the face with a metal device.\n",
"In 1894, a rough illustration of the Indian Head Rock appeared in a Portsmouth newspaper. In the sketch, initials, last names with first initials, and a crude house figure are seen. All of these features are extant on the boulder, but many are now obscured by additional engravings which may not have been present at the time. The rock is depicted several feet from the Kentucky shoreline with the bottom submerged. The \"Indian Head\" face is depicted just below the waterline, but it is clear the illustrator had not seen the actual face, as it is drawn as a profile. Some of the names shown on the rock are identified with historically prominent Portsmouth residents or families, e.g., F. Kinney, C. Molster and D. Ford.\n",
"The first known reference to the Indian Head Rock was to its use as a gauge of the Ohio River. A log kept by a local resident recorded the river stage with reference to various points on the rock: the mouth or the eyes of the carving or the top of the rock. (E.g., \"1849--Sept. 23, top of rock 2 1/2 inches under water\", \"1851--Sept 27, eyes to be seen--the lowest measure on record from 1839 to this date.\", and \"1854--Sept. 5, mouth just on the water-line--therefore lower than since 1839.\") The first record in the log was dated November 10, 1839, when the mouth of the figure was said to be \"10 1/4 inches out of the water.\"\n",
"Inscription Rock was discovered partially buried in the sand of the lake shore in 1833 and by 1915, it was appearing on postcards for tourists in the area and is still a well-visited site to this day. In 1851 Col. Eastman of the United States Army was commissioned to analyze and create detailed drawings of the rock and petroglyphs. He then submitted copies to Shingvauk, a Native American with a knowledge of pictography, for further interpretation. There are over 100 images on the rock and the carvings were noted to be similar to ones used by the Iroquois in Canada. Due to the soft nature of the limestone rock in the area, the carvings are generally believed to be less than 1,000 years old but the Inscription Rock remains one of the most significant and accessible examples of native petroglyphs in the area. Due to its proximity to the Lake Erie shoreline, it is under constant threat of further erosion by wind and wave activity.\n"
] |
how did the golden eye disk hold a full game and an emulator with 10 games only on 12mb?
|
It is a game contained in a ROM and the emulator is what allows you to play access the ROM. There is not as much data as you think.
|
[
"The consoles have 76 built-in games, although marketing frequently claims to have more than 1,000 ways of playing them. Hence, the game count of 76,000 is listed as a gold sticker on the box. Most of the included games had been originally released for the NES or Famicom, but some have been created by the manufacturer. Most of the games have had their title screen graphics removed to save space on the ROM chip.\n",
"On November 26, 1993, Capcom released an X68000 port of \"Champion Edition\" exclusively in Japan, which consisted of four floppy disks. The port is almost identical to the arcade version, with the same exact graphics and almost identical soundtrack. However, the X68000 version forces player to switch floppy disks when loading different stages and characters (it is possible to avoid this by installing the game to the system's hard drive if the computer has more than 6 Megabytes). The game also included a joystick adapter that allowed players to use the Super Famicom and Mega Drive versions of Capcom's CPS Fighter joystick controller. On an X68030 with multiple PCM (pulse-code modulation) drivers installed, the music and voice quality can match that of the arcade version's ADPCM sound system.\n",
"Early Atari 2600 cartridges contained 2 kilobytes of read-only storage. This limit grew steadily from 1978 to 1983: up to 16 kilobytes for Atari 5200 cartridges. \"Bank switching\", a technique that allowed two different parts of the program to use the same memory addresses, was required for the larger cartridges to work. The Atari 2600 cartridges got as large as 32 kilobytes through this technique. The Atari 2600 had only 128 bytes of RAM available in the console. A few late game cartridges contained a combined RAM/ROM chip, thus adding another 256 bytes of RAM inside the cartridge itself. The Atari standard joystick was a digital controller with a single fire button released in 1977. The port of the Atari joystick was the de facto standard digital joystick specification for many years.\n",
"5.25-inch floppy disk drive called D40 was introduced in 1992 and featured a \"Snapshot\" (see also Hibernation (computing)) button that allowed to store current content of the memory (memory image) on diskette. It was also possible later to load the memory image and continue playing the game (or whatever was stored) from the respective state.\n",
"The NES contains 2 kB of onboard work RAM. A game cartridge may contain expanded RAM to increase this amount. The sizes of NES games vary from 8 kB (\"Galaxian\") to 1 MB (\"Metal Slader Glory\"), but 128 to 384 kB is the most common.\n",
"The entire game uses only 97,280 bytes of disk space. In contrast, most contemporaneous first-person shooters filled one or more CDs or DVDs. According to the developers, \".kkrieger\" itself would take up around 200–300 MB of space if it had been stored the conventional way.\n",
"The Wide-Boy64 was released for the N64 in two major versions, the CGB version which allowed Game Boy and Game Boy Color titles to be played on a television, and the AGB version which also allowed Game Boy Advance games to be played. It cost $1400, and like the original Wide Boy, it was only available to developers and the gaming press. These devices were used to take screenshots of Nintendo handheld video games to be in retail media.\n"
] |
how do the big torrent uploaders like yify, eztv, etc, not get caught?
|
There can be many reasons:
- hiding behind a VPN or TOR or another proxy, or all of those; remember that there still are countries where piracy is not regulated by law
- initial seeding from a remote server
- actually living in a country with no laws against piracy
- all of the above
I also doubt that they are *that* heavily hunted for. The authorities have much bigger Internet problems like hacking, fraud, drug trade.
|
[
"Torrents-Time is a browser plugin that allows websites to have the same functionality as the popular Popcorn Time program, without requiring the client to download an application. Released 2 February 2016, sites such as The Pirate Bay and the now defunct KickassTorrents others supported the plugin within days, allowing for in-browser streaming of popular videos. Only two weeks into its history it was attacked by anti-piracy groups on a number of grounds. The security of the plugin has been questioned, especially its reliance on cross-origin resource sharing and parts of its javascript implementation which could end up compromising a target computer and stealing information about the source. However, the Torrents-Time team claims these fears are exaggerations and based \"half-truths\".\n",
"Private torrent trackers are usually invitation only, and require members to participate in uploading, but have the downside of a single centralized point of failure. Oink's Pink Palace and What.cd are examples of private trackers which have been shut down.\n",
"However, on most BitTorrent tracker sites, the term \"leecher\" is used for all users who are not seeders (which means they do not have the complete file yet). As BitTorrent clients usually begin to upload files almost as soon as they have started to download them, such users are usually not freeloaders (people who don't upload data at all to the swarm). Therefore, this kind of leeching is considered to be a legitimate practice. Reaching an upload/download ratio of 1:1 (meaning that the user has uploaded as much as they downloaded) in a BitTorrent client is considered a minimum in the etiquette of that network. In the terminology of these BitTorrent sites, a leech becomes a seeder (a provider of the file) when they finished downloading and continues to run the client. They will remain a seeder until the file is removed or destroyed (settings enable the torrent to stop seeding at a certain share ratio, or after X hours have passed seeding).\n",
"Home servers are ideal for utilizing the BitTorrent protocol for downloading and seeding files as some torrents can take days, or even weeks to complete and perform better on an uninterrupted connection. There are many text based clients such as rTorrent and web-based ones such as TorrentFlux and Tonido available for this purpose. BitTorrent also makes it easier for those with limited bandwidth to distribute large files over the Internet.\n",
"There are several reasons why content providers and copyright holders may not choose torrent poisoning as a method for guarding their content. First, before injecting decoys, content providers have to normally monitor the BitTorrent network for signs that their content is being illegally shared (this includes watching for variations of files and files in compressed formats).\n",
"Today most warez files are distributed to the public via bittorrent and One-click hosting sites. Some of the most popular software companies that are being targeted are Adobe, Microsoft, Nero, Apple, DreamWorks, and Autodesk, to name a few. To reduce the spread of illegal copying, some companies have hired people to release \"fake\" torrents (known as Torrent poisoning), which look real and are meant to be downloaded, but while downloading the individual does not realize that the company that owns the software has received his/her IP address. They will then contact his/her ISP, and further legal action may be taken by the company/ISP.\n",
"The BitTorrent client enables a user to search for and download torrent files using a built-in search box (\"Search for torrents\") in the main window, which opens the BitTorrent torrent search engine page with the search results in the user's default web browser.\n"
] |
what is the difference between "_url_1_" and "_url_0_"? i know that they are one and the same, but in general i want to understand how the domain name works.
|
_URL_0_ is what is called a subdomain. _URL_1_ is called a subdirectory. Pretty much the same on the server side except that a subdirectory is within a domain's directory while a subdomain is outside a domain's directory, yet has its address response to the initial domain. The reason that those particular two respond to the same place is that both addresses go to the same server location.
resource: I work in websites and hosting.
|
[
"As a rule, names in a namespace cannot have more than one meaning; that is, different meanings cannot share the same name in the same namespace. A namespace is also called a context, because the same name in different namespaces can have different meanings, each one appropriate for its namespace.\n",
"The second level domain names are registered directly with user defined names, such as company names. There are no standardized category names (such as com or org) used on the second level. The second level domain names are intended to have Cyrillic characters only, but some have Latin characters or digits instead. For the third level names, it is fairly common that \"www\" (Latin characters) are used, but most main company addresses don't use any third level name.\n",
"In XML, a namespace is an abstract domain to which a collection of element and attribute names can be assigned. The namespace name is a character string which must adhere to the generic URI syntax. However, the name is generally not considered to be a URI, because the URI specification bases the decision not only on lexical components, but also on their intended use. A namespace name does not necessarily imply any of the semantics of URI schemes; for example, a namespace name beginning with \"http:\" may have no connotation to the use of the HTTP.\n",
"A domain name consists of one or more labels, each of which is formed from the set of ASCII letters, digits, and hyphens (a-z, A-Z, 0-9, -), but not starting or ending with a hyphen. The labels are case-insensitive; for example, 'label' is equivalent to 'Label' or 'LABEL'. In the textual representation of a domain name, the labels are separated by a full stop (period).\n",
"A domain name is an identification string that defines a realm of administrative autonomy, authority or control within the Internet. Domain names are used in various networking contexts and for application-specific naming and addressing purposes. In general, a domain name identifies a network domain, or it represents an Internet Protocol (IP) resource, such as a personal computer used to access the Internet, a server computer hosting a web site, or the web site itself or any other service communicated via the Internet. In 2017, 330.6 million domain names had been registered.\n",
"The domain name is a generic top-level domain (gTLD) in the Domain Name System of the Internet. It is intended for use by individuals for representation of their personal name, nicknames, screen names, pseudonyms, or other types of identification labels.\n",
"Many people choose a domain name like \"FirstnameLastname.com\" to host their personal website on (e.g., patxhosa.com), whereas outside the English-speaking world, the home country's top level domain (TLD) is commonly used. People with common names may choose to add their middle name or initial in the URL if the primary choice of domain name is already in use. For example, a woman named \"Jane Doe\" will probably find that \"janedoe.com\" is already taken, so she may have to use a variant of her name, such as adding in a number (\"janedoe1.com\"), a birth year (\"janedoe1980.com\") or a middle initial (\"janeqdoe.com\"). The .name TLD is specifically intended to be used for personal web pages, but has not proven to be popular. Personal websites may instead use other generic TLDs like .me, .co, .net and .info, but also .com, .biz and .org, even though individuals rarely think of themselves as companies or (non-profit) organizations. Some people opt to find a TLD that forms a word when combined with the domain name; this is known as domain hacking.\n"
] |
what exactly happened to gandalf after the snafu at moria?
|
He slays the beast. He dies. While dead, he does things in the afterlife which he never talks about. He is reborn as the white, for I imagine his bravery, valor, and just doing the right thing.
He then gets taken away by the eagle, taken somewhere where he gives advice, and such, I believe it was to the cliff of the birds.
|
[
"After a long fall, Gandalf and the Balrog crashed into a deep subterranean lake in Moria's underworld. Gandalf pursued the Balrog through the tunnels for eight days until they climbed to the peak of Zirakzigil. Here they fought for two days and nights. In the end, the Balrog was defeated and cast down onto the mountainside. Gandalf himself died shortly afterwards, and his body lay on the peak while his spirit travelled \"out of thought and time\".\n",
"After his defeat, Saruman was confronted by Théoden King of Rohan, Gandalf and Aragorn, at which time Gríma Wormtongue, Saruman's servant, threw the \"palantír\" at the group in an attempt to kill them or possibly Gandalf. Saruman was then locked in Orthanc and guarded by Treebeard, but was later set free, turning the tower's keys over to Treebeard before leaving and taking Gríma with him. Treebeard's main reason for letting Saruman go was that he could not bear to see any living thing caged. Saruman exploited this weakness, most likely using his power with words.\n",
"Gandalf was eventually \"sent back\" as Gandalf the White, and returned to life on the mountain top. Gwaihir, lord of eagles, carried him to Lórien, where he was healed of his injuries and re-clothed in white robes by Galadriel. He travelled to Fangorn Forest, where he encountered Aragorn, Gimli, and Legolas (who were tracking Merry and Pippin). They mistook him for Saruman, but he stopped their attacks and revealed himself.\n",
"Gandalf explains that he slew the Balrog. Darkness took him, but he was sent back to Middle-earth to complete his mission. He is clothed in white and is now Gandalf the White, for he has taken Saruman's place as the chief of the wizards. Gandalf assures his friends that Merry and Pippin are safe. Together they ride to Edoras, capital of Rohan. Gandalf frees Théoden, King of Rohan, from the influence of Saruman's spy Gríma Wormtongue. Théoden musters his fighting strength and rides with his men to the ancient fortress of Helm's Deep, while Gandalf departs to seek help from Treebeard.\n",
"Gandalf arrived in time to help order the defences of Minas Tirith. His presence was resented by Denethor, the Steward of Gondor; but after Denethor's son Faramir was gravely wounded in battle, Denethor sank into despair and madness. Together with Prince Imrahil of Dol Amroth, Gandalf led the defenders during the siege of the city. When the forces of Mordor finally broke the main gate, Gandalf alone on Shadowfax confronted the Witch-king of Angmar, Lord of the Nazgûl. But at that moment the Rohirrim arrived, compelling the Witch-king to withdraw and engage them. Gandalf would have ridden to their aid, but he too was suddenly required elsewhere—to save Faramir from Denethor, who sought in desperation to burn himself and his son on a funeral pyre in Rath Dínen.\n",
"Gandalf, Aragorn and the other Captains of the West lead an army to the Black Gate of Mordor and lay siege to Sauron's army. In a parley before the battle, the Mouth of Sauron, a messenger from the Black Gate, displays Frodo's \"mithril\" shirt, his elven-cloak and Sam's barrow-blade and then demands the surrender of the Captains and their obeisance to Sauron as conditions for Frodo's release. Despite the shock of seeing the objects and the complete loss of hope, Gandalf perceives that the emissary is lying, seizes the items, and rejects the terms. The battle begins and Pippin kills a Troll, which then falls onto him, and he loses consciousness just as the Great Eagles arrive.\n",
"Gandalf and the entire company then go to Orthanc. Théoden rejects Saruman's offer of peace despite the wizard's cunning words. Gandalf then offers Saruman a chance to repent, but Saruman is too proud and refuses. So Gandalf casts Saruman out of the Order of Wizards and the White Council and breaks his staff. Gríma throws something from a window at Gandalf but misses, and it is picked up by Pippin. Gandalf quickly takes it from Pippin. This object turns out to be one of the \"palantíri\" (seeing-stones). Pippin, unable to resist the urge, looks into it and encounters the Eye of Sauron, but emerges unscathed from the ordeal. Gandalf then realizes at last the link between Isengard and Mordor and how Saruman fell at last into evil. By looking into the \"palantír\", Saruman became ensnared by the Dark Lord and made to do Sauron's bidding. Gandalf then gives the \"palantír\" to Aragorn. \n"
] |
Did ancient Israel abolish or prohibit slaveowning in any way after the Exodus from Egypt? Was it socially frowned upon to own slaves?
|
EDIT: Just to be clear, not a historian, but I’ve been reading this book for the past ten years, I think I know a little bit about it.
The Law actually says a lot about slaves and servants and how you were to treat them. How well they followed it or if they followed it all is questionable whether you believe the Bible (That’s a heavy theme of the Old Testament) or not but we can look at what they thought they were supposed to do.
Among fellow Israelites the law was explicit about keeping one another out of poverty, helping the poor, forgiving debts Ect. But not everyone cooperates. So if you could not afford to pay a debt, pay for your land, pay for a dowry, or if you couldn’t even take care of yourself, you could sell yourself, or your children and become a servant.
But this was not permanent. The law gave you two outs. You could work for seven years then you were free to go. If you married while in service and had kids, the owner kept those. And if you were Female, you had to marry into the family, if you could. But other then that, you were free. You could even go back to your own land or your husbands land if you were working off a Dowry.
Interesting though if you didn’t want to leave, you could become an Indentured servant, from Exodus 25.
“But if the servant declares, ‘I love my master and my wife and children and do not want to go free,’ then his master must take him before the judges. He shall take him to the door or the doorpost and pierce his ear with an awl. Then he will be his servant for life.“
Basically if you treated your slaves well, they could stay on and become basically a family member. It’s was a good incentive to be nice to slaves.
(And there were laws in place to prevent people from like forcing slaves into indentured servitude without consent but that’s another story)
The other way to be free was called the year of Jubilee. The idea was that every fifty years, all debts just stopped. If you sold land to someone, you got it back. If you owed someone money, you were covered. And if you were a Israelite slave, you were free. Period. And as cool as it sounds (If completely unpractical for a more advanced civilization) I can say for certainly, I doubt this was ever observed due to Ocupation and quarreling before the exile. And afterwards, land was fairly scarce.
Foreigners weren’t quite as lucky. If someone came to live in your land peacefully, you weren’t allowed to enslave them. The law said that you should incorporate Foreigners into your land and basically make them Israelites. People you were fighting though were fair game. Though most of the time, the law said kill everyone and take none for slaves. Like the invasion of the promised land, and they didn’t want the natives to breed with the Israelites so they didn’t turn to idols. The Old Testament acknowledges this didn’t happen basically at all. And Foreign slaves were not under the seven years rule, I don’t believe. Luckly the law was pretty lax about becoming an Israelites. Basically be circumcised and respect Passover. So a foreign slave could become an Israelite and become free by extension.
Treatment of slaves was pretty good according to the law. You were to respect slaves as people, feed and give them space, and refrain from sexual relations. Indetured servants were to be treated as family. And punishment for mistreating slaves ran from heavty fines to freedom for the slave.
I’ve been mostly pulling from Leviticus, Exodus, Joshua, and the all important, Spurgeon’s commentaries.
|
[
"In the continuation of the reading, Moses taught that if a slave sought refuge with the Israelites, the Israelites were not to turn the slave over to the slave's master, but were to let the former slave live in any place the former slave might choose and not ill-treat the former slave. A closed portion (, \"setumah\") ends here.\n",
"It is apparent that Jews still owned Jewish slaves in the Talmudic era because Talmudic authorities tried to denounce the practice that Jews could sell themselves into slavery if they were poverty-stricken. In particular, the Talmud said that Jews should not sell themselves to non-Jews, and if they did, the Jewish community was urged to ransom or redeem the slave.\n",
"Much of the research conducted on Egyptian enslavement has focused on the issue of payment to slaves. Masters did not commonly pay their slaves a regular wage for their service or loyalty. The slaves worked so that they could either enter Egypt and hope for a better life, receive compensation of living quarters and food, or be granted admittance to work in the Beyond. Although slaves were not “free” or rightfully independent, slaves in the New Kingdom were able to leave their master if they had a “justifiable grievance”. Historians have read documents about situations where this could be a possibility but it is still uncertain if independence from slavery was attainable.\n",
"The Talmudic laws required Jewish slave owners to try to convert non-Jewish slaves to Judaism. Other laws required slaves, if not converted, to be circumcised and undergo ritual immersion in a bath (\"mikveh\"). A 4th century Roman law prevented the circumcision of non-Jewish slaves, so the practice may have declined at that time, but increased again after the 10th century. Jewish slave owners were not permitted to drink wine that had been touched by an uncircumcised person so there was always a practical need, in addition to the legal requirement, to circumcise slaves.\n",
"Ancient Israelite society allowed slavery; however, total domination of one human being by another was not permitted. Rather, slavery in antiquity among the Israelites was closer to what would later be called indentured servitude. Slaves were seen as an essential part of a Hebrew household. In fact, there were cases in which, from a slave's point of view, the stability of servitude under a family in which the slave was well-treated would have been preferable to economic freedom. It is impossible for scholars to quantify the number of slaves that were owned by Hebrews in ancient Israelite society, or what percentage of households owned slaves, but it is possible to analyze social, legal, and economic impacts of slavery.\n",
"Jewish participation in the slave trade itself was also regulated by the Talmud. Fear of apostasy lead to the Talmudic discouragement of the sale of Jewish slaves to non-Jews, although loans were allowed; similarly slave trade with Tyre was only to be for the purpose of removing slaves from non-Jewish religion. Religious racism meant that the Talmudic writers completely forbade the sale or transfer of Canaanite slaves out from Palestine to elsewhere. Other types of trade were also discouraged: men selling themselves to women, and post-pubescent daughters being sold into slavery by their fathers. Pre-pubescent slave girls sold by their fathers had to be freed-then-married by their new owner, or his son, when she \"started\" puberty; slaves could not be allowed to marry free Jews, although masters were often granted access to the \"services\" of the wives of any of their slaves.\n",
"The precedence for Jews to return to their ancestral homeland, motivated by strong divine intervention, first appears in the Torah, and thus later adopted in the Christian Old Testament. After Jacob and his sons had gone down to Egypt to escape a drought, they were enslaved and became a nation. Later, as commanded by God, Moses went before Pharaoh, demanded, \"Let my people go!\" and foretold severe consequences, if this was not done. Torah describes the story of the plagues and the Exodus from Egypt, which is estimated at about 1400 BCE, and the beginning of the journey of the Jewish People toward the Land of Israel. These are celebrated annually during Passover, and the Passover meal traditionally ends with the words \"Next Year in Jerusalem.\"\n"
] |
Someone I met got me curious... in the early days of America, mineral surveyors would cross the country looking for metal deposits. How exactly did the bore into rocks and test things without modern equipment?
|
A lot of it boils down to understanding the geology itself. If you can recognise evidence of (for example) a large igneous porphyry body you might take a good guess at there being workable amounts of copper mineralisation.
Alternatively, simple techniques such as panning for heavy minerals in stream beds can tell you that there's economically viable mineral deposits somewhere upstream.
|
[
"When detailed geological investigations were carried out by Geologists from the US and Britain, their finding was a dampner to the development of the mines in the hill. They inferred that the ores found were mere deposits only and not sourced by ore bearing veins in the rocks which could produce mineral ore for a long period. This revelation coupled with miners strikes and bad weather conditions resulted in a mass exodus of people, in 1870, from the mining belt. \n",
"The history of mining at Philmont dates back to the years immediately after the Civil War. U.S. soldiers were stationed in the West after the war, as the U.S. Army was driving out the American Indians. The story is that one of these soldiers befriended an Indian, who happened to give him a shiny rock. The shiny material in the rock was found to be copper. According to the story, the soldier and two of his friends went up to investigate, and found gold. They could not stay to mine the gold and the area was overrun by miners by the time they returned the next year. Scores of gold mines were excavated in Philmont, and operated into the early 20th century. A large vein of gold is said to lie under Mount Baldy to this day, but extracting it has not been feasible. It is a common joke at Philmont that some day the mines under Baldy will collapse and Phillips will be the highest mountain in Philmont. The Contention Mine, located at Cyphers Mine, and the Aztec Mine, located at French Henry, are open to guided tours.\n",
"From 1894-96, Lt-General C.A. Mcmahon (1830-1904), who was also the president of British Geologists' Association, was the first modern geologist to study these rocks. He described the petrography of the rocks in 1884 and 1886 and published his work in the \"Records of Geological Survey of India\". During 1994-96, Khorana, Dhir and Jayapaul of Geological Survey of India carried out the first mineral survey and scout drilling of several hills in the Tosham range. During 2014-2016, Ravindra Singh and Dheerendra Singh of Banaras Hindu University undertook first ever Indus Valley Civilization archaeological excavations of the area to confirm the connection of ores mined from these hills with the smelting metallurgical work of IVS.\n",
"Marjorie Hooker (10 May 1908 – 4 May 1976) was an American geologist who worked to collect data on the make-up of igneous and metamorphic rocks as well as acted as a mineral specialist for the United States Department of State from 1943–1947. Her work on deciphering chemical data for granite rocks led her to collect and correspond information with geologists from all around the world. The multiple associations with which she worked include the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the Washington Academy of Sciences, the Geological Society of London, the Mineralogical Society of Great Britain and Ireland, the American Geophysical Union, the Geological Society of America, and the Mineralogical Association of Canada. She also worked as a delegate of the International Geological Congresses for their 19th, 20th, 23rd, and 24th meetings. Her contributions to Geology have been recognized with an award created in her name at Syracuse University to recognize and aid exceptional student research.\n",
"Elizabeth Florette Fisher (November 26, 1873 – April 25, 1941) was one of the first field geologists in the United States. Born in Boston, Massachusetts, she attended and later taught at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). She was also the first woman to be sent out by an oil company for a survey, helping to locate oil wells in North-Central Texas during a nationwide oil shortage. During this same time, she not only continued her career as an instructor at Wellesley College, but also wrote an influential textbook for junior high students called \"Resources and Industries of the United States\". She stressed the need for conservation, and believed \"unclaimed\" land should be used for agriculture. She was a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and the American Geographical Society, and also was a member of the Appalachian Mountain Club and the Boston Society of Natural History. She died in 1941 from illness.\n",
"All citizens of the United States of America 18 years or older have the right under the 1872 mining law to locate a lode (hard rock) or placer (gravel) mining claim on federal lands open to mineral entry. These claims may be located once a discovery of a locatable mineral is made. Locatable minerals include but are not limited to platinum, gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, uranium and tungsten.\n",
"Mineral values were extracted from placer deposits as early as 1856 by prospectors returning to California. These small-scale operations lasted only as long as the water in the stream beds permitted, at which times the miners would clear off and move on. Such intermittent placer mining continued through the 1860s.\n"
] |
if a 213g potato has .2g of fat, 4.3g of protein, and 37g of carbs, what is the other 171.5g?
|
Water, fibre, and other things that humans don't digest into energy.
|
[
"Serv size: 12 pieces, servings: about 3.5, amount per serving calories: 60, total fat: 0 g (0% DV) Sodium: 0 mg (0% DV) total carb: 14 g (5% DV) sugars: 13 g protein: 0 g (Percent daily values (DV) are based on a 2,000 calorie diet.)\n",
"For nutritional purposes ICDS provides 500 kilocalories (with 12-15 gm grams of protein) every day to every child below 6 years of age. For adolescent girls it is up to 500 kilo calories with up to 25 grams of protein everyday.\n",
"Glycemic load of a 100g serving of food can be calculated as its carbohydrate content measured in grams (g), multiplied by the food's GI, and divided by 100. For example, watermelon has a GI of 72. A 100 g serving of watermelon has 5 g of available carbohydrates (it contains a lot of water), making the calculation 5 × 72/100=3.6, so the GL is 4. A food with a GI of 90 and 8 g of available carbohydrates has a GL of 7.2 (8 × 90/100=7.2), while a food with a GI of just 6 and with 120 g of carbohydrate also has a GL of 7.2 (120 × 6/100=7.2).\n",
"A single cup of unseasoned mashed pumpkin contains only 49 calories, but has 564 mg of potassium, 5,000 mcg of beta-carotene, 853 mcg of alpha-carotene, 3,500 mcg of beta-cryptoxanthin, 2,400 mcg of lutein and zeaxanthin, 12,000 IUs of vitamin A, and 2.5 g of dietary fiber.\n",
"A single serving of 44.0 g has 96 Calories (kilocalories), 1.0 g of fat, but no trans or saturated fat, 1.0 mg of sodium, 22.0 g of carbohydrates, 0 g of dietary fiber, 6.0 g of sugar, and 1.0 g of protein.\n",
"The average krembo weighs 25 grams (0.92 ounces) and has 115 calories. According to the fine print on packing foil, per 100 g of krembo there are 419 calories, 3.2 g protein, 64 g carbohydrates (of which 54 g are sugars); 16.7% Fats (of which 13.9% are poly-saturated fatty acids, less than 0.5% are trans fatty acids) and 67 mg sodium.\n",
"Oat protein is nearly equivalent in quality to soy protein, which World Health Organization research has shown to be equal to meat, milk and egg protein. The protein content of the hull-less oat kernel (groat) ranges from 12 to 24%, the highest among cereals.\n"
] |
Gigantic Black Holes in galaxy centers keeps 'devouring' matter. Why doesn't that eventually result in whole galaxies being consumed and merging into single immense 'holes' with all galactic mass inside them?
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The planets don't fall into the Sun because they basically "keep missing" when they fall towards it, hence going around in elliptical orbits. Matter around a black hole is essentially the same. The gas and dust orbiting a black hole carries angular momentum with it that must be conserved and hence it will orbit around the hole in a disk, always missing the black hole and never falling into it. Of the entire accretion disk it is only a small fraction that eventually falls into the hole. Even if more matter fell into the hole, the rate of accretion would eventually stop when the luminosity created by the infall gets so high that the radiation pressure counteracts the infall motion. This limit is known as the Eddington luminosity. One of the big misconceptions of black holes is that they are cosmic vacuum cleaners that just go around in a galaxy and suck up everything they encounter, but this is vastly untrue. In fact, only very little mass actually enters a black hole.
Also, if the Sun's mass was doubled somehow, the period of the planetary orbits would get a lot shorter according to Newton's law of universal gravity and Kepler's laws, but they wouldn't necessarily fall into the Sun unless they could somehow lose their angular momentum like if the Earth was moving through a cloud of gas, which it isn't.
|
[
"Astronomers believe that supermassive black holes (SMBHs) can be ejected from the centers of galaxies by gravitational wave recoil. This happens when two SMBHs in a binary system coalesce, after losing energy in the form of gravitational waves. Because the gravitational waves are not emitted isotropically, some momentum is imparted to the coalescing black holes, and they feel a recoil, or \"kick,\" at the moment of coalescence. Computer simulations suggest that the kick can be as large as formula_1,\n",
"They saw that the clouds of gas before the galaxies compressed forming a black hole, the black hole would produce phenomenal amounts of energy which would force the rest of the galaxy away and form stars.\n",
"Because of dynamical relaxation, some objects will gain enough energy to reach galactic escape velocity and depart the galaxy, leaving behind a smaller, denser galaxy. Since encounters are more frequent in the denser galaxy, the process then accelerates. The end result is that most objects (90% to 99%) are ejected from the galaxy, leaving a small fraction (maybe 1% to 10%) which fall into the central supermassive black hole. It has been suggested that the matter of the fallen remnants will form an accretion disk around it that will create a quasar, as long as enough matter is present there.\n",
"Cosmologists doubt they make up a majority of dark matter because the black holes are at isolated points of the galaxy. The largest contributor to the missing mass must be spread throughout the galaxy to balance the gravity. A minority of physicists, including Chapline and Laughlin, believe that the widely accepted model of the black hole is wrong and needs to be replaced by a new model, the dark-energy star; in the general case for the suggested new model, the cosmological distribution of dark energy would be slightly lumpy and dark-energy stars of primordial type might be a possible candidate for MACHOs.\n",
"A supermassive black hole at the core of a galaxy may serve to regulate the rate of star formation in a galactic nucleus. A black hole that is accreting infalling matter can become active, emitting a strong wind through a collimated relativistic jet. This can limit further star formation. Massive black holes ejecting radio-frequency-emitting particles at near-light speed can also block the formation of new stars in aging galaxies. However, the radio emissions around the jets may also trigger star formation. Likewise, a weaker jet may trigger star formation when it collides with a cloud.\n",
"Galaxy clusters are the largest gravitationally bound structures in the Universe with approximately 80% of cluster content in the form of dark matter. The gravitational fields of these clusters deflect light-rays traveling near them. As seen from Earth, this effect can cause dramatic distortions of a background source object detectable by eye such as multiple images, arcs, and rings (cluster strong lensing). More generally, the effect causes small, but statistically coherent, distortions of background sources on the order of 10% (cluster weak lensing). Abell 1689, CL0024+17, and the Bullet Cluster are among the most prominent examples of lensing clusters.\n",
"What was formerly believed to be a supermassive black hole at the centre of the Milky Way is revealed to be an artificial construct, known as the Void. Inside, there is a strange universe where the laws of physics are very different from those we know. It is slowly consuming the other stars of the galactic core—one day it will have devoured the entire galaxy.\n"
] |
Not quite connecting the whole Franks, Alemanni, Charlemagne, Holy Roman Empire, and France thing.
|
Charlemagne, at his death, ruled an Empire encompassing modern day France (sans Brittany), the Pyrenees, Austria, Switzerland, the low countries, the northern half of Italy, and the majority of modern Germany. After his death, his son Louis I came to power, then died leaving his three sons to divide up his Empire, which they did in 843 with the Treaty of Verdun. Charles the Bald was given West Francia (modern France without Provence or Brittany), Lothair (the eldest) was given a strip of land encompassing the low countries, Burgundy, Provence, and northern Italy, and Louis the German was given the eastern territories (East Francia). [Here](_URL_0_)'s a map to clarify things. East Francia and parts of Lotharingia developed into the Holy Roman Emperor.
