text stringlengths 11 1.65k | source stringlengths 38 44 |
|---|---|
Atmospheric chemistry The first scientific studies of atmospheric composition began in the 18th century, as chemists such as Joseph Priestley, Antoine Lavoisier and Henry Cavendish made the first measurements of the composition of the atmosphere. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries interest shifted towards trace constituents with very small concentrations. One particularly important discovery for atmospheric chemistry was the discovery of ozone by Christian Friedrich Schönbein in 1840. In the 20th century atmospheric science moved on from studying the composition of air to a consideration of how the concentrations of trace gases in the atmosphere have changed over time and the chemical processes which create and destroy compounds in the air. Two particularly important examples of this were the explanation by Sydney Chapman and Gordon Dobson of how the ozone layer is created and maintained, and the explanation of photochemical smog by Arie Jan Haagen-Smit. Further studies on ozone issues led to the 1995 Nobel Prize in Chemistry award shared between Paul Crutzen, Mario Molina and Frank Sherwood Rowland. In the 21st century the focus is now shifting again. is increasingly studied as one part of the Earth system. Instead of concentrating on atmospheric chemistry in isolation the focus is now on seeing it as one part of a single system with the rest of the atmosphere, biosphere and geosphere | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=706999 |
Atmospheric chemistry An especially important driver for this is the links between chemistry and climate such as the effects of changing climate on the recovery of the ozone hole and vice versa but also interaction of the composition of the atmosphere with the oceans and terrestrial ecosystems. Observations, lab measurements, and modeling are the three central elements in atmospheric chemistry. Progress in atmospheric chemistry is often driven by the interactions between these components and they form an integrated whole. For example, observations may tell us that more of a chemical compound exists than previously thought possible. This will stimulate new modelling and laboratory studies which will increase our scientific understanding to a point where the observations can be explained. Observations of atmospheric chemistry are essential to our understanding. Routine observations of chemical composition tell us about changes in atmospheric composition over time. One important example of this is the Keeling Curve - a series of measurements from 1958 to today which show a steady rise in of the concentration of carbon dioxide (see also ongoing measurements of atmospheric CO). Observations of atmospheric chemistry are made in observatories such as that on Mauna Loa and on mobile platforms such as aircraft (e.g. the UK's Facility for Airborne Atmospheric Measurements), ships and balloons | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=706999 |
Atmospheric chemistry Observations of atmospheric composition are increasingly made by satellites with important instruments such as GOME and MOPITT giving a global picture of air pollution and chemistry. Surface observations have the advantage that they provide long term records at high time resolution but are limited in the vertical and horizontal space they provide observations from. Some surface based instruments e.g. LIDAR can provide concentration profiles of chemical compounds and aerosol but are still restricted in the horizontal region they can cover. Many observations are available on line in Atmospheric Chemistry Observational Databases. Measurements made in the laboratory are essential to our understanding of the sources and sinks of pollutants and naturally occurring compounds. These experiments are performed in controlled environments that allow for the individual evaluation of specific chemical reactions or the assessment of properties of a particular atmospheric constituent. Types of analysis that are of interest includes both those on gas-phase reactions, as well as heterogeneous reactions that are relevant to the formation and growth of aerosols. Also of high importance is the study of atmospheric photochemistry which quantifies how the rate in which molecules are split apart by sunlight and what resulting products are. In addition, thermodynamic data such as Henry's law coefficients can also be obtained | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=706999 |
Atmospheric chemistry In order to synthesise and test theoretical understanding of atmospheric chemistry, computer models (such as chemical transport models) are used. Numerical models solve the differential equations governing the concentrations of chemicals in the atmosphere. They can be very simple or very complicated. One common trade off in numerical models is between the number of chemical compounds and chemical reactions modeled versus the representation of transport and mixing in the atmosphere. For example, a box model might include hundreds or even thousands of chemical reactions but will only have a very crude representation of mixing in the atmosphere. In contrast, 3D models represent many of the physical processes of the atmosphere but due to constraints on computer resources will have far fewer chemical reactions and compounds. Models can be used to interpret observations, test understanding of chemical reactions and predict future concentrations of chemical compounds in the atmosphere. One important current trend is for atmospheric chemistry modules to become one part of earth system models in which the links between climate, atmospheric composition and the biosphere can be studied. Some models are constructed by automatic code generators (e.g. Autochem or Kinetic PreProcessor). In this approach a set of constituents are chosen and the automatic code generator will then select the reactions involving those constituents from a set of reaction databases | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=706999 |
Atmospheric chemistry Once the reactions have been chosen the ordinary differential equations that describe their time evolution can be automatically constructed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=706999 |
Mechanochemistry or mechanical chemistry is the coupling of mechanical and chemical phenomena on a molecular scale and includes mechanical breakage, chemical behaviour of mechanically stressed solids (e.g., stress-corrosion cracking or enhanced oxidation), tribology, polymer degradation under shear, cavitation-related phenomena (e.g., sonochemistry and sonoluminescence), shock wave chemistry and physics, and even the burgeoning field of molecular machines. can be seen as an interface between chemistry and mechanical engineering. It is possible to synthesize chemical products by using only mechanical action. The mechanisms of mechanochemical transformations are often complex and different from usual thermal or photochemical mechanisms. The method of ball milling is a widely used process in which mechanical force is used to achieve chemical processing and transformations. The special issue of Chemical Society Review (vol. 42, 2013, Issue 18) is dedicated to the theme of mechanochemistry. Fundamentals and applications ranging from nano materials to technology have been reviewed. The mechanochemical approach has been used to synthesize metallic nanoparticles, catalysts, magnets, γ‐graphyne, metal iodates, nickel–vanadium carbide and molybdenum–vanadium carbide nanocomposite powders is radically different from the traditional way of dissolving, heating and stirring chemicals in a solution | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=710202 |
Mechanochemistry Because it eliminates the need for many solvents, mechanochemistry could help make many chemical processes used by industry more environmentally friendly. For example, the mechanochemical process has been used as an environmentally preferable way to synthesize pharmaceutically-attractive phenol hydrazones. The term mechanochemistry is sometimes confused with mechanosynthesis, which refers specifically to the machine-controlled construction of complex molecular products. Mechanochemical phenomena have been utilized since time immemorial, for example in making fire. The oldest method of making fire is to rub pieces of wood against each other, creating friction and hence heat, allowing the wood to undergo combustion at a high temperature. Another method involves the use of flint and steel, during which a spark (a small particle of pyrophoric metal) spontaneously combusts in air, starting fire instantaneously. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=710202 |
Cauchy horizon In physics, a is a light-like boundary of the domain of validity of a Cauchy problem (a particular boundary value problem of the theory of partial differential equations). One side of the horizon contains closed space-like geodesics and the other side contains closed time-like geodesics. The concept is named after Augustin-Louis Cauchy. Under the averaged weak energy condition (AWEC), Cauchy horizons are inherently unstable. However, cases of AWEC violation, such as the Casimir effect caused by periodic boundary conditions, do exist, and since the region of spacetime inside the has closed timelike curves it is subject to periodic boundary conditions. If the spacetime inside the violates AWEC, then the horizon becomes stable and frequency boosting effects would be canceled out by the tendency of the spacetime to act as a divergent lens. Were this conjecture to be shown empirically true, it would provide a counter-example to the strong cosmic censorship conjecture. In 2018, it was shown that the spacetime behind the of a charged, rotating black hole exists, but is not smooth, so the strong cosmic censorship conjecture is false. The simplest example is the internal horizon of a Reissner–Nordström black hole. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=711886 |
Concentrate A concentrate is a form of substance which has had the majority of its base component (in the case of a liquid: the solvent) removed. Typically, this will be the removal of water from a solution or suspension, such as the removal of water from fruit juice. One benefit of producing a concentrate is that of a reduction in weight and volume for transportation, as the concentrate can be reconstituted at the time of usage by the addition of the solvent. The process of concentrating orange juice was patented in 1948. It was originally developed to provide World War II troops with a reliable source of vitamin C. Today, the majority of retailed orange juice is made from reconstituted orange juice concentrate. Most sodas and soft drinks are produced as highly concentrated syrups and later diluted with carbonated water directly before consumption or bottling. Such concentrated syrups are sometimes retailed to the end-consumer because of their relatively low price and considerable weight savings. Condensed milk is also produced for transport weight savings and resistance to spoilage. Most juice and soda concentrates have a long shelf-life due to high sugar content and/or added preservatives. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=711996 |
Dorte Juul Jensen is a senior scientist and head of the Center for Fundamental Research: Metal Structures in Four Dimensions and Materials Research Division, Risø DTU National Laboratory for Sustainable Energy, Roskilde, Denmark. Risø operates under the auspices of the Danish Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, researching a wide range of technologies and training Ph.D candidates in the sciences. Jensen's research involves advancing knowledge of the physical characteristics of metal structures. She has pioneered new experimental techniques based on neutron diffraction, electron microscopy, and synchrotron x-ray diffraction. In 1997, Jensen became the first woman to be awarded the degree of Dr. Techn. in Denmark. In 1998, she was awarded a Tagea Brandt Rejselegat. In 1999, she was the first woman to receive the Statoil Prize (Statoil Prisen) for her work. Jensen is an editor of the journal "Scripta Materialia", an international journal of material science, and she has co-authored a book, "Electron Backscatter Diffraction in Materials Science" (Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York, New York 2000). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=716839 |
Kinetic term In physics, a kinetic term is the part of the Lagrangian that is bilinear in the fields (and for nonlinear sigma models, they are not even bilinear), and usually contains two derivatives with respect to time (or space); in the case of fermions, the kinetic term usually has one derivative only. The equation of motion derived from such a Lagrangian contains differential operators which are generated by the kinetic term. In mechanics, the kinetic term is In quantum field theory, the kinetic terms for real scalar fields, electromagnetic field and Dirac field are | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=717778 |
Non-Gaussianity In physics, a non-Gaussianity is the correction that modifies the expected Gaussian function estimate for the measurement of a physical quantity. In physical cosmology, the fluctuations of the cosmic microwave background are known to be approximately Gaussian, both theoretically as well as experimentally. However, most theories predict some level of non-Gaussianity in the primordial density field. Detection of these non-Gaussian signatures will allow discrimination between various models of inflation and their alternatives. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=717826 |
Antitranspirant Antitranspirants are compounds applied to the leaves of plants to reduce transpiration. They are used from Christmas trees, on cut flowers, on newly transplanted shrubs, and in other applications to preserve and protect plants from drying out too quickly. They have also been used to protect leaves from salt burn and fungal diseases . They block the active excretion of hydrogen cation from the guard cells. Due to presence of carbon dioxide, a rapid acidification of cytoplasm takes place leading to stomatal closure. Milbarrow (1974) has described the formation of these chemicals in the chloroplast. It moves to the stomata, where it is responsible for checking the intake of Potassium ion or induces loss of potassium ion from the guard cells. Antitranspirants are of two types: metabolic inhibitors and film-forming antitranspirants. Metabolic inhibitors reduce the stomatal opening and increase the leaf resistance to water vapour diffusion without affecting carbon dioxide uptake. Examples include phenylmercury acetate, abscisic acid (ABA), and aspirin. Film-forming antitranspirants form a colorless film on the leaf surface that allows diffusion of gases but not of water vapour. Examples include silicon oil, waxes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=718507 |
