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s0fs6
|
What's the current scientific consensus on the effect of dietary fat on heart disease?
|
[
{
"answer": "A quick Pub Med [search](_URL_1_) has several articles that might answer your question. I'm busy studying at the moment but if I get some free time I'll try to skim some of the literature. I grabbed two that looked promising if you want to do some reading in case I forget about this and don't return. You can try your own search at Pub Med. Look for systemic reviews or large studies, and remember make your search parameters your question not the answer your looking for. Good Luck. Oh and you should probably consult your physician before doing major dietary changes like this. He/She may have something to add based on your medical background. \n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_2_\n\n",
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"answer": "The original saturated fat hypothesis for heart disease was incredibly poorly supported. It was using comparisons between only a few countries that didn't adequately segregate between all possible variables. That's why you got things like the so-called \"French Paradox\". France ate 3x the saturated fat as America, but got less heart disease. It was only a paradox if you assumed that saturated fat caused heart disease. It's clear that it cannot be the case, as there are native american and african populations that eat/ate nothing but animal products and have almost no heart disease. Diet is very complicated, and almost impossible to do the correct studies with proper controls (allowing a human to only eat a defined diet for 50+ years). While there isn't a scientific consensus, I think it's much more likely at this point that sugar is actually the culprit for heart disease.",
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"answer": " > The rumors I've always heard have told me that high-fat diets lead directly to heart disease and my personal LDL has always been high.\n\nWell, there are a few complicated issues at play in your question! I'll try to break it down, issue by issues.\n\nHeart disease in the form of atherosclerosis (hardening of the cardiac arteries with fat and other cells), can have a number of different causes. High blood lipids such as LDL cholesterol and triglycerides are just *one* of the risk factors - others included obesity, diabetes, smoking, lifestyle, genetics, hormones, etc. When you think about research for cardiovascular disease, realize that it is very difficult to isolate risk factors since they are so interelated. \n\nSo, by reducing blood lipids you (generally) lower your risk for atherosclerosis.\n\nNow, let's talk dietary fat. There is a distinction to made between a high fat diet, and a high *saturated* fat diet. Saturated fat is solid at room temperature, and generally comes from animal sources - think butter, ice cream, beef, bacon, etc. Polyunsaturated and monounsaturated are the other kinds of fats, and they come from plants - seeds, nuts, vegetables - think olive oil, avocados, nuts. (To complicate matters further, you can get saturated fat from plants and unsurated fats from animals - just less of each.) \n\nWhether or not a high *saturated* fat diet increases LDL cholesterol - the risk factor for cardiovascular disease - is a matter of debate. Several, long term, huge studies have tried to figure this out, and the data is mixed. [Some of them are listed here.](_URL_2_) Some people will say there is no relationship between saturated fat and heart disease, but that's because they are \"cherry picking\" or cite one or two studies and ignoring the rest. Obviously, other studies show a clear association. There's not a consensus either way and the matter remains unresolved.\n\nHowever, most conservative institutions recommend a diet low in saturated fat. The American Heart Association, for example, recommends limiting saturated fat to [seven percent of calories a day](_URL_0_), while replacing the calories from saturated fat from plant based - poly- and monounsaturated fat.\n\n > I just want to know what's the current scientific medical consensus about eating a high fat, no starch low sugar diet.\n\nThere really isn't one. \n\nDoctors look at risk factors like those mentioned above. If you can shovel bacon in your mouth and keep a low LDL, then, they probably won't bring up your diet at all. If you're smoking, or overweight, or diabetic, they'll try to help you get those things under control.\n\nGenerally, if you lose weight, your blood lipids drop. So, pretty much, [no matter what you eat](_URL_1_), if you're overweight and need to lose, reducing body fat will help your LDL. If you're losing weight with keto and eating lots of saturated fat, it's possible that the weight loss will improve your blood lipids. The only way to really know if keto increase your LDL is to try it long term and get your lipids tested frequently.\n\nThe keto diet is used medically to treat conditions like childhood epilepsy, but it's also used for weight loss. By eliminating most of the carbohydrates in your diet, you force your body to use fat to do the work of carbs. This can have unpleasant [side effects](_URL_3_) such as bad breath and kidney stones. You have to stay on it - you can't \"cheat\" or your throw your body out of keto.\n\nThe concern I would have with keto is that by limiting carbs, you're limiting a lot of good vitamins and minerals in your diet! High carb foods like fruit and whole grains have a lot of good stuff in them, such as phytochemicals and fiber that have added nutritional benefit.\n\nHope that helps. Good luck!",
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"answer": "I found this book interesting.-\n\n_URL_0_\n\nYou can even read the first chapter for free.\n\nDiet is complicated. It's not just one thing, you have to look at the total diet and that is where so many studies stumble and this leads to confusion and the public's distrust of anything concerning diet. Saturated fat intake in Inuit populations is very high but they also don't eat all the processed foods and sugars we do. Their diet works because the entire thing works together. You can't just do one part of it and expect the same results. Throwing saturated fat everywhere in your diet while continuing to eat like an American is just a terrible American diet. There is definitely something very wrong with the Western Diet, but what is it exactly? We don't know. It's probably many things added together.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "319138",
"title": "French paradox",
"section": "Section::::Impact.:Scientific impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
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"text": "Similarly, the authors of a 2009 review of dietary studies concluded that there was insufficient evidence to establish a causal link between consumption of saturated fats and coronary heart disease risk.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30472972",
"title": "Seven Countries Study",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.:Debate since 2000.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "Controversy continues about the study itself, and about the strength and causality of the association between dietary fat and heart mortality, particularly as the study of cholesterol has become more sophisticated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "125494",
"title": "Ancel Keys",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "Ancel Benjamin Keys (January 26, 1904 – November 20, 2004) was an American physiologist who studied the influence of diet on health. In particular, he hypothesized that dietary saturated fat causes cardiovascular heart disease and should be avoided.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "267909",
"title": "Arachidonic acid",
"section": "Section::::Health effects of arachidonic acid supplementation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 892,
"text": "A meta-analysis looking for associations between heart disease risk and individual fatty acids reported a significantly reduced risk of heart disease with higher levels of EPA and DHA (omega-3 fats), as well as the omega-6 arachidonic acid. A scientific advisory from the American Heart Association has also favorably evaluated the health impact of dietary omega-6 fats, including arachidonic acid. The group does not recommend limiting this essential fatty acid. In fact, the paper recommends individuals follow a diet that consists of at least 5–10% of calories coming from omega-6 fats, including arachidonic acid. It suggests dietary ARA is not a risk factor for heart disease, and may play a role in maintaining optimal metabolism and reduced heart disease risk. Maintaining sufficient intake levels of both omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, therefore, is recommended for optimal health.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "319138",
"title": "French paradox",
"section": "Section::::Impact.:Scientific impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
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"text": "Some researchers have thrown into question the entire claimed connection between natural saturated fat consumption and cardiovascular disease. In 2006 this view received some indirect support from the results of the Nurses' Health Study run by the Women's Health Initiative. After accumulating approximately 8 years of data on the diet and health of 49,000 post-menopausal American women, the researchers found that the balance of saturated versus unsaturated fats did not appear to affect heart disease risk, whereas the consumption of trans fat was associated with significantly increased risk of cardiovascular disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "319138",
"title": "French paradox",
"section": "Section::::Statistical illusion hypothesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "Evidence supports this explanation: mortality from heart disease across countries, including France, correlates strongly with levels of animal fat consumption and serum cholesterol in the past (30 years ago)...\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8557125",
"title": "Mary G. Enig",
"section": "Section::::Dietary views.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 682,
"text": "Enig, a member of The International Network of Cholesterol Skeptics (THINCS), disputed the widely accepted view in the scientific community that consumption of saturated fats contributes to heart disease. Her chapter in the book \"Coronary Heart Disease: The Dietary Sense and Nonsense – An evaluation by scientists\" was reviewed in the \"New England Journal of Medicine\", which noted that while she provided an appropriate discussion of trans fats in diet, she did not accurately depict the medical literature on the connection between diet and coronary disease, and that she wrote with an inflammatory tone that was unjustified. Enig responded in a letter published in the journal.\n",
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"meta": null
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] | null |
xtp5n
|
How did lords control their land?
