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Light-emitting diode Light-emitting diodes (as well as semiconductor lasers) are used to send data over many types of fiber optic cable, from digital audio over TOSLINK cables to the very high bandwidth fiber links that form the Internet backbone. For some time, computers were commonly equipped with IrDA interfaces, which allowed them to send and receive data to nearby machines via infrared. Because LEDs can cycle on and off millions of times per second, very high data bandwidth can be achieved. Machine vision systems often require bright and homogeneous illumination, so features of interest are easier to process. LEDs are often used. Barcode scanners are the most common example of machine vision applications, and many of those scanners use red LEDs instead of lasers. Optical computer mice use LEDs as a light source for the miniature camera within the mouse. LEDs are useful for machine vision because they provide a compact, reliable source of light. LED lamps can be turned on and off to suit the needs of the vision system, and the shape of the beam produced can be tailored to match the systems's requirements. The discovery of radiative recombination in Aluminum Gallium Nitride (AlGaN) alloys by U.S. Army Research Laboratory (ARL) led to the conceptualization of UV light emitting diodes (LEDs) to be incorporated in light induced fluorescence sensors used for biological agent detection. In 2004, the Edgewood Chemical Biological Center (ECBC) initiated the effort to create a biological detector named TAC-BIO | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18290 | 419,247 |
Radiation pressure However, because black-body radiation increases rapidly with temperature (according to the fourth power of temperature as given by the Stefan–Boltzmann law), radiation pressure due to the temperature of a very hot object (or due to incoming black-body radiation from similarly hot surroundings) can become very significant. This becomes important in stellar interiors which are at millions of degrees. Electromagnetic radiation can be viewed in terms of particles rather than waves; these particles are known as photons. Photons do not have a rest-mass; however, photons are never at rest (they move at the speed of light) and acquire a momentum nonetheless which is given by: where "p" is momentum, "h" is Planck's constant, λ is wavelength, and "c" is speed of light in vacuum. And "E" is the energy of a single photon given by: The radiation pressure again can be seen as the transfer of each photon's momentum to the opaque surface, plus the momentum due to a (possible) recoil photon for a (partially) reflecting surface. Since an incident wave of irradiance "I" over an area "A" has a power of "IA", this implies a flux of "I/E" photons per second per unit area striking the surface. Combining this with the above expression for the momentum of a single photon, results in the same relationships between irradiance and radiation pressure described above using classical electromagnetics. And again, reflected or otherwise emitted photons will contribute to the net radiation pressure identically | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=43709 | 23,025 |
Gonadosomatic index The gonadosomatic index, abbreviated as GSI, is the calculation of the gonad mass as a proportion of the total body mass. It is represented by the formula: GSI = [gonad weight / total tissue weight] × 100 It is a tool for measuring the sexual maturity of animals in correlation to ovary development and testes development. This index is frequently used as reporting point in OECD test guideline which may be used as indication or evidence of potential endocrine disruption effect of chemicals in regulatory frame work (EFSA and ECHA, 2017) WHO/IPCS | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27306460 | 177,494 |
C4H8O3 The molecular formula CHO may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12356256 | 89,039 |
Chipotle Mexican Grill Chipotle uses environmentally friendly packaging, with bowls made from recycled newsprint, unbleached tray liners, and napkins and cups made from postconsumer waste. Chipotle's architectural design team incorporates the principles of sustainable architecture in their projects. The "green" restaurant in Gurnee, Illinois features an on-site six kilowatt wind turbine, which generates about 10% of the restaurant's electrical needs. The Gurnee restaurant has received Platinum level LEED certification from U.S. Green Building Council. A restaurant in Tulsa, Oklahoma, uses recycled drywall, low-VOC paint, and energy-efficient appliances. A Chipotle restaurant in Austin, Texas was the first to receive a four-star rating from the city's Green Building Program. Additionally, Chipotle has made arrangements to add solar panels to 75 of its restaurants. Chipotle has contracted to clean its stores in New York City and Long Island, with "plant-based, environmentally preferable cleaning supplies and technologies." The cleansers are readily biodegradable and non-toxic to humans or aquatic life. Chipotle was the defendant in a lawsuit for failure to comply with the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). Maurizio Antoninetti, a customer who used a wheelchair, claimed he was denied the "Chipotle Experience", because he was unable to see the food preparation | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=191352 | 493,156 |
Macro recorder Possible features of standalone macro recorders include: The emacs text editor is well known for its macro-recording ability, whose name is an acronym for Editing MACroS. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5183323 | 215,715 |
Broadcast relay station Some "semi-satellites" broadcast local news or separate news segments during part of the newscast. CHEX-TV-2 in Oshawa, Ontario aired daily late-afternoon and early-evening news and community programs separate from its parent station, CHEX-TV in Peterborough, Ontario. The FCC prohibits this on U.S. FM translator stations, only permitting it on fully licensed stations. In some cases, a semi-satellite is a formerly autonomous full-service station which is programmed remotely through centralcasting or broadcast automation to avoid the cost of a local staff. CBLFT, an owned-and-operated station of the French-language network Ici Radio-Canada Télé in Toronto, is a "de facto" semi-satellite of its stronger Ottawa sibling CBOFT; its programming has long been identical or differed only in local news and advertising. A financially weak privately owned broadcaster in a small market can become a "de facto" semi-satellite by gradually curtailing local production and relying on a commonly owned station in a larger city for programming; WWTI in Watertown, New York relies on WSYR-TV in this manner. Broadcast automation allows the substitution of syndicated programming or digital subchannel content which the broadcaster was unable to obtain for both cities. Some defunct full-service stations (such as CJSS-TV in Cornwall, Ontario, now CJOH-TV-8) have become full satellite stations and originate nothing | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12828393 | 403,592 |
Orr–Sommerfeld equation For Couette flow, it is possible to make mathematical progress in the solution of the Orr–Sommerfeld equation. In this section, a demonstration of this method is given for the case of free-surface flow, that is, when the upper lid of the channel is replaced by a free surface. Note first of all that it is necessary to modify upper boundary conditions to take account of the free surface. In non-dimensional form, these conditions now read formula_36 at formula_37, formula_38, formula_39 at formula_40. The first free-surface condition is the statement of continuity of tangential stress, while the second condition relates the normal stress to the surface tension. Here are the Froude and Weber numbers respectively. For Couette flow formula_42, the four linearly independent solutions to the non-dimensional are, where formula_46 is the Airy function of the first kind. Substitution of the superposition solution formula_47 into the four boundary conditions gives four equations in the four unknown constants formula_48. For the equations to have a non-trivial solution, the determinant condition formula_49 must be satisfied. This is a single equation in the unknown "c", which can be solved numerically or by asymptotic methods. It can be shown that for a range of wavenumbers formula_28 and for sufficiently large Reynolds numbers, the growth rate formula_51 is positive. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10106425 | 438,804 |
Trastuzumab The pathway initiates the MAP kinase pathway as well as the PI3 kinase/AKT pathway, which in turn activates the NF-κB pathway. In cancer cells the HER2 protein can be expressed up to 100 times more than in normal cells (2 million versus 20,000 per cell). This overexpression leads to strong and constant proliferative signaling and hence tumor formation. Overexpression of HER2 also causes deactivation of checkpoints, allowing for even greater increases in proliferation. The HER receptors are proteins that are embedded in the cell membrane and communicate molecular signals from outside the cell (molecules called EGFs) to inside the cell, and turn genes on and off. The HER (human epidermal growth factor receptor) protein, binds to human epidermal growth factor, and stimulates cell proliferation. In some cancers, notably certain types of breast cancer, HER2 is over-expressed and causes cancer cells to reproduce uncontrollably. HER2 extends across the cell membrane, and carries signals from outside the cell to the inside. Signaling compounds called mitogens (specifically EGF in this case) arrive at the cell membrane, and bind to the extracellular domain of the HER family of receptors. Those bound proteins then link (dimerize), activating the receptor. HER2 sends a signal from its intracellular domain, activating several different biochemical pathways. These include the PI3K/Akt pathway and the MAPK pathway | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=614750 | 142,351 |
PFD allowance in work systems is the adjustment done to the normal time to obtain the standard time for the purpose of recovering the lost time due to personal needs, fatigue, and unavoidable delays. By providing a small increase to the normal time in each cycle, a worker can still be able to cover lost time and complete the work assigned to him or her. There are two types of interruption: (1) interruption related to work (2) interruption not related to work. For example, a machine breakdown, rest break to overcome fatigue, and receiving instruction from the manager are the interruption related to work, but personal needs, lunch breaks, and personal telephone calls are interruptions not related to work. However, the two types of interruption are both essential for the worker because it is almost impossible to work continually during a regular shift. The standard time is calculated by multiplying the normal time by 1 plus the PFD allowance: The personal needs allowance is the time that is associated with workers’ daily personal needs which include going to the restroom, phone calls, going to the water fountain, and similar interruptions of a personal nature. However, it is categorized as 5%, but it also depends on the work environment, e.g. in terms of discomfort and temperature. The fatigue allowance is intended to cover the time that the worker should be given to overcome fatigue due to work related stress and conditions | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30578688 | 206,081 |
Calcium Excessive dietary calcium intake increases the risk of kidney stones, a painful condition resulting from formation of calcium oxalate crystals lodging in the urinary tract. As calcium is required for bone development, many bone diseases can be traced to the organic matrix or the hydroxyapatite in molecular structure or organization of bone. Osteoporosis is a reduction in mineral content of bone per unit volume, and can be treated by supplementation of calcium, vitamin D, and bisphosphonates. Inadequate amounts of calcium, vitamin D, or phosphates can lead to softening of bones, called osteomalacia. Because calcium reacts exothermically with water and acids, calcium metal coming into contact with bodily moisture results in severe corrosive irritation. When swallowed, calcium metal has the same effect on the mouth, oesophagus, and stomach, and can be fatal. However, long-term exposure is not known to have distinct adverse effects. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5668 | 94,400 |
Hammett equation For a reaction whose Hammett plot is being constructed, these alternative Hammett constants may need to be tested to see if a better linearity could be obtained. With knowledge of substituent constants it is now possible to obtain reaction constants for a wide range of organic reactions. The archetypal reaction is the alkaline hydrolysis of ethyl benzoate (R=R'=H) in a water/ethanol mixture at 30 °C. Measurement of the reaction rate k combined with that of many substituted ethyl benzoates ultimately result in a reaction constant of +2.498. Reaction constants are known for many other reactions and equilibria. Here is a selection of those provided by Hammett himself (with their values in parenthesis): The reaction constant, or sensitivity constant, "ρ", describes the susceptibility of the reaction to substituents, compared to the ionization of benzoic acid. It is equivalent to the slope of the Hammett plot. Information on the reaction and the associated mechanism can be obtained based on the value obtained for "ρ". If the value of: These relations can be exploited to elucidate the mechanism of a reaction. As the value of "ρ" is related to the charge during the rate determining step, mechanisms can be devised based on this information. If the mechanism for the reaction of an aromatic compound is thought to occur through one of two mechanisms, the compound can be modified with substituents with different "σ" values and kinetic measurements taken | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4986733 | 78,017 |
Comparison of open-source and closed-source software Instead, the revenue model is based mainly on support services. Red Hat Inc. and Canonical Ltd. are such companies that give its software away freely, but charge for support services. The source code of the software is usually given away, and pre-compiled binary software frequently accompanies it for convenience. As a result, the source code can be freely modified. However, there can be some license-based restrictions on re-distributing the software. Generally, software can be modified and re-distributed for free, as long as credit is given to the original manufacturer of the software. In addition, FOSS can generally be sold commercially, as long as the source-code is provided. There are a wide variety of free software licenses that define how a program can be used, modified, and sold commercially (see GPL, LGPL, and BSD-type licenses). FOSS may also be funded through donations. A software philosophy that combines aspects of FOSS and proprietary software is open core software, or commercial open source software. Despite having received criticism from some proponents of FOSS, it has exhibited marginal success. Examples of open core software include MySQL and VirtualBox. The MINIX operating system used to follow this business model, but came under the full terms of the BSD license after the year 2000. This model has proved somewhat successful, as witnessed in the Linux community. There are numerous GNU/Linux distributions available, but a great many of them are simply modified versions of some previous version | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2009636 | 107,546 |
