text stringlengths 11 1.65k | source stringlengths 38 44 |
|---|---|
Petzite The mineral petzite, AgAuTe, is a soft, steel-gray telluride mineral generally deposited by hydrothermal activity. It forms isometric crystals, and is usually associated with rare tellurium and gold minerals, often with silver, mercury, and copper. The name comes from chemist W. Petz, who first analyzed the mineral from the type locality in Săcărâmb, Transylvania, Romania in 1845. It was described by Wilhelm Karl Ritter von Haidinger in 1845 and dedicated to W. Petz who had carried out the first analyses. It occurs with other tellurides in vein gold deposits. It is commonly associated with native gold, hessite, sylvanite, krennerite, calaverite, altaite, montbrayite, melonite, frohbergite, tetradymite, rickardite, vulcanite and pyrite. forms together with uytenbogaardtite (AgAuS) and fischesserite (AgAuSe) the uytenbogaardtite group. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=440349 |
AstraZeneca plc is a British-Swedish multinational pharmaceutical and biopharmaceutical company. In 2013, it moved its headquarters to Cambridge, United Kingdom, and concentrated its R&D in three sites: Cambridge; Gaithersburg, Maryland, USA (location of MedImmune) for work on biopharmaceuticals; and Mölndal (near Gothenburg) in Sweden, for research on traditional chemical drugs. has a portfolio of products for major disease areas including cancer, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, infection, neuroscience, respiratory and inflammation. The company was founded in 1999 through the merger of the Swedish Astra AB and the British Zeneca Group (itself formed by the demerger of the pharmaceutical operations of Imperial Chemical Industries in 1993). Since the merger it has been among the world's largest pharmaceutical companies and has made numerous corporate acquisitions, including Cambridge Antibody Technology (in 2006), MedImmune (in 2007), Spirogen (in 2013) and Definiens (by MedImmune in 2014). has a primary listing on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index. It has secondary listings on the New York Stock Exchange and the OMX exchange. Astra AB was founded in 1913 in Södertälje, Sweden, by 400 doctors and apothecaries. In 1993 the British chemicals company ICI demerged its pharmaceuticals businesses and its agrochemicals and specialities businesses, to form Zeneca Group plc. Finally, in 1999 Astra and Zeneca Group merged to form plc, with its headquarters in London | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=441872 |
AstraZeneca In 1999, identified as a new location for the company's US base the "Fairfax-plus" site in North Wilmington, Delaware. In 2002, its drug Iressa was approved in Japan as monotherapy for non-small cell lung cancer. On 3 January 2004 Dr Robert Nolan, a former director of AstraZeneca, formed the management team of ZI Medical. In 2005, the company acquired KuDOS Pharmaceuticals, a UK biotech company, for £ 120 m and entered into an anti-cancer collaboration agreement with Astex. It also announced that it had become a Diamond Member of the Pennsylvania Bio commerce organisation. In 2006, following a collaborative relationship begun in 2004, acquired Cambridge Antibody Technology for £702 million. In February 2007, agreed to buy Arrow Therapeutics, a company focused on the discovery and development of anti-viral therapies, for US$ 150 million. AstraZeneca's pipeline, and "patent cliff", was the subject of much speculation in April 2007 leading to pipeline-boosting collaboration and acquisition activities. A few days later acquired US company MedImmune for about US$ 15.2 billion to gain flu vaccines and an anti-viral treatment for infants; subsequently consolidated all of its biologics operations into a dedicated biologics division called MedImmune. In 2010, acquired Novexel Corp, an antiobiotics discovery company formed in 2004 as a spin-off of the Sanofi-Aventis anti-infectives division. Astra acquired the experimental antibiotic NXL-104 (CEF104) (CAZ-AVI) through this acquisition | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=441872 |
AstraZeneca In 2011, acquired Guangdong BeiKang Pharmaceutical Company, a Chinese generics business. In February 2012, and Amgen announced a collaboration on treatments for inflammatory diseases. Then in April 2012, acquired Ardea Biosciences, another biotechnology company, for $1.26 billion. In June 2012, and Bristol-Myers Squibb announced a two-stage deal for the joint acquisition of the biotechnology company Amylin Pharmaceuticals. It was agreed that Bristol-Myers Squibb would acquire Amylin for $5.3 billion in cash and the assumption of $1.7 billion in debt, with then paying $3.4 billion in cash to Bristol-Myers Squibb, and Amylin being folded into an existing diabetes joint venture between and Bristol-Myers Squibb. In March 2013 announced plans for a major corporate restructuring, including the closure of its research and development activities at Alderley Park and Loughborough in the UK and at Lund in Sweden, investment of $500 million in the construction of a new research and development facility in Cambridge and the concentration of R&D in three locations: Cambridge, Gaithersburg, Maryland (location of MedImmune, where it will work on biotech drugs), and Mölndal (near Gothenburg) in Sweden, for research on traditional chemical drugs. also announced that it would move its corporate headquarters from London to Cambridge in 2016. That announcement included the announcement that it would cut 1,600 jobs; three days later it announced it would cut an additional 2,300 jobs | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=441872 |
AstraZeneca It also announced that it would focus on three therapeutic areas: Respiratory Inflammation & Autoimmunity, Cardiovascular & Metabolic Disease, and Oncology. In October 2013, announced it would acquire biotech oncology company Spirogen for around US$ 440 million. On 19 May 2014 rejected a "final offer" from Pfizer of £ 55 per share, which valued the company at £69.4 billion (US$ 117 billion). The companies had been meeting since January 2014. If the takeover had proceeded Pfizer would have become the world's biggest drug maker. The transaction would also have been the biggest foreign takeover of a British company. Many in Britain, including politicians and scientists, had opposed the deal. In July 2014 the company entered into a deal with Almirall to acquire its subsidiary Almirall Sofotec and its lung treatments including the COPD drug, Eklira. The US$ 2.1 billion deal included an allocation of US$ 1.2 billion for development in the respiratory franchise, one of AstraZeneca's three target therapeutic areas announced the year before. In August 2014 the company announced it had entered into a three-year collaboration with Mitsubishi Tanabe Pharma on diabetic nephropathy. In September 2014 the company would join forces with Eli Lilly in developing and commercialising its candidate BACE inhibitor – AZD3292 – used for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. The deal could yield up to US$ 500 million for the company | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=441872 |
AstraZeneca In November 2014 the company's biologics R&D operation, MedImmune, agreed to acquire Definiens for more than US$ 150 million. The company also began a Phase I/II trial collaboration with Pharmacyclics and Janssen Biotech investigating combination treatments. Also in November of the same year, the company agreed to sell its lipodystrophy treatment business to Aegerion Pharmaceuticals for more than US$ 325 million. In December, the company received accelerated FDA approval for Olaparib in the treatment of women with advanced ovarian cancer who have a BRCA genetic mutation. A major criterion governing the drugs approval was, on average, its ability to shrink tumours in patients for 7.9 months. In February, the company announced it would acquire the US and Canadian rights to Actavis' branded respiratory drug business for an initial sum of $600 million. Later in the same month the company announced it would partner with Orca Pharmaceuticals to develop retinoic acid–related orphan nuclear receptor gamma inhibitors for use in the treatment of a number of autoimmune diseases, which could generate up to $122.5 million for Orca. The company also announced their plan to spend $40 million creating a new subsidiary focused on small molecule anti-infectives – primarily in the research of the gyrase inhibitor, AZD0914, which is currently in Phase II for the treatment of gonorrhea. The company underwrote twenty out of thirty-two seats of a new Cambridge-Gothenburg service by Sun-Air of Scandinavia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=441872 |
AstraZeneca In mid-March the company announced it would co commercialise naloxegol along with Daiichi Sankyo in a deal worth up to $825 million. Towards the end of April the company announced a number of collaborations worth an estimated $1.8 billion; firstly, to develop and commercialise MEDI4736, with Celgene, for use against non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, myelodysplastic syndromes, and multiple myeloma with receiving $450 million. The second of two-deals is an agreement to study a combination treatment of MEDI4736 and Innate Pharma’s Phase II anti-NKG2A antibody IPH2201 for up to $1.275 billion. The company's Medimmune arm also launched collaborative clinical trials with Juno Therapeutics, investigating combination treatments for cancer. The trials will assess combinations of MEDI4736 and one of Juno Therapeutics' CD19 directed chimeric antigen receptor T-cell candidates. In late June the company announced it has entered into a partnership agreement with Eolas Therapeutics on the Eolas Orexin-1 Receptor Antagonist (EORA) program for smoking cessation and other treatments. In July the company announced it would sell off its rights to Entocort (budesonide) to Tillotts Pharma for $215 million. In July 2015, Genzyme announced it would acquire the rare cancer drug Caprelsa (vandetanib) from for up to $300 million | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=441872 |
AstraZeneca In August, the company announced it has acquired the global rights to develop and commercialise Heptares Therapeutics drug candidate HTL-1071, which focuses on blocking the adenosine A2A receptor, in a deal worth up to $510 million. In the same month the company's MedImmune subsidiary acquire exclusive rights to Inovio Pharmaceuticals INO-3112 immunotherapy, currently in Phase I/II, under an agreement which could net more than $727.5 million for Inovio. INO-3112 targets Human papillomavirus types 16 and 18. In September, Valeant licensed Brodalumab from the company for up to $445 million. On 6 November it was reported that acquired ZS Pharma for $2.7 billion. In December the company announced its intention to acquire the respiratory portfolio of Takeda Pharmaceutical – namely Alvesco and Omnaris – for $575 million A day later, the company announced it had taken a 55% majority stake in Acerta for $4 billion. As part of the transaction the company will gain commercial rights to Acerta's irreversible oral Bruton's tyrosine kinase inhibitor, acalabrutinib (ACP-196), which is currently in Phase III development for B-cell blood cancers and in Phase I or II clinical trials in solid tumours. In 2015, it was the eighth-largest drug company in the world based on sales revenue. In July 2017, the company's CEO Pascal Soriot said that Brexit would not affect its commitment to its current plans in the United Kingdom | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=441872 |
AstraZeneca However, it had slowed decision making for new investment projects waiting for post-Brexit regulatory regime to settle down. In September 2017, the company's chairman Leif Johansson planned in taking "first steps" in moving their research and manufacturing, operations away from the United Kingdom, If there is a hard Brexit. In 2017, it was the eleventh-largest drug company in the world based on sales and ranked seventh based on R&D investment. In January EVP Pam Cheng stated that has ignited startup of duplicate QA testing facility in Sweden and has initiated hiring in Sweden. In February 2018, announced it was spinning off six early-stage experimental drugs into a new biotechnology-focused company, to be known as Viela Bio, valued at US$ 250 million. In March 2019, announced it will pay up to $6.9 billion to work with Daiichi Sankyo Co Ltd on an experimental treatment for breast cancer. plans to use some of the proceeds of a $3.5 billion share issue to fund the deal. The deal on the drug known as trastuzumab deruxtecan sent shares in Japan’s Daiichi soaring 16%. In September 2019, the company announced that it would cease drug production at its German headquarters in Wedel, leading to the loss of 175 jobs by the end of 2021. In October 2019, announced it would sell the global commercial rights for its drug to treat acid reflux to German pharmaceutical company Cheplapharm Arzneimittel GmbH for as much as $276 million | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=441872 |
AstraZeneca In February 2020, agreed to sublicense its global rights (except Europe, Canada and Israel) to Movantik (naloxegol) to Redhill Biopharma. In March 2020, the company announced that it would be donating PPE, including 9 million face masks, to help support various international health organisations battling the Covid 19 pandemic. In April, the Chief Executive, Pascal Soriot, reported that the company was working with GlaxoSmithKline and the University of Cambridge to develop a new laboratory capable of conducting 30,000 Covid-19 tests per day. The company also announced plans for a clinical trial to assess the potential use of Calquence in the treatment of Covid-19. The following is an illustration of the company's major mergers and acquisitions and historical predecessors: develops, manufactures and sells pharmaceutical and biotechnology products to treat disorders in the oncology, respiratory, cardiovascular, neuroscience, gastrointestinal, infection and inflammation areas. has its corporate headquarters in Cambridge, United Kingdom, and its main research and development (R&D) centers are in Cambridge (UK), Gaithersburg (Maryland, US), Gothenburg/Mölndal (Sweden) and Warsaw (Poland). The following products are found on the website. Generic drug names are given in parentheses following the brand name | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=441872 |
AstraZeneca – Anesthetics – Cardiovascular – Diabetes – Gastrointestinal – Infectious diseases – Neuroscience – Oncology – Respiratory and inflammatory diseases In April 2015, AstraZeneca's drug tremelimumab was approved as an orphan drug for the treatment of mesothelioma in the United States. In February 2016, announced that a clinical trial of tremelimumab as a treatment for mesothelioma failed to meet its primary endpoint. As of 2008, David Brennan was paid $1,574,144 for his role as chief executive officer. On 26 April 2012 it was announced that Brennan was to retire early in the June of that year In August 2012, Pascal Soriot was named CEO of AstraZeneca. It was also announced that Leif Johansson would succeed Louis Schweitzer as Non-Executive chairman on 1 June 2012, three months earlier than previously announced, and would become Chairman of the Nomination and Governance Committee after (the 2012) Annual General Meeting. In April 2010 settled a "qui tam" lawsuit brought by Stefan P. Kruszewski for $520 million to settle allegations that the company defrauded Medicare, Medicaid, and other government-funded health care programs in connection with its marketing and promotional practices for the blockbuster atypical antipsychotic, Seroquel | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=441872 |