Pharmacodynamics (PD) is the study of the biochemical and physiologic effects of drugs (especially pharmaceutical drugs). The effects can include those manifested within animals (including humans), microorganisms, or combinations of organisms (for example, infection). and pharmacokinetics are the main branches of pharmacology, being itself a topic of biology interested in the study of the interactions between both endogenous and exogenous chemical substances with living organisms. In particular, pharmacodynamics is the study of how a drug affects an organism, whereas pharmacokinetics is the study of how the organism affects the drug. Both together influence dosing, benefit, and adverse effects. is sometimes abbreviated as PD and pharmacokinetics as PK, especially in combined reference (for example, when speaking of PK/PD models). places particular emphasis on dose–response relationships, that is, the relationships between drug concentration and effect. One dominant example is drug-receptor interactions as modeled by where "L", "R", and "LR" represent ligand (drug), receptor, and ligand-receptor complex concentrations, respectively. This equation represents a simplified model of reaction dynamics that can be studied mathematically through tools such as free energy maps | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=726049 |
Pharmacodynamics The majority of drugs either There are 7 main drug actions: The desired activity of a drug is mainly due to successful targeting of one of the following: General anesthetics were once thought to work by disordering the neural membranes, thereby altering the Na influx. Antacids and chelating agents combine chemically in the body. Enzyme-substrate binding is a way to alter the production or metabolism of key endogenous chemicals, for example aspirin irreversibly inhibits the enzyme prostaglandin synthetase (cyclooxygenase) thereby preventing inflammatory response. Colchicine, a drug for gout, interferes with the function of the structural protein tubulin, while Digitalis, a drug still used in heart failure, inhibits the activity of the carrier molecule, Na-K-ATPase pump. The widest class of drugs act as ligands that bind to receptors that determine cellular effects. Upon drug binding, receptors can elicit their normal action (agonist), blocked action (antagonist), or even action opposite to normal (inverse agonist). In principle, a pharmacologist would aim for a target plasma concentration of the drug for a desired level of response. In reality, there are many factors affecting this goal. Pharmacokinetic factors determine peak concentrations, and concentrations cannot be maintained with absolute consistency because of metabolic breakdown and excretory clearance. Genetic factors may exist which would alter metabolism or drug action itself, and a patient's immediate status may also affect indicated dosage | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=726049 |
Pharmacodynamics Undesirable effects of a drug include: The therapeutic window is the amount of a medication between the amount that gives an effect (effective dose) and the amount that gives more adverse effects than desired effects. For instance, medication with a small pharmaceutical window must be administered with care and control, e.g. by frequently measuring blood concentration of the drug, since it easily loses effects or gives adverse effects. The "duration of action" of a drug is the length of time that particular drug is effective. Duration of action is a function of several parameters including plasma half-life, the time to equilibrate between plasma and target compartments, and the off rate of the drug from its biological target. The binding of ligands (drug) to receptors is governed by the "law of mass action" which relates the large-scale status to the rate of numerous molecular processes. The rates of formation and un-formation can be used to determine the equilibrium concentration of bound receptors. The "equilibrium dissociation constant" is defined by: where "L"=ligand, "R"=receptor, square brackets [] denote concentration. The fraction of bound receptors is Where formula_3 is the fraction of receptor bound by the ligand. This expression is one way to consider the effect of a drug, in which the response is related to the fraction of bound receptors (see: Hill equation). The fraction of bound receptors is known as occupancy. The relationship between occupancy and pharmacological response is usually non-linear | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=726049 |
Pharmacodynamics This explains the so-called "receptor reserve" phenomenon i.e. the concentration producing 50% occupancy is typically higher than the concentration producing 50% of maximum response. More precisely, receptor reserve refers to a phenomenon whereby stimulation of only a fraction of the whole receptor population apparently elicits the maximal effect achievable in a particular tissue. The simplest interpretation of receptor reserve is that it is a model that states there are excess receptors on the cell surface than what is necessary for full effect. Taking a more sophisticated approach, receptor reserve is an integrative measure of the response-inducing capacity of an agonist (in some receptor models it is termed intrinsic efficacy or intrinsic activity) and of the signal amplification capacity of the corresponding receptor (and its downstream signaling pathways). Thus, the existence (and magnitude) of receptor reserve depends on the agonist (efficacy), tissue (signal amplification ability) and measured effect (pathways activated to cause signal amplification). As receptor reserve is very sensitive to agonist's intrinsic efficacy, it is usually defined only for full (high-efficacy) agonists. Often the response is determined as a function of log["L"] to consider many orders of magnitude of concentration. However, there is no biological or physical theory that relates effects to the log of concentration. It is just convenient for graphing purposes | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=726049 |
Pharmacodynamics It is useful to note that 50% of the receptors are bound when ["L"]="K" . The graph shown represents the conc-response for two hypothetical receptor agonists, plotted in a semi-log fashion. The curve toward the left represents a higher potency (potency arrow does not indicate direction of increase) since lower concentrations are needed for a given response. The effect increases as a function of concentration. The concept of pharmacodynamics has been expanded to include Multicellular (MCPD). MCPD is the study of the static and dynamic properties and relationships between a set of drugs and a dynamic and diverse multicellular four-dimensional organization. It is the study of the workings of a drug on a minimal multicellular system (mMCS), both "in vivo" and "in silico". Networked Multicellular (Net-MCPD) further extends the concept of MCPD to model regulatory genomic networks together with signal transduction pathways, as part of a complex of interacting components in the cell. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics are termed toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics in the field of ecotoxicology. Here, the focus is on toxic effects on a wide range of organisms. The corresponding models are called toxicokinetic-toxicodynamic models. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=726049 |
Robert J. Trumpler Award The of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific is given annually to a recent recipient of the Ph.D degree whose thesis is judged particularly significant to astronomy. The award is named after Robert Julius Trumpler, a notable Swiss-American astronomer (1886–1956). Source: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=729879 |
Typhoon Lee (; born 1948) is an astrophysicist and geochemist at Academia Sinica, Taiwan, where he specializes in isotope geochemistry and nuclear astrophysics . Lee received his Ph.D in astronomy at the University of Texas in 1977. His honors include the Robert J. Trumpler Award in 1978 from the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, and Outstanding Researcher Awards from the National Science Council in 1985-87 and 1988-90. A selection of his publications includes: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=729900 |
Reino Antero Hirvonen (1908–1989) was a famous Finnish physical geodesist, also well known for contributions in mathematical and astronomical geodesy. He worked at first at the Finnish Geodetic Institute under W.A. Heiskanen on gravimetric geoid determination, publishing his dissertation "The Continental Undulations of the Geoid" in 1934 on the determination of a global geoid model from only 4500 data points. In 1950 he succeeded Heiskanen as Professor of Geodesy at the Helsinki University of Technology. He also took an active interest in astronomy, acting from 1956 to 1964 as a vice president of the Finnish amateur astronomical society Ursa. R.A. Hirvonen participated in the 1930s in the construction of triangulation towers, and measurements, for the first order triangulation of Finland. He also developed over the years many new mathematical algorithms for manual calculations (before the computer era), e.g., for calculating the Gauss-Krüger map projection. In 1947 he led a team of Finnish scientists to Brazil to measure the distance between South America and Africa. (T.J. Kukkamäki was the leader of the team sent to, then, Gold Coast, Africa.) They succeed with measurements using a method based on observing from points in Brazil and Africa. They used the solar eclipse happening that year, which was visible in both Africa and South America | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=732362 |
Reino Antero Hirvonen Using long focus film cameras and the most accurate available radio time signals for the solar eclipse measurements, they were able to calculate the distance between Africa and South America to a higher accuracy than ever before: 141 m. 1951–1952 and 1954–1955 Hirvonen lectured in the Department of Geodetic Science at The Ohio State University, in Columbus, Ohio (USA). He educated the students about navigation using the stars as reference points. Later it helped the USA to fly to the moon. In 1967 he received the Kaarina and Weikko A. Heiskanen Award (Ohio State University). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=732362 |
Veikko Aleksanteri Heiskanen (23 July 1895, in Kangaslampi – 23 October 1971, in Helsinki) was a famous Finnish geodesist. He is mostly known for his refinement of the theory of isostasy by George Airy and for his studies of the global geoid. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=732456 |
Chemical physics is a subdiscipline of chemistry and physics that investigates physicochemical phenomena using techniques from atomic and molecular physics and condensed matter physics; it is the branch of physics that studies chemical processes from the point of view of physics. While at the interface of physics and chemistry, chemical physics is distinct from physical chemistry in that it focuses more on the characteristic elements and theories of physics. Meanwhile, physical chemistry studies the physical nature of chemistry. Nonetheless, the distinction between the two fields is vague, and scientists often practice in both fields during the course of their research. The United States Department of Education defines chemical physics as "A program that focuses on the scientific study of structural phenomena combining the disciplines of physical chemistry and atomic/molecular physics. Includes instruction in heterogeneous structures, alignment and surface phenomena, quantum theory, mathematical physics, statistical and classical mechanics, chemical kinetics, and laser physics." Chemical physicists commonly probe the structure and dynamics of ions, free radicals, polymers, clusters, and molecules. Areas of study include the quantum mechanical behavior of chemical reactions, the process of solvation, inter- and intra-molecular energy flow, and single entities such as quantum dots | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=733929 |
Chemical physics Experimental chemical physicists use a variety of spectroscopic techniques to better understand hydrogen bonding, electron transfer, the formation and dissolution of chemical bonds, chemical reactions, and the formation of nanoparticles. Theoretical chemical physicists create simulations of the molecular processes probed in these experiments to both explain results and guide future investigations. The goals of chemical physics research include understanding chemical structures and reactions at the quantum mechanical level, elucidating the structure and reactivity of gas phase ions and radicals, and discovering accurate approximations to make the physics of chemical phenomena computationally accessible. Chemical physicists are looking for answers to such questions as: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=733929 |
Tindr (crater) Tindr is a crater on Jupiter's moon Callisto. It is named after one of the ancestors of Ottar in Norse mythology. This is an example of a central pit impact crater. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=735181 |
Kittu (crater) Kittu crater is a crater on Jupiter's moon Ganymede. It is approximately in diameter. The crater shows a bright white central peak and rim, and dark brownish material surrounding it. Diffuse dark rays, sprinkled thinly atop surrounding grooved terrain, emanate from the impact site. The dark material dusted over the surface is probably part of a dark impactor (asteroid or comet) which was strewn across the surface upon impact. The impactor hit grooved terrain, and a straight segment of the crater's rim was created when a portion of the rim collapsed along the trend of an older fault. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=735246 |
Neith (crater) Neith crater is a crater on Jupiter's moon Ganymede, the largest moon in the solar system. Impact features like Neith have been called "penepalimpsests" by some investigators or "dome craters" by others and are considered to be transitional between craters and palimpsests. Palimpsests are bright, nearly circular patches that are believed to be remnant impact features. They occur also on Callisto, Ganymede's neighbor farther distant from Jupiter. The most striking feature in Neith is a large, circular dome about 45 km in diameter. The dome is surrounded by a wreath of rugged terrain. The wreath does not represent the original crater rim but the rim of a large central pit instead. The rim itself is barely visible and is located along the outer boundary of a relatively smooth, circular area, assumed to be the crater floor, which in turn surrounds the wreath of rugged terrain. In some parts along the rim, inward-facing scarps may be seen. The rim is not circular but appears to be petal-shaped. Outside the rim, a continuous ejecta blanket may be discerned. The morphology of impact features such as Neith results either from the response of a relatively weak target material to a high-energy impact or from long-term viscous relaxation of the surface subsequent to impact. Absolute ages derived from crater frequency measurements are model-dependent | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=735256 |
Neith (crater) In one crater chronology model, based on impacts dominated by asteroids, Neith may be old and very likely was formed during a period of more intense bombardment than today, about 3.9 billion years ago. In a different model, based on impacts preferentially by comets with a more or less constant impact rate, Neith may be only about 1 billion years old. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=735256 |