The traditional dislike between the French and the Germans come from more recent sources (such as the Napoleonic wars, the Franco-Prussian war, and the two World Wars).
|
[
"The Franks or the Frankish people were one of several west Germanic federations. The confederation was formed out of Germanic tribes: Salians, Sugambri, Chamavi, Tencteri, Chattuarii, Bructeri, Usipetes, Ampsivarii, Chatti. They entered the late Roman Empire from the present day Netherlands and northern Germany and conquered northern Gaul where they were accepted as a \"foederati\" and established a lasting realm (sometimes referred to as Francia) in an area that covers most of modern-day France and the western regions of Germany (Franconia, Rhineland, Hesse) and the whole of the Low Countries, forming the historic kernel of the two modern countries. The conversion to Christianity of the pagan Frankish king Clovis was a crucial event in the history of Europe. Like the French and Germans, the Dutch also claim the military history of the Franks as their own.\n",
"The Franks were the race of Charlemagne, the Pepins, Dagobert I, and Charles Martel. Their capital was at Aix-la-Chappell (Aachen) in present-day North Rhine-Westphalia, near the borders of Belgium and the Netherlands. The Bossong family seat was in the town of which lies in present-day Lorraine.\n",
"The Franks emerged in the southern Netherlands (Salian Franks) and central Germany (Ripuarian Franks), and later descended into Gaul. The name of their kingdom survives in that of France. Although they ruled the Gallo-Romans for nearly 300 years, their language, Frankish, became extinct in most of France and was replaced by later forms of the language throughout Luxembourg and Germany in around the 7th century. It was replaced in France by Old French (a Romance language with a considerable Old Frankish influence). \n",
"After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century, the Franks, like other post-Roman Western Europeans, emerged as a tribal confederacy in the Middle Rhine-Weser region, among the territory soon to be called Austrasia (the \"eastern land\"), the northeastern portion of the future Kingdom of the Merovingian Franks. As a whole, Austrasia comprised parts of present-day France, Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. Unlike the Alamanni to their south in Swabia, they absorbed large swaths of former Roman territory as they spread west into Gaul, beginning in 250. Clovis I of the Merovingian dynasty conquered northern Gaul in 486 and in the Battle of Tolbiac in 496 the Alemanni tribe in Swabia, which eventually became the Duchy of Swabia.\n",
"During the expansion into France and Germany, many Frankish people remained in the original core Frankish territories in the north (i.e. southern Netherlands, Flanders, a small part of northern France and the adjoining area in Germany centred on Cologne). The Franks united as a single group under Salian Frank leadership around 500 AD. Politically, the Ripuarian Franks existed as a separate group only until about 500 AD, after which they were subsumed into the Salian Franks. The Franks were united, but the various Frankish groups must have continued to live in the same areas, and speak the same dialects, although as a part of the growing Frankish Kingdom.\n",
"With the decline of the Roman Empire in Western Europe, a federation of Germanic peoples entered the picture: the Franks, from which the word \"French\" derives. The Franks were Germanic pagans who began to settle in northern Gaul as \"laeti\" during the Roman era. They continued to filter across the Rhine River from present-day Netherlands and Germany between the 3rd and 7th centuries. Initially, they served in the Roman army and obtained important commands. Their language is still spoken as a kind of Dutch (Flemish - Low Frankish) in northern France (Westhoek) and Frankish (Central Franconian) in German speaking Lorraine. The Alamans, another Germanic people immigrated to Alsace, hence the Alemannic German now spoken there. The Alamans were competitors of the Franks, and their name is the origin of the French word for \"German\": \"Allemand\".\n",
"The Franks eventually were divided into two groups: the Ripuarian Franks (Latin: Ripuari), who were the Franks that lived along the middle-Rhine River during the Roman Era, and the Salian Franks, who were the Franks that originated in the area of the Netherlands.\n"
] |
Can bees tell the difference between their own hive's honey and another hive's honey?
|
Well they certainly know the difference between their hive and other hives, even if there are several of them adjacent to each other.
Honeybees will also rob other hives of their honey if food is scarce. This is intentional; they are not mistakenly at the wrong hive, and the host hive will try to repel the invaders. As far as if they would "know" the difference between their own honey and another hives if you placed this in containers near the hive, there is no way of knowing. Bees are pure genetics, I don't think there's really much going on in their brains besides the various primal instincts that allow the hive to survive. You would need one tiny MRI machine seeing how the brain lit up to answer this.
|
[
"Monofloral honey is made primarily from the nectar of one type of flower. Monofloral honeys have distinctive flavors and colors because of differences between their principal nectar sources. To produce monofloral honey, beekeepers keep beehives in an area where the bees have access to only one type of flower. In practice, because of the difficulties in containing bees, a small proportion of any honey will be from additional nectar from other flower types. Typical examples of North American monofloral honeys are clover, orange blossom, blueberry, sage, tupelo, buckwheat, fireweed, mesquite, and sourwood. Some typical European examples include thyme, thistle, heather, acacia, dandelion, sunflower, lavender, honeysuckle, and varieties from lime and chestnut trees. In North Africa (e.g. Egypt), examples include clover, cotton, and citrus (mainly orange blossoms). The unique flora of Australia yields a number of distinctive honeys, with some of the most popular being yellow box, blue gum, ironbark, bush mallee, Tasmanian leatherwood, and macadamia.\n",
"Like most honey, \"T. angustula\" honey is made up of simple sugars, water, and ash. The specific ratio of these three components makes each honey unique however, and can be affected by season, climate, and other factors that affect flora availability. \"T. angustula\" honey contains more moisture than honey from typical honey bees and is also more acidic, giving it a complex flavor.\n",
"Frisch's honey bee work included the study of the pheromones that are emitted by the queen bee and her daughters, which maintain the hive's very complex social order. Outside the hive, the pheromones cause the male bees, or drones, to become attracted to a queen and mate with her. Inside the hive, the drones are not affected by the odor.\n",
"Research on the competition between honeybees (\"Apis mellifera\") and honeyeaters (especially the Brown honeyeater and White-cheeked honeyeater) for the nectar of \"Calothamnus quadrifidus\" has shown that honeyeaters consume more nectar early in the day. Honeybees, because of their much greater numbers consume a larger volume of nectar but nevertheless, honeyeaters were the more important in pollen dispersal.\n",
"Natural queen exclusion occurs more frequently in top-bar hives, because the brood nest is separated from the honey section by at least a full bar of honey comb, and not just a few centimetres of honey as may be the case in a multi-storey framed hive. And the more honey is gathered, the further the brood nest becomes from newly created comb.\n",
"The races of the honey bee are classified into various named instances of an informal taxonomic rank of race—below that of subspecies—on the basis of shared genetic traits. The term \"honey bee\" means a bee of the species \"Apis mellifera\" which descend from bees that originated in Africa.\n",
"Unlike cavity-dwelling honey bees whose queen has a distinct chemical signal from that of the worker bees, \"A. andreniformis\" queens have similar chemical signals as their workers. Chemical signals secreted from the mandibular gland in \"A. andreniformis\" are not caste-determining like it is in other honey bees. As stated previously, the presence of royal jelly on young female larva produced the queen bee. Drones, or male bees, are not used for pollination or honey production, but are instead used only to mate with the queen.\n"
] |
if you sweat salt does that mean your body needs more salt or it already had too much?
|
One of those pesky "electrolytes" all these sports drink companies are trying to sell us on buying, salt (or sodium, if you prefer) is necessary for proper bodily function.
Sea water has a an average content of about 35 parts per thousand, so for every liter (1000ml) of seawater, you've got 35 grams of salt.
The reason it's harmful to drink seawater is because the human kidney is only capable of making urine that is LESS salty than 35 parts per thousand, so you'd have to urinate more liquid than the content of the seawater. Your body literally dehydrates faster than you can drink it.
You can drink small amounts of seawater occasionally, so don't worry if you get a little in your mouth when you're swimming at the beach. Just don't make it a habit.
When you add a little salt to some water, you're adding much much less than that, so it's not a problem. Neither is having some salt in your food, because we take in so much more water per day than is required to filter out the salt. Even your food as water in it!
EDIT: I forgot to answer the main question!
Yes, your body needs salt. And yes, when you sweat, a small part of that is salt.
You get all you need from the foods you eat, even if you don't eat processed foods that are high in sodium, so don't worry about it.
It doesn't mean your body had "excess salt", nor should you worry about trying to put extra salt on your food later to compensate.
|
[
"In both apocrine and eccrine sweat glands, the sweat is originally produced in the gland's coil, where it is isotonic with the blood plasma there. When the rate of sweating is low, salt is conserved and reabsorbed by the gland's duct; high sweat rates, on the other hand, lead to less salt reabsorption and allow more water to evaporate on the skin (via osmosis) to increase evaporative cooling.\n",
"Fluid balance is key. Profuse sweating can increase the need for electrolyte (salt) replacement. Water intoxication (which results in hyponatremia), the process of consuming too much water too quickly, can be fatal.\n",
"The human body has evolved to balance salt intake with need through means such as the renin–angiotensin system. In humans, salt has important biological functions. Relevant to risk of cardiovascular disease, salt is highly involved with the maintenance of body fluid volume, including osmotic balance in the blood, extracellular and intracellular fluids, and resting membrane potential.\n",
"The health effects of salt are the conditions associated with the consumption of either too much or too little salt. Salt is a mineral composed primarily of sodium chloride (NaCl) and is used in food for both preservation and flavor. Sodium ions are needed in small quantities by most living things, as are chloride ions. Salt is involved in regulating the water content (fluid balance) of the body. The sodium ion itself is used for electrical signaling in the nervous system.\n",
"Profuse sweating can increase the need for electrolyte replacement. Water-electrolyte imbalance produces headache and fatigue if mild; illness if moderate, and sometimes even death if severe. For example, water intoxication (which results in hyponatremia), the process of consuming too much water too quickly, can be fatal. Deficits to body water result in volume contraction and dehydration. Diarrhea is a threat to both body water volume and electrolyte levels, which is why diseases that cause diarrhea are great threats to fluid balance.\n",
"Systemic pseudohypoaldosteronism patients with mutated ENaC subunits may lose significant amount salt in sweat especially at hot climates. To identify the sites of salt loss, Hanukoglu brothers examined the localization of ENaC in the human skin. In a comprehensive study examining all the layers of skin and epidermal appendages, they found a widespread distribution of ENaC in keratinocytes in the epidermal layers. Yet, in the eccrine sweat glands, ENaC was localized on the apical cell membrane exposed to the duct of these sweat glands. Based on additional observations, they concluded that the ENaC located on the eccrine gland sweat ducts is responsible for the uptake of Na ions from sweat secretions. This recycling of Na reduces the concentration of salt in perspiration and prevents the loss of salt at hot climates via perspiration.\n",
"Although many health organizations and recent reviews state that high consumption of salt increases the risk of several diseases in children and adults, the effect of high salt consumption on long term health is controversial. Some suggest that the effects of high salt consumption are insignificant.\n"
] |
How does the body build tolerance to caffeine?
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By regulation of the number of receptors sensitive to caffeine on the cell membrane.
Caffeine functions by inhibiting adenosine receptors in the brain, which we believe is involved in our biological clocks. After prolonged exposure to caffeine, the cell tries to return to homeostasis by *increasing* the number of adenosine receptors present on each cell's membrane to compensate for caffeine's effects. This results in the need for more caffeine to achieve the same effect on the brain as before, and can lead to withdrawal symptoms once the baseline caffeine level is removed.
Of course, there's more to it than that, but that's the crux of the idea.
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[
"Caffeine is a central nervous system stimulant that reduces fatigue and drowsiness. At normal doses, caffeine has variable effects on learning and memory, but it generally improves reaction time, wakefulness, concentration, and motor coordination. The amount of caffeine needed to produce these effects varies from person to person, depending on body size and degree of tolerance. The desired effects arise approximately one hour after consumption, and the desired effects of a moderate dose usually subside after about three or four hours.\n",
"Caffeine acts in multiple ways within the brain and the rest of the body. However, due to the concentration of caffeine required, antagonism of adenosine receptors is the primary mode of action. The following mechanisms are ways in which caffeine may act within the body, but depending on necessary caffeine concentration and other factors may not be responsible for the clinical effects of the substance.\n",
"Tolerance to the effects of caffeine occurs for caffeine induced elevations in blood pressure and the subjective feelings of nervousness. Sensitization, the process whereby effects become more prominent with use, occurs for positive effects such as feelings of alertness and well being. Tolerance varies for daily, regular caffeine users and high caffeine users. High doses of caffeine (750 to 1200 mg/day spread throughout the day) have been shown to produce complete tolerance to some, but not all of the effects of caffeine. Doses as low as 100 mg/day, such as a 6 oz cup of coffee or two to three 12 oz servings of caffeinated soft-drink, may continue to cause sleep disruption, among other intolerances. Non-regular caffeine users have the least caffeine tolerance for sleep disruption. Some coffee drinkers develop tolerance to its undesired sleep-disrupting effects, but others apparently do not.\n",
"Medical students have been known to consume caffeinated beverages to be active and alert during time of studying. These students drink large quantities of coffee, tea, cola, and energy drinks. Though an increased intake of caffeine can increase the levels of adenosine, adrenaline, cortisol and dopamine in the blood, caffeine also inhibits the absorption of some nutrients, increasing the acidity of the gastrointestinal tract and depleting the levels of calcium, magnesium, iron and other trace minerals of the body through urinary excretion. Furthermore, caffeine decreases blood flow to the brain by as much as 30 percent, and it decreases the stimulation of insulin, a hormone that helps regulate the body's blood sugar level.\n",
"Caffeine is a bio-active ingredient found in commonly consumed beverages such as coffee, tea, and sodas. Short-term physiological effects of caffeine include increased blood pressure and sympathetic nerve outflow. Habitual consumption of caffeine may inhibit physiological short-term effects. Consumption of caffeinated espresso increases parasympathetic activity in habitual caffeine consumers; however, decaffeinated espresso inhibits parasympathetic activity in habitual caffeine consumers. It is possible that other bio-active ingredients in decaffeinated espresso may also contribute to the inhibition of parasympathetic activity in habitual caffeine consumers.\n",
"Caffeine, like other xanthines, also acts as a phosphodiesterase inhibitor. As a competitive nonselective phosphodiesterase inhibitor, caffeine raises intracellular cAMP, activates protein kinase A, inhibits TNF-alpha and leukotriene synthesis, and reduces inflammation and innate immunity. Caffeine also affects the cholinergic system where it inhibits the enzyme acetylcholinesterase.\n",
"While many factors contribute to individual differences in a person's response to caffeine, such as environmental and demographic factors (i.e. age, drug use, circadian factors, etc.), genetics play an important role in individual variability. This inconsistency in responses to caffeine can take place either at the metabolic or at the drug-receptor level. The effects of genetic factors can occur either directly by changing acute or chronic reactions to the drug or indirectly by altering other psychological or physiological processes.\n"
] |
Why are there nuclear-powered subs and aircraft carriers but no nuclear-powered airplanes?
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This was experimented with a bit in the '50s by both the Americans and the Soviets. The main issue is that to protect the crew from radiation you need a lot of heavy shielding, and this makes it difficult to fly.
_URL_0_
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[
"The United States Navy has by far the most nuclear-powered aircraft carriers, with ten Nimitz-class carriers and one Gerald R. Ford-class carrier in service. The last conventionally-powered aircraft carrier left the U.S. fleet as of 12 May 2009, when the USS \"Kitty Hawk\" (CV-63) was deactivated. France's latest aircraft carrier, the \"R91 Charles de Gaulle\", is nuclear-powered. The United Kingdom rejected nuclear power early in the development of its \"Queen Elizabeth\"-class aircraft carriers on cost grounds, as even several decades of fuel use costs less than a nuclear reactor. Since 1949 the Bettis Atomic Power Laboratory near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania has been one of the lead laboratories in the development of the nuclear navy. The planned Indigenous Chinese Carriers also feature Nuclear Propulsion.\n",
"As of , there are 41 active aircraft carriers in the world operated by thirteen navies. The United States Navy has 11 large nuclear-powered fleet carriers—carrying around 80 fighter jets each—the largest carriers in the world; the total combined deckspace is over twice that of all other nations combined. As well as the aircraft carrier fleet, the U.S. Navy has nine amphibious assault ships used primarily for helicopters, although these also carry up to 20 vertical or short take-off and landing (V/STOL) fighter jets and are similar in size to medium-sized fleet carriers. China, France, India, Russia, and the UK each operate a single large/medium-size carrier, with capacity from 30 to 60 fighter jets. Italy operates two light fleet carriers and Spain operates one. Helicopter carriers are operated by Japan (4), France (3), Australia (2), Egypt (2), Brazil (1), South Korea (1), and Thailand (1). Future aircraft carriers are under construction or in planning by Brazil, China, India, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States.\n",
"\"Enterprise\" is also the only aircraft carrier to house more than two nuclear reactors, having an eight-reactor propulsion design, with each A2W reactor taking the place of one of the conventional boilers in earlier constructions. She is the only carrier with four rudders, two more than other classes, and features a more cruiser-like hull.\n",
"Aircraft carriers are warships that evolved from balloon-carrying wooden vessels into nuclear-powered vessels carrying scores of fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft. Since their introduction they have allowed naval forces to project air power great distances without having to depend on local bases for staging aircraft operations.\n",
"The first production class of nuclear-powered aircraft carrier is the . Ten \"Nimitz\"-class aircraft carriers in total were produced with all remaining in active duty. This class of aircraft carrier is currently intended to be replaced with the . The \"Gerald R. Ford\"-class aircraft carriers are still in production, with three currently being produced. There are plans to produce an additional seven vessels.\n",
"Instead of the gas turbines or diesel-electric systems used for propulsion on many modern warships, the carriers use two A4W pressurized water reactors which drive four propeller shafts and can produce a maximum speed of over and maximum power of around . As a result of the use of nuclear power, the ships are capable of operating for over 20 years without refueling and are predicted to have a service life of over 50 years. They are categorized as nuclear-powered aircraft carriers and are numbered with consecutive hull numbers between CVN-68 and CVN-77.\n",
"Nuclear-powered vessels are mainly military submarines, and aircraft carriers. Russia is the only country that currently has nuclear-powered civilian surface ships, mainly icebreakers. America currently (as of July 2018) has 11 aircraft carriers in service, and all are powered by nuclear reactors. For more detailed articles see:\n"
] |
Physics problem that has been plaguing me since high school.
|
The question at hand is: What causes the speed limit on the motion of the missiles? Is it air resistance (as is the case for airborne missiles)?
If so, then firing a missile (limited to 200 m/s velocity in air) from a jet (traveling at 500 m/s in air) will cause the missile to fly backward at 300 m/s from the perspective of the jet pilot. Imagine throwing a beachball from the window of a rapidly moving car. The air catches it going "above its speed limit," and drags it back down pretty quickly.
If all of this is happening in outer-space, where there is no air resistance, whatever speed limit is imposed won't be with respect to the air, so you're the pilot will likely see the missile move forward in the expect fashion.
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[
"The spread of the conceptual approach to teaching physics broadened the range of students taking physics in high school. Enrollment in conceptual physics courses in high school grew from 25,000 students in 1987 to over 400,000 in 2009. In 2009, 37% of students took high school physics, and 31% of them were in Physics First, conceptual physics courses, or regular physics courses using a conceptual textbook.\n",
"Physics First is a popular and relatively new movement in American high schools. In schools with this curriculum 9th grade students take a course with introductory physics education. This is meant to enrich students understanding of physics, and allow for more detail to be taught in subsequent high school biology, and chemistry classes; it also aims to increase the number of students who go on to take 12th grade physics or AP Physics (both of which are generally electives in American high schools.) But many scientists and educators argue that freshmen do not have an adequate background in mathematics to be able to fully comprehend a complete physics curriculum, and that therefore quality of a physics education is lost. While physics requires knowledge of vectors and some basic trigonometry, many students in the Physics First program take the course in conjunction with Geometry. They suggest that instead students first take biology and chemistry which are less mathematics-intensive so that by the time they are in their junior year, students will be advanced enough in mathematics with either an Algebra 2 or pre-calculus education to be able to fully grasp the concepts presented in physics. Some argue this even further, saying that at least calculus should be a prerequisite for physics.\n",
"Problems in General Physics is a book written by Igor Irodov and first published in 1981. It is a collection of about 2000 physics problems in mechanics, thermodynamics, molecular physics, oscillations, and electromagnetism. In India, the book is widely used by high school students preparing for engineering entrance examinations such as the Joint Entrance Examination. Each problem in the book is really unique, especially mechanics problems, and the questions help students understand the basic laws of physics. \n",
"In addition, many scientists and educators argue that freshmen do not have an adequate background in mathematics to be able to fully comprehend a complete physics curriculum, and that therefore quality of a physics education is lost. While physics requires knowledge of vectors and some basic trigonometry, many students in the Physics First program take the course in conjunction with geometry. They suggest that instead students first take biology and chemistry which are less mathematics-intensive so that by the time they are in their junior year, students will be advanced enough in mathematics with either an algebra 2 or pre-calculus education to be able to fully grasp the concepts presented in physics. Some argue this even further, saying that at least calculus should be a prerequisite for physics.\n",
"BULLET::::2. Epistemology: Physics Education Research began as a trial-and-error approach to improve learning (something most teachers are familiar with). Because of the downsides of such an approach, theoretical bases for research were developed early on, most notable through the University of Maryland. The theoretical underpinnings of PER are mostly built around a Piagettean constructivism. Theories on cognition in physics learning were put forward by Redish, Hammer, Elby and Scherr, who built off of diSessa's “Knowledge in Pieces”. The Resources Framework, developed from this work, is notable, which builds off of research in neuroscience, sociology, linguistics, education and psychology. Additional frameworks are forthcoming, most recently the “Possibilities Framework”\n",
"BULLET::::- Originally, the original intention of the reform was to let the students develop their strengths and avoid weaknesses, but the students were rushing to the high-scoring subjects. This has resulted in very few people in certain subjects, such as physics.\n",
"Physics is taught in high schools, college and graduate schools. In the US, it has traditionally not been introduced until junior or senior year (i.e. 11th/12th), and then only as an elective or optional science course, which the majority of American high school students have not taken. Recently in the past years, many students have been taking it their sophomore year.\n"
] |
what is the impact of palestine being promoted to "non-member observer status" in the un?
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It's not a full UN membership but it's a more symbolic move since it gives them more status than before. They are now on the same level as the Vatican and Switzerland (until a few years ago).
If they now try to join the international criminal court, this status of theirs will give them more 'points' in their favor. That's quite important.
Also, they can now go to many UN meetings. So mostly it's a step forward.
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[
"By September 2012, with their application for full membership stalled due to the inability of Security Council members to 'make a unanimous recommendation', the PLO had decided to pursue an upgrade in status from \"observer entity\" to \"non-member observer state\". On 29 November 2012, Resolution 67/19 passed, upgrading Palestine to \"non-member observer State\" status in the United Nations. The new status equates Palestine's with that of the Holy See.\n",
", there are two permanent non-member observer states in the United Nations: the Holy See and Palestine. The Holy See uncontroversially obtained its non-member observer state status in 1964 and Palestine was so designated in 2012, following an application for full membership in 2011 which has not yet been put to a UN Security Council vote largely due to the U.S. pressure. Both the Holy See and the State of Palestine are described as \"Non-member States having received a standing invitation to participate as observers in the sessions and the work of the General Assembly and maintaining permanent observer missions at Headquarters\". \n",
"The change of Palestinian observer status in 2012 from \"non-member observer entity\" to \"non-member observer state\" was regarded as an \"upgrade\" of their status. Many called the change \"symbolic\", but which was regarded as providing new leverage to the Palestinians in their dealings with Israel. As a result, in the change in status, the United Nations Secretariat recognized Palestine's right to become a party to treaties for which the UN Secretary-General is the depositary.\n",
"During September 2012, Palestine decided to pursue an upgrade in status from \"observer entity\" to \"non-member observer state\". On 27 November of the same year, it was announced that the appeal had been officially made, and would be put to a vote in the General Assembly on 29 November, where their status upgrade was expected to be supported by a majority of states. In addition to granting Palestine \"non-member observer state status\", the draft resolution \"expresses the hope that the Security Council will consider favorably the application submitted on 23 September 2011 by the State of Palestine for admission to full membership in the United Nations, endorses the two state solution based on the pre-1967 borders, and stresses the need for an immediate resumption of negotiations between the two parties.\"\n",
"By the fall of 2012, the Palestinians had decided to suspend their application for full membership in favour of seeking an upgrade in status to \"non-member observer state\". However, their membership application was not abandoned and the UNGA resolution upgrading their status passed in November 2012 \"expresses the hope that the Security Council will consider favourably the application submitted on 23 September 2011 by the State of Palestine for admission to full membership in the United Nations\".\n",
"In 2012, The General Assembly voted to grant Palestine non-member observer State status at the United Nations by a vote of 138 in favour to 9 against with 41 abstentions by the 193-member Assembly, Resolution 67/19.\n",
"On Thursday, 29 November 2012, In a 138–9 vote (with 41 abstaining) General Assembly resolution 67/19 passed, upgrading Palestine to \"non-member observer state\" status in the United Nations. The new status equates Palestine's with that of the Holy See. The change in status was described by \"The Independent\" as \"de facto recognition of the sovereign state of Palestine\". The vote was a historic benchmark for the partially recognised State of Palestine and its citizens, whilst it was a diplomatic setback for Israel and the United States. Status as an observer state in the UN will allow the State of Palestine to join treaties and specialised UN agencies, including the International Civil Aviation Organisation, the International Criminal Court, and other organisations for recognised sovereign nations. It shall permit Palestine to claim legal rights over its territorial waters and air space as a sovereign state recognised by the UN, and allow the Palestinian people the right to sue for control of their claimed territory in the International Court of Justice and to bring war-crimes charges against Israel in the International Criminal Court.\n"
] |
What were Pinkerton agents duties, roles, etc. in 1890-1912?
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Pinkertons were part of a huge private detective agency that was essentially the Black Water of the 19th century. One of the Pinkerton's specialties was strikebreaking. Employers would hire the company to provide thugs that would stop strikes in progress, and this is arguably what Pinkertons are most famous for. So yes, that is definitely something a Pinkerton would do.
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[
"Pinkerton, founded as the Pinkerton National Detective Agency, is a private security guard and detective agency established in the United States by Scotsman Allan Pinkerton in 1850 and currently a subsidiary of Securitas AB. Pinkerton became famous when he claimed to have foiled a plot to assassinate president-elect Abraham Lincoln, who later hired Pinkerton agents for his personal security during the Civil War. Pinkerton's agents performed services ranging from security guarding to private military contracting work. Notably, the Pinkerton Detective Agency hired women and minorities, a practice uncommon at the time. Pinkerton was the largest private law enforcement organization in the world at the height of its power.\n",
"The Anti-Pinkerton Act of 1893 () forbade the U.S. government from using Pinkerton National Detective Agency employees, or similar private police companies. In 1977, the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit interpreted this statute as forbidding the U.S. government from employing companies offering \"mercenary, quasi-military forces\" for hire (United States ex rel. \"Weinberger v. Equifax\", 557 F.2d 456, 462 (5th Cir. 1977), cert. denied, 434 U.S. 1035 (1978)). There is a disagreement over whether or not this proscription is limited to the use of such forces as strikebreakers, because it is stated thus:\n",
"In 1944, historian J. Bernard Hogg, surveying the history of labor spying, observed that Pinkerton agents were secured \"by advertising, by visiting United States recruiting offices for rejectees, and by frequenting waterfronts where men were to be found going to sea as a last resort of employment,\" and that \"[to] labor they were a 'gang of toughs and ragtails and desperate men, mostly recruited by Pinkerton and his officers from the worst elements of the community.'\"\n",
"In 1874, under the Alkali Act 1874, the Inspector became the Chief Inspector. The first Chief Inspector was Dr Robert Angus Smith, he was statutorily responsible for the standards set and maintained by the Inspectorate, and reported directly to the Permanent Secretary of his department. For the first sixty years of its existence, the Inspectorate was solely concerned with the heavy chemicals industry, but from the 1920s onwards, its responsibilities were expanded, culminating in the Alkali Order 1958. This placed all major heavy industries which emitted smoke, grit, dust and fumes under the supervision of the Inspectorate.\n",
"In 1801, the title of \"surveyor\" was changed to \"Special Agent\". In 1830, the Special Agents were organized into the \"Office of Instructions and Mail Depredations\". The Postal Inspection Service was the first federal law enforcement agency to use the title Special Agent for its officers. Congress changed this title to \"Inspector\" in 1880.\n",
"The Committee investigated the five largest detective agencies: the Pinkerton National Detective Agency, the William J. Burns International Detective Agency, the National Corporation Service, the Railway Audit and Inspection Company, and the Corporations Auxiliary Company. Most of the agencies subpoenaed, including the Pinkerton Agency, attempted to destroy their records before receiving the subpoenas, but enough evidence remained to \"piece together a picture of intrigue\". It was revealed that Pinkerton had operatives \"in practically every union in the country\". Of 1,228 operatives, there were five in the United Mine Workers, nine in the United Rubber Workers, seventeen in the United Textile Workers, and fifty-five in the United Auto Workers that had organized General Motors.\n",
"Friedman described the Pinkertons as a secret police force. Under questioning by Clarence Darrow, defense attorney for Bill Haywood, Friedman identified Pinkerton agents who had infiltrated the Western Federation of Miners: Charlie Siringo, who became recording secretary of the miners' union in Burke, Idaho; A. H. Crane, secretary of the Cripple Creek, Colorado union; C. J. Connibear, president of the Florence, Colorado union; R. P. Bailey, a member of the Victor, Colorado union; and A. W. Gratias, president of the union at Globeville. Pinkerton Agent George W. Riddell, former president of the Eureka miners union in Utah, was forced to resign when Friedman published the book.\n"
] |
How would one derive electricity from post-fusion plasma?
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Boil water.
That is how pretty much every power plant makes electricity. Its easy to make heat with nuclear or fossil fuels. You use the heat to boil water, which makes a lot of pressure, and you use the pressure to turn a turbine, which is geared to a generator.
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[
"Adapting this concept to a fusion experiment was first proposed by Dr. Jay Kesner (MIT) and Dr. Michael Mauel (Columbia) in the mid to late nineties. The pair assembled a team and raised money to build the machine. They achieved first plasma on Friday, August 13, 2004 at 12:53 PM. First plasma was done by (1) successfully levitating the dipole magnet and (2) RF heating the plasma. The LDX team has since successfully conducted several levitation tests, including a 40-minute suspension of the superconducting coil on February 9, 2007. Shortly after, the coil was damaged in a control test in February 2007 and replaced in May 2007. The replacement coil was inferior, a copper wound electromagnet, that was also water cooled. Scientific results, including the observation of an inward turbulent pinch, were reported in Nature Physics.\n",
"In 1997, scientists at the Joint European Torus (JET) facilities in the UK produced 16 megawatts of fusion power. Scientists can now exercise a measure of control over plasma turbulence and resultant energy leakage, long considered an unavoidable and intractable feature of plasmas. There is increased optimism that the plasma pressure above which the plasma disassembles can now be made large enough to sustain a fusion reaction rate acceptable for a power plant. Electromagnetic waves can be injected and steered to manipulate the paths of plasma particles and then to produce the large electrical currents necessary to produce the magnetic fields to confine the plasma. These and other control capabilities have come from advances in basic understanding of plasma science in such areas as plasma turbulence, plasma macroscopic stability, and plasma wave propagation. Much of this\n",
"Once fusion has begun, high energy neutrons will radiate from the reactive regions of the plasma, crossing magnetic field lines easily due to charge neutrality (see neutron flux). Since it is the neutrons that receive the majority of the energy, they will be ITER's primary source of energy output. Ideally, alpha particles will expend their energy in the plasma, further heating it.\n",
"The Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics, Novosibirsk, built a powerful plasma injector, shipped in late 2013 to the company's research facility. The device produces a neutral beam in the range of 5 to 20 MW, and injects energy inside the reactor to transfer it to the fusion plasma.\n",
"In the pioneering experiment, Los Alamos National Laboratory's FRX-L, a plasma is first created at low density by transformer-coupling an electric current through a gas inside a quartz tube (generally a non-fuel gas for testing purposes). This heats the plasma to about (~2.3 million degrees). External magnets confine fuel within the tube. Plasmas are electrically conducting, allowing a current to pass through them. This current, generates a magnetic field that interacts with the current. The plasma is arranged so that the fields and current stabilize within the plasma once it is set up, self-confining the plasma. FRX-L uses the field-reversed configuration for this purpose. Since the temperature and confinement time is 100x lower than in MCF, the confinement is relatively easy to arrange and does not need the complex and expensive superconducting magnets used in most modern MCF experiments.\n",
"When he arrived at the Comisión Chilena de Energía Nuclear, he started to work in plasmas driven by small transient electrical discharges and small pulsed power devices: z-pinch, capillary discharges and plasma focus. His work has contributed to understand that it is possible to scale the plasma focus in a wide range of energies and sizes, keeping the same value of ion density, magnetic field, plasma sheath velocity, Alfvén speed and the quantity of energy per particle. Therefore, fusion reactions are possible to be obtained in ultra-miniaturized devices (driven by generators of 0.1J for example), as well as they are obtained in bigger devices (driven by generators of 1MJ). However, the stability of the plasma pinch highly depends on the size and energy of the device. A rich plasma phenomenology it has been observed in the table-top plasma focus devices developed by Soto´s group: filamentary structures, toroidal singularities, plasma bursts and plasma jets generations. In addition, possible applications are explored using these kind of small plasma devices: development of portable generator as non-radioactive sources of neutrons and x-rays for field applications, pulsed radiation applied to biological studies, plasma focus as neutron source for nuclear fusion-fission hybrid reactors, and the use of plasma focus devices as plasma accelerators for studies of materials under intense fusion-relevant pulses.\n",
"Once fusion has begun, high-energy neutrons at about 160,000,000,000 kelvins will flood out of the plasma along with X-rays, neither being affected by the strong magnetic fields. Since neutrons receive the majority of the energy from the fusion, they will be the reactor's main source of thermal energy output. The ultra-hot helium product at roughly 40,000,000,000 kelvins will remain behind (temporarily) to heat the plasma, and must make up for all the loss mechanisms (mostly bremsstrahlung X-rays from electron collisions) which tend to cool the plasma rather quickly.\n"
] |
Why does adding more components to a transistor increase clock speed?
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At the level of fundamental physics, the speed of transistors is limited by physical effects. Among other effects, the smaller a transistor is, the less electrical charge you have to move around to make it turn on and off. That means you can turn it on and off more times per second when it's smaller.
In addition to faster speeds, having smaller transistors means that you can add new circuits to the integrated circuit 'chip'. This might be more memory (higher amounts of cache memory), or duplicate processing units (2, 4, 8 cores, etc). It can also be additional function that used to be outside the processor. Many current processors now incorporate graphics processing on the same die.
Having the extra functionality in one IC not only gives you more processing for the buck, but it reduces the number of chips and amount of system interconnects required to build a complete computer, which reduces cost. If you compare the number of chips on motherboards from ten years ago with the number now, you'll find fewer chips, and those old motherboards required add-on cardsfor graphics, USB, and more.