|
[
{
"answer": "By saying \"taking it over\" I assume you're saying that the vassal will rise up against his lord? It's my understanding that vassals were granted land that provided them with homes, food, protection. To rise up against the lord was to threaten this entire system, and I'm guessing *other* vassals that had been granted land had a strong incentive to stop the rebel. The entire system seems to me to rest on loyalty and trust: for someone to bluntly break that trust threatens the entire system.\n\nWhat most interests me is groups of vassals conspiring together. I suppose as long as everyone could trust each other (and agree on who'd be the next lord) than everything would turn out OK. \n\nIn some ways it reminds me of the mafia leadership. Why wouldn't the lower ranks raise up and knock off the godfather and put their own man in place? Probably because no one trusts each other and the godfather is pretty good at playing people off each other/keeping the powers of everyone limited enough to keep his own job secure yet strong enough to fend off attack from outside gangs.\n\nEDIT: I teach middle school and we do a roleplaying scenario like this class-wide. Everyone tries to buck/break the system but it becomes pretty apparent that while feudalism isn't the BEST system of government the world has ever invented (by our own standards of what's good/fair/just) it worked pretty well for the temporary situation that Europe found itself in: divided by geography and language, outside invaders, etc. ",
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"answer": "Lords were frequently not able to control their vassals. The problem of an \"over-mighty vassal\" is most apparent with the troublesome Duchy of Normandy, whose rulers eventually became kings of England, even though they were technically vassals of the crown of France. This eventually resulted in the Hundred Years War. So it wasn't the case that vassals never rebelled against their lord's authority.\n\nHowever, in general, your question should be \"what motivation would the average vassal have to rebel in the first place\" rather than \"why didn't they rebel all the time.\" There's little practical benefit in doing so. If a vassal abandons his feudal obligations, then the lord would raise his banners and go to war against him. Unless all of his other vassals joined your rebellion, then one man's landholdings would not be able to hold out against a much larger force. Of course, this depends on the lord in question being able to raise such a force. A weak king might see his realm disentegrate around him as his barons left his service. \n\nThough sometimes it's the fashion among students to ignore the cultural factors in favor of more \"practical\" concerns, the fear of God was also a part of it. An oath of fealty was both political and religious, a promise before both man and God. By directly violating your feudal oaths, you completely abandoned your honor and became fair game in the eyes of the Church. William of Normandy justified his invasion of England in 1066 by claiming that Harold Godwinson had sworn oaths to him over religious artifacts. The Pope believed him and so gave him Papal blessing for his conquest. \n\nAs to your final question, the primary responsibility of a vassal to his lord was military service. By swearing an oath to a lord and recieving lands for it, a vassal made an agreement to serve in war when his lord required. In addition to personal arms for himself, vassals would have been contracted, for lack of a better term, to bring X number of men-at-arms and archers along with him. I believe that the term of service was usually limited to a little more than a month per year, but of course, this would vary depending on the specific lord and vassal involved. \n\nKeep in mind that I'm speaking in generalities about the overall feudal system, and that there is an enormous debate between people way smarter than me about the specific nature of feudalism. But I think this will suffice for a broad understanding of the basic concepts. ",
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{
"answer": "To echo what others said here and boil it down, in those kinds of systems \"lords\" didn't really control their land. They controlled people via patron-client relations. Clients (vassals) might decide to break allegiance, but then they'd have to deal with the wrath of the patron (often via the other clients). Sometimes these clients would be related to the patron via marriage, so that made things a lot messier. In African examples, sometimes the patron would have hostages--pawnship slaves or \"apprentices\" who were heirs in the vassal's household. You rebel, they die, or worse yet, they replace you when the patron puts you to the sword. Of course if the patron is in decline and vassals are breaking away, you might be able to create yourself as a new patron (as the Sonni dynasty in Gao did while the Empire of Mali was in decline, thus becoming the nucleus of Songhai).\n\nThe more I read comments in these kinds of threads, the more I realize that European and African systems ca. 1300-1500 (I know, BIG generalizations there) really weren't all that different in material function, even if the religions, cultures, and commodities were very dissimilar.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "40263482",
"title": "Lordship of Sainte-Anne-de-la-Pérade",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
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"text": "Established in 1627 in New France and abolished in 1854, the feudal system allowed the state to divide the territory into fiefs and lordships to sustain the momentum of colonization. This stately institution allowed the distribution and land use by controlling the development. In each fiefs or manors, lords attributed by lots to the highest bidder settlers (charging system). These could lease them back to other settlers. The person was granted by the State territory became lord. The concession contract required him to be operating his lordship.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "869616",
"title": "Land tenure",
"section": "Section::::Feudal tenure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "Historically in the system of feudalism, the lords who received land directly from the Crown were called tenants-in-chief. They doled out portions of their land to lesser tenants in exchange for services, who in turn divided it among even lesser tenants. This process—that of granting subordinate tenancies—is known as subinfeudation. In this way, all individuals except the monarch were said to hold the land \"of\" someone else.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "379799",
"title": "Statutes of Mortmain",
"section": "Section::::Alienation and the statute of Quia Emptores.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "In England in the 12th and 13th Centuries, the legal ownership of land was defined through a hierarchical system of estates. The monarch was the ultimate owner of all land in the realm, and out of his estate lesser estates existed, held by individuals known as tenants in capite. Further estates could be created out of these estates in a process called subinfeudation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13203087",
"title": "Land Tax Reform (Japan 1873)",
"section": "Section::::Reform effects.:Private ownership of land.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 714,
"text": "Private land ownership was recognized for the first time in Japan with the issuing of land titles. The previous practice of land ownership was the , which stated that all land was under the sole ownership of the emperor, such that individual farmers were merely borrowing the land from feudal lords, who in turn were borrowing the land from the emperor. The reform abolished this archaic system of land ownership, and began to allow landowners to use their property as a financial asset in collateral or other investment. This law was one of the first steps towards the development of capitalism in Japan, paralleling the English (and later United Kingdom) statute Quia Emptores enacted several centuries earlier.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "145893",
"title": "Fief",
"section": "Section::::Early feudal grants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "Eventually, great feudal lords sought also to seize governmental and legal authority (the collection of taxes, the right of high justice, etc.) in their lands, and some passed these rights to their own vassals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37861192",
"title": "Land reforms by country",
"section": "Section::::Asia.:Japan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 165,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 165,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "Private land ownership was recognized for the first time in Japan with the issuing of land titles. Previously, individual farmers were merely borrowing the land from feudal lords, who in turn were borrowing the land from the emperor. The reform abolished this archaic system of land ownership, and began to allow landowners to use their property as a financial asset in collateral or other investment. This law was one of the first steps towards the development of capitalism in Japan, paralleling the English (and later United Kingdom) statute Quia Emptores enacted several centuries earlier.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1381713",
"title": "Alienation Office",
"section": "Section::::Establishment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "The first regulatory structure for controlling the alienation of feudal lands was created during the reign of Henry III (1216-1272), who issued an ordinance prohibiting his tenants-in-chief from alienating their lands held from him without his specific licence. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
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] | null |
4eul5r
|
how do doctors know the type of cancer someone has when it's metastatic?
