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Air pollutant concentrations Air pollutant concentrations, as measured or as calculated by air pollution dispersion modeling, must often be converted or corrected to be expressed as required by the regulations issued by various governmental agencies. Regulations that define and limit the concentration of pollutants in the ambient air or in gaseous emissions to the ambient air are issued by various national and state (or provincial) environmental protection and occupational health and safety agencies. Such regulations involve a number of different expressions of concentration. Some express the concentrations as ppmv (parts per million by volume) and some express the concentrations as mg/m (milligrams per cubic meter), while others require adjusting or correcting the concentrations to reference conditions of moisture content, oxygen content or carbon dioxide content. This article presents methods for converting concentrations from ppmv to mg/m (and vice versa) and for correcting the concentrations to the required reference conditions. All of the concentrations and concentration corrections in this article apply only to air and other gases. They are not applicable for liquids. The conversion equations depend on the temperature at which the conversion is wanted (usually about 20 to 25 °C). At an ambient sea level atmospheric pressure of 1 atm (101.325 kPa or 1.01325 bar), the general equation is: and for the reverse conversion: Notes: expressed as mass per unit volume of atmospheric air (e.g., mg/m, µg/m, etc | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23548517 |
Air pollutant concentrations ) at sea level will decrease with increasing altitude. The concentration decrease is directly proportional to the pressure decrease with increasing altitude. Some governmental regulatory jurisdictions require industrial sources of air pollution to comply with sea level standards corrected for altitude. In other words, industrial air pollution sources located at altitudes well above sea level must comply with significantly more stringent air quality standards than sources located at sea level (since it is more difficult to comply with lower standards). For example, New Mexico's Department of the Environment has a regulation with such a requirement. The change of atmospheric pressure with altitude (<20 km) can be obtained from this equation: Given an air pollutant concentration at sea-level atmospheric pressure, the concentration at higher altitudes can be obtained from this equation: As an example, given an air pollutant concentration of 260 mg/m at sea level, calculate the equivalent pollutant concentration at an altitude of 2800 meters: Note: Many environmental protection agencies have issued regulations that limit the concentration of pollutants in gaseous emissions and define the reference conditions applicable to those concentration limits. For example, such a regulation might limit the concentration of to 55 ppmv in a dry combustion exhaust gas (at a specified reference temperature and pressure) corrected to 3 volume percent O in the dry gas | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23548517 |
Air pollutant concentrations As another example, a regulation might limit the concentration of total particulate matter to 200 mg/m of an emitted gas (at a specified reference temperature and pressure) corrected to a dry basis and further corrected to 12 volume percent CO in the dry gas. Environmental agencies in the USA often use the terms "dscf" or "scfd" to denote a "standard" cubic foot of dry gas. Likewise, they often use the terms "dscm" or "scmd" to denote a "standard" cubic meter of gas. Since there is no universally accepted set of "standard" temperature and pressure, such usage can be and is very confusing. It is strongly recommended that the reference temperature and pressure always be clearly specified when stating gas volumes or gas flow rates. If a gaseous emission sample is analyzed and found to contain water vapor and a pollutant concentration of say 40 ppmv, then 40 ppmv should be designated as the "wet basis" pollutant concentration | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23548517 |
Air pollutant concentrations The following equation can be used to correct the measured "wet basis" concentration to a "dry basis" concentration: As an example, a wet basis concentration of 40 ppmv in a gas having 10 volume percent water vapor would have a: The following equation can be used to correct a measured pollutant concentration in a dry emitted gas with a measured O content to an equivalent pollutant concentration in a dry emitted gas with a specified reference amount of O: As an example, a measured concentration of 45 ppmv in a dry gas having 5 volume % O is: when corrected to a dry gas having a specified reference O content of 3 volume %. Note: The following equation can be used to correct a measured pollutant concentration in an emitted gas (containing a measured CO content) to an equivalent pollutant concentration in an emitted gas containing a specified reference amount of CO: As an example, a measured particulates concentration of 200 mg/m in a dry gas that has a measured 8 volume % CO is: when corrected to a dry gas having a specified reference CO content of 12 volume %. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23548517 |
Iron stress repressed RNA (IsrR) is a cis-encoded antisense RNA which regulates the expression of the photosynthetic protein isiA. IsiA expression is activated by the Ferric uptake regulator protein (Fur) under iron stress conditions. IsiA enhances photosynthesis by forming a ring around photosystem I which acts as an additional antenna complex. IsrR is abundant when there is a sufficient iron concentration. IsrR is encoded for within the opposite stand of isiA gene and contains a conserved stem loop secondary structure. Under sufficient iron conditions IsrR binds to its complementary region which corresponds to the central third of the isiA mRNA. The resulting duplex RNA is then targeted for degradation. This allows the antisense RNA to act as a reversible switch that responds to changes in environmental conditions to modulate the expression of the isiA protein. IsrR was originally identified within cyanobacteria but may be conserved throughout a number of photosynthetic species from multiple kingdoms. At present, IsrR is the only non coding RNA identified that has a regulatory role on photosynthetic proteins. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23551125 |
Eslicarbazepine acetate (ESL), sold under the brand names Aptiom and Zebinix among others, is an anticonvulsant medication approved for use in Europe and the United States as monotherapy or as additional therapy for partial-onset seizures epilepsy. Similarly to oxcarbazepine, ESL behaves as a prodrug to ("S")-(+)-licarbazepine. As such, their mechanisms of action are identical. is contraindicated in people with second- or third-degree atrioventricular block, a type of heart block, and in people who are hypersensitive to eslicarbazepine, oxcarbazepine or carbazepine. Adverse effects are similar to oxcarbazepine. The most common ones (more than 10% of patients) are tiredness and dizziness. Other fairly common side effects (1 to 10%) include impaired coordination, gastrointestinal disorders such as diarrhoea, nausea and vomiting, rash (1.1%), and hyponatraemia (low sodium blood levels, 1.2%). There may also be an increased risk of suicidal thoughts. Symptoms of overdosing are similar to adverse effects of standard doses. They include (severe) hyponatraemia, somnolence, walking difficulties, hemiparesis (weakness of one side of the body), diplopia, and gastrointestinal disorders. No specific antidote is available. Eslicarbazepine and metabolites can be dialyzed | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23553466 |