[EDIT] for clarity
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[
"First of all, as chip geometries shrink and clock frequencies rise, the transistor leakage current increases, leading to excess power consumption and heat... Secondly, the advantages of higher clock speeds are in part negated by memory latency, since memory access times have not been able to keep pace with increasing clock frequencies. Third, for certain applications, traditional serial architectures are becoming less efficient as processors get faster (due to the so-called Von Neumann bottleneck), further undercutting any gains that frequency increases might otherwise buy. In addition, partly due to limitations in the means of producing inductance within solid state devices, resistance-capacitance (RC) delays in signal transmission are growing as feature sizes shrink, imposing an additional bottleneck that frequency increases don't address.\n",
"Modern circuits have less power required per transistor as the number of transistors per chip grows. This is because each transistor that is put in a new chip requires its own power supply and requires new pathways to be built to power it. However the number of transistors per chip is starting to increase at a slower rate. Therefore, power efficiency is starting to become as important, if not more important than fitting more and more transistors into a single chip. Recent processor designs have shown this emphasis as they put more focus on power efficiency rather than cramming as many transistors into a single chip as possible. In the world of embedded computers, power efficiency has long been an important goal next to throughput and latency.\n",
"Since around 2005–2007 Dennard scaling appears to have broken down. As of 2016, transistor counts in integrated circuits are still growing, but the resulting improvements in performance are more gradual than the speed-ups resulting from significant frequency increases. The primary reason cited for the breakdown is that at small sizes, current leakage poses greater challenges and also causes the chip to heat up, which creates a threat of thermal runaway and therefore further increases energy costs.\n",
"Many of these sources increase with the power of the computer: more transistors of a given size use more power, which releases more heat, and increasing the rotation speed of fans to address this will (all things being equal) increase their noise. Similarly, increasing hard disk drives' and optical disc drives' rotation speeds increases performance, but generally also vibration and bearing friction.\n",
"As chips continued to get faster, so did the levels of sophistication within the circuitry. Companies were constantly updating machinery to be able to keep up with production demands and overhauls of newer circuits. Companies raced to make transistors smaller in order to pack more of them on the same size silicon and enable faster chips. This practice became known as \"shrinkage\".\n",
"Miniaturizing components has always been a primary goal in the semiconductor industry because it cuts production cost and lets companies build smaller computers and other devices. Miniaturization, however, has increased dissipated power per unit area and made it a key limiting factor in integrated circuit performance. Temperature increase becomes relevant for relatively small-cross-sections wires, where it may affect normal semiconductor behavior. Besides, since the generation of heat is proportional to the frequency of operation for switching circuits, fast computers have larger heat generation than slow ones, an undesired effect for chips manufacturers. This article summaries physical concepts that describe the generation and conduction of heat in an integrated circuit, and presents numerical methods that model heat transfer from a macroscopic point of view.\n",
"Several business motives drive the development of multi-core architectures. For decades, it was possible to improve performance of a CPU by shrinking the area of the integrated circuit (IC), which reduced the cost per device on the IC. Alternatively, for the same circuit area, more transistors could be used in the design, which increased functionality, especially for complex instruction set computing (CISC) architectures. Clock rates also increased by orders of magnitude in the decades of the late 20th century, from several megahertz in the 1980s to several gigahertz in the early 2000s.\n"
] |
why can't a state just print more banknotes to create more money? [li5]
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Think of a rare baseball card. If there's only 10 of them in existence, then everyone would want them and they would be willing to trade hundreds of chocolate bars for it.
Now think if they printed 990 more of that rare baseball card. Now everyone has one, and no one is willing to trade a chocolate bar for it.
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[
"Only seven banks still retain the rights to print their own notes, all of which are in Scotland and Northern Ireland. Lenders that print these notes must hold assets that are equivalent to the amount of notes they have in circulation.\n",
"All circulating notes, issued from 1861 to present, will be honored by the government at face value as legal tender. This means that the federal government will accept old notes as payments for debts owed to the federal government (taxes and fees), or exchange old notes for new ones, but will not redeem notes for gold or silver, even if the note states that it may be thus redeemed. Some bills may have a premium to collectors.\n",
"Some banknotes were stamped to indicate changes of denomination, as it would have taken too long to print new notes. By the time new notes were printed, they would be obsolete (that is, they would be of too low a denomination to be useful).\n",
"The central bank, or other competent, state authorities (such as the Treasury), are typically empowered to create new, physical currency, i.e. paper notes and coins, in order to meet the needs of commercial banks for cash withdrawals, and to replace worn and/or destroyed currency. The process does not increase the money supply, as such; the term \"printing [new] money\" is considered a misnomer.\n",
"Despite the relatively late addition of color and other anti-counterfeiting features to U.S. currency, critics hold that it is still a straightforward matter to counterfeit these bills. They point out that the ability to reproduce color images is well within the capabilities of modern color printers, most of which are affordable to many consumers. These critics suggest that the Federal Reserve should incorporate holographic features, as are used in most other major currencies, such as the pound sterling, Canadian dollar and euro banknotes, which are more difficult and expensive to forge. Another robust technology, the polymer banknote, has been developed for the Australian dollar and adopted for the New Zealand dollar, Romanian leu, Papua New Guinea kina, Canadian dollar, and other circulating, as well as commemorative, banknotes of a number of other countries. Polymer banknotes are a deterrent to the counterfeiter, as they are much more difficult and time consuming to reproduce. They are said to be more secure, cleaner and more durable than paper notes. One major issue with implementing these or any new counterfeiting countermeasures, however, is that (other than under Executive Order 6102) the United States has never demonetized or required a mandatory exchange of any existing currency. Consequently, would-be counterfeiters can easily circumvent any new security features simply by counterfeiting older designs.\n",
"Without taxes the government could not pay its debt. Seven of the thirteen states printed large quantities of its own paper money, backed by gold, land, or nothing, so there was no fair exchange rate among them. State courts required state creditors to accept payments at face value with a fraction of real purchase power. The same legislation that these states used to wipe out the Revolutionary debt to patriots was used to pay off promised veteran pensions. The measures were popular because they helped both small farmers and plantation owners pay off their debts.\n",
"BULLET::::4. Wear costs. Banknotes don't lose economic value by wear, since, even if they are in poor condition, they are still a legally valid claim on the issuing bank. However, banks of issue do have to pay the cost of replacing banknotes in poor condition and paper notes wear out much faster than coins.\n"
] |
what is the "sharing economy"?
|
Instead of being full time taxi drivers anyone with a car and a license can hop on and be an uber driver.
Similarly, Airbnb allows individuals to host people in their homes as a hotel would.
The "sharing" idea is that personal assets (cars, homes, etc.) are utilized to provide services for a fee instead of assets that are wholly dedicated to providing those services.
|
[
"Sharing economy is a term for a way of distributing goods and services, a way that differs from the traditional model of corporations hiring employees and selling products to consumers. In the sharing economy, individuals are said to rent or \"share\" things like their cars, homes and personal time to other individuals in a peer-to-peer fashion. \n",
"Sharing is the joint use of a resource or space. It is also the process of dividing and distributing. In its narrow sense, it refers to joint or alternating use of inherently finite goods, such as a common pasture or a shared residence. Still more loosely, \"sharing\" can actually mean giving something as an outright gift: for example, to \"share\" one's food really means to give some of it as a gift. Sharing is a basic component of human interaction, and is responsible for strengthening social ties and ensuring a person’s well-being.\n",
"The \"sharing economy\" refers to an economic pattern that aims to obtain a resource that is not fully utilized. Nowadays, the sharing economy has had an unimagined effect on many traditional elements including labor, industry, and distribution system. This effect is not negligible that some industries are obviously under threat. The sharing economy is influencing the traditional marketing channels by changing the nature of some specific concept including ownership, assets, and recruitment.\n",
"The term \"sharing economy\" began to appear around the time of the Great Recession, enabling social technologies, and an increasing sense of urgency around global population growth and resource depletion. Professor Lawrence Lessig was possibly first to use the term in 2008, though others claim the origin of the term is unknown. As of 2015, according to a Pew Research Center survey, only 27% of Americans had heard of the term \"sharing economy\". Survey respondents who had heard of the term had divergent views on what it meant, with many thinking it concerned \"sharing\" in the traditional sense of the term.\n",
"In an article in \"Harvard Business Review\", authors Giana M. Eckhardt and Fleura Bardhi argue that \"sharing economy\" is a misnomer, and that the correct term for this activity is access economy. The authors say, \"When \"sharing\" is market-mediated—when a company is an intermediary between consumers who don't know each other—it is no longer sharing at all. Rather, consumers are paying to access someone else's goods or services.\" The article states that companies (such as Uber) that understand this, and whose marketing highlights the financial benefits to participants, are successful, while companies (such as Lyft) whose marketing highlights the social benefits of the service are less successful.This insight − that it is an access economy rather than a sharing economy – has important implications for how companies in this space compete. It implies that consumers are more interested in lower costs and convenience than they are in fostering social relationships with the company or other consumers...The access economy is changing the structure of a variety of industries, and a new understanding of the consumer is needed to drive successful business models. A successful business model in the access economy will not be based on community, however, as a sharing orientation does not accurately depict the benefits consumers hope to receive. It is important to highlight the benefits that access provides in contrast to the disadvantages of ownership and sharing.\n",
"The sharing economy is related to the circular economy, which aims to minimize waste and which includes co-operatives, co-creation, recycling, upcycling, re-distribution, and trading used goods. It is also closely related to collaborative consumption in which an item is consumed by multiple people.\n",
"The notion of \"sharing economy\" has often been considered an oxymoron, and a misnomer for actual commercial exchanges. Arnould and Rose proposed to replace the misleading term \"sharing\" with mutualism or mutualization. A distinction can be made between free mutualization, such as genuine sharing, and for-profit mutualization, such as Uber, Airbnb, and Taskrabbit.\n"
] |
is hemp realistically a great replacement for many materials (plastics and papers) or has this been over emphasized by those seeking legal marijuana?
|
Hemp is a decent replacement for a broad range of things. You won't see paper companies switching from wood to hemp just because it's legalized.
Also hemp contains almost none of the active ingredients that recreational marijuana has (you can't get high off of it).
|
[
"As of April 2019, CBD extracted from marijuana remains a Schedule I Controlled Substance, and is not approved as a prescription drug, dietary supplement, or allowed for interstate commerce in the United States. CBD derived from hemp (with 0.3% THC or lower) was delisted as a federally scheduled substance by the 2018 Farm Bill. FDA regulations still apply: hemp CBD is legal to sell as a cosmetics ingredient, but despite a common misconception, because it is an active ingredient in an FDA-approved drug, cannot be sold under federal law as an ingredient in food, dietary supplements, or animal food. It is a common misconception that the legal ability to sell hemp (which may contain CBD) makes CBD legal.\n",
"Recent reclassification of CBD oil and other hemp products as a medicine thus effectively banning it has been criticized as cruel and disproportionate to those using it given that it has few if any side effects.\n",
"Republican Ron Paul of Texas) and House Democrat Barney Frank of Massachusetts) on April 2, 2009. It sought to clarify the differences between marijuana and industrial hemp as well as repeal federal laws that prohibit cultivation of industrial, but only for research facilities of higher education from conducting research. Industrial hemp is the non-psychoactive, low-THC, oilseed and fibers varieties of the cannabis sativa plant. Hemp is a sustainable resource that can be used to create thousands of different products including fuel, fabrics, paper, household products, and food and has been used for hundreds of centuries by civilizations around the world. If H.R.1866 passes American farmers will be permitted to compete in global hemp markets. On March 10, 2009, both Paul and Frank wrote a letter to their Congressional colleagues urging them to support the legislation. This bill was previously introduced in 2005 under the title of Industrial Hemp Farming Act of 2005.\n",
"Another claim is that Mellon, Secretary of the Treasury and the wealthiest man in America at that time, had invested heavily in DuPont's new synthetic fiber, nylon, and believed that the replacement of the traditional resource, hemp, was integral to the new product's success. The company DuPont and many industrial historians dispute a link between nylon and hemp, nylon became immediately a scarce commodity. Nylon had characteristics that could be used for toothbrushes (sold from 1938) and very thin nylon fiber could compete with silk and rayon in various textiles normally not produced from hemp fiber, such as very thin stockings for women.\n",
"The national (non-psychoactive) hemp market was $600 million in 2015, Accurate predictions of potential future legal markets for hemp are deemed impossible to predict due to \"the absence since the 1950s of any commercial and unrestricted hemp production in the\n",
"President Donald Trump signed the 2018 farm bill on Thursday December 20th 2018, which legalized hemp — a variety of cannabis that does not produce the psychoactive component of marijuana — paving the way to legitimacy for an agricultural sector that has been operating on the fringe of the law. Industrial hemp has made investors and executives swoon because of the potential multibillion-dollar market for cannabidiol, or CBD, a non-psychoactive compound that has started to turn up in beverages, health products and pet snacks, among other products.\n",
"In 1937, the Marijuana Transfer Tax Act was passed. Several scholars have claimed that the goal was to destroy the hemp industry, largely as an effort of businessmen Andrew Mellon, Randolph Hearst, and the Du Pont family. These scholars argue that with the invention of the decorticator, hemp became a very cheap substitute for the paper pulp that was used in the newspaper industry. These scholars believe that Hearst felt that this was a threat to his extensive timber holdings. Mellon, United States Secretary of the Treasury and the wealthiest man in America, had invested heavily in the DuPont's new synthetic fiber, nylon, and considered its success to depend on its replacement of the traditional resource, hemp. However, there were circumstances that contradict these claims. One reason for doubts about those claims is that the new decorticators did not perform fully satisfactorily in commercial production. To produce fiber from hemp was a labor-intensive process if you include harvest, transport and processing. Technological developments decreased the labor with hemp but not sufficient to eliminate this disadvantage.\n"
] |
what's a military formation?
|
Any set of soldiers marching under one command, usually in a regular form.
Already Egyptians did so that the they had the less experienced at the front, and the more experienced at the back, to prevent retreat and fill in gaps. The ancient Greeks invented the phalanx. The enemy can do more damage if they can strike multiple soldiers or go behind them and hit them for the side or back. If the soldiers form an unbroken line, no one can get through and the enemy can face the formation only from the front, which is strongest. The shields are locked together, so there is one long armored wall. But, some of the soldiers are struck and killed, so there will be holes in the line. If there is already another line behind it, the gap is easily filled.
The formation is psychologically effective against unorganized fighters, but degenerates into a pushing match in phalanx-to-phalanx combat.
Closed formations were used also even in the firearms era. But, he machine gun made them useless as an actual fighting formation. Still, soldiers are taught to walk and move about in formation in military drill. It creates a sense of an organized force and develops discipline.
|
[
"A formation is defined by the US Department of Defense as \"two or more aircraft, ships, or units proceeding together under a commander\". Formin in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia emphasised its combined-arms nature: \"Formations are those military organisations which are formed from different speciality Arms and Services troop units to create a balanced, combined combat force. The formations only differ in their ability to achieve different scales of application of force to achieve different strategic, operational and tactical goals and mission objectives.\" It is a composite military organization that includes a mixture of integrated and operationally attached sub-units, and is usually combat-capable. Example of formations include: divisions, brigades, battalions, wings, etc. Formation may also refer to tactical formation, the physical arrangement or disposition of troops and weapons. Examples of formation in such usage include: pakfront, panzerkeil, testudo formation, etc.\n",
"A typical unit is a homogeneous military organization (either combat, combat-support or non-combat in capability) that includes service personnel predominantly from a single arm of service, or a branch of service, and its administrative and command functions are self-contained. Any unit subordinate to another unit is considered its sub-unit or minor unit. It is not uncommon for unit and formation to be used synonymously in the United States. In Commonwealth practice, formation is not used for smaller organizations like battalions which are instead called \"units\", and their constituent platoons or companies are referred to as sub-units. In the Commonwealth, formations are divisions, brigades, etc.\n",
"A battlegroup (British/Commonwealth term), or task force (U.S. term) in modern military theory is the basic building block of an army's fighting force. A battlegroup is formed around an infantry battalion or armoured regiment, which is usually commanded by a lieutenant colonel. The battalion or regiment also provides the command and staff element of a battlegroup, which is complemented with an appropriate mix of armour, infantry and support personnel and weaponry, relevant to the task it is expected to perform.\n",
"A military is a heavily-armed, highly-organized force primarily intended for warfare, also known collectively as armed forces. It is typically officially authorized and maintained by a sovereign state, with its members identifiable by their distinct military uniform. It may consist of one or more military branches such as an Army, Navy, Air Force and in certain countries, Marines and Coast Guard. The main task of the military is usually defined as defense of the state and its interests against external armed threats. Beyond warfare, the military may be employed in additional sanctioned and non-sanctioned functions within the state, including internal security threats, population control, the promotion of a political agenda, emergency services and reconstruction, protecting corporate economic interests, social ceremonies and national honor guards.\n",
"It generally refers to a formation which includes three or four battlegroups, or an infantry brigade (three battalions), supported by armoured, artillery, field engineer, aviation and support units, and amounting to about 5,000 soldiers. A brigade group represents the smallest unit able to operate independently for extended periods on the battlefield. It is similar to the concept of a regimental combat team (RCT), which was once used by the United States Army, but which now uses the term \"brigade combat team\" (BCT). The United States Marine Corps continues to use the term \"regimental combat team\".\n",
"A tactical formation (or order) is the arrangement or deployment of moving military forces such as infantry, cavalry, AFVs, military aircraft, or naval vessels. Formations were found in tribal societies such as the \"pua rere\" of the Māori, and ancient or medieval formations which include shield walls (\"skjaldborg\" in Old Norse), phalanxes (lines of battle in close order), Testudo formation and skirmishers. \n",
"Army groups may be multi-national formations. For example, during World War II, the Southern Group of Armies (also known as the U.S. 6th Army Group) comprised the U.S. Seventh Army and the French First Army; the 21st Army Group comprised the British Second Army, the Canadian First Army and the US Ninth Army.\n"
] |
Why was Dwight Eisenhower made Supreme Allied Commander during WWII despite the United States entering the war after other nations?
|
I asked a similar question a few months ago that I think might get to the heart of what you're asking. Hopefully this helps? The response I got was fantastic! (all credit to u/goodmorningdave)
_URL_0_
|
[
"BULLET::::- The opening scene suggests that Great Britain and the United States had not seriously considered the possibility of a supreme allied commander prior to planning the D-Day invasion. In fact, appointing supreme commanders for the various theaters was seen as a given as it had proved beneficial in the last days of World War I with the appointment of Ferdinand Foch in 1918 over the Allied forces in Western Europe. The reason Eisenhower's appointment took some negotiation was the fact that the original supreme commander for the European Theater of Operations, Frank Maxwell Andrews, was killed in an airplane crash.\n",
"BULLET::::- General Dwight D. Eisenhower, retired from the United States Army, was brought back into service by President Truman to serve as the first Supreme Allied Commander of Europe (SACEUR). The announcement was made on the same day that the NATO nations accepted the Pleven Plan, proposed by French Prime Minister Rene Pleven, for the gradual rearmament of Germany and its integration into the defense of Western Europe. Eisenhower had been serving as President of Columbia University after returning to civilian life.\n",
"General of the Army Dwight D. Eisenhower served in successive Supreme Allied Commander roles. Eisenhower was the Commander-in-Chief, Allied Force for the Mediterranean theatre. Eisenhower then served as Supreme Commander Allied Expeditionary Force (SCAEF) in the European theatre, starting in December 1943 with the creation of the command to execute Operation Overlord and ending in July 1945 shortly after the End of World War II in Europe. In 1951, Eisenhower would again be a Supreme Allied Commander, the first to hold the post for NATO (see next section).\n",
"General Dwight D. Eisenhower began restructuring the Allied command, creating the 18th Army Group, commanded by General Sir Harold R. L. G. Alexander, to tighten the operational control of the three Allied nations involved and improve their coordination. Major General Lloyd Fredendall was relieved by Eisenhower and sent home. Training programmes at home had contributed to U.S. Army units in North Africa being saddled with disgraced commanders who had failed in battle and were reluctant to advocate radical changes. Eisenhower found through Major General Omar Bradley and others, that Fredendall's subordinates had lost confidence in him and Alexander told U.S. commanders, \"I'm sure you must have better men than that\".\n",
"Dwight David Eisenhower (October 14, 1890 – March 28, 1969) was a five-star general in the United States Army and the 34th President of the United States, serving from 1953 until 1961. During World War II, he served as Supreme Commander of the Allied forces in Europe and planned the successful invasion of France and Germany in 1944–45, from the Western Front. In 1951, he became the first supreme commander of NATO.\n",
"General Dwight D. Eisenhower was never in combat on the battlefront. The majority of his military career (23 of 38 years) was at the rank of major or lieutenant colonel, mid-level field ranks. He spent a great deal of his military career in staff positions as a planner or trainer and not as a commander of combat army units. He was an aide to the legendary general Douglas MacArthur who was very difficult to deal with. General Eisenhower's skill at dealing with difficult personalities persuaded President Roosevelt to promote him to become the commanding general of the largest amphibious military invasion in history on the beaches of Normandy. This was a landing force of nine allied countries that required the overall commander to have great interpersonal skills and planning and coordination abilities.\n",
"BULLET::::- Dwight D. Eisenhower, after enlisting in the U.S. Army in 1911, was assigned to the Army War College and graduated in 1928. He never served in combat, even during World War I, and held mostly administrative positions afterwards. During World War II, he was appointed Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force, in spite of never having been in combat.\n"
] |
AskScience AMA Series: We study neutrinos made on earth and in space, hoping to discover brand-new particles and learn more about the mysteries of dark matter, dark radiation, and the evolution of the universe. Ask us anything!
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How exactly can neutrinos shed light on the nature of dark matter? Is there any hypothesis that scientists want to test regarding the connection between the two, or is the research more exploratory at this stage?
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[
"His 2010 book \"Neutrino\" discusses the tiny, difficult-to-detect particle emitted from radioactive transitions and generated by stars. Also discussed are the contributions of John Bahcall, Ray Davis, Bruno Pontecorvo, and others who made a scientific understanding of this fundamental building block of the universe.\n",
"There are currently goals to detect neutrinos from other sources, such as active galactic nuclei (AGN), as well as gamma-ray bursts and starburst galaxies. Neutrino astronomy may also indirectly detect dark matter.\n",
"BULLET::::- Frederick Reines, in 1965, first detected neutrinos created by cosmic ray collisions with the Earth's atmosphere and developed innovative particle detectors. Case Western Reserve had selected Prof. Reines as chair of the physics department based on Reines's work that first detected neutrinos emitted from a nuclear reactor—work for which Reines shared a 1995 Nobel Prize.\n",
"In neutrino astronomy, astronomers use heavily shielded underground facilities such as SAGE, GALLEX, and Kamioka II/III for the detection of neutrinos. The vast majority of the neutrinos streaming through the Earth originate from the Sun, but 24 neutrinos were also detected from supernova 1987A. Cosmic rays, which consist of very high energy particles (atomic nuclei) that can decay or be absorbed when they enter the Earth's atmosphere, result in a cascade of secondary particles which can be detected by current observatories. Some future neutrino detectors may also be sensitive to the particles produced when cosmic rays hit the Earth's atmosphere.\n",
"KamLAND also published an investigation of geologically-produced antineutrinos (so-called geoneutrinos) in 2005. These neutrinos are produced in the decay of thorium and uranium in the Earth's crust and mantle. A few geoneutrinos were detected and this limited data were used to limit the U/Th radiopower to under 60TW.\n",
"DUNE, LBNF/hosted by Fermilab: Scientists with the Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment (DUNE) hope to revolutionize our understanding of the role neutrinos play in the creation of the universe. Using the Long-Baseline Neutrino Facility (LBNF), they'll shoot a beam of neutrinos from Fermilab in Batavia, Illinois, 800 miles through the earth to detectors deep underground at Sanford Lab in Lead, South Dakota. \n",
"The Large Underground Xenon experiment (LUX) aimed to directly detect weakly interacting massive particle (WIMP) dark matter interactions with ordinary matter on Earth. Despite the wealth of (gravitational) evidence supporting the existence of non-baryonic dark matter in the Universe, dark matter particles in our galaxy have never been directly detected in an experiment. LUX utilized a 370 kg liquid xenon detection mass in a time-projection chamber (TPC) to identify individual particle interactions, searching for faint dark matter interactions with unprecedented sensitivity.\n"
] |
what do people who speak different languages hear when someone speaks english?
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It sounds just like what you hear when you hear someone speak in a language you don’t know. You can tell they are saying something that means something because their voice is controlled and their body language will tell you they are not just making up sounds like a crazy person. When I hear American English vs United Kingdom English, American English sounds like the mouth is more open so the words are more full sounding. There is a great video online that demonstrates what English sounds. The video uses a mix of English words and gibberish, but sounds like how an American English speaker would. This is what English would sounds to someone who doesn’t know English. The video can be found [here](_URL_0_) .
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[
"While English is spoken by all residents, over 10% of the population also speak a second language with Cree, German, Ukrainian, French, Tagalog, Spanish, Afrikaans, Dutch, Chinese, Korean, Inuktitut, English, Albanian, Bantu languages, Bosnian, Greek, Hungarian, Lithuanian, Polish, Russian and Mandarin represented.\n",
"BULLET::::5. Those who learnt English as a native language (sometimes as a sole native language, but usually alongside other languages) and use it as their dominant language (many people, mostly children born after 1965 to highly educated parents).\n",
"English contains a number of sounds and sound distinctions not present in some other languages. Speakers of languages without these sounds may have problems both with hearing and with pronouncing them. For example:\n",
"English is on the school program latest in 7th class, and it sounds somehow familiar so that everyone believes he knows English at once. Anyhow, most people can communicate a bit in English. It is being said: If you don't know how to speak English, just take a hot potato in your mouth and speak a funny Luxembourgish, and they will understand you.\n",
"Those countries have millions of native speakers of dialect continua ranging from an English-based creole to a more standard version of English. They have many more speakers of English who acquire English as they grow up through day-to-day use and listening to broadcasting, especially if they attend schools where English is the medium of instruction. Varieties of English learned by non-native speakers born to English-speaking parents may be influenced, especially in their grammar, by the other languages spoken by those learners. Most of those varieties of English include words little used by native speakers of English in the inner-circle countries, and they may show grammatical and phonological differences from inner-circle varieties as well. The standard English of the inner-circle countries is often taken as a norm for use of English in the outer-circle countries.\n",
"Also, anyone can become an English speaker simply by having this base translated into their native tongue (a more tractable problem than translating the whole of English). Once they know this subset then they know enough English to understand other statements like the giraffe one, and thus grow their knowledge to the whole language through English sentences (which can be reused by everyone, regardless of their first language). This is analogous to the bootstrapping and compatibility of a COLA.\n",
"Individuals may also have other languages in their personal repertoire, through marriage to someone form a different language group, international work or engagement with tourists from different countries. English is increasingly common as a language of education.\n"
] |
why do people donate to different cancers (breast, prostate, etc), won't one cure lead to cures for all the others?
|
Cancer is actually a term that broadly describes a group of diseases, not just one, where there is uncontrollable cell growth that invades other parts of the body. What this means is that there are a number of different causes as to *why* the cells become cancerous, requiring different types of research to find different causes (i.e. caused by DNA damage in gene A, as opposed to being damaged in gene B, etc).
For your second question, there is not a most 'important' one to uncover to cure the others. It's like comparing apples to sheep, cancers are different and can even vary between people. While it's possible that the cures may be connected and have the potential to shed light on other types of cancer, this is absolutely not a 100% guarantee.
|
[
"Even though the health benefits are not established, the use of high doses of vitamins is also common in people who have been diagnosed with cancer. According to Cancer Research UK, cancer patients should always seek professional advice before taking such supplements, and using them as a substitute for conventional treatment \"could be harmful to [their] health and greatly reduce the chance of curing or controlling [their] cancer\".\n",
"Because cancer is a class of diseases, it is unlikely that there will ever be a single \"cure for cancer\" any more than there will be a single treatment for all infectious diseases. Angiogenesis inhibitors were once incorrectly thought to have potential as a \"silver bullet\" treatment applicable to many types of cancer. Angiogenesis inhibitors and other cancer therapeutics are used in combination to reduce cancer morbidity and mortality.\n",
"The charity has funded scientists who have contributed to discoveries that have helped treat and care for millions of cancer patients all around the world. For example, in 1975 researchers showed that a contraceptive pill could halt the growth of breast cancers, leading to the birth of Tamoxifen, which is now taken by millions of women worldwide.\n",
"As a promoter of alternative medicine she claims to have discovered the cause and cure of cancer, as a result of God showing her how to recover from her own cancer with a 10 step plan. According to her theory, all cancers are due to weakness of the immune system which must be cured by diet. \"All diseases are caused by a combination of three factors: malnutrition, dehydration, and stress.\"\n",
"There are several reasons for this high death toll from cancer in developing countries. Due to poverty, lack of resources and vast distances, public access to treatment maybe difficult or non-existent. There is also not enough awareness (public or professional) about cancer to help either prevent the disease developing or to support early diagnosis. As a result, 80% of cancer patients present with advanced/incurable cancers. Unfortunately, in many cases, palliative care will not be available to them at the end of their lives.\n",
"Chemotherapy does not always work, and even when it is useful, it may not completely destroy the cancer. People frequently fail to understand its limitations. In one study of people who had been newly diagnosed with incurable, stage 4 cancer, more than two-thirds of people with lung cancer and more than four-fifths of people with colorectal cancer still believed that chemotherapy was likely to cure their cancer.\n",
"As cancer can arise from countless different genetic mutations and a combination of mutations, it is challenging to develop a cure that is appropriate for all cancers, given the genetic diversity of the human population. To provide and develop the most appropriate genetic therapy for one’s cancer, personalized oncogenomics has been developed. By sequencing a cancer patient’s genome, a clinical scientist can better understand which genes/part of the genome have been mutated specifically in that patient and a personalized treatment plan can potentially be implemented.\n"
] |
Effects Of Shakespearean/Elizabethan Theater on the London Society?
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**Clothing**
The major theaters served as fashion runways, setting popular trends in clothing. Costumes were elaborate, expensive, and often borrowed from or donated by local tailors, cobblers, and jewelers. These clothiers could then advertise that they were producing the clothes being worn in the most fashionable theaters in town. And in late 1500s - early 1600s England, fashion was serious business:
> In these days a wondrous excess of apparel had spread itself all over England, and the habit of our own country, though a peculiar vice incident to our apish nation, grew into such contempt, that men by their new fangled garments, and too gaudy apparel, discovered a certain deformity and arrogancy of mind whilst they jetted up and down in their silks glittering with gold and silver, either imbroidered or laced. The Queen, observing that, to maintain this excess, a great quantity of money was carried yearly out of the land, to buy silks and other outlandish wares, to the impoverishing of the commonwealth; and that many of the nobility which might be of great service to the commonwealth and others that they might seem of noble extraction, did, to their own undoing, not only waste their estates, but also run so far in debt, that of necessity they came within the danger of law thereby, and attempted to raise troubles and commotions when they had wasted their own patrimonies
* [A Complete History of England: IV. The history of Queen Elizabeth I](_URL_1_), written by Edward, lord Herbert of Cherbury in 1706, page 452.
See also:
Stephenson, Henry Thew. The Elizabethan People. New York, Henry Holt and Company, 1910. Shakespeare Online. 20 Feb. 2010. (accessed March 27, 2014) _URL_3_
**Language**
There was no dictionary of the English language prior to 1755. In the Elizabethan period, London was teeming with foreign trade and with it came linguistic influences from many far-flung cultures. English was a fluid, dynamic language and the plays of the period are famous for their wordplay. Theaters of the day became laboratories for language with new words being adopted, adapted, or invented to convey the emotions of the characters. Shakespeare alone is believed to have invented (or at least been the first to write down) some 1,300 common words.
See [The Development of Early Modern English](_URL_2_), by Marta Zapala-Kraj, 2009.
**Thought/Society**
In *Hamlet* Act 3, Scene 2, Shakespeare describes acting (and by extension, the purpose of theater) as being an art "whose end, both at the first and now, was and is to hold, as ’twere, the mirror up to nature, to show virtue her own feature, scorn her own image, and the very age and body of the time his form and pressure".
Shakespeare's plays reflect the society they were written for. England was in a period of transition between its Medieval past and its Renaissance future and the growth pangs of that transition were being played out on stage. Among Shakespeare's greatest influences on the art of theatrical storytelling is the heavy use of the soliloquy as a means of allowing the audience to listen to a character's most intimate thoughts. As we listen, we meet people who are simultaneously progressive and old fashioned. They have complex, multi-faceted personalities and think of themselves as unique individuals defined as much by merit and personality as by social class. We hear superstition wrestling with science, urban sophistication clashing with provincial wisdom, and numerous variations on the eternal human question: "Given the knowledge of our own mortality, what should we do with the time that we have to be alive?"
See:
[Shakespeare's Philosophy](_URL_4_), by Colin McGinn, 2009.
[From Shakespeare to Existentialism: An Original Study : Essays on Shakespeare and Goethe, Hegel and Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Rilke, and Freud, Jaspers, Heidegger, and Toynbee](_URL_0_), by Walter Arnold Kaufmann, 1980
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[
"The late 16th century, when William Shakespeare and his contemporaries lived and worked in London, was one of the most notable periods in the city's cultural history. There was considerable hostility to the development of the theatre, however. Public entertainments produced crowds, and crowds were feared by the authorities because they might become mobs, and by many ordinary citizens who dreaded that large gatherings might contribute to the spread of plague. Theatre itself was discountenanced by the increasingly influential Puritan strand in the nation. However, Queen Elizabeth loved plays, which were performed for her privately at Court, and approved of public performances of \"such plays only as were fitted to yield honest recreation and no example of evil\". On April 11, 1582, the Lords of the Council wrote to the Lord Mayor to the effect that, as \"her Majesty sometimes took delight in those pastimes, it had been thought not unfit, having regard to the season of the year and the clearance of the city from infection, to allow of certain companies of players in London, partly that they might thereby attain more dexterity and perfection in that profession, the better to content her Majesty\".\n",
"This form of entertainment consisted of musical plays \"of a refined nature\". During the early Victorian era, visiting the theatre was considered distasteful to the respectable public. Shakespeare and classic British plays were presented, but the London stage became dominated by risque farces, burlesques and bad adaptations of French operettas. Jessie Bond wrote, \n",
"The late 16th and early 17th century saw the great flourishing of drama in London whose preeminent figure was William Shakespeare. During the mostly calm later years of Elizabeth's reign, some of her courtiers and some of the wealthier citizens of London built themselves country residences in Middlesex, Essex and Surrey. This was an early stirring of the villa movement, the taste for residences which were neither of the city nor on an agricultural estate, but at the time of Elizabeth's death in 1603, London was still very compact.\n",
"The stratification of London audiences in the early Jacobean period changed the fortunes of the play. For the sophisticated audiences of private theatres such as Blackfriars and (by the early 1610s) the Globe Theatre, Tamburlaine's \"high astounding terms\" were a relic of a simpler dramatic age. Satiric playwrights occasionally mimicked Marlowe's style, as John Marston does in the induction to \"Antonio and Mellida\".\n",
"The growing population of London, the growing wealth of its people, and their fondness for spectacle produced a dramatic literature of remarkable variety, quality, and extent. Although most of the plays written for the Elizabethan stage have been lost, over 600 remain.\n",
"The City of London authorities were generally hostile to public performances, but its hostility was overmatched by the Queen's taste for plays and the Privy Council's support. Theatres sprang up in suburbs, especially in the liberty of Southwark, accessible across the Thames to city dwellers but beyond the authority's control. The companies maintained the pretence that their public performances were mere rehearsals for the frequent performances before the Queen, but while the latter did grant prestige, the former were the real source of the income for the professional players.\n",
"London again had two competing companies. Their dash to attract audiences briefly revitalised Restoration drama, but also set it on a fatal downhill slope to the lowest common denominator of public taste. Rich's company notoriously offered Bartholomew Fair-type attractions – high kickers, jugglers, ropedancers, performing animals – while the co-operating actors, even as they appealed to snobbery by setting themselves up as the only legitimate theatre company in London, were not above retaliating with \"prologues recited by boys of five, and epilogues declaimed by ladies on horseback\".\n"
] |
why do they need so much money for cancer research?
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For some charities, the money is directed almost entirely to research. For example, the Multiple Myeloma Research Foundation has received an A+ rating from _URL_0_ judging by [these criteria](http://www._URL_0_/criteria.html).
Other charities aren't so dedicated to actual research, and instead often are categorized as 'awareness' charities. Now, that's not to say that they weren't started in an attempt to do some good, or that they aren't doing good now, but they're not really helping. Everyone is aware of breast cancer now, but the goal of many of these is to make sure that people get mammograms and do self checks. Why these things aren't part of regular health care exams is an entire other kettle of fish. Groups like the American Breast Cancer Foundation are these sort of groups. Unfortunately only about 25% of their raised funds go to actually help people get exams. The rest is spent on continued fund raising, and that includes pay for their employees and the board.
