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Multiferroics For example, in the prototypical ferroelectric barium titanate, BaTiO, the parent phase is the ideal cubic ABO perovskite structure, with the B-site Ti ion at the center of its oxygen coordination octahedron and no electric polarisation. In the ferroelectric phase the Ti ion is shifted away from the cente... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2522070 |
Multiferroics In these materials, the A-site cation (Bi, Pb) has a so-called stereochemically active "6s" lone-pair of electrons, and off-centering of the A-site cation is favoured by an energy-lowering electron sharing between the formally empty A-site "6p" orbitals and the filled O "2p" orbitals. In geometric ferroel... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2522070 |
Multiferroics A second example is provided by the family of hexagonal rare earth manganites (h-"R"MnO with "R"=Ho-Lu, Y), which have a structural phase transition at around 1300 K consisting primarily of a tilting of the MnO bipyramids. While the tilting itself has zero polarization, it couples to a polar corrugation o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2522070 |
Multiferroics Formally, the electric polarisation, formula_1, is given in terms of the magnetization, formula_2, by formula_3. Like the geometric ferroelectrics discussed above, the ferroelectricity is improper, because the polarisation is not the primary order parameter (in this case the primary order is the magnetisa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2522070 |
Multiferroics An example is EuTiO which, while not ferroelectric under ambient conditions, becomes so when strained a little bit, or when its lattice constant is expanded for example by substituting some barium on the A site. It remains a challenge to develop good single-phase multiferroics with large magnetization and... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2522070 |
Multiferroics The latter system, appears to be the first reported core-shell type relaxor ferroelectric multiferroic, where the magnetic structure in so-called "multiferroic clusters" is proposed to be due to Fe-Co ferrimagnetism, which can be switched by an electric field. A helpful classification scheme for multiferr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2522070 |
Multiferroics The term "type-II multiferroic" is used for materials in which the magnetic ordering breaks the inversion symmetry and directly "causes" the ferroelectricity. In this case the ordering temperatures for the two phenomena are identical. The prototypical example is TbMnO, in which a non-centrosymmetric magne... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2522070 |
Multiferroics The symmetry breaking can be described by an order parameter, the polarization "P" and magnetization "M" in these two examples, and leads to multiple equivalent ground states which can be selected by the appropriate conjugate field; electric or magnetic for ferroelectrics or ferromagnets respectively. Thi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2522070 |
Multiferroics Ferroelastic ferroelectrics, for example, are piezoelectric, meaning that an electric field can cause a shape change or a pressure can induce a voltage, and ferroelastic ferromagnets show the analogous piezomagnetic behavior. Particularly appealing for potential technologies is the control of the magnetis... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2522070 |
Multiferroics A typical TMR device consists of two layers of ferromagnetic materials separated by a thin tunnel barrier (~2 nm) made of a multiferroic thin film. In such a device, spin transport across the barrier can be electrically tuned. In another configuration, a multiferroic layer can be used as the exchange bias... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2522070 |
Multiferroics Using the designed multiferroic material (Eu,Ba)TiO, the change in net magnetic moment on switching of the ferroelectric polarisation in an applied electric field was monitored, allowing an upper bound on the possible value of the electron electric dipole moment to be extracted. This quantity is important... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2522070 |
Multiferroics Recently it was pointed out that, in the same way that electric polarisation can be generated by spatially varying magnetic order, magnetism can be generated by a temporally varying polarisation. The resulting phenomenon was called "Dynamical Multiferroicity". The magnetisation, formula_2 is given by form... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2522070 |
Multiferroics At the heart of the proposed technologies based on magnetoelectric coupling are switching processes, which describe the manipulation of the material's macroscopic magnetic properties with electric field and vice versa. Much of the physics of these processes is described by the dynamics of domains and doma... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2522070 |
Multiferroics Current research into MF dynamics aims to address various open questions; the practical realisation and demonstration of ultra-high speed domain switching, the development of further new applications based on tunable dynamics, e.g. frequency dependence of dielectric properties, the fundamental understandi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2522070 |