Eslicarbazepine acetate Like oxcarbazepine, eslicarbazepine can reduce plasma levels of drugs that are metabolized by the liver enzymes CYP3A4 (verified in studies for simvastatin and the oral contraceptive levonorgestrel/ethinylestradiol) and UDP-glucuronosyltransferase, and increase plasma levels of drugs metabolized by CYP2C19. Interaction studies have been conducted with a number of common anticonvulsants. Carbamazepine reduces blood plasma concentrations of eslicarbazepine, probably because it induces glucuronidation. This drug combination also increased the risk for diplopia, impaired coordination and dizziness in a clinical study. Phenytoin also reduces eslicarbazepine plasma concentrations, which may be due to increased glucuronidation of eslicarbazepine; and concomitant administration results in an increase in phenytoin serum concentrations, which is probably due to inhibition of CYP2C19. Combinations with lamotrigine, topiramate, valproic acid or levetiracetam showed no significant interactions in studies, although eslicarbazepine has been shown to cause a minor reduction in lamotrigine levels. The active component, eslicarbazepine, has the same mechanism of action as oxcarbazepine (which is a prodrug for licarbazepine, the racemate of eslicarbazepine) and most likely the closely related carbamazepine. It stabilises the inactive state of voltage-gated sodium channels, allowing for less sodium to enter neural cells, which leaves them less excitable | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23553466 |
Eslicarbazepine acetate According to some sources, it has not been shown conclusively that this is the actual mechanism. is absorbed to at least 90% from the gut, independently of food intake. It is quickly metabolised to eslicarbazepine, so that the original substance cannot be detected in the bloodstream. Peak plasma levels of eslicarbazepine are reached after 2–3 (1–4) hours, and plasma protein binding is somewhat less than 40%. Biological half-life is 10 to 20 hours, and steady-state concentrations are reached after four to five days after start of the treatment. Oxcarbazepine, for comparison, is also nearly completely absorbed from the gut, and peak plasma concentrations of licarbazepine are reached after 4.5 hours on average after oxcarbazepine intake. Plasma protein binding and half-life are of course the same. Other metabolites of ESL are the less active ("R")-(−)-licarbazepine (5%; the stereoisomer of eslicarbazepine), the pharmacologically active oxcarbazepine (1%), and inactive glucuronides of all of these substances. The drug is excreted mainly via the urine, of which two thirds are in the form of eslicarbazepine and one third in the form of eslicarbazepine glucuronide. The other metabolites only account for a few percent of the excreted drug | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23553466 |
Eslicarbazepine acetate Persons with certain genetic variations in human leukocyte antigens (HLAs) are under increased risk of developing skin reactions such as acute generalized exanthematous pustulosis (AGEP), but also severe ones such as Stevens–Johnson and DRESS syndrome, under treatment with carbamazepine and drugs with related chemical structures. This is true for the HLA-A*3101 allele, which occurs in 2 to 5% of Europeans and 10% of Japanese people, and the HLA-B*1502 allele, which is mainly found in people of Asian descent. Theoretically, this may also apply to ESL. As the name suggests, eslicarbazepine acetate is an ester of eslicarbazepine, the active metabolite, and acetic acid. Eslicarbazepine itself is the pharmacologically more active of the two stereoisomers of licarbazepine. More specifically, it is ("S")-(+)-licarbazepine. was developed by the Portuguese pharmaceutical company Bial. In early 2009, Bial sold the marketing rights in Europe to the Japanese company Eisai. The drug was approved in the European Union in April 2009 under the trade names "Zebinix" and "Exalief", but was marketed only under the first name. In the US it is marketed by Sunovion (formerly Sepracor) and was approved in November 2013. Studies for the use of ESL as an anticonvulsant for children are under way . Like oxcarbazepine, ESL has potential uses for the treatment of trigeminal neuralgia and bipolar disorder. A 2015 assessment showed no statistical difference to placebo for the latter disorder. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23553466 |
Duhem–Margules equation The Duhem–Margules equation, named for Pierre Duhem and Max Margules, is a thermodynamic statement of the relationship between the two components of a single liquid where the vapour mixture is regarded as an ideal gas: where "P" and "P" are the partial vapour pressures of the two constituents and x and x are the mole fractions of the liquid. Derivation "Duhem - Margulus equation give the relation between change of mole fraction with partial pressure of a component in a liquid mixture." Let consider a binary liquid mixture of two component in equilibrium with their vapour at constant temperature and pressure. Then from Gibbs - Duhem equation is formula_2 Where n and n are number of moles of the component A and B while μ and μ is their chemical potential. Dividing equation (1) by n + n , then formula_3 Or formula_4 Now the chemical potential of any component in mixture is depend upon temperature, pressure and composition of mixture. Hence if temperature and pressure taking constant then chemical potential formula_5 formula_6 Putting these values in equation (2), then formula_7 Because the sum of mole fraction of all component in the mixture is unity i.e., formula_8 Hence formula_9 so equation (5) can be re-written: formula_10 Now the chemical potential of any component in mixture is such that formula_11 where P is partial pressure of component | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23556803 |
Duhem–Margules equation By differentiating this equation with respect to the mole fraction of a component: formula_12 So we have for components A and B formula_13 formula_14 Substituting these value in equation (6), then formula_15 or formula_1 this is the final equation of Duhem- Margules equation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23556803 |
Pneumatic bladder A pneumatic bladder is an inflatable (pneumatic) bag technology with many applications. Pneumatic bladders are used to seal drains and ducts to contain chemical spills or gases. Pneumatic bladders are often used for the containment of chemical spills, oil spills or fire water on water to prevent them from entering the environment, usually in the form of booms. The Reef Ball Foundation uses a pneumatic bladder technology to float an artificial coral reef ("reef ball") into location, then deflate the bladder to sink the reef to the bottom. Pneumatic bladders, known as dunnage bags, are used to stabilize cargo within a container. Pneumatic bladders are used in medical research. Leading edge inflatable kites use pneumatic bladders restrained by a fabric case; the bladder is selected slightly larger than the case, so that at operational inflation the bladder is not stressed while the case defines the final shape of the leading edge. Many of the wing's airfoil ribs are similarly bladdered. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23559796 |