AstraZeneca According to the settlement agreement, targeted its illegal marketing of the anti-psychotic Seroquel towards doctors who do not typically treat schizophrenia or bipolar disorder, such as physicians who treat the elderly, primary care physicians, pediatric and adolescent physicians, and in long-term care facilities and prisons. In March 2011, settled a lawsuit in the United States totalling $68.5 million to be divided up to 38 states. The company's most commercially successful medication is esomeprazole (Nexium). The primary uses are treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease, treatment and maintenance of erosive esophagitis, treatment of duodenal ulcers caused by "Helicobacter pylori", prevention of gastric ulcers in those on chronic NSAID therapy, and treatment of gastrointestinal ulcers associated with Crohn's disease. When it is manufactured the result is a mixture of two mirror-imaged molecules, R and S. Two years before the omeprazole patent expired, patented S-omeprazole in pure form, pointing out that since some people metabolise R-omeprazole slowly, pure S-omeprazole treatment would give higher dose efficiency and less variation between individuals. In March 2001, the company began to market Nexium, as it would a brand new drug. The (R)-enantiomer of omeprazole is metabolized exclusively by the enzyme CYP2C19, which is expressed in very low amounts by 3% of the population | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=441872 |
AstraZeneca Treated with a normal dose of the enantiomeric mixture, these persons will experience blood levels five-times higher than those with normal CYP2C19 production. In contrast, esomeprazole is metabolized by both CYP2C19 and CYP3A4, providing less-variable drug exposure. While omeprazole is approved only at doses of up to 20 mg for the treatment of gastroesophageal reflux, esomeprazole is approved for doses up to 40 mg. In 2007, Marcia Angell, former editor-in-chief of the "New England Journal of Medicine" and a lecturer in social medicine at the Harvard Medical School, said in "Stern", a German-language weekly newsmagazine, that AstraZeneca's scientists had misrepresented their research on the drug's efficiency, saying "Instead of using presumably comparable doses [of each drug], the company's scientists used Nexium in higher dosages. They compared 20 and 40 mg Nexium with 20 mg Prilosec. With the cards having been marked in that way, Nexium looked like an improvement – which however was only small and shown in only two of the three studies." On 4 February 1998, Astra USA sued Lars Bildman, its former president and chief executive officer, seeking $15 million for defrauding the company. The sum included $2.3 million in company funds he allegedly used to fix up three of his homes, plus money the company paid as the result of the EEOC investigation | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=441872 |
AstraZeneca Astra's lawsuit alleged Bildman sexually harassed and intimidated employees, used company funds for yachts and prostitutes, destroyed documents and records, and concocted "tales of conspiracy involving ex-KGB agents and competitors. This was in a last-ditch effort to distract attention from the real wrongdoer, Bildman himself." Bildman had already pleaded guilty in US District Court for failing to report more than $1 million in income on his tax returns; in addition, several female co-workers filed personal sexual-harassment lawsuits. In "Astra USA v. Bildman", 914 N.E.2d 36 (Mass. 2009), applying New York's faithless servant doctrine, the court held that a company's employee who had engaged in financial misdeeds and sexual harassment must "forfeit all of his salary and bonuses for the period of disloyalty." The court held that this was the case even if the employee "otherwise performed valuable services," and that the employee was not entitled to recover restitution for the value of those other services. The decision attracted a good deal of attention by legal commentators. In 2004, University of Minnesota research participant Dan Markingson committed suicide while enrolled in an industry-sponsored pharmaceutical trial comparing three FDA-approved atypical antipsychotics: Seroquel (quetiapine), Zyprexa (olanzapine), and Risperdal (risperidone) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=441872 |
AstraZeneca University of Minnesota Professor of Bioethics Carl Elliott noted that Markingson was enrolled in the study against the wishes of his mother, Mary Weiss, and that he was forced to choose between enrolling in the study or being involuntarily committed to a state mental institution. A 2005 FDA investigation cleared the university. Nonetheless, controversy around the case has continued. A "Mother Jones" article resulted in a group of university faculty members sending a public letter to the university Board of Regents urging an external investigation into Markingson's death. In 2010 agreed to pay £505 million to settle a UK tax dispute related to transfer mispricing. On July 27, 2015, Fabio Taborre (Androni-Sidermec) returned a positive doping test result for the banned blood-booster FG-4592 in an out-of-competition control on June 16, 2015. FG-4592 (Roxadustat) is in phase 3 clinical trials and has not yet been commercialised. The drug was developed jointly by FibroGen and AstraZeneca. Unlike Erythropoietin (EPO), which directly stimulates the production of red blood cells, FG-4592 is taken orally, and stimulates natural production of EPO in a manner similar to altitude training. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=441872 |
Anabatic wind An anabatic wind, from the Greek "anabatos", verbal of "anabainein" meaning moving upward, is a warm wind which blows up a steep slope or mountain side, driven by heating of the slope through insolation. It is also known as an upslope flow. These winds typically occur during the daytime in calm sunny weather. A hill or mountain top will be radiatively warmed by the Sun which in turn heats the air just above it. Air at a similar altitude over an adjacent valley or plain does not get warmed so much because of the greater distance to the ground below it. The effect may be enhanced if the lower lying ground is shaded by the mountain and so receives less heat. The air over the hill top is now warmer than the air at a similar altitude around it and will rise through convection. This creates a lower pressure region into which the air at the bottom of the slope flows, causing the wind. It is common for the air rising from the tops of large mountains to reach a height where it cools adiabatically to below its dew point and forms cumulus clouds. These can then produce rain or even thunderstorms. Anabatic winds are particularly useful to soaring glider pilots who can use them to increase the aircraft's altitude. Anabatic winds can be detrimental to the maximum downhill speed of cyclists. Conversely, Katabatic winds are down-slope winds, frequently produced at night by the opposite effect, the air near to the ground losing heat to it faster than air at a similar altitude over adjacent low-lying land | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=455177 |
Anabatic wind Monsoon winds are similarly generated, but on a continental scale and seasonal cycle. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=455177 |
Merck Index The is an encyclopedia of chemicals, drugs and biologicals with over 10,000 monograph on single substances or groups of related compounds published online by the Royal Society of Chemistry. The first edition of the Merck's Index was published in 1889 by the German chemical company Emanuel Merck and was primarily used as a sales catalog for Merck's growing list of chemicals it sold. The American subsidiary was established two years later and continued to publish it. During World War I the US government seized Merck's US operations and made it a separate American "Merck" company that continued to publish the Merck Index. In 2012 the was licensed to the Royal Society of Chemistry. An online version of The Merck Index, including historic records and new updates not in the print edition, is commonly available through research libraries. It also includes an appendix with monographs on organic named reactions. The current edition is the 15th, published in April 2013. Monographs in "The Merck Index" typically contain: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=457314 |
Beer (Martian crater) Beer is a crater lying situated within the Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle (MC-19) region of the planet Mars, named in honor of the German astronomer, Wilhelm Beer. It is located at 14.4°S 351.8°E . Beer and collaborator Johann Heinrich Mädler produced the first reasonably good maps of Mars in the early 1830s. When doing so, they selected a particular feature for the prime meridian of their charts. Their choice was strengthened when Giovanni Schiaparelli used the same location in 1877 for his more famous maps of Mars. The feature was later called Sinus Meridiani ("Middle Bay"), but following the landing of the NASA probe MER-B Opportunity in 2004 it is perhaps better known as Meridiani Planum. Currently the Martian prime meridian is the crater Airy-0. Beer lies in the southwest of Meridiani Planum, about 8° from the prime meridian and about 10° west from the crater Mädler. Schiaparelli is also in the region. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=459591 |
Mädler (Martian crater) Mädler is a crater on Mars named in honor of the German astronomer Johann Heinrich Mädler. It is located at 2.7°E 10.7°S. Mädler and collaborator Wilhelm Beer produced the first reasonably good maps of Mars in the early 1830s. When doing so, they selected a particular feature for the prime meridian of their charts. Their choice was strengthened when Giovanni Schiaparelli used the same location in 1877 for his more famous maps of Mars. The feature was later called Sinus Meridiani ("Middle Bay" or "Bay of the Meridian"), but following the landing of the NASA probe MER-B "Opportunity" in 2004 is perhaps better known as Meridiani Planum. Mädler lies in the south of Meridiani Planum, close to the prime meridian and about 10° east of Beer. Schiaparelli is also in the region. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=459593 |
Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) is the pathogen that causes foot-and-mouth disease. It is a picornavirus, the prototypical member of the genus "Aphthovirus". The disease, which causes vesicles (blisters) in the mouth and feet of bovids, suids, ovids, caprids and other cloven-hoofed animals is highly infectious and a major plague of animal farming. The virus particle (25-30 nm) has an icosahedral capsid made of protein, without envelope, containing a single strand of ribonucleic acid (RNA) containing a positive encoding of its genome. When the virus comes in contact with the membrane of a host cell, it binds to a receptor site and triggers a folding-in of the membrane. Once the virus is inside the host cell, the capsid dissolves, and the RNA gets replicated, and translated into viral proteins by the cell's ribosomes using a cap-independent mechanism driven by the internal ribosome entry site element. The synthesis of viral proteins include 2A 'cleavage' during translation. They include proteases that inhibit the synthesis of normal cell proteins, and other proteins that interact with different components of the host cell. The infected cell ends up producing large quantities of viral RNA and capsid proteins, which are assembled to form new viruses. After assembly, the host cell lyses (bursts) and releases the new viruses. "Foot-and-mouth disease virus" occurs in seven major serotypes: O, A, C, SAT-1, SAT-2, SAT-3, and Asia-1. These serotypes show some regionality, and the O serotype is most common. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=460086 |
Airy (Martian crater) Airy is an impact crater on Mars, named in honor of the British Astronomer, Royal Sir George Biddell Airy (1801–1892). The crater is approximately in diameter and is located at 0.1°E 5.1°S in the Meridiani Planum region. The much smaller crater Airy-0, which defines the location of Mars' prime meridian, lies within it. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=460252 |
Chrysiogenes arsenatis is a species of bacterium in the family Chrysiogenaceae. It has a unique biochemistry. Instead of respiring with oxygen, it respires using the most oxidized form of arsenic, arsenate. It uses arsenate as its terminal electron acceptor. Arsenic is usually toxic to life. Bacteria like "Chrysiogenes arsenatis" are found in anoxic arsenic-contaminated environments. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=465601 |
Abell 2218 is a cluster of galaxies about 2 billion light-years away in the constellation Draco. Acting as a powerful lens, it magnifies and distorts all galaxies lying behind the cluster core into long arcs. The lensed galaxies are all stretched along the cluster's center and some of them are multiply imaged. Those multiple images usually appear as a pair of images with a third — generally fainter — counter image, as is the case for the very distant object. The lensed galaxies are particularly numerous, as we are looking in between two mass clumps, in a saddle region where the magnification is quite large. was used as a gravitational lens to discover the most distant known object in the universe as of 2004. The object, a galaxy some 13 billion years old, is seen from Earth as it would have been just 750 million years after the Big Bang. The color of the lensed galaxies is a function of their distances and types. The orange arc is an elliptical galaxy at moderate redshift (z=0.7). The blue arcs are star-forming galaxies at intermediate redshift (z=1–2.5). There is a pair of images in the lower part of the picture of the newly discovered star-forming galaxy at about redshift 7. Clusters of galaxies such as have also been used to infer both the amount and distribution of Dark matter. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=470674 |
MOPITT (Measurements of Pollution in the Troposphere) is a payload scientific instrument launched into Earth orbit by NASA on board the Terra satellite in 1999. It is designed to monitor changes in pollution patterns and its effect in the lower atmosphere of the Earth. The instrument was funded by the Space Science Division of the Canadian Space Agency. is a nadir sounding (vertically downward pointing) instrument that measures upwelling infrared radiation at 4.7 μm and 2.2-2.4 μm. It uses correlation spectroscopy to calculate total column observations and profiles of carbon monoxide in the lower atmosphere. Although observations of methane were also planned, to date no data have been released. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=471192 |
Earth Observing System The (EOS) is a program of NASA comprising a series of artificial satellite missions and scientific instruments in Earth orbit designed for long-term global observations of the land surface, biosphere, atmosphere, and oceans. The satellite component of the program was launched in 1997. The program is centerpiece of NASA's Earth Science Enterprise (ESE). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=471278 |
