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Konstantin Kozeyev Konstantin Mirovich Kozeyev () is a retired Russian cosmonaut. Kozeyev was born in Korolyov, Moscow Oblast, Russian SFSR on December 1, 1967. He is a graduate student from Moscow Aviation Technology Institute and was selected as a cosmonaut on February 9, 1996. He flew as Flight Engineer on Soyuz TM-33 in 2001. Kozeyev is divorced and has no children. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=873522 |
Aleksandr Lazutkin Aleksandr Ivanovich Lazutkin (; born October 30, 1957) is a Russian cosmonaut. Lazutkin attended the Moscow Aviation Institute and received a mechanical engineering degree. He was selected as cosmonaut on March 3, 1992. His first spaceflight was Soyuz TM-25, on which he was the flight engineer. Lazutkin has said that Russian cosmonauts were given cognac for extended missions in space. Lazutkin was aboard the Mir Space Station when a collision occurred with the unmanned Progress M34, its supply craft which was piloted by Vasily Tsibliyev while on the Mir. The collision, which is considered the worst in the history of the space age, knocked out the Spektr's solar panels and took the Mir out of its alignment with the sun, also causing it to lose power. It also caused the cabin to decompress. Quick action by the three crewmen managed to stave off immediate disaster. Lazutkin and fellow crewman Michael Foale quickly severed the connecting cables with the module and sealed off the hatches to the module, saving the rest of the station. Lazutkin managed to successfully cut some of the wires connecting the Mir and the Spektr using a tiny dinner knife. A few days after the collision, Tsibliyev and Lazutkin were ordered to attempt to repair the Mir. Foale was ordered to the Soyuz-TM escape pod. The station was eventually secured safely. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=873599 |
Aleksandr Serebrov Aleksandr Aleksandrovich Serebrov (, 15 February 1944 – 12 November 2013) was a Soviet cosmonaut. He graduated from Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (1967), and was selected as a cosmonaut on 1 December 1978. He retired on 10 May 1995. He was married and had one child. Serebrov flew on Soyuz T-7, Soyuz T-8, Soyuz TM-8 and Soyuz TM-17. He was one of very few cosmonauts to fly for both the Soviet Union and the Russian Federation that followed it. He held the record for most spacewalks, 10, until Anatoly Solovyev surpassed it. In all, he spent 371.95 days in space. Serebrov contributed to the design of Salyut 6, Salyut 7, and the Mir space stations. He helped design, and, according to a New York Times obituary, "was the first to test a one-person vehicle - popularly called a space motorcycle - to rescue space crews in distress and repair satellites." This vehicle, known as "Icarus", was tested in February 1990, and remained onboard "Mir" for several years but was never used after that. Serebrov died suddenly in Moscow on 12 November 2013, aged 69, and was buried on November 15 at Ostankinsky cemetery. He is also known for playing "Tetris" on a Game Boy in the spacecraft, making it the first time a video game has ever been played in space. Asteroid 365375 Serebrov, discovered by Timur Kryachko in 2009, was named in his memory. The official was published by the Minor Planet Center on 8 November 2019 (). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=873661 |
Klaus-Dietrich Flade (born August 23, 1952) is a German pilot and former German Aerospace Center astronaut who visited the Mir space station in 1992 aboard the Soyuz TM-14 mission, returning to Earth a week later aboard Soyuz TM-13. Born in Büdesheim, Germany, he joined the German Air Force after school. Educated initially as an airplane engineer, he studied aerospace engineering at Bundeswehr University Munich from 1976 to 1980. Afterwards he became a pilot. He trained as a test pilot from 1988 to 1989. In October 1990, he was selected as part of the German astronaut team for the Euromir '92 flight. After two years of training, he flew as a research cosmonaut on Soyuz TM-14 in March 1992. After his spaceflight, he returned to the German Air Force. He is now test pilot at Airbus Industrie. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=873698 |
Musa Manarov Musa Khiramanovich Manarov (; born March 22, 1951 in Baku, Azerbaijan SSR) is a former cosmonaut who spent 541 days in space. He was a colonel in the Soviet Air Force and graduated from the Moscow Aviation Institute with an engineering qualification in 1974. Musa was selected as a cosmonaut on December 1, 1978. From December 21, 1987 to December 21, 1988 he flew as flight engineer on Soyuz TM-4. The flight duration was 365 days 22 hours 38 minutes. From December 2, 1990 to May 26, 1991 he flew again as a flight engineer on Soyuz TM-11. The duration was 175 days 1 hour 50 minutes, the longest continuous time spent in space by anyone at that time. During his 176-day stay, Manarov observed the Earth and worked in space manufacturing. He also performed 20 hours of spacewalks. Manarov lives in Russia. Foreign awards: Manarov is married with two children. He is an ethnic Lak. He lives in Moscow, while his mother still lives in Baku. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=873716 |
Calyptra (from καλύπτρα ("kalúptra") "veil") is a scientific term used in botany for a covering, hood or lid. It describes a feature in plant morphology. In bryophytes, the calyptra ("plural" calyptrae) is an enlarged archegonial venter that protects the capsule containing the embryonic sporophyte. The calyptra is usually lost before the spores are released from the capsule. The shape of the calyptra can be used for identification purposes. In flowering plants, the calyptra is a covering tissue for stamens and carpels. The name is also used for the capping tissue of roots, the root cap. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=873744 |
Aleksandr Nikolayevich Balandin () (born July 30, 1953) is a Russian cosmonaut. He is married with two children. He was selected as a cosmonaut on December 1, 1978, and retired on October 17, 1994. He flew as a flight engineer on Soyuz TM-9. He worked at NPO Energia until 1994, and was then President of Lendint-Association until 2000. He was awarded: He was born on July 30, 1953 in Fryazino. In 1970, he graduated from high school in Fryazino, and in 1976, the Bauman Moscow State Technical University, with specialty - Flight Dynamics and Control. He worked as an engineer in the Moscow region at the Scientific Production Association (SPA) "Energy". On December 8, 1978, he was enrolled in the cosmonaut detachment (the 5th recruitment of civilian specialists from SPA Energia), and was prepared for flying at the Buran reusable spacecraft (1979-1984), Soyuz-TM spacecraft and Mir space station. In September 1989 - flight engineer of the backup crew of the Soyuz TM-8. On September 5, 1989, Soyuz TM-8 Union reached the orbit with the main crew (Aleksandr Serebrov and Aleksandr Viktorenko). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=873754 |
Aleksandr Pavlovich Aleksandrov (; born February 20, 1943) is a former Soviet cosmonaut and twice Hero of the Soviet Union (November 23, 1983, and December 29, 1987). Born in Moscow, Russia, he graduated from Moscow Bauman-Highschool in 1969 with a doctorate degree, specialised on spacecraft steering systems. He was selected as cosmonaut on December 1, 1978. For his first spaceflight, he flew as Flight Engineer on Soyuz T-9, which lasted from June to November 1983. For his second spaceflight, he replaced one of the long-duration crew members of Mir EO-2. For the spaceflight, he was launched with the spacecraft Soyuz TM-3 in July 1987, and landed with the same spacecraft in December 1987. All together he spent 309 days, 18 hours, 2 minutes in space. He served as backup for Soyuz T-8, Soyuz T-13, and Soyuz T-15. He resigned from the cosmonaut team on October 26, 1993, when he became chief of NPOE Cosmonaut-group; since 1996 he is Chief flight test directorate of RKKE. He is married with two children. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=873819 |
Vladimir Lyakhov Vladimir Afanasyevich Lyakhov (; 20 July 1941 – 19 April 2018) was a Ukrainian Soviet cosmonaut. He was selected as cosmonaut on 5 May 1967, and retired on 7 September 1994. Lyakhov was the Commander on Soyuz 32, Soyuz T-9, and Soyuz TM-6, and spent 333 days, 7 hours, 47 minutes in space. He was married and had two children. He was awarded: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=873833 |
Anatoly Levchenko Anatoly Semyonovich Levchenko (; May 5, 1941 – August 6, 1988) was a Soviet cosmonaut. Levchenko was planned to be the back-up commander of the first Buran space shuttle flight, and in March 1987 he began extensive training for a Soyuz spaceflight, intended to give him some experience in space. In December 1987, he occupied the third seat aboard the spacecraft Soyuz TM-4 to the space station Mir, and returned to Earth about a week later on Soyuz TM-3. His mission is sometimes called Mir LII-1, after the Gromov Flight Research Institute shorthand. In the year following his spaceflight, Levchenko died of a brain tumor, in the Nikolay Burdenko Neurosurgical Institute in Moscow. Selected as a cosmonaut on July 12, 1980. He was married with one child. He was awarded the titles of Hero of the Soviet Union and Pilot-Cosmonaut of the USSR and the Order of Lenin. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=873844 |
Muhammed Faris Muhammed Ahmed Faris (, "Muḥammad ʾAḥmad Fāris"; born 26 May 1951) is a Syrian military aviator. He was the first Syrian and the second Arab in space. Born in Aleppo, Syria, he was a pilot in the Syrian Air Force with the rank of a colonel. He specialized in navigation when he was selected to participate in the Intercosmos spaceflight program on 30 September 1985. He flew as Research Cosmonaut in the Interkosmos program on Soyuz TM-3 to the Mir space station in July 1987, spending 7 days 23 hours and 5 minutes in space. He returned to Earth aboard Soyuz TM-2. Faris was awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union on 30 July 1987; he was also awarded the Order of Lenin. After his spaceflight, Faris returned to the Syrian Air Force and lived in Aleppo. On 4 August 2012, during the Syrian Civil War, Faris defected from and joined the armed opposition. On 13 September 2012, made an exclusive interview with Al Aan TV and covered many topics regarding the ongoing civil war in Syria. Faris is also part of the Syrian National Coordination Committee for Democratic Change, an anti-Assad grouping. In a March 2016 interview as a Syrian refugee in Turkey, Faris stated regarding the ongoing Syrian Civil War: "I tell Europe if you don't want refugees, then you should help us get rid of this regime," adding "I am very sorry about the Russian interference, which has stood on the side of dictator Bashar Assad, and has begun to kill the Syrian people with their planes" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=873854 |
Muhammed Faris In September 2017, Faris was appointed Defense Minister of the Syrian Interim Government, a self-appointed opposition grouping. Faris is married and has three children. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=873854 |
Aleksandr Laveykin Aleksandr Ivanovich Laveykin (; born April 21, 1951) is a retired Soviet cosmonaut. Born in Moscow, Laveykin was selected as a cosmonaut on December 1, 1978. He flew on one spaceflight, for the first part of the long duration expedition Mir EO-2. He flew as a flight engineer, and was both launched and landed with the spacecraft Soyuz TM-2. He spent 174 days 3 hours 25 minutes in space. Married with one child, Laveykin retired on March 28, 1994. Launched in February 1987, his spaceflight was intended to last until December 1987, but doctors on the ground determined that he was having minor heart irregularities. For this reason, in July he was replaced by Soviet cosmonaut Aleksandr Pavlovich Aleksandrov, who stayed on Mir to the end of the expedition in December. He was awarded the titles of Hero of the Soviet Union and Pilot-Cosmonaut of the USSR, Order of Lenin and the Russian Federation Medal "For Merit in Space Exploration". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=873868 |
Leonid Kizim Leonid Denisovich Kizim (; 5 August 1941 – 14 June 2010) was a Soviet cosmonaut. Kizim was born in Krasnyi Lyman, Donetsk Oblast, Soviet Union (now Lyman, Ukraine). He graduated from Higher Air Force School in 1975; and served as a test pilot in the Soviet Air Force. He was selected as a cosmonaut on October 23, 1965. Kizim flew as Commander on Soyuz T-3, Soyuz T-10 and Soyuz T-15, and also served as backup commander for Soyuz T-2. All together he spent 374 days 17 hours 56 minutes in space. On Soyuz T-15, he was part of the only crew to visit two space stations on one spaceflight (Mir and Salyut 7). He later served as Deputy Director Satellite Control-Center of the Russian Ministry of Defense; after May 1995 he was Director of the Military Engineering Academy of Aeronautics and Astronautics in St. Petersburg. He retired on June 13, 1987, and died on June 14, 2010. was married with two children. He was awarded: Foreign awards: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=873872 |
Vladimir Vasyutin Vladimir Vladimirovich Vasyutin (Russian: Влaдимиp Bлaдимиpoвич Васютин; 8 March 1952 19 July 2002) was a Soviet cosmonaut. He was selected as a cosmonaut on 1 December 1978 (TsPK-6). He retired on 25 February 1986. Vasyutin was assigned to the TKS program for a new generation of manned military spacecraft that would be docked to the existing Salyut space stations. He flew as the Commander on Soyuz T-14 to the Salyut 7 space station, for part of the long-duration mission Salyut 7 EO-4. He spent 64 days 21 hours 52 minutes in space. The TKS module was already docked to the Salyut and Vasyutin was due to lead an extended programme of military space experiments. However Vasyutin fell ill soon after arriving at the station and was unable to perform his duties. Although he was originally scheduled to have a six-month stay aboard Salyut 7, his illness forced the crew to make an emergency return to Earth after only two months. His illness is said to have been caused by a prostate infection, which had manifested itself as inflammation and a fever. He graduated from Higher Air Force School and from Test Pilot School, both in Kharkov. He was a Lieutenant General in the Soviet Air Forces, and took cosmonaut basic training in August 1976. He retired for medical reasons. He later became Deputy Faculty Chief, VVA - Gagarin Air Force Academy, Monino. He was married and had two children. He died of cancer. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=873880 |