T-26 variants More than 50 different modifications and experimental vehicles based on the T-26 light infantry tank chassis were developed in the USSR in the 1930s, with 23 modifications going into series production. The majority were armoured combat vehicles: flame tanks, artillery tractors, radio-controlled tanks (teletanks), military engineering vehicles, self-propelled guns and armoured personnel carriers. They were developed at the Leningrad Factory of Experimental Mechanical Engineering (from 1935 known as the Factory No. 185 named after S.M. Kirov) by talented Soviet engineers P.N. Syachentov, S.A. Ginzburg, L.S. Troyanov, N.V. Tseits, B.A. Andryhevich, M.P. Zigel and others. Many Soviet tank engineers were declared "enemies of the nation" and repressed during Stalin's Great Purge from the middle of the 1930s. As a result, work on self-propelled guns and armoured carriers ceased in the USSR during that time. T-26 light tanks were also modified into armoured combat vehicles in the field during wartime. Flame-throwing tanks formed around 12% of the series production of T-26 light tanks. It should be mentioned that the abbreviation "OT" ("Ognemetniy Tank" which stands for "Flame-throwing Tank") appeared only in post-war literature; these tanks were originally called "KhT" ("Khimicheskiy Tank" which stands for "Chemical Tank"), or BKhM ("Boevaya Khimicheskaya Mashina"; "Fighting Chemical Vehicle") in the documents of the 1930s | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23560902 |
T-26 variants All chemical (flame-throwing) tanks based on the T-26 chassis (KhT-26, KhT-130, KhT-133) were designated BKhM-3. The vehicles were intended for area chemical contamination, smoke screens and for flame-throwing. The TKhP-3 chemical equipment for smoke screens and chemical contamination was developed in 1932. This equipment could be easily installed on any T-26 light tank and was produced by the "Compressor" Factory, (introduced for smoke screening as the TDP-3 from summer 1934; 1,503 such sets were produced to the end of 1936). Additional variants of the ST-26 (with a sliding system of bridge laying and with a tipping system of bridge laying) were also tested from 1932. The first had a massive guide frame and a special boom (the bridge could be laid in 3 min 20 sec, the raise operation took 6-7 min), while the second was equipped with a special swinging-boom with a rack-and-pinion drive. All three variants of the ST-26 participated in military maneuvers of the Leningrad Military District in the summer of 1933; subsequently series production of the ST-26 with a cable system of bridge laying was begun as it proved to be more reliable and less complicated to maintain. The Defence Committee of the USSR ordered the production of 100 ST-26 to the end of 1933, but only 44 vehicles were assembled by the Factory No. 174 by 1934, and 20 in 1935. The delay was attributed to the manufacture of the metal bridges, carried out by the "Gipstalmost" Factory and several workshops using semi-handicraft techniques | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23560902 |
T-26 variants "Specifications": weight - ; crew - 2 men (commander and driver); speed - ; range - . The Armoured Engineering Section of the Red Army's Research Institute of Engineer Equipment (NIIIT RKKA) in co-operation with the "Gipstalmost" Factory developed an improved engineer tank at the end of 1936, with a lever hydraulic system of bridge laying (similar to the UST-26, see below) and a small turret of new design. The bridge could be laid in 45 sec and the raise operation took 1.5 min (both processes did not require crew exit). The vehicle was assembled by the Podolsk Machine Factory named after S. Ordzhonikidze in July 1937, and was successfully tested at the NIIIT Proving Ground (85 bridge layings were performed and 70 light tanks passed over the bridge). This ST-26 prototype was also tested at the Kubinka Tank Proving Ground, and participated in military exercises of the Leningrad Military District in 1938. A decision was made in 1939 to produce a batch of engineer tanks with the lever hydraulic system, but the Podolsk Machine Factory could assemble only one. The Stalingrad Tractor Factory probably also produced two such vehicles the same year. An experimental multispan bridge was developed in 1934 which allowed for the coupling together of three or more ST-26 bridges, using special automatic grips in the end of each bridge section. The multispan bridge employed 250 kg metal columns high and was intended for crossings by T-26 and BT light tanks of water obstacles up to wide and deep | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23560902 |
T-26 variants The launching of each bridge section took 20-30 min. The bridge had no development after testing. Engineer Alexandrov from the Research and Technology Division of the Red Army's Engineer Directorate (NTO UNI RKKA) developed a wooden tracked bridge long. The bridge was mounted on standard T-26 light tanks as well as on ST-26 engineer tanks and could be laid in 30-60 sec without crew exit. Trials carried out in July–August 1934 were successful and 20 such bridges were issued to the armed forces. Seventy-one ST-26 engineer tanks were produced in 1932–1939, including experimental vehicles: 65 ST-26 with a cable-laid bridge system, 1 ST-26 with a sliding bridge, 1 ST-26 with a tipping bridge, 2 UST-26 and 2 ST-26 with a levered bridge-laying system. Ten ST-26 engineer tanks were used on the Karelian Isthmus during the Winter War (9 with a cable system and 1 with a lever system); they were included in engineer groups for obstacle clearing that were established in each tank brigade during the war. Three ST-26 tanks of the 35th Light Tank Brigade had the most success (in particular they launched two bridges over a trench and then an antitank ditch for a tank battalion during an assault on the fortified High Point 65.5 (Hottinen area) of the Mannerheim Line on February 18, 1940). The ST-26 with the lever system of bridge laying demonstrated good results and that vehicle was used quite actively during the Winter War, while tanks with the cable system were less reliable and had limited use | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23560902 |
T-26 variants There were no losses of ST-26 engineer tanks during the Winter War. Tank units of the Red Army had 57 ST-26 engineer tanks on June 1, 1941: 9 in the Far Eastern Front, 26 in the Moscow Military District, 2 in the Leningrad Military District, 2 in the Kiev Special Military District, 8 in the Western Special Military District, 1 in the Volga Military District, and 9 vehicles were in military supply depots. From those ST-26 engineer tanks only 12 were in good order, the others required repair. "Specifications": weight - ; crew - 1 (driver) + 4-5 (gun crew or landing party); armour - ; speed - , with a 5-t trailer; range - with a 5-t trailer. One hundred and eighty three T-26T were produced in 1933. Fourteen more with a high-powered engine and improved towing device were produced in 1936 (including 10 with an armoured cabin). The manufacturer was the Factory No. 174 named after K.E. Voroshilov in Leningrad (a plan to produce 200 T-26T with a canvas cover and 150 T-26T with an armoured cabin annually was not carried out due to increases in tank production). Tests and army service showed that T-26T artillery tractors were underpowered for cross-country towing of trailers weighing more than , so these vehicles had no further development. Also around 20 T-26 light tanks of early models were converted into artillery tractors by army units in 1937–1939 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23560902 |