3C 279 (also known as 4C–05.55, NRAO 413, and PKS 1253–05) is an optically violent variable quasar (OVV), which is known in the astronomical community for its variations in the visible, radio, and x-ray bands. The quasar was observed to have undergone a period of extreme activity from 1987 until 1991. The Rosemary Hill Observatory (RHO) started observing in 1971, the object was further observed by the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory in 1991, when it was unexpectedly discovered to be one of the brightest gamma ray objects in the sky. It is also one of the brightest and most variable sources in the gamma ray sky monitored by the Fermi Space Telescope. It was used as a calibrator source for Event Horizon Telescope observations of M87* that resulted in the first image of a black hole. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=472881 |
Rodolfo Gambini (born 11 May 1946) is a physicist and professor of the Universidad de la Republica in Montevideo, Uruguay and a visiting professor at the Horace Hearne Institute for Theoretical Physics at the Louisiana State University. He works on loop quantum gravity. He got his PhD in Université de Paris VI working with Achilles Papapetrou. From there he moved to the Universidad Simón Bolívar in Venezuela where he rose through the professorial ranks. It was there that together with fellow physicist Antoni Trías he invented the loop representation for Yang-Mills theories in 1986. Gambini returned to Uruguay in 1987 after democracy had returned to the country. Gambini has published over 100 scientific articles ranging from philosophy of science and foundations of quantum mechanics to lattice gauge theories to quantum gravity. He was head of the Pedeciba, the main funding agency for basic sciences in Uruguay (2003–2008). He is a fellow of the American Physical Society and of the American Association for Advancement of Science, a member of the Third World Academy of Sciences, the Latin American Academy of Sciences and the Academy of Exact and Natural Sciences of Argentina. He is the 2003 winner of the Third World Academy of Sciences prize in physics and has received numerous distinctions in Uruguay. In particular he was awarded the 2004 Presidential Medal of Science, the Prize to the Intellectual Work in 2011 and made an honorary doctorate of the University of the Republic in 2010 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=474177 |
Rodolfo Gambini In recent years he has studied issues in the foundations of quantum mechanics, having developed the Montevideo Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics. He also found the exact solution of the quantum Einstein equations in loop quantum gravity for vacuum spherically symmetric space-times, which resolves the singularity inside black holes. Gambini is a recipient of the 2003 TWAS Prize. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=474177 |
Einstein (unit) The einstein is a unit defined as the energy in one mole of photons ( photons). Because energy is inversely proportional to wavelength, the unit is frequency dependent. This unit is not part of the International System of Units and is redundant with the joule. In studies of photosynthesis the einstein is sometimes used with a different definition of one mole of photons. As such, photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) was formerly often reported in microeinsteins per second per square meter (μE m s). This usage is also not part of the International System of Units and when used this way it is redundant with the mole. Since the unit does not have a standard definition and is not part of the SI system, it is usually better to avoid its use. The same information about photosynthetically active radiation can be conveyed using the SI convention by stating something such as "The photon flux was 1500 μmol m s". This unit was named after physicist Albert Einstein. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=474245 |
Particle Physics and Astronomy Research Council The (PPARC) was one of a number of research councils in the United Kingdom. It directed, coordinated and funded research in particle physics and astronomy for the people of the UK. Its head office was at Polaris House in Swindon, Wiltshire, but it also operated three scientific sites: the UK Astronomy Technology Centre (UK ATC) in Edinburgh, the Isaac Newton Group of Telescopes (ING) in La Palma and the Joint Astronomy Centre (JAC) in Hawaii. It published the "Frontiers" magazine three times a year, containing news and highlights of the research and outreach programmes it supports. The PPARC was formed in April 1994 when the Science and Engineering Research Council was split into several organizations; other products of the split included the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) and the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC). In April 2007, it merged with the Council for the Central Laboratory of the Research Councils (CCLRC) and the nuclear physics portion of the EPSRC to form the new Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC). PPARC previously published a magazine called "Frontiers", . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=475425 |
Ekman number The (Ek) is a dimensionless number used in fluid dynamics to describe the ratio of viscous forces to Coriolis forces. It is frequently used in describing geophysical phenomena in the oceans and atmosphere in order to characterise the ratio of viscous forces to the Coriolis forces arising from planetary rotation. It is named after the Swedish oceanographer Vagn Walfrid Ekman. When the is small, disturbances are able to propagate before decaying owing to low frictional effects. The also describes the order of magnitude for the thickness of an Ekman layer, a boundary layer in which viscous diffusion is balanced by Coriolis effects, rather than the usual convective inertia. It is defined as: - where "D" is a characteristic (usually vertical) length scale of a phenomenon; "ν", the kinematic eddy viscosity; Ω, the angular velocity of planetary rotation; and φ, the latitude. The term 2 Ω sin φ is the Coriolis frequency. It is given in terms of the kinematic viscosity, "ν"; the angular velocity, Ω; and a characteristic length scale, "L". There do appear to be some differing conventions in the literature. Tritton gives: In contrast, the NRL Plasma Formulary gives: where Ro is the Rossby number and Re is the Reynolds number. These equations can generally not be used in oceanography. An estimation of the viscous terms of Navier-Stokes equation (with eventually the Eddy Viscosity) and of the Coriolis terms needs to be done. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=476351 |
RX J1242−11 RX J1242.6−1119A (often abbreviated RX J1242−11) is an elliptical galaxy located approximately 200 megaparsecs (about 650 million light-years) from Earth. According to current interpretations of X-ray observations made by the Chandra X-ray Observatory and XMM-Newton, the centre of this galaxy is a 100 million solar mass supermassive black hole which was observed to have tidally disrupted a star (in 1992 or shortly before). The discovery is widely considered to be the first strong evidence of a supermassive black hole ripping apart a star and consuming a portion of it. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=477278 |
Mamoru Mohri , AM is a Japanese scientist, a former NASDA astronaut, and a veteran of two NASA space shuttle missions. Born in Yoichi, Hokkaidō, Japan, Mohri earned degrees in chemistry from Hokkaido University and a Doctorate from Flinders University in Adelaide, South Australia, in 1976. Most of Mohri's work has been in the field of materials and vacuum sciences. From 1975 to 1985, Mohri was a member of the nuclear engineering faculty of Hokkaido University, where he worked on nuclear fusion-related projects. Mohri was selected by the National Space Development Agency of Japan (now JAXA) to train as a payload specialist for a Japanese materials science payload. He flew his first space mission aboard STS-47 in 1992 as chief payload specialist for Spacelab-J. Mohri subsequently made another trip into space as part of mission STS-99 in 2000. As of 2007, Mohri is the Executive Director for the Miraikan, the National Museum of Emerging Science and Innovation in Tokyo. On 16 March 2006 Mohri was appointed an Honorary Member of the Order of Australia (AM), “for service to Australia-Japan education and science relations.” | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=479108 |
Char is the solid material that remains after light gases (e.g. coal gas) and tar have been driven out or released from a carbonaceous material during the initial stage of combustion, which is known as carbonization, charring, devolatilization or pyrolysis. Further stages of efficient combustion (with or without char deposits) are known as gasification reactions, ending quickly when the reversible gas phase of the water gas shift reaction is reached. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=480143 |
Archimedean point An (or "Punctum Archimedis") is a hypothetical vantage point from which an observer can objectively perceive the subject of inquiry, with a view of totality. The ideal of "removing oneself" from the object of study so that one can see it in relation to all other things, but remain independent of them, is described by a view from an Archimedean point. For example, the philosopher John Rawls uses the heuristic device of the original position in an attempt to remove the particular biases of individual agents in an attempt to demonstrate how rational beings might arrive at an objective formulation of justice. The expression comes from Archimedes, who supposedly claimed that he could lift the Earth off its foundation if he were given a place to stand, one solid point, and a long enough lever. This is also mentioned in Descartes' second meditation with regard to finding certainty, the 'unmovable point' Archimedes sought. Sceptical and anti-realist philosophers criticise the possibility of an Archimedean point, claiming it is a form of scientism, for example; | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=481678 |
Jean-Pierre Haigneré (born 19 May 1948) is a French Air Force officer and a former CNES spationaut. was born in Paris, France and joined the French Air Force, where he trained as a test pilot. He flew on two missions to the Mir space station in 1993 and 1999. The Mir Altair long-duration mission (186 days) in 1993 also included an EVA. In addition to his duties at the European Space Agency, is also involved in a European space tourism initiative, the "Astronaute Club Européen" (ACE), which he co-founded with Alain Dupas and Laurent Gathier. He is married to former French astronaut Claudie Haigneré. The asteroid 135268 Haigneré is named in their combined honour. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=482780 |
Spin probe A spin probe is a molecule with stable free radical character that carries a functional group. This group can be used to couple the probe to another molecule, e.g. a biomolecule. Electron spin resonance can be employed to quantify the probe's concentration. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=488106 |
Newtonian limit In physics, the is a mathematical approximation applicable to physical systems exhibiting (1) weak gravitation, (2) objects moving slowly compared to the speed of light, and (3) slowly changing (or completely static) gravitational fields. Under these conditions, Newton's law of universal gravitation may be used to obtain values that are accurate. In general, and in the presence of significant gravitation, the general theory of relativity must be used. In the Newtonian limit, spacetime is approximately flat and the Minkowski metric may be used over finite distances. In this case 'approximately flat' is defined as space in which gravitational effect approaches 0, mathematically actual spacetime and Minkowski space are not identical, Minkowski space is an idealized model. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=488419 |
Abbott Laboratories is an American multinational medical devices and health care company with headquarters in the Abbott Park Business Center in Lake Bluff, Illinois, United States. The company was founded by Chicago physician Wallace Calvin Abbott in 1888 to formulate known drugs; today, it sells medical devices, diagnostics, branded generic medicines and nutritional products. It split off the research-based pharmaceuticals into AbbVie in 2013. Among its well-known products across the medical devices, diagnostics, and nutrition product divisions are Pedialyte, Similac, Ensure, Glucerna, ZonePerfect, FreeStyle Libre, i-STAT and MitraClip. In 1888 at the age of 30, Wallace Abbott (1857–1921), an 1885 graduate of the University of Michigan, founded the Abbott Alkaloidal Company in Ravenswood, Chicago. At the time, he was a practicing physician and owned a drug store. His innovation was the use of the active part of a medicinal plant, generally an alkaloid (e.g., morphine, quinine, strychnine and codeine), which he formed into tiny "dosimetric granules". This approach was successful since it produced more consistent and effective dosages for patients. In 1922, the company moved from Ravenswood to North Chicago, Illinois. Abbott's first international affiliate was in London in 1907, and the company later added an affiliate in Montreal, Canada (Fact 21). Abbott started operations in Pakistan as a marketing affiliate in 1948; the company has steadily expanded to comprise a work force of over 1500 employees | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=488730 |
Abbott Laboratories Currently, two manufacturing facilities located at Landhi and Korangi in Karachi continue to produce pharmaceutical products. Expansion continued in 1962 when Abbott entered into a joint venture with Dainippon Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., of Osaka, Japan, to manufacture radio-pharmaceuticals. In 1964, it merged with Ross Laboratories, making Ross a wholly-owned subsidiary of Abbott, and Richard Ross gained a seat on Abbott's board of directors until his retirement in 1983. The acquisition of Ross brought Similac under the Abbott umbrella. In the years following the acquisition, Pedialyte and Ensure were introduced as nutritional products by Ross Laboratories while under Abbott's leadership. In 1965, Abbott's expansion in Europe continued with offices in Italy and France. has been present in India for over 100 years through its subsidiary Abbott India Limited and it is currently India's largest healthcare products company. According to Harvard professor Lester Grinspoon and Peter Hedblom, "In 1966 sold the equivalent of two million doses of methamphetamine in powder form to a Long Island criminal dealer". Today, Abbott operates in over 160 countries. In 2001, the company acquired Knoll, the pharmaceutical division of BASF. In 2002, it divested the Selsun Blue brand to Chattem. Later in 2002, the company sold Clear Eyes and Murine to Prestige Brands. In 2004, the company acquired TheraSense, a diabetes-care company, which it merged with its MediSense division to become Abbott Diabetes Care | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=488730 |