Khensu (crater) Khensu crater is a crater on Jupiter's moon Ganymede. It is a dark-floored crater with a bright ejecta blanket located in the grooved terrain region Uruk Sulcus. The dark component may be residual material from the impactor that formed the crater. Another possibility is that the impactor may have punched through the bright surface to reveal a dark layer beneath. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=735263 |
Nergal (crater) Nergal crater is a crater on Jupiter's moon Ganymede. It has a distinctive ejecta blanket surrounding it that's darker nearer the craters and brighter further away. The inner region of the ejecta is characterized by a lobate appearance indicative of the flow of a liquid (or slushy) substance over the surface. The flow was probably icy surface material melted by the energy released during the impact that formed the crater. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=735277 |
Hár (crater) Hár is a crater on Jupiter's moon Callisto. Its name is one of the many names of Odin, the supreme god in Norse mythology. This is an example of a central dome impact crater. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=735305 |
Johann Gottlieb Georgi (31 December 1729 – 27 October 1802) was a German botanist, naturalist and geographer. A native of Pomerania, Georgi accompanied both Johan Peter Falk and Peter Simon Pallas on their respective journeys through Siberia. During 1770-1774 he travelled on its behalf to Astrakhan, the Urals, Bashkir, the Barabinsk steppe, the Kolyvanskoe silver mines (to assess the ore content), Altai, Tomsk, Irkutsk, Baikal, and Dauren. In 1783 he became an academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences in St Petersburg. Georgi was particularly interested in the Baikal region. Based on collections from far eastern Russia, in his 1775 publication "Bemerkungen einer Reise im Russischen Reich im Jahre 1772", Georgi provided the first botanical descriptions of many of the region's flowering plants, among them the Baikal skullcap ("Scutellaria baicalensis"). Many of these plants and herbs were later collected by European botanists in China, and thereafter became rare specimens in European botanical gardens. After his fellow botanist and travelling companion Falk took his own life in 1774, Georgi edited his notes, which were published in Germany from 1785 to 1786 as "Beyträge zur topographischen Kenntniss des Russischen Reichs I – III". In 1790, Georgi's description and urban plans of the city of St. Petersburg was published in German. It appeared in a second edition in Riga in 1793 and was finally translated into Russian a year later | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=737905 |
Johann Gottlieb Georgi His "Geographisch-physikalische und naturhistorische Beschreibung des Russischen Reichs", a six volume edition of the geography and natural history of the Russian Empire, was published in Königsberg, Germany, from 1797 to 1802. Georgi also translated many works of Linnaeus. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=737905 |
John J. Kavelaars J-John Kavelaars, better known as JJ Kavelaars (born 1966), is a Canadian astronomer who was part of a team that discovered several moons of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. He is also a discoverer of minor planets and an investigator on the extended "New Horizons" mission, having aided in the discovery of 486958 Arrokoth. Kavelaars is a graduate of the Glencoe District High School in Glencoe, Ontario, the University of Guelph, and Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario. He is currently an astronomer at the Dominion Astrophysical Observatory in Victoria, B.C. In the course of his work, he has been responsible for the discovery of eleven satellites (moons) of Saturn, eight of Uranus, and four of Neptune, and a hundred or so minor planets. Kavelaars is the Coordinator of the Canada–France Ecliptic Plane Survey which is part of the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope Legacy Survey "CFHTLS": a project dedicated to the discovery and tracking of objects in the outer Solar System. He is the brother of Canadian actress Ingrid Kavelaars and Canadian fencing athlete Monique Kavelaars. The asteroid 154660 Kavelaars was named in his honour on 1 June 2007 by his colleague David D. Balam. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=740561 |
American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers The (ASABE) is an international professional society devoted to agricultural and biological engineering. It was founded in December 1907 at the University of Wisconsin–Madison as the American Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE) and is now based in St. Joseph, Michigan. Today the organization has about 9,000 members in over 100 countries. ASABE serves many functions: it provides a forum for communication of research findings through conferences, scientific journals, and a magazine; it develops standards of practice; it provides opportunities for members to network. After years of debate, members of the organization voted in 2005 to modify the name to better reflect the changes in the profession. For many years, the discipline had broadened to include engineering for biological systems, and the name change simply reflected this reality. Most of the university departments of agricultural engineering had already changed their names. The increase in biological engineering led to a number of breakthroughs that greatly affected the global agriculture system of modern society. Genetically modified organisms for instance have led to massive overhauls in food production, logistics and trade. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=743844 |
Aleksandr Aleksandrovich Volkov (; born 27 May 1948) is a retired Russian cosmonaut. He is a veteran of 3 space flights, including twice to the Mir Soviet space station, and is the father of cosmonaut Sergey Volkov. Volkov was born in Ukrainian SSR in a family of Russian ethnicity. At the age of 13, Volkov witnessed Yuri Gagarin become the first man in space and this inspired him to become a cosmonaut. He joined the Soviet space programme and became a test pilot before realising his dream. He flew into space three times. His first spaceflight was a trip to Salyut 7 in 1985 (64 days in space), followed by two flights to the Mir space station, in 1988–1989 (151 days) and again in 1991–1992 (175 days) as commander of flight Soyuz TM-13. On board the Mir space station, he controlled the docking procedures among other things. The Soviet Union broke up in 1991 during his second stay on board Mir. At the time Volkov was orbiting Earth on Mir with Sergei K. Krikalev, "the last citizens of the USSR". Having gone into orbit as Soviet citizens, they returned to Earth as Russian citizens. He worked as Commander of the Cosmonaut Team at the Cosmonauts Training Centre from January 1991 until August 1998. His work was to prepare Russian and foreign cosmonauts for future flights to space stations to Mir and the International Space Station. He is the father of Sergey Volkov | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=745086 |
Aleksandr Aleksandrovich Volkov The younger Volkov became the first second-generation cosmonaut when he was launched aboard Soyuz TMA-12 on 8 April 2008, his first of three flights; in total he spent over a year aboard the International Space Station. Aleksandr Volkov was awarded: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=745086 |
Anatoly Artsebarsky Anatoly Pavlovich Artsebarsky () (; born 9 September 1956) is a former Soviet cosmonaut. He became a cosmonaut in 1985. Artsebarsky has spent almost 5 months in space on a single spaceflight. In 1991, he flew aboard Soyuz TM-12 and docked with the Mir Space Station. Artsebarsky and Sergei Krikalev stayed aboard Mir while the rest of the crew flew back to Earth after eight days. Artsebarsky took six spacewalks during the Mir EO-9 mission. He spent over 33 hours walking in space. During his stay, Artsebarsky constructed a space tower for use with a control module. Artsebarsky and Krikalev were almost stuck at the station. They were in orbit during the Soviet coup attempt of 1991. For several days, the political situation seriously jeopardised their position. He was awarded: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=745725 |
Bioreactor A bioreactor refers to any manufactured device or system that supports a biologically active environment. In one case, a bioreactor is a vessel in which a chemical process is carried out which involves organisms or biochemically active substances derived from such organisms. This process can either be aerobic or anaerobic. These bioreactors are commonly cylindrical, ranging in size from litres to cubic metres, and are often made of stainless steel. It may also refer to a device or system designed to grow cells or tissues in the context of cell culture. These devices are being developed for use in tissue engineering or biochemical/bioprocess engineering. On the basis of mode of operation, a bioreactor may be classified as batch, fed batch or continuous (e.g. a continuous stirred-tank reactor model). An example of a continuous bioreactor is the chemostat. Organisms growing in bioreactors may be submerged in liquid medium or may be attached to the surface of a solid medium. Submerged cultures may be suspended or immobilized. Suspension bioreactors can use a wider variety of organisms, since special attachment surfaces are not needed, and can operate at a much larger scale than immobilized cultures. However, in a continuously operated process the organisms will be removed from the reactor with the effluent. Immobilization is a general term describing a wide variety of methods for cell or particle attachment or entrapment | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=746495 |
Bioreactor It can be applied to basically all types of biocatalysis including enzymes, cellular organelles, animal and plant cells. Immobilization is useful for continuously operated processes, since the organisms will not be removed with the reactor effluent, but is limited in scale because the microbes are only present on the surfaces of the vessel. Large scale immobilized cell bioreactors are: design is a relatively complex engineering task, which is studied in the discipline of biochemical/bioprocess engineering. Under optimum conditions, the microorganisms or cells are able to perform their desired function with limited production of impurities. The environmental conditions inside the bioreactor, such as temperature, nutrient concentrations, pH, and dissolved gases (especially oxygen for aerobic fermentations) affect the growth and productivity of the organisms. The temperature of the fermentation medium is maintained by a cooling jacket, coils, or both. Particularly exothermic fermentations may require the use of external heat exchangers. Nutrients may be continuously added to the fermenter, as in a fed-batch system, or may be charged into the reactor at the beginning of fermentation. The pH of the medium is measured and adjusted with small amounts of acid or base, depending upon the fermentation. For aerobic (and some anaerobic) fermentations, reactant gases (especially oxygen) must be added to the fermentation | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=746495 |
Bioreactor Since oxygen is relatively insoluble in water (the basis of nearly all fermentation media), air (or purified oxygen) must be added continuously. The action of the rising bubbles helps mix the fermentation medium and also "strips" out waste gases, such as carbon dioxide. In practice, bioreactors are often pressurized; this increases the solubility of oxygen in water. In an aerobic process, optimal oxygen transfer is sometimes the rate limiting step. Oxygen is poorly soluble in water—even less in warm fermentation broths—and is relatively scarce in air (20.95%). Oxygen transfer is usually helped by agitation, which is also needed to mix nutrients and to keep the fermentation homogeneous. Gas dispersing agitators are used to break up air bubbles and circulate them throughout the vessel. "Fouling" can harm the overall efficiency of the bioreactor, especially the heat exchangers. To avoid it, the bioreactor must be easily cleaned. Interior surfaces are typically made of stainless steel for easy cleaning and sanitation. Typically bioreactors are cleaned between batches, or are designed to reduce fouling as much as possible when operated continuously. Heat transfer is an important part of bioreactor design; small vessels can be cooled with a cooling jacket, but larger vessels may require coils or an external heat exchanger. A photobioreactor (PBR) is a bioreactor which incorporates some type of light source (that may be natural sunlight or artificial illumination) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=746495 |
Bioreactor Virtually any translucent container could be called a PBR, however the term is more commonly used to define a closed system, as opposed to an open storage tank or pond. Photobioreactors are used to grow small phototrophic organisms such as cyanobacteria, algae, or moss plants. These organisms use light through photosynthesis as their energy source and do not require sugars or lipids as energy source. Consequently, risk of contamination with other organisms like bacteria or fungi is lower in photobioreactors when compared to bioreactors for heterotroph organisms. Conventional sewage treatment utilises bioreactors to undertake the main purification processes. In some of these systems, a chemically inert medium with very high surface area is provided as a substrate for the growth of biological film. Separation of excess biological film takes place in settling tanks or cyclones. In other systems aerators supply oxygen to the sewage and biota to create activated sludge in which the biological component is freely mixed in the liquor in "flocs". In these processes, the liquid's Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is reduced sufficiently to render the contaminated water fit for reuse. The biosolids can be collected for further processing, or dried and used as fertilizer. An extremely simple version of a sewage bioreactor is a septic tank whereby the sewage is left in situ, with or without additional media to house bacteria. In this instance, the biosludge itself is the primary host for the bacteria | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=746495 |