|
[
{
"answer": "You can obtain a sample and look in the microscope. Colon cancer mostly occurs in the outermost most layer of the GI tract called epithelial layer and the surrounding connective tissue. The best way to see if it is spreading is by checking presence of cancer cells in areas below the epithelial layer. Cancer cells are often huge and have pretty big nuclei and look nothing like the cells around them. \n\nAnother way is to obtain a tissue sample from the nearest lymph node. Lymph vessels drain the area around cells so they are a easy pathway for metastasis. Lymph vessels drain into lymph nodes so you can biopsy a lymph node to see if there are any cancer cells there. \n\n",
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"answer": "Sometimes they don't. There are ways to tell, taking biopsy and examining the cells from the secondary tumours but often it's not practical or helpful and it depends on the individual case.\n\nMy father was diagnosed with liver and lung cancer but we were told that they didn't know where the primary tumour had came from. \n\nIn such cases it's often referred to as [cancer of unknown primary] (_URL_0_).\n\nAs with your own dad, my dad almost certainly had a primary that was colorectal. It was never confirmed officially though but from the information we have it seems the most logical. I'm not a clilnician but I worked for the hospital at the time and was given advice and information by the Consultants and Professors that I worked for.\n\nI'm very sorry to hear that your father had metastatic colon cancer. \n\nSometimes it isn't practical to look for the primary. It depends upon a lot of factors and every case is different.\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "That cancer has metasticized tells them what stage it is in. Cancer has 5 stages, though it's usually diagnosed in 1 of 4 stages. They are: \n\nStage 0: 'In Situ'. A cell that becomes malignant usually does so in the company of other, similar cells. It can stay in that position, in a single tumour in a single spot. This is *in situ* cancer. \n\nStage 1: Localized. In this stage the cancer cells gain the ability to pass through the 'basement membrane' that the boundary to the tissue in which the cancer cells began, invading neighboring tissue as they do. This is a serious step, because while some *in situ* cancers never progress, this step means that this particular cancer means to do just that, progress, and continue to grow. While the cancer may be a single lump, it is considered localised. \n\nStages 2 & 3: Regional Spread. Once a cancer has invaded the surrounding tissues, the next common step is for one of it's 'daughter cells' to invade through a lymph vessel. A lymph vessel is like a blood vessel but instead of blood, it carries a clear fluid called lymph, which is constantly exuding from our capillaries back to the blood stream. As it travels to the blood stream, this fluid passes through a lymph node, one of the major players in our body's immune system. When the cancer cells reach the lymph node, they may provoke an immune response against them, which may destroy them and other cancer cells. This is a best case scenario. More often, though, the cancer cells begin to divide and form a new lump in the lymph node. This stage is regional spread. Thi sis to say, the cancer has spread to the general region where it first began, but not to other parts of the body. Whether it is stage 2 or 3 depends on how many lymph nodes the cancer has reached. \n\nStage 4: Distant Spread; Metastasis. The cancer cells have multiplied in the lymph nodes and are now spreading through the lymph and blood systems to other organs. Once they begin growing in another organ, that is metastatic cancer. This is the latest stage of cancer, and hardest to treat because it involves treating multiple parts of the body. \n\nHave they told you where the cancer has spread? Colon cancer tends to hit the liver, but sometimes the lungs or peritoneum (lining of the abdominal cavity). If the metastases are small, and they know where they are, then surgery *may* be an option to give him more time and possibly even provide a cure. Chemo is usually done in conjunction with the surgery, before and/or after. \n\nI am really sorry for your dad, and I hope his prognosis is a good one. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "152509",
"title": "Metastasis",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "The cells in a metastatic tumor resemble those in the primary tumor. Once the cancerous tissue is examined under a microscope to determine the cell type, a doctor can usually tell whether that type of cell is normally found in the part of the body from which the tissue sample was taken.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "206979",
"title": "Colorectal cancer",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "Presence of metastases is determined by a CT scan of the chest, abdomen and pelvis. Other potential imaging tests such as PET and MRI may be used in certain cases. Staging of the cancer is based on both radiological and pathological findings. As for most other forms of cancer, tumor staging is based on the TNM system which considers how much the initial tumor has spread and the presence of metastases in lymph nodes and more distant organs. The AJCC 8th edition was published in 2018.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "152509",
"title": "Metastasis",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "It was previously thought that most cancer cells have a low metastatic potential and that there are rare cells that develop the ability to metastasize through the development of somatic mutations. According to this theory, diagnosis of metastatic cancers is only possible after the event of metastasis. Traditional means of diagnosing cancer (e.g. a biopsy) would only investigate a subpopulation of the cancer cells and would very likely not sample from the subpopulation with metastatic potential.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "152509",
"title": "Metastasis",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "Metastatic cancers may be found at the same time as the primary tumor, or months or years later. When a second tumor is found in a patient that has been treated for cancer in the past, it is more often a metastasis than another primary tumor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "152509",
"title": "Metastasis",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Metastasis and primary cancer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 775,
"text": "It is theorized that metastasis always coincides with a primary cancer, and, as such, is a tumor that started from a cancer cell or cells in another part of the body. However, over 10% of patients presenting to oncology units will have metastases without a primary tumor found. In these cases, doctors refer to the primary tumor as \"unknown\" or \"occult,\" and the patient is said to have cancer of unknown primary origin (CUP) or unknown primary tumors (UPT). It is estimated that 3% of all cancers are of unknown primary origin. Studies have shown that, if simple questioning does not reveal the cancer's source (coughing up blood—\"probably lung\", urinating blood—\"probably bladder\"), complex imaging will not either. In some of these cases a primary tumor may appear later.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "152509",
"title": "Metastasis",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Metastasis and primary cancer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "The use of immunohistochemistry has permitted pathologists to give an identity to many of these metastases. However, imaging of the indicated area only occasionally reveals a primary. In rare cases (e.g., of melanoma), no primary tumor is found, even on autopsy. It is therefore thought that some primary tumors can regress completely, but leave their metastases behind. In other cases, the tumor might just be too small and/or in an unusual location to be diagnosed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46754226",
"title": "Brendon Coventry",
"section": "Section::::Other research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "In a 20-year study published in the \"New England Journal of Medicine\", which Coventry co-authored, it was found that metastatic cancer can be located in the body through a process called \"lymph node tracing\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
vb7qw
|
At the end of Fight Club, the main character shoots himself in the head with a gun in his mouth and just ends up with a hole in his neck. Is this possible, improbable or just outright ridiculous?