Abbott Laboratories In 2006, Abbott assisted Boston Scientific in its purchase of Guidant Corporation. As part of the agreement, Abbott purchased the vascular device division of Guidant. In 2007, Abbott acquired Kos Pharmaceuticals for $3.7 billion in cash. At the time of acquisition, Kos marketed Niaspan, which raises levels of "good", or HDL, cholesterol and Advicor, a Niaspan combination drug for patients with multiple lipid disorders. In January 2007, the company agreed to sell its "in vitro" diagnostics and Point-of-Care diagnostics divisions to General Electric for more than $8 billion. These units were slated to be integrated into the GE Healthcare business unit. The transaction was approved by the boards of directors of Abbott and GE and was targeted to close in the first half of 2007. However, on 11 July 2007, Abbott announced that it had terminated its agreement with GE because the parties could not agree on the terms of the deal. On 8 September 2007, the company completed the sale of the UK manufacturing plant at Queenborough to Aesica Pharmaceuticals, a private equity-owned UK manufacturer. No announcements have been made restricting the movement of staff to Abbott unlike other sell outs. In November 2007, Abbott announced that Ross Products would be renamed Abbott Nutrition. On 26 February 2009, the company completed its acquisition of Advanced Medical Optics based in Santa Ana, California. Abbott sold this business to Johnson & Johnson in February 2017 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=488730 |
Abbott Laboratories In 2009, Abbott opened a satellite research and development facility at Research Park, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. In February 2010, Abbott completed its $6.2 billion (EUR 4.5 billion) acquisition of the pharmaceuticals unit of Solvay S.A.. This provided Abbott with a large and complementary portfolio of pharmaceutical products and also expanded its presence in key emerging markets. On 22 March 2010, the company completed its acquisition of a Hollywood, Florida-based LIMS company STARLIMS. Under the terms of the deal, acquired the company for $14 per share in an all-cash transaction valued at $123 million. On 21 May 2010, said it would buy Piramal Healthcare Ltd.'s Healthcare Solutions unit for $2.2 billion to become the biggest drug company in India. In 2004, Abbott spun off its hospital products division into a new 14,000 employee company named Hospira. Hospira was later acquired by Pfizer in 2015. In October 2011, Abbott announced that it planned to separate into two companies, one research-based pharmaceuticals and the other in medical devices, generic drugs sold internationally, and diagnostics, with the latter retaining the Abbott name. Abbott Nutrition, whose products include Similac, Pedialyte, Glucerna, and Ensure, also retained the Abbott name. The company announced that the other company would be named AbbVie in March 2012. In preparation for the reorganization, Abbott made severe budget cuts and took a $478 million charge in Q3-2012 to pay for the restructuring | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=488730 |
Abbott Laboratories The separation was effective as of 1 January 2013. AbbVie was officially listed in the New York Stock Exchange on 2 January 2013. On 16 May 2014, it was announced that Abbott would acquire the holding company Kalo Pharma Internacional S.L. for $2.9 billion in order to secure the 73% it held of Chilean pharmaceutical company, CFR Pharmaceuticals, which the company said would more than double its branded generic drug portfolio. In December 2014, the company acquired Russian pharmaceutical manufacturer Veropharm (Voronezh) in a deal worth $410 million, which included three manufacturing facilities. Abbott, which already employs 1,400 people in Russia, said it planned to set up a manufacturing presence in the country when the deal closed. In September 2015, the company announced it had completed its acquisition of Tendyne Holdings, Inc., a private medical device company focused on developing minimally invasive mitral valve replacement therapies. Tendyne was acquired for a total transaction value of $250 million. In January 2020, the Tendyne Mitral Valve became the world's first commercially available solution for Mitral Valve Replacement Technology. Abbott obtained CE Mark for the device which now makes it possible to implant it in Europe outside of a clinical setting. The US clinical study for federal approval is still ongoing. In February 2016, the company announced it would acquire Alere for $5.8 billion. In January 2017, Abbott announced it would acquire St | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=488730 |
Abbott Laboratories Jude Medical for $25 billion (each share receiving $46.75 in cash & 0.8708 shares of Abbott common stock, equating to an approximate value of $85). In 2017, the FDA approved Abbott's FreeStyle Libre glucose monitoring system. The system is designed to read glucose levels through a self-applied sensor and does not require standard finger sticks. On 3 October 2017, the company closed the Alere acquisition making the surviving entity the market leader player in the $7 billion point-of-care diagnostic space within the broader $50 billion in-vitro diagnostics market with this takeover. With the acquisition of Alere, the company also obtain the subsidiary Arriva Medical, which is the largest mail-order diabetic supplier. Arriva Medical announced business closure after Abbott acquisition effective 31 December 2017. In August 2018, Reuters reported that "(ABT.N) is among the top five companies for branded generic drugs in Russia, the company’s chief financial officer, Brian Yoor, said in January." In November 2018, Abbott became the first medical device company to introduce a smartphone app glucose reader in the United States when it received FDA clearance to launch FreeStyle LibreLink. In January 2019, Abbott exercised its option to purchase Cephea Valve Technologies, Inc. who are developing a less-invasive replacement heart valve for people with mitral valve disease. In March 2020, Abbott received emergency use authorization (EUA) from the FDA for a 2019-nCoV test to help address the 2019-20 coronavirus pandemic | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=488730 |
Abbott Laboratories Abbott's point-of-care test is regarded as a valuable development due to its small size, which is comparable to a small toaster, and rapid results – 5-minute positive, 13-minute negative. Detroit became the first city to receive these tests on April 1, 2020. For the fiscal year 2017, Insurance reported earnings of US$477 million, with an annual revenue of US$27.390 billion, a decline of 31.4% over the previous fiscal cycle. Abbott Laboratories's shares traded at over $47 per share, and its market capitalization was valued at US$119.3 billion in October 2018. On 19 March 2019, it was reported that Abbott was a long-term user of the Double Irish tax structure, a legal but controversial Irish taxation tool used by U.S. multinationals to reduce U.S. corporate taxes on non-U.S profits. Abbott's Irish holding company, the Bermuda-resident Vascular Enterprises (ALVE), employed no staff in 2017, but was responsible for distributing Abbot's products and licensing its technology worldwide. Newly filed accounts showed that ALVE was incorporated in 2003 and had a pre-tax profit of €2 billion in 2016 and 2017 on revenues of €5.2 billion; no taxation was paid on these profits. ALVE had never filed accounts in Ireland since 2003 as it was structured as an unlimited liability company (ULL); however, new EU accounts directives required ALVE to file Irish accounts in 2018 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=488730 |
Abbott Laboratories These accounts listed ALVE's registered office as the address of Ireland's largest tax-law firm, Matheson, who have been identified with Double Irish tax structures for Microsoft and Google. Abbott's core businesses focus on diagnostics, medical devices, branded generic medicines and nutritional products, which have been supplemented through acquisitions. , the firm's divisions are: As of 2017, shares are mainly held by institutional investors (The Vanguard Group, BlackRock, State Street Corporation and others). Miles D. White is the executive chairman of Abbott. He joined Abbott in 1984, serving in management positions including senior vice president of diagnostic operations, executive vice president, and long-time CEO. He was elected to the Board of Directors in April 1998, to Chief Executive Officer in 1998, and to Chairman of the Board in April 1999. In November 2019, White announced that he was stepping down as CEO after 21 years in charge of Abbott. At the end of March 2020, Robert B. Ford, a long-time Abbott executive, took over as the company's president and chief operating officer.<ref> | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=488730 |
Blade element theory (BET) is a mathematical process originally designed by William Froude (1878), David W. Taylor (1893) and Stefan Drzewiecki to determine the behavior of propellers. It involves breaking a blade down into several small parts then determining the forces on each of these small blade elements. These forces are then integrated along the entire blade and over one rotor revolution in order to obtain the forces and moments produced by the entire propeller or rotor. One of the key difficulties lies in modelling the induced velocity on the rotor disk. Because of this the blade element theory is often combined with the momentum theory to provide additional relationships necessary to describe the induced velocity on the rotor disk (for further details see Blade Element Momentum Theory). At the most basic level of approximation a uniform induced velocity on the disk is assumed: Alternatively the variation of the induced velocity along the radius can be modeled by breaking the blade down into small annuli and applying the conservation of mass, momentum and energy to every annulus. This approach is sometimes called the Froude-Finsterwalder equation. If the blade element method is applied to helicopter rotors in forward flight it is necessary to consider the flapping motion of the blades as well as the longitudinal and lateral distribution of the induced velocity on the rotor disk. The most simple forward flight inflow models are first harmonic models. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=495598 |
Horst (geology) In physical geography and geology, a horst is a raised fault block bounded by normal faults. A horst is a raised block of the Earth's crust that has lifted, or has remained stationary, while the land on either side (graben) has subsided. The word "Horst" in Dutch and German means heap – cognate with English "hurst". The Vosges Mountains in France and Black Forest in Germany are examples of horsts, as are the Table, Jura, the Dole mountains and the Rila - Rhodope Massif including the well defined horsts of Belasitsa (linear horst), Rila mountain (vaulted domed shaped horst) and Pirin mountain - a horst forming a massive anticline situated between the complex graben valleys of Struma and that of Mesta. The word also applies to larger areas, such as the Russian Plain, Arabia, India and Central South Africa, where the continent remains stable, with horizontal table-land stratification, in distinction to folded regions such as some mountain chains of Eurasia. The Midcontinent Rift System in North America is marked by a series of horsts extending from Lake Superior to Kansas. Horsts may have either symmetrical or asymmetrical cross-sections. If the normal faults to either side have similar geometry and are moving at the same rate, the horst is likely to be symmetrical and roughly flat on top. If the faults on either side have different rates of vertical motion, the top of the horst will most likely be inclined and the entire profile will be asymmetrical | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=496021 |
Horst (geology) Erosion also plays a significant role in how symmetrical a horst appears in cross-section. In many rift basins around the world, the vast majority of discovered hydrocarbons are found in conventional traps associated with horsts. For example, much of the petroleum found in the Sirte Basin, Libya (of the order of tens of billions of barrels of reserves) are found on large horst blocks such as the Zelten Platform and the Dahra Platform and on smaller horsts such as the Gialo High and the Bu-Attifel Ridge. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=496021 |
Field guide A field guide is a book designed to help the reader identify wildlife (plants or animals) or other objects of natural occurrence (e.g. minerals). It is generally designed to be brought into the 'field' or local area where such objects exist to help distinguish between similar objects. Field guides are often designed to help users distinguish animals and plants that may be similar in appearance but are not necessarily closely related. It will typically include a description of the objects covered, together with paintings or photographs and an index. More serious and scientific field identification books, including those intended for students, will probably include identification keys to assist with identification, but the publicly accessible field guide is more often a browsable picture guide organized by family, colour, shape, location or other descriptors. Popular interests in identifying things in nature probably were strongest in bird and plant guides. Perhaps the first popular field guide to plants in the United States was the 1893 "How to Know the Wildflowers" by "Mrs. William Starr Dana" (Frances Theodora Parsons). In 1890, Florence Merriam published "Birds Through an Opera-Glass", describing 70 common species. Focused on living birds observed in the field, the book is considered the first in the tradition of modern, illustrated bird guides. In 1902, now writing as Florence Merriam Bailey (having married the zoologist Vernon Bailey), she published "Handbook of Birds of the Western United States" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=500948 |
Field guide By contrast, the "Handbook" is designed as a comprehensive reference for the lab rather a portable book for the field. It was arranged by taxonomic order and had clear descriptions of species size, distribution, feeding, and nesting habits. From this point into the 1930s, features of field guides were introduced by Chester A. Reed and others such as changing the size of the book to fit the pocket, including colour plates, and producing guides in uniform editions that covered subjects such as garden and woodland flowers, mushrooms, insects, and dogs. In 1934, Roger Tory Peterson, using his fine skill as an artist, changed the way modern field guides approached identification. Using color plates with paintings of similar species together – and marked with arrows showing the differences – people could use his bird guide in the field to compare species quickly to make identification easier. This technique, the "Peterson Identification System", was used in most of Peterson's Field Guides from animal tracks to seashells and has been widely adopted by other publishers and authors as well. Today, each field guide has its own range, focus and organization. Specialist publishers such as Croom Helm, along with organisations like the Audubon Society, the RSPB, the Field Studies Council, National Geographic, HarperCollins, and many others all produce quality field guides | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=500948 |