Yuri Malyshev (cosmonaut) Yuri Vasilyevich Malyshev (; 27 August 1941 8 November 1999) was a Soviet cosmonaut who served on the Soyuz T-2 (5–9 June 1980) and Soyuz T-11 (3–11 April 1984) missions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=873893 |
Leonid Popov Leonid Ivanovich Popov (; born August 31, 1945) is a former Soviet cosmonaut. Popov was born in Oleksandriia, Kirovohrad Oblast, Ukrainian SSR. He was selected as a cosmonaut on April 27, 1970, and flew as Commander on Soyuz 35, Soyuz 40 and Soyuz T-7, logging 200 days, 14 hours, and 45 minutes in space before his retirement on June 13, 1987. Popov is married with two children. He was awarded: Foreign awards: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=873934 |
Anatoly Berezovoy Anatoly Nikolayevich Berezovoy (; 11 April 1942 – 20 September 2014) was a Soviet cosmonaut. Berezovoy was born in Enem, Adyghe Autonomous Oblast, Russian SFSR in a Ukrainian family. He was married with two children and graduated from the Air Force Academy. On 27 April 1970 he was selected as a cosmonaut. In 1982 he flew as Commander on Soyuz T-5 on the first mission to the Salyut 7 space station, returning to Earth on the Soyuz T-7 after 211 days 9 hours. He retired on 31 October 1992 due to age. From 1992 to 1999, he was a Deputy President of Russian Space Federation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=873940 |
Aleksandr Ivanchenkov Aleksandr Sergeyevich Ivanchenkov (; born 28 September 1940 ) is a retired Soviet cosmonaut who flew as Flight Engineer on Soyuz 29 and Soyuz T-6, he spent 147 days, 12 hours and 37 minutes in space. Ivanchenkov is married with one child. He was selected as a cosmonaut on 27 March 1973. He retired on 3 November 1993. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=873947 |
Vladimir Aksyonov Vladimir Viktorovich Aksyonov (Влади́мир Ви́кторович Аксёнов) (born in Giblitsy, Kasimovsky District, Ryazan Oblast, Russian SFSR, on 1 February 1935) is a former Soviet cosmonaut, married with two children. He graduated from institute of Engineering with diploma and graduated from Air Force Institute and graduated from polytechnical Institute. He was a candidate technical science. Aksyonov was selected as cosmonaut on 3 March 1973. He was awarded the title of the Hero of the Soviet Union on two occasions. He retired on 17 October 1988. Flew as Flight Engineer on Soyuz 22 and Soyuz T-2. He is currently director of the institute for research of Russian mineral resources. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=873965 |
Vyacheslav Zudov Vyacheslav Dmitriyevich Zudov (, born 8 January 1942) is a retired USSR cosmonaut. He was selected as a cosmonaut on 23 October 1965, flew as Commander on Soyuz 23 on 14–16 October 1976 and retired on 14 May 1987. Zudov is married and has two children. He was awarded: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=873990 |
Valery Rozhdestvensky Valery Ilyich Rozhdestvensky (Russian: Валерий Ильич Рождественский; 13 February 1939 – 31 August 2011) was a Soviet cosmonaut. Rozhdestvensky was born in Leningrad and graduated from the Higher Military Engineering School of Soviet Navy in Pushkin in engineering. From 1961 to 1965 he was commander of a deepsea diving unit in the Baltic Sea War Fleet. Rozhdestvensky was selected as a cosmonaut on 23 October 1965 and flew as Flight Engineer on Soyuz 23. After his space flight he continued to work with the space program at the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center. He retired on 24 June 1986 and worked with Metropolis Industries. He was married with one child. He died on 31 August 2011 at the age of 72. He was awarded: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=873996 |
Colemanite (CaBO·5HO) or (CaBO(OH)·HO) is a found in evaporite deposits of alkaline lacustrine environments. is a secondary mineral that forms by alteration of borax and ulexite. It was first described in 1884 for an occurrence near Furnace Creek in Death Valley and was named after William Tell Coleman (1824–1893), owner of the mine "Harmony Borax Works" where it was first found. At the time, Coleman had alternatively proposed the name "smithite" instead after his business associate Francis Marion Smith. is an important ore of boron, and was the most important boron ore until the discovery of kernite in 1926. It has many industrial uses, like the manufacturing of heat resistant glass. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=875176 |
Rudolf Hoernes (7 October 1850 – 20 August 1912) was an Austrian geologist, born in Vienna, son of Moritz Hoernes. He studied under Eduard Suess and became a Professor of geology in Graz. He was known for his earthquake studies in 1878 and proposed a classification of earthquakes into subsidence earthquakes, volcanic earthquakes and tectonic earthquakes. In 1893 he published a detailed textbook on earthquake theory (Erdbebenkunde) from a geological point of view. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=876833 |
Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Herbst (1 November 1743 – 5 November 1807) was a German naturalist and entomologist from Petershagen, Minden-Ravensberg. He served as a chaplain in the Prussian army. His marriage in Berlin, 1770, with Euphrosyne Luise Sophie (1742–1805), daughter of the Prussian "Hofrat" Libert Waldschmidt seems to have been childless. He was the joint editor, with Carl Gustav Jablonsky, of "Naturgeschichte der in- und ausländischen Insekten" (1785–1806, 10 volumes), which was one of the first attempts at a complete survey of the order Coleoptera. Herbst's "Naturgeschichte der Krabben und Krebse", released in installments, was the first full survey of crustaceans. Herbst's other works included "Anleitung zur Kenntnis der Insekten" (1784–86, 3 volumes), "Naturgeschichte der Krabben und Krebse" (1782–1804, 3 volumes), "Einleitung zur Kenntnis der Würmer" (1787–88, 2 volumes) and "Natursystem der ungeflügelten Insekten" (Classification of the unwinged insects) (1797–1800, 4 parts). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=877256 |
Alexander Spirin Alexander Sergeevich Spirin (Russian: Александр Сергеевич Спирин) (born September 4, 1931) is a Russian biochemist, Distinguished Professor at the Lomonosov Moscow State University (since 1999), a former Director of Institute of Protein Research Russian Academy of Sciences, Puschino (Пущино-на-Оке), Moscow Region (Московская Область), Academician of Russian Academy of Sciences. His primary scientific interests in biochemistry include nucleic acids and protein biosynthesis. In 1957 together with Andrey Nikolayevich Belozersky (Андрей Николаевич Белозерский) he conducted comparative analysis of bacterial DNA and RNA, and predicted existence of messenger RNA. He gave the first qualitative description of the structure of high-polymer RNA (1959–61). In 1963 he discovered structural transitions of ribosomes and formulated one of the principles of structure of ribosomes. He discovered artificial ribosomal self-assembly (1963–66). Proposed a molecular mechanism of the ribosome role in protein synthesis (1968). He conducted extra-cellular protein synthesis on modified ribosomes — non-enzymatic translation (together with L.P. Gavrilova) (1970–74). In 1957, he defended his Candidate's Dissertation. In 1962, he defended his doctoral dissertation. In 1964, he received the title of Professor. He was elected a corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR in 1966 and full member in 1970. Dr | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=879527 |
Alexander Spirin Spirin was awarded the Sir Hans Krebs Medal in 1969, elected an Honorary Fellow of University of Granada in 1972 and awarded the prestigious Demidov Prize in 2013. In 1974 he was elected a Member of the German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina. He was elected a foreign associate of the US National Academy of Sciences in April 2019. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=879527 |
Accordion effect In physics, the accordion effect, known also as the slinky effect, concertina effect, elastic band effect, and string instability, occurs when fluctuations in the motion of a travelling body causes disruptions in the flow of elements following it. This can happen in road traffic, foot marching, bicycle and motor racing, and, in general, to processes in a pipeline. These are examples of nonlinear processes. The accordion effect generally decreases the throughput of the system in which it occurs. The accordion effect in road traffic refers to the typical decelerations and accelerations of a vehicle when the vehicle in front decelerates and accelerates. These fluctuations in speed propagate backwards and typically get bigger and bigger further down the line, decreasing the throughput of road traffic. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=882160 |
Andrey Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky Andrey Petrovich Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky () (1866–1942) was a Russian entomologist specializing in beetles. He was the son of Pyotr Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky. He entered the St. Petersburg University in 1885. In 1888 and 1889 he traveled to the Trans-Caspian and Turkestan regions in search of insects, then in 1890 became a curator at the Imperial Academy of Sciences. Citations of this author most frequently bear the spelling Semenov-Tian-Shanskij (e.g. ). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=883109 |
Lipidomics is the large-scale study of pathways and networks of cellular lipids in biological systems The word "lipidome" is used to describe the complete lipid profile within a cell, tissue, organism, or ecosystem and is a subset of the "metabolome" which also includes the three other major classes of biological molecules: proteins/amino-acids, sugars and nucleic acids. is a relatively recent research field that has been driven by rapid advances in technologies such as mass spectrometry (MS), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, fluorescence spectroscopy, dual polarisation interferometry and computational methods, coupled with the recognition of the role of lipids in many metabolic diseases such as obesity, atherosclerosis, stroke, hypertension and diabetes. This rapidly expanding field complements the huge progress made in genomics and proteomics, all of which constitute the family of systems biology. research involves the identification and quantification of the thousands of cellular lipid molecular species and their interactions with other lipids, proteins, and other metabolites. Investigators in lipidomics examine the structures, functions, interactions, and dynamics of cellular lipids and the changes that occur during perturbation of the system. Han and Gross first defined the field of lipidomics through integrating the specific chemical properties inherent in lipid molecular species with a comprehensive mass spectrometric approach | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=884805 |
Lipidomics Although lipidomics is under the umbrella of the more general field of "metabolomics", lipidomics is itself a distinct discipline due to the uniqueness and functional specificity of lipids relative to other metabolites. In lipidomic research, a vast amount of information quantitatively describing the spatial and temporal alterations in the content and composition of different lipid molecular species is accrued after perturbation of a cell through changes in its physiological or pathological state. Information obtained from these studies facilitates mechanistic insights into changes in cellular function. Therefore, lipidomic studies play an essential role in defining the biochemical mechanisms of lipid-related disease processes through identifying alterations in cellular lipid metabolism, trafficking and homeostasis. The growing attention on lipid research is also seen from the initiatives underway of the LIPID Metabolites And Pathways Strategy (LIPID MAPS Consortium). and The European Initiative (ELIfe). Lipids are a diverse and ubiquitous group of compounds which have many key biological functions, such as acting as structural components of cell membranes, serving as energy storage sources and participating in signaling pathways. Lipids may be broadly defined as hydrophobic or amphipathic small molecules that originate entirely or in part from two distinct types of biochemical subunits or "building blocks": ketoacyl and isoprene groups | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=884805 |
Lipidomics The huge structural diversity found in lipids arises from the biosynthesis of various combinations of these building blocks. For example, glycerophospholipids are composed of a glycerol backbone linked to one of approximately 10 possible headgroups and also to 2 fatty acyl/alkyl chains, which in turn may have 30 or more different molecular structures. In practice, not all possible permutations are detected experimentally, due to chain preferences depending on the cell type and also to detection limits - nevertheless several hundred distinct glycerophospholipid molecular species have been detected in mammalian cells. Plant chloroplast thylakoid membranes however, have "unique lipid composition" as they are deficient in phospholipids. Also, their largest constituent, "monogalactosyl diglyceride or MGDG", does not form aqueous bilayers. Nevertheless, dynamic studies reveal a normal lipid bilayer organisation in thylakoid membranes. Most methods of lipid extraction and isolation from biological samples exploit the high solubility of hydrocarbon chains in organic solvents. Given the diversity in lipid classes, it is not possible to accommodate all classes with a common extraction method. The traditional Bligh/Dyer procedure uses chloroform/methanol-based protocols that include phase partitioning into the organic layer. These protocols work relatively well for a wide variety of physiologically relevant lipids but they have to be adapted for complex lipid chemistries and low-abundance and labile lipid metabolites | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=884805 |