Multiferroics In comparison to the domains the domain walls are not homogeneous and they can have a lower symmetry. This may modify the properties of a multiferroic and the coupling of its order parameters. Multiferroic domain walls may display particular static and dynamic properties. Static properties refer to statio... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2522070 |
Multiferroics France 24 documentary "Nicola Spaldin: The pioneer behind multiferroics" (12 minutes) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bfVKtIcl2Nk&t=10s Seminar "Electric field control of magnetism" by R. Ramesh at U Michigan (1 hour) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dTpr9CEYP6M Max Roessler prize for multiferroics at ETH ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2522070 |
Isotopes of lithium Naturally occurring lithium (Li) is composed of two stable isotopes, lithium-6 and lithium-7, with the latter being far more abundant: about 92.5 percent of the atoms. Both of the natural isotopes have an unexpectedly low nuclear binding energy per nucleon (~5.3 MeV) when compared with the adjacent ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2522652 |
Isotopes of lithium This results in some enrichment of lithium-7 in geological processes. Lithium-6 is an important isotope in nuclear physics because when it is bombarded with neutrons, tritium is produced. Lithium-6 has a greater affinity than lithium-7 for the element mercury. When an amalgam of lithium and mercury ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2522652 |
Isotopes of lithium Lithium-3, also known as the triproton, would consist of three protons and zero neutrons. It was reported as proton unbound in 1969, but this result was not accepted and its existence is thus unproven. No other resonances attributable to Li have been reported, and it is expected to decay by prompt p... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2522652 |
Isotopes of lithium Lithium-6 is one of only three stable isotopes with a spin of 1, the others being deuterium and nitrogen-14, and has the smallest nonzero nuclear electric quadrupole moment of any stable nucleus. Lithium-7 is by far the most abundant isotope, making up about 92.5 percent of all natural lithium. A li... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2522652 |
Isotopes of lithium Lithium-7 is used as a part of the molten lithium fluoride in molten salt reactors: liquid-fluoride nuclear reactors. The large neutron absorption cross section of lithium-6 (about 940 barns) as compared with the very small neutron cross section of lithium-7 (about 45 millibarns) makes high separati... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2522652 |
Isotopes of lithium Lighter isotopes of lithium (<Li) are only known to decay by proton emission. The decay modes of the two isomers of Li are unknown. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2522652 |
Ida Noddack (25 February 1896 – 24 September 1978), "née" Tacke, was a German chemist and physicist. In 1934 she was the first to mention the idea later named nuclear fission. With her husband Walter Noddack and Otto Berg she discovered element 75, rhenium. She was nominated three times for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2523851 |
Ida Noddack After graduating, she worked in the chemistry laboratory of the Berlin turbine factory of AEG, which is a company that is affiliated to General Electric in the United States. The building she worked in, designed by Peter Behrens, was world-famous and resembled a turbine. She met her husband, Walter Noddack,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2523851 |
Ida Noddack Therefore, the paper was generally ignored and mocked by others, despite the fact that she was correct. Several German scientists, like Otto Hahn, saw Noddack's work as "ridiculous." A woman's position in the workplace had been dwindling for years due to the 1929 Wall Street crash. In 1932, a German law, re... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2523851 |
Ida Noddack Meitner and Otto Frisch utilized Fritz Kalckar and Niels Bohr's liquid drop hypothesis (first proposed by George Gamow in 1935) to provide a first theoretical model and mathematical proof of what Frisch coined nuclear fission. Frisch also experimentally verified the fission reaction by means of a cloud cham... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2523851 |
Ida Noddack In 1961 minute amounts of technetium in pitchblende produced from spontaneous U fission were discovered by B. T. Kenna and Paul K. Kuroda. Based on this discovery, Belgian physicist Pieter van Assche constructed an analysis of their data to show that the detection limit of Noddacks' analytical method could ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2523851 |
Ida Noddack Following on the van Assche and Armstrong claims, an investigation was made into the works of Masataka Ogawa who had made a prior claim to the Noddacks. In 1908 he claimed to have isolated element 43, calling it Nipponium. Using an original plate (not a simulation), Kenji Yoshihara determined Ogawa had not ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2523851 |
Percent active chlorine is a unit of concentration used for hypochlorite-based bleaches. One gram of a 100% active chlorine bleach has the quantitative bleaching capacity as one gram of free chlorine. The term "active chlorine" is used because most commercial bleaches also contain chlorine in the form of chloride ions,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2524286 |