Field guide It is somewhat difficult to generalise about how field guides are intended to be used, because this varies from one guide to another, partly depending on how expert the targeted reader is expected to be. For general public use, the main function of a field guide is to help the reader identify a bird, plant, rock, butterfly or other natural object down to at least the popular naming level. To this end some field guides employ simple keys and other techniques: the reader is usually encouraged to scan illustrations looking for a match, and to compare similar-looking choices using information on their differences. Guides are often designed to first lead readers to the appropriate section of the book, where the choices are not so overwhelming in number. Guides for students often introduce the concept of identification keys. Plant field guides such as "Newcomb's Wildflower Guide" (which is limited in scope to the wildflowers of northeastern North America) frequently have an abbreviated key that helps limit the search. Insect guides tend to limit identification to Order or Family levels rather than individual species, due to their diversity. Many taxa show variability and it is often difficult to capture the constant features using a small number of photographs. Illustrations by artists or post processing of photographs help in emphasising specific features needed to for reliable identification. Peterson introduced the idea of lines to point to these key features | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=500948 |
Field guide He also noted the advantages of illustrations over photographs: Field guides aid in improving the state of knowledge of various taxa. By making the knowledge of experienced museum specialists available to amateurs, they increase the gathering of information by amateurs from a wider geographic area and increasing the communication of these findings to the specialists. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=500948 |
Ice floe An ice floe is a large pack of floating ice often defined as a flat piece at least 20 m across at its widest point, and up to more than 10 km across. Drift ice is a floating field of sea ice composed of several ice floes. They may cause ice jams on freshwater rivers, and in the open ocean may damage the hulls of ships. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=504495 |
Smoky quartz is a grey, translucent variety of quartz that ranges in clarity from almost complete transparency to an almost-opaque brownish-gray or black crystal. Like other quartz gems, it is a silicon dioxide crystal. The smoky colour results from free silicon formed from the silicon dioxide by natural irradiation. Morion is a very dark brown to black opaque variety. Morion is the German, Danish, Spanish and Polish synonym for smoky quartz. The name is from a misreading of "mormorion" in Pliny the Elder. It has a density of 5.4. Cairngorm is a variety of smoky quartz found in the Cairngorm Mountains of Scotland. It usually has a smoky yellow-brown colour, though some specimens are greyish-brown. It is used in Scottish jewellery and as a decoration on kilt pins and the handles of (anglicised: "sgian-dubhs" or "skean dhu"). The largest known cairngorm crystal is a specimen kept at Braemar Castle. is common and was not historically important, but in recent times it has become a popular gemstone, especially for jewellery. Sunglasses, in the form of flat panes of smoky quartz, were used in China in the 12th century. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=506537 |
Björn Kurtén Björn Olof Lennartson Kurtén (19 November 1924 – 28 December 1988) was a Finnish vertebrate paleontologist, belonging to the Swedish-speaking minority of his country. Kurtén was born at Vaasa. He was a professor in paleontology at the University of Helsinki from 1972 up to his death in 1988. He also spent a year as lecturing guest professor at Harvard University in 1971. In "Not from the Apes" (1971) Kurtén argued that man's development has been separate from the apes since the Miocene, and that man did not descend from anthropoids, but rather the reverse: He was also the author of a series of books about modern man's encounter with Neanderthals, such as "Dance of the Tiger" (1978, 1980). When asked what genre these works belonged in, Kurtén coined the term paleofiction to describe his oeuvre. This genre was popularized by Jean M. Auel in her Earth's Children series of books. He received several awards for his books popularizing science, among others the Kalinga Prize from UNESCO. In the 1980s, Kurtén also hosted a 6-part TV series about the ice age, co-produced by several Scandinavian TV channels. Kurtén also published some fifty scientific works, two of them in cooperation with the Spanish paleontologist Miquel Crusafont Pairó. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=508258 |
Kiel probe A is a device for measuring stagnation pressure or stagnation temperature in fluid dynamics. It is a variation of a Pitot probe where the inlet is protected by a "shroud" or "shield." Compared to the Pitot probe, it is less sensitive to changes in yaw angle, and is therefore useful when the probe's alignment with the flow direction is variable or imprecise. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=508680 |
Photino A photino is a hypothetical subatomic particle, the fermion WIMP superpartner of the photon predicted by supersymmetry. It is an example of a gaugino. Even though no photino has ever been observed so far, it is one of the candidates for the lightest supersymmetric particle in the universe. It is proposed that photinos are produced by sources of ultra-high-energy cosmic rays. Photinos have a lepton number 0, baryon number 0, and spin 1/2. With an R-parity of −1 it is a possible candidate for dark matter. It mixes with the superpartners of the Z boson (zino) and the neutral higgs (higgsino) to form the neutralino. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=509141 |
Cultured meat is meat produced by in vitro cell culture of animal cells, instead of from slaughtered animals. It is a form of cellular agriculture. is produced using many of the same tissue engineering techniques traditionally used in regenerative medicine. The concept of cultured meat was popularized by Jason Matheny in the early 2000s after co-authoring a seminal paper on cultured meat production and creating New Harvest, the world's first non-profit organization dedicated to supporting in vitro meat research. In 2013, Mark Post, a professor at Maastricht University, was the first to showcase a proof-of-concept for cultured meat by creating the first burger patty grown directly from cells. Since then, several cultured meat prototypes have gained media attention: however, because of limited dedicated research activities, cultured meat has not yet been commercialized, although Mosa Meat has already started building the first plant for the production of cultured meat. Mosa Meat, the company co-founded by Dr. Post, has indicated that they may bring cultured meat to the market by 2021. Because cultured meat is not yet commercially available, it has yet to be seen whether consumers will accept cultured meat as meat. The production process still has much room for improvement, but it has advanced under various companies. Its applications lead it to have several prospective health, environmental, cultural, and economic considerations in comparison to conventional meat | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=511626 |
Cultured meat Besides "cultured meat", the terms slaughter-free meat, in vitro meat, vat-grown, lab-grown meat, cell-based meat, clean meat, cultivated meat and synthetic meat have all been used by various outlets to describe the product. Between 2016 and 2019, "clean meat" gained traction as the term preferred by some journalists, advocates, and organizations that support the technology. The Good Food Institute (GFI) coined the term in 2016, and in late 2018 published research which claimed that "clean" better reflected the production and benefits of the meat and surpassed "cultured" and "in vitro" in media mentions and Google searches. Despite this, some industry stakeholders felt that the term unnecessarily alienated conventional meat producers, continuing to prefer "cell-based meat" as a neutral alternative. In September 2019, GFI announced new research which found that the term "cultivated meat" is sufficiently descriptive and differentiating, possesses a high degree of neutrality, and ranks highly for consumer appeal. The theoretical possibility of growing meat in an industrial setting has long captured the public imagination. Winston Churchill suggested in 1931: "We shall escape the absurdity of growing a whole chicken in order to eat the breast or wing, by growing these parts separately under a suitable medium." In vitro cultivation of muscular fibers was performed as early as 1971 by Russell Ross. Indeed, the abstract was In 1998 Jon F | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=511626 |
Cultured meat Vein of the United States filed for, and ultimately secured, a patent (US 6,835,390 B1) for the production of tissue engineered meat for human consumption, wherein muscle and fat cells would be grown in an integrated fashion to create food products such as beef, poultry and fish. In 2001, dermatologist Wiete Westerhof from the University of Amsterdam, medical doctor Willem van Eelen, and businessman Willem van Kooten announced that they had filed for a worldwide patent on a process to produce cultured meat. In the process, a matrix of collagen is seeded with muscle cells, which are then bathed in a nutritious solution and induced to divide. Scientists in Amsterdam study the culture medium, while the University of Utrecht studies the proliferation of muscle cells, and the Eindhoven University of Technology is researching bioreactors. NASA has been conducting experiments since 2001, originally producing cultured meat from turkey cells. The technology to produce cultured meat in space would allow long-term astronauts to grow meat without sacrificing travel storage. In 2002, the NSR/Touro Applied BioScience Research Consortium was able to grow a fish filet-like product from goldfish cells. In 2003, Oron Catts and Ionat Zurr of the Tissue Culture and Art Project and Harvard Medical School exhibited in Nantes a "steak" a few centimetres wide, grown from frog stem cells, which was cooked and eaten | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=511626 |
Cultured meat The first peer-reviewed journal article published on the subject of laboratory-grown meat appeared in a 2005 issue of "Tissue Engineering". In 2008, PETA offered a $1 million prize to the first company to bring lab-grown chicken meat to consumers by 2012. The contestant was required to complete two tasks before receiving the prize: "Produce a cultured chicken meat product that was indistinguishable from real chicken," and "Produce the product in large enough quantities to be competitively sold in at least 10 states." The contest was extended until 4 March 2014. Since 2008 when the challenge was first announced, researchers around the world have made significant headway into the production of cultured meat. The deadline eventually expired without a winner, however the publicity around the topic brought cultured meat further into the eyes of scientists. The Dutch government has put $4 million into experiments regarding cultured meat. The In Vitro Meat Consortium, a group formed by international researchers interested in the technology, held the first international conference on the production of cultured meat, hosted by the Food Research Institute of Norway in April 2008, to discuss commercial possibilities. "Time" magazine declared cultured meat production to be one of the 50 breakthrough ideas of 2009. In November 2009, scientists from the Netherlands announced they had managed to grow meat in the laboratory using the cells from a live pig | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=511626 |
Cultured meat As of 2012, 30 laboratories from around the world have announced that they are working on cultured meat research. The first cultured beef burger patty, created by Dr. Mark Post at Maastricht University, was eaten at a demonstration for the press in London in August 2013. It was made from over 20,000 thin strands of muscle tissue. This burger cost Dr. Post over $300,000 to make and over 2 years to produce. Two other companies have also begun to culture meat; Memphis Meats in the US and SuperMeat in Israel. A report from July 2019 states that the price of making a cultured meat burger is expected to drop to $10 by 2021. Several companies have invested research in recent years into the development of cultured meat, such as Mosa Meat and Biotech Foods. The first cultured meat burger from Mosa Meats was produced in 2013 and cost $280,000. On 5 August 2013, the world's first lab-grown burger was cooked and eaten at a news conference in London. Scientists from Maastricht University in the Netherlands, led by professor Mark Post, had taken stem cells from a cow and grown them into strips of muscle which they then combined to make a burger. The burger was cooked by chef Richard McGeown of Couch's Great House Restaurant, Polperro, Cornwall, and tasted by critics Hanni Rützler, a food researcher from the Future Food Studio and Josh Schonwald. Rützler stated, There is really a bite to it, there is quite some flavour with the browning | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=511626 |
Cultured meat I know there is no fat in it so I didn't really know how juicy it would be, but there is quite some intense taste; it's close to meat, it's not that juicy, but the consistency is perfect. This is meat to me... It's really something to bite on and I think the look is quite similar. Rützler added that even in a blind trial she would have taken the product for meat rather than a soya copy. Tissue for the London demonstration was cultivated in May 2013, using about 20,000 thin strips of cultured muscle tissue. Funding of around €250,000 came from an anonymous donor later revealed to be Sergey Brin. Post remarked that "there's no reason why it can't be cheaper...If we can reduce the global herd a millionfold, then I'm happy". Since Dr. Post successfully produced the first cultured meat burger in 2013, a variety of startups and organizations dedicated to developing or advancing cultured meat have been founded. In 2015, Maastricht University hosted the first International Conference on Cultured Meat. As the field has grown, nonprofit organizations such as New Harvest and The Good Food Institute have begun hosting annual conferences to convene industry leaders, scientists, investors, and potential collaborators from parallel industries. As of 2019, over two dozen startups working on cultured meat have been founded. Memphis Meats, a Silicon Valley startup founded by a cardiologist, launched a video in February 2016 showcasing its cultured beef meatball | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=511626 |