Lipidomics When organic soil was used, citrate buffer in the extraction mixture gave higher amounts of lipid phosphate than acetate buffer, Tris, HO or phosphate buffer. The simplest method of lipid separation is the use of thin layer chromatography (TLC). Although not as sensitive as other methods of lipid detection, it offers a rapid and comprehensive screening tool prior to more sensitive and sophisticated techniques. Solid-phase extraction (SPE) chromatography is useful for rapid, preparative separation of crude lipid mixtures into different lipid classes. This involves the use of prepacked columns containing silica or other stationary phases to separate glycerophospholipids, fatty acids, cholesteryl esters, glycerolipids, and sterols from crude lipid mixtures. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC or LC) is extensively used in lipidomic analysis to separate lipids prior to mass analysis. Separation can be achieved by either normal-phase (NP) HPLC or reverse-phase (RP) HPLC. For example, NP-HPLC effectively separates glycerophospholipids on the basis of headgroup polarity, whereas RP-HPLC effectively separates fatty acids such as eicosanoids on the basis of chain length, degree of unsaturation and substitution. For global, untargeted lipidomic studies it is common to use both RP and NP or Hydrophilic Interaction Liquid Chromatrography (HILC) columns for increased lipidome coverage | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=884805 |
Lipidomics The application of nano-flow liquid chromatography (nLC) proved thereby to be most efficient to enhance both general measurement sensitivity and lipidome coverage for a global lipidomics approach. Chromatographic (HPLC/UHPLC) separation of lipids may either be performed offline or online where the eluate is integrated with the ionization source of a mass spectrometer. The progress of modern lipidomics has been greatly accelerated by the development of spectrometric methods in general and soft ionization techniques for mass spectrometry such as electrospray ionization (ESI), desorption electrospray ionization (DESI), and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) in particular. "Soft" ionization does not cause extensive fragmentation, so that comprehensive detection of an entire range of lipids within a complex mixture can be correlated to experimental conditions or disease state. In addition, the technique of atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI) has become increasingly popular for the analysis of nonpolar lipids. ESI-MS was initially developed by Fenn and colleagues for analysis of biomolecules. It depends on the formation of gaseous ions from polar, thermally labile and mostly non-volatile molecules and thus is completely suitable for a variety of lipids. It is a soft-ionization method that rarely disrupts the chemical nature of the analyte prior to mass analysis | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=884805 |
Lipidomics Various ESI-MS methods have been developed for analysis of different classes, subclasses, and individual lipid species from biological extracts. Comprehensive reviews of the methods and their application have recently been published. The major advantages of ESI-MS are high accuracy, sensitivity, reproducibility, and the applicability of the technique to complex solutions without prior derivatization. Han and coworkers have developed a method known as"shotgun lipidomics" which involves direct infusion of a crude lipid extract into an ESI source optimized for intrasource separation of lipids based on their intrinsic electrical properties. DESI mass spectrometry is an ambient ionization technique developed by Professor Zoltan Takáts, et al., in Professor Graham Cooks' group from Purdue University. It combines the ESI and desorption ionization techniques, by directing an electrically charged mist to the sample surface that is a few millimeters away. The technique has been successfully applied to lipidomics as imaging tool to map the lipid distributions within tissue specimens. One of the advantages of DESI MS is that no matrix is required for tissue preparation, allowing multiple consecutive measurements on the same tissue specimen. MALDI mass spectrometry is a laser-based soft-ionization method often used for analysis of large proteins, but has been used successfully for lipids. The lipid is mixed with a matrix, such as 2,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid, and applied to a sample holder as a small spot | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=884805 |
Lipidomics A laser is fired at the spot, and the matrix absorbs the energy, which is then transferred to the analyte, resulting in ionization of the molecule. MALDI-Time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) MS has become a very promising approach for lipidomics studies, particularly for the imaging of lipids from tissue slides. The source for APCI is similar to ESI except that ions are formed by the interaction of the heated analyte solvent with a corona discharge needle set at a high electrical potential. Primary ions are formed immediately surrounding the needle, and these interact with the solvent to form secondary ions that ultimately ionize the sample. APCI is particularly useful for the analysis of nonpolar lipids such as triacylglycerols, sterols, and fatty acid esters. The high sensitivity of DESI in the lipid range makes it a powerful technique for the detection and mapping of lipids abundances within tissue specimens. Recent developments in MALDI methods have enabled direct detection of lipids in-situ. Abundant lipid-related ions are produced from the direct analysis of thin tissue slices when sequential spectra are acquired across a tissue surface that has been coated with a MALDI matrix. Collisional activation of the molecular ions can be used to determine the lipid family and often structurally define the molecular species. These techniques enable detection of phospholipids, sphingolipids and glycerolipids in tissues such as heart, kidney and brain | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=884805 |
Lipidomics Furthermore, distribution of many different lipid molecular species often define anatomical regions within these tissues. Lipid profiling is a targeted metabolomics platform that provides a comprehensive analysis of lipid species within a cell or tissue. Profiling based on electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-MS/MS) is capable of providing quantitative data and is adaptable to high throughput analyses. The powerful approach of transgenics, namely deletion and/or overexpression of a gene product coupled with lipidomics, can give valuable insights into the role of biochemical pathways. Lipid profiling techniques have also been applied to plants and microorganisms such as yeast.A combination of quantitative lipidomic data in conjunction with the corresponding transcriptional data (using gene-array methods) and proteomic data (using tandem MS) enables a systems biology approach to a more in-depth understanding of the metabolic or signaling pathways of interest. A major challenge for lipidomics, in particular for MS-based approaches, lies in the computational and bioinformatic demands of handling the large amount of data that arise at various stages along the chain of information acquisition and processing. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=884805 |
Insect collecting refers to the collection of insects and other arthropods for scientific study or as a hobby. Because most insects are small and the majority cannot be identified without the examination of minute morphological characters, entomologists often make and maintain insect collections. Very large collections are conserved in natural history museums or universities where they are maintained and studied by specialists. Many college courses require students to form small collections. There are also amateur entomologists and collectors who keep collections. Historically, insect collecting has been widespread and was in the Victorian age a very popular educational hobby. has left traces in European cultural history, literature and songs (e.g., Georges Brassens's "La chasse aux papillons" ("The Hunt for Butterflies")). The practice is still widespread in many countries, and is particularly common among Japanese youths. Insects are passively caught using funnels, pitfall traps, bottle traps, malaise traps, flight interception traps and other passive types of insect traps, some of which are baited with small bits of sweet foods (such as honey). Different designs of ultraviolet light traps such as the Robinson trap are also used by entomologists for collecting nocturnal insects (especially moths) during faunistic survey studies. Aspirators or "pooters" suck up insects too small or delicate to handle with fingers. Several different types of nets are commonly used to actively collect insects | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=889726 |
Insect collecting Aerial insect nets are used to collect flying insects. The bag of a butterfly net is generally constructed from a lightweight mesh to minimize damage to delicate butterfly wings. A sweep net is used to collect insects from grass and brush. It is similar to a butterfly net, except that the bag is generally constructed from more rugged material.The sweep net is swept back and forth through vegetation quickly turning the opening from side to side and following a shallow figure eight pattern. The collector walks forward while sweeping, and the net is moved through plants and grasses with force.This requires a heavy net fabric such as sailcloth to prevent tearing, although light nets can be used if swept less vigorously. Sweeping continues for some distance and then the net is flipped over, with the bag hanging over the rim, trapping the insects until they can be removed with a pooter. Other types of nets used for collecting insects include beating nets and aquatic nets. Leaf litter sieves are used by coleopterists and to collect larvae. Once collected, a killing jar is used to kill required insects before they damage themselves trying to escape. However, killing jars are generally only used on hard-bodied insects. Soft-bodied insects, such as those in the larval stage, are generally fixed in a vial containing an ethanol and water solution. Another now mostly historical approach is Caterpillar inflation where the innards were removed and the skin dried | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=889726 |
Insect collecting There are several different preservation methods that are used; some of which include: dried preservation (pinning), liquid preservation, slide mounts, other various preservation methods. Dried preservation is by far the most common form of insect preservation. The large majority of the time insects are pinned vertically through their mesothorax and slightly off-center to the right of the mid-line. It is better to pin a insect that has died recently enough that they have not dried yet because it allows the thoracic muscles to adhere to the pin (previously dried specimens must have glue applied to the pin location to avoid spinning). the pin should sit with 1/4 of the pin above the insect as to allow enough room for labels to be readable underneath. When pinning insects with wings for display it is important to display them properly: Lepidoptera wings should always be spread. Orthopteroids often have left wings spread. In scientific collections it is often found that the insect's wings, legs, and antenna are tucked underneath it to conserve space. When pin-mounting small insects the insect is glued to a piece of non acidic, triangle paper. This is called pointing. When drying an insect the relaxed insect is spread out accordingly using pins on a foam block where it can dry and retain its positioning. When drying insects with wings such as butterflies setting paper is used to position the wings | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=889726 |
Insect collecting When labeling insects the labels are presented in this order top down: Locality, additional locality/voucher label/accession numbers, insect identification. Rare insects, or those from distant parts of the world, may also be acquired from dealers or by trading. Some noted insect collections have been sold at auction. "Pokémon" creator Satoshi Tajiri's childhood hobby of insect collecting is the inspiration behind the popular video game series. Picture Guide series For college students. Out of date but very useful for beginners. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=889726 |
Reinhardt Kristensen Reinhardt Møbjerg Kristensen (born 1948) is a Danish invertebrate biologist, noted for the discovery of three new phyla of microscopic animals: the Loricifera in 1983, the Cycliophora in 1995, and the Micrognathozoa in 2000. He is also considered one of the world's leading experts on tardigrades. His recent field of work revolves mostly around arctic biology. He is also known for documenting "Dendrogramma", an invertebrate genus that was later classified as Siphonophorae of the family Rhodaliidae. Kristensen collected the first members of the Loricifera phylum in Roscoff, France, in 1970, but did not describe it until 1983. Kristensen and Peter Funch described "Symbion pandora", on the mouth-parts of Norwegian lobsters, in 1995; other species were later found on other types of lobsters. Kristensen described "Limnognathia maerski", the first (and so far only) known species in the group, in a cold spring on Disko Island in 2000. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=897478 |