Foreign electoral intervention The loan funds were fraudulently misused by Yeltsin's inner circle, and the IMF knowingly turned a blind eye to these facts. Although the aggressive pro-Yeltsin campaign boosted his approval rate from an initial 6% to the 35% that he got during the first round of elections, and later made him win the second round against the Communist competitor, Gennady Zyuganov, with 54% to 41%, there were wide speculations that the official results were rigged. Taiwan's leaders, including President Tsai Ing-wen and Premier William Lai, have repeatedly accused China of spreading fake news via social media to influence voters and support candidates more sympathetic to Beijing ahead of the 2018 Taiwanese local elections. Vincent Bolloré, a French billionaire close to then-French president Nicolas Sarkozy, allegedly gave financial support to presidential candidate Faure Gnassingbé in the 2010 Togolese presidential election. He is suspected of having offered Gnassingbé discount on advertisements from his ad agency, which he didn't equally offer to his opponent Jean-Pierre Fabre. Gnassingbé went on to become Togolese president and gave Bolloré's company port concessions. Bolloré formally denies any wrongdoing. The Russian government publicly attempted to influence the 2004 Ukrainian presidential election. Russian President Vladimir Putin gave public support for candidate Viktor Yanukovych and made public visits to Ukraine on his behalf | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=52846360 | 474,204 |
Limonene is a colorless liquid aliphatic hydrocarbon classified as a cyclic monoterpene, and is the major component in the oil of citrus fruit peels. The -isomer, occurring more commonly in nature as the fragrance of oranges, is a flavoring agent in food manufacturing. It is also used in chemical synthesis as a precursor to carvone and as a renewables-based solvent in cleaning products. The less common -isomer is found in mint oils and has a piny, turpentine-like odor. The compound is one of the main volatile monoterpenes found in the resin of conifers, particularly in the Pinaceae, and of orange oil. takes its name from French "limon" ("lemon"). is a chiral molecule, and biological sources produce one enantiomer: the principal industrial source, citrus fruit, contains -limonene ((+)-limonene), which is the ("R")-enantiomer. Racemic limonene is known as dipentene. -is obtained commercially from citrus fruits through two primary methods: centrifugal separation or steam distillation. is a relatively stable monoterpene and can be distilled without decomposition, although at elevated temperatures it cracks to form isoprene. It oxidizes easily in moist air to produce carveol, carvone, and limonene oxide. With sulfur, it undergoes dehydrogenation to "p"-cymene. occurs commonly as the - or ("R")-enantiomer, but racemizes to dipentene at 300 °C. When warmed with mineral acid, limonene isomerizes to the conjugated diene α-terpinene (which can also easily be converted to "p"-cymene) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1779163 | 172,827 |
Di-positronium Di-positronium, or dipositronium, is an exotic molecule consisting of two atoms of positronium. It was predicted to exist in 1946 by John Archibald Wheeler, and subsequently studied theoretically, but was not observed until 2007 in an experiment performed by David Cassidy and Allen Mills at the University of California, Riverside. The researchers made the positronium molecules by firing intense bursts of positrons into a thin film of porous silicon dioxide. Upon slowing down in the silica, the positrons captured ordinary electrons to form positronium atoms. Within the silica, these were long lived enough to interact, forming molecular di-positronium. Advances in trapping and manipulating positrons, and spectroscopy techniques have enabled studies of Ps-Ps interactions. In 2012, Cassidy et al. were able to produce the excited molecular positronium formula_1 angular momentum state. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13236337 | 89,858 |
Spin polarization Of these 1% are collected by the detector and then about 30% of the electrons hit the detector at the wrong position. Both devices work due to spin orbit coupling. The circular polarization of electromagnetic fields is due to spin polarization of their constituent photons. In the most generic context, spin polarization is any alignment of the components of a non-scalar (vectorial, tensorial, spinor) field with its arguments, i.e., with the nonrelativistic three spatial or relativistic four spatiotemporal regions over which it is defined. In this sense, it also includes gravitational waves and any field theory that couples its constituents with the differential operators of vector analysis. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2459057 | 29,645 |
Evolution of metal ions in biological systems refers to the incorporation of metallic ions into living organisms and how it has changed over time. Metal ions have been associated with biological systems for billions of years, but only in the last century have scientists began to truly appreciate the scale of their influence. Major (iron, manganese, magnesium and zinc) and minor (copper, cobalt, nickel, molybdenum, tungsten) metal ions have become aligned with living organisms through the interplay of biogeochemical weathering and metabolic pathways involving the products of that weathering. The associated complexes have evolved over time. Natural development of chemicals and elements challenged organisms to adapt or die. Current organisms require redox reactions to induce metabolism and other life processes. Metals have a tendency to lose electrons and are important for redox reactions. Metals have become so central to cellular function that the collection of metal-binding proteins (referred to as the metallomes) accounts for over 30% of all proteins in the cell. Metals are known to be involved in over 40% of enzymatic reactions, and metal-binding proteins carry out at least one step in almost all biological pathways.Metals are also toxic so a balance must be acquired to regulate where the metals are in an organism as well as in what quantities. Many organisms have flexible systems in which they can exchange one metal for another if one is scarce. Metals in this discussion are naturally occurring elements that have a tendency to undergo oxidation | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=46219227 | 80,345 |
Atlantic Tele-Network ATN International, Inc. (ATN) () formerly known as Atlantic Tele-Network, Inc., is a publicly traded telecommunications company that is headquartered in Beverly, Massachusetts. It operates digital wireless, wireline, and both terrestrial and submarine fiber optic networks, serving markets that are geographically separated and technically challenging, such as the plains, deserts, and mountainous areas of the United States. ATN's expertise is operating in underserved or niche markets, growing its business organically and through acquisitions by providing an alternative to national carriers. On March 12, 2004, the company reported total operating revenues rose 11% to $78.9 million, as compared to $70.8 million for 2002. ATNI also operates Wireline and Fiber Services through GT&T (Guyana). ATN operates Wireless service in the United States as both a wholesale and a regional cellular provider via its subsidiary companies of Commnet Wireless, LLC (US)(Wholesale) and Choice Wireless in the western United States and the US Virgin Islands. ATN also operates international cellular service as CellOne in Bermuda and Islandcom Wireless in Turks & Caicos (now defunct and had its former customers transferred to LIME/FLOW). On April 26, 2010, ATN acquired certain former Alltel wireless assets that Verizon Wireless was required to divest as part of the regulatory approvals granted for its purchase of Alltel earlier that year | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23157690 | 273,570 |
Biochemical cascade A comprehensive list of resources can be found at http://www.pathguide.org. The increasing amount of genomic and molecular information is the basis for understanding higher-order biological systems, such as the cell and the organism, and their interactions with the environment, as well as for medical, industrial and other practical applications. The KEGG resource (http://www.genome.jp/kegg/) provides a reference knowledge base for linking genomes to biological systems, categorized as building blocks in the genomic space (KEGG GENES), the chemical space (KEGG LIGAND), wiring diagrams of interaction networks and reaction networks (KEGG PATHWAY), and ontologies for pathway reconstruction (BRITE database). The KEGG PATHWAY database is a collection of manually drawn pathway maps for metabolism, genetic information processing, environmental information processing such as signal transduction, ligand–receptor interaction and cell communication, various other cellular processes and human diseases, all based on extensive survey of published literature. Gene Map Annotator and Pathway Profiler (GenMAPP) (http://www.genmapp.org/) a free, open-source, stand-alone computer program is designed for organizing, analyzing, and sharing genome scale data in the context of biological pathways. GenMAPP database support multiple gene annotations and species as well as custom species database creation for a potentially unlimited number of species | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1872854 | 95,138 |
Substitution model Many useful substitution models are time-reversible; in terms of the mathematics, the model does not care which sequence is the ancestor and which is the descendant so long as all other parameters (such as the number of substitutions per site that is expected between the two sequences) are held constant. When an analysis of real biological data is performed, there is generally no access to the sequences of ancestral species, only to the present-day species. However, when a model is time-reversible, which species was the ancestral species is irrelevant. Instead, the phylogenetic tree can be rooted using any of the species, re-rooted later based on new knowledge, or left unrooted. This is because there is no 'special' species, all species will eventually derive from one another with the same probability. A model is time reversible if and only if it satisfies the property (the notation is explained below) or, equivalently, the detailed balance property, for every "i", "j", and "t". Time-reversibility should not be confused with stationarity. A model is stationary if "Q" does not change with time. The analysis below assumes a stationary model. Stationary, neutral, independent, finite sites models (assuming a constant rate of evolution) have two parameters, "π", an equilibrium vector of base (or character) frequencies and a rate matrix, "Q", which describes the rate at which bases of one type change into bases of another type; element formula_3 for "i" ≠ "j" is the rate at which base "i" goes to base "j" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1937800 | 169,261 |
Discovery and development of NS5A inhibitors NS5A mainly exists in two distinct phosphorylated forms, a hypophosphorylated and a hyperphosphorylated form, but the exact function of the phosphorylation has not been determined. The NS5A protein plays an important role in viral RNA replication, viral assembly, and complex interactions with cellular functions. The protein has been implicated in the modulation of host defenses, apoptosis, the cell cycle, and stress-responsive pathways. However, its function and complete structure have yet to be elucidated. NS5A seems to be key in triggering the formation of the membranous web in the absence of other similar nonstructural proteins. Many proteins within the host cell can be affected by NS5A, e.g. phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase IIIα (PI4KIIIα), a kinase required for the replication of HCV. This kinase takes part in the biosynthesis of phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (PI4P) by interacting with NS5A, which stimulates its activity and appears to improve the integrity of the membranous web. Recently, the central role of NS5A in viral proliferation has made it the target for drug development. As a result, new antiviral agents have been introduced for the treatment of HCV. NS5A inhibitors have been developed to target the NS5A protein. These inhibitors have achieved a significant reduction in HCV RNA blood levels and can therefore be considered as potent antivirals. Their mechanism of action is thought to be diverse but the exact mechanism is not fully understood | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=51779654 | 54,025 |
Early glassmaking in the United States Evidence for early glassmaking in the United States has been found of glassmaking at the English settlement on Jamestown Island, Virginia. While some glass window panes were made there after 1608, most of the windows had been shipped from England. The glassmaking business in the United States started when eight Germans (known as "Dutchmen") and Poles arrived as part of the Second supply on board the "Mary and Margaret". They used local material: sand in the James River, potash was in the forest and a bed of endless oyster shells which could be burned and ground to make lime. They set up making the first batches of goods exported to England from the New World. The first shipment sent to England was called the trial glass. Most of it was window glass, bottles, vials and plain drinking glasses. The glass factory at Jamestown was believed to be the first manufactory in the United States. The location was near the Jamestown peninsula over a mile from the fort, in a location that was convenient for glassblowing. The Jamestown Glasshouse was situated where the Native Americans used to camp and where the main roads converged, known to the settlers as the Greate Road. The area came to be called Glass House Point. Though this location made the recovery of mineral resources easily accessible, it also made the glassmakers vulnerable to sneak attacks by local tribes. The glass manufactory was controlled exclusively by the Polish glassmakers | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41066638 | 274,762 |
Internet of things 9% rate during 2016–2022 as a result of growing infrastructural concerns and diversified usage of Internet of things. Governmental regulation is argued by some to be necessary to secure IoT devices and the wider Internet – as market incentives to secure IoT devices is insufficient. It was found that due to the nature of most of the IoT development boards, they generate predictable and weak keys which make it easy to be utilized by MiTM attack. However, various hardening approaches were proposed by many researchers to resolve the issue of SSH weak implementation and weak keys. IoT systems are typically controlled by event-driven smart apps that take as input either sensed data, user inputs, or other external triggers (from the Internet) and command one or more actuators towards providing different forms of automation. Examples of sensors include smoke detectors, motion sensors, and contact sensors. Examples of actuators include smart locks, smart power outlets, and door controls. Popular control platforms on which third-party developers can build smart apps that interact wirelessly with these sensors and actuators include Samsung's SmartThings, Apple's HomeKit, and Amazon's Alexa, among others. A problem specific to IoT systems is that buggy apps, unforeseen bad app interactions, or device/communication failures, can cause unsafe and dangerous physical states, e.g | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12057519 | 257,696 |
C18H26O2 The molecular formula CHO may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=24147121 | 30,445 |