Cultured meat In March 2017, it showcased chicken tenders and duck a l'orange, the first cultured poultry-based foods shown to the public. An Israeli company, SuperMeat, ran a viral crowdfunding campaign in 2016 for its work on cultured chicken. Finless Foods, a San Francisco-based company aimed at cultured fish, was founded in June 2016. In March 2017 it commenced laboratory operations and progressed quickly. Director Mike Selden said in July 2017 to expect bringing cultured fish products on the market within two years (by the end of 2019). In March 2018, JUST, Inc. (in 2011 founded as Hampton Creek in San Francisco) claimed to be able to present a consumer product from cultured meat by the end of 2018. According to CEO Josh Tetrick the technology is already there, and now it is merely a matter of applying it. JUST has about 130 employees and a research department of 55 scientists, where lab meat from poultry, pork and beef is being developed. They would have already solved the problem of feeding the stem cells with only plant resources. JUST receives sponsoring from Chinese billionaire Li Ka-shing, Yahoo! co-founder Jerry Yang and according to Tetrick also from Heineken International amongst others. The Dutch startup Meatable, consisting of Krijn de Nood, Daan Luining, Ruud Out, Roger Pederson, Mark Kotter and Gordana Apic among others, reported in September 2018 it had succeeded in growing meat using pluripotent stem cells from animals' umbilical cords | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=511626 |
Cultured meat Although such cells are reportedly difficult to work with, Meatable claimed to be able to direct them to behave using their proprietary technique in order to become muscle cells or fat cells as needed. The major advantage is that this technique bypasses fetal bovine serum, meaning that no animal has to be killed in order to produce meat. That month, it was estimated there were about 30 cultured meat startups across the world. A Dutch House of Representatives Commission meeting discussed the importance and necessity of governmental support for researching, developing and introducing cultured meat in society, speaking to representatives of three universities, three startups and four civil interest groups on 26 September 2018. In August 2019, five startups announced the formation of the Alliance for Meat, Poultry & Seafood Innovation (AMPS Innovation), a coalition seeking to work with government regulators to create a pathway to market for cultured meat and seafood. The founding members include JUST, Inc., Memphis Meats, Finless Foods, BlueNalu, and Fork & Goode. There are three stages in the production of cultured meat: selection of starter cells, treatment of growth medium, and scaffolding. The initial stage of growing cultured meat is to collect cells that have a rapid rate of proliferation (high cell reproduction rate). Such cells include embryonic stem cells, adult stem cells, myosatellite cells, or myoblasts | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=511626 |
Cultured meat Stem cells proliferate the quickest, but have not yet begun development towards a specific kind of cell, which creates the challenge of splitting the cells and directing them to grow a certain way. Fully developed muscle cells are ideal in the aspect that they have already finished development as a muscle, but proliferate hardly at all. Therefore, cells such as myosatellite and myoblast cells are often used as they still proliferate at an acceptable rate, but also sufficiently differentiate from other types of cells. The cells are then treated by applying a solution that promotes tissue growth, which is known as a growth medium. These mediums should contain the necessary nutrients and appropriate quantity of growth factors. They are then placed in a culture medium, in a bio-reactor, which is able to supply the cells with the energetic requirements they need. To culture three-dimensional meat, the cells are grown on a scaffold, which is a component that directs its structure and order. The ideal scaffold is edible so the meat does not have to be removed, and periodically moves to stretch the developing muscle, thereby simulating the animal body during normal development. Additionally the scaffold must maintain flexibility in order to not detach from the developing myotubes (early muscle fibers). Scaffold must also allow vascularization (creation of blood vessels) in order for normal development of muscle tissue | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=511626 |
Cultured meat In October 2019 MDPI published an article entitled "Extracellular Heme Proteins Influence Bovine Myosatellite Cell Proliferation and the Color of Cell-Based Meat" that claimed that skeletal muscle-tissue engineering can be applied to produce cell-based meat for human consumption. Myoglobin was reported to have increased the proliferation and metabolic activity of bovine muscle satellite cells. The addition of either myoglobin or hemoglobin was reported to change of color of the product to more closly resemble traditional beef. An Israeli company MeaTech proposes to use a 3D printing techniques to improve the texture of cultured meat to more resemble the natural product. Scaffold-based production techniques can only be appropriately used in boneless or ground meats (processed). The end result of this process would be meats such as hamburgers or sausages. In order to create more structured meats, for example steak, muscle tissue must be structured in directed and self-organized means or by proliferation of muscle tissue already existing. Additionally, the presence of gravitational, magnetic, fluid flow, and mechanical stress fields has an effect on the proliferation rates of the muscle cells. Processes of tension such as stretching and relaxing increased differentiation into muscle cells. Once this process has been started, it would be theoretically possible to continue producing meat indefinitely without introducing new cells from a living organism | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=511626 |
Cultured meat It has been claimed that, conditions being ideal, two months of cultured meat production could deliver up to 50,000 tons of meat from ten pork muscle cells. In cultured meat production, a preservative such as sodium benzoate is used to protect the growing meat from bacteria and yeast and other fungi. Collagen powder, xanthan gum, mannitol and cochineal could be used in different ways during the process. The price of cultured meat at retail outlets like grocery stores and supermarkets may decrease to levels that middle-class consumers consider to be "inexpensive" due to technological advancements. The science for cultured meat is an outgrowth of the field of biotechnology known as tissue engineering. The technology is simultaneously being developed along with other uses for tissue engineering such as helping those with muscular dystrophy and, similarly, growing transplant organs. There are several obstacles to overcome if it has any chance of succeeding; at the moment, the most notable ones are scale and cost. Additionally, there is no dedicated scientific research discipline for cellular agriculture and its development. The past research undertaken into cellular agriculture were isolated from each other, and they did not receive significant academic interest. Although it currently exists, long-term strategies are not sufficiently funded for development and severely lack a sufficient amount of researchers | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=511626 |
Cultured meat Large-scale production of cultured meat may or may not require artificial growth hormones to be added to the culture for meat production. Researchers have suggested that omega-3 fatty acids could be added to cultured meat as a health bonus. In a similar way, the omega-3 fatty acid content of conventional meat can also be increased by altering what the animals are fed. An issue of "Time" magazine has suggested that the cell-cultured process may also decrease exposure of the meat to bacteria and disease. Due to the strictly controlled and predictable environment, cultured meat production has been compared to vertical farming, and some of its proponents have predicted that it will have similar benefits in terms of reducing exposure to dangerous chemicals like pesticides and fungicides, severe injuries, and wildlife. Concern in regards to developing antibiotic resistance due to the use of antibiotics in livestock, and livestock-derived meat serving as a major source of disease outbreaks (including bird flu, anthrax, swine flu, and listeriosis), and long-term processed meat consumption being associated with increased heart disease, digestive tract cancer, and type 2 diabetes currently plague livestock-based meat. In regards to cultured meat, strict environmental controls and tissue monitoring can prevent infection of meat cultures from the outset, and any potential infection can be detected before shipment to consumers | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=511626 |
Cultured meat In addition to the prevention and lack of diseases, and lack of the use of antibiotics or any other chemical substances, cultured meat can also leverage numerous biotechnology advancements, including increased nutrient fortification, individually-customized cellular and molecular compositions, and optimal nutritional profiles, all making it much healthier than livestock-sourced meat. Although cultured meat is real meat consisting of genuine animal muscle cells, fat and support cells, as well as blood vessels, that are the same in traditional meat, some consumers may find the high-tech production process distasteful. has been described as fake or "Frankenmeat". Clean meat can be produced without the artificial hormones, antibiotics, steroids, medicine, and GMOs commonly used in factory farmed meat and seafood. If a cultured meat product is different in appearance, taste, smell, texture, or other factors, it may not be commercially competitive with conventionally produced meat. The lack of bone and cardiovascular system may be a disadvantage for dishes where these parts make appreciable culinary contributions. However, the lack of bones and/or blood may make many traditional meat preparations, such as buffalo wings, more palatable to small children. Furthermore, cultured blood and bones could potentially be produced in the future as well. There have historically been concerns from the United Nations about the unrelenting production of traditional meat production for the growing world population | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=511626 |
Cultured meat Animal production for food has been one of the major causes of air/water pollution and global warming. There is significant doubt that the traditional industry will be able to keep up with the rapidly increasing demands for meat, pushing many entrepreneurs and researchers towards development of cultured meat as an alternative. looks to provide an environmentally conscious alternative to traditional meat production. Research has suggested that environmental impacts of cultured meat would be significantly lower than normally slaughtered beef. For every hectare that is used for vertical farming and/or cultured meat manufacturing, anywhere between 10 and 20 hectares of land may be converted from conventional agriculture usage back into its natural state. Vertical farms (in addition to cultured meat facilities) could exploit methane digesters to generate a small portion of its own electrical needs. Methane digesters could be built on site to transform the organic waste generated at the facility into biogas which is generally composed of 65% methane along with other gasses. This biogas could then be burned to generate electricity for the greenhouse or a series of bioreactors. A study by researchers at Oxford and the University of Amsterdam found that cultured meat was "potentially ... much more efficient and environmentally-friendly", generating only 4% greenhouse gas emissions, reducing the energy needs of meat generation by up to 45%, and requiring only 2% of the land that the global meat/livestock industry does | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=511626 |
Cultured meat The patent holder Willem van Eelen, the journalist Brendan I. Koerner, and Hanna Tuomisto, a PhD student from Oxford University all believe it has less environmental impact. This is in contrast to cattle farming, "responsible for 18% of greenhouse gases" and causing more damage to the environment than the combined effects of the world's transportation system. Vertical farming may completely eliminate the need to create extra farmland in rural areas along with cultured meat. Their combined role may create a sustainable solution for a cleaner environment. One skeptic is Margaret Mellon of the Union of Concerned Scientists, who speculates that the energy and fossil fuel requirements of large-scale cultured meat production may be more environmentally destructive than producing food off the land. However, S.L. Davis has speculated that both vertical farming in urban areas and the activity of cultured meat facilities may cause relatively little harm to the species of wildlife that live around the facilities. Dickson Despommier speculated that natural resources may be spared from depletion due to vertical farming and cultured meat, making them ideal technologies for an overpopulated world. One study has shown that conventional farming kills ten wildlife animals per hectare each year | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=511626 |
Cultured meat Converting of farmland from its man-made condition back into either pristine wilderness or grasslands would save approximately 40 animals while converting of that same farmland back into the state it was in prior to settlement by human beings would save approximately 80 animals. Additionally, the cattle industry uses a large amount of water for producing animal feed, animal rearing, and for sanitation purposes. It is estimated that the water recycled from livestock manure is contributing "33% of global nitrogen and phosphorus pollution," "50% of antibiotic pollution," "37% of toxic heavy metals," and "37% of pesticides" which contaminate the planet's freshwater. Techniques of genetic engineering, such as insertion, deletion, silencing, activation, or mutation of a gene, are not required to produce cultured meat. production allows the biological processes that normally occur within an animal to occur without the animal. Since cultured meat is grown in a controlled, artificial environment, some have commented that cultured meat more closely resembles hydroponic vegetables, rather than GMO vegetables. More research is being done on cultured meat, and although the production of cultured meat does not require techniques of genetic engineering, there is discussion among researchers about utilizing such techniques to improve the quality and sustainability of cultured meat. Fortifying cultured meat with nutrients such as beneficial fatty acids is one improvement that can be facilitated through genetic modification | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=511626 |
Cultured meat The same improvement can be made without genetic modification, by manipulating the conditions of the culture medium. Genetic modification may also play a role in the proliferation of muscle cells. The introduction of myogenic regulatory factors, growth factors, or other gene products into muscle cells may increase production past the capacity of conventional meat. To avoid the use of any animal products, the use of photosynthetic algae and cyanobacteria has been proposed to produce the main ingredients for the culture media, as opposed to the very commonly used fetal bovine or horse serum. Some researchers suggest that the ability of algae and cyanobacteria to produce ingredients for culture media can be improved with certain technologies, most likely not excluding genetic engineering. The Australian bioethicist Julian Savulescu said "Artificial meat stops cruelty to animals, is better for the environment, could be safer and more efficient, and even healthier. We have a moral obligation to support this kind of research. It gets the ethical two thumbs up." Animal welfare groups are generally in favor of the production of cultured meat because it does not have a nervous system and therefore cannot feel pain. Reactions of vegetarians to cultured meat vary: some feel the cultured meat presented to the public in August 2013 was not vegetarian as fetal calf serum was used in the growth medium. However, since then lab grown meat has been grown under a medium that doesn't involve bovine serum | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=511626 |