|
[
{
"answer": "Surprisingly yes. [Here](_URL_2_)\n\n[Another](_URL_0_)\n\n[Last one for now](_URL_1_)\n\nIt's still quite rare for most psychiatric patients to attempt a self-inflicted gunshot wound, pills are a far more common choice, but even a gunshot to the head is not a guaranteed death by any means.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4814727",
"title": "SNL Digital Short",
"section": "Section::::The Shooting.:Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "After both men have fallen to the ground from their separate shootings, another man, Eric (Shia LaBeouf), enters looking for them (saying he's \"just thought of the funniest thing\"). Dave comes back to life to shoot Eric in the stomach, who collapses, once again to the same music. The sister herself (Kristen Wiig) enters the scene, and begins to read the letter (\"Dear Sister, By the time you read this...\") until she too is shot in the gut several times by each of the three men on the ground, with the music cue restarting with every shot, until she collapses too.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1440016",
"title": "Hard-Boiled Wonderland and the End of the World",
"section": "Section::::Characters.:Hard-boiled Wonderland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "BULLET::::- Junior and Big Boy: Two thugs who, on unknown orders, confront the narrator, leaving his apartment destroyed and inflicting a deliberately non-lethal but serious slash across his lower abdomen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "407401",
"title": "Alias Smith and Jones",
"section": "Section::::References in other works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "BULLET::::- In his comedy book \"Lolly Scramble\", comedian Tony Martin makes reference to the irony of the opening narration \"they never shot anyone!\" with Duel only ultimately shooting himself. Even more bizarre, as Martin remarks, the person reading that line took over Duel's role.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "326512",
"title": "American Express",
"section": "Section::::In popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 183,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 183,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "BULLET::::- In the final episode of \"The Dukes of Hazzard\", Boss Hogg is shot at by a former associate, the bullet striking a wallet he had kept in his pocket and being lodged in several credit cards. Narrator Waylon Jennings takes note of the situation and says, \"I bet he's glad he didn't leave home without them\" (referring to his credit cards).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25695503",
"title": "Chuck Versus the Three Words",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.:Main Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "As the episode opens a man is running through the jungle, clutching a briefcase. Before he can escape he is caught by a massive, scarred man who shoots him and reclaims the case. The man's phone rings and he answers it, saying goodbye with the words \"I love you, Smooshie.\" His men begin to laugh but are cut off by a glare, before he shoots his victim again in the head.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5789454",
"title": "Bullet (1996 film)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "After the first failed attempt to kill Bullet, Tank gets one of his henchmen to start a fight with Bullet, which is witnessed by Louis. The fight ends in a draw when the henchman breaks his hand. Paddy figures out Tank's attempt to kill Bullet and that he is trying to play him and his associates against one another. He and his henchman Big Balls (Donnie Wahlberg) confront Tank about it, in the process killing two of his henchmen, including High Top (Michael K. Williams).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12267883",
"title": "He Was a Quiet Man",
"section": "Section::::Home media.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "In a first alternate ending, the lead-up to the shooting reveals that Bob is indeed the shooter and intends to shoot Venessa (due to his frustration that she does not know he exists), but before he can fire a shot, Bob is himself shot several times in the chest. The scene reveals Coleman to be the hero in this ending, having shot Bob through the cubicle wall. As Bob lies on the floor and his vision fades to black, he sees coworkers standing over him, with Venessa being the last coworker, mouthing the words \"I love you\" before he dies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1oaecc
|
are you good with css?
|
[
{
"answer": "CSS is very easy coding wise. The only difficult area I might see is finding what you want or you're looking for in clarity of the links. \n\n_URL_0_ - this page is what you're going after correct link wise? \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "61204283",
"title": "Css in js",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "CSS-in-JS is a styling technique where JavaScript is used to style components. When this JavaScript is parsed, CSS is generated (usually as a style element) and attached into the DOM. It allows you to abstract CSS to the component level itself, using JavaScript to describe styles in a declarative and maintainable way. There are multiple implementations of this concept in the form of libraries such as\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21648731",
"title": "CSS framework",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "A CSS framework is a software framework that is meant to allow for easier, more standards-compliant web design using the Cascading Style Sheets language. Most of these frameworks contain at least a grid. More functional frameworks also come with more features and additional JavaScript based functions, but are mostly design oriented and unobtrusive. This differentiates these from functional and full JavaScript frameworks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4295428",
"title": "Comparison of stylesheet languages",
"section": "Section::::Cascading Style Sheets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "CSS is designed around styling a document, structured in a markup language, HTML and XML (including XHTML and SVG) documents. It was created for that purpose. The code CSS is non-XML syntax to define the style information for the various elements of the document that it styles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7948184",
"title": "Computational engineering",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1102,
"text": "Computational science and engineering (CSE) is a relatively new discipline that deals with the development and application of computational models and simulations, often coupled with high-performance computing, to solve complex physical problems arising in engineering analysis and design (computational engineering) as well as natural phenomena (computational science). CSE has been described as the \"third mode of discovery\" (next to theory and experimentation). In many fields, computer simulation is integral and therefore essential to business and research. Computer simulation provides the capability to enter fields that are either inaccessible to traditional experimentation or where carrying out traditional empirical inquiries is prohibitively expensive. CSE should neither be confused with pure computer science, nor with computer engineering, although a wide domain in the former is used in CSE (e.g., certain algorithms, data structures, parallel programming, high performance computing) and some problems in the latter can be modeled and solved with CSE methods (as an application area).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1181008",
"title": "Computational science",
"section": "Section::::Applications of computational science.:Computational science in engineering.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 1102,
"text": "Computational science and engineering (CSE) is a relatively new discipline that deals with the development and application of computational models and simulations, often coupled with high-performance computing, to solve complex physical problems arising in engineering analysis and design (computational engineering) as well as natural phenomena (computational science). CSE has been described as the \"third mode of discovery\" (next to theory and experimentation). In many fields, computer simulation is integral and therefore essential to business and research. Computer simulation provides the capability to enter fields that are either inaccessible to traditional experimentation or where carrying out traditional empirical inquiries is prohibitively expensive. CSE should neither be confused with pure computer science, nor with computer engineering, although a wide domain in the former is used in CSE (e.g., certain algorithms, data structures, parallel programming, high performance computing) and some problems in the latter can be modeled and solved with CSE methods (as an application area).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23290197",
"title": "Cascading Style Sheets",
"section": "Section::::Standardization.:Frameworks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 144,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 144,
"end_character": 796,
"text": "CSS frameworks are pre-prepared libraries that are meant to allow for easier, more standards-compliant styling of web pages using the Cascading Style Sheets language. CSS frameworks include Foundation, Blueprint, Bootstrap, Cascade Framework and Materialize. Like programming and scripting language libraries, CSS frameworks are usually incorporated as external .css sheets referenced in the HTML . They provide a number of ready-made options for designing and laying out the web page. Although many of these frameworks have been published, some authors use them mostly for rapid prototyping, or for learning from, and prefer to 'handcraft' CSS that is appropriate to each published site without the design, maintenance and download overhead of having many unused features in the site's styling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23290197",
"title": "Cascading Style Sheets",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "CSS is designed to enable the separation of presentation and content, including layout, colors, and fonts. This separation can improve content accessibility, provide more flexibility and control in the specification of presentation characteristics, enable multiple web pages to share formatting by specifying the relevant CSS in a separate .css file, and reduce complexity and repetition in the structural content.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2pkh5d
|
what was the justification for the chinese government selecting the last panchen lama?