Flick (physics) In optical engineering and telecommunications engineering, the flick is a unit of spectral radiance. One flick corresponds to a spectral radiance of 1 watt per steradian per square centimeter of surface per micrometer of span in wavelength (W·sr·cm·μm). This is equivalent to 10 watts per steradian per cubic meter (W·sr·m). In practice, spectral radiance is typically measured in microflicks (10 flicks). One microflick is equivalent to 10 kilowatts per steradian per cubic meter (kW·sr·m). In radio astronomy, the unit flik was coined by a group at Lockheed in Palo Alto, California as a substitute for the SI derived unit W cm sr µm, or watts divided by centimeters squared, steradians, and micrometers. While it started out used only in Lockheed, many in the radio astronomy field adopted its use. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=36687166 | 392,147 |
R. Tom Sawyer Robert Thomas Sawyer, known as R. Tom Sawyer, (June 20, 1901 – January 19, 1986) was the inventor of the first successful gas turbine locomotive. He also assisted in development of the diesel locomotive while he worked for General Electric, which led him to be known as the "Father of the Diesel Locomotive". Sawyer was the founder of what is now the modern-day "International Gas Turbine Institute" (IGTI), and among industry professionals was known as "Mr. Gas Turbine". Sawyer authored books about gas turbines, locomotives, and atomic power, and was awarded three U.S. Patents. The ASME established the "Award" to honor him for advancing gas turbine technology in all of its aspects for over 40 years. The award in his name is the highest award given by the IGTI, and is awarded annually at their international "Turbo Expo." Sawyer was born on June 20, 1901, in Schenectady, New York, but lived most of his life in Ho-Ho-Kus, New Jersey (Ridgewood, Bergen County). He received a bachelor's degree in electrical engineering from Ohio State University in 1923 followed by a master's degree in mechanical engineering in 1930. His undergraduate thesis was entitled "Preliminary Design of 60,000 kw Steam Power Station". After receiving his undergraduate degree, Sawyer began working for General Electric, where he designed and developed early diesel locomotives. In 1928 while working on his master's degree, Sawyer rebuilt a 1920s Jordan automobile and replaced the gear box with a generator and motor | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54225107 | 450,358 |
First Transcontinental Railroad It brought the western states and territories into alignment with the northern Union states and made transporting passengers and goods coast-to-coast considerably quicker, safer and less expensive. Paddle steamers linked Sacramento to the cities and their harbor facilities in the San Francisco Bay until late 1869, when the CPRR completed and opened the Western Pacific portion (which the CPRR had acquired control of in 1867–68 ) to Alameda first and then to Oakland. The first transcontinental rail passengers arrived at the Pacific Railroad's original western terminus at the Alameda Terminal on September 6, 1869, where they transferred to the steamer "Alameda" for transport across the Bay to San Francisco. The road's rail terminus was moved two months later to the Oakland Long Wharf, about a mile to the north, when its expansion was completed and opened for passengers on November 8, 1869. Service between San Francisco and Oakland Pier continued to be provided by ferry. The CPRR eventually purchased of UPRR-built grade from Promontory Summit (MP 828) to Ogden, Utah Territory (MP 881), which became the interchange point between trains of the two roads. The transcontinental line was popularly known as the "Overland Route" after the principal passenger rail service that operated over the length of the line until 1962. Among the early proponents of building a railroad line that would connect the coasts of the United States was Dr. Hartwell Carver, who in 1847 submitted to the U.S | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=36541 | 206,624 |
Manganese In its early stages, an intoxicated person may experience depression, mood swings, compulsive behaviors, and psychosis. Early neurological symptoms give way to late-stage manganism, which resembles Parkinson's disease. Symptoms include weakness, monotone and slowed speech, an expressionless face, tremor, forward-leaning gait, inability to walk backwards without falling, rigidity, and general problems with dexterity, gait and balance. Unlike Parkinson's disease, manganism is not associated with loss of the sense of smell and patients are typically unresponsive to treatment with L-DOPA. Symptoms of late-stage manganism become more severe over time even if the source of exposure is removed and brain manganese levels return to normal. Chronic manganese exposure has been shown to produce a parkinsonism-like illness characterized by movement abnormalities. This condition is not responsive to typical therapies used in the treatment of PD, suggesting an alternative pathway than the typical dopaminergic loss within the substantia nigra. may accumulate in the basal ganglia, leading to the abnormal movements. A mutation of the SLC30A10 gene, a manganese efflux transporter necessary for decreasing intracellular Mn, has been linked with the development of this Parkinsonism-like disease. The Lewy bodies typical to PD are not seen in Mn-induced parkinsonism. Animal experiments have given the opportunity to examine the consequences of manganese overexposure under controlled conditions | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19051 | 470,845 |
Institute of Physics Edward Appleton Medal and Prize The Edward Appleton Medal and Prize is awarded by the Institute of Physics for distinguished research in environmental, earth or atmospheric physics. Originally named after Dr. Charles Chree, the British physicist and former President of the Physical Society of London, it was renamed in 2008 to commemorate Edward Victor Appleton, winner of the Nobel prize for proving the existence of the ionosphere. The prize was established in 1941 by Chree's sister, Jessie, after his death, and it was originally awarded biennially. It was first awarded to Sydney Chapman. From 2001 it was awarded annually. After the 2008 renaming the prize was awarded in even-dated years until 2016, then as and when required. The cash prize part of the award has risen in value since its inception, reported at £150 in 1985 and £300 in 1987, to its present-day value of £1000. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27195188 | 11,320 |
Air traffic control radar beacon system As a result, effective range is greatly increased for a given power level. The transponder can also send encoded information about the aircraft, such as identity and altitude. The SSR is equipped with a main antenna, and an omnidirectional "Omni" antenna at many older sites. Newer antennas (as in the adjacent picture), are grouped as a left and right antenna, and each side connects to a hybrid device which combines the signals into sum and difference channels. Still other sites have both the sum and difference antenna, and an Omni antenna. Surveillance aircraft, e.g. AWACS, have only the sum and difference antennas, but can also be space stabilized by phase shifting the beam down or up when pitched or rolled. The SSR antenna is typically fitted to the PSR antenna, so they point in the same direction as the antennas rotate. The omnidirectional antenna is mounted near and high, usually on top of the radome if equipped. Mode-S interrogators require the sum and difference channels to provide the monopulse capability to measure the off-boresight angle of the transponder reply. The SSR repetitively transmits interrogations as the rotating radar antenna scans the sky. The interrogation specifies what type of information a replying transponder should send by using a system of modes. There have been a number of modes used historically, but four are in common use today: mode 1, mode 2, mode 3/A, and mode C. Mode 1 is used to sort military targets during phases of a mission | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2163963 | 107,873 |
Newton's theorem of revolving orbits Newton wants a corresponding revolving orbit starting from apside, a, about a point s, with the lower apside shifted by an angle, α, where formula_83. The initial speed, V, at A must be just less than that required to make the body move in a circle. Then ρ can be taken as equal to SA or sa. The problem is to determine v from the value of n, so that α can be found, or given α, to find n. formula_84 Letting formula_85, formula_86. Then “by our method of converging series”: formula_87 plus terms in X and above which can be ignored because the orbit is almost circular, so X is small compared to sa. Comparing the 2 expressions for f(sp), formula_88 it follows that formula_89. Also, formula_90. The ratio of the initial forces at a is given by formula_91. In Fig. 1, a body is moving along a specific curve MN acted on by a (centripetal) force, towards the fixed point S. The force depends only of the distance of the point from S. The aim of this proposition is to determine how the force varies with the radius, SP. The method applies equally to the case where the force is centrifugal. In a small time, formula_70, the body moves from P to the nearby point Q. Draw QR parallel to SP meeting the tangent at R, and QT perpendicular to SP meeting it at T. If there was no force present it would have moved along the tangent at P with the speed that it had at P, arriving at the point, R | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12191272 | 441,047 |
Health effects of wine In his circa 375 BC play "Semele or Dionysus", Eubulus has Dionysus say: Heavy alcohol consumption has been shown to have a damaging effect on the cellular processes that create bone tissue, and long-term alcoholic consumption at high levels increases the frequency of fractures. Epidemiological studies (studies done by interviewing subjects and studying their health records) have found a positive association between moderate alcohol consumption and increased bone mineral density (BMD). Most of this research has been conducted with postmenopausal women, but one study in men concluded that moderate consumption of alcohol may also be beneficial to BMD in men. The International Agency for Research on Cancer of the World Health Organization has classified alcohol as a Group 1 carcinogen. A 2019 study found that drinking one bottle of wine per week is associated with an increased lifetime cancer risk for non-smokers of 1% for men and 1.4% for women, while consuming three bottles of wine per week approximately doubled the cancer risk for men and women. The study equated the cancer risk of consuming one bottle of wine per week to smoking five cigarettes per week for men or 10 for women. Studies have shown that heavy drinkers put themselves at greater risk for heart disease and developing potentially fatal cardiac arrhythmias. Excessive alcohol consumption can cause higher blood pressure, increased cholesterol levels and weakened heart muscles | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3187173 | 148,234 |
Pound–Drever–Hall technique The Pound–Drever–Hall (PDH) technique is a widely used and powerful approach for stabilizing the frequency of light emitted by a laser by means of locking to a stable cavity. The PDH technique has a broad range of applications including interferometric gravitational wave detectors, atomic physics, and time measurement standards, many of which also use related techniques such as frequency modulation spectroscopy. Named after R. V. Pound, Ronald Drever, and John L. Hall, the PDH technique was described in 1983 by Drever, Hall and others working at the University of Glasgow and the U. S. National Bureau of Standards. This optical technique has many similarities to an older frequency-modulation technique developed by Pound for microwave cavities. Since a wide range of conditions contribute to determine the linewidth produced by a laser, the PDH technique provides a means to control and decrease the laser's linewidth, provided an optical cavity that is more stable than the laser source. Alternatively, if a stable laser is available, the PDH technique can be used to stabilize and/or measure the instabilities in an optical cavity length. The PDH technique responds to the frequency of laser emission independently of intensity, which is significant because many other methods that control laser frequency, such as a side-of-fringe lock are also affected by intensity instabilities. In recent years the has become a mainstay of laser frequency stabilization | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20496245 | 398,177 |
Navigation mesh Navigation meshes can be created manually, automatically, or by some combination of the two. In video games, a level designer might manually define the polygons of the navmesh in a level editor. This approach can be quite labor intensive. Alternatively, an application could be created that takes the level geometry as input and automatically outputs a navmesh. It is commonly assumed that the environment represented by a navmesh is static – it does not change over time – and thus the navmesh can be created offline and be immutable. However, there has been some investigation of online updating of navmeshes for dynamic environments. In robotics, using linked convex polygons in this manner has been called "meadow mapping", coined in a 1986 technical report by Ronald C. Arkin. Navigation meshes in video game artificial intelligence are usually credited to Greg Snook's 2000 article "Simplified 3D Movement and Pathfinding Using Navigation Meshes" in "Game Programming Gems". In 2001, J.M.P. van Waveren described a similar structure with convex and connected 3D polygons, dubbed the "Area Awareness System", used for bots in "Quake III Arena". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2083415 | 372,172 |
Palazzo Cendon The is a minor 15th century palace in Venice, Italy, located just off the southern promenade of the Cannaregio Canal (Fondamenta Savorgnan), about 200 feet east of Rio della Crea. Originally erected as a house by the wealthy, but not aristocratic, merchant family of Cendons. Like the nobility, many of the cittadini originarii adopted heraldic shields and coats of arms claiming ancient or Roman origins; in this case, a stripe adorned with three stars. On the lower part of a shield found on the facade is the inscription: "Centonia Fam. Nob. Olim Rom. Parm. Q. Ex Qua Pata Et Vene. Civil. MCCCCXXXVII". According to this inscription, the Centon or Cendon family flourished first in Rome and Parma and than moved to Padua and eventually Venice, by 1437. The original house was extended to form what was recognized by some as a small palace by 1501. It is presently a hotel. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42689222 | 355,077 |
Lithium toxicity It is distributed to the body with higher levels in the kidney, thyroid, and bone as compared to other tissues. Since lithium is almost exclusively excreted by the kidneys, people with preexisting chronic kidney disease are at high risk of developing lithium intoxication. can be mistaken for other syndromes associated with antipsychotic use, such as serotonin syndrome because lithium increases serotonin metabolites in the cerebrospinal fluid. There are several drug interactions with lithium. Interactions can occur from typical antipsychotics or atypical antipsyhcotics. In particular, certain drugs enhance lithium levels by increasing renal re-absorption at the proximal tubule. These drugs are angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and thiazide diuretics. The diagnosis is generally based on symptoms and supported by a lithium level blood level. Blood levels are most useful six to twelve hours after the last dose. The normal serum lithium level in those on treatment is between 0.6-1.2 mEq/L. Some blood tubes contain lithium heparin which may result in falsely positive results. When lithium toxicity is suspected tests may include: Imaging tests are not helpful. If the person's lithium toxicity is mild or moderate, lithium dosage is reduced or stopped entirely. If the toxicity is severe, lithium may need to be removed from the body. The removal of lithium is done in a hospital emergency department | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=48698109 | 46,400 |