Bioreactor Many cells and tissues, especially mammalian ones, must have a surface or other structural support in order to grow, and agitated environments are often destructive to these cell types and tissues. Higher organisms, being auxotrophic, also require highly specialized growth media. This poses a challenge when the goal is to culture larger quantities of cells for therapeutic production purposes, and a significantly different design is needed compared to industrial bioreactors used for growing protein expression systems such as yeast and bacteria. Many research groups have developed novel bioreactors for growing specialized tissues and cells on a structural scaffold, in attempt to recreate organ-like tissue structures "in-vitro". Among these include tissue bioreactors that can grow heart tissue, skeletal muscle tissue, ligaments, cancer tissue models, and others. Currently, scaling production of these specialized bioreactors for industrial use remains challenging and is an active area of research. For more information on artificial tissue culture, see tissue engineering. Mathematical models act as an important tool in various bio-reactor applications including wastewater treatment. These models are useful for planning efficient process control strategies and predicting the future plant performance. Moreover, these models are beneficial in education and research areas. Bioreactors are generally used in those industries which are concerned with food, beverages and pharmaceuticals | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=746495 |
Bioreactor The emergence of "Biochemical engineering" is of recent origin. Processing of biological materials using biological agents such as cells, enzymes or antibodies are the major pillars of biochemical engineering. Applications of biochemical engineering cover major fields of civilization such as agriculture, food and healthcare, resource recovery and fine chemicals. Till now, the industries associated with biotechnology have been lagged behind other industries in implementing control over the process and optimization strategies. A main drawback in biotechnological process control is the problem to measure key physical and biochemical parameters. A bioprocess is composed mainly of three stages — upstream processing, bioreaction, and downstream processing — to convert raw material to finished product. The raw material can be of biological or non-biological origin. It is first converted to more suitable form for processing. This is done in upstream processing step which involves chemical hydrolysis, preparation of liquid medium, separation of particulate, air purification and many other preparatory operations. After upstream processing step, the resulting feed is transferred to one or more Bioreaction stages. The Biochemical reactors or bioreactors form the base of the Bioreaction step. This step mainly consists of three operations, namely, production of biomass, metabolite biosynthesis and biotransformation | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=746495 |
Bioreactor Finally, the material produced in the bioreactor must be further processed in the downstream section to convert it into more useful form. The downstream process mainly consists of physical separation operations which includes, solid liquid separation, adsorption, liquid-liquid extraction, distillation, drying etc. A typical bioreactor consists of following parts: Agitator – used for the mixing of the contents of the reactor which keeps the “cells” in the perfect homogenous condition for better transport of nutrients and oxygen to the desired product(s). Baffle – used to break the vortex formation in the vessel, which is usually highly undesirable as it changes the center of gravity of the system and consumes additional power. Sparger – In aerobic cultivation process, the purpose of the sparger is to supply adequate oxygen to the growing cells. Jacket – The jacket provides the annular area for circulation of constant temperature of water which keeps the temperature of the bioreactor at a constant value. Assumptions: Making overall mass balance, we get the following equation: d("ρV)/dt = Fρ – Fρ = 0 (1)" Equation(1) states that the reactor volume (V) is constant since dV/dt = 0. We know, Flow rate of biomass into the reactor = Fx Flow rate of biomass out of the reactor = Fx Rate of generation of biomass by reaction = Vr Rate of accumulation of biomass within the reactor = d(Vx)/dt Now, apply general mass balance equation i.e | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=746495 |
Bioreactor , "Rate of Mass In – Rate of Mass Out + Rate of Generation = Accumulation" d(Vx)/dt = Fx – Fx + Vr (2) Where r is the rate of cell generation. Dividing both sides of the above equation by V, we obtain dx/dt = (F/V)x – (F/V)x + r (3) In the chemical reaction engineering, F/V is called space velocity(s) and V/F is called the residence time (s). But in biochemical engineering, F/V is known as Dilution rate (D). Accordingly, equation(3) yields: dx/dt = Dx – Dx + r (4) dx/dt = D(x – x) + r (5) For substrate balance, Flow rate of substrate into the bioreactor = FS Flow of the substrate out of the bioreactor = FS Rate of generation of substrate by reaction = –Vr Rate of accumulation of substrate within the reactor = d(VS)/dt Now, apply general mass balance equation i.e., "Rate of Mass In – Rate of Mass Out + Rate of Generation = Accumulation" d(VS)/dt = FS – FS – Vr (6) rearranging above equation, we get dS/dt = D(S –S ) – r (7) where r is the rate of substrate consumption. For the chemical reaction, A ----> P We can write Where, ( –r) = rate of disappearance of A (r) = rate of formation of A k = reaction rate constant C = Concentration of reactant A n = order of reaction with respect to component A For first order reaction, n = 1 and accordingly, –r = k C The reaction kinetics involved in biochemical operations is comparatively difficult to obtain than the chemical reaction kinetics. In biochemical operations, the cell kinetics is used for the unstructured models where balanced growth condition is assumed | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=746495 |
Bioreactor The following equation is used to represent the net rate of cell mass growth: r = "μx (10)" "where μ" is the specific growth rate or specific growth rate coefficient(s). Here, "μ" is analogous to first order rate constant k but however, "μ" is not a constant. In biochemical engineering, yield is defined as the ratio of mass or moles of product formed to the mass or moles of the reactants consumed. The yield (Y) of product (P) with respect to reactant A is defined as: Y = (mass of P formed )/(mass of A consumed) (11) In case of bioreactor, Y = (mass of cells formed)/(mass of substrate consumed) (12) Thus, Y = r/ r Or, r = r/Y Or, r = "μx/"Y ( from 10) (13) By substituting equations (10) & (13) in equations (5) & (7) respectively, we get, dx/dt = D(x – x) + "μx" (14) dS/dt = D(S – S) – ("μx/Y)" (15) Since we have assumed that the feed stream does not contain any biomass i.e., x = 0, therefore, the bioreactor modelling equation finally gets the following form: dx/dt = ("μ" – D)x (16) dS/dt = D(S – S) – ("μx/Y)" "(from 15)" Thus, Equations (15) and (16) are the basic equations which are used for the modelling of any bioreactor. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=746495 |
Deformity A deformity, dysmorphism, or dysmorphic feature is a major abnormality in the shape of a body part or organ compared to the normal shape of that part. may arise from numerous causes: can occur in non-humans, as well. Frogs can be mutated due to Ribeiroia (Trematoda) infection. In many cases in which a major deformity is present at birth, it is the result of an underlying condition severe enough that the baby does not survive very long. The mortality of severely deformed births may be due to a range of complications including missing or non-functioning vital organs, structural defects that prevent breathing or eating, and high susceptibility to injuries, abnormal facial appearance, or infections that lead to death. Mythological creatures may have been created due to a deformative syndrome also, for instance, descriptions of mermaids may be related to the symptoms of sirenomelia. The Irish Mythology includes the Fomorians, who are almost without exception described as being deformed, possessing only one of what most have two of (eyes, arms, legs, etc.) or having larger than normal limbs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=749788 |
Eli Lilly and Company is an American pharmaceutical company headquartered in Indianapolis, Indiana, with offices in 18 countries. Its products are sold in approximately 125 countries. The company was founded in 1876 by, and named after, Col. Eli Lilly, a pharmaceutical chemist and veteran of the American Civil War. Lilly's notable achievements include being the first company to mass-produce the polio vaccine developed by Jonas Salk, and insulin. It was one of the first pharmaceutical companies to produce human insulin using recombinant DNA including Humulin (insulin medication), Humalog (insulin lispro), and the first approved biosimilar insulin product in the US, Basaglar (insulin glargine). Lilly is currently the largest manufacturer of psychiatric medications and produces Prozac (fluoxetine), Dolophine (methadone), Cymbalta (duloxetine), and Zyprexa (olanzapine). According to John Marks, the author of The Search For The Manchurian Candidate, Lilly also produced LSD for the CIA’s MKultra mind control program. The company is ranked 123rd on the 2019 Fortune 500. It is ranked 221st on the Forbes Global 2000 list of the largest public companies in the world and 252nd on the Forbes list of America's Best Employers. Eli Lilly is a full member of the Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America and the European Federation of Pharmaceutical Industries and Associations (EFPIA). As of 1997, it was the largest corporation and the largest charitable benefactor in Indiana | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=758905 |
Eli Lilly and Company The company's founder was Colonel Eli Lilly, a pharmaceutical chemist and Union army veteran of the American Civil War. Lilly served as the company president until his death in 1898. In 1869, after working for drugstores in Indiana, Lilly became a partner in a Paris, Illinois, drugstore with James W. Binford. In 1873, Lilly left the partnership with Binford and returned to Indianapolis. In 1874, Lilly partnered with John F. Johnston and opened a drug manufacturing operation called Johnston and Lilly, but dissolved the partnership in 1876. Lilly used his share of the assets to open his own pharmaceutical manufacturing business in Indianapolis in May 1876. His new business venture became Eli Lilly and Company. On May 10, 1876, Lilly opened his own laboratory in Indianapolis, where he began to manufacture medicinal drugs. The sign outside, above the shop's door, read: "Eli Lilly, Chemist." Lilly began his manufacturing venture with three employees including Lilly's son, Josiah (J. K.). One of the first medicines that Lilly produced was quinine, a drug used to treat malaria. By the end of 1876, sales reached $4,470. By 1879, the company had grown to $48,000. In 1878, Lilly hired his brother, James, as his first full-time salesman and the subsequent sales team marketed the company's drugs nationally. The company moved from Pearl Street to larger quarters at 36 South Meridian Street. In 1881, the company moved to its headquarters in Indianapolis's south-side industrial area | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=758905 |
Eli Lilly and Company Lilly later purchased additional facilities for research and production. Lilly's first innovation was gelatin-coating for pills and capsules. The company's other early innovations included fruit flavorings and sugarcoated pills, which made the medicines easier to swallow. In 1881, Lilly formally incorporated the business as Eli Lilly and Company, elected a board of directors, and issued stock to family members and close associates. Colonel Lilly's only son, Josiah (J. K.), a pharmaceutical chemist, graduated from the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy in 1882, and joined the family business as a superintendent of its laboratory after college. J. K. became company president in 1898. In 1883 the company contracted to mix and sell Succus Alteran, its first widely successful product and one its best sellers. The product was marketed as a "blood purifier" and as a treatment for syphilis, some types of rheumatism, and skin diseases such as eczema and psoriasis. Sales from this product provided funds for Lilly to expand its manufacturing and research facilities. By the late 1880s Colonel Lilly was one of the Indianapolis area's leading businessmen, whose company had more than one-hundred employees and had $200,000 ($ in 2015 chained dollars) in annual sales. As the Lilly company grew, other businesses set up operations near the plant on Indianapolis's near south side. The area developed into one of the city's major business and industrial hubs | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=758905 |
Eli Lilly and Company Lilly's production, manufacturing, research, and administrative operations in Indianapolis eventually occupied a complex of more than two dozen buildings covering a fifteen-block area, as well as production plants along Kentucky Avenue. Around 1890, Colonel Lilly turned over the day-to-day management of the business to his son, J. K., who ran the company for thirty-four years. Although the 1890s were a tumultuous decade economically, the company flourished and came out stronger than ever. In 1894 Lilly purchased a manufacturing plant to be used solely for creating capsules. The company also made several technological advances in the manufacturing process, including automating its capsule production. Over the next few years the company annually created tens of millions of capsules and pills. Until the turn of the century Lilly operated in Indianapolis and the surrounding area as many other pharmaceutical businesses did—manufacturing and selling "sugar-coated pills, fluid extracts, elixirs, and syrups". The company used plants for its raw materials and produced its products by hand. One historian noted, "Although the Indianapolis firm was more careful in making and promoting drugs than the patent medicine men of the era, the company remained ambivalent about scientific research." In addition to Colonel Lilly, his brother, James, and son, Josiah (J. K.), the growing company employed other Lilly family. Colonel Lilly's cousin, Evan Lilly, was hired as a bookkeeper | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=758905 |
Eli Lilly and Company As young boys, Lilly's grandsons, Eli and Josiah Jr. (Joe), ran errands and performed other odd jobs. Eli and Joe joined the family business after college. Eventually, each grandson served as company president and chairman of the board. Josiah (J. K.), Colonel Lilly's son and Eli and Joe's father, inherited the company after Colonel Lilly died and became its president in 1898. At the time of Colonel Lilly's death the company had a product line of 2,005 items and annual sales of more than $300,000 ($ in 2015 chained dollars). Colonel Lilly was a pioneer in the modern pharmaceutical industry, with many of his early innovations later becoming standard practice. His ethical reforms in a trade that was marked by outlandish claims of miracle medicines began a period of rapid advancement in the development of medicinal drugs. J. K. Lilly continued to advocate for federal regulation on medicines. Under J. K.'s leadership, the company introduced scientific management concepts, organized the company's research department, increased its sales force, and began international distribution of its products. In addition J. K. oversaw a large expansion of the company. By 1905 the company reached sales of $1 million ($ in 2015 chained dollars). Just before and after World War I, the Lilly company experienced rapid change. Expansion of Lilly's manufacturing facilities at the McCarty Street plant improved production capacity with a new Science Building (Building 14), opened in 1911, and a new capsule plant (Building 15) in 1913 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=758905 |