Geopark A geopark is a unified area that advances the protection and use of geological heritage in a sustainable way, and promotes the economic well-being of the people who live there. There are global geoparks and national geoparks. A UNESCO definition of "global geopark" is a unified area with a geological heritage of international significance. Geoparks use that heritage to promote awareness of key issues facing society in the context of our dynamic planet. Many geoparks promote awareness of geological hazards, including volcanoes, earthquakes and tsunamis and many help prepare disaster mitigation strategies with local communities. Geoparks embody records of past climate changes and are indicators of current climate changes as well as demonstrating a "best practise" approach to using renewable energy and employing the best standards of "green tourism". Tourism industry promotion in geoparks, as a geographically sustainable and applicable tourism model, aims to sustain, and even enhance, the geographical character of a place. Geoparks also inform about the sustainable use and need for natural resources, whether they are mined, quarried or harnessed from the surrounding environment while at the same time promoting respect for the environment and the integrity of the landscape. Geoparks are not a legislative designation though the key heritage sites within a geopark are often protected under local, regional or national legislation | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=898161 |
Geopark The multidisciplinary nature of the concept of geopark and tourism promotion in geoparks differentiates itself from other models of sustainable tourism. In fact, sustainable tourism promotion within geoparks encompasses many of the features of sustainable tourism including geo-tourism (geo-site tourism: as a basic factor), community-based tourism and integrated rural tourism (as a vital need), ecotourism, and cultural heritage tourism. The Global Geoparks Network (GGN) is supported by United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Many national geoparks and other local geoparks projects also exist which are not included in the Global Geoparks Network. The geoparks initiative was launched by UNESCO in response to the perceived need for an international initiative that recognizes sites representing an earth science interest. Global Geoparks Network aims at enhancing the value of such sites while at the same time creating employment and promoting regional economic development. The 195 Member States of UNESCO ratified the creation of a new label, the UNESCO Global Geoparks, on 17 November 2015. This expressed governmental recognition of the importance of managing outstanding geological sites and landscapes in a holistic manner. This new designation formalized UNESCO's relationship with the Global Geoparks Network. The Global Geoparks Network works in synergy with UNESCO's World Heritage Centre and Man and the Biosphere (MAB) World Network of Biosphere Reserves | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=898161 |
Geopark The Global Geoparks Network (GGN) was established in 1998 and received "ad hoc" support from UNESCO from 2001 until 2015, when the relationship and designation was formalized. Since 2015, members are officially designated by UNESCO, as UNESCO Global Geoparks. According to the Statutes and Operational Guidelines of the UNESCO Global Geoparks, for a geopark to apply to be included in the GGN, it needs to: See UNESCO Global Geoparks. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=898161 |
Geyserite is a form of opaline silica that is often found around hot springs and geysers. It is sometimes referred to as sinter. Botryoidal geyserite is known as fiorite. In May 2017, evidence of the earliest known life on land may have been found in 3.48-billion-year-old geyserite uncovered in the Pilbara Craton of Western Australia. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=900698 |
Centaurus Cluster The (A3526) is a cluster of hundreds of galaxies, located approximately 170 million light years away in the Centaurus constellation. The brightest member galaxy is the elliptical galaxy NGC 4696 (~11m). The Centaurus cluster shares its supercluster, the Hydra-Centaurus Supercluster, with IC4329 Cluster and Hydra Cluster. The cluster consists of two different sub-groups of galaxies with different velocities. Cen 30 is the main subgroup containing NGC 4696. Cen 45 which is centered on NGC 4709, is moving at 1500 km/s relative to Cen 30, and is believed to be merging with the main cluster. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=902164 |
Riabouchinsky solid In fluid mechanics a is a technique used for approximating boundary layer separation from a bluff body using potential flow. It is named after Dimitri Pavlovitch Riabouchinsky. Riabouchinsky solids are typically used for analysing the behaviour of bodies moving through otherwise quiescent fluid (examples would include moving cars, or buildings in a windfield). Typically the streamline that touches the edge of the body is modelled as having no transverse pressure gradient and thus may be styled as a free surface after separation. The use of Riabouchinsky solids renders d'Alembert's paradox void; the technique typically gives reasonable estimates for the drag offered by bluff bodies moving through inviscid fluids. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=905140 |
Coherent information is an entropy measure used in quantum information theory. It is a property of a quantum state ρ and a quantum channel formula_1; intuitively, it attempts to describe how much of the quantum information in the state will remain after the state goes through the channel. In this sense, it is intuitively similar to the mutual information of classical information theory. The coherent information is written formula_2. The coherent information is defined as formula_3 where formula_4 is the von Neumann entropy of the output and formula_5 is the entropy exchange between the state and the channel. The coherent information was introduced by Benjamin Schumacher and Michael A. Nielsen in a 1996 paper "Quantum data processing and error correction", which appeared in Physical Review A. The same quantity was independently introduced by Seth Lloyd in a paper called “The capacity of the noisy quantum channel” published in Physical Review A. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=908081 |
Umangite is a copper selenide mineral, CuSe, discovered in 1891. It occurs only in small grains or fine granular aggregates with other copper minerals of the sulfide group. It has a hardness of 3. It is blue-black to red-violet in color with a black streak. It has a metallic luster. is named after the locality of Sierra de Umango, La Rioja province in Argentina. It also occurs at other localities including the Harz Mountains in Germany, and at Skrickerum, Sweden. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=910079 |
Georg August Goldfuss (Goldfuß, 18 April 1782 – 2 October 1848) was a German palaeontologist, zoologist and botanist. Goldfuss was born at Thurnau near Bayreuth. He was educated at Erlangen, where he graduated Ph.D. in 1804 and became professor of zoology in 1818. He was subsequently appointed professor of zoology and mineralogy at the University of Bonn. Aided by Count Georg zu Münster, he issued the important "Petrefacta Germaniae" (1826–44), a work which was intended to illustrate the invertebrate fossils of Germany, but it was left incomplete after the sponges, corals, crinoids, echinoderms and part of the mollusca had been figured. A collection of Goldfuss' botanical specimens are housed at Bonn University. Goldfuss died at Bonn. In 1820, he coined the word "protozoa" to refer to single-celled organisms such as ciliates. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=911727 |
Amplicon In molecular biology, an amplicon is a piece of DNA or RNA that is the source and/or product of amplification or replication events. It can be formed artificially, using various methods including polymerase chain reactions (PCR) or ligase chain reactions (LCR), or naturally through gene duplication. In this context, "amplification" refers to the production of one or more copies of a genetic fragment or target sequence, specifically the amplicon. As it refers to the product of an amplification reaction, "amplicon" is used interchangeably with common laboratory terms, such as "PCR product." Artificial amplification is used in research, forensics, and medicine for purposes that include detection and quantification of infectious agents, identification of human remains, and extracting genotypes from human hair. Natural gene duplication plays a major role in evolution. It is also implicated in several forms of human cancer including primary mediastinal B cell lymphoma and Hodgkin's lymphoma. In this context the term "amplicon" can refer both to a section of chromosomal DNA that has been excised, amplified, and reinserted elsewhere in the genome, and to a fragment of extrachromasomal DNA known as a double minute, each of which can be composed of one or more genes. Amplification of the genes encoded by these amplicons generally increases transcription of those genes and ultimately the volume of associated proteins | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=914098 |
Amplicon Amplicons in general are direct repeat (head-to-tail) or inverted repeat (head-to-head or tail-to-tail) genetic sequences, and can be either linear or circular in structure. Circular amplicons consist of imperfect inverted duplications annealed into a circle and are thought to arise from precursor linear amplicons. During artificial amplification, amplicon length is dictated by the experimental goals. Analysis of amplicons has been made possible by the development of amplification methods such as PCR, and increasingly by cheaper and more high-throughput technologies for DNA sequencing or next-generation sequencing, such as ion semiconductor sequencing, popularly referred to as the brand of the developer, Ion Torrent. DNA sequencing technologies such as next-generation sequencing have made it possible to study amplicons in genome biology and genetics, including cancer genetics research, phylogenetic research, and human genetics. For example, using the 16S rRNA gene, which is part of every bacterial and archaeal genome and is highly conserved, bacteria can be taxonomically classified by comparison of the amplicon sequence to known sequences. This works similarly in the fungal domain with the 18S rRNA gene as well as the ITS1 non-coding region. Irrespective of the approach used to amplify the amplicons, some technique must be used to quantitate the amplified product | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=914098 |
Amplicon Generally, these techniques incorporate a capture step and a detection step, although how these steps are incorporated depends on the individual assay. Examples include the Amplicor HIV-1 Monitor Assay (RT-PCR), which has the capacity to recognize HIV in plasma; the HIV-1 QT (NASBA), which is used to measure plasma viral load by amplifying a segment of the HIV RNA; and Transcription Mediated Amplification, which employs a hybridization protection assay to distinguish "Chlamydia trachomatis" infections. Various detection and capture steps are involved in each approach to assess the amplification product, or amplicon. With amplicon sequencing the high number of different amplicons resulting from amplification of a usual sample are concatenated and sequenced. After quality control classification is done by different methods, the counts of identical taxa representing their relative abundance in the sample. PCR can be used to determine sex from a human DNA sample. The loci of Alu element insertion is selected, amplified and evaluated in terms of size of the fragment. The sex assay utilizes AluSTXa for the X chromosome, AluSTYa for the Y chromosome, or both AluSTXa and AluSTYa, to reduce the possibility of error to a negligible quantity. The inserted chromosome yields a large fragment when the homologous region is amplified. The males are distinguished as having two DNA amplicons present, while females have only a single amplicon | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=914098 |
Amplicon The kit adapted for carrying out the method includes a pair of primers to amplify the locus and optionally polymerase chain reaction reagents. LCR can be used to diagnose tuberculosis. The sequence containing protein antigen B is targeted by four oligonucleotide primers—two for the sense strand, and two for the antisense strand. The primers bind adjacent to one another, forming a segment of double stranded DNA that once separated, can serve as a target for future rounds of replication. In this instance, the product can be detected via the microparticle enzyme immunoassay (MEIA). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=914098 |
Pharmaceutics is the discipline of pharmacy that deals with the process of turning a new chemical entity (NCE) or old drugs into a medication to be used safely and effectively by patients. It is also called the science of dosage form design. There are many chemicals with pharmacological properties, but need special measures to help them achieve therapeutically relevant amounts at their sites of action. helps relate the formulation of drugs to their delivery and disposition in the body. deals with the formulation of a pure drug substance into a dosage form. Branches of pharmaceutics include: Pure drug substances are usually white crystalline or amorphous powders. Before the advent of medicine as a science, it was common for pharmacists to dispense drugs "as is". Most drugs today are administered as parts of a dosage form. The clinical performance of drugs depends on their form of presentation to the patient. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=920218 |
Total analysis system Total Analysis System (TAS) describes a device that automates and includes all necessary steps for chemical analysis of a sample e.g. sampling, sample transport, filtration, dilution, chemical reactions, separation and detection. A new trend today is creating Micro Total Analysis Systems - µTAS. Such a system shall shrink a whole laboratory to chip-size lab-on-a-chip. Because of its very small size, such a system can be placed close to a sampling site. It also can be very cost effective thinking of chip technologies, sample sizes and analysis time. It also reduces the exposure of the toxic chemical on the lab personnel which is an added advantage than the conventional techniques. Another advantage of this technology is that the point-of-use diagnostic kits which do not require skilled technicians during the epidemical events and thus help to save millions of lives. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=921018 |