T-26 variants A transfer of overhauled old twin-turreted T-26 tanks (without turrets and armament) from some tank units of western military districts for use as artillery tractors for anti-tank and regimental guns in mechanized corps began in May 1941. Tank and mechanized infantry units of the Red Army had 211 artillery tractors based on the T-26 chassis on June 1, 1941. Almost all T-26T artillery tractors of border and some inner military districts were lost during the first weeks of the Great Patriotic War. A few remained in front-line service until 1942 at least (for example, the 150th Tank Brigade of the Bryansk Front had a T-26T with an armoured cabin on May 15, 1942, which was used as a command vehicle). No less than 50 old twin-turreted T-26 tanks of the Transbaikal Military District were converted into artillery tractors from 1941; these vehicles participated in combat with the Japanese Kwantung Army in August 1945. "Specifications": full weight - ; crew - 2 (driver and commander) + 14 men (landing party); armour - . Around 1,701 armoured combat vehicles based on the T-26 chassis were produced in the USSR from 1932 till 1941. Many different attached implements for the T-26 light tank were developed in the USSR in the 1930s. Among these were mine sweeps, equipment for swimming, snorkels for deep fording, wooden and brushwood fascines for trench crossing, special extra-wide swamp tracks and mats, wire cutters, dozer blades and many others | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23560902 |
T-26 variants All of them were tested but despite often excellent test results none (except some mine sweeps) passed into army service. Design work started again when the Winter War began: Leningrad factories Kirov Factory, Factory No. 185 and Factory No. 174 developed new models of mine sweeps for the T-26 and T-28 tanks in December 1939. Kirov Factory produced 93 new mine sweeps and Factory No. 174 produced an additional 49. These disc mine sweeps (metal discs 700–900 mm in diameter with a thickness of 10–25 mm on a common axis; the weight of the whole construction was 1,800-3,000 kg) were issued to army field forces in February and March 1940. Despite low explosion resistance (the discs would bend after the first mine explosion), these mine sweeps were used successfully by the 35th tank brigade and tank battalions of the 8th Army during the Winter War. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23560902 |
Reiko Kuroda Kurodas field of research is primarily chirality within both inorganic chemistry and organic chemistry. She has worked in Japan and the UK and established the Science Interpreter Training Program at the University of Tokyo. In 2006, Kuroda was appointed to serve as a governor for the Cambridge Crystallographic Data Centre. On June 10, 2009, Dr Kuroda was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in its class for chemistry. In 2013, Kuroda was awarded the L'Oréal-UNESCO Awards for Women in Science. She has been nominated for awards by the Human Frontier Science Programme (HFSP) and by AcademiaNet. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23560960 |
Refractoriness under load (RUL) is a measure of the deformation behavior of refractory ceramic products subjected to a constant load and increasing temperature. The temperature range in which the softening occurs is not identical with the melting range of the pure raw material, but it must be reliably determined with the RUL 421 to check the use of refractory products in high-temperature applications. Creep in compression (CIC) refers to the percent of shrinkage of a refractory test piece under a constant load and exposed to a constant high temperature over a long period of time. The creep in compression test is also carried out in the RUL 421 to a maximum temperature of 1700 °C. With its sturdy design, the RUL 421 is well suited for these long-running thermal and mechanical loads. The same test-piece dimensions of 50 mm in diameter and 50 mm in height are used for both the RUL and the CIC tests. For the high-precision differential measuring system for determination of the deformation, the cylindrical test piece has a co-axial bore of 12.5 mm. Selection and application of the load on the test piece are reproducible and independent of the deformation through use of the hood-type furnace with counterweights. By reducing the load on the test piece to negligible values (as compared to the surface of the test piece), precise dilatometer measurements on large and even inhomogeneous samples can be carried out in the RUL 421 at temperatures up to 1700 °C | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23562034 |
Refractoriness under load RUL is a critical property for refractory bricks, which basically reflects the service temperature of the bricks, raw materials, etc. Refractoriness Under Load (RUL) values (T0.6 at 0.2MPa) for fireclay-based refractory bricks are usually below 1500 °C; for medium duty fireclay bricks, about 1300 °C; and high duty fireclay bricks at 1350 to 1420 °C; superduty fireclay bricks, between 1420 and 1500 °C (sometimes even higher than 1500 °C). Such properties can vary depending upon different industrial standards. The refractoriness under load can be determined by using the ISO 1893 standard. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23562034 |
Radioanalytical chemistry focuses on the analysis of sample for their radionuclide content. Various methods are employed to purify and identify the radioelement of interest through chemical methods and sample measurement techniques. The field of radioanalytical chemistry was originally developed by Marie Curie with contributions by Ernest Rutherford and Frederick Soddy. They developed chemical separation and radiation measurement techniques on terrestrial radioactive substances. During the twenty years that followed 1897 the concepts of radionuclides was born. Since Curie's time, applications of radioanalytical chemistry have proliferated. Modern advances in nuclear and radiochemistry research have allowed practitioners to apply chemistry and nuclear procedures to elucidate nuclear properties and reactions, used radioactive substances as tracers, and measure radionuclides in many different types of samples. The importance of radioanalytical chemistry spans many fields including chemistry, physics, medicine, pharmacology, biology, ecology, hydrology, geology, forensics, atmospheric sciences, health protection, archeology, and engineering. Applications include: forming and characterizing new elements, determining the age of materials, and creating radioactive reagents for specific tracer use in tissues and organs. The ongoing goal of radioanalytical researchers is to develop more radionuclides and lower concentrations in people and the environment. Alpha decay is characterized by the emission of an alpha particle, a He nucleus | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23568658 |
Radioanalytical chemistry The mode of this decay causes the parent nucleus to decrease by two protons and two neutrons. This type of decay follows the relation: formula_1 Beta decay is characterized by the emission of a neutrino and a negatron which is equivalent to an electron. This process occurs when a nucleus has an excess of neutrons with respect to protons, as compared to the stable isobar. This type of transition converts a neutron into a proton; similarly, a positron is released when a proton is converted into a neutron. These decays follows the relation: formula_2 formula_3 Gamma ray emission follows the previously discussed modes of decay when the decay leaves a daughter nucleus in an excited state. This nucleus is capable of further de-excitation to a lower energy state by the release of a photon. This decay follows the relation: formula_4 Gaseous ionization detectors collect and record the electrons freed from gaseous atoms and molecules by the interaction of radiation released by the source. A voltage potential is applied between two electrodes within a sealed system. Since the gaseous atoms are ionized after they interact with radiation they are attracted to the anode which produces a signal. It is important to vary the applied voltage such that the response falls within a critical proportional range. The operating principle of Semiconductor detectors is similar to gas ionization detectors: expect instead of ionization gas atoms, free electrons and holes are produced which create a signal at the electrodes | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23568658 |