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[
"Breast cancer advocates have successfully increased the amount of public money being spent on cancer research and shifted the research focus away from other diseases and towards breast cancer Breast cancer advocates also raise millions of dollars for research into cures each year, although most of the funds they raise is spent on screening programs, education and treatment (; ). Most breast cancer research is funded by government agencies .\n",
"Around 40% of the charity's research expenditure goes on basic laboratory research relevant to all types of cancer into the molecular basis of cancer. The research is intended to improve understanding of how cancer develops and spreads and thus provide a foundation for other research. The rest of its funding is used to support research into over 100 specific cancer types, focusing on key areas such as drug discovery and development; prevention, early detection and imaging; surgery and radiotherapy; and cancers where survival rates are still low, such as oesophageal, lung and pancreatic cancers.\n",
"In the early 2000s, most funding for cancer research came from taxpayers and charities, rather than from corporations. In the US, less than 30% of all cancer research was funded by commercial researchers such as pharmaceutical companies. Per capita, public spending on cancer research by taxpayers and charities in the US was five times as much in 2002–03 as public spending by taxpayers and charities in the 15 countries that were full members of the European Union. As a percentage of GDP, the non-commercial funding of cancer research in the US was four times the amount dedicated to cancer research in Europe. Half of Europe's non-commercial cancer research is funded by charitable organizations.\n",
"Cancer Research UK's work is almost entirely funded by the public. It raises money through donations, legacies, community fundraising, events, retail and corporate partnerships. Over 40,000 people are regular volunteers.\n",
"The team of 40 currently works to fund £4 million of cancer research around the world every year – raised entirely from donations. Its stated vision is to see a world where no life is cut short by cancer. \n",
"Basic research in cancer is a hallmark of Yale Cancer Center, which draws approximately $96 million in cancer research funding to Yale every year. Yale is home to some of the world’s leading investigators in cancer, who have provided a steady stream of advances in a number of disciplines, contributing to the basic understanding of cancer and to the development of new therapeutic and diagnostic approaches.\n",
"Cancer research processes have been criticised. These include, especially in the US, for the financial resources and positions required to conduct research. Other consequences of competition for research resources appear to be a substantial number of research publications whose results cannot be replicated.\n"
] |
Unlike in Europe, where the tradition is still to build in brick and concrete, why does the US construct buildings using cheap building materials?
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> Unlike in Europe, where the tradition is still to build in brick and concrete
What do you mean by "in Europe"? I'm from a European country where pretty much all houses are made of wood.
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[
"Post-World War II the industry had to face the decline of buildings built during the heyday of the material, 1910–1940. Structural problems resulting from incomplete waterproofing, improper installation, poor maintenance, and interior corroding mild steel made the material unpopular in newer constructions.\n",
"Building material is any material which is used for construction purposes. Many naturally occurring substances, such as clay, rocks, sand, and wood, even twigs and leaves, have been used to construct buildings. Apart from naturally occurring materials, many man-made products are in use, some more and some less synthetic. The manufacturing of building materials is an established industry in many countries and the use of these materials is typically segmented into specific specialty trades, such as carpentry, insulation, plumbing, and roofing work. They provide the make-up of and structures including homes.\n",
"When used properly, wood, concrete and steel can last for decades or centuries. In North America, most structures are demolished because of external forces such as zoning changes and rising land values. Designing for flexibility and adaptability secures the greatest value for the embodied energy in building materials. \n",
"The building material differs greatly across Europe, depending upon the local stone and building traditions. In Italy, Poland, much of Germany and parts of the Netherlands, brick is generally used. Other areas saw extensive use of limestone, granite and flint. The building stone was often used in comparatively small and irregular pieces, bedded in thick mortar. Smooth ashlar masonry was not a distinguishing feature of the style, particularly in the earlier part of the period, but occurred chiefly where easily worked limestone was available.\n",
"Around thirty percent of the world's population lives or works in earth-made construction. Adobe type of mud bricks is one of the oldest and most widely used building materials. The use of adobe is very common in some of the world's most hazard-prone regions, traditionally across Latin America, Africa, Indian subcontinent and other parts of Asia, Middle East and Southern Europe.\n",
"During the Early Middle Ages the use of bricks in construction became popular in Northern Europe, after being introduced there from Northern-Western Italy. An independent style of brick architecture, known as brick Gothic (similar to Gothic architecture) flourished in places that lacked indigenous sources of rocks. Examples of this architectural style can be found in modern-day Denmark, Germany, Poland, and Russia.\n",
"Production of bricks increased massively with the onset of the Industrial Revolution and the rise in factory building in England. For reasons of speed and economy, bricks were increasingly preferred as building material to stone, even in areas where the stone was readily available. It was at this time in London that bright red brick was chosen for construction to make the buildings more visible in the heavy fog and to help prevent traffic accidents.\n"
] |
what is a car engine really doing when it is "warming up"?
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Well, first off you don't need to warm up the engine of a modern car. They are designed and built to such a fine tolerance you can simply turn them on and drive under normal operating conditions year round.
As to what they are doing they are literally warming up, or getting hotter. Since the engine is made of metal which expands slightly when heated the parts of the engine will expand a bit, and the main engine components (the block and head, or lower and upper part of the engine) will expand enough to float off each other a bit when they get fully heated.
This isn't a worry because the parts have a gasket between them designed to make a proper seal so no oil or radiator fluid leak out. This has been a problem in the past, some engines from the 70's and 80's that leaked notoriously did because newer materials expanded at unpredictable rates. We are well past the days of those exotic (for the time) alloys and early aluminum head/cast iron block hybrids.
|
[
"Cold start enrichment is achieved by the fact that the engine coolant is cold when the engine is cold. This causes denser vapour to be delivered to the mixer. As the engine warms up, the coolant temperature rises until the engine is at operating temperature and the mixture has leaned off to the normal running mixture. Depending on the system, the throttle may need to be held open further when the engine is cold in the same manner as with a petrol carburettor. On others, the normal mixture is intended to be somewhat lean and no cold-start throttle increase is needed. Because of the way enrichment is achieved, no additional \"choke\" butterfly is required for cold starting with LPG. Some evaporators have an electric choke valve, energising this valve, before starting the engine, will spray some LPG vapour into the carburetor to help cold start.\n",
"The fuel stored in the chamber (bowl) can be a problem in hot climates. If the engine is shut off while hot, the temperature of the fuel will increase, sometimes boiling (\"percolation\"). This can result in flooding and difficult or impossible restarts while the engine is still warm, a phenomenon known as \"heat soak\". Heat deflectors and insulating gaskets attempt to minimize this effect. The Carter Thermo-Quad carburetor has float chambers manufactured of insulating plastic (phenolic), said to keep the fuel 20 degrees Fahrenheit (11 degrees Celsius) cooler.\n",
"Heaters are also available for engine oil so that warm oil can immediately circulate throughout the engine during start up. The easier starting results from warmer, less viscous engine oil and less condensation of fuel on cold metal surfaces inside the engine; thus an engine block heater reduces a vehicle's emission of unburned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide; also heat is available more instantly for the passenger compartment and glass defogging.\n",
"Once the engine is running, the heat of compression and ignition maintains the hot bulb at the necessary temperature, and the blow-lamp or other heat source can be removed. Thereafter, the engine requires no external heat and requires only a supply of air, fuel oil and lubricating oil to run. However, under low power the bulb could cool off too much, and a throttle can cut down the cold fresh air supply. Also, as the engine's load is increased, so does the temperature of the bulb, causing the ignition period to advance; to counteract pre-ignition, water is dripped into the air intake. Equally, if the load on the engine is low, combustion temperatures may not be sufficient to maintain the temperature of the hot bulb. Many hot-bulb engines cannot be run off-load without auxiliary heating for this reason.\n",
"Cooling is also needed because high temperatures damage engine materials and lubricants and becomes even more important in hot climates. Internal-combustion engines burn fuel hotter than the melting temperature of engine materials, and hot enough to set fire to lubricants. Engine cooling removes energy fast enough to keep temperatures low so the engine can survive.\n",
"Once the engine has warmed up, the coolant is kept at a more or less constant temperature by the thermostat. The temperature of the air entering the vehicle's interior can be controlled by using a valve limiting the amount of coolant that goes through the heater core. Another method is blocking off the heater core with a door, directing part (or all) of the incoming air around the heater core completely, so it does not get heated (or re-heated if the air conditioning compressor is active). Some cars use a combination of these systems.\n",
"Once at optimum temperature, the thermostat controls the flow of engine coolant to the radiator so that the engine continues to operate at optimum temperature. Under peak load conditions, such as driving slowly up a steep hill whilst heavily laden on a hot day, the thermostat will be approaching fully open because the engine will be producing near to maximum power while the velocity of air flow across the radiator is low. (The velocity of air flow across the radiator has a major effect on its ability to dissipate heat.) Conversely, when cruising fast downhill on a motorway on a cold night on a light throttle, the thermostat will be nearly closed because the engine is producing little power, and the radiator is able to dissipate much more heat than the engine is producing. Allowing too much flow of coolant to the radiator would result in the engine being over cooled and operating at lower than optimum temperature, resulting in decreased fuel efficiency and increased exhaust emissions. Furthermore, engine durability, reliability, and longevity are sometimes compromised, if any components (such as the crankshaft bearings) are engineered to take thermal expansion into account to fit together with the correct clearances. Another side effect of over-cooling is reduced performance of the cabin heater, though in typical cases it still blows air at a considerably higher temperature than ambient.\n"
] |
how can i avoid mosquito bites?
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Source: I live in the south, and I have visited north east Arkansas which has more mosquitos than air at times. In Texas we have mosquitos that are so large they look like baby wasps. You can clearly see they have black and grey stripes on them. When you smack them on your arm it's a bloody mess. I have a friend that contracted West Nile while at work and I hate itching so I like to avoid them. In order of most to least effective or important:
* Stay indoors around sunset. You will learn that there is a peak time where it's time to seek shelter, just as it starts to cool off. No amount of Deet is going to ward them all off during that time.
* Keep some Deep Woods Off nearby at all times. You don't necessarily have to wear it all the time, but when you get your first bite go ahead and hose down with it. Don't spray it in your face, but be sure and get your back, and the backs of your legs and arms. They love behind the knees. Be careful of overly powerful deet products. I once was handed a DEET wipe that claimed "maximum strength". Putting it on my skin made me sick almost instantly and I was not in a place where I could wash it off or remove it effectively.
* Never allow anything to collect water around your living space. Outdoor standing water = mosquito breeding ground. They look like tadpoles in the water but in reality they are satan's spawn. turn over all buckets, or other things collecting water.
* Citronella products can be effective to a point but you have to be close to them. ThermaCELL appliances seem to kinda work but they are expensive and cumbersome. When I go camping I have four cheap hurricane lamps ($5.00 each at Walmart) that I power with citronella lamp oil (~$10.00 for 64oz Walmart). The lamps burn very efficiently if you keep the wik short and they do an ok job of creating a bug free zone. I also just like the look of old timey lamps.
* Wind is your friend. I don't have two ceiling fans on my back porch just for cooling. They are mostly to keep the bugs away. If they can't fly, they can't get you. If you can get in front of a good fan you are not going to be getting bit by mosquitos (as much).
Hurricane Lamp:
_URL_0_
Citronella Lamp Oil:
_URL_1_
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[
"When mosquitoes bite a person, they do not inject the blood of a previous victim into the person they bite next. Mosquitoes do, however, inject their saliva into their victims, which may carry diseases such as dengue fever, malaria, yellow fever, or West Nile virus and can infect a bitten person with these diseases. HIV is not transmitted in this manner. On the other hand, a mosquito may have HIV-infected blood in its gut, and if swatted on the skin of a human who then scratches it, transmission is hypothetically possible, though this risk is extremely small, and no cases have yet been identified through this route.\n",
"A mosquito's period of feeding is often undetected; the bite only becomes apparent because of the immune reaction it provokes. When a mosquito bites a human, it injects saliva and anti-coagulants. For any given individual, with the initial bite there is no reaction but with subsequent bites the body's immune system develops antibodies and a bite becomes inflamed and itchy within 24 hours. This is the usual reaction in young children. With more bites, the sensitivity of the human immune system increases, and an itchy red hive appears in minutes where the immune response has broken capillary blood vessels and fluid has collected under the skin. This type of reaction is common in older children and adults. Some adults can become desensitized to mosquitoes and have little or no reaction to their bites, while others can become hyper-sensitive with bites causing blistering, bruising, and large inflammatory reactions, a response known as skeeter syndrome.\n",
"Mosquito bite allergies (MBA), also termed hypersensitivity to mosquito bites (HMB), are excessive reactions of varying severity to mosquito bites. MBA are not caused by any toxin or pathogen in the saliva injected by a female mosquito at the time it takes its blood-meal. (Male mosquitos do not take blood-meals.) Rather, they are allergic hypersensitivity reactions caused by the non-toxic allergenic proteins contained in the mosquito's saliva. By general agreement, mosquito bite allergies do not include the ordinary wheal and flare responses to these bites although these reactions are also allergic in nature. Ordinary mosquito bite allergies are nonetheless detailed here because they are the best understood reactions to mosquito bites and provide a basis for describing what is understood about MBA.\n",
"The saliva of the mosquito transmitted to the host with the bite can cause itching and a rash. In addition, many species of mosquitoes inject or ingest (or both) disease-causing organisms with the bite and are thus vectors of diseases such as malaria, yellow fever, Chikungunya, West Nile virus, dengue fever, filariasis, Zika virus and other arboviruses. By transmitting diseases, mosquitoes kill more people than any other animal taxon: over 700,000 each year.\n",
"Mosquito bites lead to a variety of mild, serious, and, rarely, life-threatening allergic reactions. These include ordinary wheal and flare reactions and mosquito bite allergies (MBA). The MBA, also termed hypersensitivity to mosquito bites (HMB), are excessive reactions to mosquito bites that are not caused by any toxin or pathogen in the saliva injected by a mosquito at the time it takes its blood-meal. Rather, they are allergic hypersensitivity reactions caused by the non-toxic allergenic proteins contained in the mosquito's saliva. Studies have shown or suggest that numerous species of mosquitoes can trigger ordinary reactions as well as MBA. These include \"Aedes aegypti, Aedes vexans, Aedes albopictus, Anopheles sinensis, Culex pipiens\", \"Aedes communis, Anopheles stephensi\", \"Culex quinquefasciatus, Ochlerotatus triseriatus\", and \"Culex tritaeniorhynchus\". Furthermore, there is considerable cross-reactivity between the salivary proteins of mosquitoes in the same family and, to a lesser extent, different families. It is therefore assumed that these allergic responses may be caused by virtually any mosquito species (or other biting insect). \n",
"Individuals with systemic mosquito bite allergies respond to mosquito bites with intense local skin reactions (e.g. blisters, ulcers, necrosis, scarring) and concurrent or subsequent systemic symptoms (high-grade fever and/or malaise; less commonly, muscle cramps, bloody diarrhea, bloody urine, proteinuria, and/or wheezing; or very rarely, symptoms of overt anaphylaxis such as hives, angioedema (i.e. skin swelling in non-mosquito bite areas), shortness of breath, rapid heart rate, and low blood pressure]]. There are very rare reports of death due to anaphylaxis following mosquito bites. Individual with an increased risk of developing severe mosquito bite reactions include those experiencing a particularly large number of mosquito bites, those with no previous exposure to the species of mosquito causing the bites, and those with a not fully developed immune system such as infants and young children. Individuals with certain Epstein-Barr virus-associated lymphoproliferative, non-Epstein-Barr virus malignant lymphoid, or other predisposing disease also have an increased rate of systemic mosquito bite reactions but are considered in a separate category (see below).\n",
"There are other methods that an individual can use to protect themselves from mosquito bites. Limiting exposure to mosquitoes from dusk to dawn when the majority of mosquitoes are active and wearing long sleeves and long pants during the period mosquitoes are most active. Placing screens on windows and doors is a simple and effective means of reducing the number of mosquitoes indoors. Anticipating mosquito contact and using a topical mosquito repellant with DEET or icaridin is also recommended. Draining or covering water receptacles, both indoor and outdoors, is also a simple but effective prevention method. Removing debris and tires, cleaning drains, and cleaning gutters help larval control and reduce the number of adult mosquitoes.\n"
] |
The German Schlieffen Plan was in development for years prior to the breakout of WWI... how well was the plan kept secret? Was the invasion of Belgium genuinely a surprise to the other European powers?
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Debates over whether or not the idea of a "Schlieffen plan" actually existing aside, the Plan itself was kept fairly secret, with wargaming of scenarios based on it being few in number, and knowledge of the actual plan being restricted to high ranking war ministry and General Staff members.
That being said, to an extent the French and the Russians had guessed German intentions before. The French formulated Plan XVII with the expectation that the Germans would invade through southern Belgium (ie south of the Meuse) and Luxembourg, avoiding the bulk of the country while also avoiding most of the French fortress line. Hence Plan XVII envisioned placing two French armies inside Alsace-Lorraine via offensives to threaten the German advance from the south, while three armies to the north parried and reversed the main German attack. Likewise, the Russians promised to mobilize '800 000 men' to be sent against presumably weak German opposition, in support of the French, while two thirds of Russia's mobilized forces would move against Austria-Hungary.
When the German invasion actually came, it was certainly a surprise for France, Britain and Belgium. The French did not expect an invasion of Belgium on such a wide front, and with all of Germany's reserve divisions committed. The British were shocked considering that the invasion encompassed the whole country; had the invasion taken place as the French believed it would, the chances of British involvement would have been greatly reduced. Few were also prepared for the ferocity of the German attack: in spite of Belgian civilians having been told to avoid altercations and largely heeding this advice from their government, the invading Germans lashed out at 'francs-tireurs' real or largely imagined, and c. 5600 Belgian and c. 900 French civilians were murdered, and tens of thousands of homes destroyed. Dinant and Lueven (including it's university library) were almost completely raised.
* *War Planning in 1914*, Holger Herwig and Richard Hamilton
* *Helmuth von Moltke and the Origins of the First World War*, Annika Mombauer
* *Catastrophe*, Max Hastings
* *Belgian Atrocities 1914: A history of denial*, John Horne and Alan Kramer
* *The War that Ended Peace*, Margaret MacMillan
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[
"From as early as 1904, Alfred von Schlieffen of the German General Staff began to draw up a military strategy, known as the Schlieffen Plan, which could be put into action if Germany found itself involved in a two-front war against France and Russia. The core of the plan was a rapid attack on France on the outbreak of war, forcing a quick victory in the west before the Russians had time to fully mobilize their forces. The Schlieffen Plan took advantage of the French military's concentration and fortifications along the Franco-German border by prescribing an invasion of neutral Belgium and Luxembourg. According to the plan, the German army would rapidly overwhelm the Belgian military and then move quickly through the country and then towards Paris. The general staff believed that none of the signatories would be willing to honor their commitments from the 1839 Treaty of London, which a German diplomat dismissed as a \"scrap of paper\".\n",
"The weakness of the plan was that, politically at least, it abandoned most of eastern Belgium to the Germans. Militarily it would put the Allied rear at right angles to the French frontier defences; while for the British, their communications located at the Bay of Biscay ports, would be parallel to their front. Despite the risk of committing forces to central Belgium and an advance to the Scheldt or Dyle lines, which would be vulnerable to an outflanking move, Maurice Gamelin, the French commander, approved the plan and it remained the Allied strategy upon the outbreak of war.\n",
"Nazi Germany planned to use forces that would distract the Allies that would enter Belgium which would make French and British troops leave their current position. Germany would also use a second force to navigate the Ardennes Forest and move around the Maginot Line. Germany had a very simple and strategic plan take the Netherlands and Luxembourg before invading France and Belgium. The plan focused on eliminating any resistance that remained, capturing Paris, crossing the English Channel and then invading Great Britain.\n",
"The German war plan (the Schlieffen Plan) of 1905 was modified in 1908 to invade Belgium on the way to Paris but not the Netherlands. It supplied many essential raw materials to Germany such as rubber, tin, quinine, oil and food. The British used its blockade to limit supplies that the Dutch could pass on. There were other factors that made it expedient for both the Allies and the Central Powers for the Netherlands to remain neutral. The Netherlands controlled the mouths of the Scheldt, the Rhine and the Meuse Rivers. Germany had an interest in the Rhine since it ran through the industrial areas of the Ruhr and connected it with the Dutch port of Rotterdam. Britain had an interest in the Scheldt River and the Meuse flowed from France. All countries had an interest in keeping the others out of the Netherlands so that no one's interests could be taken away or be changed. If one country were to have invaded the Netherlands, another would certainly have counterattacked to defend their own interest in the rivers. It was too big a risk for any of the belligerent nations and none wanted to risk fighting on another front.\n",
"Germany's \"Schlieffen Plan\" was to quickly defeat the French. They captured Brussels, Belgium by 20 August and soon had captured a large portion of northern France. The original plan was to continue southwest and attack Paris from the west. By early September they were within of Paris, and the French government had relocated to Bordeaux. The Allies finally stopped the advance northeast of Paris at the Marne River (5–12 September 1914).\n",
"Tooze wrote that the plan failed to offer the possibility of a decisive victory in the west desired by Hitler but lasted until the Mechelen Incident of February 1940. The incident was the catalyst for an alternative plan for an encircling move through the Ardennes proposed by Manstein but it came too late to change the armaments programme. The swift victory in France was not the consequence of a thoughtful strategic synthesis but a lucky gamble, an improvisation to resolve the strategic problems that the generals and Hitler had failed to resolve by February 1940. The Allies and the Germans were equally reluctant to reveal the casual way that the Germans gained their biggest victory. The blitzkrieg myth suited the Allies, because it did not refer to their military incompetence; it was expedient to exaggerate the excellence of German equipment. The Germans avoided an analysis based on technical determinism, since this contradicted Nazi ideology and \"OKW\" attributed the victory to the \"revolutionary dynamic of the Third Reich and its National Socialist leadership\".\n",
"Hitler's original plan was to attack in late November, before the French and British had time fully to deploy along their front. The plan, devised by Hitler, was essentially for a re-run of the invasion of 1914, with the main assault to come in the north, through Belgium and the Netherlands, then wheeling south to capture Paris, leaving the French Army anchored on the Maginot Line. Most senior officers were opposed to both the timing and the plan. Rundstedt, Manstein, Reichenau (commanding 6th Army in Army Group B), List and Brauchitsch remonstrated with Hitler in a series of meetings in October and November. They were opposed to an offensive so close to the onset of winter, and they were opposed to launching the main attack through Belgium, where the many rivers and canals would hamper armoured operations. Manstein in particular, supported by Rundstedt, argued for an armoured assault by Army Group A, across the Ardennes to the sea, cutting the British and French off in Belgium. This \"Manstein Plan\" was the genesis of the blitzkrieg of May 1940.\n"
] |
Was WWI a true good guy vs bad guy war?
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Okay, no. No, no, no, no. No war is ever a "good guy vs. bad guy" sort of thing from a historical perspective, though individual nations by and large choose to cast the war they're fighting in that sense. You can bet World War II was seen by citizens of the Axis powers as a "good vs. evil" affair, just as certainly as you can bet that they didn't see themselves on the "evil" side.
The truth of the matter is that history really is, to raise the old cliche, "written by the victors". Or at least by those left alive to write it. Retrospect allows us to see the horrors of the Holocaust or the unspeakably brutal after-effects of the Eastern or Chinese or Philippine Fronts, but it's probably safe to say that the majority of German conscripts fighting at, say, Kursk, were not there so that their leaders could continue to exterminate millions of innocent civilians in frighteningly efficient fashion.
**tl;dr: No war is ever "good vs. evil"; individuals and nations just choose to cast it that way.**
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[
"In his book \"The Great War\", Ian F. W. Beckett also cited Sheffield: the latter commented that \"Blackadder Goes Forth\" was successful because \"the characters and situations needed no explanation, so familiar was the audience with the received version of the war\". Beckett noted the popularity of the episode's final scene, and compared it to a similarly popular scene from \"Dad's Army\". He said that this comparison demonstrates the observation made by historian A. J. P. Taylor that the Second World War has been regarded as a \"good war\" in comparison to the first; he opined that \"television producers...have much to answer for in the perpetuation of the image of the Great War as one in which a generation of 'lions' were needlessly sacrificed by the 'donkeys'\".\n",
"GameSpot praised the darker, grittier portrayal of the World War II settings. 1UP.com noted the significantly increased graphic violence and gore (even over the M-rated \"Call of Duty 4\") as a positive improvement in realism saying, \"While enemies died en masse in previous installments, dismemberment and gore were essentially nonexistent. That's no longer the case — here, legs are severed, men cry out in agony as they reach for lost body parts, and gouts of blood fly as bullets pierce flesh.\" and that \"\"World at War\" portrays the horror of WWII more accurately than ever before...\"\n",
"Although the horrors of World War II are far removed from the Pacific Coast community where adolescent Duke Cooper (Trevor Morgan) and his three best chums play soldier, experiment with swearing, and earnestly patrol the beach for Japanese submarines, the realities of the war are about to come crashing down around them. Not when a Japanese soldier, stranded and wounded when his sub quickly dived, washes ashore; his capture by the foursome merely allows for more playtime and thoughts of becoming heroes. It's coming because Duke's older brother is on some island awaiting combat and the black sedans with military tags have already begun rolling through town to deliver their grim announcements. And Duke's Japanese American pal Willie Tanaka (Yuki Tokuhiro), all three feet and 55 pounds of him, has suddenly become a threat to national security, so he, his mother, and grandfather are soon to be shipped away to an internment camp.\n",
"Between the Great Wars American films celebrated the bravery of the American soldiers while depicting war as an existential nightmare. Films such as \"The Big Parade\" depicted the horrors of trench warfare, the brutal destruction of villages, and the lack of provisions.\n",
"BULLET::::- Richard Drayton: \"\"An ethical blank cheque\"\" British and U.S. mythology about the second world war ignores our own crimes and legitimises Anglo-American war making, \"The Guardian\", Tuesday May 10, 2005\n",
"Good Times Bad Times is a Canadian documentary film, directed by Donald Shebib and released in 1969. A depiction of military veterans, the film juxtaposed original BBC documentary footage from World War I and World War II with contemporary footage of veterans recalling their experiences at Royal Canadian Legion halls, Remembrance Day commemorations and veterans hospitals.\n",
"The Best War Ever: America and World War II is a revisionist history book written by Dr. Michael C. C. Adams (professor of history at Northern Kentucky University). The book was and first published by the Johns Hopkins University press in 1993 as part of its \"American Moment\" series, edited by University of Wisconsin–Madison history professor Stanley I. Kutler. In a 2004 survey of American college history instructors, the book was voted #2 in the \"most likely to plagiarize\" category, finishing just behind \"Amusing the Million\" by John Kasson. \n"
] |
Would it be right to say that semiconductors are produced by doping?
|
No, not all semiconductors are doped. There are also [intrinsic semiconductors](_URL_0_), where pure materials act as semiconductors. For example, a pure chunk of silicon is an important example of such an intrinsic semiconductor.
|
[
"Doping is the key to the extraordinarily wide range of electrical behavior that semiconductors can exhibit, and extrinsic semiconductors are used to make semiconductor electronic devices such as diodes, transistors, integrated circuits, semiconductor lasers, LEDs, and photovoltaic cells. Sophisticated semiconductor fabrication processes like photolithography can implant different dopant elements in different regions of the same semiconductor crystal wafer, creating semiconductor devices on the wafer's surface. For example a common type of transistor, the n-p-n bipolar transistor, consists of an extrinsic semiconductor crystal with two regions of n-type semiconductor, separated by a region of p-type semiconductor, with metal contacts attached to each part.\n",
"Introducing impurities in a semiconductor which are used to set free additional electrons in its conduction band is called doping with donors. In a group IV semiconductor like silicon these are most often group V elements like arsenic or antimony. However, these impurities introduce new energy levels in the band gap affecting the band structure which may alter the electronic properties of the semiconductor to a great extent.\n",
"Semiconductor materials are useful because their behavior can be easily manipulated by the deliberate addition of impurities, known as doping. Semiconductor conductivity can be controlled by the introduction of an electric or magnetic field, by exposure to light or heat, or by the mechanical deformation of a doped monocrystalline silicon grid; thus, semiconductors can make excellent sensors. Current conduction in a semiconductor occurs due to mobile or \"free\" electrons and electron holes, collectively known as charge carriers. Doping a semiconductor with a small proportion of an atomic impurity, such as phosphorus or boron, greatly increases the number of free electrons or holes within the semiconductor. When a doped semiconductor contains excess holes, it is called a p-type semiconductor (\"p\" for positive electric charge); when it contains excess free electrons, it is called an n-type semiconductor (\"n\" for negative electric charge). A majority of mobile charge carriers have negative charge. The manufacture of semiconductors controls precisely the location and concentration of p- and n-type dopants. The connection of n-type and p-type semiconductors form p–n junctions.\n",
"Unlike in metals, the atoms that make up the bulk semiconductor crystal do not provide the electrons which are responsible for conduction. In semiconductors, electrical conduction is due to the mobile charge carriers, electrons or holes which are provided by impurities or dopant atoms in the crystal. In an extrinsic semiconductor, the concentration of doping atoms in the crystal largely determines the density of charge carriers, which determines its electrical conductivity, as well as a great many other electrical properties. This is the key to semiconductors' versatility; their conductivity can be manipulated over many orders of magnitude by doping.\n",
"From this one might expect that by doping the bulk of the semiconductor, the work function can be tuned. In reality, however, the energies of the bands near the surface are often pinned to the Fermi level, due to the influence of surface states. If there is a large density of surface states, then the work function of the semiconductor will show a very weak dependence on doping or electric field.\n",
"The conductivity of semiconductors may easily be modified by introducing impurities into their crystal lattice. The process of adding controlled impurities to a semiconductor is known as \"doping\". The amount of impurity, or dopant, added to an \"intrinsic\" (pure) semiconductor varies its level of conductivity. Doped semiconductors are referred to as \"extrinsic\". By adding impurity to the pure semiconductors, the electrical conductivity may be varied by factors of thousands or millions.\n",
"By doping pure silicon with Group V elements such as phosphorus, extra valence electrons are added that become unbonded from individual atoms and allow the compound to be an electrically conductive n-type semiconductor. Doping with Group III elements, which are missing the fourth valence electron, creates \"broken bonds\" (holes) in the silicon lattice that are free to move. The result is an electrically conductive p-type semiconductor. In this context, a Group V element is said to behave as an electron donor, and a group III element as an acceptor. This is a key concept in the physics of a diode.\n"
] |
what are the "loudness wars", why are they happening, and why should anyone care that music is getting louder?
|
Music is getting compressed so it sounds louder. Before this you're set your volume to your preferred level and would hear everything from quiet notes to very loud and distinct drum hits. Now the quiet notes are louder, the mid range is louder, and consequently the formerly loud and distinct drum hits are just barely louder than everything else.
[This](_URL_0_) video demonstrates it better than any written description really can.
|
[
"The loudness war (or loudness race) refers to the trend of increasing audio levels in recorded music which reduces audio fidelity and, according to many critics, listener enjoyment. Increasing loudness was first reported as early as the 1940s, with respect to mastering practices for 7\" singles. The maximum peak level of analog recordings such as these is limited by varying specifications of electronic equipment along the chain from source to listener, including vinyl and Compact Cassette players. The issue garnered renewed attention starting in the 1990s with the introduction of digital signal processing capable of producing further loudness increases.\n",
"BULLET::::1. Noise: Because participants gather in the streets and other public areas, the noise can disturb surrounding residents and citizens. Also, loud music contributes to the amount of noise, which is one reason why participants have begun moving to less populated areas in cities.\n",
"Music played at excessive volumes is often considered a form of noise pollution. Governments such as that of the United Kingdom have local procedures for dealing with noise pollution, including loud music.\n",
"Loud music is music that is played at a high volume, often to the point where it disturbs others and/or causes hearing damage. It may include music that is sung live with one or more voices, played with instruments, or broadcast with electronic media, such as radio, CD, or MP3 players.\n",
"Noise Chaos War is a compilation album by the American thrash metal band, Hirax. It contains three EP's in remastered format; \"Barrage of Noise\" (2000), \"Chaos and Brutality\" and \"Assassins of War\" (2007). \"Bombs of Death\" is a live recorded video from a 2009 show in Japan.\n",
"Contemporary noise music is often associated with extreme volume and distortion. In the domain of experimental rock, examples include Lou Reed's \"Metal Machine Music\", and Sonic Youth. Other examples of music that contain noise-based features include works by Iannis Xenakis, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Helmut Lachenmann, Cornelius Cardew, Theatre of Eternal Music, Glenn Branca, Rhys Chatham, Ryoji Ikeda, Survival Research Laboratories, Whitehouse, Ramleh, Coil, Brighter Death Now, Merzbow, Dror Feiler, Cabaret Voltaire, Psychic TV, Blackhouse, Jean Tinguely's recordings of his sound sculpture (specifically \"Bascule VII\"), the music of Hermann Nitsch's \"Orgien Mysterien Theater\", and La Monte Young's bowed gong works from the late 1960s. Genres such as industrial, industrial techno, lo-fi music, black metal, sludge metal, and glitch music employ noise-based materials.\n",
"Louder Than War is a music and culture website and magazine focusing on mainly alternative arts news, reviews, and features. The site is an editorially independent publication that was started by journalist John Robb in 2010 and is now run by a team of other journalists with a worldwide team of freelancers. There has been a print edition since 2015.\n"
] |
How would a Christian church service have differed in Rome in 500, 1000, and 1500 CE?
|
I can only give some descriptions on the changes throughout history. The essence basically remains the same throughout history: the mass of the catechumens and the eucharistic liturgy proper. Initially Mass was offered only on Sundays and feast days, but as more feast days were inserted, daily masses began to be offered.
Changes were made throughout history: additional prayers, or changes in the order of prayers. But the Canon of Mass, the core eucharistic prayer in the eucharistic liturgy, has more or less been the same in Rome since Pope Gregory I (600 AD) to 1500 AD. Elsewhere there is more variation, and only unified by Pope Pius V in 1570 after the Council of Trent.