Micromount is term used by mineral collectors and amateur geologists to describe mineral specimens that are best appreciated using an optical aid, commonly a hand-lens or a binocular microscope. The magnification employed ranges from 10 to 40 times. A micromount is permanently mounted in some kind of box and labelled with the name of the mineral and the location from which it came. Proper mounting both preserves delicate crystals, and facilitates their handling. specimen collecting has a number of advantages over collecting larger specimens. Micromounting is a craft, as much as it is a collecting activity. Two English language books on micromounting have been published, by Milton Speckels in 1965, and by Quintin Wight in 1993. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=926703 |
Uniformity of motive In astrobiology, the Uniformity of Motive theory suggests that any civilization in the universe would go through similar technological steps in their development. This theory supports the idea that at some point in their history, advanced alien civilizations would use the electromagnetic medium for communications, and thus would emit radio waves that could be detected by projects such as SETI. The fact that no artificial EM band communications have ever been detected supports the Fermi Principle, which in conjunction with the Uniformity of Motive theory and Occam's razor, suggests that a civilization that uses this medium is a unique occurrence in Earth's region of the Milky Way Galaxy, and perhaps the universe. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=926840 |
Toroidal reflector A toroidal mirror is a reflector whose surface is a section of a torus, defined by two radii of curvature. Such reflectors are easier to manufacture than mirrors with a surface described by a paraboloid or ellipsoid. They suffer from spherical aberration and coma, but do not suffer from astigmatism like a spherical mirror when used in an off-axis geometry, provided the angle of incidence is matched to the design angle. Because they are easier to manufacture, they are much cheaper than ellipsoidal or paraboloidal mirrors for the same surface quality. Toroidal mirrors are used in Yolo telescopes and optical monochromators. In these devices, the source and detectors of the light are not located on the optical axis of the mirror, so the use of a true paraboloid of revolution would cause a distorted image. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=929165 |
Amgen Inc. (formerly Applied Molecular Genetics Inc.) is an American multinational biopharmaceutical company headquartered in Thousand Oaks, California. One of the world's largest independent biotechnology companies, was established in Thousand Oaks, California in 1980. Amgen's Thousand Oaks staff in 2017 numbered 5,125 (7.5% of total city employment) and included hundreds of scientists, making the largest employer in Ventura County. Focused on molecular biology and biochemistry, its goal is to provide a healthcare business based on recombinant DNA technology. In 2018, the company's largest selling product lines were Neulasta, an immunostimulator used to prevent infections in patients undergoing cancer chemotherapy and Enbrel, a tumor necrosis factor blocker used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis and other autoimmune diseases. Other products include Epogen, Aranesp, Sensipar/Mimpara, Nplate, Vectibix, Prolia and XGEVA. sponsors the Tour of California. The word AMGen is a portmanteau of the company's original name, Applied Molecular Genetics, which became the official name of the company in 1983 (three years after incorporation and coincident with its initial public offering). The company's first chief executive officer, from 1980, was co-founder George B. Rathmann, followed by Gordon M. Binder in 1988, followed by Kevin W. Sharer in 2000. Robert A. Bradway became Amgen’s president and chief executive officer in May 2012 following Sharer's retirement | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=932897 |
Amgen The company has made at least five major corporate acquisitions. The following is an illustration of the company's mergers, acquisitions, spin-offs and historical predecessors: Amgen's approved drugs or therapeutic biologicals include: As of December 2013, had 11 drugs in Phase III clinical trials. In November 2014 the company announced it was halting all trials of rilotumumab in advanced gastric cancer patients after one of the trials found more deaths in those who took the compound with chemotherapy, than those without. Later in the same week, the company (in conjunction with AstraZeneca) reported positive results for brodalumab in a phase III trial comparing the compound with ustekinumab and a placebo in treating psoriasis. In March 2015, the company announced it would license its Phase II candidate drug AMG 714 to developer Celimmune who plan to develop the anti-IL-15 monoclonal antibody for treatment against diet nonresponsive celiac disease and refractory celiac disease. In June 2015, presented Phase 2 clinical trial data for their anti-CGRP antibody AMG 334 for migraine, approved for sale as AIMOVIG in 2019. In 2019, the Food and Drug Administration has granted fast track designation to AMG 510 for the treatment of metastatic non-small-cell lung carcinoma with the G12C KRAS mutation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=932897 |
Peter Millman Peter Mackenzie Millman (August 10, 1906 – December 11, 1990) was a Canadian astronomer. He worked at the Dunlap Observatory from 1933 until 1940. In early 1941 he enlisted with the Royal Canadian Air Force. In 1946 he joined the Dominion Observatory in Ottawa. He then transferred to the National Research Council in 1955. During his graduate studies at Harvard University he started a systematic study of meteor spectra at the suggestion of Harlow Shapley in 1929. He continued the work on meteors throughout his active scientific life. He organized one of his most successful observational campaigns in 1946, when on the night of October 9/10 a spectacular shower of the Giacobinids (October Draconids) provided many important photographic spectra. He was awarded the J. Lawrence Smith Medal in 1954. A crater on Mars and the minor planet 2904 Millman were named in his honor. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=933589 |
Representative sequences are short regions within protein sequences that can be used to approximate the evolutionary relationships of those proteins, or the organisms from which they come. are contiguous subsequences (typically 300 residues) from ubiquitous, conserved proteins, such that each orthologous family of representative sequences taken alone gives a distance matrix in close agreement with the consensus matrix. Protein sequences can provide data about the biological function and evolution of proteins and protein domains. Grouping and interrelating protein sequences can therefore provide information about both human biological processes, and the evolutionary development of biological processes on earth; such sequence clusters allow for the effective coverage of sequence space. Sequence clusters can reduce a large database of sequences to a smaller set of "sequence representatives", each of which should represent its cluster at the sequence level. Sequence representatives allow the effective coverage of the original database with fewer sequences. The database of sequence representatives is called "non-redundant", as similar (or redundant) sequences have been removed at a certain similarity threshold. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=936059 |
Green chemistry Green chemistry, also called sustainable chemistry, is an area of chemistry and chemical engineering focused on the designing of products and processes that minimize or eliminate the use and generation of hazardous substances. While environmental chemistry focuses on the effects of polluting chemicals on nature, green chemistry focuses on the environmental impact of chemistry, including reducing consumption of nonrenewable resources and technological approaches for preventing pollution. The overarching goals of green chemistry—namely, more resource-efficient and inherently safer design of molecules, materials, products, and processes—can be pursued in a wide range of contexts. emerged from a variety of existing ideas and research efforts (such as atom economy and catalysis) in the period leading up to the 1990s, in the context of increasing attention to problems of chemical pollution and resource depletion. The development of green chemistry in Europe and the United States was linked to a shift in environmental problem-solving strategies: a movement from command and control regulation and mandated reduction of industrial emissions at the "end of the pipe," toward the active prevention of pollution through the innovative design of production technologies themselves. The set of concepts now recognized as green chemistry coalesced in the mid- to late-1990s, along with broader adoption of the term (which prevailed over competing terms such as "clean" and "sustainable" chemistry) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=936085 |
Green chemistry In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency played a significant early role in fostering green chemistry through its pollution prevention programs, funding, and professional coordination. At the same time in the United Kingdom, researchers at the University of York contributed to the establishment of the Green Chemistry Network within the Royal Society of Chemistry, and the launch of the journal "Green Chemistry". In 1998, Paul Anastas (who then directed the Green Chemistry Program at the US EPA) and John C. Warner (then of Polaroid Corporation) published a set of principles to guide the practice of green chemistry. The twelve principles address a range of ways to reduce the environmental and health impacts of chemical production, and also indicate research priorities for the development of green chemistry technologies. The principles cover such concepts as: The twelve principles of green chemistry are: Attempts are being made not only to quantify the "greenness" of a chemical process but also to factor in other variables such as chemical yield, the price of reaction components, safety in handling chemicals, hardware demands, energy profile and ease of product workup and purification. In one quantitative study, the reduction of nitrobenzene to aniline receives 64 points out of 100 marking it as an acceptable synthesis overall whereas a synthesis of an amide using HMDS is only described as adequate with a combined 32 points | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=936085 |
Green chemistry is increasingly seen as a powerful tool that researchers must use to evaluate the environmental impact of nanotechnology. As nanomaterials are developed, the environmental and human health impacts of both the products themselves and the processes to make them must be considered to ensure their long-term economic viability. Solvents are consumed in large quantities in many chemical syntheses as well as for cleaning and degreasing. Traditional solvents are often toxic or are chlorinated. Green solvents, on the other hand, are generally derived from renewable resources and biodegrade to innocuous, often a naturally occurring product. Novel or enhanced synthetic techniques can often provide improved environmental performance or enable better adherence to the principles of green chemistry. For example, the 2005 Nobel Prize for Chemistry was awarded, to Yves Chauvin, Robert H. Grubbs and Richard R. Schrock, for the development of the metathesis method in organic synthesis, with explicit reference to its contribution to green chemistry and "smarter production." A 2005 review identified three key developments in green chemistry in the field of organic synthesis: use of supercritical carbon dioxide as green solvent, aqueous hydrogen peroxide for clean oxidations and the use of hydrogen in asymmetric synthesis. Some further examples of applied green chemistry are supercritical water oxidation, on water reactions, and dry media reactions | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=936085 |
Green chemistry Bioengineering is also seen as a promising technique for achieving green chemistry goals. A number of important process chemicals can be synthesized in engineered organisms, such as shikimate, a Tamiflu precursor which is fermented by Roche in bacteria. Click chemistry is often cited as a style of chemical synthesis that is consistent with the goals of green chemistry. The concept of 'green pharmacy' has recently been articulated based on similar principles. In 1996, Dow Chemical won the 1996 Greener Reaction Conditions award for their 100% carbon dioxide blowing agent for polystyrene foam production. Polystyrene foam is a common material used in packing and food transportation. Seven hundred million pounds are produced each year in the United States alone. Traditionally, CFC and other ozone-depleting chemicals were used in the production process of the foam sheets, presenting a serious environmental hazard. Flammable, explosive, and, in some cases toxic hydrocarbons have also been used as CFC replacements, but they present their own problems. Dow Chemical discovered that supercritical carbon dioxide works equally as well as a blowing agent, without the need for hazardous substances, allowing the polystyrene to be more easily recycled. The CO used in the process is reused from other industries, so the net carbon released from the process is zero. Addressing principle #2 is the Peroxide Process for producing hydrazine without cogenerating salt | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=936085 |