Radioanalytical chemistry The advantage of solid state detectors is the greater resolution of the resultant energy spectrum. Usually NaI(Tl) detectors are used; for more precise applications Ge(Li) and Si(Li) detectors have been developed. For extra sensitive measurements high-pure germanium detectors are used under a liquid nitrogen environment. Scintillation detectors uses a photo luminescent source (such as ZnS) which interacts with radiation. When a radioactive particle decays and strikes the photo luminescent material a photon is released. This photon is multiplied in a photomultiplier tube which converts light into an electrical signal. This signal is then processed and converted into a channel. By comparing the number of counts to the energy level (typically in keV or MeV) the type of decay can be determined. Due to radioactive nucleotides have similar properties to their stable, inactive, counterparts similar analytical chemistry separation techniques can be used. These separation methods include precipitation, Ion Exchange, Liquid Liquid extraction, Solid Phase extraction, Distillation, and Electrodeposition. Samples with very low concentrations are difficult to measure accurately due to the radioactive atoms unexpectedly depositing on surfaces. Sample loss at trace levels may be due to adhesion to container walls and filter surface sites by ionic or electrostatic adsorption, as well as metal foils and glass slides | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23568658 |
Radioanalytical chemistry Sample loss is an ever present concern, especially at the beginning of the analysis path where sequential steps may compound these losses. Various solutions are known to circumvent these losses which include adding an inactive carrier or adding a tracer. Research has also shown that pretreatment of glassware and plastic surfaces can reduce radionuclide sorption by saturating the sites. Since small amounts of radionuclides are typically being analyzed, the mechanics of manipulating tiny quantities is challenging. This problem is classically addressed by the use of carrier ions. Thus, "carrier addition" involves the addition of a known mass of stable ion to radionuclide-containing sample solution. The carrier is of the identical element but is non-radioactive. The carrier and the radionuclide of interest have identical chemical properties. Typically the amount of carrier added is conventionally selected for the ease of weighing such that the accuracy of the resultant weight is within 1%. For alpha particles, special techniques must be applied to obtain the required thin sample sources. The use of carries was heavily used by Marie Curie and was employed in the first demonstration of nuclear fission. "Isotope dilution" is the reverse of tracer addition. It involves the addition of a known (small) amount of radionuclide to the sample that contains a known stable element. This additive is the "tracer." It is added at the start of the analysis procedure | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23568658 |
Radioanalytical chemistry After the final measurements are recorded, sample loss can be determined quantitatively. This procedure avoids the need for any quantitative recovery, greatly simplifying the analytical process. As this is an analytical chemistry technique quality control is an important factor to maintain. A laboratory must produce trustworthy results. This can be accomplished by a laboratories continual effort to maintain instrument calibration, measurement reproducibility, and applicability of analytical methods. In all laboratories there must be a quality assurance plan. This plan describes the quality system and procedures in place to obtain consistent results. Such results must be authentic, appropriately documented, and technically defensible." Such elements of quality assurance include organization, personnel training, laboratory operating procedures, procurement documents, chain of custody records, standard certificates, analytical records, standard procedures, QC sample analysis program and results, instrument testing and maintenance records, results of performance demonstration projects, results of data assessment, audit reports, and record retention policies. The cost of quality assurance is continually on the rise but the benefits far outweigh this cost. The average quality assurance workload was risen from 10% to a modern load of 20-30%. This heightened focus on quality assurance ensures that quality measurements that are reliable are achieved | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23568658 |
Radioanalytical chemistry The cost of failure far outweighs the cost of prevention and appraisal. Finally, results must be scientifically defensible by adhering to stringent regulations in the event of a lawsuit. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23568658 |
Endogenous agonist In pharmacology, an endogenous agonist for a particular receptor is a compound naturally produced by the body which binds to and activates that receptor. For example, the primary endogenous agonist for serotonin receptors is serotonin, and the primary endogenous agonist for dopamine receptors is dopamine. In general, receptors for small molecule neurotransmitters such as serotonin will have only one endogenous agonist, but often have many different receptor subtypes (e.g. 13 different receptors for serotonin). On the other hand, neuropeptide receptors tend to have fewer subtypes, but may have several different endogenous agonists. This allows for a high degree of complexity in the bodies signalling system, with different tissues often showing quite distinct responses to a particular ligand. Some endogenous antagonists and inverse agonists are also known (e.g., kynurenic acid at the NMDA receptor), but these are much less common. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23568790 |
C24H34O5 The molecular formula CHO may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23571585 |
C22H29FO5 The molecular formula CHFO may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23571600 |
C8H18O2 The molecular formula CHO (molar mass: 146.22 g/mol) may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23571628 |
C2H4Br2 The molecular formula CHBr may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23571657 |
C20H29N3O2 The molecular formula CHNO (molar mass: 343.46 g/mol) may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23571687 |
C2H2Cl2O2 The molecular formula CHClO may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23571725 |
C6H4Cl2 The molecular formula CHCl may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23571736 |
C8H6Cl2O3 The molecular formula CHClO may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23571835 |
C14H11Cl2NO2 The molecular formula CHClNO may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23572015 |
C10H12 The molecular formula CH may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23572645 |
C12H8Cl6O The molecular formula CHClO (molar mass : 380.91 g/mol) may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23572651 |
C8H11N The molecular formula CHN may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23572800 |
C8H10 The molecular formula CH may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23572814 |
C4H8N2O2 The molecular formula CHNO may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23572883 |
C10H12N2O5 The molecular formula CHNO may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23572924 |
C24H38O4 The molecular formula CHO may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23572938 |