The liturgy in 500 AD compared to 1000 and 1500 AD was simpler, with fewer prayers, graduals, and no Credo, just to mention a few. It should therefore be shorter, but since the medieval ages sometimes did not have sermons, the length could be the same. A Tridentine mass (after 1500s) could reach 3 hour long in high mass form with a sermon.
|
[
"By the end of the early Christian period, the church within the Roman Empire had hundreds of bishops, some of them (Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, \"other provinces\") holding some form of jurisdiction over others.\n",
"By the end of the early Christian period, the church within the Roman Empire had hundreds of bishops, some of them (Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, \"other provinces\") holding some form of jurisdiction over others.\n",
"By the end of the early Christian period, the church within the Roman Empire had hundreds of bishops, some of them (Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, \"other provinces\") holding some form of jurisdiction over others.\n",
"The real evolution of the Christian service in the first century is shrouded in mystery. By the second and third centuries, such Church Fathers as Clement of Alexandria, Origen, and Tertullian wrote of formalised, regular services: the practice of Morning and Evening Prayer, and prayers at the third hour of the day (terce), the sixth hour of the day (sext), and the ninth hour of the day (none). With reference to the Jewish practices, it is surely no coincidence that these major hours of prayer correspond to the first and last hour of the conventional day, and that on Sundays (corresponding to the Sabbath in Christianity), the services are more complex and longer (involving twice as many services if one counts the Eucharist and the afternoon service). Similarly, the liturgical year from Christmas via Easter to Pentecost covers roughly five months, the other seven having no major services linked to the work of Christ. However, this is not to say that the Jewish services were copied or deliberately substituted, see Supersessionism.\n",
"The real evolution of the Christian service in the first century is shrouded in mystery. By the second and third centuries, such Church Fathers as Clement of Alexandria, Origen, and Tertullian wrote of formalised, regular services: the practice of Morning and Evening Prayer, and prayers at the third hour of the day (terce), the sixth hour of the day (sext), and the ninth hour of the day (none). With reference to the Jewish practices, it is surely no coincidence that these major hours of prayer correspond to the first and last hour of the conventional day, and that on Sundays (corresponding to the Sabbath in Christianity), the services are more complex and longer (involving twice as many services if one counts the Eucharist and the afternoon service). Similarly, the liturgical year from Christmas via Easter to Pentecost covers roughly five months, the other seven having no major services linked to the work of Christ. However, this is not to say that the Jewish services were copied or deliberately substituted, see Supersessionism.\n",
"From an early stage, the city had a small but growing population of Christians, Roman and Berber and was noted for the religious debates and tumults which featured the hostility of Roman public religion toward Christians. By the 4th century, the conversion of the population from pagan to Christian beliefs resulted in nearly all of the population being Christianised.\n",
"Peace between the Church and the Roman Empire greatly effected the liturgical life and musical practice of Christians. In the fourth century AD, Constantine became the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity. This conversion led to the proclamation of the Edict of Milan, which decreed religious tolerance throughout the empire. With more and more converts, it was clear that services could no longer be conducted in the informal manner of the early days. This freedom in religion allowed the church to build for large basilicas which made it possible for public worship and for Christians to finally assume a new dignity. Music, in particular had its own place in these newly constructed basilicas. As the early church of Jerusalem spread westward to Western Europe, it brought along musical elements from diverse areas. It was during this time that the Schola Cantorum made its first appearance at the service of liturgical celebration.\n"
] |
why can hospitals charge $50 a pill for tylenol, but i can buy a whole bottle at the store for $5?
|
You're not just paying for the tylenol. You're paying for the nurse to give it to you, to make sure it's the right thing, for the diagnosis from the doctor to give you the tylenol, for anything any of the techs have to do for you, for the bed you're sitting in, for the air conditioning, for the TV, for the electricity, for the hospital administration and record keeping. You're paying for all of it. Going to the hospital for a tylenol is a very silly thing to do.
It's the exact same reason you get charged $1.99 for a coke at a restaurant, when you can get a whole two liter for $0.99 at the store. You're not just paying for the soda, you're paying to have it brought to you, with ice and a straw, in a social setting, with food available, by a server. Same idea.
|
[
"It is available as a generic medication and is moderately expensive. Globally, the wholesale price of the medication is about US$1.80 to $3.00 a month. In the United States a month's supply is about $50 to $150.\n",
"Large US retailers that operate pharmacies and pharmacy chains use inexpensive generic drugs as a way to attract customers into stores. Several chains, including Walmart, Kroger (including subsidiaries such as Dillons), Target, and others, offer $4 monthly prescriptions on select generic drugs as a customer draw. Publix Supermarkets, which has pharmacies in many of their stores, offers free prescriptions on a few older but still effective medications to their customers. The maximum supply is for 30 days.\n",
"It is marketed by Par Pharmaceuticals LLC as Dantrium (in North America) and by Norgine BV as Dantrium, Dantamacrin, or Dantrolen (in Europe). A hospital is recommended to keep a minimum stock of 36 dantrolene vials totaling 720 mg, sufficient for a 70-kg person. As of 2015 the cost for a typical course of medication in the United States is 100 to 200 USD.\n",
"It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most important medications needed in a basic health system. In the United States the wholesale price of a month's supply at the usual daily dose of the medication is about US$20.10. In the United Kingdom a month of medication costs the NHS about 24 pounds.\n",
"It is a prescription drug. Cash price in California or Oregon is $279.99 as of September 28, 2016 for a week's supply totalling 900 ml of two-part solution. According to the manufacturer, solution consists of: \n",
"The Beverage Marketing Corporation (BMC) states that in 2013, the average wholesale price per gallon of domestic non-sparkling bottled water was $1.21. BMC's research also shows that consumers actually tend to buy bottled water in bulk from supermarkets (25.3%) or large discount retailers (57.9%) because it costs significantly less. Convenience stores are likely to have higher prices (4.5%), as do drug stores (2.8%). The remaining 9.5% is accounted for through vending machines, cafeterias and other food service outlets, and other types of sales.\n",
"It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system. In the United States in 2015, it was not available as a generic medication and the price was increased from US$13.50 to $750 a tablet ($75,000 for a course of treatment). In other areas of the world, it is available as a generic and costs as little as $0.05 to $0.10 per dose.\n"
] |
How long does it take for a nerve signal to travel from a blue whale's tail to it's brain?
|
Assuming an optimally myelinated fibre, nerve impulse speeds in humans are circa. 100m/s. So if there were 1 fibre travelling the distance of the blue whale, about 0.3s.
I don't know much about whale physiology, but I very much doubt there is a single axon travelling the whole whale. Instead it will be punctuated with synapses which dramatically slow down the total time taken to traverse the whale.
Reflex arcs are faster due to fewer synapses, but will also go via the spinal column rather than the full distance to the brain - so it's an unfair comparison!
|
[
"Some neurons are responsible for conveying information over long distances. For example, motor neurons, which travel from the spinal cord to the muscle, can have axons up to a meter in length in humans. The longest axon in the human body belongs to the Sciatic Nerve and runs from the great toe to the base of the spinal cord. These are archetypal examples of neural pathways.\n",
"The tail flick assay or tail flick test uses a high-intensity beam of light aimed at a rodent's tail to detect nociception. In normal rodents, the noxious heat sensation induced by the beam of light causes a prototypical movement of the tail via the flexor withdrawal reflex. An investigator normally measures the time it takes for the reflex to be induced, a factor influenced by a rodent's sex, age and body weight. The most critical parameter for the tail flick assay is the beam intensity; stimuli producing latencies of larger than 3–4 seconds generally create more variable results. Another important factor to consider is the level of restraint used; rodents held too tightly may exhibit greater tail flick latencies due to heightened stress levels.\n",
"Ultraviolet studies of Mira by NASA's Galaxy Evolution Explorer (GALEX) space telescope have revealed that it sheds a trail of material from the outer envelope, leaving a tail 13 light-years in length, formed over tens of thousands of years. It is thought that a hot bow-wave of compressed plasma/gas is the cause of the tail; the bow-wave is a result of the interaction of the stellar wind from Mira A with gas in interstellar space, through which Mira is moving at an extremely high speed of 130 kilometres/second (291,000 miles per hour). The tail consists of material stripped from the head of the bow-wave, which is also visible in ultraviolet observations. Mira's bow-shock will eventually evolve into a planetary nebula, the form of which will be considerably affected by the motion through the interstellar medium (ISM).\n",
"BULLET::::- Neurons – vary in length from less than a millimeter to over a meter. The longest single human neuron currently identified extends from the tip of a toe, well over a meter, up to the spinal cord at L1. Neurons that both originate and terminate inside the brain itself can measure less than a millimeter.\n",
"Sensory information regarding mechanical stretch of the cervix is carried in a sensory neuron, which synapses in the dorsal horn before ascending to the brain in the anterolateral columns (ipsilateral and contralateral routes). Via the median forebrain bundle, the efferent reaches the PVN and SON of the hypothalamus. The posterior pituitary releases oxytocin due to increased firing in the hypothalamo-hypophyseal tract. Oxytocin acts on the myometrium, on receptors which have been upregulated by a functional increase of the estrogen-progesterone ratio. This functional ratio change is mediated by a decrease in myometrial sensitivity to progesterone, due to an increase (surely this should be decrease) in progesterone receptor A, and a concurrent increase in myometrial sensitivity to estrogen, due to an increase in estrogen receptor α. This causes myometrial contraction and further positive feedback on the reflex.\n",
"Approximately half of the nerve fibers in the optic nerve carry information from the fovea, while the remaining half carry information from the rest of the retina. The parafovea extends to a radius of 1.25 mm from the central fovea, and the perifovea is found at a 2.75 mm radius from the fovea centralis.\n",
"When the sensory hairs of the tail fan of crayfish are stimulated, the LG activates the motor neurons that control flexion movements of the abdomen in a way that propels the crayfish away from the source of the stimulation. The LG bypasses the main neural system that controls locomotion, thus shortening the reaction time.\n"
] |
why would someone want to jam gps receivers?
|
The usual reason is people who are commercial drivers who want to do something they aren't allowed to do (take a detour to visit a relative, for example) but their commercial vehicle logs or transmits the vehicle's information to their boss. The vehicle usually gets its location, time, and current speed from GPS, and either logs this information periodically to a recording device or transmits it to the boss/company via the cellular network.
Jamming the GPS intermittently as well as when "needed" for clandestine activity, and it looks like mechanical GPS / equipment failure.
|
[
"Man-made EMI (electromagnetic interference) can also disrupt or jam GPS signals. In one well-documented case it was impossible to receive GPS signals in the entire harbor of Moss Landing, California due to unintentional jamming caused by malfunctioning TV antenna preamplifiers. Intentional jamming is also possible. Generally, stronger signals can interfere with GPS receivers when they are within radio range or line of sight. In 2002 a detailed description of how to build a short-range GPS L1 C/A jammer was published in the online magazine Phrack.\n",
"Due to the low received signal strength of satellite transmissions, they are prone to jamming by land-based transmitters. Such jamming is limited to the geographical area within the transmitter's range. GPS satellites are potential targets for jamming, but satellite phone and television signals have also been subjected to jamming.\n",
"This inaccuracy in GPS is mostly due to large \"billows\" in the ionosphere, which slow the radio signal from the satellites by a random amount. Since GPS relies on timing the signals to measure distances, this slowing of the signal makes the satellite appear farther away. The billows move slowly, and can be characterized using a variety of methods from the ground, or by examining the GPS signals themselves. By broadcasting this information to GPS receivers every minute or so, this source of error can be significantly reduced.\n",
"GPS devices vary in sensitivity, speed, vulnerability to multipath propagation, and other performance parameters. High Sensitivity GPS receivers use large banks of correlators and digital signal processing to search for GPS signals very quickly. This results in very fast times to first fix when the signals are at their normal levels, for example outdoors. When GPS signals are weak, for example indoors, the extra processing power can be used to integrate weak signals to the point where they can be used to provide a position or timing solution.\n",
"Since GPS signals at terrestrial receivers tend to be relatively weak, natural radio signals or scattering of the GPS signals can desensitize the receiver, making acquiring and tracking the satellite signals difficult or impossible.\n",
"A GPS spoofing attack attempts to deceive a GPS receiver by broadcasting incorrect GPS signals, structured to resemble a set of normal GPS signals, or by rebroadcasting genuine signals captured elsewhere or at a different time. These spoofed signals may be modified in such a way as to cause the receiver to estimate its position to be somewhere other than where it actually is, or to be located where it is but at a different time, as determined by the attacker. One common form of a GPS spoofing attack, commonly termed a carry-off attack, begins by broadcasting signals synchronized with the genuine signals observed by the target receiver. The power of the counterfeit signals is then gradually increased and drawn away from the genuine signals. It has been suggested that the capture of a Lockheed RQ-170 drone aircraft in northeastern Iran in December, 2011 was the result of such an attack. GPS spoofing attacks had been predicted and discussed in the GPS community previously, but no known example of a malicious spoofing attack has yet been confirmed. A \"proof-of-concept\" attack was successfully performed in June, 2013, when the luxury yacht \"White Rose of Drachs\" was misdirected with spoofed GPS signals by a group of aerospace engineering students from the Cockrell School of Engineering at the University of Texas in Austin. The students were aboard the yacht, allowing their spoofing equipment to gradually overpower the signal strengths of the actual GPS constellation satellites, altering the course of the yacht.\n",
"In recent years, some radar detectors have added GPS technology. This allows users to manually store the locations where police frequently monitor traffic, with the detector sounding an alarm when approaching that location in the future (this is accomplished by pushing a button and doesn't require coordinates to be entered). These detectors also allow users to manually store the coordinates of sites of frequent false alarms, which the GPS enabled detector will then ignore. The detector can also be programmed to mute alerts when traveling below a preset speed, limiting unnecessary alerts. Some GPS enabled detectors can download the GPS coordinates of speed monitoring cameras and red-light cameras from the Internet, alerting the driver that they are approaching the camera.\n"
] |
is there a fixed amount of money/assets in the world?
|
no it wouldn't. because you can create money out of nothing. aka interest. the amount of money is always going up basically due to interest.
|
[
"In 2008, the world's total tradeable financial assets (stocks, debt securities and bank deposits) were estimated at $178 trillion, more than three times the value of what the whole world produces in a year. In June 2017, the world's total public and private debt was estimated at US$217 trillion, again more than three times the value of what the whole world produces in a year. If one assumes a grand-average net profit rate of 5% on this global debt, the profit made from global debt is roughly equal in value to the GDP of China. This has created a world in industrialized countries that is very different from the orthodox classical revolutionary Marxist analysis of the commodity, where workers simply exchange their commodity labor power for a wage to buy a bundle of consumable commodities with.\n",
"The fixed assets purchased may nowadays include substantial used assets traded on second-hand markets, the quantitatively most significant items being road vehicles, planes, and industrial machinery. Worldwide, this growing trade is worth hundreds of billions of dollars, and countries in Eastern Europe and Latin America, Russia, China, India and Morocco use large quantities of second-hand machinery. Often it is bought from Europe, North America and Japan, where fixed assets are on average scrapped more quickly.\n",
"Today, the world's largest IFI is the European Investment Bank, with a balance sheet size of €573 billion in 2016. This compares to the two components of the World Bank, the IBRD (assets of $358 billion in 2014) and the IDA (assets of $183 billion in 2014). For comparison, the largest commercial banks each have assets of c.$2,000-3,000 billion.\n",
"According to Merrill Lynch and Capgemini's “World Wealth Report” for 2000, one third of the wealth of the world's “high-net-worth individuals” — nearly $6 trillion out of $17.5 trillion — may now be held offshore. A large portion, £6.3tn, of offshore assets, is owned by only a tiny sliver, 0.001% (around 92,000 super wealthy individuals) of the world's population. In simple terms, this reflects the inconvenience associated with establishing these accounts, not that these accounts are only for the wealthy. Most all individuals can take advantage of these accounts.\n",
"The financial position of the United States includes assets of at least $269.6 trillion (1576% of GDP) and debts of $145.8 trillion (852% of GDP) to produce a net worth of at least $123.8 trillion (723% of GDP) as of Q1 2014.\n",
"A study by the World Institute for Development Economics Research at United Nations University reports that the richest 1% of adults alone owned 40% of global assets in the year 2000. The \"three\" richest people in the world possess more financial assets than the lowest 48 nations combined. The combined wealth of the \"10 million dollar millionaires\" grew to nearly $41 trillion in 2008. A January 2014 report by Oxfam claims that the 85 wealthiest individuals in the world have a combined wealth equal to that of the bottom 50% of the world's population, or about 3.5 billion people. According to a \"Los Angeles Times\" analysis of the report, the wealthiest 1% owns 46% of the world's wealth; the 85 richest people, a small part of the wealthiest 1%, own about 0.7% of the human population's wealth, which is the same as the bottom half of the population. In January 2015, Oxfam reported that the wealthiest 1 percent will own more than half of the global wealth by 2016. An October 2014 study by Credit Suisse also claims that the top 1% now own nearly half of the world's wealth and that the accelerating disparity could trigger a recession.\n",
"In modern economies, relatively little of the supply of broad money is in physical currency. For example, in December 2010 in the U.S., of the $8,853.4 billion in broad money supply (M2), only $915.7 billion (about 10%) consisted of physical coins and paper money. The manufacturing of new physical money is usually the responsibility of the central bank, or sometimes, the government's treasury.\n"
] |
how do processors work? how is a simple silicon chip able to perform calculations?
|
This is a complicated topic built on very simple ideas. If you go step by step you should be able to wrap your head around it.
**What is a semi-conductor?** Starting all the way down at the atomic level. In pure silicon crystals, the atoms are neatly arranged, and all have their outer electron shell full, so it won't conduct electricity because all the electrons are nice and cosy. By adding impurities into the crystal, we make two types of semiconductors,: P and N. N (negative) has more electrons, so it's willing to give them away and P has fewer electrons (positive) so it's glad to take in electrons.
You [put a chunk of N next to P](_URL_4_) and you have a diode. Pass electric current (aka a flow of electrons, but in the other direction) through it in the P-N direction, and the electrons will flow freely. however if you pass current in the N-P direction, the part where the two semiconducting materials meet will become "full" of electrons, like natural silicon crystals, building a wall between the N and P where electrons don't want to move, and any new electrons will hit that wall and won't be able to move forward, instead they'll just keep building that cosy wall.
So we can force electricity to only pass one way through a circuit, pretty cool...now what?
**What is a transistor?** By [sandwiching semiconductors](_URL_3_) in an N-P-N or P-N-P way, and attaching electrodes (wires), we have a component that will behave differently depending where the electron flow comes from. This was first used as an amplifier (like a transistor radio), But can also be [used as a switch](_URL_1_).
Depending which part you put current in, what comes out of the transistor will either be current or no current.
**Logic circuits.**
Now that we have this little thing that can switch depending on if it has current or not, we can string a bunch of them together in various ways to make boolean logic circuits. boolean just means you either have yes or no, or, in binary, 1 or 0.
Here's a [NAND gate](_URL_0_), meaning *not and*, as you can see it pretty much looks like a transistor, because it is! You have two inputs, and if A has current (A=1) and B has current (B=1), it will put out a 0 (because it's a *not and*).
[Here's a basic XOR, *exclusive or* gate](_URL_2_), meaning that A need to be 1 or B needs to be 1 for Q to be 1, but if A and B are both 0 or both 1, Q will be 0. This is just one way basic AND or NAND gates can be strung together.
Now slap a few billion of these together in a CPU and you have a logic machine that can do all kinds of calculations.
(sorry for the brief ending, I ran out of time, hope you learned something)
EDIT: thanks to all the other people explaining boolean arithmetic on a higher level. Teamwork, yay!
EDIT2: Fixed some links and hopefully cleared up the confusion between electron flow and current.
|
[
"The CPU in modern computer hardware performs reads and writes to memory most efficiently when the data is \"naturally aligned\", which generally means that the data address is a multiple of the data size. \"Data alignment\" refers to aligning elements according to their natural alignment. To ensure natural alignment, it may be necessary to insert some \"padding\" between structure elements or after the last element of a structure.\n",
"Since CPUs implement an instruction set, it's very useful to be able to decode the instruction's bits directly into the sequencer, to select a set of microinstructions to perform a CPU's instructions.\n",
"While performing various operations, CPUs need to calculate memory addresses required for fetching data from the memory; for example, in-memory positions of array elements must be calculated before the CPU can fetch the data from actual memory locations. Those address-generation calculations involve different integer arithmetic operations, such as addition, subtraction, modulo operations, or bit shifts. Often, calculating a memory address involves more than one general-purpose machine instruction, which do not necessarily decode and execute quickly. By incorporating an AGU into a CPU design, together with introducing specialized instructions that use the AGU, various address-generation calculations can be offloaded from the rest of the CPU, and can often be executed quickly in a single CPU cycle.\n",
"While performing various operations, CPUs need to calculate memory addresses required for fetching data from the memory; for example, in-memory positions of array elements must be calculated before the CPU can fetch the data from actual memory locations. Those address-generation calculations involve different integer arithmetic operations, such as addition, subtraction, modulo operations, or bit shifts. Often, calculating a memory address involves more than one general-purpose machine instruction, which do not necessarily decode and execute quickly. By incorporating an AGU into a CPU design, together with introducing specialized instructions that use the AGU, various address-generation calculations can be offloaded from the rest of the CPU, and can often be executed quickly in a single CPU cycle.\n",
"In general terms, CPUs are able to manipulate one or two pieces of data at a time. For instance, most CPUs have an instruction that essentially says \"add A to B and put the result in C\". The data for A, B and C could be—in theory at least—encoded directly into the instruction. However, in efficient implementation things are rarely that simple. The data is rarely sent in raw form, and is instead \"pointed to\" by passing in an address to a memory location that holds the data. Decoding this address and getting the data out of the memory takes some time, during which the CPU traditionally would sit idle waiting for the requested data to show up. As CPU speeds have increased, this \"memory latency\" has historically become a large impediment to performance; see Memory wall.\n",
"In the 1990s the chip design and fabrication process grew to the point where it was possible to build a commodity processor with every potential feature built into it. To improve performance, CPU designs started adding internal parallelism, becoming \"superscalar\". In any program there are instructions that work on unrelated data, so by adding more functional units these instructions can be run at the same time. A new portion of the CPU, the \"scheduler\", looks for these independent instructions and feeds them into the units, taking their outputs and re-ordering them so externally it appears they ran in succession.\n",
"The advantage of the bitboard representation is that it takes advantage of the essential logical bitwise operations available on nearly all CPUs that complete in one cycle and are fully pipelined and cached etc. Nearly all CPUs have AND, OR, NOR, and XOR. Many CPUs have additional bit instructions, such as finding the \"first\" bit, that make bitboard operations even more efficient. If they do not have instructions well known algorithms can perform some \"magic\" transformations that do these quickly.\n"
] |
why do my teet hurt when i eat sugary candy (taffy, tootsie rolls...)
|
Sounds like cavity creeps
|
[
"Making candy can be hazardous due to the use of boiled sugar and melted chocolate. Boiling sugar often exceeds —hotter than most cooked foods—and the sugar tends to stick to the skin, causing burns and blisters upon skin contact. Worker safety programs focus on reducing contact between workers and hot food or hot equipment, and reducing splashing, because even small splashes can cause burns. \n",
"Due to the high amounts of sugar, divinity acts like a sponge. If the environment is very humid (over 50%) the candy will absorb moisture from the air, remaining gooey. Under the right conditions, it is a soft, white candy which should be dry to the touch.\n",
"Most candy, particularly low-fat and fat-free candy, has a high glycemic index (GI), which means that it causes a rapid rise in blood sugar levels after ingestion. This is chiefly a concern for people with diabetes, but could also be dangerous to the health of non-diabetics.\n",
"Confetti candy is a confectionery food product that is prepared with cooked sugar and corn syrup that is formed into sheets, cooled, and then cracked or broken into pieces. It has a hard, brittle texture. To add eye appeal, colored sugar is sometimes sprinkled atop after the cooking and shaping process has been performed.\n",
"The candy is made by heating and liquefying sugar, spinning it centrifugally through minute holes — and finally allowing the sugar to rapidly cool and re-solidify into fine strands. It is often sold at fairs, circuses, carnivals, and festivals — served on either a stick, paper cone or in a plastic bag. \n",
"Hard candies are historically associated with cough drops. The extended flavor release of lozenge-type candy, which mirrors the properties of modern cough drops, had long been appreciated. Many apothecaries used sugar candy to make their prescriptions more palatable to their customers.\n",
"Candy, also called sweets or lollies, is a confection that features sugar as a principal ingredient. The category, called \"sugar confectionery\", encompasses any sweet confection, including chocolate, chewing gum, and sugar candy. Vegetables, fruit, or nuts which have been glazed and coated with sugar are said to be \"candied\".\n"
] |
Intelligence documents from WWII and after from my Grandfather
|
First and foremost it's amazing that they've been kept. Please do what you can to make sure they don't get damaged and do what you can to minimize the damage. Original documents are often a wonderful treasure trove to many historians. Often even mundane documents can lead to some critical insight that nobody would have suspected at the time or even a century later. So please make sure they stay safe until they can be properly inventoried/scanned/saved.
It is also possible that they are of little actual value outside of the connection to your grandfather. Still better safe than sorry. Scanning the documents (provided the scanner itself does no damage) would probably be a good place to start as it preserves what is there.
Not sure about the UK, if this were the US I would probably look at whatever preservation/museum that the particular unit he served in might have. I know the several army, navy, and air force units in the US have museums and archives at their home bases. That might be a place to start in the UK as well.
|
[
"Established in June 1945 as the Air Documents Research Center (ADRC), the agency's first mission was to collect German air documents. The documents collected were divided into three categories: documents that would assist the war in the Pacific theater, documents of immediate intelligence interest to the United States or British forces and documents of interest for future research.\n",
"In Washington, the War Department turned over portions of its intelligence files to many of the participants involved. Most of these records were subsequently destroyed or lost. Thus, accounts by individuals of their parts in the war, or official papers focusing on larger subjects, such as military official correspondence, have become important sources of information on intelligence activities. Due to the lack of supporting documents, much of this information is difficult to substantiate or place in perspective and context.\n",
"The first historian to examine the diaries was Hugh Trevor-Roper, who was cautious, but impressed with the volume of documentation in front of him. As the background to the acquisition was explained to him he became less doubtful; he was falsely informed that the paper had been chemically tested and been shown to be pre-war, and he was told that \"Stern\" knew the identity of the officer who had rescued the documents from the plane and had stored them ever since. By the end of the meeting he was convinced that the diaries were genuine, and later said \"who, I asked myself, would forge sixty volumes when six would have served his purpose?\" In an article in \"The Times\" on 23 April 1983 he wrote:\n",
"BULLET::::- The first published account of the previously secret wartime operation, concentrating mainly on distribution of intelligence. It was written from memory and has been shown by subsequent authors, who had access to official records, to contain some inaccuracies.\n",
"BULLET::::- The first published account of the previously secret wartime operation, concentrating mainly on distribution of intelligence. It was written from memory and has been shown by subsequent authors, who had access to official records, to contain some inaccuracies.\n",
"An 18-part series of declassified documents edited by John Mendelsohn and titled \"Covert Warfare: Intelligence, counterintelligence, and military deception during the World War II era\" was published in 1989. Part 11 was also named \"The History of the Counter Intelligence Corps (CIC)\".\n",
"Declassified documents from the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency show that the CIA had been aware of some details of his wartime past since 1945. Information about Waldheim's wartime past was also previously published by a pro-German Austrian newspaper, \"Salzburger Volksblatt\", during the 1971 presidential election campaign, including the claim of an SS membership, but the matter was supposedly regarded as unimportant or even advantageous for the candidate at that time.\n"
] |
what does it mean when someone is "in shock"?
|
Nobody has given a unified answer so I will try. Basically there are two kinds of shock that somebody could be referring to.
/u/upvoter222, /u/someanonymousaccnt have alluded to **physiological shock**, a condition you are unable to maintain a blood pressure to the extent that it becomes life threatening. There's a huge list of causes but the familiar terms **septic shock** and **toxic shock syndrome** fit into this category.
When you talk about somebody appearing calm after suffering some calamity, this probably refers to some form of **[dissociative episode](_URL_1_)**, which is psychological response to overwhelming pain / emotional stress / other psychological stress. Some people describe the experience as being *dream-like* or as if they were watching it *happen to somebody else* and not to themselves. Dissociative episodes are one of the symptoms of **[PTSD](_URL_0_)**, though having an episode does not necessarily mean you have PTSD. It's also an effect of certain medications. This is what I think /u/redleadereu and /u/rafflecopter are referring too.
In your example, he could very well have both: physiologic shock from blood loss and psychological shock from pain.
EDIT: grammar
|
[
"Shock is the state of not enough blood flow to the tissues of the body as a result of problems with the circulatory system. Initial symptoms may include weakness, fast heart rate, fast breathing, sweating, anxiety, and increased thirst. This may be followed by confusion, unconsciousness, or cardiac arrest as complications worsen.\n",
"In English law, a nervous shock is a psychiatric / mental illness or injury inflicted upon a person by intentional or negligent actions or omissions of another. Often it is a psychiatric disorder triggered by witnessing an accident, for example an injury caused to one's parents or spouse. Although the term \"nervous shock\" has been described as \"inaccurate\" and \"misleading\", it continues to be applied as a useful abbreviation for a complex concept. The possibility of recovering damages for nervous shock, particularly caused by negligence, is strongly limited in English law.\n",
"Acute stress reaction (also called acute stress disorder, psychological shock, mental shock, or simply shock) is a normal psychological response to a terrifying, traumatic, or surprising experience. It should not be confused with the unrelated circulatory condition of shock/hypoperfusion. Acute Stress Reaction is never fatal, but Acute stress reaction (ASR) may develop into delayed stress reaction (better known as Posttraumatic stress disorder, or PTSD) if stress is not correctly managed.\n",
"Shock is a common end point of many medical conditions. Shock itself is a life-threatening condition as a result of compromised body circulation. It has been divided into four main types based on the underlying cause: hypovolemic, distributive, cardiogenic, and obstructive. A few additional classifications are occasionally used including: endocrinologic shock.\n",
"Traumatic events or any type of shock to the body can cause an acute stress response disorder (ASD). The extent to which one experiences ASD depends on the extent of the shock. If the shock was pushed past a certain extreme after a particular period in time ASD can develop into what is commonly known as Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). There are two ways that the body responds biologically in order to reduce the amount of stress an individual is experiencing. One thing that the body does to combat stressors is to create stress hormones, which in turn create energy reservoirs that are there in case a stressful event were to occur. The second way our biological components respond is through an individuals cells. Depending on the situation our cells obtain more energy in order to combat any negative stressor and any other activity those cells are involved in seize.\n",
"Shock value is the potential of an image, text, action, or other form of communication, such as a public execution, to provoke a reaction of sharp disgust, shock, anger, fear, or similar negative emotions.\n",
"Culture shock is an experience a person may have when one moves to a cultural environment which is different from one's own; it is also the personal disorientation a person may feel when experiencing an unfamiliar way of life due to immigration or a visit to a new country, a move between social environments, or simply transition to another type of life. One of the most common causes of culture shock involves individuals in a foreign environment. Culture shock can be described as consisting of at least one of four distinct phases: honeymoon, negotiation, adjustment, and adaptation. \n"
] |
why does the us use fahrenheit when the rest of the world uses celsius?
|
Let's build a cube. A meter tall (or 100 centimeters, 1,000 ..*millimeters*) wide and deep. Let's now fill it with water: Exactly 1,000 liters of water will be needed. For a weight of 1,000 kilos, or a ton. This water will boil at 100 degrees C and freeze at 0C.
*oh my god metric's haaaard, man!*
|
[
"The Fahrenheit scale was the primary temperature standard for climatic, industrial and medical purposes in English-speaking countries until the 1960s. In the late 1960s and 1970s, the Celsius scale replaced Fahrenheit in almost all of those countries—with the notable exception of the United States—typically during their general metrication process.\n",
"The Fahrenheit scale was the primary temperature standard for climatic, industrial and medical purposes in English-speaking countries until the 1970s, nowadays replaced by the Celsius scale long used in the rest of the world.\n",
"BULLET::::- After the United Kingdom sought to join the European Economic Community, the Meteorological Office first began using Celsius temperature values in its public weather information, following the Fahrenheit values. In October, the Celsius values were listed first, and by January 1, 1973, when the government entered the EEC and completed its conversion to the metric system, Fahrenheit numbers were only used occasionally.\n",
"At the end of the 2010s, Fahrenheit was used as the official temperature scale only in the United States (including its unincorporated territories), its freely associated states in the Western Pacific (Palau, the Federated States of Micronesia and the Marshall Islands), the Bahamas, the Cayman Islands and Liberia. Antigua and Barbuda and other islands which use the same meteorological service, such as Anguilla, the British Virgin Islands, Montserrat and Saint Kitts and Nevis, as well as Bermuda, Belize and the Turks and Caicos Islands, use Fahrenheit and Celsius. All other countries in the world officially now use the Celsius scale, named after Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius. Also, despite metrication in 1962, Fahrenheit is still used occasionally in the United Kingdom, although not in any official contexts.\n",
"Fahrenheit is used in the United States, its territories and associated states (all served by the U.S. National Weather Service), as well as the Bahamas, the Cayman Islands and Liberia for everyday applications. For example, U.S. weather forecasts, food cooking, and freezing temperatures are typically given in degrees Fahrenheit. Scientists, such as meteorologists, use degrees Celsius or kelvin in all countries.\n",
"September 2011 Angus Reid Public Opinion poll found that Britons (43%) are less likely than Americans (49%) or Canadians (52%) to say that \"global warming is a fact and is mostly caused by emissions from vehicles and industrial facilities\". The same poll found that 20% of Americans, 20% of Britons and 14% of Canadians think \"global warming is a theory that has not yet been proven\".\n",
"As the earth warms, the rain belt is projected to move north of the current position. Recent climate change can be attributed to rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere; caused by the burning of fossil fuels. The correlation between the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and average global temperature is undeniably direct, meaning that as more carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere, the temperature of the earth is expected to rise as well. Even though the earth is warming as a whole entity, the Northern Hemisphere is warming faster than the Southern because of melting Arctic sea ice.\n"
] |
how can a country sell bonds with negative interest rate?
|
They can't and don't.