Cultured meat American philosopher Carlo Alvaro argues that the question of the morality of eating in vitro meat has been discussed only in terms of convenience. Alvaro proposes a virtue-oriented approach that may reveal aspects of the issue not yet explored, such as the suggestion that the obstinacy of wanting to produce lab-grown meat stems from unvirtuous motives, i.e., "lack of temperance and misunderstanding of the role of food in human flourishing." Independent inquiries may be set up by certain governments to create a degree of standards for cultured meat. Laws and regulations on the proper creation of cultured meat products would have to be modernized to adapt to this newer food product. Some societies may decide to block the creation of cultured meat for the "good of the people" – making its legality in certain countries a questionable matter. needs technically sophisticated production methods making it harder for communities to produce food self-sufficiently and potentially increasing dependence on global food corporations. Once cultured meat becomes more cost-efficient, it is necessary to decide who will regulate the safety and standardization of these products. Prior to being available for sale, the European Union and Canada will require approved novel food applications. Additionally, the European Union requires that cultured animal products and production must prove safety, by an approved company application, which became effective as of 1 January 2018 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=511626 |
Cultured meat Within the United States, the FDA (Food and Drug Administration) and the USDA (United States Department of Agriculture) have agreed to jointly regulate cultured meat. Under the agreement, the FDA oversees cell collection, cell banks, and cell growth and differentiation, while the USDA oversees the production and labeling of human food products derived from the cells. Jewish rabbinical authorities disagree whether cultured meat is kosher (food that may be consumed, according to Jewish dietary laws). However, many rabbis agree that if the original cells were taken from a slaughtered kosher animal then the cultured meat will be kosher. Some even think that it would be kosher even if coming from non-kosher animals like pigs, as well as from live animals, however some disagree. With the development of cultured meat as a potentially large-scale product in the coming years, concerns from the Islamic faith regarding its viability are becoming increasingly important. The Islamic Institute of Orange County in California has responded to the Islamic consumption of embryonic stem cell cultured meat saying, "There does not appear to be any objection to eating this type of cultured meat." In addition, Abdul Qahir Qamar of the International Islamic Fiqh Academy is quoted saying that cultured meat "will not be considered meat from live animals, but will be cultured meat | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=511626 |
Cultured meat " He continues to define that excluding cells derived from pigs, dogs, and other halal banned animals, the meat would be considered vegetative and "similar to yogurt and fermented pickles." Debate in India over the Hindu consumption of cultured meat mainly excludes steak and burgers. Chandra Kaushik, president of the Hindu Mahasabha reports that he would "not accept it being traded in a marketplace in any form or being used for a commercial purpose." The production of cultured meat is currently very expensive – in 2008 it was about $1 million for a piece of beef weighing – and it would take considerable investment to switch to large-scale production. However, the In Vitro Meat Consortium has estimated that with improvements to current technology there could be considerable reductions in the cost of cultured meat. They estimate that it could be produced for €3500/tonne ($5424/tonne in March 2008), which is about twice the cost of unsubsidized conventional European chicken production. In a March 2015 interview with Australia's ABC, Mark Post said that the marginal cost of his team's original €250,000 burger was now €8.00. He estimates that technological advancements would allow the product to be cost-competitive to traditionally sourced beef in approximately ten years. In 2016, the cost of production of cultured beef for food technology company Memphis Meats was . As of June 2017 Memphis Meats reduced the cost of production to below $2,400 per pound ($5,280/kg) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=511626 |
Cultured meat will likely be exposed to the public on a global scale in the coming years, making consumer acceptance of the product an important concern. Research is being done to identify how consumers will accept cultured meat into the market. A study looking at acceptance of cultured meat in China, India, and the USA "found high levels of acceptance of clean meat in the three most populous countries worldwide." Several potential factors of consumer acceptance of cultured meat have been identified. Healthiness, safety, nutritional characteristics, sustainability, taste, and lower price, are all potential factors. One study found that the use of highly technical language to explain cultured meat led to significantly more negative public attitude towards the concept. Similarly, it is suggested that describing cultured meat in a way that emphasizes the final product rather than the production method was an effective way to improve acceptance. Low percentages of older adult populations have been reported to show acceptance for cultured meat. Green eating behavior, educational status, and food business, were cited as most important factors for this population. The use of standardized descriptions would improve future research about consumer acceptance of cultured meat. Current studies have often reported drastically different rates of acceptance of the product, despite surveying similar populations. More comparable research is considered a future goal for consumer acceptance studies of cultured meat | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=511626 |
Cultured meat It is currently unknown how cultured meat will be received in worldwide markets. Large amounts of studies are attempting to determine the current levels of consumer acceptance and identify methods to improve this value. Currently there is a lack of clear answers surrounding this unknown, although a recent study has shown that consumers are willing to pay a premium for cultured meat. has often featured in science fiction. The earliest mention may be in "Two Planets" (1897) by Kurd Lasswitz, where "synthetic meat" is one of the varieties of synthetic food introduced on Earth by Martians. Other notable books mentioning artificial meat include "Ashes, Ashes" (1943) by René Barjavel; "The Space Merchants" (1952) by Frederik Pohl and C.M. Kornbluth; "The Restaurant at the End of the Universe" (1980) by Douglas Adams; "Le Transperceneige (Snowpiercer)" (1982) by Jacques Lob and Jean-Marc Rochette; "Neuromancer" (1984) by William Gibson; "Oryx and Crake" (2003) by Margaret Atwood; "Deadstock" (2007) by Jeffrey Thomas; "Accelerando" (2005) by Charles Stross; "Ware Tetralogy" by Rudy Rucker; "Divergent" (2011) by Veronica Roth; and the Vorkosigan Saga (1986-2018) by Lois McMaster Bujold. In film, artificial meat has featured prominently in Giulio Questi's 1968 drama "La morte ha fatto l'uovo" ("Death Laid an Egg") and Claude Zidi's 1976 comedy "L'aile ou la cuisse" ("The Wing or the Thigh"). "Man-made" chickens also appear in David Lynch's 1977 surrealist horror, "Eraserhead" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=511626 |
Cultured meat Most recently, it was also featured prominently as the central theme of the movie "Antiviral" (2012). The Starship "Enterprise" from the TV and movie franchise "Star Trek" apparently provides a synthetic meat or "cultured meat" as a food source for the crew, although crews from "The Next Generation" and later use replicators. In the ABC sitcom "Better Off Ted" (2009–2010), the episode "Heroes" features Phil (Jonathan Slavin) and Lem (Malcolm Barrett) trying to grow cowless beef. In the videogame "Project Eden", the player characters investigate a cultured meat company called Real Meat. In the movie "GalaxyQuest", during the dinner scene, Tim Allen's character refers to his steak tasting like "real Iowa beef". In The Expanse “vat-grown” meat is produced to feed the people who live on spaceships/space stations away from Earth, due to the exorbitant cost of importing real meat. was a subject on an episode of the Colbert Report on 17 March 2009. In February 2014, a biotech startup called BiteLabs ran a campaign to generate popular support for artisanal salami made with meat cultured from celebrity tissue samples. The campaign became popular on Twitter, where users tweeted at celebrities asking them to donate muscle cells to the project. Media reactions to BiteLabs variously identified the startup as a satire on startup culture, celebrity culture, or as a discussion prompt on bioethical concerns | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=511626 |
Cultured meat While BiteLabs claimed to be inspired by the success of Sergey Brin's burger, the company is seen as an example of critical design rather than an actual business venture. In late 2016, cultured meat was involved in a case in the episode "How The Sausage Is Made" of CBS show "Elementary". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=511626 |
Clinoclase is a hydrous copper arsenate mineral, CuAsO(OH). is a rare secondary copper mineral and forms acicular crystals in the fractured weathered zone above copper sulfide deposits. It occurs in vitreous, translucent dark blue to dark greenish blue colored crystals and botryoidal masses. The crystal system is monoclinic 2/m. It has a hardness of 2.5 - 3 and a relative density of 4.3. Associated minerals include malachite, olivenite, quartz, limonite, adamite, azurite, and brochantite among others. was discovered in 1830 in the county of Cornwall in England. Found at Broken Hill New South Wales, Australia and associated with copper ore deposits in Arizona, California, Montana, New Mexico, Nevada, and Utah in the United States. Also found in France, Germany, Czech Republic, Austria, Romania, Russia, and Zaire. Abichite is another name for clinoclase. The type locality for clinoclase is the Wheal Gorland mine at St Day, Cornwall in the United Kingdom. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=512872 |
Single-nucleotide polymorphism A single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP; ; plural ) is a substitution of a single nucleotide that occurs at a specific position in the genome, where each variation is present at a level of 0.5% from person to person in the population. For example, at a specific base position in the human genome, the C nucleotide may appear in most individuals, but in a minority of individuals, the position is occupied by an A. This means that there is a SNP at this specific position, and the two possible nucleotide variations – C or A – are said to be the alleles for this specific position. SNPs pinpoint differences in our susceptibility to a wide range of diseases (e.g. sickle-cell anemia, β-thalassemia and cystic fibrosis result from SNPs). The severity of illness and the way the body responds to treatments are also manifestations of genetic variations. For example, a single-base mutation in the APOE (apolipoprotein E) gene is associated with a lower risk for Alzheimer's disease. A single-nucleotide variant (SNV) is a variation in a single nucleotide without any limitations of frequency and may arise in somatic cells. A somatic single-nucleotide variation (e.g., caused by cancer) may also be called a single-nucleotide alteration. Single-nucleotide polymorphisms may fall within coding sequences of genes, non-coding regions of genes, or in the intergenic regions (regions between genes) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=513091 |
Single-nucleotide polymorphism SNPs within a coding sequence do not necessarily change the amino acid sequence of the protein that is produced, due to degeneracy of the genetic code. SNPs in the coding region are of two types: synonymous and nonsynonymous SNPs. Synonymous SNPs do not affect the protein sequence, while nonsynonymous SNPs change the amino acid sequence of protein. The nonsynonymous SNPs are of two types: missense and nonsense. SNPs that are not in protein-coding regions may still affect gene splicing, transcription factor binding, messenger RNA degradation, or the sequence of noncoding RNA. Gene expression affected by this type of SNP is referred to as an eSNP (expression SNP) and may be upstream or downstream from the gene. More than 335 million SNPs have been found across humans from multiple populations. A typical genome differs from the reference human genome at 4 to 5 million sites, most of which (more than 99.9%) consist of SNPs and short indels. The genomic distribution of SNPs is not homogenous; SNPs occur in non-coding regions more frequently than in coding regions or, in general, where natural selection is acting and "fixing" the allele (eliminating other variants) of the SNP that constitutes the most favorable genetic adaptation. Other factors, like genetic recombination and mutation rate, can also determine SNP density | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=513091 |
Single-nucleotide polymorphism SNP density can be predicted by the presence of microsatellites: AT microsatellites in particular are potent predictors of SNP density, with long (AT)(n) repeat tracts tending to be found in regions of significantly reduced SNP density and low GC content. There are variations between human populations, so a SNP allele that is common in one geographical or ethnic group may be much rarer in another. Within a population, SNPs can be assigned a minor allele frequency—the lowest allele frequency at a locus that is observed in a particular population. This is simply the lesser of the two allele frequencies for single-nucleotide polymorphisms. Variations in the DNA sequences of humans can affect how humans develop diseases and respond to pathogens, chemicals, drugs, vaccines, and other agents. SNPs are also critical for personalized medicine. Examples include biomedical research, forensics, pharmacogenetics, and disease causation, as outlined below. SNPs' greatest importance in clinical research is for comparing regions of the genome between cohorts (such as with matched cohorts with and without a disease) in genome-wide association studies. SNPs have been used in genome-wide association studies as high-resolution markers in gene mapping related to diseases or normal traits. SNPs without an observable impact on the phenotype (so called silent mutations) are still useful as genetic markers in genome-wide association studies, because of their quantity and the stable inheritance over generations | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=513091 |