|
[
{
"answer": "The way I understand it is China had a pretty good relationship with the Tibetan buddhists and for hundreds of years there was an understanding between the two. The Chinese respected the choices made by the Panchen for finding the next Dalai Lama. \n\nFast forward to the current Dalai Lama and the friction between them. After they snubbed Tibet's choice of new Panchen Lama and selecting their own the Chinese now essentially get to choose the next Dalai Lama after the current one dies and remove Tibet from the equation altogether. It is a devastating blow to the Tibetan buddhists and that's why he's saying after he dies its pretty much game over.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8133",
"title": "Dalai Lama",
"section": "Section::::Future of the position.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 156,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 156,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "In 1995, the Dalai Lama chose to proceed with the selection of the 11th reincarnation of the Panchen Lama without the use of the Golden Urn, while the Chinese government insisted that it must be used. This has led to two rival Panchen Lamas: Gyaincain Norbu as chosen by the Chinese government's process, and Gedhun Choekyi Nyima as chosen by the Dalai Lama.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "358803",
"title": "Panchen Lama",
"section": "Section::::History.:First Panchen Lama.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1159,
"text": "The recognition of Panchen Lamas has always been a matter involving the Dalai Lama. Choekyi Gyaltsen, 10th Panchen Lama, himself declared, as cited by an official Chinese review that \"according to Tibetan tradition, the confirmation of either the Dalai or Panchen must be mutually recognized.\" The involvement of the government of China in this affair is seen by some as a political ploy to try to gain control over the recognition of the next Dalai Lama (see below), and to strengthen their hold over the future of Tibet and its governance. The government claims however, that their involvement does not break with tradition in that the final decision about the recognition of both the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama traditionally rested in the hands of the Chinese emperor. For instance, after 1792, the Golden Urn was thought to have been used in selecting the 10th, 11th and 12th Dalai Lamas; but the 14th Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso, has more recently said that this was only really used in selection of the 11th, and that in the other cases it was only used to humour the Chinese to confirm a selection that had already been made by traditional methods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60258240",
"title": "Freedom of religion in Asia by country",
"section": "Section::::China.:Tibetan Buddhism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 750,
"text": "Prior to Tibet's incorporation into China, Tibet was a theocracy with the Dalai Lama functioning as the head of government. Since incorporation into China, Dalai Lama have at times sanctioned Chinese control of the territory, while at other times they have been a focal point of political and spiritual opposition to the Chinese government. As various high-ranking Lamas in the country have died, the Chinese government has proposed their own candidates for these positions, which has led at times to rival claimants to the same position. In an effort to further control Tibetan Buddhism and thus Tibet, the Chinese government passed a law in 2007 requiring a Reincarnation Application be completed and approved for all lamas wishing to reincarnate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2203791",
"title": "Freedom of religion in China",
"section": "Section::::Buddhism.:Tibetan Buddhism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 799,
"text": "China took full control of Tibet in 1959. In the wake of the takeover and especially during the cultural revolution many monasteries were destroyed and many monks and laypeople killed. The 14th Dalai Lama fled to India and has since ceded temporal power to an elected government-in-exile. The current Dalai Lama has attempted to negotiate with the Chinese authorities for greater autonomy and religious freedom for Tibet. As various high-ranking Lamas in the country have died, the authorities have proposed their own candidates on the religious authorities, which has led at times to rival claimants to the same position. In an effort to control this, the Chinese government passed a law in 2007 requiring a Reincarnation Application be completed and approved for all lamas wishing to reincarnate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4610236",
"title": "Gedhun Choekyi Nyima",
"section": "Section::::Selection of the 11th Panchen Lama.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 991,
"text": "Armed with Beijing's approval, the head of the Panchen Lama search committee, Chadrel Rinpoche, maintained private communication with the Dalai Lama in order to arrive at a mutually acceptable candidate for both the Dalai Lama and Beijing authorities concerning the Panchen Lama's reincarnation. After the Dalai Lama named Gedhun Choekyi Nyima as the 11th incarnation of the Panchen Lama on 14 May 1995, Chinese authorities had Chadrel Rinpoche arrested and charged with treason. According to the Tibetan Government in Exile, he was replaced by Sengchen Lobsang Gyaltsen, so chosen because he was more likely to agree with the party line. Sengchen had been a political opponent of both the Dalai Lama and the 10th Panchen Lama. Because of the history of rivalry between different sects of Tibetan Buddhism, many Tibetans and scholars believe that this was a tactical move by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) to create more unrest and disunity between the typically unified Tibetan peoples.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20238168",
"title": "14th Dalai Lama",
"section": "Section::::Life as the Dalai Lama.:Cooperation and conflicts with the People's Republic of China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 680,
"text": "Panchen Lama and Dalai Lama had many conflicts in Tibetan history. Dalai Lama's formal rule was brief. He sent a delegation to Beijing, which, without his authorization, ratified the Seventeen Point Agreement for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet. He worked with the Chinese government: in September 1954, together with the 10th Panchen Lama he went to the Chinese capital to meet Mao Zedong and attend the first session of the National People's Congress as a delegate, primarily discussing China's constitution. On 27 September 1954, the Dalai Lama was selected as a Vice chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress, a post he officially held until 1964.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1075011",
"title": "Gyaincain Norbu",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Selection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "Following the death of the Choekyi Gyaltsen, 10th Panchen Lama in 1989, both the Tibetan government in exile and the Chinese government started parallel processes in the six-year-long search for the 11th Panchen Lama.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3p3nn5
|
When one washes the dishes, is the soap foam a good 'practical' indicator about how dirty is the water?
|
[
{
"answer": "Two things:\n\n1. Foam is generally an indication of agitation, since foam is just small bubbles and bubbles form by 'mixing' air into the water so to speak. So it is likely that your end water is foamier because of more scrubbing and swishing around. (Scientist note: try washing your dishes from most dirty to least dirt next to test this hypothesis ;])\n\n2. Soap interacts well with fat, not reacts, because I'm almost certain no reaction is taking place. What **is** happening is that soap and detergent decrease the surface tension of water, so a soapy water mixture can get in and around fats on surfaces whereas water would just kind of slide over fats or other things that don't mix with water because of polarity. Whether a reaction is taking place in addition to that, I don't know. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is a good indicator about how much soap is left to clean off your dishes.\n\n\nSoaps don't truly react with anything, but they do surround fats and oils and \"pull it off\" the dirty surfaces. So if the soap is being used to surround a glob of oil, it can't make foam (which is basically air surrounded by soap).\n\n\nNow the interesting part is that different soaps generate different amounts of foam. In terms of cleaning ability they may be very similar, but not similar in foaming ability. So most dish detergent contains stuff that makes a lot of foam so it looks very effective.\n\n\nOn the other hand, car wash soap contains (or should contain) less foaming agent because who wants to spend the time and water removing all that foam.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I once read an article authored by researchers working at soap giant UniLever that went into this. What I remember is that the effectiveness of the soap solution is not related to the amount of foam the product generates.\n\nSo you can have lots of foam and no working soap, or a perfectly fine working soap which makes no foam at all.\n\n*However*, as the consumer expects the product to be pleasantly foamy (you don't want to much, or to little) at the start and slowly lose it's foamyness as the soap in the mixture is used up, until no foam at all when the soap is all used up, the manufacturer tweaks the ingredients just so that the final product displays this desired behavior.\n\nSo the answer to your question seems to be: Yes, the amount of foam correlates to how active your soap solution is. But is is not because soapy solutions naturally behave like that but because it was *made* to behave like that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's important to note you rarely use soap - bar soap is about it. Almost everything else you use is a detergent. Soap works by making debris to slippery to stick, detergents work by suspending the dirt in the mix and breaking down the oils that hold. Just as the water in your dishwasher produces no suds, the detergent you use in laundry, the shower, and hand washing, don't actually need or create suds. They are added for customer satisfaction. I use trisodium phosphate as a degreaser, and it will strip six month old grease off your range hood, but generates no suds. Now, if you are using actual soap, the suds will tell you how strong it is, because the surfacant action of the soap is what causes the bubbles, but in most cases in indicative of nothing. This is why you should avoid cheap cleaners like \"Moy Fabuloso\", because while they sud up as well as other cleaners, they aren't nearly as powerful. Same goes for laundry detergent. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "428502",
"title": "Hand washing",
"section": "Section::::Substances used.:Soap and detergents.:Solid soap.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "Solid soap, because of its reusable nature, may hold bacteria acquired from previous uses. A small number of studies which have looked at the bacterial transfer from contaminated solid soap have concluded transfer is unlikely as the bacteria are rinsed off with the foam. The CDC still states \"liquid soap with hands-free controls for dispensing is preferable\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3263286",
"title": "Dishwashing liquid",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "Dishwashing liquid (BrE: washing-up liquid), known as dishwashing soap, dish detergent and dish soap, is a detergent used to assist in dishwashing. It is usually a highly-foaming mixture of surfactants with low skin irritation, and is primarily used for hand washing of glasses, plates, cutlery, and cooking utensils in a sink or bowl. In addition to its primary use, dishwashing liquid also has various informal applications, such as for creating bubbles, clothes washing and cleaning oil-affected birds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23902228",
"title": "Soap dish",
"section": "Section::::Design elements.:Placement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "Most soap dishes are standalone accessories whose placement is at the user's discretion, though some are a built-in feature of a sink, shower, or bathtub. Standalone soap dishes may be entirely portable or may include options for semi-permanent or permanent installation on a horizontal or vertical surface. Locating a soap dish outside the perimeter of a faucet's or showerhead's stream helps the soap to avoid excess erosion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "407299",
"title": "Hard water",
"section": "Section::::Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "With hard water, soap solutions form a white precipitate (soap scum) instead of producing lather, because the 2+ ions destroy the surfactant properties of the soap by forming a solid precipitate (the soap scum). A major component of such scum is calcium stearate, which arises from sodium stearate, the main component of soap:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2696008",
"title": "Bubble bath",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "Surfactant preparations for this purpose are themselves called \"bath foam\", \"foaming bath\", or \"bubble bath\", and frequently contain ingredients for additional purposes common to bath enhancers. Used at much higher concentration (for instance on a washcloth), such preparations (especially in liquid format) may also be used to wash skin or hair, so they are sometimes marketed for combined purposes; in a few cases, mild household detergents for hand washing of articles have also been labeled for such purposes, or for preventing soap scum on the bathtub (with or without foaming).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2696008",
"title": "Bubble bath",
"section": "Section::::History.:Compositions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 790,
"text": "Typically a mixture of different surfactants is used. Of the anionics, soap is not a common deliberate constituent of bath foam preparations because they react rapidly with \"hardness\" cations in water to produce lime soaps, which are anti-foams. Usually one or more ingredients is primarily a foam stabilizer—a substance which retards the breakage of foams; these may themselves be surfactants or film-stabilizing polymers. Some surfactants used in foaming preparations may have a combination of foam-producing and foam-stabilizing properties. Surfactants used in bath foam preparations may also be included for primarily non-foaming purposes: solubilization of other components in the manufacturing of a liquid product, or lime soap dispersion to prevent bathtub ring when used with soap.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23902228",
"title": "Soap dish",
"section": "Section::::Design elements.:Ventilation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "A bar of wet soap relies on ventilation to dry. A number of design elements may be used to increase ambient airflow around the soap, including vented surfaces or surfaces interspersed with bumps, ridges, or slats. Mechanical ventilation has not yet become a widespread design element in soap dishes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
89yw80
|
why do google captchas make you click street signs?