Percent active chlorine Taking the (reasonable) assumption that all active chlorine present in a liquid bleach is in the form of hypochlorite ions, 1% active chlorine is equivalent to 0.141 mol/kg ClO(0.141 mol/L if we assume density=1). For a solid bleach, 100% active chlorine is equivalent to 14.1 mol/kg ClO: lithiu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2524286 |
Zirconium nitride () is an inorganic compound used in a variety of ways due to its properties. ZrN grown by physical vapor deposition (PVD) is a light gold color similar to elemental gold. ZrN has a room-temperature electrical resistivity of 12.0 µΩ·cm, a temperature coefficient of resistivity of 5.6·10 Ω·cm/K, a super... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2524890 |
Beryllium nitride Beryllium nitride, BeN, is a nitride of beryllium. It can be prepared from the elements at high temperature (1100–1500 °C), unlike Beryllium azide or BeN, it decomposes in vacuum into beryllium and nitrogen. It is readily hydrolysed forming beryllium hydroxide and ammonia. It has two polymorphic forms... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2524938 |
Pinchbeck (alloy) Pinchbeck is a form of brass, an alloy of copper and zinc, mixed in proportions so that it closely resembles gold in appearance. It was invented in the 18th century by Christopher Pinchbeck, a London clockmaker. Since gold was only sold in 18-carat quality at that time, the development of pinchbeck al... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526649 |
Isotopes of uranium Uranium (U) is a naturally occurring radioactive element that has no stable isotope. It has two primordial isotopes, uranium-238 and uranium-235, that have long half-lives and are found in appreciable quantity in the Earth's crust. The decay product uranium-234 is also found. Other isotopes such as ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526857 |
Isotopes of uranium Uranium-238 is also important because it is fertile: it absorbs neutrons to produce a radioactive isotope that subsequently decays to the isotope plutonium-239, which also is fissile. Uranium-232 has a half-life of 68.9 years and is a side product in the thorium cycle. It has been cited as an obstac... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526857 |
Isotopes of uranium Uranium-233 usually fissions on neutron absorption but sometimes retains the neutron, becoming uranium-234. The capture-to-fission ratio is smaller than the other two major fissile fuels uranium-235 and plutonium-239; it is also lower than that of short-lived plutonium-241, but bested by very diffic... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526857 |
Isotopes of uranium Enriched uranium contains more U than natural uranium as a byproduct of the uranium enrichment process aimed at obtaining uranium-235, which concentrates lighter isotopes even more strongly than it does U. The increased percentage of U in enriched natural uranium is acceptable in current nuclear rea... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526857 |
Isotopes of uranium At thermal energy levels, about 5 of 6 neutron absorptions result in fission and 1 of 6 result in neutron capture forming uranium-236. The fission-to-capture ratio improves for faster neutrons. Uranium-236 is an isotope of uranium that is neither fissile with thermal neutrons, nor very good fertile ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526857 |
Isotopes of uranium Depleted uranium has an even higher concentration of the U isotope, and even low-enriched uranium (LEU), while having a higher proportion of the uranium-235 isotope (in comparison to depleted uranium), is still mostly U. Reprocessed uranium is also mainly U, with about as much uranium-235 as natural... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526857 |
Isotopes of protactinium Protactinium (Pa) has no stable isotopes. The three naturally occurring isotopes allow a standard atomic weight to be given. Twenty-nine radioisotopes of protactinium have been characterized, with the most stable being Pa with a half-life of 32,760 years, Pa with a half-life of 26.967 days, and... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526860 |
Isotopes of protactinium It also has a very rare (.003%) alpha decay mode leading to Ac. It is not found in nature because its half-life is short and it is not found in the decay chains of U, U, or Th. It has a mass of 230.034541 u. Protactinium-230 is of interest as a progenitor of uranium-230, an isotope that has bee... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526860 |
Isotopes of protactinium Some thorium-cycle reactor designs try to protect Pa-233 from further neutron capture producing Pa-234 and U-234, which are not useful as fuel. Protactinium-234 is a member of the uranium series with a half-life of 6.70 hours. It was discovered by Otto Hahn in 1921. Protactinium-234m is a membe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526860 |
Isotopes of thorium Thorium (Th) has seven naturally occurring isotopes but none are stable. One isotope, Th, is "relatively" stable, with a half-life of 1.405×10 years, considerably longer than the age of the Earth, and even slightly longer than the generally accepted age of the universe. This isotope makes up nearly ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526861 |