Eli Lilly and Company The company also began constructions of the Lilly Biological Laboratories, a research and manufacturing plant on 150 acres near Greenfield, Indiana, in 1913. In addition to development of new medicines, the company achieved several technological advances, including automation of its production facilities. Lilly was also an innovator in pill capsule manufacturing. It was among the first manufacturers to insert medications into empty gelatin capsules, which provided a more exact dosage. Lilly manufactured capsules for its own needs and sold its excess capacity to others. A 1917 "Scientific American" article claimed the Lilly operation in Indianapolis was "the largest capsule factory in the world" and was "capable of producing 2.5 million capsules a day". One of Lilly's innovations was fruit flavoring for medicines and sugar-coated pills to make their medicines easier to swallow. Over the next few years the company began to create tens of millions of capsules and pills annually. Other advances improved plant efficiency and eliminated production errors. Eli Lilly, grandson of the company founder, introduced a method for blueprinting manufacturing tickets in 1909. This process, which created multiples copies of a drug formula, helped eliminate manufacturing and transcription errors. In the 1920s Eli introduced the new concept of straight-line production, where raw materials entered at one end of the facility and the finished product came out the other end, in the company's manufacturing process | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=758905 |
Eli Lilly and Company Under Eli's supervision, the design for Building 22, a new 5-floor plant that opened in Indianapolis in 1926, implemented the straight-line concept to improve production efficiency and lower production costs. One historian noted, "It was probably the most sophisticated production system in the American pharmaceutical industry." This more efficient manufacturing process also allowed the company to hire a regular workforce. Instead of recalling workers at peak times and laying them off when production demand fell, Lilly's regular workforce produced less-costly medicines in off-peak times using the same manufacturing facilities. During the 1920s the introduction of new products also brought the company financial success. In 1919 Josiah hired biochemist George Henry Alexander Clowes as director of biochemical research. In 1921 three University of Toronto scientists, J. J. R. Macleod, Frederick G. Banting, and Charles H. Best, were working on the development of insulin for treatment of diabetes. Clowes proposed a collaboration with the researchers in December 1921, then again March and May 1922. The researchers were hesitant to work with a commercial drug firm, particularly since they had the Connaught Laboratories' non-commercial facilities at hand. Nonetheless, as limits were reached at the scale to which Connaught could produce insulin, Clowes and Eli Lilly met with the researchers in 1922 to negotiate an agreement with the University of Toronto scientists to mass-produce insulin | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=758905 |
Eli Lilly and Company The collaboration greatly accelerated the large-scale production of the extract. In 1923, Lilly began selling Iletin (Insulin, Lilly), their tradename for the first commercially available insulin product in the U.S for the treatment of diabetes. Numerous objections were registered by the Insulin Committee of the University of Toronto in regard to Lilly's use of the term "Iletin", although production continued under this name and the objection was later dropped "as a concession". Banting and Macleod won a Nobel Prize in 1923 for their research, which they subsequently shared with co-discoverers Charles Best and James Collip. Insulin, "the most important drug" in the company's history, did "more than any other" to make Lilly "one of the major pharmaceutical manufacturers in the world." Eli Lilly enjoyed effective monopoly on the sale of insulin in the U.S. for almost two years, until the first of the new American licensees, Frederick Stearns & Co., entered the market in June 1924. The success of insulin enabled the company to attract well-respected scientists and, with them, make more medical advances. By its fiftieth anniversary in 1926 sales reached $9 million and the company produced more than 2,800 different items. In 1928 Lilly introduced Liver Extract 343 for the treatment of pernicious anemia, a blood disorder, in a joint venture with two Harvard University scientists, George R. Minot and William P. Murphy. In 1930 Lilly introduced Liver Extract No | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=758905 |
Eli Lilly and Company 55 in collaboration with George Whipple, a University of Rochester scientist. Minot, Murphy, and Whipple won the 1934 Nobel Prize in medicine for their research. Despite the economic challenges of the Great Depression, Lilly's sales rose to $13 million in 1932. That same year Eli Lilly, the eldest grandson of Col. Lilly, was named as the company's president to succeed his father, who remained as chairman of the board until 1948. Eli joined the family business in 1909. In his early years at the company Eli was especially interested in improving production efficiency and introduced a number of labor-saving devices. He also introduced scientific management principles and implemented cost-savings measures that modernized the company. In addition Eli was involved in expanding the company's research efforts and collaborations with university researchers. In 1934, the firm opened two new facilities on the McCarty Street complex: a replica of Lilly's 1876 laboratory and the new Lilly Research Laboratories, "one of the most fully equipped facilities in the world." In the 1930s the company also continued expansion overseas. In 1934, Limited, the company's first overseas subsidiary was established in England, with headquarters in London and a manufacturing plant in Basingstoke. World War II brought production at Lilly to a new high with the manufacturing of Merthiolate and penicillin | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=758905 |
Eli Lilly and Company During the war Lilly also cooperated with the American Red Cross to process blood plasma and by war's end the company had dried over two million pints of blood, "about 20 percent of the United States' total". Merthiolate, first introduced in 1930, was an "anticeptic and germicide" that became a U.S. army "standard issue" during World War II. In the early 1940s Lilly became one of the companies mass-producing penicillin. International operations expanded even further during World War II. Eli Lilly International Corp. was formed in 1943 as a subsidiary to encourage business trade abroad. By 1948 Lilly employees worked in thirty-five countries, most of them as sales representatives in Latin America, Asia, and Africa. At the end of World War II the company continued to grow. In 1945 Lilly began a major expansion effort that would include two manufacturing operations in Indianapolis. The company purchased the massive Curtiss-Wright propeller plant on South Kentucky Avenue, west of the company's McCarty Street operation. When renovation was completed in mid-1947, the Kentucky Avenue location manufactured antibiotics and capsules and housed the company's shipping department. By 1948 Lilly employed nearly 7,000 people. Eli Lilly, who had served as the company's president since 1932, retired from active management of the company in 1948, became chairman of the board, and relinquished the presidency to his brother, Josiah K. Lilly, Jr. (Joe) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=758905 |
Eli Lilly and Company During Eli's sixteen-year presidency sales rose from $13 million in 1932 to $117 million in 1948. Joe joined the company in 1914 and concentrated on the company's personnel and marketing efforts. He served as company president from 1948 to 1953, then became chairman of the board and remained in that capacity until his death in 1966. In 1952 the company offered its first public shares of stock. In 1953 Eugene N. Beesley was named the company's new president, the first non-family member to run the company. Over the next several decades Lilly continued to develop and introduce new drugs to the marketplace. In the 1950s Lilly introduced two new antibiotics: vancomycin and erythromycin. In addition Lilly was heavily involved in production and distribution of Jonas Salk's poliomyelitis (polio) vaccine. In 1954 the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis (NFIP) contracted with five pharmaceutical companies to produce Salk's polio vaccine for clinical trials. These included Lilly as well as Parke, Davis and Company, Cutter Laboratories, Wyeth Laboratories, and Pitman-Moore Company. Lilly's selection to produce the vaccine was, in part, due to its previous experience in collaborations with university researchers. Lilly manufactured 60 percent of the Salk vaccine in 1955. During the mid-twentieth century Lilly continued to expand its production facilities outside of Indianapolis. In 1950 Lilly began Tippecanoe Laboratories in Lafayette, Indiana, and increased antibiotic production with its patent on erythromycin | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=758905 |
Eli Lilly and Company In 1954 Lilly formed Elanco Products Company for the production of veterinary pharmaceuticals. In 1969, the company opened a new plant in Clinton, Indiana. After a company reorganization and transition to non-family management in 1953, Lilly continued to expand its global presence. In the 1960s Lilly operated thirteen affiliate companies outside the United States. In 1962, with an acquisition from Distillers Company, the company established a major factory in Liverpool, England. In 1968, Lilly built its first research facility, the Lilly Research Centre Limited, outside the United States near London, England in Surrey. During the 1970s and 1980s, saw a flurry of drug production: an antibiotic, Keflex, in 1971; a heart drug, Dobutrex, in 1977; Ceclor, which would become the world's top selling oral antibiotic, in 1979; a leukemia drug, Eldisine; an antiarthritic, Oraflex; and an analgesic, Darvon. When generic drugs flooded the marketplace after the expiration of patents for drugs discovered in the 1950s and 1960s, Lilly diversified into other areas, most notably agricultural chemicals, animal-health products, cosmetics, and medical instruments. In 1971, the company became a component of the S&P 500 Index. To further diversify its product line, Lilly made an uncharacteristic, but ultimately profitable move in 1971, when it bought cosmetic manufacturer Elizabeth Arden, Inc. for $38 million | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=758905 |
Eli Lilly and Company Although the subsidiary continued to lose money for five years after Lilly acquired it, executive management changes at Arden helped turn it into a financial success. By 1982 the subsidiary's "sales were up 90 percent from 1978, with profits doubling to nearly $30 million." Sixteen years after its acquisition, Lilly sold Arden to Fabergé in 1987 for $657 million. In 1977, Lilly ventured into medical instruments with the acquisition of IVAC Corporation, which manufactures vital signs and intravenous fluid infusion monitoring systems. Lilly also purchased Cardiac Pacemakers Incorporated, a manufacturer of heart pacemakers in 1977. In 1980, Lilly acquired Physio-Control Corporation. Other acquisitions included Advance Cardiovasular Systems Incorporated in 1984, Hybritech in 1986, and Devices for Vascular Intervention, Incorporated in 1989. Lilly acquired Pacific Biotech in 1990 and Origin Medsystems and Heart Rhythm Technologies, Incorporated in 1992. In the early 1990s, Lilly combined these medical equipment companies into a Medical Devices and Diagnostics Division that "contributed about 20 percent" of Lilly's annual revenues. In 1989, a joint agri-chemical venture between Elanco Products Company and Dow Chemical created DowElanco. In 1997, Lilly sold its 40% share in the company to Dow Chemical for $1.2 billion and the name was changed to Dow AgroSciences | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=758905 |
Eli Lilly and Company In 1994, Lilly acquired PCS Systems, a drug delivery business for Health Maintenance Organizations, and later added two similar organizations to its holdings. Lilly purchased PCS, which was the largest U.S. prescription drug benefits manager at the time, for $4 billion. In 1991, Vaughn Bryson was named CEO of Eli Lilly. During his 20-month tenure, the company reported its first quarterly loss as a publicly traded company. In 1993 Randall L. Tobias, a vice-chairman of AT&T Corporation and Lilly board member, was named Lilly's chairman, president, and CEO after "product and competitive pressures" had "steadily eroded Lilly's stock price since early 1992." Tobias was the first president and CEO recruited from outside of the company. Under Tobias's leadership the company "cut costs and narrowed its mission". Lilly sold companies in its Medical Device and Diagnostics Division, expanded international sales, made new acquisitions, and funded additional research and product development. Sidney Taurel, former chief operating officer of Lilly, was named CEO in 1998, replacing Tobias. Taurel was named chairman in January 1999. In 2000 Lilly reported $10.86 billion in net sales. In 1998, Eli Lilly formed a joint venture with Icos Corporation (ICOS), a Bothell, Washington-based biotechnology company, to develop and commercialize Cialis, a product for the treatment of erectile dysfunction. In October 2006, Lilly announced its intention to acquire Icos for $2.1 billion, or $32 per share | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=758905 |
Eli Lilly and Company After its initial attempt to acquire Icos failed under pressure from large institutional shareholders, Lilly revised its offer to $34 per share. Institutional Shareholder Services (ISS), a proxy advisory firm, advised Icos shareholders to reject the proposal as undervalued, but the buyout was approved by Icos shareholders and Lilly completed its acquisition of the company on January 29, 2007. Lilly closed Icos manufacturing operations, terminated nearly 500 Icos employees, and left 127 employees working at the biologics facility. In December 2007, CMC Biopharmaceuticals A/S (CMC), a Copenhagen, Denmark-based provider of contract biomanufacturing services, bought the Bothell-based biologics facility from Lilly and retained the existing 127 employees. In January 2009, the largest criminal fine in U.S. history, totaling $1.415 billion was imposed on Lilly for illegal marketing of its best-selling product, the atypical antipsychotic medication, Zyprexa. In January 2011, Boehringer Ingelheim and announced their global agreement for the joint development and marketing of new APIs for diabetes therapy. Lilly could receive more than one billion dollars for their work on the project, while Boehringer Ingelheim could receive more than $800 million from development of the new drugs. Oral anti-diabetic of Boehringer Ingelheim–Linagliptin and BI 10773–and two insulin analogs of Lilly–LY2605541 and LY2963016–were in phase II and III of clinical developmentat that time | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=758905 |