|
[
{
"answer": "They're used to train their image recognition software so that they can read street signs more accurately.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Google is working on self driving cars and they need their algorithms trained. So they crowd source it. And they know computers cant tell because that is why they are having you train their cars.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What about the one that just says “I am not a robot” and you just click it once and the box turns into a check mark and lets you go",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As pointed out in other posts, they are using it to train their image recognition software. The machine learning algorithm they are using requires training. \n\nThey will start out with a massive database of known data that is used for the initial training. Then they will continually refine the algorithm over time. Both these steps take a lot of work because manually validating that a dataset is correct takes a lot of manpower.\n\nGoogle captcha essentially is a huge mechanical turk. By asking real people to validate what is in a picture they can now validate and refine the algorithm. [this training piece is a part of the algorithm, it's not a manual thing]. All the while the algorithm is also \"guessing\" and comparing it's answers with the manicured data set of known answers provided by humans.\n\nYou lower risk of getting bad data by asking say 30 people the same question. You can make some assumptions that if 80% of the people said box \"X\" is a road sign, car face.... that yep, it's that thing.\n\nEssentially Image Captcha is saving google millions of dollars in real human time to help improve their machine learning! And if you've ever gotten a Captcha wrong (and you were right); it's most likely because the image didn't have enough answers to achieve a consensus to say you are right, but it does hold on to your answer to help build that consensus for the next person!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "...and does the pole count as part of the sign?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Everything Google has you do is to feed/train a new technology it is working on.\n\nThe new image captchas are most likely helping train some sort of image recognition AI.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They run out of books to digitize for google books, so now they are digitizing street signs for google maps. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Current bots have hard times with pictures, so it shows that you are human. You are also helping google develop their self-driving cars. That is why cars and street signs are what you are always clicking. You are essentially training their car bots while proving you aren't an internet bot.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The irony of all of this too, is that once machines are 100% successful at completing CAPTCHAs, they will be obsolete as a method for checking human vs. machine.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[A lot of people here aren't reading from Google's info on reCAPTCHA](_URL_0_)\n\nELI5: Google cuts up images into a grid 4x4 for small images, 5x5 for bigger ones, and so on and so forth. Google gives these images to their bots and teaches (trains) them to find which grid has what object. Google has the answers for this small set of images, and for the bots that guess correctly, they get to have clones made of them.\n\nThe reason Google breaks up these images into smaller grids because it's easier to find Waldo in a small box, but harder to find Waldo in a big, crowded image.\n\nGoogle's bots, after some time, are really good at spotting objects.\n\nA reCAPTCHA on a website asks a user to figure out which squares have a stop sign. Google and their bots know the answer to this. But Google is tired and doesn't want to go through new sets of images and identify more and more traffic light, for instance.\n\nGoogle then asks several bots to guess where the traffic light is. To make sure the bot's guess is right, the user, from earlier, that answered the first reCAPTCHA right is asked to find the traffic light. Many more of the user's friends are also asked the same question to make sure it's right.\n\nIf the bot and the users think the traffic light is in a particular square, then the bot is given a pat on the back, and has many clones made of it.\n\nA benefit of Google asking a lot of people what's a traffic light, what's a stop sign, what's a store front, is that when the bots get older and can drive cars, they can recognize when to stop, and where.\n\nAnother benefit is that Google's bots can help other people find things in images, like a person lost in a flood from an image taken from high above.\n\nMore detailed info from the link above:\n\n > reCAPTCHA offers more than just spam protection. Every time our CAPTCHAs are solved, that human effort helps digitize text, annotate images, and build machine learning datasets. This in turn helps preserve books, improve maps, and solve hard AI problems.\n\n--\n\nSide note: a lot of people still hate reCAPTCHA, but, it's quicker, now, is better at protecting sites, and contributes to image recognition.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What are you supposed to do with one like [this?](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Do you know what this picture is? (It's a banana.) And this one? (It's a dog). People have very good eyes, and are very good at telling what is in a picture. Computers don't have eyes! They aren't very good at telling what is in a picture. They need some help from people. \n\nSome smart scientists want to teach computers how to tell what is in a picture, but they need help from lots and lots of people. When you click on the pictures of street signs, you are helping the computers learn how to see what is in a picture!\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "2 purposes:\n\n- Giving a task that is relatively hard for AI to perform reliably (making sure you're human and not a bot)\n- Creating training data (where is the sign & where it's not on a photo) to improve their image recognition, most likely in preparation for driverless vehicles.\n\nOld text-based captchas are being solved pretty easily by open-source deep learning setups these days, so they are not a good candidate to filter out bots anymore.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11451897",
"title": "ReCAPTCHA",
"section": "Section::::Operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "In 2012, reCAPTCHA began using photographs taken from Google Street View project, in addition to scanned words. As for 2019 image identification captchas - such as store fronts, buses, cross-walks, traffic lights - became the only type of captcha offered by the system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25137381",
"title": "Google, Inc. v. American Blind & Wallpaper Factory, Inc.",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Facts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 841,
"text": "Google's AdWords program enables advertisers to trigger a display of their ads when Google users perform keyword searches. Per Google policy, advertisers may trigger their ads on arbitrary keywords, including trademarked keywords that they do not own. This permits competitors of American Blinds to place their ads alongside American Blind's ads when a user searches for \"American Blind\", \"American Blinds\", or \"Decoratetoday\"—all of which are registered trademarks of American Blind. In its stated objective to minimize user confusion concerning the affiliation of the ads, Google places ads in specially marked \"Sponsored Links\" sections of the web-page and prohibits unauthorized trademark use in the ad content. But despite requests from American Blind and others, Google refuses to discontinue its use of trademarks to trigger the ads.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28037152",
"title": "NuCaptcha",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "Static image-based CAPTCHAs are routinely used to prevent automated sign-ups to websites by using text or images of words disguised so that optical character recognition (OCR) software has trouble reading them. However, in common CAPTCHA systems, users often fail to correctly solve the CAPTCHA 7% - 25% of the time. NuCaptcha uses animated video technology that it claims make puzzles easier for humans to solve, but harder for bots and hackers to decipher.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "230834",
"title": "CAPTCHA",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "This user identification procedure has received many criticisms, especially from people with disabilities, but also from other people who feel that their everyday work is slowed down by distorted words that are difficult to read. It takes the average person approximately 10 seconds to solve a typical CAPTCHA.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11546879",
"title": "Google Street View",
"section": "Section::::Privacy concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 729,
"text": "Google Street View will blur houses for any user who makes a request, in addition to the automatic blurring of faces and licence plates. Privacy advocates have objected to the Google Street View, pointing to views found to show men leaving strip clubs, protesters at an abortion clinic, sunbathers in bikinis, and people engaging in activities visible from public property in which they do not wish to be seen publicly. Another concern is the height of the cameras, and in at least two countries, Japan and Switzerland, Google has had to lower the height of its cameras so as to not peer over fences and hedges. The service also allows users themselves to flag inappropriate or sensitive imagery for Google to review and remove.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1497849",
"title": "List of Google products",
"section": "Section::::Mobile applications.:Mobile standalone applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 137,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 137,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "BULLET::::8. Google Goggles – search based on pictures taken with a device's built-in camera; taking pictures of things (examples: famous landmarks, product bar-codes) causes searches for information on them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47147050",
"title": "List of Google April Fools' Day jokes",
"section": "Section::::2009.:Google Maps.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "Google's CADIE has a recommended places to visit using Google Maps. Viewing \"CADIE's recommended places for humans\" one will see each of her suggested places listed, that, when clicked, displays a photo and humorous commentary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2v7nkx
|
how is nintendo able to demand ad revenue for related youtube videos?