The thing is that inflation happens. So if the nominal interest rate on the bonds is less than the rate of inflation, the *effective* interest rate is negative. They're still a good deal, though, because cash is also affected by inflation; keeping your money in cash would just make you lose more.
|
[
"During the European debt crisis, government bonds of some countries (Switzerland, Denmark, Germany, Finland, the Netherlands and Austria) have been sold at negative yields. Suggested explanations include desire for safety and protection against the eurozone breaking up (in which case some eurozone countries might redenominate their debt into a stronger currency).\n",
"In practice, the market interest rate tends to be different for debts of different countries. An example is in borrowing by different European Union countries denominated in euros. Even though the currency is the same in each case, the yield required by the market is higher for some countries' debt than for others. This reflects the views of the market on the relative solvency of the various countries and the likelihood that the debt will be repaid. Further, there are historical examples where countries defaulted, i.e., refused to pay their debts, even when they had the ability of paying it with printed money. This is because printing money has other effects that the government may see as more problematic than defaulting.\n",
"BULLET::::- Fixed rate bonds are subject to \"interest rate risk\", meaning that their market prices will decrease in value when the generally prevailing interest rates rise. Since the payments are fixed, a decrease in the market price of the bond means an increase in its yield. When the market interest rate rises, the market price of bonds will fall, reflecting investors' ability to get a higher interest rate on their money elsewhere — perhaps by purchasing a newly issued bond that already features the newly higher interest rate. This does not affect the interest payments to the bondholder, so long-term investors who want a specific amount at the maturity date do not need to worry about price swings in their bonds and do not suffer from interest rate risk.\n",
"This involves an increase of the monetary supply, and a fall of the domestically available interest rate. Because the internationally available interest rate adjusted for foreign exchange differences has not changed, market participants are able to make a profit by borrowing in the country's currency and then lending abroad a form of carry trade.\n",
"If the global interest rate declines below the domestic rate, the opposite occurs. The BoP curve shifts down, foreign money flows in and the home currency is pressured to appreciate, so the central bank offsets the pressure by selling domestic currency (equivalently, buying foreign currency). The inflow of money causes the LM curve to shift to the right, and the domestic interest rate becomes lower (as low as the world interest rate if there is perfect capital mobility).\n",
"BULLET::::2. Interest rate level: Interest rates are the cost and profit of borrowing capital. When a country raises its interest rate or its domestic interest rate is higher than the foreign interest rate, it will cause capital inflow, thereby increasing the demand for domestic currency, allowing the currency to appreciate and the foreign exchange depreciate.\n",
"\"Nominal\" interest rates are normally positive, but not always. In contrast, \"real\" interest rates can be negative, when nominal interest rates are below inflation. When this is done via government policy (for example, via reserve requirements), this is deemed financial repression, and was practiced by countries such as the United States and United Kingdom following World War II (from 1945) until the late 1970s or early 1980s (during and following the Post–World War II economic expansion). In the late 1970s, United States Treasury securities with negative real interest rates were deemed \"certificates of confiscation\".\n"
] |
what's the process to get into u.s from mexico legally (immigrate)?
|
It depends. The US will offer x amount of work visas every year for jobs where there are a shortage of American workers (it could be working on farms or being a doctor), student visas and travel visas (you don't need a visa to visit the US if you are Mexican)
After you get your foot in the door you are only allowed to stay for until your visa expires. After that you are supposed to return. If you want to legally stay, you have to apply for permanent resident status (which means you are not a citizen, but are legally entitled to stay permanently [a green card]). This can by done a few ways. First, you can apply based on family ties, if you marry an American you can apply, if you are unmarried but are the offspring of an US citizen, etc. If you posses extraordinary capabilities or training, if it is of the national interest or if you belong to a group that is being persecuted and your country's government does not have control of the situation, or are a refugee you can apply for refugee status. If you belong to the last group the state department will investigate your case and grant or deny you asylum; all require an interview with US Citizenship and Immigration Services.
Employers can also petition the government to grant x amount of visas to do x job because these jobs require workers to be in the US for extended periods of time and there are not enough people in the US that can do it.
All th is does not grant you citizenship, it grants you the right to live in the US, you do not serve on jury duty, there are certain benefits you are not eligible for but you are fully protected by the constitution (even if you are here illegally).
Generally, if you h ave no special skills then you will not be granted a green card.
|
[
"After the United States returned to a more closed border, immigration has been more difficult than ever for Mexican residents hoping to migrate. Mexico is the leading country of migrants to the U.S.. A Mexican Repatriation program was founded by the United States government to encourage people to voluntarily move to Mexico. However, the program was not found successful and many immigrants were deported against their will. In 2010, there was a total of 139,120 legal immigrants who migrated to the United States. This put Mexico as the top country for emigration. In subsequent years China and India have surpassed Mexico as the top sources of immigrants to the United States, and since 2009 there has been a net decline in the number of Mexicans living in the US.\n",
"Almost a third of all immigrants in the U.S. were born in Mexico, being the source of the greatest number of both authorized (20%) and unauthorized (56%) migrants who come to the U.S. every year. Since the early 1990s, Mexican immigrants are no longer concentrated in California, the Southwest, and Illinois, but have been coming to new gateway states, including New York, North Carolina, Georgia, Nevada, and Washington, D.C., in increasing numbers. This phenomenon can be mainly attributed to poverty in Mexico, the growing demand for unskilled labor in the U.S., the existence of established family and community networks that allow migrants to arrive in the U.S. with people known to them.\n",
"Mexican law had long allowed grants of land to naturalized Mexican citizens. Obtaining Mexican citizenship was not difficult and many earlier American immigrants had gone through the process and obtained free grants of land. That same year (1845) anticipation of war with the United States and the increasing number of immigrants reportedly coming from the United States resulted in orders from Mexico City denying immigrants from the United States entry into California. The orders also required California's officials not to allow land grants, sales or even rental of land to non-citizen emigrants already in California. All non-citizen immigrants, who had arrived without permission, were threatened with being forced out of California.\n",
"For those who enter the US illegally across the Mexico–United States border and elsewhere, migration is difficult, expensive and dangerous. Virtually all undocumented immigrants have no avenues for legal entry to the United States due to the restrictive legal limits on green cards, and lack of immigrant visas for low-skilled workers. Participants in debates on immigration in the early twenty-first century called for increasing enforcement of existing laws governing illegal immigration to the United States, building a barrier along some or all of the Mexico-U.S. border, or creating a new guest worker program. Through much of 2006 the country and Congress was immersed in a debate about these proposals. few of these proposals had become law, though a partial border fence had been approved and subsequently canceled.\n",
"BULLET::::- Persistence: It is estimated that nearly half a million Mexicans will immigrate to the United States each year until 2030, culminating in nearly a half century of high immigration from a single country.\n",
"Discrepancies between the figures of official legal aliens and all foreign-born residents is quite large. The official figure for foreign-born residents in Mexico in 2000 was 493,000, with a majority (86.9%) of these born in the United States (except Chiapas, where the majority of immigrants are from Central America). The six states with the most immigrants are Baja California (12.1% of total immigrants), Mexico City (the \"Federal District\"; 11.4%), Jalisco (9.9%), Chihuahua (9%) and Tamaulipas (7.3%).\n",
"Immigrants caught and flown back to Mexico would usually be taken back to Guadalajara, Jalisco, or into Benito Juarez International Airport in Mexico City. Despite the conditions of travelling by foot from Mexico to the United States and treatment by coyotes, a survey run at Mexico's largest international airport by a North American newspaper showed that 50 percent of those returned to Mexico by air would be willing to try to return to the United States illegally again.\n"
] |
Why do some places have two high and two low tides a day, and other places have only one?
|
In short, this is because the ocean basins aren't uniform and tides don't have the same impact in all areas. Imagine sloshing water back an forth in a bucket- there will be areas that experience more extreme water level change relative to the regular surface level.
There are certain areas in the oceans, nodes, which would be like the center of the bucket when sloshing the water: the water height stays relatively level
|
[
"Tides are commonly \"semi-diurnal\" (two high waters and two low waters each day), or \"diurnal\" (one tidal cycle per day). The two high waters on a given day are typically not the same height (the daily inequality); these are the \"higher high water\" and the \"lower high water\" in tide tables. Similarly, the two low waters each day are the \"higher low water\" and the \"lower low water\". The daily inequality is not consistent and is generally small when the Moon is over the Equator.\n",
"The north coast is unusual in having four high tides each day, with a double high tide every twelve and a half hours. This arises because the western Solent is narrower than the eastern; the initial tide of water flowing from the west starts to ebb before the stronger flow around the south of the island returns through the eastern Solent to create a second high water.\n",
"The rule assumes that all tides behave in a regular manner, this is not true of some geographical locations, such as Poole Harbour or the Solent where there are \"double\" high waters or Weymouth Bay where there is a double low water.\n",
"The tides in the port area are semi-diurnal in nature, that is, occurrence of two high and two low waters every day. The spring tides are up to . The mean tidal range varies from 0.914 m to 1.219 m at spring and from 0.805 m to 0.610 m at neap tides. The change in water levels combined due to astronomical tide, wind setup, wave setup, barometric pressure, seiches and global sea level rise are estimated as 1.57 m, 1.68 m and 1.8 m at 15 m, 10 m and 5 m depth contours, respectively. Waves ranging from 0.4 m to 2.0 m in the deep water around Chennai harbour have been experienced with the predominant being 0.4 m to 1.2 m with wave periods predominantly in the order of 4 to 10 seconds. During cyclone season, waves of height exceeding 2.5 m are common. The predominant wave directions during southwest and northeast monsoons are 145° from north and 65° from north, respectively.\n",
"Spring tides result in high waters that are higher than average, low waters that are lower than average, 'slack water' time that is shorter than average, and stronger tidal currents than average. Neaps result in less extreme tidal conditions. There is about a seven-day interval between springs and neaps.\n",
"The tidal range in the Bay of Fundy is about . (The average tidal range worldwide is about .) Some tides are higher than others, depending on the position of the moon, the sun, and atmospheric conditions. Tides are semidiurnal, meaning they have two highs and two lows each day with about six hours and 13 minutes between each high and low tide.\n",
"Tidal flows of seawater are resisted by the water's inertia and can be affected by land masses. In places like the Gulf of Mexico where land constrains the movement of the bulges, only one set of tides may occur each day. Inshore from an island there may be a complex daily cycle with four high tides. The island straits at Chalkis on Euboea experience strong currents which abruptly switch direction, generally four times per day but up to 12 times per day when the moon and the sun are 90 degrees apart. Where there is a funnel-shaped bay or estuary, the tidal range can be magnified. The Bay of Fundy is the classic example of this and can experience spring tides of . Although tides are regular and predictable, the height of high tides can be lowered by offshore winds and raised by onshore winds. The high pressure at the centre of an anticyclones pushes down on the water and is associated with abnormally low tides while low-pressure areas may cause extremely high tides. A storm surge can occur when high winds pile water up against the coast in a shallow area and this, coupled with a low pressure system, can raise the surface of the sea at high tide dramatically. In 1900, Galveston, Texas experienced a surge during a hurricane that overwhelmed the city, killing over 3,500 people and destroying 3,636 homes.\n"
] |
what is academic probation and how would somebody get it?
|
It means your grades are shit and if you don't shape up you're out.
This is more typical in colleges or private schools since they don't want some slacker tanking their performance numbers.
|
[
"Academic probation in the United Kingdom is a period served by a new academic staff member at a university or college when they are first given their job. It is specified in the conditions of employment of the staff member, and may vary from person to person and from institution to institution. In universities founded prior to the Further and Higher Education Act 1992, it is usually three years for academic staff and six months to a year for other staff. In the universities created by that Act, and in colleges of higher education, the period is generally just a year across the board, for both academic and other staff.\n",
"Disciplinary probation is a disciplinary status that can apply to students at a higher educational institution or to employees in the workplace. For employees, it can result from both poor performance at work or from misconduct. For students, it results from misconduct alone, with poor academic performance instead resulting in scholastic probation.\n",
"Probation is a period of time where an offender lives under supervision and under a set of restrictions. Violations of these restrictions could result in arrest. Probation is typically an option for first time offenders with high rehabilitative capacity. At its core, it is \"a substitute for prison\", with the goal being to \"spare the worthy first offender from the demoralizing influences of imprisonment and save him from recidivism\". In the United States, there are 4,162,536 probationers. Probationers are supervised by probation officers just as parolees are supervised by parole officers. Probation officers have similar authority as parole officers do to restrict mobility, social contact, and mandate various other conditions and requirements. Probationers just like parolees are at high risk of imprisonment due to violation of their restrictions that may not be classified as criminal. In the United States, 40% of probationers were sent to jail or prison for technical and criminal violations.\n",
"In a workplace setting, probation (or probationary period) is a status given to new employees of a company or business or new members of organizations, such churches, associations, clubs or orders. It is widely termed as the Probation Period of an employee. This status allows a supervisor or other company manager to evaluate closely the progress and skills of the newly hired worker, determine appropriate assignments, and monitor other aspects of the employee such as honesty, reliability, and interactions with co-workers, supervisors or customers.\n",
"Probation is a system of supervision and social-pedagogic activities over offender, ordered by a Court and in accordance to the legislation; enforcement of certain types of a criminal penalty, not concerned the deprivation of liberty and to provide the Court with information characterized the offender.\n",
"The extended length of the probationary period in universities prior to the FHE Act 1992 is the result of an agreement made in 1974 between the University Authorities Panel and the Association of University Teachers, the Academic and Related Salaries Settlement. The working party that formed the agreement stated that the purpose of academic probation was to decide, at the end of the probationary period whether a member of staff should be retained, and that this decision is based upon \"the long-term interests of the university itself, of the other members of its staff, and of its students\". The working group set out several criteria that a probationer was expected to satisfy:\n",
"In some jurisdictions, the term \"probation\" applies only to community sentences (alternatives to incarceration), such as suspended sentences. In others, probation also includes supervision of those conditionally released from prison on parole.\n"
] |
What were the intentions of Edward, the Black Prince, preceding the battle of Poitiers (1356), was he looking to confront King John II of France?
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Are you referring to the letter Prince Edward sent to the City of London following his victory? Edward doesn't exactly say he was planning on retreating. Instead, he says he was withdrawing to link up with the Duke of Lancaster after abandoning an assault on Tours. After he rejected the French negotiators, Edward waited at Chatelleraute for four days in order to determine where exactly the French king and his army were. After that, it was in fact Edward who was pursuing the French, rather than the other way around. After that, the campaign was a messy series of maneuvers and skirmishes as both armies attempted to locate the other. Edward was clearly intending on having a battle, but it would be on his terms and on terrain carefully chosen to protect his men from the French attack.
The Poitiers campaign is (in terms of strategy) not very different from the Crecy campaign, or the Black Prince's 1355 *chevauchée* (although in that case, the French refused to come out to fight in the field). It is a common misconception that the English engaged in *chevauchées* in order to avoid confrontations with larger French armies. Most sources point to the exact opposite scenario: the English actively desired open combat in the field, while the French only attacked marauding English armies when they felt they had no other choice. The English knew that their armies were highly effective in the field, and frequently won battles against numerically superior foes. The prospect of engaging larger forces was not a cause for much fear, provided that the English were able to maneuver so that they 1)fought the battle on favorable terrain and 2)prevented multiple French forces from enveloping them. What has often been interpreted in the past as English armies being chased by French armies is more often English armies attempting to maneuver in order to pick the best location for open combat. For more on English military strategy in the opening stages of the Hundred Years War, I highly recommend Clifford Rogers' *The Wars of Edward III: Sources and Interpretations*.
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[
"Edward III of England's son, Edward the Black Prince, invaded France from English held Gascony in 1356, winning a victory at the Battle of Poitiers. During the battle, the Gascon noble Jean III de Grailly, captal de Buch, captured the French king, John II, and many of his nobles. At the instigation of the pope, negotiations were opened and resulted in a truce being declared on 13 March 1357. The Black Prince brought John to London where negotiations were reopened and the First treaty of London signed in May 1358.\n",
"When Edward III determined to renew the war with France in 1355, he ordered the Black Prince to lead an army into Aquitaine while he, as his plan was, acted with the king of Navarre in Normandy, and the Duke of Lancaster upheld the cause of John of Montfort in Brittany. The prince's expedition was made in accordance with the request of some of the Gascon lords who were anxious for plunder. On 10 July the king appointed him his lieutenant in Gascony, and gave him powers to act in his stead, and, on 4 August, to receive homages. He left London for Plymouth on 30 June, was detained there by contrary winds, and set sail on 8 September with about three hundred ships, in company with four earls (Thomas Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick, William Ufford, Earl of Suffolk, William Montagu, Earl of Salisbury, and John Vere, Earl of Oxford), and in command of a thousand men-at-arms, two thousand archers, and a large body of Welsh foot. At Bordeaux the Gascon lords received him with much rejoicing. It was decided to make a short campaign before the winter, and on 10 October he set out with fifteen hundred lances, two thousand archers, and three thousand light foot. Whatever scheme of operations the King may have formed during the summer, this expedition of the Prince was purely a piece of marauding. After grievously harrying the counties of Juliac, Armagnac, Astarac, and part of Comminges, he crossed the Garonne at Sainte-Marie a little above Toulouse, which was occupied by John I, Count of Armagnac and a considerable force. The count refused to allow the garrison to make a sally, and the prince passed on, stormed and burnt Mont Giscar, where many men, women, and children were ill-treated and slain, and took and pillaged Avignonet and Castelnaudary. All the country was rich, and the people \"good, simple, and ignorant of war\", so the prince took great spoil, especially of carpets, draperies, and jewels, for \"the robbers\" spared nothing, and the Gascons who marched with him were especially greedy.\n",
"Edward, the Black Prince resumed the war with destructive chevauchées starting from Bordeaux. His army was caught by a much larger French force at Poitiers, but the ensuing battle was a decisive English victory resulting in the capture of John II of France. John agreed a treaty promising the French would pay a four million écus ransom. The subsequent Treaty of Brétigny was demonstrably popular in England, where it was both ratified in parliament and celebrated with great ceremony. To reach agreement, clauses were removed that would have had Edward renounce his claim to the French crown in return for territory in Aquitaine and the town of Calais. These were entered in another agreement to be effected only after the transfer of territory by November 1361 but both sides prevaricated over their commitments for the following nine years. Hostages from the Valois family were held in London while John returned to France to raise his ransom. Edward had restored the lands of the former Angevin Empire holding Normandy, Brittany, Anjou, Maine and the coastline from Flanders to Spain. When the hostages escaped back to France, John was horrified that his word had been broken and returned to England, where he eventually died.\n",
"The Black Prince had already warned his father of the intentions of the French king, but there was evidently a party at Edward's court that was jealous of his power, and his warnings were slighted. In April 1369, however, war was declared. Edward sent the Earls of Cambridge and Pembroke to his assistance, and Sir Robert Knolles, who now again took service with, him, added much to his strength. The war in Aquitaine was desultory, and, though the English maintained their ground fairly in the field, every day that it was prolonged weakened their hold on the country.\n",
"Attached to the English side in the conflict, he was made Count of Bigorre by Edward III of England, and was also a founder and the fourth Knight of the Garter in 1348. He played a decisive role as a cavalry leader under Edward, the Black Prince in the Battle of Poitiers (1356), with de Buch leading a flanking move against the French that resulted in the capture of the king of France (John II), as well as many of his nobles. John was taken to London by the Black Prince and held to ransom.\n",
"The Black Prince's \"chevauchée\" of 1356, which began on 4 August at Bordeaux and ended with the Battle of Poitiers on 19 September, was a devastating raid of Edward of Woodstock, Prince of Wales (known as the Black Prince), the eldest son of King Edward III of England. This expedition of the Black Prince devastated large parts of Bergerac, Périgord, Nontronnais, Confolentais, Nord-Ouest, Limousin, La Marche, Boischaut, Champagne Berrichonne, Berry, Sologne, south of Touraine and Poitou.\n",
"In August 1356 the Black Prince was threatened by a larger army under John II. The English attempted to retreat but their way was blocked at Poitiers. The Black Prince tried to negotiate terms with the French, but John's army attacked the English on 19 September 1356. The English archers were able to bring down the first three assaults of the French cavalry. At the point when the English archers were running out of arrows and many were wounded or exhausted, the French king deployed his reserves, an elite force of men. It seemed that the French would win the day, however, the Gascon noble Captal de Buch managed to thwart the French by leading a flanking movement, with a small group of men, that succeeded in capturing John II, and many of his nobles. John signed a truce with Edward III, and in his absence much of the government began to collapse. John's ransom was set to two million, but John believed he was worth more than that and insisted that his ransom be raised to four million écus.\n"
] |
How common was it to be executed for being a "witch" around the time of the Salem Witch Trials?
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By the time of the Salem trials the witch craze was already well into its decline. It was an anomalous outburst for the time. If you want to know the witch craze in general I can talk a bit about that, though I only really know about the European trials, and only English ones in any detail.
Different parts of Europe experienced the witch craze differently, and to different degrees. In the mainland (Germany, France, etc), the witch hunts were an institutionalised phenomenon presided over by the Church and enforced by the local authorities, from the top down. Witchcraft was considered a form of heresy, and so the Inquisition was granted the power to carry out its own investigations. Continental witches were believed to be part of an organised cult in league with the devil as part of some grand diabolical conspiracy. They were tortured for confessions and forced to name names, tried in ecclesiastical courts as heretics and burned alive.
England's treatment of witchcraft was quite unique. For a start, the Catholic Church had no authority there, which meant no Inquisition. Accusations arose from within local communities, rather than from above. With the exception of Matthew Hopkins (the self styled Witch Finder General'), there was never any attempt by the authorities to incite a witch hunt. Witchcraft was not seen as a heresy, but rather as an extreme form of public disorder. There was no conspiracy, no 'witch cult', no witch's Sabbath, no flying and rarely any references to a diabolic pact. In fact English witches had a pretty boring time, though unlike continental witches they did get to have [familiars](_URL_0_), which I guess is kinda cool. English witches were usually tried by jury in secular, common law courts just like any other felon, and the guilty were hanged rather than burned.
In England, accusations of witchcraft tended to follow a basic narrative. Typically they would begin with an old woman going door to door begging for alms, and then being turned away by a disgruntled neighbour. Some tragedy would inevitably befall the neighbour, who would then accuse the old woman of witchcraft. It's amazing how many pamphlets from the time describe cases that follow this exact pattern. So how easy was it to accuse somebody? Quite easy. But it wasn't unheard of to be found innocent. In fact, it was relatively common. Some courts were naturally reluctant to prosecute something so unprovable, and if you could find enough people to vouch in your favour, you could be let off automatically.
Trials on the continent were significantly scarier due to the use of torture and the large amount of authority given to individual judges/inquisitors to prosecute witches.
The total number of executions is usually estimated to be around 40 to 50,000, but higher estimates do exist.
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[
"The Salem witch trials of 1692 touched Topsfield directly. Belief in witches was normal in the seventeenth century. People were accused of witchcraft in Europe and the colonies during this time, but executions were relatively rare in the colonies. Historians conclude that only fifteen people were executed as witches in the American colonies before 1692. In that year alone, however, over 160 people, mostly from Essex County, Massachusetts, were accused of witchcraft. Of these, nineteen were hanged and one was pressed to death for refusing to plead. In July 1692, Rebecca Nurse of Salem Village (then part of the town of Salem, now part of present-day Danvers) was hanged at Gallows Hill in Salem. She was the daughter of William Towne of Topsfield. Young Salem Village girls allegedly possessed by the devil – the source of Rebecca Nurse's witchcraft accusation and most others – also named as witches Rebecca's Topsfield sisters, Sarah Cloyce and Mary Esty; while Sarah was eventually set free, Mary was hanged in September. Sarah Wildes and Elizabeth Howe from Topsfield were hanged along with Rebecca Nurse. Many other Topsfield residents were accused of witchcraft until the hysteria ended in May 1693, when the governor of Massachusetts set free all of the remaining persons accused of witchcraft and issued a proclamation of general pardon. While the causes of the 1692 witchcraft episode continue to be the subject of historical and sociological study, there is a consensus view that land disputes and perhaps economic rivalry among factions in Salem, Salem Village and Topsfield fueled animosity and played an underlying role.\n",
"This is a list of people associated with the Salem Witch Trials, a series of hearings and prosecutions of people accused of witchcraft in colonial Massachusetts between February 1692 and May 1693. The trials resulted in the executions of twenty people, most of them women.\n",
"Bridget Bishop (c. 1632 – 10 June 1692) was the first person executed for witchcraft during the Salem witch trials in 1692. Altogether, about 200 people were tried, and 18 others were executed (19 total: 14 women and 5 men).\n",
"The Salem witch trials were a series of hearings and prosecutions of people accused of witchcraft in colonial Massachusetts between February 1692 and May 1693. More than 200 people were accused, 19 of whom were found guilty and executed by hanging (14 women and 5 men). One other man, Giles Corey, was crushed to death for refusing to plead, and at least five people died in jail. It was the deadliest witch hunt in the history of colonial North America.\n",
"The Salem witch trials of 1692 had a lasting impact on the historical reputation of New England Puritans. Though this witch hunt occurred after Puritans lost political control of the Massachusetts colony, Puritans instigated the judicial proceedings against the accused and comprised the members of the court that convicted and sentenced the accused. By the time Governor William Phips ended the trials, fourteen women and five men had been hanged as witches.\n",
"Witch trials were common in both Europe and America during this period. During the notorious Salem witch trials in New England in 1692–93, one of those on trial was accused of being able turn into a \"black thing with a blue cap,\" and others of having familiars in the form of a black dog, a black cat and a black bird. Nineteen women and men were hanged as witches.\n",
"The Salem witch trials were a series of hearings before local magistrates followed by county court trials to prosecute people accused of witchcraft in Essex, Suffolk and Middlesex counties of colonial Massachusetts, between February 1692 and May 1693. Over 150 people were arrested and imprisoned, with even more accused but not formally pursued by the authorities. The two courts convicted twenty-nine people of the capital felony of witchcraft. Nineteen of the accused, fourteen women and five men, were hanged. One man (Giles Corey) who refused to enter a plea was crushed to death under heavy stones in an attempt to force him to do so. At least five more of the accused died in prison.\n"
] |
Has the water released by combusting hydrocarbons had any effect on the environment?
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Absolutely! Water vapour, like CO2, is a greenhouse gas. Water Vapour released by combustion--but this isn't the sole source for water vapour, of course--helps create a sort of positive feedback loop in the atmosphere, increasing the amount of warming experienced by climate change.
Generally, Water vapour tends to double the amount of warming; if we were to experience an increase of 1°C from CO2 alone,, water vapour would make it more like 2°C.
So water vapour is an extremely powerful greenhouse gas. However, and this is the most important point, it's also a fairly short lived greenhouse gas. Whereas CO2 can stay in the atmosphere for a very long time, Water Vapour condenses into clouds and returns to the water table in fairly short order. Water Vapour might only stay in the atmosphere for a few weeks, whereas CO2 can last centuries.
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[
"Hydrocarbon exploration in deep water occasionally results in significant environmental degradation resulting mainly from accumulation of contaminated drill cuttings, but also from oil spills. While the oil gusher involved in the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico originates from a wellhead only 1500 meters below the ocean surface, it nevertheless illustrates the kind of environmental disaster that can result from mishaps related to offshore drilling for oil and gas.\n",
"Some petroleum industry operations have been responsible for water pollution through by-products of refining and oil spills. Though hydraulic fracturing has significantly increased natural gas extraction, there is some belief and evidence to support that consumable water has seen increased in methane contamination due to this gas extraction. Leaks from underground tanks and abandoned refineries may also contaminate groundwater in surrounding areas. Hydrocarbons that comprise refined petroleum are resistant to biodegradation and have been found to remain present in contaminated soils for years. To hasten this process, bioremediation of petroleum hydrocarbon pollutants is often employed by means of aerobic degradation. More recently, other bioremediative methods have been explored such as phytoremediation and thermal remediation. \n",
"The Lost City hydrothermal field was determined to have abiogenic hydrocarbon production. Proskurowski et al. wrote, \"Radiocarbon evidence rules out seawater bicarbonate as the carbon source for FTT reactions, suggesting that a mantle-derived inorganic carbon source is leached from the host rocks. Our findings illustrate that the abiotic synthesis of hydrocarbons in nature may occur in the presence of ultramafic rocks, water, and moderate amounts of heat.\"\n",
"Hydrocarbons are introduced into the environment through their extensive use as fuels and chemicals as well as through leaks or accidental spills during exploration, production, refining, or transport. Anthropogenic hydrocarbon contamination of soil is a serious global issue due to contaminant persistence and the negative impact on human health.\n",
"Groundwater methane contamination has adverse effect on water quality and in extreme cases may lead to potential explosion. A scientific study conducted by researchers of Duke University found high correlations of gas well drilling activities, including hydraulic fracturing, and methane pollution of the drinking water. According to the 2011 study of the MIT Energy Initiative, \"there is evidence of natural gas (methane) migration into freshwater zones in some areas, most likely as a result of substandard well completion practices i.e. poor quality cementing job or bad casing, by a few operators.\" A 2013 Duke study suggested that either faulty construction (defective cement seals in the upper part of wells, and faulty steel linings within deeper layers) combined with a peculiarity of local geology may be allowing methane to seep into waters; the latter cause may also release injected fluids to the aquifer. Abandoned gas and oil wells also provide conduits to the surface in areas like Pennsylvania, where these are common.\n",
"An article on \"abiogenic hydrocarbon production\" in the February 2008 issue of Science journal used data from experiments at the Lost City hydrothermal field to report how the abiotic synthesis of low molecular mass hydrocarbons from mantle derived carbon dioxide may occur in the presence of ultramafic rocks, water, and moderate amounts of heat.\n",
"Low molecular mass compounds account for much of the toxic nature of hydrocarbon spills. In particular, benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene and the xylenes (BTEX) are of great environmental interest due to their availability to organisms. This availability, also influenced by volatility and reactivity, impacts on biodegradation and bioremediation in water and soil environments, with even dissolved components within pore water considered bioavailable.\n"
] |
If an electric motor is supplied power but restricted in turning (like holding back a ceiling fan) what is happening which would cause it to 'burn up'?
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When a motor is turning, that rotation generates a voltage, a 'back EMF', that acts against the flow of current. It is this voltage, not the resistance of the coils, that restricts the amount of power the motor draws. And as this is an impedance, it doesn't generate heat. The power - the current in the motor pushing against this voltage - is what turns the motor.
When the rotor is locked, there is no back EMF to impede the flow of current through the motor. All the electricity flowing through the motor is converted to heat by the resistance of the windings. This quickly overheats the wiring, melting insulation, creating shorts, reducing the resistance and further increasing the current, until some wiring melts and blows.
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[
"\"Many appliances continue to draw a small amount of power when they are switched off. These \"phantom\" loads occur in most appliances that use electricity, such as VCRs, televisions, stereos, computers, and kitchen appliances. This can be avoided by unplugging the appliance or using a power strip and using the switch on the power strip to cut all power to the appliance.\"\n",
"Loss of electrical power can occur suddenly and can damage or undermine equipment. To prevent damage, motor-generators can be tied to flywheels that can provide uninterrupted electrical power to equipment for a brief period. Often they are used to provide electrical power until the plant electrical supply can be switched to the batteries and/or diesel generators.\n",
"Additionally, it is important to prevent backfeeding when using a portable engine generator, which can harm utility workers or people in other buildings. Before turning on a diesel- or gasoline-powered generator, users should make sure that the main breaker is in the \"off\" position, to ensure that the electric current does not reverse.\n",
"Standby power consumption can be reduced by unplugging or totally switching off, if possible, devices with a standby mode not currently in use; if several devices are used together or only when a room is occupied, they can be connected to a single power strip that is switched off when not needed. This may cause some electronic devices, particularly older ones, to lose their configuration settings.\n",
"The motor controllers for large electric motors normally incorporate a type of circuit breaker known as a \"no-volt release\". If the power fails, the circuit breaker opens and the motor will not restart when the power is restored. The circuit breaker must be reset before the motor can be started again.\n",
"An induction motor will draw more current to compensate for the decreased voltage, which may lead to overheating and burnout. If a substantial part of a grid's load is electric motors, reducing voltage may not actually reduce load and can result in damage to customers' equipment. \n",
"An electric power grid is almost never brought down intentionally. Generators and power stations are started and shut down as necessary. A typical power station requires power for start up prior to being able to generate power. This power is obtained from the grid, so if the entire grid is down these stations cannot be started.\n"
] |
why don't stars appear red but white? It is said that only red colour sustains when light travels a long distance!
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Some stars, such as Betelgeuse (in the corner of Orion) are noticeably red. Red stars are usually either dwarves or giants, but we can only see the giants without a telescope.
However, the process of emitted light reddening over long distances (either due to absorption by dust or the expansion of the universe) occurs over distances much, much larger than the distances to visible stars in our galaxy.
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[
"Interstellar reddening occurs because interstellar dust absorbs and scatters blue light waves more than red light waves, making stars appear redder than they are. This is similar to the effect seen when dust particles in the atmosphere of Earth contribute to red sunsets.\n",
"In astronomy, a green star is a white or blue star that appears green due to an optical illusion. There are no truly green stars, because the color of a star is more or less given by a black-body spectrum and this never looks green. However, there are a few stars that appear green to some observers. This is usually because of the optical illusion that a red object can make nearby objects look greenish. There are some multiple star systems, such as Antares, with a bright red star where this illusion makes other stars in the system look green.\n",
"In the upper atmosphere between 300-400 kilometers, red instead of green is caused by the collision with atomic oxygen. It takes longer for the lights to be produced at higher altitudes because the atmosphere is less dense so it takes more energy and more time for the red lights to be produced. Blue and purple lights are also produced by the collision with hydrogen and helium but they are difficult for the eyes to see against the night sky.\n",
"Conventional color descriptions are traditional in astronomy, and represent colors relative to the mean color of an A class star, which is considered to be white. The apparent color descriptions are what the observer would see if trying to describe the stars under a dark sky without aid to the eye, or with binoculars. However, most stars in the sky, except the brightest ones, appear white or bluish white to the unaided eye because they are too dim for color vision to work. Red supergiants are cooler and redder than dwarfs of the same spectral type, and stars with particular spectral features such as carbon stars may be far redder than any black body.\n",
"Real stars are not monochromatic, but emit a range of wavelengths approximating a black body distribution. It is not necessarily true that stars ahead of the observer would show a bluer color. This is because the whole spectral energy distribution is shifted. At the same time that visible light is blueshifted into invisible ultraviolet wavelengths, infrared light is blueshifted into the visible range. Precisely what changes in the colors one sees depends on the physiology of the human eye and on the spectral characteristics of the light sources being observed.\n",
"Another theory posits that since stars typically emit light with shorter wavelengths, the light from stars will be in the blue-green color spectrum. Therefore, using red light to navigate would not desensitize the receptors used to detect star light.\n",
"There a few stars in double or multiple star systems that appear greenish, even though they are really blue or white. This can happen if the star system contains a large red or orange star. An optical illusion causes things close to the red star to appear slightly greenish.\n"
] |
To what extent did Alexander the Great/Hellenism pave the way for Christianity?
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This is a pretty complicated question and, largely, is based on an interpretation of the histories of Alexander that is now considered unfeasible. That, however, doesn’t mean that there isn’t some truth to the claim. I don’t have the time to find my sources right now so this is going to be a bit informal.
Why it’s wrong:
Early modern Alexander scholarship was dominated by some British guy (sorry I don’t remember his name) who saw Alexander as basically a pre-Jesus. After Alexander finished with his conquests, he started taking on Persian customs and airs. The scholar saw this as proof of Alexander being an equalizing force: by elevating conquered Persians to the level of their Greek counterparts, Alexander was declaring equality of man. Christianity, which is a universal in its acceptance, spread easily because of the progressive framework wrought by Alexander’s liberal policies.
Enter Badian. Basically the old British dude was the premier Alexander scholar until Badian showed up, slapped him around, and took his throne. Alexander’s ‘persianization’ Badian said, was not an attempt at syncretism but rather an attempt to fully adopt the Persian system. Alexander’s position on top of the Greek world was rather tenuous: Athens and Sparta were constantly angling for independence and Alexander’s supremacy was only guaranteed through military might. In contrast, the Persian monarchal system was steeped in tradition and (largely) unwavering loyalty for their ruler. Furthermore, in terms of bureaucracy, the Persian system was significantly more advanced and efficient. Think feudal lords paying tribute (Greece) compared to a much more modern taxation and levy system (Persia). It was therefore in Alexander’s best interests to position himself as a successor to Darius III rather than as a foreign invader. Badian also did a lot of detailed textual analysis (both scholars based their conclusions largely on the works of Plutarch and Arrian) that made the British dude’s claims look silly.