Urban stream An urban stream is a formerly natural waterway that flows through a heavily populated area. Urban streams are often polluted by urban runoff and combined sewer outflows. Water scarcity makes flow management in the rehabilitation of urban streams problematic. Governments may alter the flow or course of an urban stream to prevent localized flooding by river engineering: lining stream beds with concrete or other hardscape materials, diverting the stream into culverts and storm sewers, or other means. Some urban streams, such as the subterranean rivers of London, run completely underground. These modifications have often reduced habitat for fish and other species, caused downstream flooding due to alterations of flood plains, and worsened water quality. Some communities have begun stream restoration projects in an attempt to correct the problems caused by alteration, using techniques such as daylighting and fixing stream bank erosion caused by heavy stormwater runoff. Streamflow augmentation to restore habitat and aesthetics is also an option, and recycled water can be used for this purpose. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23573013 |
C14H10 The molecular formula CH may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23573053 |
C14H10O3 The molecular formula CHO may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23573230 |
C10H10 CH may refer to: Compounds sharing the molecular formula: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23573296 |
C18H30 The molecular formula CH (molar mass: 246.438 g/mol) may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23573331 |
C8H11NO2 The molecular formula CHNO may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23573358 |
C17H22N2O The molecular formula CHNO may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23573423 |
C10H16N2O8 The molecular formula CHNO (molar mass: 292.244 g/mol) may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23573456 |
C10H15NO The molecular formula CHNO (molar mass : 165.23 g/mol, exact mass : 165.115364) may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23573662 |
GP-5 gas mask The () is a Soviet-made single-filter gas mask. It was issued to the Soviet population starting in 1962; production ended in 1990. It is a lightweight mask, weighing 1.09 kg (2.42 lbs). It can operate in all weather and withstand temperatures from −40 degrees (Celsius and Fahrenheit) to . The GP-5 also comes with sealed glass eye pieces. They were originally made to protect the wearer from radioactive fallout during the Cold War and were distributed to most fallout shelters. They have been tested in Poland to see if they have NBC protective capabilities. It was concluded that the mask will last in an NBC situation for 24 hours. They are a favorite of gas mask collectors because they are common and have the "old" circular eyepieces like masks used in World War II and the "helmet" type masks. The GP-5 kit consists of SHM-62 face piece, GP-5 filter, bag and anti fogging lenses. the GP-5 kit can be also completed SHM-62u SHMP SHM-66mu face pieces. There has been some debate as to whether or not the filters are dangerous for containing asbestos. In October 2013, Dixon Information found out that the cotton layer of the filter contains 7.5 percent asbestos. Supposedly, if the masks were made after 1972 they use activated charcoal, however filters dating throughout the 80s have tested positive for asbestos. . Some claim that the filter is configured so that the asbestos can't be breathed in, so long as the filter layer isn't damaged | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23573805 |
GP-5 gas mask It is not advised to use the filters, as the case is made with a percentage of lead which slowly degrades into the filter, along with many other chemicals used in the manufacturing process. The mask also tightly clings to the skin of the head, and so may be uncomfortable for those with all but the shortest hair. The GP-5 is widely available on the army surplus market, usually very cheaply ($4 to $20), and as such is often used as part of Halloween or other fancy dress costumes. A variation of the is the GP-5m, which features a circular piece of metal that contains a thin piece of plastic on the inside, which acts as a voice diaphragm ('voicemitter'), as well as a cut-out design for the ear holes. The military version of the GP-5 uses a near-identical facepiece but with an elongated filter housing, to which is fitted a hose which in turn connects to a tall can-type filter which remains supported in the mask's haversack whilst the mask is worn. The GP-5 and military version were issued respectively to the civilian population and armed forces of the Soviet Union and its Warsaw Pact allies, among which they were given differing designations. The East German Armed Forces designated the military version the SchM41M. Although it is unrelated to the GP5 family of masks, a similar variant of the Russian "helmet-style" design with small eyepieces and a voicemitter for those with specific needs relating to the use of optical equipment (i.e. officers - binoculars) was known as the SchMS | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23573805 |
GP-5 gas mask The GP-5 was issued in a basic khaki fabric bag with two straps, designed to be easily slung over the shoulder or hung from the waist. The issued bag also contained a decontamination kit (typically either IPP 1 or IPP 8 model), bandages, a first aid kit, and anti-fogging lenses.. The low-cost and ease of manufacturing of the GP-5 lead to its adoption by a number of states, both for military and industrial use. In China, the GP-5 was adopted for industrial use as the TF-1, modified with a plastic inhale-exhale piece and larger eyepieces. In East Germany, the GP-5 was imported in large numbers throughout the 1980s, with 1.8 million being imported between 1981 and 1988. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23573805 |
C18H24O2 The molecular formula CHO may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23573842 |
Eurocarbdb EuroCarbDB was an EU-funded initiative for the creation of software and standards for the systematic collection of carbohydrate structures and their experimental data, which was discontinued in 2010 due to lack of funding. The project included a database of known carbohydrate structures and experimental data, specifically mass spectrometry, HPLC and NMR data, accessed via a web interface that provides for browsing, searching and contribution of structures and data to the database. The project also produces a number of associated bioinformatics tools for carbohydrate researchers: The canonical online version of EuroCarbDB was hosted by the European Bioinformatics Institute at www.ebi.ac.uk up to 2012, and then relax.organ.su.se. EuroCarb code has since been incorporated into and extended by UniCarb-DB, which also includes the work of the defunct GlycoSuite database. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23574024 |
Manuel Ballester Boix (born in Barcelona on June 27, 1919; died April 5, 2005) was a Spanish chemist. He received his degree at the University of Barcelona in 1944, his doctorate in Madrid, and finished his training at Harvard University in 1951. In 1944 he formed a team at the Spanish National Research Council. His work has largely been in kinetics and organic chemistry. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23575855 |