Military medical ethics Ethical conflicts may emerge in the tension between responsibilities to the patient and duties to the command structure. The degree to which principles of medical ethics may justifiably be informed by, or even altered to accommodate, issues of national security is controversial. Discussions of MME often take as a point of departure the lessons to be learned from the perversion of medical practice by military physicians and others in the period leading up to and during World War II in Germany and Japan. They may also entail the more recently revealed Cold War radiation experiments undertaken by the United States government. Such discussions often center upon questions of whether these widely deplored activities of the past can be reasonably compared to present-day MME dilemmas. Eagan, Sheena M. “Medicine as a Non-Lethal Weapon: The Ethics of ‘Winning Hearts and Minds’. ” Ethics and Armed Forces. Issue 2015/1: pp 9-15. Eagan, Sheena M. “The Warrior in a White Coat: Moral Dilemmas, the Physician-Soldier & the Problem of Dual Loyalty.” Medical Corps International Forum. Volume 4: pp 4-7. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19360394 | 147,095 |
Arndt Prune Dryer The is a specialized agricultural building in Ridgefield, Washington. Built about 1898, it is one of the last traditional farm-built prune dryer buildings in Washington, using a wood fire and natural draft to dry locally grown fruit. Prunes were a major crop in the Vancouver region, as the dried fruit could be shipped economically to markets without refrigeration or spoilage. The prune dryer is a one-story wood frame building, originally about by , built for William Arndt by a carpenter. It was expanded to its present size of by in 1920 by Fred Arndt. The structure is gabled on its narrow ends, with a shed roofed extension to the rear and a similar extension on the front with a partial porch. The walls are clad with vertical wood siding. A small shed extension is attached to the rear gable. The shake roof is crowned by a tall, narrow wood ventilator with a gabled cap that runs perpendicular to the main roof ridgeline. The whole structure rests on squared stone piers, raising it above the slope of the hillside to allow access to the furnace for stoking. The original site-built furnace was replaced in 1954 by a cast iron "Hercules" furnace taken from another prune dryer. Another stove is located outside to heat water for prune processing. The was placed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 4, 1979. The surrounding lands still have mature prune trees, some planted in the 1890s. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39719532 | 334,751 |
Noida which is located in Sector 38A of the city, started in 2002. Today, it sprawls across 160 acres, There are around 7,500 plants in the garden. Scientists are giving a new lease of life to endangered and extinct plant species at the Botanical Garden. A look around the green expanse reveals species like Psilotum Nudum, better known as skeleton fork fern. Considered a "primitive" plant — a descendant of possibly the first group of vascular plants from 400 million years ago — that was widespread during the Devonian and Silurian periods — its name means "bare naked" in Latin as it lacks most of the organs found in plants species that evolved later. Noida's botanical garden is divided into 10 sections. The "medicinal plants" section has an astounding variety of 96 plants and is further divided into eight sections named after the parts of the human body they benefit. For example, the "digestive system" section has aloe vera and "Gymnema sylvestre" (madhunaashini), which treats diabetes. The "blood and circulation" section has Withania Somnifera (Ashwagandha) and Aristolochia Indica (Isharmul) - blood purifiers. The "musculo-skeletal" section has Cissus Quadrangularis (Hadjod); "skin disease" section has Plumbago Zeylanica (Chitarak) which cures leucoderma. Noida's botanical garden has a large fruit section which has many varieties of mango, pomegranate, lemon, pear, plum, mulberry, etc., besides their speciality the black guava (kaala amrud) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=986046 | 235,903 |
Sensing of phage-triggered ion cascades In order to have a high sensitivity, a DC electrical field attracts the infected bacteria (which are charged due to ion imbalance) to the electrode with the relevant polarization. The advantages of SEPTIC are the specificity and speed (needs only a few minutes) offered by the characteristics of phage infection, the sensitivity due to fluctuation-enhanced sensing, and durability originating from the robustness of phages. An idealistic SEPTIC device may be as small as a pen and maybe able to identify a library of different bacteria within a few minutes measurement window. The SEPTIC concept was first conceived by Laszlo B. Kish and Maria Dobozi-King in 2004, and developed and demonstrated at the Electrical and Computer Engineering department of Texas A&M University in collaboration with Mosong Cheng, Ry Young, Sergey M. Bezrukov (NIH), and Bob Biard. A new, related scheme, BIPIF, that has recently been conceived and analyzed by Laszlo B. Kish and Gabor Schmera (SPAWAR, United States Navy) utilizes the AC impedance fluctuations at related arrangements, and it promises higher sensitivity and less dependence on the electrodes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31675018 | 166,788 |
Stephen Pearton is an American materials scientist, engineer, and Distinguished Professor at the University of Florida. Pearton's work focuses on the use of advanced materials in areas such as laser diodes, nanomaterial applications, and similar applications. Pearton is a recipient of the J.J. Ebers Award from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, and the David Adler Lectureship Award in the Field of Materials Physics from the American Physical Society. He is also a Fellow of multiple professional or academic societies, including the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, the American Physical Society, the Materials Research Society, and the American Vacuum Society. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54045140 | 82,291 |
Organic semiconductor Otherwise neutral excitons decay radiatively to the ground state – thereby emitting photoluminescence – or non-radiatively. The optical absorption edge of organic semiconductors is typically 1.7–3 eV, equivalent to a spectral range from 700 to 400 nm (which corresponds to the visible spectrum). In 1862, Henry Letheby obtained a partly conductive material by anodic oxidation of aniline in sulfuric acid. The material was probably polyaniline. In the 1950s, researchers discovered that polycyclic aromatic compounds formed semi-conducting charge-transfer complex salts with halogens. In particular, high conductivity of 0.12 S/cm was reported in perylene–iodine complex in 1954. This finding indicated that organic compounds could carry current. The fact that organic semiconductors are, in principle, insulators but become semiconducting when charge carriers are injected from the electrode(s) was discovered by Kallmann and Pope. They found that a hole current can flow through an anthracene crystal contacted with a positively biased electrolyte containing iodine that can act as a hole injector. This work was stimulated by the earlier discovery by Akamatu et al. that aromatic hydrocarbons become conductive when blended with molecular iodine because a charge-transfer complex is formed | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1104369 | 38,986 |
Marine counterparts of land creatures Sir Thomas Browne devoted a chapter of his "Pseudodoxia Epidemica" to dispelling such a belief: Chapter XXIV: "That all Animals in the land are in their kinde in the Sea." During the Enlightenment the ancient conception was given an innovative and rationalized cast by Benoît de Maillet in describing the transformations and metamorphoses undergone by creatures of the sea to render them fit for life on land, a proto-evolutionist concept, though it was based on superficial morphological similarities: There are in the Sea, Fish of almost all the Figures of Land-Animals, and even of Birds. She includes Plants, Flowers, and some Fruits; the Nettle, the Rose, the Pink, the Melon and the Grape, are to be found there.<br> <br> As for the Quadrupeds, we not only find in the Sea, Species of the same Figure and Inclinations, and in the Waves living on the same Aliments by which they are nourished on Land, we have also Examples of those Species living equally in the Air and in the Water | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15522138 | 176,009 |
Floating production storage and offloading At the other end of the LNG logistics chain, where the natural gas is brought back to ambient temperature and pressure, specially modified ships may also be used as floating storage and regasification units (FSRUs). A LNG floating storage and regasification unit receives liquefied natural gas (LNG) from offloading LNG carriers, and the onboard regasification system provides natural gas exported to shore through risers and pipelines. In addition to the historical records already mentioned, a few more are added in this section. The FPSO operating in the deepest waters is the FPSO "BW Pioneer", built and operated by BW Offshore on behalf of Petrobras Americas INC. The FPSO is moored at a depth of 2,600 m in Block 249 Walker Ridge in the US Gulf of Mexico and is rated for . The EPCI contract was awarded in October 2007 and production started in early 2012. The FPSO conversion was carried out at "MMHE Shipyard Pasir Gudang" in Malaysia, while the topsides were fabricated in modules at various international vendor locations. The FPSO has a disconnectable turret (APL). The vessel can disconnect in advance of hurricanes and reconnect with minimal down time. A contract for an FPSO to operate in even deeper waters (2,900 m) for Shell's Stones field in the US Gulf of Mexico was awarded to SBM Offshore in July 2013. One of the world's largest FPSO is the "Kizomba A", with a storage capacity of | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=930109 | 217,212 |
Thermostat This is done by energizing a reversing valve (also known as a "4-way" or "change-over" valve). During cooling, the indoor coil is an evaporator removing heat from the indoor air and transferring it to the outdoor coil where it is rejected to the outdoor air. During heating, the outdoor coil becomes the evaporator and heat is removed from the outdoor air and transferred to the indoor air through the indoor coil. The reversing valve, controlled by the thermostat, causes the change-over from heat to cool. Residential heat pump thermostats generally have an "O" terminal to energize the reversing valve in cooling. Some residential and many commercial heat pump thermostats use a "B" terminal to energize the reversing valve in heating. The heating capacity of a heat pump decreases as outdoor temperatures fall. At some outdoor temperature (called the balance point) the ability of the refrigeration system to transfer heat into the building falls below the heating needs of the building. A typical heat pump is fitted with electric heating elements to supplement the refrigeration heat when the outdoor temperature is below this balance point. Operation of the supplemental heat is controlled by a second stage heating contact in the heat pump thermostat. During heating, the outdoor coil is operating at a temperature below the outdoor temperature and condensation on the coil may take place. This condensation may then freeze onto the coil, reducing its heat transfer capacity | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=265822 | 446,304 |
Disposable soma theory of aging This is because without the pressure of predation, it would be evolutionarily advantageous to allocate more resources to somatic maintenance than reproduction, as early offspring mortality would be low. As predicted, even after controlling for predation, the isolated population had a longer lifespan, delayed primiparity, and reduced aging biomarkers such as tail collagen cross-linking. In general, only a few studies exist in human models. It was found that castrated men live longer than their fertile counterparts. Further studies found that in British women, primiparity was earliest in women who died early and latest in women who died at the oldest ages. Furthermore, increased number of children birthed was associated with a decreased lifespan. A final study found that female centenarians were more likely to have children in later life compared average, especially past the age of 40. The researchers discovered that 19.2% of female centenarians had their first child after the age of 40, compared to 5.5% of the rest of the female population. There are numerous studies that support cellular damage, often due to a lack of somatic maintenance mechanisms, as a primary determinant for aging, and these studies have given rise to the free radical theory of aging and the DNA damage theory of aging. One study found that the cells of short-living rodents "in vitro" show much greater mutation rates and a general lack of genome surveillance compared to human cells and are far more susceptible to oxidative stress | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=55895027 | 179,780 |
Programming productivity However, as profitability is usually defined as the ratio between revenue and cost Profitability = Revenue / Cost It has a wider scope than performance, i.e. the number of factors that influence profitability is greater than the number of factors than influence productivity. Particularly, profitability can change without any change to the productivity, e.g. due to external conditions like cost or price inflation. Besides that, the interdependency between productivity and profitability is usually delayed, i.e. gains in productivity are rarely reflected in immediate profitability gains are more likely realized on the long-term. The term performance is even broader than productivity and profitability and covers a plethora of factors that influence a company’s success. Hence, well-known performance controlling instruments like the Balanced Scorecard do include productivity as a factor that is central but not unique. Other relevant factors are e.g. the customers’ or stakeholders’ perception of the company. Efficiency and effectiveness are terms that provide further confusion as they themselves are often mixed up and, additionally, efficiency is often confused with productivity. The difference between efficiency and effectiveness is usually explained informally as "efficiency is doing things right" and "effectiveness is doing the right things" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10780500 | 472,147 |
Xindy xindy is a flexible program for sorting and formatting book indexes. It was written by Joachim Schrod as a successor to MakeIndex. supports indexing for a variety of programs, including especially LaTeX and troff, and produces complex indices of the data. xindy is cited as one of the most widely used indexing programs for LaTeX. Unlike "MakeIndex", xindy features strong support for many languages in addition to English, and many standard character encodings including Unicode. xindy is licensed under the GNU GPL. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14541032 | 132,107 |