|
[
{
"answer": "Fair Use doesn't technically apply to Let's Play content so Nintendo is under no legal obligation to allow that content to remain on YouTube, so they can hold it to ransom all it likes.\n\nFair Use mostly applies to Review content (which Nintendo have been striking off YouTube too, because they're crazy)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When you 'buy' a video game you are not truly buying it. You are leasing it (atleast in North America), same for Movies and TV Shows. If you look on the back of any game/movie box/case you will see that it says LEASED not OWNED by the party who purchased the game.\n\nYou do not own that content because you bought it, Nintendo sold you a liscense to play and use the game -- however -- if you start to make money off of Nintendo's product, they have every right to demand a cut of your profits, if not all.\n\nI think it's a totally stupid business move but, Nintendo always does the weirdest stuff.\n\nSorry if it's confusing, I tried to make it as simple as possible.. :)\n\nSide note: Nintendo is really only interested in the people who have high view count and subs, because some of those gaming channels make almost a few tens of thousands a year.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3524766",
"title": "YouTube",
"section": "Section::::Revenue.:Revenue to copyright holders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "Much of YouTube's revenue goes to the copyright holders of the videos. In 2010, it was reported that nearly a third of the videos with advertisements were uploaded without permission of the copyright holders. YouTube gives an option for copyright holders to locate and remove their videos or to have them continue running for revenue. In May 2013, Nintendo began enforcing its copyright ownership and claiming the advertising revenue from video creators who posted screenshots of its games. In February 2015, Nintendo agreed to share the revenue with the video creators.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60898024",
"title": "Advertising revenue",
"section": "Section::::Notable platforms.:YouTube.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "Another online advertising giant owned by Alphabet Inc. is video sharing website YouTube. In 2006, Google bought YouTube for $1.65 billion. In 2015, Bloomberg estimated YouTube to be worth approximately $70 billion, with over 30 million average daily visitors. YouTube content creators who publish and share their own videos can monetize them. In certain cases, YouTube will pay creators a percentage of the advertising revenue for advertisements that are placed within and before or after videos. The approximate share of advertising revenue paid to the creators of monetized videos is reported to be 55%; in 2013, the average creator's income was estimated to be $7.60 per thousand views.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35198146",
"title": "Let's Play",
"section": "Section::::Legal issues.:Copyright.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 833,
"text": "In one case, Nintendo claimed that they retain the copyright and have registered the content through YouTube's Content ID system such that they can generate ad revenue from user videos, though Nintendo would later back off of such claims, and later created its own affiliate program, the Nintendo Creators program, between themselves, Google, and proactive uploaders to split profits. Smaller developers have been more open to allowing Let's Play videos. Ubisoft has stated that it allows its games to be used in Let's Play videos and allows for those making them to monetize from any ad revenue as long they stay within certain content-appropriateness guidelines. Microsoft Studios similarly created a set of Game Content Usage Rules that sets certain requirements and limitations on those using its software for Let's Play videos.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3524766",
"title": "YouTube",
"section": "Section::::Revenue.:Partnership with video creators.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "In May 2007, YouTube launched its Partner Program (YPP), a system based on AdSense which allows the uploader of the video to share the revenue produced by advertising on the site. YouTube typically takes 45 percent of the advertising revenue from videos in the Partner Program, with 55 percent going to the uploader.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14181749",
"title": "History of YouTube",
"section": "Section::::Business model, advertising, and profits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "Advertising is YouTube's central mechanism for gaining revenue. This issue has also been taken up in scientific analysis. Don Tapscott and Anthony D. Williams argue in their book \"Wikinomics\" that YouTube is an example for an economy that is based on mass collaboration and makes use of the Internet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3524766",
"title": "YouTube",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 834,
"text": "YouTube and selected creators earn advertising revenue from Google AdSense, a program which targets ads according to site content and audience. The vast majority of its videos are free to view, but there are exceptions, including subscription-based premium channels, film rentals, as well as YouTube Music and YouTube Premium, subscription services respectively offering premium and ad-free music streaming, and ad-free access to all content, including exclusive content commissioned from notable personalities. , there were more than 400 hours of content uploaded to YouTube each minute, and one billion hours of content being watched on YouTube every day. , the website is ranked as the second-most popular site in the world, according to Alexa Internet. , more than 500 hours of video content are uploaded to YouTube every minute.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9313476",
"title": "YouTube API",
"section": "Section::::Advantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "A great advantage of using YouTube's API's is that 3rd party companies are able to arrange pay per click coupled with advertising for your videos. This allows the video uploader to receive money for the work they have put into their videos.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4xqevm
|
after a band breaks up or a musician dies, who profits from the sale of their merchandise and music?