Eli Lilly and Company In April 2014, Lilly announced plans to buy Swiss drugmaker Novartis AG's animal health business for $5.4 billion in cash to strengthen and diversify its Elanco unit. Lilly said it planned to fund the deal with about $3.4 billion of cash on hand and $2 billion of loans. As a condition of the acquisition, the Sentinel heartworm treatment would be divested to Virbac in order to avoid a monopoly in a subsector of the heartworm (Dirofilaria immitis) treatment market. In March 2015, the company announced it would join Hanmi Pharmaceutical in developing and commercialising Hanmi's phase I Bruton's tyrosine kinase inhibitor HM71224 in a deal which could yield $690 million. A day later the company announced another deal with Innovent Biologics to co-develop and commercialise at least three of Innovents treatments over the next decade, in a deal which could generate up to $456 million. As part of the deal the company will contribute its c-Met monoclonal antibody whilst Innovent will contribute a monoclonal antibody which targets CD-20. The second compound from Innovent is a preclinical immuno-oncology molecule. The following week the company announced it would restart its collaboration with Pfizer surrounding the Phase III trial of Tanezumab. Pfizer is expected to receive an upfront sum of $200 million from the company. In April 2015, the company engaged CBRE Group to sell its biomanufacturing facility in Vacaville, California | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=758905 |
Eli Lilly and Company The facility resides on a campus and is one of the largest biopharmaceutical manufacturing centers in the United States. In January 2017, Elanco Animal Health, a subsidiary of the company completed the acquisition of Boehringer Ingelheim Vetmedica, Inc's (a subsidiary of Boehringer Ingelheim) US feline, canine and rabies vaccines portfolio. In March 2017, the company acquired CoLucid Pharmaceuticals for $960 million, specifically gaining the late clinical-stage migraine therapy candidate, lasmiditan. In May 2018, the company acquired Armo Biosciences for $1.6 billion. Days later the company announced it would acquire Aurora kinase A inhibitor developer - AurKa Pharma - and control over the lead compound, AK-01, for up to $575 million. In January 2019, Eli Lilly announced it would acquire Loxo Oncology for $235 per share - valuing the business at around $8 billion - significantly expanding the business' oncology offerings. The deal will give Eli Lilly Loxo's oral TRK inhibitor, Vitrakvi (larotrectinib), LOXO-292, an oral proto-oncogene receptor tyrosine kinase rearranged during transfection (RET) inhibitor, LOXO-305, an oral Bruton's tyrosine kinase (BTK) inhibitor and LOXO-195, a follow-on TRK inhibitor. In August 2019, Elanco acquired the Bayer animal health business for $7.6 billion. In January 2020, the company announced its acquisition of Dermira for $1.1 billion, gaining control of two key assets, among others; lebrikizumab and glycopyrronium cloth used to treat hyperhidrosis | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=758905 |
Eli Lilly and Company has a long history of collaboration with research scientists. In 1886 Ernest G. Eberhardt, a chemist, joined the company as its first full-time research scientist. Lilly also hired two botanists, Walter H. Evans and John S. Wright, to join its early research efforts. After World War I the company's expanded production facilities and introduction of new management methods set the stage for Lilly's next crucial phase—its "aggressive entry into scientific research and development." The first big step came in 1919 when Josiah Lilly hired biochemist George Henry Alexander Clowes as director of biochemical research. Clowes had extensive medical research expertise and links to the scientific research community, which led to the company's collaborations with researchers in the U.S. and elsewhere. Clowes's first major collaboration with researchers who developed insulin at the University of Toronto significantly impacted the company's future. Lilly's success with insulin production secured the company's position as a leading research-based pharmaceutical manufacturer, allowing it to attract and hire more research scientists and to collaborate with other universities in additional medical research. In 1934 the company built a new research laboratory in Indianapolis. As part of its research and product development process Lilly also conducted clinical studies at Indianapolis City Hospital (Wishard Memorial Hospital). Lilly continues to conduct clinical studies to test medications before their introduction to the market | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=758905 |
Eli Lilly and Company In 1949 Eli Lilly actually went into partnership with the United States Army Reserve setting up a local Strategic Intelligence Research and Analysis (SIRA)Unit to allow employees to research company data for the Scientific Logistics and Eurasian fields of study (source: declassified Defense Intelligence Agency document MDR -0191-2008 dated 17 Sep 2012). In 1998 the company dedicated new laboratories for clinical research at the Indiana University Medical Center in Indianapolis. In addition to internal research and development activities, Lilly is also involved in publicly funded research projects with other industrial and academic partners. One example in the area of non-clinical safety assessment is the InnoMed PredTox, a collaboration with pharmaceutical companies, research organizations, and the European Commission to improve the safety of drugs. In 2008 this consortium, which included Lilly S.A. (Switzerland), secured a €8 million budget for a 40-month project that was coordinated by the European Federation of Pharmaceutical Industries and Associations (EFPIA), an organization who represents the research-based pharmaceutical industry and biotech companies operating in Europe. In 2008 Lilly's activities included research projects within the framework of the Innovative Medicines Initiative, a public-private research initiative in Europe that is a joint effort of the EFPIA and the European Commission | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=758905 |
Eli Lilly and Company The company's most important products introduced prior to World War II included insulin, which Lilly marketed as Iletin (Insulin, Lilly), Amytal, Merthiolate, ephedrine, and liver extracts. Introduced in 1923, Iletin (Insulin, Lilly) was Lilly's first commercial insulin product. In 2002 the company was the leading producer of products for those with diabetes. During World War II Lilly produced penicillins and other antibiotics. In addition to penicillin, other wartime production included "antimalarials," blood plasma, encephalitis vaccine, typhus and influenza vaccine, gas gangrene antitoxin, Merthiolate, and Iletin (Insulin, Lilly). Among the company's more recent pharmaceutical developments are cephalosporin, erythromycin, and Prozac (fluoxetine), a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) for the treatment of clinical depression. Ceclor, introduced in the 1970s, was an oral cephalosporin antibiotic. Prozac, introduced in the 1980s, quickly became the company's best-selling product for treatment of depression, but Lilly lost its U.S. patent protection for this product in 2001. Among other distinctions, Lilly is the world's largest manufacturer and distributor of medications used in a broad range of psychiatric and mental health-related conditions, including clinical depression, generalized anxiety disorder, narcotic addiction, insomnia, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and others | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=758905 |
Eli Lilly and Company Eli Lilly has focused on patent-protected medicines, with generic manufacturers taking over production of earlier drugs whose patents have expired. In 2003, Eli Lilly introduced Cialis (tadalafil), a competitor to Pfizer's blockbuster Viagra for erectile dysfunction. Cialis maintains an active period of 36 hours, causing it sometimes to be dubbed the "weekend pill". Cialis was developed in a partnership with biotechnology company Icos Corporation. On December 18, 2006, Lilly bought Icos in order to gain full control of the product. Another Lilly manufactured anti-depressant, Cymbalta, a serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor used predominantly in the treatment of major depressive disorders and generalized anxiety disorder, ranks with Prozac as one of the most financially successful pharmaceuticals in industry history. It is also used in the treatment of fibromyalgia, neuropathy, chronic pain and osteoarthritis. In 1996, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved Gemzar for the treatment of pancreatic cancer. Gemzar is commonly used in the treatment of pancreatic cancer, usually in coordination with 5-FU chemotherapy and radiology. Gemzar also is routinely used in the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer. Eli Lilly was the first distributor of methadone in the United States, an analgesic used frequently in the treatment of heroin, opium and other opioid and narcotic drug addictions | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=758905 |
Eli Lilly and Company Eli Lily was able to acquire the right to produce the drug commercially for just $1 because the patent rights of the original patent holders, IG Farben and Farbwerke Hoechst, were not protected after the Allies of World War II seized all German patents, research records and trade names. Eli Lily introduced the drug to the United States in 1947, marketed under the trade name "Dolophine". Prozac was one of the first therapies in its class to treat clinical depression by blocking the uptake of serotonin within the human brain. Prozac was approved by the U.S. FDA in 1987 for use in treating depression, with generic versions appearing after 2002. Eli Lilly has manufactured Secobarbital, a barbiturate derivative with anaesthetic, anticonvulsant, sedative and hypnotic properties. Lilly marketed Secobarbital under the brand name Seconal. Secobarbital is indicated for the treatment of epilepsy, temporary insomnia and as a pre-operative medication to produce anaesthesia and anxiolysis in short surgical, diagnostic, or therapeutic procedures which are minimally painful. With the onset of new therapies for the treatment of these conditions, Secobarbital has been less utilized, and Lilly ceased manufacturing it in 1999. Secobarbital gained considerable attention during the 1970s, when it gained wide popularity as a recreational drug. On September 18, 1970, rock guitarist legend Jimi Hendrix died from a secobarbital overdose. On June 22, 1969, secobarbital overdose was the cause of death of actress Judy Garland | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=758905 |
Eli Lilly and Company The drug was a central part of the plot of the hugely popular novel "Valley of the Dolls" (1966) by Jacqueline Susann in which three highly successful Hollywood women each fall victim, in various ways, to the drug. The novel was later released as a film by the same name. Eli Lilly has developed the vaccine preservative thiomersal (also called merthiolate and thimerosal). Thiomersal is effective by causing susceptible bacteria to autolyze. Launched in 1930, merthiolate was a mercury-based antiseptic and germicide that "had been formulated at the University of Maryland with support of a Lilly research fellowship." Zyprexa (Olanzapine) (for schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, as well as off-label uses) Released in 1996, (see criminal prosecution section) it was the company's best selling drug through 2010, when the patent expired. After three generations of Lilly family leadership under company founder, Col. Eli Lilly, his son, Josiah K. Lilly Sr., and two grandsons, Eli Lilly Jr. and Josiah K. Lilly Jr., the company announced a reorganization in 1944 that prepared the way for future expansion and the eventual separation of company management from its ownership. The large, complex corporation was divided into smaller groups headed by vice presidents and in 1953 Eugene N. Beesley was named the first non-family member to become the company's president. Although Lilly family members continued to serve as chairman of the board until 1969, Beesley's appointment began the transition to non-family management | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=758905 |
Eli Lilly and Company In 1972 Richard D. Wood became Lilly's president and CEO after the retirement of Burton E. Beck. In 1991 Vaughn Bryson became president and Wood became board chairman. During Bryson's 20-month tenure as Lilly's president and CEO, the company reported its first quarterly loss as a publicly traded company. Randall L. Tobias, a vice chairman of AT&T Corporation, was named chairman, president, and CEO in June 1993. Tobias, a Lilly board member since 1986, was recruited from outside the company's executive ranks to replace Lilly's president, Vaughn Bryson, and board chairman, Richard Wood. Tobias later became the U.S. director of Foreign Assistance and administrator of the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), with the rank of ambassador. Sidney Taurel, former chief operating officer of Lilly, was named CEO in July 1998 to replace Tobias, who retired. Taurel became chairman of the board in January 1999. Taurel retired as CEO on March 31, 2008, but remained as chairman of the board until December 31, 2008. John C. Lechleiter was elected as Lilly's CEO and president, effective April 1, 2008. Lechleiter had served as Lilly's president and chief operating officer since October 2005. In July 2016 Dave Ricks, who also had a long career at Lilly, was appointed CEO. In 2006, "Fortune" magazine named one of the top 100 companies in the United States for which to work. Also in 2006, "Barron's Magazine" named the company among the top 500 best managed companies in the U.S | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=758905 |