Chi site A or Chi sequence is a short stretch of DNA in the genome of a bacterium near which homologous recombination is more likely to occur than on average across the genome. Chi sites serve as stimulators of DNA double-strand break repair in bacteria, which can arise from radiation or chemical treatments, or result from replication fork breakage during DNA replication. The sequence of the is unique to each group of closely related organisms; in "E. coli" and other enteric bacteria, such as Salmonella, the core sequence is 5'-GCTGGTGG-3' plus important nucleotides about 4 to 7 nucleotides to the 3' side of the core sequence. The existence of Chi sites was originally discovered in the genome of bacteriophage lambda, a virus that infects "E. coli", but is now known to occur about 1000 times in the "E. coli" genome. The Chi sequence serves as a signal to the RecBCD helicase-nuclease that triggers a major change in the activities of this enzyme. Upon encountering the Chi sequence as it unwinds DNA, RecBCD cuts the DNA a few nucleotides to the 3’ side of Chi, within the important sequences noted above; depending on the reaction conditions, this cut is either a simple nick on the 3'-ended strand or the change of nuclease activity from cutting the 3’-ended strand to cutting the 5’-ended strand | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23577988 |
Chi site In either case the resulting 3’ single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) is bound by multiple molecules of RecA protein that facilitate "strand invasion," in which one strand of a homologous double-stranded DNA is displaced by the RecA-associated ssDNA. Strand invasion forms a joint DNA molecule called a D-loop. Resolution of the D-loop is thought to occur by replication primed by the 3’ end generated at Chi (in the D-loop). Alternatively, the D-loop may be converted into a Holliday junction by cutting of the D-loop and a second exchange of DNA strands; the Holliday junction can be converted into linear duplex DNA by cutting of the Holliday junction and ligation of the resultant nicks. Either type of resolution can generate recombinant DNA molecules if the two interacting DNAs are genetically different, as well as repair the initially broken DNA. Chi sites are sometimes referred to as "recombination hot spots". The name "Chi" is an abbreviation of "c"rossover "h"otspot "i"nstigator. In reference to "E. coli" phage lambda, the term is sometimes written as "χ site", using the Greek letter chi; for "E. coli" and other bacteria the term "Chi" is proper. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23577988 |
C2H6S2 The molecular formula CHS may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23578992 |
C8H18O The molecular formula CHO may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23579277 |
C10H12O2 The molecular formula CHO (molar mass : 164.2 g/mol, exact mass: 164.08373 u) may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23579285 |
C15H26O The molecular formula CHO may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23579317 |
C16H10 The molecular formula CH may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23579401 |
C13H10 The molecular formula CH (molar mass : 166.22 g/mol) may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23579409 |
C19H24N2O4 The molecular formula CHNO (molar mass: 344.40 g/mol, exact mass: 344.173607) may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23579534 |
Aflatoxin B1 Aflatoxin B is an aflatoxin produced by "Aspergillus flavus" and "A. parasiticus". It is a very potent carcinogen with a TD 3.2 μg/kg/day in rats. This carcinogenic potency varies across species with some, such as rats and monkeys, seemingly much more susceptible than others. Aflatoxin B is a common contaminant in a variety of foods including peanuts, cottonseed meal, corn, and other grains; as well as animal feeds. Aflatoxin B is considered the most toxic aflatoxin and it is highly implicated in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in humans. In animals, aflatoxin B has also been shown to be mutagenic, teratogenic, and to cause immunosuppression. Several sampling and analytical methods including thin-layer chromatography (TLC), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), mass spectrometry, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), among others, have been used to test for aflatoxin B contamination in foods. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the worldwide maximum tolerated levels of aflatoxin B was reported to be in the range of 1–20 µg/kg in food, and 5–50 µg/kg in dietary cattle feed in 2003. Aflatoxin B is mostly found in contaminated food and humans are exposed to aflatoxin B almost entirely through their diet. Occupational exposure to aflatoxin B has also been reported in swine and poultry production. While aflatoxin B contamination is common in many staple foods, its production is maximized in foods stored in hot, humid climates | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23579933 |
Aflatoxin B1 Exposure is therefore most common in Southeast Asia, South America, and Sub-Saharan Africa. Aflatoxin B can permeate through the skin. Dermal exposure to this aflatoxin in particular environmental conditions can lead to major health risks. The liver is the most susceptible organ to aflatoxin B toxicity. In animal studies, pathological lesions associated with aflatoxin B intoxication include reduction in weight of liver, vacuolation of hepatocytes, and hepatic carcinoma. Other liver lesions include enlargement of hepatic cells, fatty infiltration, necrosis, hemorrhage, fibrosis, regeneration of nodules, and bile duct proliferation/hyperplasia. "Aspergillus flavus" is a fungus of the Trichocomaceae family with a worldwide distribution. The mold lives in soil, surviving off dead plant and animal matter, but spreads through the air via airborne conidia. This fungus grows in long branched hyphae and is capable of surviving on numerous food sources including corn and peanuts. The fungus and its products are pathogenic to a number of species, including humans. While toxicity of its products, aflatoxins, are explored throughout this article, "Aspergillus flavus" itself also exerts pathogenic effects through aspergillosis, or infection with the mold. This infection largely occurs in the lungs of immune compromised patients but infection may also occur in the skin or other organs. Unlike many mold species, "Aspergillus flavus" prefers hot and dry conditions | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23579933 |
Aflatoxin B1 Its optimal growth at contributes to its pathogenicity in humans. Aflatoxin B is derived from both a dedicated fatty acid synthase (FAS) and a polyketide synthase (PKS), together known as norsolorinic acid synthase. The biosynthesis begins with the synthesis of hexanoate by the FAS, which then becomes the starter unit for the iterative type I PKS. The PKS adds seven malonyl-CoA extenders to the hexanoate to form the C20 polyketide compound. The PKS folds the polyketide in a particular way to induce cyclization to form the anthraquinone norsolorinic acid. A reductase then catalyzes the reduction of the ketone on the norsolorinic acid side-chain to yield averantin. Averantin is converted to averufin via a two different enzymes, a hydroxylase and an alcohol dehydrogenase. This will oxygenate and cyclize averantin's side chain to form the ketal in averufin. From this point on the biosynthetic pathway of aflatoxin B becomes much more complicated, with several major skeletal changes. Most of the enzymes have not been characterized and there may be several more intermediates that are still unknown. However, what is known is that averufin is oxidized by a P450-oxidase, AvfA, in a Baeyer-Villiger oxidation. This opens the ether rings and upon rearrangement versiconal acetate is formed. Now an esterase, EstA, catalyzes the hydrolysis of the acetyl, forming the primary alcohol in versiconal | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23579933 |