Jeans's theorem In astrophysics and statistical mechanics, Jeans's theorem, named after James Jeans, states that any steady-state solution of the collisionless Boltzmann equation depends on the phase space coordinates only through integrals of motion in the given potential, and conversely any function of the integrals is a steady-state solution. is most often discussed in the context of potentials characterized by three, global integrals. In such potentials, all of the orbits are regular, i.e. non-chaotic; the Kepler potential is one example. In generic potentials, some orbits respect only one or two integrals and the corresponding motion is chaotic. can be generalized to such potentials as follows: The phase-space density of a stationary stellar system is constant within every well-connected region. A well-connected region is one that cannot be decomposed into two finite regions such that all trajectories lie, for all time, in either one or the other. Invariant tori of regular orbits are such regions, but so are the more complex parts of phase space associated with chaotic trajectories. Integrability of the motion is therefore not required for a steady state. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=35784363 | 206 |
ISO 216 The principal countries not generally using the ISO paper sizes are the United States and Canada, which use North American paper sizes. Although they have also officially adopted the paper format, Mexico, Panama, Peru, Colombia, the Philippines, and Chile also use mostly U.S. paper sizes. Rectangular sheets of paper with the ratio 1: are popular in paper folding, such as origami, where they are sometimes called "A4 rectangles" or "silver rectangles". In other contexts, the term "silver rectangle" can also refer to a rectangle in the proportion 1:(1 + ), known as the silver ratio. An important adjunct to the ISO paper sizes, particularly the A series, are the technical drawing line widths specified in ISO 128, and the matching technical pen widths of 0.13, 0.18, 0.25, 0.35, 0.5, 0.7, 1.0, 1.40, and 2.0 mm, as specified in ISO 9175-1. Colour codes are assigned to each size to facilitate easy recognition by the drafter. These sizes increase by a factor of , so that particular pens can be used on particular sizes of paper, and then the next smaller or larger size can be used to continue the drawing after it has been reduced or enlarged, respectively. For example, a continuous thick line on A0 size paper shall be drawn with a 0.7 mm pen, the same line on A1 paper shall be drawn with a 0.5 mm pen, and finally on A2, A3, or A4 paper it shall be drawn with a 0.35 mm pen | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15275 | 250,625 |
Golden Age of Porn Ebert also suggested the film's box office receipts were inflated as a way of laundering the profits from illegal activities, although such a method would have required organised crime to be paying taxes on their illegally obtained income. "The Devil in Miss Jones" was one of the first films to be inducted into the XRCO Hall of Fame. The sound-recording, cinematography, and story-line of "The Devil in Miss Jones" were of a considerably higher quality than any previous porn film. The lead, Georgina Spelvin, who had been in the original Broadway run of "The Pajama Game", combined vigorous sex with an acting performance some thought as convincing as anything to be seen in a good mainstream production. She had been hired as a caterer, but Gerard Damiano, the film director, was impressed with her reading of Miss Jones's dialogue, while auditioning an actor for the non-sex role of 'Abaca'. According to "Variety's " review, "With "The Devil in Miss Jones", the hard-core porno feature approaches an art form, one that critics may have a tough time ignoring in the future". The review also described the plot as comparable to Jean-Paul Sartre's play "No Exit", and went on to describe the opening scene as, "a sequence so effective it would stand out in any legit theatrical feature." It finished by stating, "Booking a film of this technical quality into a standard sex house is tantamount to throwing it on the trash heap of most current hard-core fare | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8526396 | 287,571 |
Bond order Bond orders of one-half may be stable, as shown by the stability of (bond length 106 pm, bond energy 269 kJ/mol) and (bond length 108 pm, bond energy 251 kJ/mol). The bond order concept used in molecular dynamics and bond order potentials. The magnitude of the bond order is associated with the bond length. According to Linus Pauling in 1947, the bond order is experimentally described as where formula_3 is the single bond length, formula_4 is the bond length experimentally measured, and b is a constant, depending on the atoms. Pauling suggested a value of 0.353 Å for b, for carbon-carbon bonds in the original equation: The value of the constant "b" depends on the atoms. The above definition of bond order is somewhat ad hoc and only easy to apply for diatomic molecules. Hückel MO theory offers another approach for defining bond orders based on MO coefficients. Since the theory divides bonding into a sigma framework and a pi system, the Hückel definition is only applicable to planar molecules with delocalized π bonding. Assuming a bond order contribution of 1 from the sigma component it gives a total bond order (σ + π) of 1.67 for benzene rather than the commonly cited 1.5, showing some degree of ambiguity in how the concept of bond order is defined. A standard quantum mechanical definition for bond order has been debated for a long time. A comprehensive method to compute bond orders from quantum chemistry calculations was recently published. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1279756 | 39,342 |
Competition law theory Production is also decreased, further decreasing social welfare by creating a deadweight loss. Sources of this market power are said to include the existence of externalities, barriers to entry of the market, and the free rider problem. Markets may fail to be efficient for a variety of reasons, so the exception of competition law's intervention to the rule of "laissez faire" is justified. Orthodox economists fully acknowledge that perfect competition is seldom observed in the real world, and so aim for what is called "workable" or "effective competition". This follows the theory that if one cannot achieve the ideal, then go for the second best option by using the law to tame market operation where it can. A group of economists and lawyers, who are largely associated with the University of Chicago, advocate an approach to competition law guided by the proposition that some actions that were originally considered to be anticompetitive could actually promote competition. The US Supreme Court has used the Chicago School approach in several recent cases. One view of the Chicago School approach to antitrust is found in United States Circuit Court of Appeals Judge Richard Posner's books"Antitrust law" and "Economic Analysis of Law" Posner once worked in the Department of Justice's antitrust division, has long been a professor at the University of Chicago Law School, and is likely the most widely cited antitrust scholar and jurist in the United States | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13245601 | 491,281 |
Fluorination by sulfur tetrafluoride The mechanism of difluorination of vicinal diols has been well established, and proceeds by invertive attack at one hydroxyl group to give a fluorosulfite intermediate, which is converted to the difluorinated product after an additional treatment of SF and HF. The second fluorination proceeds with retention of configuration. Intramolecular delivery of fluoride is possible here and has been observed in some other cases of fluorination with SF. S1 mechanisms are operative for compounds that form carbocations easily, while S2 reactions take place with less ionizable compounds. Fluorination of carboxylic acids gives not only the expected trifluoromethyl compounds, but also α-tetrafluorinated ethers. A mechanism to account for both products has been proposed and experimentally supported. Intramolecular delivery of fluoride has been invoked to explain the formation of difluoromethyl cations. Attack of a molecule of acyl fluoride on a difluoromethyl cation, followed by neutralization with "in situ" generated bifluoride, leads to α-tetrafluorinated ether products. Direct reaction with bifluoride affords trifluoromethyl-containing products. Sulfur tetrafluoride can be used to replace a variety of functional groups with partially or fully fluorinated derivatives. Liquid hydrogen fluoride can be used as a solvent and catalyst with SF to selectively fluorinate alcohols. SF's reactivity with carbonyl compounds is not enhanced in the presence of HF | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27489494 | 71,618 |
Paternal age effect " A 2009 study examined children at 8 months, 4 years and 7 years and found that higher paternal age was associated with poorer scores in almost all neurocognitive tests used but that higher maternal age was associated with better scores on the same tests; this was a reverse effect to that observed in the 2005 review, which found that maternal age began to correlate with lower intelligence at a younger age than paternal age, however two other past studies were in agreement with the 2009 study's results. An editorial accompanying the 2009 paper emphasized the importance of controlling for socioeconomic status in studies of paternal age and intelligence. A 2010 study from Spain also found an association between advanced paternal age and intellectual disability. On the other hand, later research concluded that previously reported negative associations might be explained by confounding factors, especially parental intelligence and education. A re-analysis of the 2009 study found that the paternal age effect could be explained by adjusting for maternal education and number of siblings. A 2012 Scottish study found no significant association between paternal age and intelligence, after adjusting what was initially an inverse-U association for both parental education and socioeconomic status as well as number of siblings. A 2013 study of half a million Swedish men adjusted for genetic confounding by comparing brothers and found no association between paternal age and offspring IQ | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8610048 | 161,482 |
Register renaming Later revisions of the design starting with the R12000 used a partially variable priority encoder to mitigate this problem. Early out-of-order machines did not separate the renaming and ROB/PRF storage functions. For that matter, some of the earliest, such as Sohi's RUU or the Metaflow DCAF, combined scheduling, renaming, and storage all in the same structure. Most modern machines do renaming by RAM indexing a map table with the logical register number. E.g., P6 did this; future files do this, and have data storage in the same structure. However, earlier machines used content-addressable memory (CAM) in the renamer. E.g., the HPSM RAT, or Register Alias Table, essentially used a CAM on the logical register number in combination with different versions of the register. In many ways, the story of out-of-order microarchitecture has been how these CAMs have been progressively eliminated. Small CAMs are useful; large CAMs are impractical. The P6 microarchitecture was the first microarchitecture by Intel to implement both out-of-order execution and register renaming. The P6 microarchitecture was used in Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III, Pentium M, Core, and Core 2 microprocessors. The Cyrix M1, released on October 2, 1995, was the first x86 processor to use register renaming and out-of-order execution. Other x86 processors (such as NexGen Nx686 and AMD K5) released in 1996 also featured register renaming and out-of-order execution of RISC μ-operations (rather than native x86 instructions). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=435852 | 377,294 |
Google 492 billion in total advertising revenues and only $112 million in licensing and other revenues. In 2011, 96% of Google's revenue was derived from its advertising programs. In addition to its own algorithms for understanding search requests, uses technology from the company DoubleClick, to project user interest and target advertising to the search context and the user history. In 2007, launched "AdSense for Mobile", taking advantage of the emerging mobile advertising market. Analytics allows website owners to track where and how people use their website, for example by examining click rates for all the links on a page. advertisements can be placed on third-party websites in a two-part program. Ads allows advertisers to display their advertisements in the content network, through a cost-per-click scheme. The sister service, AdSense, allows website owners to display these advertisements on their website and earn money every time ads are clicked. One of the criticisms of this program is the possibility of click fraud, which occurs when a person or automated script clicks on advertisements without being interested in the product, causing the advertiser to pay money to unduly. Industry reports in 2006 claimed that approximately 14 to 20 percent of clicks were fraudulent or invalid. Search Console (rebranded from Webmaster Tools in May 2015) allows webmasters to check the sitemap, crawl rate, and for security issues of their websites, as well as optimize their website's visibility | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1092923 | 303,483 |
Dashpot timer There are two kinds of mercury displacement timers, delayed-make displacement timers and slow break displacement timers. Delayed-make displacement timers work by having a plunger floating in a container of mercury, when energy is applied to the coil it pulls the plunger into its center. The mercury that is displaced by this enters the thimble though an orifice. Inert gas trapped at the top of the thimble prevents the mercury from rising. Eventually the gas escapes through a ceramic plug, and this permits mercury to fill the thimble. When the mercury rises to a certain level it makes contact between electrodes. The amount of delay that this produces is determined when it is manufactured. Slow-break displacement timers work in the same way as delayed-make displacement timers only that when the coil is de-energized, the plunger rises to its original position, and mercury flows through the orifice to reach outside level. when it falls below the lip of the ceramic cup, electrical contacts become open. Its physical size is used to regulate the delay time of connection break. These timers are designed with a fixed delay period, usually to a maximum of 20 minutes. Most dashpot timers are used in sequential, automatic control applications where the completion of one operation causes the start of another process. Common applications include automatic milling machines, periodic lubrication, animated shop-window displays, staged start-up of pumps, automatic presses, and industrial washing machines | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33611958 | 378,633 |
Chest (mechanical engineering) A timing or valve chest is a compartment on an internal or external combustion engine (e.g. gasoline or steam engine) which provides access to the tappets and valves. The chest is fitted with an inspection cover sealed with a gasket. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41705693 | 224,618 |