Green chemistry Hydrazine is traditionally produced by the Olin Raschig process from sodium hypochlorite (the active ingredient in many bleaches) and ammonia. The net reaction produces one equivalent of sodium chloride for every equivalent of the targeted product hydrazine: In the greener Peroxide process hydrogen peroxide is employed as the oxidant and the side product is water. The net conversion follows: Addressing principle #4, this process does not require auxiliary extracting solvents. Methyl ethyl ketone is used as a carrier for the hydrazine, the intermediate ketazine phase separates from the reaction mixture, facilitating workup without the need of an extracting solvent. Addressing principle #7 is a green route to 1,3-propanediol, which is traditionally generated from petrochemical precursors. It can be produced from renewable precursors via the bioseparation of 1,3-propanediol using a genetically modified strain of "E. coli". This diol is used to make new polyesters for the manufacture of carpets. In 2002, Cargill Dow (now NatureWorks) won the Greener Reaction Conditions Award for their improved method for polymerization of polylactic acid . Unfortunately, lactide-base polymers do not perform well and the project was discontinued by Dow soon after the award. Lactic acid is produced by fermenting corn and converted to lactide, the cyclic dimer ester of lactic acid using an efficient, tin-catalyzed cyclization | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=936085 |
Green chemistry The L,L-lactide enantiomer is isolated by distillation and polymerized in the melt to make a crystallizable polymer, which has some applications including textiles and apparel, cutlery, and food packaging. Wal-Mart has announced that it is using/will use PLA for its produce packaging. The NatureWorks PLA process substitutes renewable materials for petroleum feedstocks, doesn't require the use of hazardous organic solvents typical in other PLA processes, and results in a high-quality polymer that is recyclable and compostable. In 2003 Shaw Industries selected a combination of polyolefin resins as the base polymer of choice for EcoWorx due to the low toxicity of its feedstocks, superior adhesion properties, dimensional stability, and its ability to be recycled. The EcoWorx compound also had to be designed to be compatible with nylon carpet fiber. Although EcoWorx may be recovered from any fiber type, nylon-6 provides a significant advantage. Polyolefins are compatible with known nylon-6 depolymerization methods. PVC interferes with those processes. Nylon-6 chemistry is well-known and not addressed in first-generation production. From its inception, EcoWorx met all of the design criteria necessary to satisfy the needs of the marketplace from a performance, health, and environmental standpoint | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=936085 |
Green chemistry Research indicated that separation of the fiber and backing through elutriation, grinding, and air separation proved to be the best way to recover the face and backing components, but an infrastructure for returning postconsumer EcoWorx to the elutriation process was necessary. Research also indicated that the postconsumer carpet tile had a positive economic value at the end of its useful life. EcoWorx is recognized by MBDC as a certified cradle-to-cradle design. In 2005, Archer Daniels Midland (ADM) and Novozymes won the Greener Synthetic Pathways Award for their enzyme interesterification process. In response to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) mandated labeling of "trans"-fats on nutritional information by January 1, 2006, Novozymes and ADM worked together to develop a clean, enzymatic process for the interesterification of oils and fats by interchanging saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. The result is commercially viable products without "trans"-fats. In addition to the human health benefits of eliminating "trans"-fats, the process has reduced the use of toxic chemicals and water, prevents vast amounts of byproducts, and reduces the amount of fats and oils wasted. In 2011, the Outstanding Green Chemistry Accomplishments by a Small Business Award went to BioAmber Inc. for integrated production and downstream applications of bio-based succinic acid. Succinic acid is a platform chemical that is an important starting material in the formulations of everyday products | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=936085 |
Green chemistry Traditionally, succinic acid is produced from petroleum-based feedstocks. BioAmber has developed process and technology that produces succinic acid from the fermentation of renewable feedstocks at a lower cost and lower energy expenditure than the petroleum equivalent while sequestering CO rather than emitting it. Several laboratory chemicals are controversial from the perspective of Green chemistry. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology created a "Green" Alternatives Wizard to help identify alternatives. Ethidium bromide, xylene, mercury, and formaldehyde have been identified as "worst offenders" which have alternatives. Solvents in particular make a large contribution to the environmental impact of chemical manufacturing and there is a growing focus on introducing Greener solvents into the earliest stage of development of these processes: laboratory-scale reaction and purification methods. In the Pharmaceutical Industry, both GSK and Pfizer have published Solvent Selection Guides for their Drug Discovery chemists. In 2007, The EU put into place the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) program, which requires companies to provide data showing that their products are safe. This regulation (1907/2006) ensures not only the assessment of the chemicals' hazards as well as risks during their uses but also includes measures for banning or restricting/authorising uses of specific substances | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=936085 |
Green chemistry ECHA, the EU Chemicals Agency in Helsinki, is implementing the regulation whereas the enforcement lies with the EU member states. The U.S. law that governs the majority of industrial chemicals (excluding pesticides, foods, and pharmaceuticals) is the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) of 1976. Examining the role of regulatory programs in shaping the development of green chemistry in the United States, analysts have revealed structural flaws and long-standing weaknesses in TSCA; for example, a 2006 report to the California Legislature concludes that TSCA has produced a domestic chemicals market that discounts the hazardous properties of chemicals relative to their function, price, and performance. Scholars have argued that such market conditions represent a key barrier to the scientific, technical, and commercial success of green chemistry in the U.S., and fundamental policy changes are needed to correct these weaknesses. Passed in 1990, the Pollution Prevention Act helped foster new approaches for dealing with pollution by preventing environmental problems before they happen. In 2008, the State of California approved two laws aiming to encourage green chemistry, launching the California Green Chemistry Initiative. One of these statutes required California's Department of Toxic Substances Control (DTSC) to develop new regulations to prioritize "chemicals of concern" and promote the substitution of hazardous chemicals with safer alternatives | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=936085 |
Green chemistry The resulting regulations took effect in 2013, initiating DTSC's "Safer Consumer Products Program". Many institutions offer courses and degrees on Green Chemistry. Examples from across the globe are Denmark's Technical University, and several in the US, e.g. at the Universities of Massachusetts-Boston, Michigan, and Oregon. A masters level course in Green Technology, has been introduced by the Institute of Chemical Technology, India. In the UK at the University of York University of Leicester, Department of Chemistry and MRes in Green Chemistry at Imperial College London. In Spain different universities like the Universitat Jaume I or the Universidad de Navarra, offer Green Chemistry master courses. There are also websites focusing on green chemistry, such as the Michigan Green Chemistry Clearinghouse at www.migreenchemistry.org. Apart from its Green Chemistry Master courses the Zurich University of Applied Sciences ZHAW presents an exposition and web page "Making chemistry green" for a broader public, illustrating the 12 principles. There are ambiguities in the definition of green chemistry, and in how it is understood among broader science, policy, and business communities. Even within chemistry, researchers have used the term "green chemistry" to describe a range of work independently of the framework put forward by Anastas and Warner (i.e., the 12 principles). While not all uses of the term are legitimate (see greenwashing), many are, and the authoritative status of any single definition is uncertain | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=936085 |
Green chemistry More broadly, the idea of green chemistry can easily be linked (or confused) with related concepts like green engineering, environmental design, or sustainability in general. The complexity and multifaceted nature of green chemistry makes it difficult to devise clear and simple metrics. As a result, "what is green" is often open to debate. Several scientific societies have created awards to encourage research in green chemistry. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=936085 |
Searles Valentine Wood (February 14, 1798 – October 26, 1880) was an English palaeontologist. Wood went to sea in 1811 as a midshipman in the British East India Company's service, which he left in 1826. He then settled at Hasketon near Woodbridge, Suffolk. Wood devoted himself to a study of the mollusca of the Newer Tertiary (now Neogene) of Suffolk and Norfolk, and the Older Tertiary (Eocene) of the Hampshire Basin. On the latter subject he published "A Monograph of the Eocene Bivalves of England" (1861–1871), issued by the Palaeontographical Society. His chief work was "A Monograph of the Crag Mollusca" (1848–1856), published by the same society, for which he was awarded the Wollaston medal in 1860 by the Geological Society of London; a supplement was issued by him in 1872-1874, a second in 1879, and a third (edited by his son) in 1882. He died at Martlesham, near Woodbridge. His son, (1830-1884), was for some years a solicitor at Woodbridge, but gave up the profession and devoted his energies to geology, studying especially the structure of the deposits of the crag and glacial drifts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=937811 |
Sedimentation is the tendency for particles in suspension to settle out of the fluid in which they are entrained and come to rest against a barrier. This is due to their motion through the fluid in response to the forces acting on them: these forces can be due to gravity, centrifugal acceleration, or electromagnetism. In geology, sedimentation is often used as the opposite of erosion, i.e., the terminal end of sediment transport. In that sense, it includes the termination of transport by saltation or true bedload transport. Settling is the falling of suspended particles through the liquid, whereas sedimentation is the termination of the settling process. In estuarine environments, settling can be influenced by the presence or absence of vegetation. Trees such as mangroves are crucial to the attenuation of waves or currents, promoting the settlement of suspended particles. may pertain to objects of various sizes, ranging from large rocks in flowing water to suspensions of dust and pollen particles to cellular suspensions to solutions of single molecules such as proteins and peptides. Even small molecules supply a sufficiently strong force to produce significant sedimentation. The term is typically used in geology to describe the deposition of sediment which results in the formation of sedimentary rock, but it is also used in various chemical and environmental fields to describe the motion of often-smaller particles and molecules. This process is also used in the biotech industry to separate cells from the culture media | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=938894 |
Sedimentation In a sedimentation experiment, the applied force accelerates the particles to a terminal velocity formula_1 at which the applied force is exactly canceled by an opposing drag force. For small enough particles (low Reynolds number), the drag force varies linearly with the terminal velocity, i.e., formula_2 (Stokes flow) where "f" depends only on the properties of the particle and the surrounding fluid. Similarly, the applied force generally varies linearly with some coupling constant (denoted here as "q") that depends only on the properties of the particle, formula_3. Hence, it is generally possible to define a sedimentation coefficient formula_4 that depends only on the properties of the particle and the surrounding fluid. Thus, measuring "s" can reveal underlying properties of the particle. In many cases, the motion of the particles is blocked by a hard boundary; the resulting accumulation of particles at the boundary is called a sediment. The concentration of particles at the boundary is opposed by the diffusion of the particles. The sedimentation of a single particle under gravity is described by the Mason–Weaver equation, which has a simple exact solution. The sedimentation coefficient "s" in this case equals formula_5, where formula_6 is the buoyant mass. The sedimentation of a single particle under centrifugal force is described by the Lamm equation, which likewise has an exact solution. The sedimentation coefficient "s" also equals formula_5, where formula_6 is the buoyant mass | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=938894 |
Sedimentation However, the Lamm equation differs from the Mason–Weaver equation because the centrifugal force depends on radius from the origin of rotation, whereas in the Mason–Weaver equation gravity is constant. The Lamm equation also has extra terms, since it pertains to sector-shaped cells, whereas the Mason–Weaver equation is one-dimensional. Classification of sedimentation: In geology, sedimentation is the deposition of particles carried by a fluid flow. For suspended load, this can be expressed mathematically by the Exner equation, and results in the formation of depositional landforms and the rocks that constitute sedimentary record. An undesired increased transport and sedimentation of suspended material is called siltation, and it is a major source of pollution in waterways in some parts of the world. High sedimentation rates can be a result of poor land management and a high frequency of flooding events. If not managed properly, it can be detrimental to fragile ecosystems on the receiving end, such as coral reefs. Climate change also affects siltation rates. In chemistry, sedimentation has been used to measure the size of large molecules (macromolecule), where the force of gravity is augmented with centrifugal force in an ultracentrifuge. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=938894 |