Isotopes of thorium It is currently used in cathodes of vacuum tubes, for a combination of physical stability at high temperature and a low work energy required to remove an electron from its surface. It has, for about a century, been used in mantles of gas and vapor lamps such as gas lights and camping lanterns. Thori... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526861 |
Isotopes of thorium Th has an atomic weight of 228.0287411 grams/mole. Th is a radioactive isotope of thorium that decays by alpha emission with a half-life of 7917 years. Th is produced by the decay of uranium-233, and its principal use is for the production of the medical isotopes actinium-225 and bismuth-213. In 197... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526861 |
Isotopes of thorium This triggered a multitude of investigations, both theoretical and experimental, trying to determine the transition energy precisely and to specify other properties of the isomeric state of Th (such as the lifetime and the magnetic moment). The direct observation of photons emitted in the isomeric d... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526861 |
Isotopes of thorium Finally, in 2019, non-optical electron spectroscopy of the internal conversion electrons emitted in the isomeric decay allowed for a determination of the isomer's excitation energy to 8.28 ± 0.17 eV, which poses today's most precise energy value. However, this value appears at odds with the 2018 pre... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526861 |
Isotopes of thorium A lifetime in the range of a few microseconds was indeed confirmed in 2017 for neutral, surface bound Th atoms, based on the detection of the internal conversion decay signal. In a 2018 experiment, it was possible to perform a first laser-spectroscopic characterization of the nuclear properties of T... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526861 |
Isotopes of thorium Th is a radioactive isotope of thorium that can be used to date corals and determine ocean current flux. Ionium was a name given early in the study of radioactive elements to the Th isotope produced in the decay chain of U before it was realized that ionium and thorium are chemically identical. The ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526861 |
Isotopes of thorium In the form of Thorotrast, a thorium dioxide suspension, it was used as a contrast medium in early X-ray diagnostics. Thorium-232 is now classified as carcinogenic. Th is an isotope of thorium that decays into protactinium-233 through beta decay. It has a half-life of 21.83 minutes. Th is an isotope... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526861 |
Isotopes of actinium Actinium (Ac) has no stable isotopes and no characteristic terrestrial isotopic composition, thus a standard atomic weight cannot be given. There are 32 known isotopes, from Ac to Ac, and 7 isomers. Three isotopes are found in nature, Ac, Ac and Ac, as intermediate decay products of, respectively, ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526862 |
Isotopes of radium Radium (Ra) has no stable or nearly stable isotopes, and thus a standard atomic weight cannot be given. The longest lived, and most common, isotope of radium is Ra with a half-life of . Ra occurs in the decay chain of U (often referred to as the radium series). Radium has 33 known isotopes from Ra to... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526863 |
Isotopes of radon There are 37 known isotopes of radon (Rn), from Rn to Rn; all are radioactive. The most stable isotope is Rn with a half-life of 3.823 days, which decays into . Five isotopes of radon, Rn occur in trace quantities in nature as decay products of, respectively, At, At, Ra, Ra, and Ra. Rn is produced in ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526870 |
Isotopes of polonium Polonium (Po) has 42 isotopes, all of which are radioactive, with between 186 and 227 nucleons. Po with a half-life of 138.376 days has the longest half-life of naturally occurring polonium. Po, with a half-life of 125 years, has the longest half-life of all isotopes of polonium. Po and Po (half-li... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526875 |
Isotopes of lead Lead (Pb) has four stable isotopes: Pb, Pb, Pb, Pb. Lead-204 is entirely a primordial nuclide and is not a radiogenic nuclide. The three isotopes lead-206, lead-207, and lead-208 represent the ends of three decay chains: the uranium series (or radium series), the actinium series, and the thorium series... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526876 |
Isotopes of lead (The more massive Bi, long considered to be stable, actually has a half-life of 2.01×10 years.) A total of 43 lead isotopes are now known, including very unstable synthetic species. In its fully ionized state, the isotope Pb also becomes stable. Pb is the final step in the decay chain of U, the "radium... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526876 |
Isotopes of lead Pb is the end of the actinium series from U. Pb is the end of the thorium series from Th. While it only makes up approximately half of the composition of lead in most places on Earth, it can be found naturally enriched up to around 90% in thorium ores. Pb is the heaviest known stable isotope of any ele... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526876 |