Double layer forces The experimental findings were mostly based on video-microscopy, but the underlying data analysis was questioned concerning the role of impurities, appropriateness of image processing techniques, and the role of hydrodynamic interactions. The majority of the scientific community remains skeptical concerning such like-charge attractions and advocates the classical PB approach discussed above. Double layer interactions are relevant in a wide number of phenomena. These forces are responsible for swelling of clays. They may also be responsible for the stabilization of colloidal suspension and will prevent particle aggregation of highly charged colloidal particles in aqueous suspensions. At low salt concentrations, the repulsive double layer forces can become rather long-ranged, and may lead to structuring of colloidal suspensions and eventually to formation of colloidal crystals. Such repulsive forces may further induce blocking of surfaces during particle deposition. Double layer interactions are equally relevant for surfactant aggregates, and may be responsible to the stabilization of cubic phases made of spheroidal micelles or lamellar phases consisting of surfactant or lipid bilayers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37732235 | 32,329 |
Reed (weaving) If too many threads are put through one dent there may be reed marks left in the fabric, especially in linen and cotton. For cotton fabrics, reeds typically have between 6 and 90 dents per inch. When the reed has a very high number of dents per inch, it may contain two offset rows of wires. This minimizes friction between the dents and warp threads and prevents loose fibers from twisting and blocking the shed. Handweaving looms (including floor and table looms) use interchangeable reeds, where the reeds can vary in width and dents per inch. This allows the same loom to be used for making both very fine and very coarse fabric, as well as weaving threads at dramatically different densities. The width of the reed sets the maximum width of the warp. Common reed sizes for the hand-weaver are 6, 8, 10, 12, or 15 dents per inch, although sizes between 5 and 24 are not uncommon. A reed with a larger number of dents per inch is generally used to weave finer fabric with a larger number of ends per inch. Because it is used to beat the weft into place, the reed regulates the distance between threads or groups of threads. Sleying is the term used for pulling the warp threads through the reed, which happens during the warping process (putting a warp on the loom). Sleying is done by inserting a "reed hook" through the reed, hooking the warp threads and then pulling them through the dent. The warp threads are taken in the order they come from the heddles, so as to avoid crossing threads | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23342173 | 205,718 |
Comparison of CPU microarchitectures The following is a comparison of CPU microarchitectures. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41682723 | 400,239 |
Film perforations In 1953, the introduction of CinemaScope—with its wider picture area and its use of four-track magnetic sound (four strips of magnetic tape coated on the film)—required another type of perforation. CinemaScope perforations are similar to KS perforations, but almost square in shape to accommodate the magnetic stripes. These perfs are commonly referred to as CinemaScope (CS) or "Fox hole" perforations, or simply "Foxholes" (because, initially, all CinemaScope films were made by 20th Century Fox). Their dimensions are 0.0730" (1.85 mm) in width by 0.0780" (1.98 mm) in height. Due to the size difference, CS perfed film cannot be run through a projector with standard KS sprocket teeth, but KS prints can be run on sprockets with CS teeth (see VKF, below). CS-perforated stock has fallen out of use since the 1970s when 35 mm prints with magnetic sound became uncommon. Standard 17.5 mm magnetic film uses 35 mm magnetic film which has been slit lengthwise into two equal widths and lengths before use. The "heads" of one-half of the 35 mm donor become the "heads" of one 17.5 mm length while the "tails" of one-half of the 35 mm donor become the "heads" of the other 17.5 mm length. 17 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3603106 | 239,124 |
Digital imaging Criminal investigation offices, such as police precincts, state crime labs, and even federal bureaus have realized the importance of digital imaging in analyzing fingerprints and evidence, making arrests, and maintaining safe communities. As the field of digital imaging evolves, so does our ability to protect the public. can be closely related to the social presence theory especially when referring to the social media aspect of images captured by our phones. There are many different definitions of the social presence theory but two that clearly define what it is would be "the degree to which people are perceived as real" (Gunawardena, 1995), and "the ability to project themselves socially and emotionally as real people" (Garrison, 2000). allows one to manifest their social life through images in order to give the sense of their presence to the virtual world. The presence of those images acts as an extension of oneself to others, giving a digital representation of what it is they are doing and who they are with. in the sense of cameras on phones helps facilitate this effect of presence with friends on social media. Alexander (2012) states, "presence and representation is deeply engraved into our reflections on images...this is, of course, an altered presence...nobody confuses an image with the representation reality. But we allow ourselves to be taken in by that representation, and only that 'representation' is able to show the liveliness of the absentee in a believable way | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=275682 | 420,049 |
Spinor In this way, we obtain the complex conjugate of the representation Δ, and the following isomorphism is seen to hold: In particular, note that the representation Δ of the orthochronous spin group is a unitary representation. In general, there are Clebsch–Gordan decompositions In metric signature , the following isomorphisms hold for the conjugate half-spin representations Using these isomorphisms, one can deduce analogous decompositions for the tensor products of the half-spin representations . If is odd, then In the real case, once again the isomorphism holds Hence there is a Clebsch–Gordan decomposition (again using the Hodge star to dualize) given by There are many far-reaching consequences of the Clebsch–Gordan decompositions of the spinor spaces. The most fundamental of these pertain to Dirac's theory of the electron, among whose basic requirements are | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29276 | 434,963 |
Desert Despite its low surface atmospheric pressure (only 1/100 of that of the Earth), the patterns of atmospheric circulation on Mars have formed a sea of circumpolar sand more than 5 million km (1.9 million sq mi) in the area, larger than most deserts on Earth. The Martian deserts principally consist of dunes in the form of half-moons in flat areas near the permanent polar ice caps in the north of the planet. The smaller dune fields occupy the bottom of many of the craters situated in the Martian polar regions. Examination of the surface of rocks by laser beamed from the Mars Exploration Rover have shown a surface film that resembles the desert varnish found on Earth although it might just be surface dust. The surface of Titan, a moon of Saturn, also has a desert-like surface with dune seas. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18955999 | 140,425 |
NFPA 1001 ("Standard for Firefighter Professional Qualifications") is a standard published by the National Fire Protection Association. identifies the minimum job performance requirements (JPRs) for career and volunteer firefighters whose duties are primarily structural in nature. The is sectioned as follows: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30700886 | 285,554 |
Military geology This included studying the properties of the sand of Normandy beaches, the tolerance of the soil in the hinterland to bombardment, the sediment of the English Channel sea floor, and the occurrence of landslides in Sicily. Likewise, German geologists created maps of southern England for Operation Sea Lion, identifying quarry locations and the suitability of rock types to excavate trenchers, etc. In the Demilitarized Zone between North and South Korea, very rugged terrain is due to the structure of metamorphic rocks, while the best flat land is underlain by granite. During the Korean War, these flat areas were used as military staging grounds by the North Koreans. It has been suggested that an understanding of the fracture and foliation patterns of the metamorphic rocks could help a field commander. This field partially overlaps with military geography. For this reason the British Army employed geographers in this role until the end of 1941, when it joined international common practice and started using geologists. Geologists have been involved in the construction of forts, tunnels, and bunkers both during military conflicts and in peacetime. This included digging tunnels in northeastern Italy and Austria during the so-called mine war in World War I. The rocks of the Dolomites are different from those in other theaters and specialists were required in order to design the tunnels. Explosives were then put in the tunnels and detonated, to cause rock falls and undercut enemy troops | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=60557698 | 199,767 |
Heat recovery ventilation There is the general case of run-around heat recovery, two fixed plate heat exchangers are located in two separate airstreams and are linked by a closed loop containing a fluid which is continually pumped between the two heat exchangers. The fluid is heated and cooled constantly as it flows around the loop, providing the heat recovery. The constant flow of the fluid through the loop requires pumps to move between the two heat exchangers. Though this is an additional energy demand, using pumps to circulate fluid is less energy intensive than fans to circulate air. Phase change materials, commonly referred to as PCMs, are a technology that is used to store sensible and latent heat within a building structure at a higher storage capacity than standard building materials. PCMs have been studied extensively due to the ability to store heat and transfer heating and cooling demands from conventional peak times to off-peak times. The concept of thermal mass of a building for heat storage, that the physical structure of the building absorbs heat to help cool the air, has long been understood and investigated. A study of PCMs in comparison to traditional building materials has shown that the thermal storage capacity of PCMs is twelve times higher than standard building materials over the same temperature range. The pressure drop across PCMs has not been investigated to be able to comment on the effect that the material may have on airstreams | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1007484 | 319,979 |
Project Milo At E3 2011, "" was announced, which includes elements from "Milo", including voice and emotion recognition. In a May 2012 interview with Eurogamer, Lionhead creative director Gary Carr confirmed that a number of Kinect features from "Project Milo" had been implemented in "". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25681069 | 243,847 |
Germ theory of disease Pasteur discovered that another serious disease of silkworms, "pébrine", was caused by a small microscopic organism now known as "Nosema bombycis" (1870). Pasteur saved France's silk industry by developing a method to screen silkworms eggs for those that were not infected, a method that is still used today to control this and other silkworm diseases. Robert Koch is known for developing four basic criteria (known as Koch's postulates) for demonstrating, in a scientifically sound manner, that a disease is caused by a particular organism. These postulates grew out of his seminal work with anthrax using purified cultures of the pathogen that had been isolated from diseased animals. Koch's postulates were developed in the 19th century as general guidelines to identify pathogens that could be isolated with the techniques of the day. Even in Koch's time, it was recognized that some infectious agents were clearly responsible for disease even though they did not fulfill all of the postulates. Attempts to rigidly apply Koch's postulates to the diagnosis of viral diseases in the late 19th century, at a time when viruses could not be seen or isolated in culture, may have impeded the early development of the field of virology. Currently, a number of infectious agents are accepted as the cause of disease despite their not fulfilling all of Koch's postulates | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=185259 | 182,076 |
History of auto racing Auto racing began in the mid-19th century, and the sport has grown in popularity ever since. The first prearranged match race of two self-powered road vehicles over a prescribed route occurred at 4:30 A.M. on August 30, 1867, between Ashton-under-Lyne and Old Trafford, a distance of eight miles. It was won by the carriage of Isaac Watt Boulton, one of six he said he had run over the years, perhaps driven by his 22-year-old son, James W. The race was against Daniel Adamson's carriage, likely the one made for Mr. Schmidt and perhaps driven by Schmidt. The reports do not indicate who was driving, since both were violating the red-flag law then fully in force. Boulton's carriage was developed from a scrapped John Bridge Adams light-rail vehicle. These were solid fired steam carriages. This event and the details of the vehicles are recorded in the contemporary press, "The Engineer", and in Fletcher's books. The Wisconsin legislature passed an act in 1875 offering a substantial purse for the first US motor race, which was run on July 16, 1878, over a 200-mile course from Green Bay to Appleton, Oshkosh, Waupon, Watertown, Fort Atkinson and Janesville, then turning north and ending in Madison. Only two actually competed: the Oshkosh and the Green Bay (the machines were referred to by their town of origin). This is examined and illustrated in detail in "The Great Race of 1878" by Richard Backus, Farm Collector, May/June 2004 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=51243246 | 289,235 |
Co-operation (evolution) The norm against which these unusual features are judged is made up of fit attributes that have attained their plurality through natural selection, while less well adapted attributes will be in the minority or frankly rare. Since the overwhelming majority of mutant features are maladaptive, and it is impossible to predict evolution's future direction, sexual creatures would be expected to prefer mates with the least number of unusual or minority features. This will have the effect of a sexual population rapidly shedding peripheral phenotypic features, thereby canalizing the entire outward appearance and behavior of all of its members. They will all very quickly begin to look remarkably similar to one another in every detail, as illustrated in the accompanying photograph of the African pygmy kingfisher, "Ispidina picta". Once a population has become as homogeneous in appearance as is typical of most species, its entire repertoire of behaviors will also be rendered evolutionarily stable, including any cooperative, altruistic and social interactions. Thus, in the example above of the selfish individual who hangs back from the rest of the hunting pack, but who nevertheless joins in the spoils, that individual will be recognized as being different from the norm, and will therefore find it difficult to attract a mate (koinophilia) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4839105 | 143,704 |