Henri Hureau de Sénarmont (6 September 1808 – 30 June 1862) was a French mineralogist and physicist. He was born in Broué, Eure-et-Loir. From 1822 to 1826, he studied at the École Polytechnique in Paris, then furthered his education at the École des Mines. During the course of his career, he became engineer-in-chief of mines, and professor of mineralogy and director of studies at the École des Mines in Paris. Sénarmont was distinguished for his research on polarization and demonstrating the anisotropy of heat diffusion in a crystal, and on the artificial formation of minerals. A polarized light retardation compensator known as a "Sénarmont prism polarizer" is named after him, as is senarmontite, a mineral that he described in 1851. He wrote essays and prepared maps on the geology of Seine-et-Marne and Seine-et-Oise for the Geological Survey of France (1844). He admired the work of Augustin Fresnel, and endeavored to prepare of an entire edition of Fresnel's works. The project was far enough advanced prior to his death that it could be completed by other authors (""Oeuvres complètes d'Augustin Fresnel"", 1866–70). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=939587 |
Sudines (or Soudines) (Greek: Σουδινες) (fl. c. 240 BC): Babylonian sage. He is mentioned as one of the famous Chaldean mathematicians and astronomer-astrologers by later Roman writers like Strabo ("Geografia" 16:1–6). Like his predecessor Berossos, he moved from Babylonia and established himself among the Greeks; he was an advisor to King Attalus I (Attalos Soter) of Pergamon. He is said (e.g. by Roman astronomer/astrologer Vettius Valens) to have published tables to compute the motion of the Moon; said to have been used by the Greeks, until superseded by the work of Hipparchus and later by Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemaios). Soudines may have been important in transmitting the astronomical knowledge of the Babylonians to the Greeks, but little is known about his work and nothing about his life. He is also said to have been one of the first to assign astrological meaning to gemstones. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=941923 |
Frank Newhook Francis John Newhook (16 November 1918 – 1 December 1999) was the head of the School of Plant Pathology at the University of Auckland, New Zealand. He was the first plant pathologist at the university, from 1966 (sponsored by New Zealand Forest Products) as an Associate Professor, and from 1969 a personal chair. Previously he was a scientist at the DSIR. Newhook was born in Auckland on 16 November 1918. He was educated at Auckland Grammar School and the University of Auckland. He married (1) Agnes Marjorie Anderson (three children) and (2) pianist Janetta McStay. In World War II he was a Major in the 2nd NZEF in the Middle East and Italy. He is now deceased. Newhook published extensively on fungal pathogens, especially "Phytophthora", and wrote over 90 scientific papers and other publications. Newhook was awarded a Doctor of Science degree by the University of London c.1982, and was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in the 1984 Queen's Birthday Honours. As the collector of the holotype collection, the fungus "Dichomitus newhookii" is named after him. In 2004, Landcare Research named one of its Auckland laboratories the FJ Newhook Microbiology Laboratory in his honour. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=942491 |
Topotactic transition In chemistry, a topotactic transition involves a structural change to a crystalline solid, which may include loss or gain of material, so that the final lattice is related to that of the original material by one or more crystallographically equivalent, orientational relationships. An example is a transition in which the relative structure of the anionic array is unaltered but the cations reorganize as in: β- ⇒ γ- An alternate example is the oxidation of magnetite to maghemite. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=944098 |
Earth's energy budget accounts for the balance between the energy that Earth receives from the Sun, and the energy the Earth radiates back into outer space after having been distributed throughout the five components of Earth's climate system and having thus powered Earth’s so-called heat engine. This system is made up of Earth's water, ice, atmosphere, rocky crust, and all living things. Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth's climate. Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet, because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions. "The atmosphere and ocean work non-stop to even out solar heating imbalances through evaporation of surface water, convection, rainfall, winds, and ocean circulation." Earth is very close to being in radiative equilibrium, the situation where the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space; under that condition, global temperatures will be "relatively" stable. Globally, over the course of the year, the Earth system—land surfaces, oceans, and atmosphere—absorbs and then radiates back to space an average of about 340 watts of solar power per square meter. Anything that increases or decreases the amount of incoming or outgoing energy will change global temperatures in response. However, Earth's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors, such as atmospheric composition (mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases), the albedo (reflectivity) of surface properties, cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=944638 |
Earth's energy budget Changes in surface temperature due to do not occur instantaneously, due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere. The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean's heat content, until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response. In spite of the enormous transfers of energy into and from the Earth, it maintains a relatively constant temperature because, as a whole, there is little net gain or loss: Earth emits via atmospheric and terrestrial radiation (shifted to longer electromagnetic wavelengths) to space about the same amount of energy as it receives via insolation (all forms of electromagnetic radiation). To quantify Earth's "heat budget" or "heat balance", let the insolation received at the top of the atmosphere be 100 units (100 units = about 1,360 watts per square meter facing the sun), as shown in the accompanying illustration. Called the albedo of Earth, around 35 units are reflected back to space: 27 from the top of clouds, 2 from snow and ice-covered areas, and 6 by other parts of the atmosphere. The 65 remaining units are absorbed: 14 within the atmosphere and 51 by the Earth’s surface. These 51 units are radiated to space in the form of terrestrial radiation: 17 directly radiated to space and 34 absorbed by the atmosphere (19 through latent heat of condensation, 9 via convection and turbulence, and 6 directly absorbed) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=944638 |
Earth's energy budget The 48 units absorbed by the atmosphere (34 units from terrestrial radiation and 14 from insolation) are finally radiated back to space. These 65 units (17 from the ground and 48 from the atmosphere) balance the 65 units absorbed from the sun in order to maintain zero net gain of energy by the Earth. The total amount of energy received per second at the top of Earth's atmosphere (TOA) is measured in watts and is given by the solar constant times the cross-sectional area of the Earth corresponded to the radiation . Because the surface area of a sphere is four times the cross-sectional surface area of a sphere (i.e. the area of a circle), the average TOA flux is one quarter of the solar constant and so is approximately 340 W/m². Since the absorption varies with location as well as with diurnal, seasonal and annual variations, the numbers quoted are long-term averages, typically averaged from multiple satellite measurements. Of the ~340 W/m² of solar radiation received by the Earth, an average of ~77 W/m² is reflected back to space by clouds and the atmosphere and ~23 W/m² is reflected by the surface albedo, leaving ~240 W/m² of solar energy input to the Earth's energy budget. This gives the Earth a mean net albedo (specifically, its Bond albedo) of 0.306. The geothermal heat flux from the Earth's interior is estimated to be 47 terawatts and split approximately equally between radiogenic heat and heat leftover from the Earth's formation. This comes to 0.087 watt/square metre, which represents only 0 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=944638 |
Earth's energy budget 027% of Earth's total energy budget at the surface, which is dominated by 173,000 terawatts of incoming solar radiation. Human production of energy is even lower, at an estimated 18 TW. Photosynthesis has a larger effect: photosynthetic efficiency turns up to 2% of the sunlight striking plants into biomass. 100 to 140 TW (or around 0.08%) of the initial energy gets captured by photosynthesis, giving energy to plants. Other minor sources of energy are usually ignored in these calculations, including accretion of interplanetary dust and solar wind, light from stars other than the Sun and the thermal radiation from space. Earlier, Joseph Fourier had claimed that deep space radiation was significant in a paper often cited as the first on the greenhouse effect. Longwave radiation is usually defined as outgoing infrared energy leaving the planet. However, the atmosphere absorbs parts initially, or cloud cover can reflect radiation. Generally, heat energy is transported between the planet's surface layers (land and ocean) to the atmosphere, transported via evapotranspiration and latent heat fluxes or conduction/convection processes. Ultimately, energy is radiated in the form of longwave infrared radiation back into space. Recent satellite observations indicate additional precipitation, which is sustained by increased energy leaving the surface through evaporation (the latent heat flux), offsetting increases in longwave flux to the surface | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=944638 |
Earth's energy budget If the incoming energy flux is not equal to the outgoing energy flux, net heat is added to or lost by the planet (if the incoming flux is larger or smaller than the outgoing respectively). An imbalance in the Earth radiation budget requires components of the climate system to change temperature over time. The ocean is an effective absorber of solar energy and has a far greater heat capacity than the atmosphere. The measurement of the change in temperature is very difficult since it corresponds to millidegrees over the short time frame of the ARGO measurements. Ocean heat content change (OHC) over time is same measurement as the temperature anomaly over time. Earth's energy balance may be measured by Argo floats by measuring the temperature anomaly or equivalently, the accumulation of ocean heat content. Ocean heat content was unchanged in the northern extra-tropical ocean and in the tropical ocean during the 2005-2014 time frame. Ocean heat content increased only in the extra-tropical southern ocean. There is no known reason that the extra-tropical southern ocean will experience ocean heat content increases while ocean heat content remains constant over the bulk of the measured ocean. The measurement urgently requires confirmation by both longer term measurements and by an alternate method. It is useful to note that the ocean heat content anomaly of the Argo float measurement is approximately 3x10 joules, or approximately three days of excess solar insolation over the nine year period, or less than a ~0 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=944638 |
Earth's energy budget 1% variation of solar insolation over nine years. During the same period, CERES measured top of the atmosphere in and out-going radiation and found no trend. Since CERES precision is as good or better than the Argo floats, the discrepancy requires resolution concerning the trend, if any, in ocean heat content of the subtropical southern ocean. Several satellites directly measure the energy absorbed and radiated by Earth and by inference the energy imbalance. The NASA Earth Radiation Budget Experiment (ERBE) project involves three such satellites: the Earth Radiation Budget Satellite (ERBS), launched October 1984; NOAA-9, launched December 1984; and NOAA-10, launched September 1986. Today NASA's satellite instruments, provided by CERES, part of the NASA's Earth Observing System (EOS), are designed to measure both solar-reflected and Earth-emitted radiation. The major atmospheric gases (oxygen and nitrogen) are transparent to incoming sunlight but are also transparent to outgoing thermal (infrared) radiation. However, water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane and other trace gases are opaque to many wavelengths of thermal radiation. The Earth's surface radiates the net equivalent of 17 percent of the incoming solar energy in the form of thermal infrared. However, the amount that directly escapes to space is only about 12 percent of incoming solar energy. The remaining fraction, 5 to 6 percent, is absorbed by the atmosphere by greenhouse gas molecules | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=944638 |
Earth's energy budget When greenhouse gas molecules absorb thermal infrared energy, their temperature rises. Those gases then radiate an increased amount of thermal infrared energy in all directions. Heat radiated upward continues to encounter greenhouse gas molecules; those molecules also absorb the heat, and their temperature rises and the amount of heat they radiate increases. The atmosphere thins with altitude, and at roughly 5–6 kilometres, the concentration of greenhouse gases in the overlying atmosphere is so thin that heat can escape to space. Because greenhouse gas molecules radiate infrared energy in all directions, some of it spreads downward and ultimately returns to the Earth's surface, where it is absorbed. The Earth's surface temperature is thus higher than it would be if it were heated only by direct solar heating. This supplemental heating is the natural greenhouse effect. It is as if the Earth is covered by a blanket that allows high frequency radiation (sunlight) to enter, but slows the rate at which the low frequency infrared radiant energy emitted by the Earth leaves. A change in the incident radiated portion of the energy budget is referred to as a radiative forcing. Climate sensitivity is the steady state change in the equilibrium temperature as a result of changes in the energy budget. Climate forcings are changes that cause temperatures to rise or fall, disrupting the energy balance | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=944638 |