Eli Lilly and Company In 2012, "Working Mothers" magazine named Lilly one of the "100 Best Companies for Working Mothers" for the eighteenth consecutive year. "Working Mother" reported that in 2012 forty-eight percent of Lilly's U.S. employees and thirty-four percent of its U.S. managers and executives were women. In 2018, was recognized as one of the Ethisphere Institute's World's Most Ethical Companies, the second year in a row. The Lilly family as well as has a long history of community service. Around 1890 Col. Lilly turned over operation of the family business to his son, Josiah, who ran the company for the next several decades. Col. Lilly remained active in civic affairs and assisted a number of local organizations, including the Commercial Club of Indianapolis, which later became the Indianapolis Chamber of Commerce, and the Charity Organization Society, a forerunner to the Family Services Association of Central Indiana, an organization supported by United Way. Josiah's sons, Eli and Joe, were also philanthropists who supported numerous cultural and educational organizations. It was Josiah Sr. who continued his father's civic mindedness and began the company tradition of sending aid to disaster victims. Following the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, the company sent much needed medicine to support recovery efforts and provided relief after the 1936 Johnstown Flood | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=758905 |
Eli Lilly and Company In 1917, Lilly Field Hospital 32, named in Josiah's honor, was equipped in Indianapolis and moved overseas to Contrexville, France, during World War I, where it remained in operation until 1919. Throughout World War II, Lilly manufactured more than two hundred products for military use, including aviator survival kits and seasickness medications for the D-Day invasion. In addition Lilly dried more than two million pints of blood plasma by the war's end. In 1937, Josiah K. Lilly Sr. and his two sons, Eli and Joe, founded the Lilly Endowment, a private charitable foundation, with gifts of Lilly stock. The Foundation, which is separate from the Lilly Endowment, operates as a tax-exempt private charitable foundation that the company established in 1968. The Foundation is funded through Lilly's corporate profits. Eli Lilly has been involved in several controversies, including political and medical ethics controversies. Eli Lilly is now the sole manufacturer of BGH having purchased the rights to manufacture the drug from Monsanto. A landmark study found that fluoxetine (Prozac) was more likely to increase overall suicidal behavior. 14.7% of the patients (n = 44) on fluoxetine had suicidal events, compared to 6.3% in the psychotherapy group and 8.4% from the combined treatment group. Eli Lilly, the manufacturer, and the lead researcher did not make these findings obvious | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=758905 |
Eli Lilly and Company Several internal documents, which were released by the British Medical Journal, indicated a link between use of Prozac and suicidal or violent behavior. The FDA has warned that Prozac and similar antidepressants could cause agitation, panic attacks and aggression. These documents revealed that Eli Lilly knew about this as early as 1984, years before the drug was FDA-approved. In September 2013, Eli Lilly sued Canada for violating its obligations to foreign investors under the North American Free Trade Agreement by allowing its courts to invalidate patents for two of its drugs. The company sought damages in the amount of $500 million for lost potential profits. In 2009, four sales representatives for Eli Lilly filed separate qui tam lawsuits against the company for illegally marketing olanzapine (branded Zyprexa), an antipsychotic medication, for uses not approved by the Food and Drug Administration. Eli Lilly pleaded guilty to actively promoting Zyprexa for off-label uses, particularly for the treatment of dementia in the elderly. The $1.415 billion penalty included an $800 million civil settlement and a $515 million criminal fine. The US Justice Department said the criminal fine of $515 million was the largest ever in a healthcare case and the largest criminal fine for an individual corporation ever imposed in a US criminal prosecution of any kind. "That was a blemish for us," John C. Lechleiter, CEO of Lilly, told "The New York Times". "We don't ever want that to happen again | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=758905 |
Eli Lilly and Company We put measures in place to assure that not only do we have the right intentions in integrity and compliance, but we have systems in place to support that." In an internal email, Lechleiter had stated "we must seize the opportunity to expand our work with Zyprexa in this same child-adolescent population" for off-label use. In January 2019, lawmakers from the United States House of Representatives sent letters to Eli Lilly and other insulin manufacturers asking for explanations for their rapidly raising insulin prices. The annual cost of insulin for people with type 1 diabetes in the U.S. almost doubled from $2,900 to $5,700 over the period from 2012 to 2016. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=758905 |
Francisco (moon) Francisco is the innermost irregular satellite of Uranus. Francisco was discovered by Matthew J. Holman, et al. and Brett J. Gladman, et al. in 2003 from pictures taken in 2001 and given the provisional designation S/2001 U 3. Confirmed as Uranus XXII, it was named after a lord in William Shakespeare's play "The Tempest". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=760582 |
Pamela M. Kilmartin is a New Zealand astronomer and a co-discoverer of minor planets and comets. She is credited by the Minor Planet Center with the discovery of 41 asteroids, all in collaboration with her husband, the astronomer Alan C. Gilmore. Both astronomers are also active comet-hunters. She is a Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society of New Zealand (RASNZ) and co-director of its "Comets and Minor Planets" section. The minor planet 3907 Kilmartin, discovered by Max Wolf in 1904, was named in her honour. Naming citation was published on 21 April 1989 (). In 1983, the Eunomia asteroid 2537 Gilmore was already named after both, Alan and Pamela Gilmore. In May 2019 Kilmartin and her husband were honored by New Zealand Post with a stamp in its "New Zealand Space Pioneers" series. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=760730 |
Alan C. Gilmore Alan Charles Gilmore (born 1944 in Greymouth, New Zealand) is a New Zealand astronomer and a discoverer of minor planets and other astronomical objects. He is credited by the Minor Planet Center with the discovery of 41 minor planets, all but one in collaboration with his wife Pamela M. Kilmartin. Both astronomers are also active nova- and comet-hunters. Until their retirement in 2014, Gilmore and Kilmartin worked at Mount John University Observatory (Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand), where they continue to receive observing time. He is also a member of the Organizing Committee of IAU Commission 6, which oversees the dissemination of information and the assignment of credit for astronomical discoveries. The Commission still bears the name "Astronomical Telegrams", even though telegrams are no longer used. On 2007 August 30, Gilmore discovered his first periodic comet, P/2007 Q2. The Eunomia asteroid 2537 Gilmore was named in his honor, while his wife is honored with the outer main-belt asteroid 3907 Kilmartin. Gilmore talks on astronomy on the Radio New Zealand program "Nights' Science". In May 2019 he and his wife were honored by New Zealand post with a stamp in its "New Zealand Space Pioneers" series. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=760736 |
Ocean Drilling Program The (ODP) was a multinational effort to explore and study the composition and structure of the Earth's oceanic basins. ODP, which began in 1985, was the successor to the Deep Sea Drilling Project initiated in 1968 by the United States. ODP was an international effort with contributions of Australia, Germany, France, Japan, the United Kingdom and the ESF Consortium for Ocean Drilling (ECOD) including 12 further countries. The program used the drillship "JOIDES Resolution" on 110 expeditions (legs) to collect about 2000 deep sea cores from major geological features located in the ocean basins of the world. Drilling discoveries led to further questions and hypotheses, as well as to new disciplines in earth sciences such as the field of paleoceanography. In 2004 ODP transformed into the Integrated (IODP). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=761668 |
The Fauna of British India, Including Ceylon and Burma The Fauna of British India (short title) with long titles including The Fauna of British India, Including Ceylon and Burma, and The Fauna of British India Including the Remainder of the Oriental Region is a series of scientific books that was published by the British government in India and printed by Taylor and Francis of London. The series was started sometime in 1881 after a letter had been sent to the Secretary of State for India signed by Charles Darwin, Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker and other "eminent men of science" forwarded by P.L.Sclater to R.H. Hobart. W. T. Blanford was appointed editor and began work on the volume on mammals. In the volume on the mammals, Blanford notes: The idea was to cover initially the vertebrates, taking seven volumes, and this was followed by a proposal to cover the invertebrates in about 15 to 20 volumes and projected to cost £11,250 to £15,000. Blanford suggested that restricting it to 14 volumes would make it possible to limit the cost to £10,500. After Blanford's death, Arthur Everett Shipley became the editor. The first series was followed by a second edition of some of the volumes such as the mammals, birds, reptiles and butterflies. In 1922-23, Nelson Annandale sought to move the process of preparation of the books and its publication to India. The second edition is sometimes called the "new fauna". There were changes incorporated in this that included for instance the usage of trinomials for the birds | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=763533 |
The Fauna of British India, Including Ceylon and Burma Following Shipley's death in 1927, Lieutenant Colonel John Stephenson, formerly of the Indian Medical Service was appointed editor in May 1928. After Indian Independence in 1947 a few volumes were published under the new name of Fauna of India but some of the volumes that were under preparation were never published. The 1953 volume on polychaetes by Pierre Fauvel was published by the Indian Press from Allahabad. Although these volumes were sanctioned, they were never published. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=763533 |
Bioavailability In pharmacology, bioavailability (BA or F) is a subcategory of absorption and is the fraction (%) of an administered drug that reaches the systemic circulation. By definition, when a medication is administered intravenously, its bioavailability is 100%. However, when a medication is administered via routes other than intravenous, its bioavailability is generally lower than that of intravenous due to intestinal endothelium absorption and first-pass metabolism. Thereby, mathematically, bioavailability equals the ratio of comparing the area under the plasma drug concentration curve versus time (AUC) for the extravascular formulation to the AUC for the intravascular formulation. AUC is utilized because AUC is proportional to the dose that has entered the systemic circulation. of a drug is an average value; to take into account of population variability, deviation range is given in ±. To ensure that the drug taker who has poor absorption is dosed appropriately, the bottom value of the deviation range is employed to represent real bioavailability to calculate drug dose needed for the drug taker to achieve systemic drug concentrations similar to the intravenous formulation. To dose without the prerequisite of drug taker's absorption state, the bottom value of the deviation range is used in order to ensure the anticipated efficacy will be met unless the drug is associated with narrow therapeutic window | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=769021 |
Bioavailability For dietary supplements, herbs and other nutrients in which the route of administration is nearly always oral, bioavailability generally designates simply the quantity or fraction of the ingested dose that is absorbed. In pharmacology, bioavailability is a measurement of the rate and extent to which a drug reaches at the site of action. It is denoted by the letter "f" (or, if expressed in percent, by "F"). In nutritional sciences, which covers the intake of nutrients and non-drug dietary ingredients, the concept of bioavailability lacks the well-defined standards associated with the pharmaceutical industry. The pharmacological definition cannot apply to these substances because utilization and absorption is a function of the nutritional status and physiological state of the subject, resulting in even greater differences from individual to individual (inter-individual variation). Therefore, bioavailability for dietary supplements can be defined as the proportion of the administered substance capable of being absorbed and available for use or storage. In both pharmacology and nutrition sciences, bioavailability is measured by calculating the area under curve (AUC) of the drug concentration time profile. is the measure by which various substances in the environment may enter into living organisms | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=769021 |
Bioavailability It is commonly a limiting factor in the production of crops (due to solubility limitation or absorption of plant nutrients to soil colloids) and in the removal of toxic substances from the food chain by microorganisms (due to sorption to or partitioning of otherwise degradable substances into inaccessible phases in the environment). A noteworthy example for agriculture is plant phosphorus deficiency induced by precipitation with iron and aluminum phosphates at low soil pH and precipitation with calcium phosphates at high soil pH. Toxic materials in soil, such as lead from paint may be rendered unavailable to animals ingesting contaminated soil by supplying phosphorus fertilizers in excess. Organic pollutants such as solvents or pesticides may be rendered unavailable to microorganisms and thus persist in the environment when they are adsorbed to soil minerals or partition into hydrophobic organic matter. Absolute bioavailability compares the bioavailability of the active drug in systemic circulation following non-intravenous administration (i.e., after oral, ocular, rectal, transdermal, subcutaneous, or sublingual administration), with the bioavailability of the same drug following intravenous administration. It is the fraction of the drug absorbed through non-intravenous administration compared with the corresponding intravenous administration of the same drug. The comparison must be dose normalized (e.g | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=769021 |