Single-nucleotide polymorphism SNPs were used initially for matching a forensic DNA sample to a suspect but it has been phased out with development of STR-based DNA fingerprinting techniques. Current next-generation-sequencing (NGS) techniques may allow for better use of SNP genotyping in a forensic application so long as problematic loci are avoided. In the future SNPs may be used in forensics for some phenotypic clues like eye color, hair color, ethnicity, etc. Kidd et al. have demonstrated that a panel of 19 SNPs can identify the ethnic group with good probability of match (Pm = 10) in 40 population groups studied. One example of how this might potentially be useful is in the area of artistic reconstruction of possible premortem appearances of skeletonized remains of unknown individuals. Although a facial reconstruction can be fairly accurate based strictly upon anthropological features, other data that might allow a more accurate representation include eye color, skin color, hair color, etc. In a situation with a low amount of forensic sample or a degraded sample, SNP methods can be a good alternative to STR methods due to the abundance of potential markers, amenability to automation, and potential reduction of required fragment length to only 60–80 bp. In the absence of a STR match in DNA profile database; different SNPs can be used to get clues regarding ethnicity, phenotype, lineage, and even identity. Some SNPs are associated with the metabolism of different drugs | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=513091 |
Single-nucleotide polymorphism SNP's can be mutations, such as deletions, which can inhibit or promote enzymatic activity; such change in enzymatic activity can lead to decreased rates of drug metabolism. The association of a wide range of human diseases like cancer, infectious diseases (AIDS, leprosy, hepatitis, etc.) autoimmune, neuropsychiatric and many other diseases with different SNPs can be made as relevant pharmacogenomic targets for drug therapy. A single SNP may cause a Mendelian disease, though for complex diseases, SNPs do not usually function individually, rather, they work in coordination with other SNPs to manifest a disease condition as has been seen in Osteoporosis. One of the earliest successes in this field was finding a single base mutation in the non-coding region of the APOC3 (apolipoprotein C3 gene) that associated with higher risks of hypertriglyceridemia and atherosclerosis. All types of SNPs can have an observable phenotype or can result in disease: As there are for genes, bioinformatics databases exist for SNPs. The International SNP Map working group mapped the sequence flanking each SNP by alignment to the genomic sequence of large-insert clones in Genebank. These alignments were converted to chromosomal coordinates that is shown in Table 1. This list has greatly increased since, with, for instance, the Kaviar database now listing 162 million single nucleotide variants (SNVs). The nomenclature for SNPs can be confusing: several variations can exist for an individual SNP, and consensus has not yet been achieved | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=513091 |
Single-nucleotide polymorphism The rs### standard is that which has been adopted by dbSNP and uses the prefix "rs", for "reference SNP", followed by a unique and arbitrary number. SNPs are frequently referred to by their dbSNP rs number, as in the examples above. The Human Genome Variation Society (HGVS) uses a standard which conveys more information about the SNP. Examples are: SNPs are usually biallelic and thus easily assayed. Analytical methods to discover novel SNPs and detect known SNPs include: An important group of SNPs are those that corresponds to missense mutations causing amino acid change on protein level. Point mutation of particular residue can have different effect on protein function (from no effect to complete disruption its function). Usually, change in amino acids with similar size and physico-chemical properties (e.g. substitution from leucine to valine) has mild effect, and opposite. Similarly, if SNP disrupts secondary structure elements (e.g. substitution to proline in alpha helix region) such mutation usually may affect whole protein structure and function. Using those simple and many other machine learning derived rules a group of programs for the prediction of SNP effect was developed: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=513091 |
Secondary mirror A secondary mirror (or secondary) is the second deflecting or focusing mirror element in a reflecting telescope. Light gathered by the primary mirror is directed towards a focal point typically past the location of the secondary. Secondary mirrors in the form of an optically flat "diagonal mirror" are used to re-direct the light path in designs such as Newtonian reflectors. They are also used to re-direct and extend the light path and modify the final image in designs such as Cassegrain reflectors. The secondary is typically suspended by X-shaped struts (sometimes called a "spider") in the path of light between the source and the primary, but can be mounted on other types of mounts or optical elements such as optical windows, or schmidt and meniscus corrector plates. Employing secondary mirrors in optical systems causes some image distortion due to the obstruction of the secondary itself, and distortion from the spider mounts, commonly seen as cross-shaped diffraction spikes radiating from bright stars seen in astronomical images. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=514650 |
Electron excitation is the transfer of a bound electron to a more energetic, but still bound state. This can be done by photoexcitation (PE), where the electron absorbs a photon and gains all its energy or by electrical excitation (EE), where the electron receives energy from another, energetic electron. Within a semiconductor crystal lattice, thermal excitation is a process where lattice vibrations provide enough energy to transfer electrons to a higher energy band such as a more energetic sublevel or energy level. When an excited electron falls back to a state of lower energy, it undergoes electron relaxation. This is accompanied by the emission of a photon (radiative relaxation) or by a transfer of energy to another particle. The energy released is equal to the difference in energy levels between the electron energy states. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=516593 |
Philip Sheppard Professor Philip MacDonald Sheppard, F.R.S. (27 July 1921 – 17 October 1976) was a British geneticist and lepidopterist. He made advances in ecological and population genetics in lepidopterans, pulmonate land snails and humans. In medical genetics, he worked with Sir Cyril Clarke on Rh disease. He was born on 27 July 1921 in Marlborough, Wiltshire, England and attended Marlborough College from 1935 to 1939. Cyril Clarke answered an advert in an insect magazine for swallowtail butterfly pupa that had been placed by Sheppard. They met and began working together in their common interest of lepidopterology. They also worked on Rh disease. In 1961 Sheppard started a colony of scarlet tiger moths by the Wirral Way, West Kirby, Merseyside, which were rediscovered in 1988 by Cyril Clarke, who continued to observe them in his retirement to study changes in the moth population. Sheppard married Patricia Beatrice Lee in 1948. They had three sons. He died of acute leukemia on 17 October 1976. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=518069 |
Mellish (crater) Mellish is a crater on Mars, located in the planet's southern hemisphere at . It measures 104.95 kilometers in diameter. The crater was named by IAU's Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature in 1994, after American amateur astronomer John E. Mellish from St. Charles in Illinois. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=519539 |
Harold Robert Steacy Harold "Hal" Robert Steacy (June 7, 1923 – April 7, 2012) was a Canadian mineralogist who was the curator of the Canadian National Mineral Collection at the Geological Survey of Canada in Ottawa. The mineral steacyite is named for him. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=519742 |
Colostrum (known colloquially as beestings, bisnings or first milk) is the first form of milk produced by the mammary glands of mammals (including many humans) immediately following delivery of the newborn. Most species will generate colostrum just prior to giving birth. contains antibodies to protect the newborn against disease. In general, protein concentration in colostrum is substantially higher than in milk. Fat concentration is substantially higher in colostrum than in milk in some species, e.g. sheep and horses, but lower in colostrum than in milk in some other species, e.g. camels and humans. In swine, fat concentration of milk at 48 to 72 hours postpartum may be higher than in colostrum or in late-lactation milk. Fat concentration in bovine colostrum is extremely variable. Newborns have very immature and small digestive systems, and colostrum delivers its nutrients in a very concentrated low-volume form. It has a mild laxative effect, encouraging the passing of the baby's first stool, which is called meconium. This clears excess bilirubin, a waste-product of dead red blood cells, which is produced in large quantities at birth due to blood volume reduction from the infant's body and helps prevent jaundice. is known to contain immune cells (as lymphocytes) and many antibodies such as IgA, IgG, and IgM. These are some of the components of the adaptive immune system | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=525722 |
Colostrum In preterm infants some IgA may be absorbed through the intestinal epithelium and enter the blood stream though there is very little uptake in full term babies. This is due to the early "closure" of the intestinal epithelium to large molecule uptake in humans unlike the case in cattle which continue to uptake immunoglobulin from milk shortly after birth. Other immune components of colostrum include the major components of the innate immune system, such as lactoferrin, lysozyme, lactoperoxidase, complement, and proline-rich polypeptides (PRP). A number of cytokines (small messenger peptides that control the functioning of the immune system) are found in colostrum as well, including interleukins, tumor necrosis factor, chemokines, and others. also contains a number of growth factors, such as insulin-like growth factors I (IGF-1), and II, transforming growth factors alpha, beta 1 and beta 2, fibroblast growth factors, epidermal growth factor, granulocyte-macrophage-stimulating growth factor, platelet-derived growth factor, vascular endothelial growth factor, and colony-stimulating factor-1. Notably in humans a lack of colostrum production is linked to a mutation in the ABCC11 gene that occurs in most people of East Asian descent. This gene is also one of the determining factors in wet or dry type earwax, as the mammary glands are a form of apocrine gland. is crucial for newborn farm animals | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=525722 |
Colostrum They receive no passive transfer of immunity via the placenta before birth, so any antibodies that they need have to be ingested (unless supplied by injection or other artificial means). The ingested antibodies are absorbed from the intestine of the neonate. The newborn animal must receive colostrum within 6 hours of being born for maximal absorption of colostral antibodies to occur. Recent studies indicate that colostrum should be fed to bovines within the first thirty minutes to maximize IgG absorption rates. varies in quality and quantity. In the dairy industry, the quality of colostrum is measured as the amount of IgG (Immunoglobulin G) per liter. It is recommended that newborn calves receive at least 4 quarts (liters) of colostrum with each containing at least 50 grams of IgG/liter. Testing of colostral quality can be done by multitude of devices including colostrometer, optical refractometer or digital refractometer. Mature dairy cattle produce an average of 33 liters of colostrum in the first milking after calving. Livestock breeders commonly bank colostrum from their animals. can be stored frozen but it does lose some of its inherent quality. produced on a breeder's own premises is considered to be superior to colostrum from other sources, because it is produced by animals already exposed to (and, thus, making antibodies to) pathogens occurring on the premises. A German study reported that multiparous mares produced on average a liter (quart) of colostrum containing 70 grams of IgG | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=525722 |
Colostrum In most dairy cow herds, the calves are separated from their mothers soon after birth and fed colostrum from a bottle. Although many claims of health benefits have been made for colostrum consumption in adults, until recently there have been limited randomized trials to support these assertions. It is probable that little absorption of intact growth factors and antibodies into the bloodstream occurs, due to digestion in the gastrointestinal tract. However, the presence of casein and other buffering proteins does allow growth factors and other bioactive molecules to pass into the lumen of the small intestine intact, where they can stimulate repair and inhibit microbes, working via local effects. This provides a probable mechanism explaining the positive results of colostrum on adult gut health in several recent well controlled published studies. Evidence for the beneficial effect of colostrum on extra-gastrointestinal problems is less well developed, due in part to the limited number of randomised double-blind studies published, although a variety of possible uses have been suggested. Dairy cattle are naturally exposed to pathogens and produce immunoglobulins against them. These antibodies are present in the cow’s bloodstream and in the colostrum. These immunoglobulins are specific to many human pathogens, including "Escherichia coli, Cryptosporidium parvum, Shigella flexneri, Salmonella "species", Staphylococcus" species, and rotavirus (which causes diarrhea in infants) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=525722 |
Colostrum Before the development of antibiotics, colostrum was the main source of immunoglobulins used to fight bacteria. In fact, when Albert Sabin made his first oral vaccine against polio, the immunoglobulin he used came from bovine colostrum. When antibiotics began to appear, interest in colostrum waned, but, now that antibiotic-resistant strains of pathogens have developed, interest is once again returning to natural alternatives to antibiotics, namely, colostrum. The gut plays several important roles including acting as the main pathway for fluid, electrolyte and nutrient absorption while also acting as a barrier to toxic agents present in the gut lumen including acid, digestive enzymes and gut bacteria. It is also a major immunological defence mechanism, detecting natural commensals and triggering immune response when toxic microbes are present. Failure of homeostasis due to trauma, drugs and infectious microbes not only damages the gut but can lead to influx of damaging agents into the bloodstream. These mechanisms have relevance for multiple conditions affecting all areas of the world and socioeconomic groups such as ulcers, inflammation, and infectious diarrhea | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=525722 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.