Earth's energy budget Natural climate forcings include changes in the Sun's brightness, Milankovitch cycles (small variations in the shape of Earth's orbit and its axis of rotation that occur over thousands of years) and volcanic eruptions that inject light-reflecting particles as high as the stratosphere. Man-made forcings include particle pollution (aerosols) that absorb and reflect incoming sunlight; deforestation, which changes how the surface reflects and absorbs sunlight; and the rising concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases, which decreases the rate at which heat is radiated to space. A forcing can trigger feedbacks that intensify (positive feedback) or weaken (negative feedback) the original forcing. For example, loss of ice at the poles, which makes them less reflective, causes greater absorption of energy and so increases the rate at which the ice melts, is an example of a positive feedback. The observed planetary energy imbalance during the recent solar minimum shows that solar forcing of climate, although natural and significant, is overwhelmed by anthropogenic climate forcing. In 2012, NASA scientists reported that to stop global warming atmospheric CO content would have to be reduced to 350 ppm or less, assuming all other climate forcings were fixed. The impact of anthropogenic aerosols has not been quantified, but individual aerosol types are thought to have substantial heating and cooling effects. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=944638 |
Moritz Balthasar Borkhausen (3 December 1760, Giessen – 30 November 1806, Darmstadt) was a German naturalist and forester. He took part in the production of "" by Johann Conrad Susemihl. He received his education in Giessen, and in 1796 started work as an assessor at the forestry office in Darmstadt. In 1800 he attained the title of "Kammerrat", followed by a role as counselor at the Oberforsthaus Collegium in 1804. As a botanist, he was the taxonomic author of Alliaceae and Asclepiadaceae as well as the circumscriber of numerous plant genera and species. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=944875 |
Bionics or biologically inspired engineering is the application of biological methods and systems found in nature to the study and design of engineering systems and modern technology. The word "bionic" was coined by Jack E. Steele in August 1958, being formed as a portmanteau from biology" and "electronics. It was popularized by the 1970s U.S. television series "The Six Million Dollar Man" and "The Bionic Woman", both based upon the novel "Cyborg" by Martin Caidin, which was itself influenced by Steele's work, Cartoon show Inspector Gadget All feature humans given various superhuman powers by the electromechanical implants. The transfer of technology between lifeforms and manufactured objects is, according to proponents of bionic technology, desirable because evolutionary pressure typically forces living organisms, including fauna and flora, to become highly optimized and efficient. A classical example is the development of dirt- and water-repellent paint (coating) from the observation that practically nothing sticks to the surface of the lotus flower plant (the lotus effect).. The term "biomimetic" is preferred when the reference is made to chemical reactions. In that domain, biomimetic chemistry refers to reactions that, in nature, involve biological macromolecules (e.g. enzymes or nucleic acids) whose chemistry can be replicated "in vitro" using much smaller molecules | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=946929 |
Bionics Examples of bionics in engineering include the hulls of boats imitating the thick skin of dolphins; sonar, radar, and medical ultrasound imaging imitating animal echolocation. In the field of computer science, the study of bionics has produced artificial neurons, artificial neural networks, and swarm intelligence. Evolutionary computation was also motivated by bionics ideas but it took the idea further by simulating evolution in silico and producing well-optimized solutions that had never appeared in nature. It is estimated by Julian Vincent, professor of biomimetics at the University of Bath's Department of Mechanical Engineering, that "at present there is only a 12% overlap between biology and technology in terms of the mechanisms used". The name biomimetics was coined by Otto Schmitt in the 1950s. The term bionics was coined by Jack E. Steele in August 1958 while working at the "Aeronautics Division House" at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Dayton, Ohio. However, terms like biomimicry or biomimetics are more preferred in the technology world in efforts to avoid confusion between the medical term bionics. Coincidentally, Martin Caidin used the word for his 1972 novel "Cyborg", which inspired the series "The Six Million Dollar Man". Caidin was a long-time aviation industry writer before turning to fiction full-time. The study of bionics often emphasizes implementing a function found in nature rather than imitating biological structures | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=946929 |
Bionics For example, in computer science, cybernetics tries to model the feedback and control mechanisms that are inherent in intelligent behavior, while artificial intelligence tries to model the intelligent function regardless of the particular way it can be achieved. The conscious copying of examples and mechanisms from natural organisms and ecologies is a form of applied case-based reasoning, treating nature itself as a database of solutions that already work. Proponents argue that the selective pressure placed on all natural life forms minimizes and removes failures. Although almost all engineering could be said to be a form of biomimicry, the modern origins of this field are usually attributed to Buckminster Fuller and its later codification as a house or field of study to Janine Benyus. There are generally three biological levels in the fauna or flora, after which technology can be modeled: refers to the flow of concepts from biology to engineering and vice versa. Hence, there are two slightly different points of view regarding the meaning of the word. In medicine, bionics means the replacement or enhancement of organs or other body parts by mechanical versions. Bionic implants differ from mere prostheses by mimicking the original function very closely, or even surpassing it. Bionics' German equivalent, "Bionik", always adheres to the broader meaning, in that it tries to develop engineering solutions from biological models | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=946929 |
Bionics This approach is motivated by the fact that biological solutions will usually be optimized by evolutionary forces. While the technologies that make bionic implants possible are developing gradually, a few successful bionic devices exist, a well known one being the Australian-invented multi-channel cochlear implant (bionic ear), a device for deaf people. Since the bionic ear, many bionic devices have emerged and work is progressing on bionics solutions for other sensory disorders (e.g. vision and balance). Bionic research has recently provided treatments for medical problems such as neurological and psychiatric conditions, for example Parkinson's disease and epilepsy. By 2004 fully functional artificial hearts were developed. Significant progress is expected with the advent of nanotechnology. A well-known example of a proposed nanodevice is a respirocyte, an artificial red cell, designed (though not built yet) by Robert Freitas. Kwabena Boahen from Ghana was a professor in the Department of Bioengineering at the University of Pennsylvania. During his eight years at Penn, he developed a silicon retina that was able to process images in the same manner as a living retina. He confirmed the results by comparing the electrical signals from his silicon retina to the electrical signals produced by a salamander eye while the two retinas were looking at the same image. In 2007 the Scottish company Touch launched the first commercially available bionic hand, named "i-Limb Hand" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=946929 |
Bionics According to the firm, by May 2010 it has been fitted to more than 1,200 patients worldwide. The Nichi-In group is working on biomimicking scaffolds in tissue engineering, stem cells and regenerative medicine have given a detailed classification on biomimetics in medicine. On 21 July 2015, the BBC's medical correspondent Fergus Walsh reported, "Surgeons in Manchester have performed the first bionic eye implant in a patient with the most common cause of sight loss in the developed world. Ray Flynn, 80, has dry age-related macular degeneration which has led to the total loss of his central vision. He is using a retinal implant which converts video images from a miniature video camera worn on his glasses. He can now make out the direction of white lines on a computer screen using the retinal implant." The implant, known as the Argus II and manufactured in the US by the company Second Sight Medical Products, had been used previously in patients who were blind as the result of the rare inherited degenerative eye disease retinitis pigmentosa. On 17 February 2020, Darren Fuller, a military veteran became the first person to receive a bionic arm. ‘Daz’ as he is popularly referred by his mates, lost the lower section of his right arm while serving term in Afghanistan during an incident that involved mortar ammunition in 2008. A political form of biomimicry is bioregional democracy, wherein political borders conform to natural ecoregions rather than human cultures or the outcomes of prior conflicts | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=946929 |
Bionics Critics of these approaches often argue that ecological selection itself is a poor model of minimizing manufacturing complexity or conflict, and that the free market relies on conscious cooperation, agreement, and standards as much as on efficiency – more analogous to sexual selection. Charles Darwin himself contended that both were balanced in natural selection – although his contemporaries often avoided frank talk about sex, or any suggestion that free market success was based on persuasion, not value. Advocates, especially in the anti-globalization movement, argue that the mating-like processes of standardization, financing and marketing, are already examples of runaway evolution – rendering a system that appeals to the consumer but which is inefficient at use of energy and raw materials. Biomimicry, they argue, is an effective strategy to restore basic efficiency. Biomimicry is also the second principle of Natural Capitalism. Business biomimetics is the latest development in the application of biomimetics. Specifically it applies principles and practice from biological systems to business strategy, process, organisation design and strategic thinking. It has been successfully used by a range of industries in FMCG, defence, central government, packaging and business services. Based on the work by Phil Richardson at the University of Bath the approach was launched at the House of Lords in May 2009 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=946929 |
Bionics In a more specific meaning, it is a creativity technique that tries to use biological prototypes to get ideas for engineering solutions. This approach is motivated by the fact that biological organisms and their organs have been well optimized by evolution. In chemistry, a biomimetic synthesis is a chemical synthesis inspired by biochemical processes. Another, more recent meaning of the term bionics refers to merging organism and machine. This approach results in a hybrid system combining biological and engineering parts, which can also be referred as a cybernetic organism (cyborg). Practical realization of this was demonstrated in Kevin Warwick's implant experiments bringing about ultrasound input via his own nervous system. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=946929 |
Plastic magnet A plastic magnet is a non-metallic magnet made from an organic polymer. One example is PANiCNQ, which is a combination of emeraldine-based polyaniline (PANi) and tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ). When it was created by Pakistan born scientist Naveed A. Zaidi and colleagues at the University of Durham in 2004, it was the first magnetic polymer to function at room temperature. PANi is a conductive polymer that is stable in air. When combined with the free radical-forming TCNQ as an acceptor molecule, it can mimic the mechanism of metallic magnets. The magnetic properties arise from the fully pi-conjugated nitrogen-containing backbone combined with molecular charge transfer side groups. These properties cause the molecule to have a high density of localized spins that can give rise to coupling of their magnetic fields. When this polymer magnet is synthesized, the polymer chains need 3 months to line up before displaying any notable magnetism. Plastic magnets could have uses in computer hardware, for example as disc drives and in medical devices such as pacemakers and cochlear implants where the organic material is more likely to be biocompatible than its metallic counterpart. In February 2002, researchers from Ohio State University & University of Utah developed the world's first light-tunable plastic magnet. The plastic material became 1.5 times more magnetic when blue light shines on it. Green laser light reversed the effect somewhat, by decreasing the material's magnetism to 60 percent of its normal level | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=950025 |
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