Bioavailability , account for different doses or varying weights of the subjects); consequently, the amount absorbed is corrected by dividing the corresponding dose administered. In pharmacology, in order to determine absolute bioavailability of a drug, a pharmacokinetic study must be done to obtain a "plasma drug concentration vs time" plot for the drug after both intravenous (iv) and extravascular (non-intravenous, i.e., oral) administration. The absolute bioavailability is the dose-corrected area under curve ("AUC") non-intravenous divided by "AUC" intravenous. The formula for calculating the absolute bioavailability, "F", of a drug administered orally (po) is given below (where "D" is dose administered). Therefore, a drug given by the intravenous route will have an absolute bioavailability of 100% ("f" = 1), whereas drugs given by other routes usually have an absolute bioavailability of "less" than one. If we compare the two different dosage forms having same active ingredients and compare the two drug bioavailability is called comparative bioavailability. Although knowing the true extent of systemic absorption (referred to as absolute bioavailability) is clearly useful, in practice it is not determined as frequently as one may think. The reason for this is that its assessment requires an "intravenous reference"; that is, a route of administration that guarantees all of the administered drug reaches systemic circulation | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=769021 |
Bioavailability Such studies come at considerable cost, not least of which is the necessity to conduct preclinical toxicity tests to ensure adequate safety, as well as potential problems due to solubility limitations. These limitations may be overcome, however, by administering a very low dose (typically a few micrograms) of an isotopically labelled drug concomitantly with a therapeutic non-isotopically labelled oral dose (the isotopically-labelled intravenous dose is sufficiently low so as not to perturb the systemic drug concentrations achieved from the non-labelled oral dose). The intravenous and oral concentrations can then be deconvoluted by virtue of their different isotopic constitution, and can thus be used to determine the oral and intravenous pharmacokinetics from the same dose administration. This technique eliminates pharmacokinetic issues with non-equivalent clearance as well as enabling the intravenous dose to be administered with a minimum of toxicology and formulation. The technique was first applied using stable-isotopes such as C and mass-spectrometry to distinguish the isotopes by mass difference. More recently, C labelled drugs are administered intravenously and accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) used to measure the isotopically labelled drug along with mass spectrometry for the unlabelled drug | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=769021 |
Bioavailability There is no regulatory requirement to define the intravenous pharmacokinetics or absolute bioavailability however regulatory authorities do sometimes ask for absolute bioavailability information of the extravascular route in cases in which the bioavailability is apparently low or variable and there is a proven relationship between the pharmacodynamics and the pharmacokinetics at therapeutic doses. In all such cases, to conduct an absolute bioavailability study requires that the drug be given intravenously. Intravenous administration of a developmental drug can provide valuable information on the fundamental pharmacokinetic parameters of volume of distribution ("V") and clearance ("CL"). In pharmacology, relative bioavailability measures the bioavailability (estimated as the "AUC") of a formulation (A) of a certain drug when compared with another formulation (B) of the same drug, usually an established standard, or through administration via a different route. When the standard consists of intravenously administered drug, this is known as absolute bioavailability (see above). Relative bioavailability is one of the measures used to assess bioequivalence ("BE") between two drug products. For FDA approval, a generic manufacturer must demonstrate that the 90% confidence interval for the ratio of the mean responses (usually of "AUC" and the maximum concentration, "C") of its product to that of the "brand name drug" is within the limits of 80% to 125% | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=769021 |
Bioavailability Where "AUC" refers to the concentration of the drug in the blood over time "t" = 0 to "t" = ∞, "C" refers to the maximum concentration of the drug in the blood. When "T" is given, it refers to the time it takes for a drug to reach "C". While the mechanisms by which a formulation affects bioavailability and bioequivalence have been extensively studied in drugs, formulation factors that influence bioavailability and bioequivalence in nutritional supplements are largely unknown. As a result, in nutritional sciences, relative bioavailability or bioequivalence is the most common measure of bioavailability, comparing the bioavailability of one formulation of the same dietary ingredient to another. The absolute bioavailability of a drug, when administered by an extravascular route, is usually less than one (i.e., "F"< 100%). Various physiological factors reduce the availability of drugs prior to their entry into the systemic circulation. Whether a drug is taken with or without food will also affect absorption, other drugs taken concurrently may alter absorption and first-pass metabolism, intestinal motility alters the dissolution of the drug and may affect the degree of chemical degradation of the drug by intestinal microflora. Disease states affecting liver metabolism or gastrointestinal function will also have an effect | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=769021 |
Bioavailability Other factors may include, but are not limited to: Each of these factors may vary from patient to patient (inter-individual variation), and indeed in the same patient over time (intra-individual variation). In clinical trials, inter-individual variation is a critical measurement used to assess the bioavailability differences from patient to patient in order to ensure predictable dosing. In comparison to drugs, there are significant differences in dietary supplements that impact the evaluation of their bioavailability. These differences include the following: the fact that nutritional supplements provide benefits that are variable and often qualitative in nature; the measurement of nutrient absorption lacks the precision; nutritional supplements are consumed for prevention and well-being; nutritional supplements do not exhibit characteristic dose-response curves; and dosing intervals of nutritional supplements, therefore, are not critical in contrast to drug therapy. In addition, the lack of defined methodology and regulations surrounding the consumption of dietary supplements hinders the application of bioavailability measures in comparison to drugs. In clinical trials with dietary supplements, bioavailability primarily focuses on statistical descriptions of mean or average AUC differences between treatment groups, while often failing to compare or discuss their standard deviations or inter-individual variation | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=769021 |
Bioavailability This failure leaves open the question of whether or not an individual in a group is likely to experience the benefits described by the mean-difference comparisons. Further, even if this issue were discussed, it would be difficult to communicate meaning of these inter-subject variances to consumers and/or their physicians. One way to resolve this problem is to define "reliable bioavailability" as positive bioavailability results (an absorption meeting a predefined criterion) that include 84% of the trial subjects and "universal bioavailability" as those that include 98% of the trial subjects. This reliable-universal framework would improve communications with physicians and consumers such that, if it were included on products labels for example, make educated choices as to the benefits of a formulation for them directly. In addition, the reliable-universal framework is similar to the construction of confidence intervals, which statisticians have long offered as one potential solution for dealing with small samples, violations of statistical assumptions or large standard deviations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=769021 |
Pierre Joseph Bonnaterre Abbé (1752, Aveyron – 20 September 1804, Saint-Geniez) was a French naturalist who contributed sections on cetaceans, mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, and insects to the "Tableau encyclopédique et méthodique". He is also notable as the first scientist to study the feral child Victor of Aveyron. Bonnaterre is credited with identifying about 25 new species of fish, and assembled illustrations of about 400 in his encyclopedia work. He was the first scientist to study Victor, the wild child of Aveyron, whose life inspired François Truffaut for his film "The Wild Child". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=774144 |
Miguel Itzigsohn (1908–1978) was an Argentine astronomer and observer of comets, credited by the Minor Planet Center with the discovery of 15 asteroids between 1948 and 1954. The outer main-belt asteroid 1596 Itzigsohn, which he discovered himself, was named in his memory on 1 August 1980 (). Itzigsohn was a professor of spherical and practical astronomy. From 1955 to 1972, he was director of the extrameridian astronomy department at the La Plata Astronomical Observatory, specializing in astrometry and celestial mechanics. He was responsible for the surge in observational and computational activity in studies of minor planets in Argentina following World War II. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=774404 |
Carlos Ulrrico Cesco (died 1987) was an Argentine astronomer. He lived most of his life in San Juan, Argentina. He was a well-known discoverer of minor planets credited by the Minor Planet Center (MPC) with the discovery of 19 numbered minor planets. The "Carlos Ulrico Cesco Observatory" is named after him "(formerly known as the Félix Aguilar Observatory)". His older brother, Ronaldo P. Cesco, was a mathematician and celestial mechanician and director of the La Plata Observatory. They both studied at the Universidad de la Plata. The outer main-belt asteroid 1571 Cesco, discovered by Miguel Itzigsohn at La Plata Observatory in 1950, was named after Carlos and Ronaldo Cesco. The official naming citation was published by the MPC on 6 June 1982 (). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=774502 |
Gordon J. Garradd Gordon John Garradd (born 1959) is an Australian amateur astronomer and photographer from Loomberah, New South Wales. He has discovered numerous asteroids and comets, including the hyperbolic comet C/2009 P1, and four novae in the Large Magellanic Cloud. The asteroid and Mars-crosser, 5066 Garradd, was named in his honour. He has worked for a number of astronomical institutions in the US and Australia, most recently at Siding Spring Observatory on the Siding Spring Survey, part of the NASA-funded Catalina Sky Survey for near-Earth objects (2002–2011). , the Minor Planet Center credits him with the discovery of 31 minor planets "(see table)". There are 16 comets and an asteroid that bear his name. His cometary discoveries include 186P/Garradd (comet Garradd 1), a Jupiter-family comet, and 259P/Garradd (comet Garradd 4), an Encke-type comet. Garradd was born in Australia and lived his early life in Sydney, Canberra, Oberon, and Tamworth. Astronomy has been an interest since his childhood, and he has built many telescopes himself, starting with a 20 cm (8") f/7 Newtonian while still in high school, graduating to making mirrors up to 46 cm (18″) diameter and mounts up to the fork mount for the 46 cm f/5.4 Newtonian, and German equatorial mounted 25 cm (10") f/4.1 that he used for observing near-Earth asteroids and comets. His initial profession was as an accountant, but he left that in 1984 to pursue astronomy and photography full-time. He lives with his wife Hether, off the power grid, using solar and wind power | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=775263 |
Gordon J. Garradd He is a photographer, mountain bike rider, and solar- and wind-power enthusiast. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=775263 |
Shallow donor A shallow donor refers to a donor that contributes an electron that exhibits energy states equivalent to atomic hydrogen with an altered expected mass i.e. the long range coulomb potential of the ion-cores determines the energy levels. Essentially the electron orbits the donor ion within the semiconductor material at approximately the bohr radius. This is in contrast to deep level donors where the short range potential determines the energy levels, not the effective mass states. This contributes additional energy states that can be used for conduction. Introducing impurities in a semiconductor which are used to set free additional electrons in its conduction band is called doping with donors. In a group IV semiconductor like silicon these are most often group V elements like arsenic or antimony. However, these impurities introduce new energy levels in the band gap affecting the band structure which may alter the electronic properties of the semiconductor to a great extent. Having a shallow donor level means that these additional energy levels are not more than formula_1 (0.075 eV at room temperature) away from the lower conduction band edge. This allows us to treat the original semiconductor as unaffected in its electronic properties, with the impurity atoms only increasing the electron concentration. A limit to donor concentration in order to allow treatment as shallow donors is approximately 10 cm. Energy levels due to impurities deeper in the bandgap are called deep levels. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=775808 |
Shaun M. Hughes was an Australian astronomer at Siding Spring Observatory. He co-discovered the periodic comet 130P/McNaught-Hughes. Shaun Hughes left Siding Spring Observatory in 1992 for a fellowship at the California Institute of Technology, where he joined one of the Hubble Space Telescope Key Project teams, to measure the expansion rate of the universe, also known as the Hubble constant. This was achieved by observing Cepheid variable stars to measure distances to about 20 galaxies, then using these distances to tie together various other methods for measuring distances to thousands of galaxies. He also pursued his research on Mira variables, also known as Long period variable stars. These are stars that are similar mass as the sun, only older, after they have become red giants, just prior to becoming planetary nebulae. In 1994 he joined the Royal Greenwich Observatory in Cambridge, England, where he continued his research and supported UK astronomers observe at the La Palma Observatory. In 1998 the UK government, on the advice of some university astronomers, decided to close the Royal Greenwich Observatory. He then had a choice of moving his family back to the United States and stay working in astronomy, or change careers and stay in Cambridge. He chose the latter, and is now a business analyst with Convergys. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=777268 |
Physics of computation The study of the physics of computation relates to understanding the fundamental physical limits of computers. This field has led to the investigation of how thermodynamics limits information processing, the understanding of chaos and dynamical systems, and a rapidly growing effort to invent new quantum computers. See also important publications in physics of computation Lloyd, S., 2000, Ultimate physical limits of computation, "Nature", 406:1047-1054. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=779338 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.