Aflatoxin B1 The acetal in versicolorin A is formed from the cyclization of the side-chain in versiconal, which is catalyzed by VERB synthase, and then VerB, a desaturase, reduces versicolorin B to form the dihydrobisfuran. There are two more enzymes that catalyze the conversion of versicolorin A to demethylsterigmatocystin: AflN, an oxidase and AflM, a reductase. These enzymes use both molecular oxygen and two NADPH's to dehydrate one of the hydroxyl groups on the anthraquinone and open the quinine with the molecular oxygen. Upon forming the aldehyde in the ring opening step, it is oxidized to form the carboxylic acid and subsequently a decarboxylation event occurs to close the ring, forming the six-member ether ring system seen in demethylsterigmatocystin. The next two steps in the biosynthetic pathway is the methylation by "S"-adenosyl methionine (SAM) of the two hydroxyl groups on the xanthone part of demethysterigmatocystin by two different methyltransferases, OmtB and OmtA. This yields "O"-methylsterigmatocystin. In the final steps there is an oxidative cleavage of the aromatic ring and loss of one carbon in "O"-methylsterigmatocystin, which is catalyzed by OrdA, an oxidoreductase. Then a final recyclization occurs to form aflatoxin B. Aflatoxin B is a potent genotoxic hepatocarcinogen with its exposure strongly linked to the development of hepatocellular carcinoma, liver tumors, especially given co-infection with hepatitis B virus | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23579933 |
Aflatoxin B1 These effects seem to be largely mediated by mutations at guanine in codon 249 of the "p53" gene, a tumor suppressing gene, and at several guanine residues in the 12th and 13th codons of the "ras" gene, a gene whose product controls cellular proliferation signals. Aflatoxin B must first be metabolized into its reactive electriphilic form, aflatoxin B-8,9-exo-epoxide by cytochrome p450. This active form then intercalates between DNA base residues and forms adducts with guanine residues, most commonly aflatoxin B-N7-Gua. These adducts may then rearrange or become removed from the backbone all-together, forming an apurinic site. These adducts and alterations represent lesions which, upon DNA replication cause the insertion of a mis-matched base in the opposing strand. Up to 44% of hepatocellular carcinomas in regions with high aflatoxin exposure bear a GC → TA transversion at codon 249 of "p53," a characteristic mutation seen with this toxin. Prevalence of hepatocellular carcinoma in individuals exposed to aflatoxin, increases with co-infection of hepatitis B virus. One study estimated that while individuals with urinary aflatoxin bio-markers were at a threefold greater risk than the normal population for hepatocellular carcinoma; those infected with hepatitis B virus were at a fourfold risk; and those with the bio-markers and infected with hepatitis B virus were at a 60 times greater risk for hepatocellular carcinoma than the normal population | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23579933 |
Aflatoxin B1 Several aflatoxin B toxicity studies have been conducted on various animal species. Aflatoxin B exposure is best managed by measures aimed at preventing contamination of crops in the field, post-harvest handling, and storage, or via measures aimed at detecting and decontaminating contaminated commodities or materials used in animal feed. For instance, biological decontamination involving the use of a single bacterial species, "Flavobacterium aurantiacum" has been used to remove aflatoxin B from peanuts and corn. Several countries around the world have rules and regulations governing aflatoxin B in foods and these include the maximum permitted, or recommended levels of aflatoxin B for certain foods. The discovery of aflatoxin B came on the heels of the widespread death of turkeys in England in the summer of 1960 to some unknown disease, at the time labeled "Disease X." Over the course of 500 outbreaks, the disease claimed over 100,000 turkeys which appeared to be healthy. The widespread death was later found to be caused by "Aspergillus flavus" contamination of peanut meal. Twelve patients died of acute aflatoxin poisoning in several hospitals in the Machakos district of Kenya in 1981 following the consumption of contaminated maize. All patients also suffered from hepatitis. Following outbreaks of aflatoxin contamination in maize reaching 4,400 ppb in the spring of 2004, 125 individuals in Kenya died of acute hepatic failure while some 317 cases in total were reported | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23579933 |
Aflatoxin B1 To date this was the largest known outbreak of aflatoxosis in terms of fatalities documented. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23579933 |
C17H21NO3 The molecular formula CHNO (molar mass : 287.35 g/mol) may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23580875 |
C4H9NO2 The molecular formula CHNO may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23580901 |
C19H22O6 The molecular formula CHO (molar mass: 346.37 g/mol, exact mass: 346.141638 u) may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23580956 |
C5H9NO4 The molecular formula CHNO (molar mass 147.13 g/mol) may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23580981 |
C5H10N2O3 The molecular formula CHNO may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23580987 |
Armilenium is a CH carbocation and was originally proposed as the first entirely organic sandwich compound. Named for its resemblance to an armillary sphere, NMR evidence for the carbocation was first described by Melvin J. Goldstein and Stanley A. Klein at Cornell University in 1973. In subsequent C NMR experiments by Goldstein and Joseph P. Dinnocenzo in 1984, the CH carbocation was generated under stable ion conditions at lower temperature and at higher magnetic field than previously possible. These experiments revealed the carbocation to be fluxional. Fitting of the dynamic NMR process ruled out the sandwich species even as an intermediate in the 20-fold degenerate rearrangement of the carbocation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23580996 |
Methylcatechol may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23581192 |
C7H8O2 The molecular formula CHO (molar mass: 124.14 g/mol, exact mass: 124.05243 u) may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23581196 |
C10H13N5O5 The molecular formula CHNO may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23581213 |
C16H14O6 The molecular formula CHO may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23581260 |
C8H18N2O4S The molecular formula CHNOS (molar mass: 238.30 g/mol) may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23581274 |
C16H34 The molecular formula CH may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23581310 |
C3H2F6O The molecular formula CHFO (molar mass: 168.038 g/mol) may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23581323 |
C4H9NO2S The molecular formula CHNOS may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23581475 |
C3H9NO3S The molecular formula CHNOS (molar mass: 139.173 g/mol) may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23581497 |
C10H12N2O The molecular formula CHNO (molar mass 176.22 g/mol, exact mass : 176.094963) may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23581563 |
C8H15NO The molecular formula CHNO may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23581573 |
C13H18O2 The molecular formula CHO may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23581594 |
C3H4N2 The molecular formula CHN may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23582390 |
C14H16N4 The molecular formula CHN may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23582421 |
C16H10N2O2 The molecular formula CHNO may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23582507 |
C8H7N The molecular formula CHN (molar mass: 117.15 g/mol) may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23582523 |
C8H9N The molecular formula CHN may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23582533 |
C13H20O The molecular formula CHO (molar mass : 192.30 g/mol) may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23582566 |
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