WiMAX Another role of the Forum is to promote the spread of knowledge about WiMAX. In order to do so, it has a certified training program that is currently offered in English and French. It also offers a series of member events and endorses some industry events. WiSOA was the first global organization composed exclusively of owners of spectrum with plans to deploy technology in those bands. WiSOA focused on the regulation, commercialisation, and deployment of spectrum in the 2.3–2.5 GHz and the 3.4–3.5 GHz ranges. WiSOA merged with the Wireless Broadband Alliance in April 2008. In 2011, the Telecommunications Industry Association released three technical standards (TIA-1164, TIA-1143, and TIA-1140) that cover the air interface and core networking aspects of Wi-Max High-Rate Packet Data (HRPD) systems using a Mobile Station/Access Terminal (MS/AT) with a single transmitter. Within the marketplace, WiMAX's main competition came from existing, widely deployed wireless systems such as Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS), CDMA2000, existing Wi-Fi, mesh networking and eventually 4G (LTE). In the future, competition will be from the evolution of the major cellular standards to 4G, high-bandwidth, low-latency, all-IP networks with voice services built on top. The worldwide move to 4G for GSM/UMTS and AMPS/TIA (including CDMA2000) is the 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE) effort | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=471844 | 377,460 |
Chartalism Galbraith supports chartalism and wrote the foreword for Mosler's book "Seven Deadly Innocent Frauds of Economic Policy" in 2010. The continued use of the Somali shilling as currency despite the lack of a functioning central government capable of raising taxes or a central bank to issue it has been cited as a counterargument to Chartalism. Bitcoin, a cryptocurrency not originated by a state, has also been cited as a counterexample. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41146581 | 503,952 |
Gateway of India The gateway has interested companies and corporate houses such as the Tata Group, the RPG Group, and the JSW Group, who have expressed their wish to maintain the gateway and enhance its facilities. This happened after the state government identified 371 heritage sites under its Maharashtra Vaibhav State Protected Monuments Adoption Scheme (MVSPMAS). Under this scheme, companies and corporates can adopt heritage monuments and give out funds for their maintenance, to satisfy their corporate social responsibility. The scheme also provides sponsors with the opportunity to generate revenue by selling their rights to feature the heritage monuments in commercials and advertisements. Other revenue-generating opportunities include the sale of entry tickets to the site and charging for the use of facilities. In February 2019, the Maharashtra state government initiated a plan to restore, clean, and beautify the monument. A project plan was to be prepared in a month. The state governor, C. Vidyasagar Rao, directed the Bombay Municipal Corporation commissioner and architects to submit a project plan in a month on measures to be taken for the purpose. In the same month, chemical conservation was proposed by the state archaeology department noting blackening of and algae on stones and surface cracks. Structural stability audit had last been conducted eight years earlier with plant growth on the monument removed annually. In March 2019 the state government agreed on a four-stage plan to manage tourists visiting the site | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=494788 | 346,532 |
Sludge bulking In treatment of sewage one process used is the activated sludge process in which air is passed through a mixture of sewage and old sludge to allow the micro-organisms to break down the organic components of the sewage. Sludge is continually drawn off as new sewage enters the tank and this sludge must then be settled so that the supernatant (the remaining liquid) can be separated to pass on to further stages of treatment. occurs when the sludge fails to separate out in the sedimentation tanks. The main cause of sludge bulking is the growth of filamentous bacteria. Filamentous microorganisms grow in long strands that have much greater volume and surface area than conventional floc and are very slow to settle. Under certain growing conditions, filamentous organisms predominate. There is little robust scientific evidence that can be used to avoid sludge bulking but what there is indicates that over-loading works, having a carbohydrate rich input and having too low a recycle rate may all contribute. To avoid sludge bulking some of the flow that enters the reactor can be bypassed, recycle ratio can be increased, lime or soda can be added to the reactor or the re-aeration rate increased. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11242767 | 364,719 |
Solid modeling A typical graphical user interface includes programmable macros, keyboard shortcuts and dynamic model manipulation. The ability to dynamically re-orient the model, in real-time shaded 3-D, is emphasized and helps the designer maintain a mental 3-D image. A solid part model generally consists of a group of features, added one at a time, until the model is complete. Engineering solid models are built mostly with sketcher-based features; 2-D sketches that are swept along a path to become 3-D. These may be cuts, or extrusions for example. Design work on components is usually done within the context of the whole product using assembly modeling methods. An assembly model incorporates references to individual part models that comprise the product. Another type of modeling technique is 'surfacing' (Freeform surface modeling). Here, surfaces are defined, trimmed and merged, and filled to make solid. The surfaces are usually defined with datum curves in space and a variety of complex commands. Surfacing is more difficult, but better applicable to some manufacturing techniques, like injection molding. Solid models for injection molded parts usually have both surfacing and sketcher based features. Engineering drawings can be created semi-automatically and reference the solid models. Parametric modeling uses parameters to define a model (dimensions, for example) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=457579 | 339,308 |
Gravity model of trade Comparative advantage in factor endowments would suggest the opposite would occur. Other theories of trade and explanations for this relationship were proposed in order to explain the discrepancy between Leontief’s empirical findings and economic theory. The problem has become known as the Leontief paradox. An alternative theory, first proposed by Staffan Linder, predicts that patterns of trade will be determined by the aggregated preferences for goods within countries. Those countries with similar preferences would be expected to develop similar industries. With continued similar demand, these countries would continue to trade back and forth in differentiated but similar goods since both demand and produce similar products. For instance, both Germany and the United States are industrialized countries with a high preference for automobiles. Both countries have automobile industries, and both trade cars. The empirical validity of the Linder hypothesis is somewhat unclear. Several studies have found a significant impact of the Linder effect, but others have had weaker results. Studies that do not support Linder have only counted countries that actually trade; they do not input zero values for the dyads where trade could happen but does not. This has been cited as a possible explanation for their findings. Also, Linder never presented a formal model for his theory, so different studies have tested his hypothesis in different ways | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3458326 | 514,191 |
Fesenkov (Martian crater) Fesenkov Crater is an impact crater in the Lunae Palus quadrangle of Mars. It is located at 21.8° N and 86.7° W. It was named after Vasilii G. Fesenkov, a Russian astrophysicist (1889–1972). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22642411 | 10,538 |
Plurimeter A plurimeter is a hand-held measuring instrument for determining surface area or relative angles between surfaces. The device uses mechanical action for calculating the result, analogous to a slide rule. In modern technology, these results are computed by calculator or computer rather than by mechanical instrument. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21825931 | 205,170 |
Young Woman Engineer of the Year Award The Young Woman Engineer of the Year Awards are presented at the Institution of Engineering and Technology, London, England. Part of the IET Achievement Medals collection, the award was launched in 1978, and was originally known as the Girl Technician of the Year, until renamed in 1988. The award was first sponsored by the Caroline Haslett Memorial Trust, which was formed in 1945. It is now funded by the Institution of Engineering and Technology. Mary George CBE was the Director and Secretary of the Electrical Association for Women. The prize is given annually to a young woman apprentice. The winners so far have included: The Women's Engineering Society Prize is awarded to a young woman engineer who demonstrates exceptional talent within engineering alongside a commitment to improving diversity within engineering. The winners so far have included: The Gender Diversity Ambassador Award was introduced in 2019 to recognise an individual who has worked for much of their career to support gender equality in engineering. Winners: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=56613687 | 264,230 |
History of materials science The Materials Research Society (MRS) has been instrumental in creating an identity and cohesion for this young field. MRS was the brainchild of researchers at Penn State University and grew out of discussions initiated by Prof. Rustum Roy in 1970. The first meeting of MRS was held in 1973. As of 2006, MRS has grown into an international society that sponsors a large number of annual meetings and has over 13,000 members. MRS sponsors meetings that are subdivided into symposia on a large variety of topics as opposed to the more focused meetings typically sponsored by organizations like the American Physical Society or the IEEE. The fundamentally interdisciplinary nature of MRS meetings has had a strong influence on the direction of science, particularly in the popularity of the study of soft materials, which are in the nexus of biology, chemistry, physics and mechanical and electrical engineering. Because of the existence of integrative textbooks, materials research societies and university chairs in all parts of the world, BA, MA and PhD programs and other indicators of discipline formation, it is fair to call materials science (and engineering) a discipline. In 1958, President Dwight D. Eisenhower created the Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA), referred to as the Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA) since 1996 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1688179 | 344,765 |
Near and far field In all such antennas, the short length means that charges and currents in each sub-section of the antenna are the same at any given time, since the antenna is too short for the RF transmitter voltage to reverse before its effects on charges and currents are felt over the entire antenna length. For antennas physically larger than a half-wavelength of the radiation they emit, the near and far fields are defined in terms of the Fraunhofer distance. Named after Joseph von Fraunhofer, the following formula gives the Fraunhofer distance: where is the largest dimension of the radiator (or the diameter of the antenna) and is the wavelength of the radio wave. Either of the following two relations are equivalent, emphasizing the size of the region in terms of wavelengths or diameters : This distance provides the limit between the near and far field. The parameter corresponds to the physical length of an antenna, or the diameter of a "dish" antenna. Having an antenna electromagnetically longer than one-half the dominated wavelength emitted considerably extends the near-field effects, especially that of focused antennas. Conversely, when a given antenna emits high frequency radiation, it will have a near-field region larger than what would be implied by the shorter wavelength. Additionally, a far-field region distance must satisfy these two conditions. where is the largest physical linear dimension of the antenna and is the far-field distance | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=271708 | 399,444 |
Vactrain A vactrain (or vacuum tube train) is a proposed design for very-high-speed rail transportation. It is a maglev (magnetic levitation) line using partly evacuated tubes or tunnels. Reduced air resistance could permit vactrains to travel at very high (hypersonic) speeds with relatively little power—up to . This is 5–6 times the speed of sound in Earth's atmosphere at sea level. Vactrains might use gravity to assist their acceleration, as in a gravity train. If these trains achieve the predicted speeds, they could surpass aircraft as the world's fastest mode of public transportation. In 1799, George Medhurst of London conceived of and patented an atmospheric railway that could convey people or cargo through pressurized or evacuated tubes. The early atmospheric railways and pneumatic tube transport systems (such as the Dalkey Atmospheric Railway) relied on steam power for propulsion. In 1888, Michel Verne, son of Jules Verne, imagined a submarine pneumatic tube transport system that could propel a passenger capsule at speeds up to under the Atlantic Ocean (a transatlantic tunnel) in a short story called "An Express of the Future". The vactrain proper was invented by Robert Goddard as a freshman at Worcester Polytechnic Institute in the United States in 1904. Goddard subsequently refined the idea in a 1906 short story called "The High-Speed Bet" which was summarized and published in a Scientific American editorial in 1909 called "The Limit of Rapid Transit" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3294173 | 201,830 |
Magnetic resonance (quantum mechanics) When the field is withdrawn, protons tend to reequilibrate along the Boltzmann distribution, so some protons transition from higher energy level to lower ones, emitting microwave or radio-wave radiation at specific frequencies. Instead of nuclear spin, spin angular momentum of unpaired electrons is used in EPR (Electron paramagnetic resonance) to detect free radicals, etc. The phenomenon of magnetic resonance is rooted in the existence of spin angular momentum of a quantum system and its specific orientation with respect to an applied magnetic field. Both cases have no explanation in the classical approach and can be understood only by using quantum mechanics. Some people claim that purely quantum phenomena are those that cannot be explained by the classical approach. For example, phenomena in the microscopic domain that can to some extent be described by classical analogy are not really quantum phenomena. Since the basic elements of magnetic resonance have no classical origin, although analogy can be made with Classical Larmor precession, MR should be treated as a quantum phenomenon. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44216842 | 431,779 |
Fault tolerance Considering the importance of high-value systems in transport, public utilities and the military, the field of topics that touch on research is very wide: it can include such obvious subjects as software modeling and reliability, or hardware design, to arcane elements such as stochastic models, graph theory, formal or exclusionary logic, parallel processing, remote data transmission, and more. Spare components address the first fundamental characteristic of fault tolerance in three ways: All implementations of RAID, redundant array of independent disks, except RAID 0, are examples of a fault-tolerant storage device that uses data redundancy. A lockstep fault-tolerant machine uses replicated elements operating in parallel. At any time, all the replications of each element should be in the same state. The same inputs are provided to each replication, and the same outputs are expected. The outputs of the replications are compared using a voting circuit. A machine with two replications of each element is termed dual modular redundant (DMR). The voting circuit can then only detect a mismatch and recovery relies on other methods. A machine with three replications of each element is termed triple modular redundant (TMR). The voting circuit can determine which replication is in error when a two-to-one vote is observed. In this case, the voting circuit can output the correct result, and discard the erroneous version | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2091393 | 372,189 |