Why it’s right:
Ok so this concept was created by the wishful thinking of some British historian who wanted to see Jesus everywhere he looked. It is not, however, completely without merit. Christian thought was not created from a vacuum but rather, in many ways, can be seen as an extension of earlier Greek thought: For instance, despite Augustine’s professed rejection of Greek thinkers, many of his arguments rest on distinctly Greek premises. The similarity can be seen quite easily: take a Greek concept like Plato’s allegory of the cave and replace the conclusion with Jesus/God’s love etc. and you get a rough approximation of Christianity. Aristotle can be such a boring read because (in the Judeo-Christian tradition) we have accepted his ideas so completely that they seem utterly dull and obvious. Furthermore, in many Christian traditions there’s some sort of intercession (usually by Mary) to rescue saintly sinners from hell. These sinners are people in hell who were not saved by virtue of being born before Jesus and are invariably composed of famous Greek thinkers.
Basically, the idea is that the universal acceptance of Hellenic ideals allowed for an acceptance of a theology that is created in a Greek framework. Furthermore, the lack of strict language/cultural/political boundaries allowed for dissemination of ideas across vast tracts of land. This created the perfect infrastructure for the spread of Christianity; which is already a pretty liberating and attractive ideology if you (as most non-elite people during this era were) are living in the shit.
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[
"Alexander (fl. 50–65) was a Christian heretical teacher in Ephesus. Hymenaeus and Alexander were proponents of antinomianism, the belief that Christian morality was not required. They put away—\"thrust from them\"—faith and a good conscience; they wilfully abandoned the great central facts regarding Christ, and so they \"made shipwreck concerning the faith.\" \n",
"At the age of seventeen, Alexander asked to be admitted to the Congregation of the Barnabites. At this time the Congregation was experiencing the precariousness of its beginnings, extreme poverty, and harsh trials. It had been expelled from the Republic of Venice only two months before. The Fathers advised Alexander to consider other religious congregations, such as the Dominicans, the Franciscans, and the Capuchins, rich with members outstanding in holiness and wisdom.\n",
"Alexander's pontificate was signaled by efforts to reunite the Eastern Orthodox churches with the Catholic Church, by the establishment of the Inquisition in France, by favours shown to the mendicant orders, and by an attempt to organize a crusade against the Tatars after the second raid against Poland in 1259.\n",
"The founding of the Alexander Church goes back to 814. In 807 Waltbert, a grandson of Duke Wittekind, brought the relics of the sainted Alexander from Rome by way of the Alpine mountains to Wildeshausen. Alexander died, as well as his mother and 6 brothers, as executed martyrs during the persecution of Christians in the first century. Waltbert donated a \"Chorherren Stift\" (a type of monastery, where the cleric lived to the rules of the Benedictines) named \"Alexander Kapitel\". It was to be used as a mission for the surrounding area (called Lerigau, or Largau). Wildeshausen became a place of pilgrimage, benefiting it economically. The Church and \"Stift\" owned treasures and were decorated with pictures. During renovation frescos were discovered.\n",
"The name of \"Alexandrian school\" is also used to describe the religious and philosophical developments in Alexandria after the 1st century. The mix of Jewish theology and Greek philosophy led to a syncretic mix and much mystical speculation. The Neoplatonists devoted themselves to examining the nature of the soul, and sought communion with God. The two great schools of biblical interpretation in the early Christian church incorporated Neoplatonism and philosophical beliefs from Plato's teachings into Christianity, and interpreted much of the Bible allegorically. The founders of the Alexandrian school of Christian theology were Clement of Alexandria and Origen.\n",
"In any case, Alexander's toppling of the Achaemenid Empire, after his victories at the battles of the Granicus, Issus and Gaugamela, and his advance as far as modern-day Pakistan and Tajikistan, provided an important outlet for Greek culture, via the creation of colonies and trade routes along the way. While the Alexandrian empire did not survive its creator's death intact, the cultural implications of the spread of Hellenism across much of the Middle East and Asia were to prove long lived as Greek became the \"lingua franca\", a position it retained even in Roman times. Many Greeks settled in Hellenistic cities like Alexandria, Antioch and Seleucia. Two thousand years later, there are still communities in Pakistan and Afghanistan, like the Kalash, who claim to be descended from Greek settlers.\n",
"Alexandria was of central importance for the birth of Gnosticism. The Christian \"ecclesia\" (i. e. congregation, church) was of Jewish–Christian origin, but also attracted Greek members, and various strand of thought were available, such as \"Judaic apocalypticism, speculation on divine wisdom, Greek philosophy, and Hellenistic mystery religions.\"\n"
] |
Why do some smells travel faster and propagate farther than others?
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It has to do with the diffusion rate of the molecule. Smells are composed of molecules that bind to the receptors present in the nose; if the nose has a receptor for a certain molecule in the gaseous state, then the gas will "smell." The potency of a smell depends on the concentration of the molecule in the atmosphere and on how fast those molecules can travel through the rest of the gas in the air. Because the smell molecules must travel through the atmosphere by bumping into other atmospheric molecules, those molecules of smaller mass and size tend to move more quickly and thus diffuse across a room with greater speed.
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[
"Sound typically travels fastest and farthest through solids, then liquids, then gases such as the atmosphere. Sound is affected during fog conditions due to the small distances between water droplets, and air temperature differences.\n",
"A simple example concerns the model on which aether was originally built: sound. The speed of propagation for mechanical waves, the speed of sound, is defined by the mechanical properties of the medium. Sound travels 4.3 times faster in water than in air. This explains why a person hearing an explosion underwater and quickly surfacing can hear it again as the slower travelling sound arrives through the air. Similarly, a traveller on an airliner can still carry on a conversation with another traveller because the sound of words is travelling along with the air inside the aircraft. This effect is basic to all Newtonian dynamics, which says that everything from sound to the trajectory of a thrown baseball should all remain the same in the aircraft flying (at least at a constant speed) as if still sitting on the ground. This is the basis of the Galilean transformation, and the concept of frame of reference.\n",
"Critics note that for mammals in general, sound turns out to be the best medium in which to encode information for transmission over distances at speed. Given the probability that this applied also to early humans, it's hard to see why they should have abandoned this efficient method in favour of more costly and cumbersome systems of visual gesturing — only to return to sound at a later stage.\n",
"Air conducts sound at a certain speed, the \"speed of sound\". This becomes slower as the air becomes cooler. Because the temperature of the atmosphere generally decreases with altitude (until the tropopause), the speed of sound also decreases with altitude. (See the International Standard Atmosphere for more on temperature as a function of altitude.)\n",
"In the Earth's atmosphere, the chief factor affecting the speed of sound is the temperature. For a given ideal gas with constant heat capacity and composition, the speed of sound is dependent \"solely\" upon temperature; see Details below. In such an ideal case, the effects of decreased density and decreased pressure of altitude cancel each other out, save for the residual effect of temperature.\n",
"A similar thing occurs when an airplane travels at the speed of sound. The overlapping wave crests disrupt the flow of air over and under the wings. Just as a boat can easily travel faster than the wave it produces, an airplane with sufficient power can travel faster than the speed of sound (supersonic).\n",
"The difference in density between air and water causes smells (certain chemical compounds detectable by chemoreceptors) to behave differently. An animal first venturing out onto land would have difficulty in locating such chemical signals if its sensory apparatus had evolved in the context of aquatic detection.\n"
] |
At what altitude does the sky cease to be blue?
|
I will answer your question with a question.
At what point does the red become blue in the following image?
_URL_0_
|
[
"When the sun has just set, the brightness of the sky decreases rapidly, thereby enabling us to see the airglow that is caused from such high altitudes that they are still fully sunlit until the sun drops more than about 12° below the horizon. During this time, yellow emissions from the sodium layer and red emissions from the 630 nm oxygen lines are dominant, and contribute to the purplish color sometimes seen during civil and nautical twilight.\n",
"After the sun has also set for these altitudes at the end of nautical twilight, the intensity of light emanating from earlier mentioned lines decreases, until the oxygen-green remains as the dominant source.\n",
"The daytime sky on Earth is blue because light from the Sun strikes molecules in Earth's atmosphere scattering light in all directions. Blue light is scattered more than other colors, and reaches the eye in greater quantities, making the daytime sky appear blue. This is known as Rayleigh scattering.\n",
"The sun is not the only object that may appear less blue in the atmosphere. Far away clouds or snowy mountaintops may appear yellowish. The effect is not very obvious on clear days but is very pronounced when clouds cover the line of sight, reducing the blue hue from scattered sunlight. At higher altitudes, the sky tends toward darker colors since scattering is reduced due to lower air density; an extreme example is the moon, where there is no atmosphere and no scattering, making the sky on the moon black even when the sun is visible.\n",
"The sky is really nothing more than the denser gaseous zone of the earth’s atmosphere. Sky can be depicted as many different colors, such as a pale blue or the lack of any color at all, such as the night sky, which has the appearance of blackness, albeit with a scattering of stars on a clear night. During the day, the sky is seen as a deep blue due to the sunlight reflected on the air.\n",
"Over the Indian Ocean, Glenn observed his first sunset from orbit. He described the moment of twilight as \"beautiful\". The sky in space was very black, he said, with a thin band of blue along the horizon. He said the sun set fast, but not as quickly as he had expected. For five or six minutes there was a slow reduction in light intensity. Brilliant orange and blue layers spread out 45 to 60 degrees on either side of the sun, tapering gradually toward the horizon. Clouds prevented him from seeing a mortar flare fired by the Indian Ocean tracking ship as part of a pilot observation experiment.\n",
"When the sky is clear, the blue hour can be a colorful spectacle, with the indirect sunlight tinting the sky yellow, orange, red, and blue. This effect is caused by the relative diffusibility of shorter wavelengths (bluer rays) of visible light versus the longer wavelengths (redder rays). During the blue \"hour\", red light passes through space while blue light is scattered in the atmosphere, and thus reaches Earth's surface. Blue hour usually lasts about 20-30 minutes right after sunset and right before sunrise. For instance, if the sun sets at 6:30 p.m., blue hour would occur from 6:40 p.m. to 7 p.m.. If the sun were to rise at 7:30 a.m., blue hour would occur from 7 a.m. to 7:20 a.m.. Time of year, location, and air quality all have an impact on the exact timing of blue hour. \n"
] |
Is there a lot of variance between people in how much energy they are able to extract from food they digest?
|
I'm not sure I can answer the question for _all_ aspects of our physiology...however, I will say that there is some fascinating microbiological evidence to suggest that the answer to this question is "yes."
Studies have shown that the bacteria that live in our gut (the **microbiome**) influence our likelihood of developing obesity, metabolic disorders and diabetes. We have already established that these organisms assist our absorption of nutrients. We're starting to understand that _variability_ in these organisms may lead to _variable_ absorption of nutrients from food among different people. Specifically, studies have shown that obesity is associated with a decrease in the diversity of the gut microbiome. That is, people who are overweight/obese have fewer different _types_ of microorganisms colonizing their intestine. It has been shown that the organisms that are winning out (_Firmicutes_) have an increased capacity to harvest nutrients.
There's additional research being done to investigate how these microscopic critters affect inflammatory processes going on in the intestine that might affect myriad metabolic disorders.
The gut microbiome is an exploding new field of research, and there's much that remains unanswered about its effect on health and illness. Regarding your question, however, it seems that bacteria may play a role.
**Seminal Paper**: Turnbaugh, P.J., Ley, R.E., Mahowald, M.A., Magrini, V., Mardis, E.R. and Gordon, J.I. “An obesity-associated gut microbiome with increased capacity for energy harvest.” Nature, 2006.
EDIT: In the spirit of procrastination from what I _should_ be working on, I added more details and cited one of the foundational studies.
|
[
"The energy input to the human body is in the form of food energy, usually quantified in kilocalories [kcal] or kiloJoules [kJ=kWs]. This can be related to a certain distance travelled and to body weight, giving units such as kJ/(km∙kg). The rate of food consumption, i.e. the amount consumed during a certain period of time, is the input power. This can be measured in kcal/day or in J/s = W (1000 kcal/d ~ 48.5 W).\n",
"Energy in food comes from three sources: fat, protein, and carbohydrates. A typical energy bar weighs between 45 and 80 g and is likely to supply about 200–300 Cal (840–1,300 kJ), 3–9 g of fat, 7–15 g of protein, and 20–40 g of carbohydrates.\n",
"About 70% of a human's total energy expenditure is due to the basal life processes taking place in the organs of the body (see table). About 20% of one's energy expenditure comes from physical activity and another 10% from thermogenesis, or digestion of food (\"postprandial thermogenesis\"). All of these processes require an intake of oxygen along with coenzymes to provide energy for survival (usually from macronutrients like carbohydrates, fats, and proteins) and expel carbon dioxide, due to processing by the Krebs cycle.\n",
"The calories a person consumes come from both the foods and drinks they eat and drink. The calories a person expends comes from their basal metabolic rate and their daily physical activity. When eating a healthy diet mainly composed of vegetables, lean meats, and fruits, the human body is very good at maintaining a neutral energy balance so that calories consumed do not substantially exceed calories expended in a given time period and vice versa. This energy balance is regulated by hormones like Leptin (suppresses), Ghrelin (stimulates), and Cholecystokinin (suppresses) which either suppress or stimulate appetite. This unconscious regulation of energy balance is one of the factors that make sustained weight loss very difficult for many people. That being said, consuming fewer calories than the numbers of calories expended each day is fundamental to weight loss in both the short and long term. If attempting to loss weight, the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) recommends a slow and steady approach by eating 500 fewer calories than the number of calories burned or expended each day.\n",
"Normally the human gastrointestinal tract digests and absorbs dietary nutrients with remarkable efficiency. A typical Western diet ingested by an adult in one day includes approximately 100 g of fat, 400 g of carbohydrate, 100 g of protein, 2 L of fluid, and the required sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, vitamins, and other elements. Salivary, gastric, intestinal, hepatic, and pancreatic secretions add an additional 7–8 L of protein-, lipid-, and electrolyte-containing fluid to intestinal contents. This massive load is reduced by the small and large intestines to less than 200 g of stool that contains less than 8 g of fat, 1–2 g of nitrogen, and less than 20 mmol each of Na, K, Cl, HCO, Ca, or Mg.\n",
"The dietary energy supply is the food available for human consumption, usually expressed in kilocalories per person per day. It gives an overestimate of the total amount of food consumed as it reflects both food consumed and food wasted. The per capita dietary energy supply varies markedly between different regions and countries. It has also changed significantly over time. From the early 1970s to the late 1990s, the average calories available per person per day (the amount of food bought) has increased in all part of the world except Eastern Europe and parts of Africa. The United States had the highest availability with 3654 kilo calories per person in 1996. This increased further in 2002 to 3770. During the late 1990s, Europeans had 3394 kilo calories per person, in the developing areas of Asia there were 2648 kilo calories per person, and in sub-Sahara Africa people had 2176 kilo calories per person.\n",
"The thermogenic effect of food is another component of a person's daily energy expenditure and refers to the amount of energy it takes the body to digest, absorb, and metabolize nutrients in the diet. The amount of energy expended while processing food differs by individual but on average it amounts to about 10% the number of calories consumed during a given time period. Processing proteins and carbohydrates has more of a thermogenic effect than does processing fats.\n"
] |
how do we know the articles from /r/politics and anything the media shows is actually real?
|
You should treat everything you read with a healthy dose of skepticism. /r/politics is quite bad in that it commonly uses extremely biased news sources. If you read it in /r/politics, chances are it's only one part of the story. Get your news from multiple reputable sources, such as the NY Times, Al Jazeera, PBS/NPR, etc.
|
[
"The show also addresses questions about how the media is influenced or spun by politicians, corporations, and interest groups with the intent to shape public opinion. This includes an \"OTM\" feature that covers the media's use of terminologies that may engender biased points of view, and the use of hot-button issues and code words such as \"Michael Moore\", \"torture\", \"evangelical\", and \"islamofascist\".\n",
"News and feature articles can be viewed in full on the website along with the opportunity for readers to comments on articles. There is also an opinion poll posing a question for visitors to vote on. The events section gives details on conferences, exhibitions, shows, openings and workshops. Recently streaming video has been added to some articles on the website.\n",
"A news article discusses current or recent news of either general interest (i.e. daily newspapers) or of a specific topic (i.e. political or trade news magazines, club newsletters, or technology news websites).\n",
"The site's articles are presented as genuine news stories, with frequent use of fake quotes, which editor Richard Smith has suggested are intended to mimic the BBC News website. In 2016, he was quoted as saying that \"if someone shares one of our stories believing it to be true, then we would see that as both amusing, but also a failure on our part\" but claimed that he was not worried by a clamp-down on \"fake news\" by social media companies. In 2017, however, he complained that their articles had been hit by Facebook's implementation of a \"fake news\" filter.\n",
"This is a list of satirical television news programs with a satirical bent, or parodies of news broadcasts, with either real or fake stories for mainly humorous purposes. The list does not include sitcoms or other programs set in a news-broadcast work environment, such as the US \"Mary Tyler Moore\", the UK's \"Drop The Dead Donkey\", the Australian \"Frontline\", or the Canadian \"The Newsroom\".\n",
"The show consists of an interview with the host of the show, accompanied by journalists from prestigious relevance to a particular political character, but also social, cultural, economic, artistic, sports or media. Then develops a gathering of political content among journalists present on the set.\n",
"As defined by co-host Garfield, \"On the Media\" covers \"...anything that reaches a large audience—either electronically or otherwise... Plus, throw into that anything that covers First Amendment issues; anything that has to do with freedom of speech, privacy, is also in our portfolio.\" The show explores how the media are changing, and their effects on America and the world. Many stories are centered on events of the previous week and how they were covered in the news. These often consist of interviews with reporters about the dilemmas they face in covering controversial issues.\n"
] |
How populist was the American revolution? Was it a movent by the elites or did the lower classes support it?
|
So contrary to popular belief, the "Founders" were not the main proponents of separation from Great Britain -- quite the contrary. Most Founders were quite hesitant to pull away. However, populist movements really started to become prevalent by the end of the 1760s.
To explain, Founders like John Adams had a long history of fearing Democracy and many other aspects of their future government. Check out [Adams' own early view of democracy](_URL_2_) in 1763:
> Democracy, will soon degenerate into an Anarchy, such an Anarchy that every Man will do what is right in his own Eyes, and no Mans life or Property or Reputation or Liberty will be secure and every one of these will soon mould itself into a system of subordination of all the moral Virtues, and Intellectual Abilities, all the Powers of Wealth, Beauty, Wit, and Science, to the wanton Pleasures, the capricious Will, and the execrable Cruelty of one or a very few.
Yeah, not very flattering, is it? However, his views eventually evolved as the situation in America became more severe.
By the early 1770s, populist movements across America really shifted American politics as a whole. Books like Marjoleine Kars' *Breaking Loose Together: The Regulator Rebellion in Pre-revolutionary North Carolina* outlines the ways that populist movements in the South were able to fight back against corruption and the government (mainly between 1766 - 1771). This is important because "Regulator Rebellions" had a direct impact on what happened after the war.
Between 1772 - 1775, a lot changed, and most was spurned on by the general public. Everyone knows about the Boston Tea party, but most people don't realize that the Boston Tea Party caused a ripple affect with Tea Parties all across America in 1774. Tea Parties happened in many American cities, including [Philadelphia, Annapolis, Charleston, and many others](_URL_1_). This forced the gentry into a precarious situation. Some, like Charles Carroll of Carrolton [corresponded with his father about this in 1774](_URL_3_), essentially saying that while he doesn't think that these protests are a good thing, the rich and powerful must get involved in American politics so they can secure their place in America's future.
That's why the tone of the early Continental Congress is very tame. Internal proceedings show that many states, especially in the South, leaders were not keen to even consider separation from Great Britain. But the challenge was that as the Continental Congresses met, the people back home kept protesting, and burning down the houses of tax collectors, or kicking governors out of their homes. A great book that tackles this is Terry Bouton's *Taming Democracy: The People, The Founders, and the Troubling End of the American Revolution* where he correctly ascribes many of the Founders to be hesitant leaders towards independence. It also explains why, even after minor hostilities broke out in 1775, the Founders still sent the "[Olive Branch Petition](_URL_4_)" back to Britain as they vainly hoped to stop a full war before it happened. Even when the Continental Congress empowered General George Washington with command in June 1775, they did not expect that his duties would necessarily be a full-break with Great Britain. The Continental Congress wanted some autonomy from Great Britain and some representation in government, which they believed was more achievable than independence.
Now I should disclaim that this isn't true of all Founders. Some, especially in the North were much more pro-separation than many others. [Samuel Adams](_URL_0_), who was very vocal and active during the Stamp Acts protests, helped organized the Boston Tea Party, and was a member of the Continental Congress Representing Massachusetts was very vocal from the beginning that he believed separation from Great Britain should be a primary goal. There are a few others that fall into this category, but not many.
Tl;Dr: Most founders dragged their feet as the American "mob" dragged them forward .
Edit: fixed a misspelled name.
|
[
"Anti-establishment populist politics became an important political force in 19th century Ontario amongst rural and working class political activists who were influenced by American populist radicals. Populism also became an important political force in Western Canada by the 1880s and 1890s. Populism was particularly strong in the form of farmer-labour coalition politics in the late 19th century.\n",
"Polasky argues that the American Revolution, and the essays and arguments of its leaders, directly inspired a series of revolutions (some successful; most not) including the Geneva Revolution of 1782, the 1787 \"Patriot Revolution\" in the Dutch Republic, the Belgian \"small revolution\" of 1789, and the French Revolution itself. In her view, the literature and ideas of the American and French revolutionists converged to inspire a long series of revolutions at the end of the 18th century and in the early years of the 19th.\n",
"Though originally most Americans were in support of the revolution, the political debate in the U.S. over the nature of the revolution soon exacerbated pre-existing political divisions and resulted in the alignment of the political elite along pro-French and pro-British lines. Thomas Jefferson became the leader of the pro-French faction that celebrated the revolution's republican ideals. Though originally in support of the revolution, Alexander Hamilton soon led the faction which viewed the revolution with skepticism (believing that \"absolute liberty would lead to absolute tyranny\") and sought to preserve existing commercial ties with Great Britain. When news reached America that France had declared war on the British, people were divided on whether the U.S. should enter the war on the side of France. Jefferson and his faction wanted to aid the French, while Hamilton and his followers supported neutrality in the conflict. Jeffersonians denounced Hamilton, Vice President Adams, and even the president as \"friends of Britain\", \"monarchists\", and \"enemies of the republican values that all true Americans cherish\". Hamiltonians warned that Jefferson's Republicans would replicate the terrors of the French revolution in America\"crowd rule\" akin to anarchy, and the destruction of \"all order and rank in society and government.\"\n",
"Though originally most Americans were in support of the revolution, the political debate in the U.S. over the nature of the revolution soon exacerbated pre-existing political divisions and resulted in the alignment of the political elite along pro-French and pro-British lines. Thomas Jefferson became the leader of the pro-French faction that celebrated the revolution's republican ideals. Though originally in support of the revolution, Alexander Hamilton soon led the faction which viewed the revolution with skepticism (believing that \"absolute liberty would lead to absolute tyranny\") and sought to preserve existing commercial ties with Great Britain. When news reached America that France had declared war on the British, people were divided on whether the U.S. should enter the war on the side of France. Jefferson and his faction wanted to aid the French, while Hamilton and his followers supported neutrality in the conflict. Jeffersonians denounced Hamilton, Vice President Adams, and even the president as \"friends of Britain\", \"monarchists\", and \"enemies of the republican values that all true Americans cherish\". Hamiltonians warned that Jefferson's Republicans would replicate the terrors of the French revolution in America\"crowd rule\" akin to anarchy, and the destruction of \"all order and rank in society and government.\"\n",
"In the first decade of the 21st century, two populist movements appeared in the US, both in response to the Great Recession: the Occupy movement and the Tea Party movement. The populist approach of the Occupy movement was broader, with its \"people\" being what it called \"the 99%\", while the \"elite\" it challenged was presented as both the economic and political elites. The Tea Party's populism was Producerism, while \"the elite\" it presented was more party partisan than that of Occupy, being defined largely—although not exclusively—as the Democratic administration of President Barack Obama.\n",
"Moore (1996) argues that \"populist opposition to the growing power of political, economic, and cultural elites\" helped shape \"conservative and right-wing movements\" since the 1920s. Historical right-wing populist figures in both major parties in the United States have included Thomas E. Watson, Strom Thurmond, Joe McCarthy, Barry Goldwater, George Wallace and Pat Buchanan. When Conservative Democrats dominated the politics of the Democratic Party, they comprised a faction of the Democrats which espoused populism, while the Republicans have adopted some forms of populism since the 1960s.\n",
"The concept of market populism became especially popular during the American New Economy, which began in the 1990s. Academics, executives, Democrats and Republicans all shared the idea that markets were a popular system. In other words, because they were considered to be efficient at allocating resources, therefore the inefficiencies arising from poor legislation or unethical practices would be rooted out. The phrase \"golden straitjacket\" was coined by Thomas Friedman in his 1999 book, \"The Lexus and the Olive Tree\", as a synonym for market populism.\n"
] |
why would a country implement negative interest rates (ie. japan)
|
Yes. That's exactly why they did it. They are suffering a recession right now, and this would stimulate people to take their money and spend it, giving a boost to the economy.
|
[
"Since the 1990s, the Bank of Japan, the country's central bank, has kept interest rates low in order to spur economic growth. Short-term lending rates have responded to this monetary relaxation and fell from 3.7% to 1.3% between 1993 and 2008. Low interest rates combined with a ready liquidity for the yen prompted investors to borrow money in Japan and invest it in other countries (a practice known as carry trade). This has helped to keep the value of the yen low compared to other currencies.\n",
"Deflation in Japan started in the early 1990s. On 19 March 2001, the Bank of Japan and the Japanese government tried to eliminate deflation in the economy by reducing interest rates (part of their 'quantitative easing' policy). Despite having interest rates near zero for a long period, this strategy did not succeed. Once the near-zero interest rates failed to stop deflation, some economists, such as Paul Krugman, and some Japanese politicians spoke of deliberately causing (or at least creating the fear of) inflation. In July 2006, the zero-rate policy was ended. In 2008, the Japanese Central Bank still had the lowest interest rates in the developed world and deflation continued.\n",
"Other things being equal, economic theory suggests that lowering interest rates relative to other countries weakens the domestic currency. This is because capital flows to nations with higher interest rates (after subtracting inflation and the political risk premium), causing the domestic currency to be sold in favor of foreign currencies, a variation of which is called the carry trade. Further, there is risk that the stimulus provided by lower interest rates can lead to demand-driven inflation once the economy is growing again. Maintaining interest rates at a low level also discourages saving, while encouraging spending.\n",
"Uncovered interest rate parity (UIRP) states that an appreciation or depreciation of one currency against another currency might be neutralized by a change in the interest rate differential. If US interest rates increase while Japanese interest rates remain unchanged then the US dollar should depreciate against the Japanese yen by an amount that prevents arbitrage (in reality the opposite, appreciation, quite frequently happens in the short-term, as explained below). The future exchange rate is reflected into the forward exchange rate stated today. In our example, the forward exchange rate of the dollar is said to be at a discount because it buys fewer Japanese yen in the forward rate than it does in the spot rate. The yen is said to be at a premium.\n",
"\"Nominal\" interest rates are normally positive, but not always. In contrast, \"real\" interest rates can be negative, when nominal interest rates are below inflation. When this is done via government policy (for example, via reserve requirements), this is deemed financial repression, and was practiced by countries such as the United States and United Kingdom following World War II (from 1945) until the late 1970s or early 1980s (during and following the Post–World War II economic expansion). In the late 1970s, United States Treasury securities with negative real interest rates were deemed \"certificates of confiscation\".\n",
"Japan has various laws restricting interest rates. Under civil law, the maximum interest rate is between 15% and 20% per year depending upon the principal amount (larger amounts having a lower maximum rate). Interest in excess of 20% is subject to criminal penalties (the criminal law maximum was 29.2% until it was lowered by legislation in 2010). Default interest on late payments may be charged at up to 1.46 times the ordinary maximum (i.e., 21.9% to 29.2%), while pawn shops may charge interest of up to 9% per month (i.e., 108% per year, however, if the loan extends more than the normal short-term pawn shop loan, the 9% per month rate compounded can make the annual rate in excess of 180%, before then most of these transaction would result in any goods pawned being forfeited).\n",
"After the severe housing crisis bubble burst in 1992, Japan's interest rates sank to near zero. Coupled with gigantic savings accumulated over decades from overseas surpluses, and soaring yen, Japan tried a number of measures to weaken its currency. First it began to buy up properties overseas, such as the Rockefeller Center in New York City in 1990, as well as investing in US corporate bonds. After huge property losses, it gave that up. Another was state intervention BOJ in foreign exchange reserves, which it ultimately gave up in 2004 after accumulating nearly a trillion dollars. Japan also invested directly in Fannie Mae and other mortgage bonds, holding close to a trillion dollars in those bonds. Yet another measure was to loan out hoards of money to US and European banks at zero percent rates, which began in earnest in 2004, also known as the massive carry trade (via yen-denominated bank loans to overseas investors). US and European banks then loaned this money out to home owners in America, as well as big property investors in the Middle East. This effectively kept the yen at 120 or weaker levels to the dollar.\n"
] |
How common is it for a planet to have a natural satellite like our moon?
|
Natural satellites seem to be pretty common amongst planets. 6 out of 8 planets have at least one moon, and many dwarf planets as well as some asteroids also have moons.
What's remarkable is the size and mass ratio of the earth-moon-system: It is 1: 3,67 for the size and 1:81 for the mass. In other words, the moon is really big compared to its mother planet. Similar sized moons orbit only gas giants, where the mass and size ratio is much smaller, because the gas giants are so much bigger and heavier than earth.
The reason why a comparatively small planet like earth has such a big moon lies in the formation of our system. It is very likely that a mars-sized object shared and orbit with the young earth, which eventually lead to their collision. The heavy core of that object contributed a significant amount of metals like iron and nickel to the earth, while lighter stuff like rock was spewed into an orbit and coalesced to finally form our moon. That's a nice explanation for why we have such a big moon and why earth is so big and **dense** amongst the terrestrial planets.
The only system which seems similar to ours is actually not a planetary system, but a dwarf planet system, namely the one of Pluto and Charon. The size and mass ratio is even bigger here, since Charon has more than half the diameter of Pluto and about 1/8 its mass. That causes the barycenter to be outside of Pluto, why some people think it should be considered as a own type of system called a double planet. The probe [New Horizons](_URL_0_) is going to visit the system this july and is already sending data to earth. Perhaps we will learn more about our own system by studying that dwarf planet.
Regarding moons of planets outside the solar system, the so called [exomoons](_URL_1_), we don't have many data yet, because our technology is still in early development. There are some good candidates listed in the linked article and our own solar system suggests that moons seem to be pretty common, but we still have to improve our observational instruments to get information how common moons around other planets are and what properties they have.
|
[
"Although no other moons of Earth have been found to date, there are various types of near-Earth objects in 1:1 resonance with it, which are known as quasi-satellites. Quasi-satellites orbit the Sun from the same distance as a planet, rather than the planet itself. Their orbits are unstable, and will fall into other resonances or be kicked into other orbits over thousands of years. Quasi-satellites of Earth include , ,\n",
"No \"moons of moons\" or subsatellites (natural satellites that orbit a natural satellite of a planet) are currently known . In most cases, the tidal effects of the planet would make such a system unstable.\n",
"Many authors define \"satellite\" or \"natural satellite\" as orbiting some planet or minor planet, synonymous with \"moon\" – by such a definition all natural satellites are moons, but Earth and other planets are not satellites.\n",
"Except for the largest, which are in hydrostatic equilibrium, natural satellites (moons) differ from small Solar System bodies not in size, but in their orbits. The orbits of natural satellites are not centered on the Sun, but around other Solar System objects such as planets, dwarf planets, and small Solar System bodies.\n",
"In the Solar System there are six planetary satellite systems containing 185 known natural satellites. Four IAU-listed dwarf planets are also known to have natural satellites: Pluto, Haumea, Makemake, and Eris. , there are 334 other minor planets known to have moons.\n",
"Although the Moon is Earth's only natural satellite, there are a number of near-Earth objects (NEOs) with orbits that are in resonance with Earth. These have been called, inaccurately, \"second\", \"third\" or \"other\" moons of Earth.\n",
"There is no established lower limit on what is considered a \"moon\". Every natural celestial body with an identified orbit around a planet of the Solar System, some as small as a kilometer across, has been considered a moon, though objects a tenth that size within Saturn's rings, which have not been directly observed, have been called \"moonlets\". Small asteroid moons (natural satellites of asteroids), such as Dactyl, have also been called moonlets.\n"
] |
What would happen when light reflects off of a mirror, if the mirror was artificially heated to have a higher net energy than the particle does?
|
What do you mean "higher net energy"? The total heat energy in a given mirror is typically much higher than the energy of a given photon in the visible spectrum.
|
[
"Mirror matter could have been diluted to unobservably low densities during the inflation epoch. Sheldon Glashow has shown that if at some high energy scale particles exist which interact strongly with both ordinary and mirror particles, radiative corrections will lead to a mixing between photons and mirror photons. This mixing has the effect of giving mirror electric charges a very small ordinary electric charge. Another effect of photon–mirror photon mixing is that it induces oscillations between positronium and mirror positronium. Positronium could then turn into mirror positronium and then decay into mirror photons.\n",
"Almost any dielectric material can act as a perfect mirror through total internal reflection. This effect only occurs at shallow angles, however, and only for light inside the material. The effect happens when light goes from a medium with a higher index of refraction to one with a lower value (like air).\n",
"Einstein proposed as part of his theory of special relativity that light reflected from a mirror moving close to the speed of light will have higher peak power than the incident light because of temporal compression. Using a dense relativistic electron mirror created from a high-intensity laser pulse and nanometre-scale foil, the frequency of the laser pulse was shown to shift coherently from infrared to the ultraviolet. The results elucidate the reflection process of laser-generated electron mirrors and suggest future research in relativistic mirrors.\n",
"Essentially, as a result, when light propagates through the cleavage plane and transits to free space from within the semiconductor crystal, a fraction of the light energy is absorbed by the surface states where it is converted to heat by phonon-electron interactions. This heats the cleaved mirror. In addition, the mirror may heat simply because the edge of the diode laser—which is electrically pumped—is in less-than-perfect contact with the mount that provides a path for heat removal. The heating of the mirror causes the bandgap of the semiconductor to shrink in the warmer areas. The bandgap shrinkage brings more electronic band-to-band transitions into alignment with the photon energy causing yet more absorption. This is thermal runaway, a form of positive feedback, and the result can be melting of the facet, known as \"catastrophic optical damage\", or COD.\n",
"Essentially, as a result when light propagates through the cleavage plane and transits to free space from within the semiconductor crystal, a fraction of the light energy is absorbed by the surface states where it is converted to heat by phonon-electron interactions. This heats the cleaved mirror. In addition the mirror may heat simply because the edge of the diode laser—which is electrically pumped—is in less-than-perfect contact with the mount that provides a path for heat removal. The heating of the mirror causes the band gap of the semiconductor to shrink in the warmer areas. The band gap shrinkage brings more electronic band-to-band transitions into alignment with the photon energy causing yet more absorption. This is thermal runaway, a form of positive feedback, and the result can be melting of the facet, known as \"catastrophic optical damage\", or COD.\n",
"The 3D illusion mirror effect is produced whenever there are two parallel reflective surfaces which can bounce a beam of light back and forth an indefinite (theoretically infinite) number of times. The reflections appear to recede into the distance because the light actually is traversing the distance it appears to be travelling. \n",
"BULLET::::- The excited portion of a reflecting mirror acts as a new source of light and the reflected light has the same velocity \"c\" with respect to the mirror as has original light with respect to its source. (Proposed by Richard Chase Tolman in 1910, although he was a supporter of special relativity).\n"
] |
Is it possible to for the body to stop identifying an allergen as harmful after years of no exposure?