Isotopes of bismuth Bismuth (Bi) has 41 known isotpes, ranging from Bi to Bi. Bismuth has no stable isotopes, but does have one very long-lived isotope; thus, the standard atomic weight can be given as . Although bismuth-209 is now known to be unstable, it has classically been considered to be a "stable" isotope becaus... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526877 |
Isotopes of thallium Thallium (Tl) has 41 isotopes with atomic masses that range from 176 to 216. Tl and Tl are the only stable isotopes and Tl is the most stable radioisotope with a half-life of 3.78 years. Tl, with a half-life of 4.77 minutes, has the longest half-life of naturally occurring radioisotopes. Thallium-2... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526887 |
Isotopes of gold Gold (Au) has one stable isotope, Au, and 36 radioisotopes, with Au being the most stable with a half-life of 186 days. Gold is currently considered the heaviest monoisotopic element (bismuth formerly held that distinction in the belief that the isotope, bismuth-209, was stable; however it is now known... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526890 |
Isotopes of platinum Naturally occurring platinum (Pt) consists of five stable isotopes (Pt, Pt, Pt, Pt, Pt) and one very long-lived (half-life 6.50×10 years) radioisotope (Pt). There are also 34 known synthetic radioisotopes, the longest-lived of which is Pt with a half-life of 50 years. All other isotopes have half-l... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526893 |
Isotopes of iridium There are two natural isotopes of iridium (Ir), and 34 radioisotopes, the most stable radioisotope being Ir with a half-life of 73.83 days, and many nuclear isomers, the most stable of which is Ir with a half-life of 241 years. All other isomers have half-lives under a year, most under a day. Iridiu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526896 |
Isotopes of osmium Osmium (Os) has seven naturally occurring isotopes, six of which are stable: Os, Os, Os, Os, Os, and (most abundant) Os. The other natural isotope, Os, has an extremely long half-life (2×10 years) and for practical purposes can be considered to be stable as well. Os is the daughter of Re (half-life 4... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526902 |
Isotopes of rhenium Naturally occurring rhenium (Re) is 37.4% Re, which is stable, and 62.6% Re, which is unstable but has a very long half-life (4.12×10 years). Among elements with a known stable isotope, only indium and tellurium similarly occur with a stable isotope in lower abundance than the long-lived radioactive... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526903 |
Isotopes of tungsten Naturally occurring tungsten (W) consists of five isotopes. Four are considered stable (W, W, W, and W) and one is slightly radioactive, W, with an extremely long half-life of 1.8 ± 0.2 Ea (10 years). On average, two alpha decays of W occur per gram of natural tungsten per year, so for most practic... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526906 |
Isotopes of tantalum Natural tantalum (Ta) consists of two stable isotopes: Ta (99.988%) and (0.012%). There are also 35 known artificial radioisotopes, the longest-lived of which are Ta with a half-life of 1.82 years, Ta with a half-life of 114.43 days, Ta with a half-life of 5.1 days, and Ta with a half-life of 56.56... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526907 |
Isotopes of tantalum Gamma or beta decay would require many units of angular momentum to be removed in a single step, so that the process would be very slow. The very unusual nature of Ta is that the ground state of this isotope is less stable than the isomer. This phenomenon is exhibited in bismuth-210m (Bi) and ameri... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526907 |
Isotopes of hafnium Natural hafnium (Hf) consists of five stable isotopes (Hf, Hf, Hf, Hf, and Hf) and one very long-lived radioisotope, Hf, with a half-life of years. In addition, there are 30 other known radionuclides, the most stable of which is Hf with a half-life of years. No other radioisotope has a half-life ove... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526909 |
Isotopes of lutetium Naturally occurring lutetium (Lu) is composed of one stable isotope Lu (97.41% natural abundance) and one long-lived radioisotope, Lu with a half-life of 3.78 × 10 years (2.59% natural abundance). Thirty-four radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable, besides Lu, being Lu with a h... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526914 |
Isotopes of ytterbium Naturally occurring ytterbium (Yb) is composed of 7 stable isotopes, Yb–Yb, with Yb being the most abundant (31.83% natural abundance). Twenty-seven radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable being Yb with a half-life of 32.026 days, Yb with a half-life of 4.185 days, and Yb with ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526915 |
Isotopes of thulium Naturally occurring thulium (Tm) is composed of one stable isotope, Tm (100% natural abundance). Thirty-four radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable being Tm with a half-life of 1.92 years, Tm with a half-life of 128.6 days, Tm with a half-life of 93.1 days, and Tm with a half-li... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526916 |