Business information is one of the three main segments of the information industry. The other two segments are "scientific, technical and medical (STM)" and "educational and training content". While most of the content industry revenues are advertising-driven, the business information segment remains largely driven by paid content, either via subscription or transaction (pay-per-view) The primary forms of business information include: The primary business information formats can be divided into different categories: While Wall Street's thirst for information traditionally drove the business information market, its use is much more widespread today. In addition to the financial markets, business information is used heavily for sales and marketing, competitive intelligence, strategic planning, human resources and many other strategic business functions. There are more than 210 providers of business information. While the Internet has made it easier for business information publishers to deliver content directly to their users, there remains a strong market for aggregators of such content which package and customize business information. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3113256 | 482,999 |
North Island Main Trunk Between 1973 and 1981 the major Mangaweka deviation in the central section between Mangaweka and Utiku was built, with three viaducts, all over 70m tall, crossing the Rangitikei and Kawhatau rivers. The central section from Te Rapa near Hamilton to Palmerston North was electrified at 25 kV AC between 1984 and 1988 as part of the Think Big government energy programme. Some tunnels were opened out or bypassed by deviations while in others clearances were increased, and curves eased. The section between Ohakune and Horopito was realigned with three viaducts replaced to handle higher loads and speeds. The most notable bridge replaced was the curved metal viaduct at Hapuawhenua by a modern concrete structure, though the original has been restored as a tourist attraction. In 2009–10, the 1.5 km section of line between Wellington Junction and Distant Junction was rebuilt from double track to triple track, to ease peak-time congestion. In February 2011 duplication between Paekakariki and Waikanae was completed as part of the upgrade and expansion of the Wellington suburban network; see Kapiti Line for more information. In 2012–13 four bridges near Rangiriri between Auckland and Hamilton were replaced. The bridges were all over 100 years old with steel spans and timber piers, and were replaced by modern low-maintenance concrete ballast deck bridges. Bridges 479, 480, 481 & 482 were replaced, with lengths of , , and respectively. The construction of the Peka Peka to Otaki section of the Kapiti Expressway required 1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1799173 | 345,136 |
ByteDance In March 2012, launched its first app called Neihan Duanzi (内涵段子). This app allowed users to circulate jokes, memes, and humorous videos. At its peak, Neihan Duanzi had over 200 million users in 2017. On 10 April 2018, permanently sunset Neihan Duanzi, as the National Radio and Television Administration accused Neihan Duanzi of hosting “vulgar” and “improper” content and “triggering strong sentiments of resentment among internet users”. In response to Neihan Duanzi's shutdown, founder Zhang Yiming issued a letter stating that the app was "incommensurate with socialist core values" and promised that would "further deepen cooperation" with the authorities to promote their policies. Following the shutdown, announced that it would give preference to Chinese Communist Party members in its hiring and increase its censors from 6,000 to 10,000 employees. The first version of Toutiao was launched in August 2012, five months after Zhang founded ByteDance. Toutiao hit 1 million DAU (daily active users) four months after its launch. In January 2014, the company created the “Toutiaohao” () platform to attract more PGC (professionally generated content) and UGC (user generated content) creators; and later in the year, added video capabilities. Toutiao used interest-based and decentralized distribution to help long-tail content creators find an audience. An often cited example is “Zhuguan Baba”, a young pig farmer in Northern China whose posts on how to raise pigs attracted millions of readers on Toutiao | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54450737 | 262,339 |
Technological singularity The technological singularity—also, simply, the singularity—is a hypothetical future point in time at which technological growth becomes uncontrollable and irreversible, resulting in unforeseeable changes to human civilization. According to the most popular version of the singularity hypothesis, called intelligence explosion, an upgradable intelligent agent will eventually enter a "runaway reaction" of self-improvement cycles, with each new and more intelligent generation appearing more and more rapidly, causing an "explosion" in intelligence and resulting in a powerful superintelligence that qualitatively far surpasses all human intelligence. The first use of the concept of a "singularity" in the technological context was John von Neumann. Stanislaw Ulam reports a discussion with von Neumann "centered on the accelerating progress of technology and changes in the mode of human life, which gives the appearance of approaching some essential in the history of the race beyond which human affairs, as we know them, could not continue". Subsequent authors have echoed this viewpoint. I. J. Good's "intelligence explosion" model predicts that a future superintelligence will trigger a singularity. The concept and the term "singularity" were popularized by Vernor Vinge in his 1993 essay "The Coming Technological Singularity", in which he wrote that it would signal the end of the human era, as the new superintelligence would continue to upgrade itself and would advance technologically at an incomprehensible rate | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54245 | 248,213 |
Magarpatta ( lit. "Land of Magar family") is a 450 acre, privately owned gated community in the Hadapsar area of Pune, India. It has a commercial area, residential area, hospital with several specialisations, shopping malls, restaurants, a gym, Aditi Garden (a 25-acre park) and schools. 30% of the area is made up of green space. There is a commercial complex named "Destination Centre" located herein. Construction began in 2001 and continues to develop itself with newer housing societies. was originally a farmland in Hadapsar, owned by the Magar family. They live in Hadapsar. Satish Magar is the chairman & managing director of the township. has various residential clusters for different needs and income groups. Names of these clusters are based on different flower species, and they are listed below in order from oldest to newest. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22626600 | 266,885 |
Urine diversion However, this toilet did not become a commercial success, and manufacturing, sales and technical support ceased in about 2010 (the most prominent installation of Roediger toilets installed today is at the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Sciences and Technology in Dübendorf near Zürich, Switzerland). Likewise, the Swedish company Gustavsberg stopped selling their urine diversion flush model in about 2011 which was regretted by many people because it was generally working well. In Sweden, urine diversion flush toilets are nowadays supplied by two manufacturers, Dubbletten and Wostman, which continue to sell their urine diversion systems today primarily for installation in summer houses in rural and semi-rural areas. These two types of urine diversion flush toilets have been installed in both research projects and community scale installations in Australia. The design difference between the various models is the shape and size of the two compartments and in the way the flush water is introduced for the two compartments. In addition, the Roederig NoMix toilet was the only toilet that was able to collect the urine pure - without any flush water - due to a valve on the urine compartment that was opened when the user sat down and closed when the user stood up and flushed the toilet. It was also this valve that caused a lot of maintenance issues due to struvite precipitation in this valve | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25657577 | 337,195 |
Ken Olsen In the 1960s, Olsen received patents for a saturable switch, a diode transformer gate circuit, an improved version of magnetic core memory, and the line printer buffer. (Note that MIT professor Jay W. Forrester is generally credited with inventing the first practical magnetic core memory). Olsen was known throughout his career for his management style and his fostering of engineering innovation. Olsen's valuing of innovation and technical excellence spawned and popularized techniques such as engineering matrix management, that are broadly employed today throughout many industries. Olsen valued humility, he drove an economy car and kept a simple office in an old mill building. He also was an accomplished pilot and flew his own plane. In 1977, referring to computers used in home automation at the dawn of the home computer era, Olsen is quoted as saying "There is no reason for any individual to have a computer in his home." Olsen admitted to making the remark, even though he says his words were taken out of context and was referring to computers set up to control houses, not PCs. According to Snopes.com, "the out-of-context misinterpretation of Olsen’s comments is considered much more amusing and entertaining than what he really meant, so that is the version that has been promulgated for decades now". In 1986, Fortune Magazine named Olsen "America's most successful entrepreneur", and the same year he received the IEEE Engineering Leadership Recognition Award | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=538743 | 420,626 |
Conservation and restoration of clocks " The clock was then disassembled, and care was taken to document information about each of the over 600 components both textually and photographically, including measurements and where each component fits within the clock. "After examination, each component was cleaned and dried, wrapped in acid-free tissue, and stored with the catalogue number." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=47762063 | 432,310 |
Cohn process Another variation was developed by Kistler and Nitschmann, to provide a purer form of albumin, even though offset by lower yields. Similar to Gerlough, the Precipitate A, which is equivalent to Cohn’s Fraction II and III, was done at a lower ethanol concentration of 19%, but the pH, in this case, was also lower to 5.85. Also similar to Gerlough and Mulford, the fraction IV was combined and precipitated at conditions of 40% ethanol, pH of 5.85, and temperature of −8 degrees C. The albumin, which is recovered in fraction V, is recovered in Precipitate C at a pH adjustment to 4.8. Similar to the Cohn Process, the albumin is purified by extraction into water followed by precipitation of the impurities at 10% ethanol, pH 4.6, and −3 degrees C. Akin to the Cohn Process, the precipitate formed here is filtered out and discarded. Then Precipitate C (fraction V) is reprecipitated at pH 5.2 and stored as a paste at −40 degrees C. This process has been more widely accepted because it separates the fractions and makes each stage independent of each other. Another variation involved a heat ethanol fractionation. It was originally developed to inactivate the hepatitis virus. In this process, recovery of high yield, high purity albumin is the most important goal, while the other plasma proteins are neglected. In order to make sure the albumin does not denature in the heat, there are stabilizers such as sodium octanoate, which allow the albumin to tolerate higher temperatures for long periods | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8116008 | 287,004 |
Kuwahara filter If for example the pixel is located on a dark side of an edge it will most probably take the mean value of the dark region. On the other hand, should the pixel be on the lighter side of an edge it will most probably take a light value. On the event that the pixel is located on the edge it will take the value of the more smooth, least textured region. The fact that the filter takes into account the homogeneity of the regions ensures that it will preserve the edges while using the mean creates the blurring effect. Similarly to the Median filter the uses a sliding window approach to access every pixel in the image. The size of the window is chosen in advance and may vary depending on the desired level of blur in the final image. Bigger windows typically result in the creation of more abstract images whereas small windows produce images that retain their detail. Typically windows are chose to be square with sides that have an odd number of pixels for symmetry. However, there are variations of the that use rectangular windows. Additionally, the subregions do not need to overlap or have the same size as long as they cover all of the window. For color images, the filter should not be performed by applying the filter to each RGB channel separately, and then recombining the three filtered color channels to form the filtered RGB image. The main problem with that is that the quadrants will have different standard deviations for each of the channels | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39903059 | 106,331 |
C6H9NO The molecular formula CHNO may refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23714114 | 20,083 |
Shot (pellet) 0 shot, while also depending on the specific lead alloy that is used. The roundness of the lead shot depends on the angle of the inclined surfaces as well as the temperature of the liquid coolant. Various coolants have successfully been used, ranging from diesel fuel to antifreeze and water-soluble oil. After the lead shot cools, it is washed, then dried, and small amounts of graphite are finally added to prevent clumping of the lead shot. Lead shot larger than about #5 tends to clump badly when fed through tubes, even when graphite is used, whereas lead shot smaller than about #6 tends not to clump when fed through tubes when graphite is used. Lead shot dropped quickly into liquid cooling baths when being produced from molten lead is known as "chilled lead shot", in contrast to "soft lead shot" which is produced by molten lead not being dropped as quickly into a liquid cooling bath. The process of rapidly chilling lead shot during its manufacturing process causes the shot to become harder than it would otherwise be if allowed to cool more slowly. Hence, chilled lead shot, being harder and less likely to deform during firing, is preferred by shotgunners for improving shot pattern densities at longer (> ) ranges, whereas soft lead shot, being softer and more likely to deform during firing, is preferred for improving shot pattern densities at very close (< ) ranges as the softer and now deformed shot scatters more quickly when fired | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2381321 | 29,311 |
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