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Actually, yes! Memory B-cells are what are responsible for long term humoral immunity (the kind involved in allergic reactions, among other things). Memory B-cells are some of the longest lived cells in the body, behind maybe neurons and cardiac myocytes, but even then they only live about 20 years. Without some kind of stimulation since the first incident, it's entirely possible that the clonal population your body created after your sting at age 12 has since died off or diminished to the point where you're anergic to yellow jacket venom.
|
[
"The symptoms of allergic contact may persist for as long as one month before resolving completely. Once an individual has developed a skin reaction to a certain substance it is most likely that they will have it for the rest of their life, and the symptoms will reappear when in contact with the allergen.\n",
"The Scientific Committee on Food from the Health and Consumer Protection Directorate took a more concerned position and concluded that \"Estragole has been demonstrated to be genotoxic and carcinogenic. Therefore the existence of a threshold cannot be assumed and the Committee could not establish a safe exposure limit. Consequently, reductions in exposure and restrictions in use levels are indicated.\"\n",
"Common allergens include pollen and certain food. Metals and other substances may also cause problems. Food, insect stings, and medications are common causes of severe reactions. Their development is due to both genetic and environmental factors. The underlying mechanism involves immunoglobulin E antibodies (IgE), part of the body's immune system, binding to an allergen and then to a receptor on mast cells or basophils where it triggers the release of inflammatory chemicals such as histamine. Diagnosis is typically based on a person's medical history. Further testing of the skin or blood may be useful in certain cases. Positive tests, however, may not mean there is a significant allergy to the substance in question.\n",
"Early exposure to potential allergens may be protective. Treatments for allergies include avoiding known allergens and the use of medications such as steroids and antihistamines. In severe reactions injectable adrenaline (epinephrine) is recommended. Allergen immunotherapy, which gradually exposes people to larger and larger amounts of allergen, is useful for some types of allergies such as hay fever and reactions to insect bites. Its use in food allergies is unclear.\n",
"Methylchloroisothiazolinone can cause allergic reactions in some people. The first publication of the preservative as a contact allergen was in 1988. Cases of photoaggravated allergic contact dermatitis, i.e. worsening of skin lesions after sun exposure, have also been reported.\n",
"Sanofi US also added the following warning: If a patient experiencing a serious allergic reaction (i.e., anaphylaxis) did not receive the intended dose, there could be significant health consequences, including death because anaphylaxis is a potentially life‑threatening condition.\n",
"Nevertheless, strong evidence indicates at least aHVP is not allergenic, since proteins are degraded to single amino acids which are not likely to trigger an allergic reaction. A recent study has shown that aHVP does not contain detectable traces of proteins or IgE-reactive peptides. This provides strong evidence that aHVP is very unlikely to trigger an allergic reaction to people who are intolerant or allergic to soy or wheat.\n"
] |
In the history of presidential elections in the United States has a major political party ever functionally conceded defeat months before the general election and ran its house/senate candidates as checks on the opposing party's candidates power once they assumed the presidency?
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Republicans ran Congressional campaigns in 1996 (Clinton/Dole) explicitly as a check against the presumed Clinton victory. (Clinton was up 8 points in October polling.) The NRCC warned against giving Clinton a blank check and pushed for voters in vulnerable districts to split their ballot.
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[
"In the first close presidential election since the 1812 election, four major candidates ran, all of whom were members of the Democratic-Republican Party. The Democratic-Republicans had largely been successful in fielding only one presidential candidate in previous elections (except in 1812), but the breakdown of the congressional nominating caucus and a lack of meaningful opposition from the Federalists allowed for a multi-candidate field. Senator Andrew Jackson from Tennessee, Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, Secretary of the Treasury William Crawford, and Speaker of the House Henry Clay all received electoral votes. With no candidate receiving a majority of the electoral vote, the House chose among the three candidates (Jackson, Adams, and Crawford) with the most electoral votes. Although Jackson won a plurality of electoral and popular votes, the House elected Adams as President. Despite the chaos in the presidential election, John C. Calhoun won the vice presidency with a majority of electoral votes. The 1824 presidential election was the only time that the House elected the president under the terms of the Twelfth Amendment, and the only time that the winner of the most electoral votes did not win the presidency. Adams's victory ended the Virginia dynasty of presidents, but continued the trend of the incumbent secretary of state winning election as president.\n",
"Since 1836, no major U.S. party has nominated multiple regional presidential or vice presidential candidates in an election. However, since the Civil War there have been two serious attempts by Southern-based parties to run regional candidates in hopes of denying either of the two major candidates an electoral college majority. Both attempts (in 1948 and 1968) failed, but not by much—in both cases a shift in the result of two close states would have forced the respective elections into the House.\n",
"Starting with the 1796 election, Congressional party or a state legislature party caucus selected the party's presidential candidates. Before 1820, Democratic-Republican members of Congress would nominate a single candidate from their party. That system collapsed in 1824, and since 1832 the preferred mechanism for nomination has been a national convention.\n",
"BULLET::::- The United States general elections were held to elect members for the 64th United States Congress. The Democratic Party retained control of both houses of Congress, the first time since the Civil War. The United States House of Representatives had 230 seats go to the Democrats while the Republican Party gained 196 (with 6 going to independents). It was also the first time American voters could elect candidates to the U.S. Senate with the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment, resulting in 51 seats for the Democrats and 44 seats for the Republicans.\n",
"The two current major parties are the Democratic Party and the Republican Party. At various points prior to the American Civil War, the Federalist Party, the Democratic-Republican Party, the National Republican Party, and the Whig Party were major parties. These six parties have nominated candidates in the vast majority of presidential elections, but six presidential elections deviate from the normal pattern of two major party candidates. There were no major party candidates for president in the presidential election of 1789 and the presidential election of 1792, both of which were won by George Washington. In the 1812 presidential election, DeWitt Clinton served as the de facto Federalist nominee even though he was a member of the Democratic-Republican Party; Clinton was defeated by Democratic-Republican President James Madison. In the presidential election of 1820, incumbent President James Monroe of the Democratic-Republican Party effectively ran unopposed. In the 1824 presidential election, four Democratic-Republicans competed in multiple states in the general election as the party was unable to agree on a single nominee. Similarly, in the presidential election of 1836, the Whig Party did not unify around a single candidate and two different Whig candidates competed in multiple states in the general election.\n",
"In the 1864 United States presidential election, it takes until November 19 to work out whether Democrats or Republicans had won the election. The Democrats' candidate, Horatio Seymour, and his running mate, Clement Vallandigham, narrowly defeat Republican US President Abraham Lincoln and Vice President Hannibal Hamlin. \n",
"The practice of a presidential candidate having a running mate was solidified during the American Civil War. In 1864, in the interest of fostering national unity, Abraham Lincoln from the Republican Party (popular in the North) and Andrew Johnson of the Democratic Party (popular in the South) were co-endorsed and ran together for President and Vice-President as candidates of the National Union Party. Notwithstanding this party disbanded after the war ended, with the result that Republican Lincoln after his assassination was succeeded by Democrat Johnson; the states began to place candidates for President and Vice-President together on the same ballot ticket – thus making it impossible to vote for a presidential candidate from one party and a vice-presidential candidate from another party, as had previously been possible.\n"
] |
why do humans drink so much water when compared to cats/dogs?
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Humans sweat while most other animals with fur/feathers don't. Obviously you need to replace the moisture lost by sweating.
Efficency of our bodies is another issue. Some animals have more efficient kidneys that concentrate urine stronger than humans. This means they need less water to carry away waste.
|
[
"BULLET::::- There have been relatively few studies on the preferences of wild animals. A recent study has shown that feral pigeons do not discriminate drinking water according to its content of metabolic wastes, such as uric acid or urea (mimicking faeces- or urine-pollution by birds or mammals respectively).\n",
"The qualitative and quantitative aspects of drinking water requirements of domesticated animals are studied and described within the context of animal husbandry. However, relatively few studies have been focused on the drinking behavior of wild animals. A recent study has shown that feral pigeons do not discriminate drinking water according to its content of metabolic wastes, such as uric acid or urea (mimicking faeces-pollution by birds or urine-pollution by mammals respectively).\n",
"Cats' feces are comparatively dry and their urine is highly concentrated, both of which are adaptations to allow cats to retain as much water as possible. Their kidneys are so efficient, they can survive on a diet consisting only of meat, with no additional water, and can even rehydrate by drinking seawater.\n",
"Cats drink water by lapping the surface with their tongue. A fraction of a teaspoon of water is taken up with each lap. Although some desert cats are able to obtain much of their water needs through the flesh of their prey, most cats come to bodies of water to drink.\n",
"High concentrations in the blood can be damaging. Ingestion of low concentrations of urea, such as are found in typical human urine, are not dangerous with additional water ingestion within a reasonable time-frame. Many animals (e.g., dogs) have a much more concentrated urine and it contains a higher urea amount than normal human urine; this can prove dangerous as a source of liquids for consumption in a life-threatening situation (such as in a desert).\n",
"Dogs require a constant source of clean and fresh water. This is especially true for sporting dogs participating in high energy activities. High protein diets require increased water intake for removal of extra nitrogen via urination.12 Furthermore, to deposit protein within the animal, water is also an essential mediator.\n",
"Thirst quenching varies among animal species, with dogs, camels, sheep, goats, and deer replacing fluid deficits quickly when water is available, whereas humans and horses may need hours to restore fluid balance.\n"
] |
Is it really possible to "utilize the natural electric currents within the earth" and convert it into "radiant electricity?"
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Well, first off, the disinfographic claims that there are electric currents in the ground, but in fact **the crust of the Earth doesn't have significant electric currents**, certainly nothing strong enough to extract useful power from. It's mostly incoherent babble that doesn't mean anything at all, so there aren't many actual claims to debunk.
Also, it says "this is the secret they will do anything to hide", but apparently "they" can't be bothered to use a handful of computers to initiate a sustained DOS attack against his shitty pseudoscience website and keep it offline.
I gritted my teeth and went to that website, and was greeted by such headlines as "A Chemical Conception of the Ether" and "Avenge Tesla Once and 4 All-- Elite Truth Warriors Only" and "Notes on a Hollow Earth". This stuff is pure crackpot.
|
[
"A solar photovoltaic power plant converts sunlight into direct current electricity using the photoelectric effect. Inverters change the direct current into alternating current for connection to the electrical grid. This type of plant does not use rotating machines for energy conversion.\n",
"BULLET::::- Renewable energy through converting sunlight into electricity—either by using solar cells and concentrating solar power or indirectly through biofuel, wind and hydroelectric power. There is no known way for human civilization to use the equivalent of the Earth's total absorbed solar energy without completely coating the surface with human-made structures, which is not feasible with current technology. However, if a civilization constructed very large space-based solar power satellites, Type I power levels might become achievable—these could convert sunlight to microwave power and beam that to collectors on Earth.\n",
"Several fundamental methods exist to convert other forms of energy into electrical energy. The triboelectric effect, piezoelectric effect, and even direct capture of the energy of nuclear decay Betavoltaics are used in niche applications, as is a direct conversion of heat to electric power in the thermoelectric effect. Utility-scale generation is done by rotating electric generators, or by photovoltaic systems. A very small proportion of electric power distributed by utilities is provided by batteries.\n",
"Where the primary source of electrical energy is hydroelectric, nuclear, or wind, transferring electricity via the grid can be convenient, since the resource may be too distant for direct heating applications (with the notable exception of solar thermal energy).\n",
"In materials with a direct band gap, if bright light is aimed at one part of the contact area between the two semiconductors, the voltage at that spot will rise, and an electric current will appear. When considering light in the context of contact electrification, the light energy is changed directly into electrical energy, allowing creation of solar cells. Later it was found that the same process can be reversed, and if a current is forced backwards across the contact region between the semiconductors, sometimes light will be emitted, allowing creation of the light-emitting diode (LED).\n",
"Electric power, produced from central generating stations and distributed over an electrical transmission grid, is widely used in industrial, commercial and consumer applications. The per capita electric power consumption of a country correlates with its industrial development. Electric motors power manufacturing machinery and propel subways and railway trains. Electric lighting is the most important form of artificial light. Electrical energy is used directly in processes such as extraction of aluminum from its ores and in production of steel in electric arc furnaces. Reliable electric power is essential to telecommunications and broadcasting. Electric power is used to provide air conditioning in hot climates, and in some places electric power is an economically competitive source of energy for building space heating. Use of electric power for pumping water ranges from individual household wells to irrigation projects and energy storage projects.\n",
"Electricity is most often generated at a power station by electromechanical generators, primarily driven by heat engines fueled by chemical combustion or nuclear fission but also by other means such as the kinetic energy of flowing water and wind. There are many other technologies that can be and are used to generate electricity such as solar photovoltaics and geothermal power.\n"
] |
why have salaries not increased on par with the cost of living.
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Our economy is based on an everlasting perpetual growth. In other words if company i.e. Walmart doesn't post profit increase in their year over year sales report it is considered unsuccessful or not profitable and investors start pulling away. One of the easiest ways to do that is to keep your payroll as low as possible. Now multiply that by 100s of powerful companies who are very powerful and and have significant representation and influence in our government and there is your answer. This is as simple way as I can put it without writing an essay.
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[
"According to an October 2014 report by the Pew Research Center, real wages have been flat or falling for the last five decades for most U.S. workers, regardless of job growth. Bloomberg reported in July 2018 that real GDP per capita has grown substantially since the Great Recession, but real compensation per hour, including benefits, hasn't increased at all.\n",
"The rise of wages in jobs without productivity gains is from the requirement to compete for employees with jobs that have experienced gains and so can naturally pay higher salaries, just as classical economics predicts. For instance, if the retail sector pays its managers 19th-century-style salaries, the managers may decide to quit to get a job at an automobile factory, where salaries are higher because of high labor productivity. Thus, managers' salaries are increased not by labor productivity increases in the retail sector but by productivity and corresponding wage increases in other industries.\n",
"The reason that employees are often paid according to hours of work rather than by direct measurement of results is that it is often more efficient to use indirect systems of controlling the quantity and quality of effort, due to a variety of informational and other issues (e.g., turnover costs, which determine the optimal minimum length of relationship between firm and employee). This means that methods such as deferred compensation and structures such as tournaments are often more suitable to create the incentives for employees to contribute what they can to output over longer periods (years rather than hours). These represent \"pay-for-performance\" systems in a looser, more extended sense, as workers who consistently work harder and better are more likely to be promoted (and usually paid more), compared to the narrow definition of \"pay-for-performance\", such as piece rates. This discussion has been conducted almost entirely for self-interested rational individuals. In practice, however, the incentive mechanisms which successful firms use take account of the socio-cultural context they are embedded in (Fukuyama 1995, Granovetter 1985), in order not to destroy the social capital they might more constructively mobilise towards building an organic, social organization, with the attendant benefits from such things as \"worker loyalty and pride (...) [which] can be critical to a firm's success ...\" (Sappington 1991,63)\n",
"This includes mainly monthly and annual salaries that are agreed upon. They are considered overheads as these costs must be paid regardless of sales and profits of the company. In addition, salary differs from wage as salary is not affected by working hours and time, therefore will remain constant. In particular, this would more commonly apply to more senior staff members as they are typically signed to longer tenure contracts, meaning that their salaries are more commonly predetermined.\n",
"Increasing healthcare costs also contribute to wage stagnation, as corporations pay for benefits rather than wages. Bloomberg reported in January 2013: \"If there’s a consensus among health economists about anything, it’s that employer-provided health benefits come out of wages. If health insurance were cheaper, or the marketplace were structured so that most people bought health coverage for themselves rather than getting it with their jobs, people would be paid more and raises would be higher.\"\n",
"Income per capita has been increasing steadily in most countries. Many factors contribute to people having a higher income, including education, globalisation and favorable political circumstances such as economic freedom and peace. Increases in income also tend to lead to people choosing to work fewer hours.\n",
"Some employees are paid more for they are presenting that they are worth a greater amount since they can perform more than one job function and thus makes a higher incentive for more employees to be able to perform better in the workplace. \n"
] |
Flairs, posters, lurkers, lend me your ears! I come to praise our NEW MOD!
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Thank you so much for the warm welcome, u/hannahstohelit and the rest of the mod team! I'm excited to lend my hand in the effort to clean up the internet and let everyone know where all the comments have gone!
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[
"Mad Mod is a psychedelic red-headed British villain with the mannerisms of a strict schoolmarm, whose root source of power comes from his ruby-tipped cane. It is later revealed that Mod is actually an old man who is given to the use of holograms of his younger self. He is also formidable for his use of hypnotic suggestion which has a stupefying and lobotomizing effect on its victims.\n",
"BULLET::::- Mad Mod appeared in the \"Teen Titans\" TV series voiced by Malcolm McDowell. Mad Mod has no superpowers of his own, but he is a master of technological trickery such as robots and holographic projectors, which he controls with a ruby-handled cane. His ability to produce illusions resulted in surreal, 1960s-styled landscapes, and allowed \"Moddie\" to appear in several different forms; even appearing stylized in the manner of God as he appeared in \"Monty Python and the Holy Grail\", or becoming a round Blue Meanie-esque figure. In one circumstance, he was able to use such a cane to drain the youth from someone, making them old and him young again. He has an English accent and is utterly anglophilic. Moddie, as he often calls himself, tends to view the Titans as rebellious \"snots\", and claims that they show no respect for their elders. He has an odd habit of calling people \"my duckies\". He first appears in \"Mad Mod\", where he kidnaps the Titans, frequently calls them, \"My Duckies\", and places them in a psychedelic \"school\". He attempts to \"teach them to behave\" through hypnosis, using methods similar to the Ludovico technique (used in \"A Clockwork Orange\", which McDowell starred in). When his initial attempts fail, he leads them on a Scooby-Doo-like chase through a Yellow Submarine-esque maze. The Titans escape when Robin realizes that Mad Mod is as fake as the rest of their surroundings; he thus abandons his attempts to capture him in favor of searching for flaws in the illusion. He quickly notices one — Mod's weapons have made an intriguing hole in the backdrop, which leads into the illusion's internal works. This enables him to make his way to the control room where he confronts the real Mad Mod — a sickly-looking old man using an advanced computer to control the whole school and a hologram of his younger self. Robin, of course, has no trouble defeating him. In \"Revolution\", Mad Mod crashes the Independence Day celebration claiming the American Revolution was a hoax. He then remakes the entire city in the image of Old England by using hypno-screens to control the population and giant illusions to change the look of the entire city to that of Merry Old London, claiming that \"the United States belongs to England again\". Mad Mod also kidnaps Robin and uses his cane to drain his youth, reducing Robin to a weak and helpless old man, while Mad Mod becomes his younger self again. The other Titans are initially prevented from reaching Mad Mod and freeing Robin by various large robots modeled after the Coldstream Guards and Mad Mod anticipating their plans. Later, they succeed in getting the cane from him. Robin then uses it to reverse the aging effects. He breaks the cane, thus ending Mad Mod's rule over the city by deactivating his equipment. The Titans then chase after Mad Mod. Mad Mod's aged form made a cameo appearance in \"The Lost Episode\" as one of the audience members in the orchestra and is last seen fleeing when Punk Rocket strikes. He later has several small appearances as a member of the Brotherhood of Evil where he is somehow young again. In \"Revved Up\", Mad Mod was seen taking part in Ding Dong Daddy's race. He was last seen fighting in \"Titans Together\", where he was blown off his feet by Beast Boy's \"Tyrannosaurus\" form. He was briefly possessed by Jericho and then was crushed by Overload. Jericho then left his body. He was flash-frozen along with the rest of the Brotherhood in the end.\n",
"Mad Mod makes a silent cameo appearance in the \"Teen Titans Go!\" theatrical film \"Teen Titans Go! To the Movies\". In the film, as many villains including Control Freak, Mad Mod appears strapped to a light signal which forms Robin's name in the sky during Robin's musical number \"My Superhero Movie\".\n",
"George Melly wrote that mods were initially a small group of clothes-focused English working class young men insisting on clothes and shoes tailored to their style, who emerged during the modern jazz boom of the late 1950s. Early mods watched French and Italian art films and read Italian magazines to look for style ideas. They usually held semi-skilled manual jobs or low grade white-collar positions such as a clerk, messenger or office boy. According to Hebdige, mods created a parody of the consumer society that they lived in. \n",
"The mod was developed by Long War Studios, a team that came to include four core members, with assistance from 29 contributors, 20 voice actors, and three members of Firaxis Games, including the developer of \"Enemy Unknown\" and \"Enemy Within\". According to one of the mod's core developers, Amineri, the mod started as a series of changes to the base game's configuration file, and grew more expansive as the team's capabilities grew. By the end of the mod's development, the team was working directly with the Unreal Development Kit, and had created a Java-based tool to help manage the changes that the mod was making.\n",
"Due to the mod's high popularity, \"Rhye's and Fall of Civilization\" has had a number of fan-created mods that make changes to the mod itself. (\"modmods\") These serve a variety of functions, from lengthening the number of turns, to totally converting the mod, with entirely new units, buildings, civilizations, and tech tree.\n",
"Mod DB's Mod of the Year competition, the 'Golden Spanner' awards, aim to set the industry standard in awarding inventive and high-quality mods. Mods are chosen via a community vote and are then reviewed by staff to produce the final list of winners. The competition aims to encourage all fields of modding, with different categories such as graphics and gameplay, as well as a traditional 'best mod' winner.\n"
] |
What exactly happens when cake batter turns into fluffy, moist cake?
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Cake batter includes two chemicals, cream of tartar (or, to give it the chemist's name, tartaric acid) and baking soda (sodium bicarbonate). When mixed together dry, we call it 'baking powder', when sold mixed in with the flour, it becomes 'self-raising flour'. When mixed with water, these two chemicals react (slowly) to create salt and a gas, carbon dioxide. This causes bubbles in the batter. The first stages of baking help here, because, like most chemical reactions, it becomes faster at higher temperatures.
The batter contains some other chemicals too - mostly a protein, gluten, from the flour. As it cooks, different pieces (molecules) of gluten bind together, forming a strong framework. This traps the bubbles in place, making the light, fluffy, edible sponge that we call 'cake'.
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[
"When the cake has finished baking, it should have a golden brown color on the exposed area. This is due to Maillard browning reactions. If the cake bakes for too long, more moisture will be removed and the texture will turn out dry, rough, and potentially burnt.\n",
"A cake can fall, whereby parts of it sink or flatten, when baked at a temperature that is too low or too hot, when it has been underbaked and when placed in an oven that is too hot at the beginning of the baking process. The use of excessive amounts of sugar, flour, fat or leavening can also cause a cake to fall. A cake can also fall when subjected to cool air that enters an oven when the oven door is opened during the cooking process.\n",
"The batter is a pound cake, a cake made of equal amounts by weight of butter, flour, eggs and sugar, which is then divided into two parts, one of which is colored with cocoa. The two batters are spread in layers onto the baking sheet, the chocolate batter above the plain batter, before the top is strewn with sour cherries. During baking, the cherries sink to the bottom of the cake, causing the wavy pattern. After the cake has cooled it is decorated with a thick layer of buttercream and iced with a chocolate glaze which may then be ornamented in a wavy manner with a fork.\n",
"The baking process causes the batter to expand and go from a liquid to a solid foam. The proteins will not start to denature until the temperature reaches around 158 °F. During this rise in temperature the air bubbles will either expand, coalesce, or break. An egg white foam will continue to expand uniformly until the internal temperature reaches 176 – 185 °F. Based on the ideal gas law, as the temperature increases, the volume of the air bubbles will expand. The temperature will continue to rise, causing the cake to expand at different rates and egg white proteins will gradually denature. Some of the egg white proteins will start to denature and coagulate at around 135 °F. This establishes the setting of the foam structure. By the time the temperature reaches 180 °F, all of the egg white proteins will have set in place.\n",
"Once the cake has been baked, or when leftovers from an existing cake have been collected, it is crumbled into pieces. These crumbs are mixed into a bowl of frosting and the resulting mixture is shaped into balls, cubes or other shapes. Each ball is attached to a lollipop stick dipped in melted chocolate, and put in the fridge to chill. Once the mixture solidifies, it is dipped in melted chocolate to form a hard shell, and decorated with sprinkles or decorative sugars. The cake balls can be frozen to speed the solidification process.\n",
"The flour plays an important role in the texture, structure, and elasticity of an angel food cake. Minimal folding of the flour allows cell walls to form when it comes in contact with the egg protein foam and sugar mixture. If the batter is over-mixed, the egg white proteins may coagulate causing the bubbles to break during baking, or the cell walls may become too rigid, lacking elasticity. This would reduce the volume and result in a coarse texture. However, if the batter is under-mixed, a weak foam will form.\n",
"The \"pouding chômeur\" is a basic cake batter onto which a hot syrup or caramel is poured before baking. The cake then rises through the liquid which settles at the bottom of the pan, mixing with the batter and creating a distinct layer at the bottom of the dish. The syrup or caramel can be made from brown sugar, white sugar, maple syrup or a combination of these.\n"
] |
why aren't siblings born with the same dna?
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You have 23 pairs of DNA in your body. One of each pair from your mom, another from your dad. This means you have about 0.5^23 chance of having the same DNA as a sibling, and that's not even factoring in recombination (bits of DNA switching around).
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[
"Theoretically, there is a chance that they might not share genes. This is very rare and is due to there being a smaller possibility of inheriting the same chromosomes from the shared parent. However, the same is also theoretically possible for full siblings, albeit (comparatively) much less likely. Because of the formation of Chiasma in late prophase II (cross-over events), both previous statements are generally impossible. \n",
"Due to the inherited nature of HLA genes, family members are more likely to be histocompatible. The odds of a sibling having received the same haplotypes from both parents is 25%, while there is a 50% chance that the sibling would share just one haplotype and a 25% chance they would share neither. However, variability due to crossing over, haplotypes may rearrange between generations and siblings may be intermediate matches.\n",
"Identical twins share 100% of their DNA. Full siblings are first-degree relatives and, on average, share 50% of their genes out of those that vary among humans, assuming that the parents share none of those genes. Half-siblings are second-degree relatives and have, on average, a 25% overlap in their human genetic variation.\n",
"As the X chromosome is one of the sex chromosomes (the other being the Y chromosome), X-linked inheritance is determined by the sex of the parent carrying a specific gene and can often seem complex. This is because, typically, females have two copies of the X-chromosome and males have only one copy. The difference between dominant and recessive inheritance patterns also plays a role in determining the chances of a child inheriting an X-linked disorder from their parentage.\n",
"inheritance is determined by the sex of the parent carrying a specific gene and can often seem complex. This is due to the fact that, typically, females have two copies of the X-chromosome, while males have only one copy. The difference between dominant and recessive inheritance patterns also plays a role in determining the chances of a child inheriting an X-linked disorder from their parentage.\n",
"inheritance is determined by the gender of the parent carrying a specific gene and can often seem complex. This is because, typically, females have two copies of the X-chromosome, while males have only one copy. The difference between dominant and recessive inheritance patterns also plays a role in determining the chances of a child inheriting an X-linked disorder from their parentage.A locus of Xq24-q27 has been described. However, no gene has been identified.\n",
"inheritance is determined by the gender of the parent carrying a specific gene and can often seem complex. This is because, typically, females have two copies of the X-chromosome, while males have only one copy. The difference between dominant and recessive inheritance patterns also plays a role in determining the chances of a child inheriting an X-linked disorder from their parentage.\n"
] |
how do computers transmit and translate video and pictures? does each picture get boiled down to a pixel level with a binary code for each pixel? what about video? it blows my mind that computers can do this.
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Every pixel has a colour represented by a binary code. Commonly a byte (8 bits) is used for each of the three primary colours of red, green, and blue, so you need three bytes (24-bits) per pixel. That gives 16 million possible different colours.
Pictures are then compressed which allows a big reduction in the number of bytes required. Pixels tend to be the same colour as adjoining pixels and encoding that in an image file allows it to be much smaller than if you described every pixel separately. Usually "lossy" compression is used which can allow the file to be much smaller, at the cost of not looking exactly the same as the original. There's a trade-off between file size and quality.
Video is just a sequence of pictures called frames. It can be compressed more because most frames are almost exactly the same as the previous frames. The compressor might only send one self-contained frame every second and the other frames are described based on how they're different from preceding and/or following frames. If one part of the frame is moving in front of the rest, the compressor can describe which parts of the frame have moved and how far, instead of having to resend the pixels.
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[
"A binary image can be stored in memory as a bitmap, a packed array of bits. A 640×480 image requires 37.5 KiB of storage. Because of the small size of the image files, fax machine and document management solutions usually use this format. Most binary images also compress well with simple run-length compression schemes.\n",
"The P6 binary format of the same image represents each color component of each pixel with one byte (thus three bytes per pixel) in the order red, green, then blue. The file is smaller, but the color information is difficult to read by humans.\n",
"If a binary file is opened in a text editor, each group of eight bits will typically be translated as a single character, and the user will see a (probably unintelligible) display of textual characters. If the file is opened in some other application, that application will have its own use for each byte: maybe the application will treat each byte as a number and output a stream of numbers between 0 and 255—or maybe interpret the numbers in the bytes as colors and display the corresponding picture. Other type of viewers (called 'word extractors') simply replace the unprintable characters with spaces revealing only the human-readable text. This type of view is useful for quick inspection of a binary file in order to find passwords in games, find hidden text in non-text files and recover corrupted documents. It can even be used to inspect suspicious files (software) for unwanted effects. For example, the user would see any URL/email to which the suspected software may attempt to connect in order to upload unapproved data (to steal). If the file is itself treated as an executable and run, then the operating system will attempt to interpret the file as a series of instructions in its machine language.\n",
"In most computer display systems, images are encoded with a gamma of about 0.45 and decoded with the reciprocal gamma of 2.2. A notable exception, until the release of Mac OS X 10.6 (Snow Leopard) in September 2009, were Macintosh computers, which encoded with a gamma of 0.55 and decoded with a gamma of 1.8. In any case, binary data in still image files (such as JPEG) are explicitly encoded (that is, they carry gamma-encoded values, not linear intensities), as are motion picture files (such as MPEG). The system can optionally further manage both cases, through color management, if a better match to the output device gamma is required.\n",
"Text coding is based on the nature of human visual interpretation. A human observer cannot tell the difference between two instances of the same characters in a bi-level image even though they may not exactly match pixel by pixel. Therefore, only the bitmap of one representative character instance needs to be coded instead of coding the bitmaps of each occurrence of the same character individually. For each character instance, the coded instance of the character is then stored into a \"symbol dictionary\". There are two encoding methods for text image data: pattern matching and substitution (PM&S) and soft pattern matching (SPM). These methods are presented in the following subsections.\n",
"Video output is through an RF modulator and was designed for use with contemporary television sets, for a simple colour graphic display. Text can be displayed using 32 columns × 24 rows of characters from the ZX Spectrum character set or from a set provided within an application, from a palette of 15 shades: seven colours at two levels of brightness each, plus black. The image resolution is 256×192 with the same colour limitations. To conserve memory, colour is stored separate from the pixel bitmap in a low resolution, 32×24 grid overlay, corresponding to the character cells. In practice, this means that all pixels of an 8x8 character block share one foreground colour and one background colour.\n",
"BULLET::::- The rendering software writes gamma-encoded pixel binary values directly to the video memory (when highcolor/truecolor modes are used) or in the CLUT hardware registers (when indexed color modes are used) of the display adapter. They drive Digital-to-Analog Converters (DAC) which output the proportional voltages to the display. For example, when using 24-bit RGB color (8 bits per channel), writing a value of 128 (rounded midpoint of the 0–255 byte range) in video memory it outputs the proportional voltage to the display, which it is shown darker due to the monitor behavior. Alternatively, to achieve intensity, a gamma-encoded look-up table can be applied to write a value near to 187 instead of 128 by the rendering software.\n"
] |
why does taking (something) to the negative power give us 1/(something)?
|
If you can realise that multiplication is the inverse of division, then it is pretty easy.
For positive powers:
2^1 =1x2=2
2^2 =1x2x2=4
2^3 =1x2x2x2=8
and so on. For a positive power, you multiply the number.
A negative power has the same pattern, except with division, so:
2^-1 =1/2
2^-2 =1/2/2=1/4
2^-3 =1/2/2/2=1/8
and so on.
|
[
"Referent power in a negative form produces actions in opposition to the intent of the influencing agent, this is the result from the agent's creation of cognitive dissonance between the referent influencing agent and the target's perception of that influence.\n",
"If the metaphor can be extended, and good and evil share the same asymmetry as light and darkness, evil can have no source, cannot be projected, and, of itself, can offer no resistance to any source of good, no matter how weak or distant. Then, goodness cannot be actively opposed, and power becomes a consequence of benevolence. However, evil is the default state of the universe, and good exists only through constant effort; any lapse or redirection of good will apparently create evil out of nothing.\n",
"On the other hand, when is an integer, the power is already meaningful for all values of , including negative ones. This may make the definition obtained above for negative problematic when is odd, since in this case as tends to through positive values, but not negative ones.\n",
"Under the theory of positive and negative rights, a negative right is a right \"not to be\" subjected to an action of another person or group—a government, for example—usually in the form of abuse or coercion. As such, negative rights exist unless someone acts to \"negate\" them. A positive right is a right \"to be\" subjected to an action of another person or group. In other words, for a positive right to be exercised, someone else's actions must be \"added\" to the equation. In theory, a negative right forbids others from acting against the right holder, while a positive right obligates others to act with respect to the right holder. In the framework of the Kantian categorical imperative, negative rights can be associated with perfect duties while positive rights can be connected to imperfect duties.\n",
"However, the presence of 1 negative power among the 3 powers \"p\", \"p\", \"p\" results in appearance of terms from \"P\" with an order greater than \"t\". If the negative power is \"p\" (\"p\" = \"p\" 0), then \"P\" contains the coordinate function λ and become\n",
"The positivity effect is the ability to constructively analyze a situation where the desired results are not achieved; but still obtain positive feedback that assists our future progression. When a person is considering people they like (including themselves), the person tends to make situational attributions about their negative behaviors and dispositional attributions about their positive behaviors. The reverse is true for people that the person dislikes. This is because of the dissonance between liking a person and seeing them behave negatively.\n",
"An electric charge can be positive or negative — objects with a positive charge repel other positively charged objects, thereby causing them to push away from each other, while a positively charged object would attract to a negatively charged object, thereby causing the two to draw together. \n"
] |
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