Isotopes of erbium Naturally occurring erbium (Er) is composed of 6 stable isotopes, with Er being the most abundant (33.503% natural abundance). Thirty radioisotopes have been characterized with between 74 and 108 neutrons, or 142 to 177 nucleons, with the most stable being Er with a half-life of 9.4 days, Er with a h... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526917 |
Isotopes of holmium Natural holmium (Ho) contains one stable isotope, Ho. A number of synthetic radioactive isotopes are known; the most stable one is Ho, with a half-life of 4,570 years. All other radioisotopes have half-lives not greater than 1.117 days in their ground states (although the metastable Ho has a half-li... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526918 |
Isotopes of dysprosium Naturally occurring dysprosium (Dy) is composed of 7 stable isotopes, Dy, Dy, Dy, Dy, Dy, Dy and Dy, with Dy being the most abundant (28.18% natural abundance). Twenty-nine radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable being Dy with a half-life of 3.0 million years, Dy with a half-l... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526930 |
Isotopes of terbium Naturally occurring terbium (Tb) is composed of one stable isotope, Tb. Thirty-six radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable being Tb with a half-life of 180 years, Tb with a half-life of 71 years, and Tb with a half-life of 72.3 days. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526931 |
Isotopes of gadolinium Naturally occurring gadolinium (Gd) is composed of 6 stable isotopes, Gd, Gd, Gd, Gd, Gd and Gd, and 1 radioisotope, Gd, with Gd being the most abundant (24.84% natural abundance). The predicted double beta decay of Gd has never been observed; only a lower limit on its half-life of more than 1.3×... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526932 |
Isotopes of gadolinium In nuclear medicine, it serves to calibrate the equipment needed like single-photon emission computed tomography systems (SPECT) to make x-rays. It ensures that the machines work correctly to produce images of radioisotope distribution inside the patient. This isotope is produced in a nuclear rea... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526932 |
Isotopes of europium Naturally occurring europium (Eu) is composed of 2 isotopes, Eu and Eu, with Eu being the most abundant (52.2% natural abundance). While Eu is observationally stable, Eu was found in 2007 to be unstable and undergo alpha decay. The half-life is measured to be (4.62 ± 0.95(stat.) ± 0.68(syst.)) × 10... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526933 |
Isotopes of europium Eu's large neutron capture cross section (about 3900 barns for thermal neutrons, 16000 resonance integral) means that most of even the small amount produced is destroyed in the course of the nuclear fuel's burnup. Yield, decay energy, and half-life are all far less than that of Cs and Sr, so Eu is ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526933 |
Isotopes of samarium Naturally occurring samarium (Sm) is composed of five stable isotopes, Sm, Sm, Sm, Sm and Sm, and two extremely long-lived radioisotopes, Sm (half life: 1.06 y) and Sm (7 y), with Sm being the most abundant (26.75% natural abundance). Sm is also fairly long-lived (6.8×10 y), but is not long-lived e... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526936 |
Isotopes of samarium Sm is an observed stable isotope of samarium (predicted to decay, but no decays have ever been observed, giving it a half-life several orders of magnitude longer than the age of the universe), and a fission product (yield 1.0888%), which is also a neutron-absorbing nuclear poison with significant e... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526936 |
Isotopes of samarium According to one study, the mass fraction of Sm in spent fuel is about 0.0025 for heavy loading of MOX fuel and about half that for uranium fuel, which is roughly two orders of magnitude less than the mass fraction of about .15 for the medium-lived fission product Cs. The decay energy of Sm is also... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526936 |
Isotopes of promethium Promethium (Pm) is an artificial element, except in trace quantities as a product of spontaneous fission of U and U and alpha decay of Eu, and thus a standard atomic weight cannot be given. Like all artificial elements, it has no stable isotopes. It was first synthesized in 1945. Thirty-eight rad... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526941 |
Isotopes of promethium The isotopes Nd, Nd, Nd, Nd, Nd, Nd, and Nd are either stable or nearly so, so the isotopes of promethium with those masses cannot be produced by beta decay and therefore are not fission products in significant quantities. Pm and Pm have half-lives of only 53.08 and 28.40 hours, so are not found ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526941 |
Isotopes of neodymium Naturally occurring neodymium (Nd) is composed of 5 stable isotopes, Nd, Nd, Nd, Nd and Nd, with Nd being the most abundant (27.2% natural abundance), and 2 long-lived radioisotopes, Nd and Nd. In all, 33 radioisotopes of neodymium have been characterized up to now, with the most stable being natu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526942 |
Isotopes of praseodymium Naturally occurring praseodymium (Pr) is composed of one stable isotope, Pr. Thirty-eight radioisotopes have been characterized with the most stable being Pr, with a half-life of 13.57 days and Pr, with a half-life of 19.12 hours. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526943 |
Isotopes of cerium Naturally occurring cerium (Ce) is composed of 4 stable isotopes: Ce, Ce, Ce, and Ce, with Ce being the most abundant (88.48% natural abundance) and the only one theoretically stable; Ce, Ce, and Ce are predicted to undergo double beta decay but this process has never been observed. There are 35 radi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526944 |
Isotopes of lanthanum Naturally occurring lanthanum (La) is composed of one stable (La) and one radioactive (La) isotope, with the stable isotope, La, being the most abundant (99.91% natural abundance). There are 38 radioisotopes that have been characterized, with the most stable being La, with a half-life of 1.02×10 y... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526946 |
Isotopes of barium Naturally occurring barium (Ba) is a mix of six stable isotopes and one very long-lived radioactive primordial isotope, barium-130, identified as being unstable by geochemical means (from analysis of the presence of its daughter xenon-130 in rocks) in 2001. This nuclide decays by double electron capt... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526950 |
Isotopes of xenon Naturally occurring xenon (Xe) consists of seven stable isotopes and two very long-lived isotopes. Double electron capture has been observed in Xe (half-life ) and double beta decay in Xe (half-life ), which are among the longest measured half-lives of all nuclides. The isotopes Xe and Xe are also pre... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526952 |
Isotopes of xenon Because of this effect, designers must make provisions to increase the reactor's reactivity (the number of neutrons per fission that go on to fission other atoms of nuclear fuel) over the initial value needed to start the chain reaction. Relatively high concentrations of radioactive xenon isotopes are... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526952 |
Isotopes of xenon (Even slower decays of other nuclei have been measured, but by detecting decay products that have accumulated over billions of years rather than observing them directly.) Xenon-133 (sold as a drug under the brand name "Xeneisol", ATC code ) is an isotope of xenon. It is a radionuclide that is inhaled ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526952 |
Isotopes of iodine There are 37 known isotopes of iodine (I) from I to I; all undergo radioactive decay except I, which is stable. Iodine is thus a monoisotopic element. Its longest-lived radioactive isotope, I, has a half-life of 15.7 million years, which is far too short for it to exist as a primordial nuclide. Cosmo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526953 |
Isotopes of iodine Due to its volatility, short half-life, and high abundance in fission products, I (along with the short-lived iodine isotope I from the longer-lived Te with a half-life of 3 days) is responsible for the largest part of radioactive contamination during the first week after accidental environmental con... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526953 |
Isotopes of iodine Artificial nuclear processes, in particular nuclear fuel reprocessing and atmospheric nuclear weapons tests, have now swamped the natural signal for this isotope. Nevertheless, it now serves as a groundwater tracer as indicator of nuclear waste dispersion into the natural environment. In a similar fa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526953 |
Isotopes of iodine I, which has no beta activity, is more suited for routine nuclear medicine imaging of the thyroid and other medical processes and less damaging internally to the patient. There are some situations in which iodine-124 and iodine-125 are used in medicine, also. Due to preferential uptake of iodine by t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526953 |
Isotopes of iodine This procedure may also be used, with higher doses of radio-iodine, to treat patients with thyroid cancer. The I is taken up into thyroid tissue and concentrated there. The beta particles emitted by the radioisotope destroys the associated thyroid tissue with little damage to surrounding tissues (mor... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526953 |
Isotopes of iodine Both isotopes decay by electron capture (EC) to the corresponding tellurium nuclides, but in neither case are these the metastable nuclides Te-123m and Te125m (which are of higher energy, and are not produced from radioiodine). Instead, the excited tellurium nuclides decay immediately (half-life too ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526953 |
Isotopes of iodine Iodine-125 is also commonly used by radiation oncologists in low dose rate brachytherapy in the treatment of cancer at sites other than the thyroid, especially in prostate cancer. When I-125 is used therapeutically, it is encapsulated in titanium seeds and implanted in the area of the tumor, where it... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526953 |
Isotopes of iodine In this use, the nuclide is chemically bonded to a pharmaceutical to form a positron-emitting radiopharmaceutical, and injected into the body, where again it is imaged by PET scan. Iodine-135 is an isotope of iodine with a half-life of 6.6 hours. It is an important isotope from the viewpoint of nucle... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2526953 |
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