|
[
{
"answer": "It really varies a lot based on the legal structure of the group (e.g., incorporated or not) and their agreements with the record label. In general, copyright is treated like any other property, and may be sold, transferred by a will, and so on. \n\nFor example, if the artist assigns the copyright to the band's corporation, and the artist dies, that copyright just remains with the corporation--but the heirs of the artist can inherit the artist's share in the corporation and thus a right to the profits. If the artists retains the copyright themselves, it becomes part of the estate and will go to the artist's heirs (or creditors). Some rights will often be transferred to a record label, but sometimes only temporarily or reverting on death.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Generally it goes to the estate of the deceased. However it would depend on the specific contracts that person entered into.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26307736",
"title": "2010 Melbourne live music rally",
"section": "Section::::SLAM rally 2010.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 721,
"text": "This is going to happen whether they like it or not. It's got too much momentum, it's too big to stop now. It will be like Moomba with a message. Whenever a natural disaster happens, musicians are the first to put their hand up and offer support. Now it's time for the public, who get music free online and hear it for free on the radio wherever they go, to give support back to the music they love so much. The record industry is already falling apart, from illegal downloads. So the only way musicians can make money is through live music, and now that rug is being pulled out from underneath them. It's like when the government put in the 2am Lockout [for venues]. It had failed in the UK, and then failed here again.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2447976",
"title": "Recording contract",
"section": "Section::::Termination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "When recordings go out of print, this typically happens because either the label has decided that continuing to sell (or distribute) the record will not be profitable, or the licensing agreement with the artist has expired. (Labels may also stop distribution as a punitive measure, if an artist fails to comply with their contract, or as a strategic measure if negotiations for a new one prove difficult.) Record labels can also become bankrupt like any business, and their masters and copyrights sold or traded as part of their assets. (Occasionally these are purchased by the artists themselves.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27722914",
"title": "Do We Have to Beg?",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "The band eventually cited legal and monetary issues with their contract with the record label, resulting in them walking way from the session's material. While initial plans were to re-record the album from scratch, internal issues with band members kept the process from even starting, and a year later, in May 2012, it was announced that the band had disbanded, without any plans of releasing the album.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32531874",
"title": "List of posthumous number ones on the UK Singles Chart",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "The death of a popular musician, and likewise, the use of a dead musician's work in advertising, often causes a sharp increase in sales of the musician's recordings and associated products; this has led to a number of posthumous number one singles in the UK and elsewhere. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "344842",
"title": "Die Ärzte",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early years.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 873,
"text": "This prohibited the band from performing the songs live or promoting the two albums and, more importantly, shops were prohibited from openly displaying these records on their shelves. At their concerts they circumvented the ban by playing only the music of the prohibited songs, while the audience sang the lyrics. After several trials against shops that still openly sold the records, a lot of shops completely removed Die Ärzte from their stock. The result was a drop in record sales and financial problems for the band. In response they released the best of album \"Ist das alles?\" (\"Is that all?\") with three new songs and the 10\" compilation \"Ab 18\" (Adults only) containing all indexed songs and some other songs with controversial, mainly sex-themed lyrics. Although advice not to sell the album to minors was printed on the cover, \"Ab 18\" was also put on the index.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56231946",
"title": "It Looks Sad.",
"section": "Section::::History.:\"Lost Songs\" and \"Sky Lake\": 2017-2018.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "In late 2017 they released Lost Songs, it was released in order to help pay for one of the band members car, which broke down. On Twitter It Looks Sad. stated that it would cost $750 to repair his car and that he would release demos of unused songs or make new ones in-order to help pay for the repair costs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2447976",
"title": "Recording contract",
"section": "Section::::Termination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "Recording artists signed to a failed label can find themselves in limbo, unable to record for anyone but a company that is out of business (and thus cannot sell or distribute their records), and with their existing works unavailable for sale. When one label \"buys out\" another (or a label is purchased by an outside party), any existing copyrights and contracts held (and masters, if owned by the label) normally go with the sale. This often benefits recording artists, but not always.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
jy7vb
|
Non-combustive exothermic reactions?
|
[
{
"answer": "Salt (e.g. calcium chloride) + Water is an example of one.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Unless you mean exothermic without oxidizing (Combustion is just a faster oxidizing reaction) I'd vote for:\n\n* Potassium Permanganate and Glycerol or Ethylene glycol\n* Cyanoacrylate and cotton\n\nOne problem is they both eventually burst into flame, but only because they're reaching the ignition temperature for either Glyceral, Ethylene glycol, or cotton. \n\n* Magnesium + water works if you don't want a reaction that eventually bursts into flame. However, there is a little problem with Hydrogen gas.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Salt (e.g. calcium chloride) + Water is an example of one.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Unless you mean exothermic without oxidizing (Combustion is just a faster oxidizing reaction) I'd vote for:\n\n* Potassium Permanganate and Glycerol or Ethylene glycol\n* Cyanoacrylate and cotton\n\nOne problem is they both eventually burst into flame, but only because they're reaching the ignition temperature for either Glyceral, Ethylene glycol, or cotton. \n\n* Magnesium + water works if you don't want a reaction that eventually bursts into flame. However, there is a little problem with Hydrogen gas.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5180",
"title": "Chemistry",
"section": "Section::::Modern principles.:Energy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "A reaction is said to be exergonic if the final state is lower on the energy scale than the initial state; in the case of endergonic reactions the situation is the reverse. A reaction is said to be exothermic if the reaction releases heat to the surroundings; in the case of endothermic reactions, the reaction absorbs heat from the surroundings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "508664",
"title": "Exergonic reaction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "An exergonic reaction is a chemical reaction where the change in the free energy is negative (there is a net release of free energy), indicating a spontaneous reaction. For processes that take place under constant pressure and temperature conditions, the Gibbs free energy is used whereas the Helmholtz energy is used for processes that take place under constant volume and temperature conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "508664",
"title": "Exergonic reaction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "Although exergonic reactions are said to occur \"spontaneously\", this does not imply that the reaction will take place at an observable rate. For instance, the disproportionation of hydrogen peroxide is very slow in the absence of a suitable catalyst. It has been suggested that \"eager\" would be a more intuitive term in this context.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1427715",
"title": "Homogeneous catalysis",
"section": "Section::::Advantages and Disadvantages.:Advantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "• If a reaction is exothermic, it will release a lot of heat. It is easier to release heat from a solution (as one would do for a homogeneous catalyst) than if one were to use a heterogeneous catalyst, which tends to be an \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1369210",
"title": "Bioenergetics",
"section": "Section::::Types of reactions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "BULLET::::- An exergonic reaction is a spontaneous chemical reaction that releases energy. It is thermodynamically favored, indexed by a negative value of ΔG (Gibbs free energy). Over the course of a reaction, energy needs to be put in, and this activation energy drives the reactants from a stable state to a highly energetically unstable transition state to a more stable state that is lower in energy (see: reaction coordinate). The reactants are usually complex molecules that are broken into simpler products. The entire reaction is usually catabolic. The release of energy (called Gibbs free energy) is negative (i.e. −ΔG) because energy is released from the reactants to the products.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1526874",
"title": "Stereoselectivity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 694,
"text": "An enantioselective reaction is one in which one enantiomer is formed in preference to the other, in a reaction that creates an optically active product from an achiral starting material, using either a chiral catalyst, an enzyme or a chiral reagent. The degree of selectivity is measured by the enantiomeric excess. An important variant is kinetic resolution, in which a pre-existing chiral center undergoes reaction with a chiral catalyst, an enzyme or a chiral reagent such that one enantiomer reacts faster than the other and leaves behind the less reactive enantiomer, or in which a pre-existing chiral center influences the reactivity of a reaction center elsewhere in the same molecule.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23275741",
"title": "Acetylcholinesterase inhibitor",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism of action.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "The irreversible phosphorylation of the cholinesterase occurs in two steps. In the first step the cholinesterase gets reversibly phosphorylated. This reaction is very fast. Then the second step takes place. The cholinesterase forms a very stable complex with TEPP, in which TEPP is covalently bound to the cholinesterase. This is a slow reaction. But after this step the cholinesterase is irreversibly inhibited.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
zacvx
|
How would I go about making a superconducting magnetic train?
|
[
{
"answer": " > You have to make a superconductor by cooling strong magnets with liquid nitrogen.\n\nNo, that's not how superconductors work, you need to have something made specifically from a superconductive material.\n\n > What kind of magnets do I use? What strength?\n\nOrdinary neodymium magnets would be fine.\n\n > How much liquid nitrogen do I need?\n\nDepends on how many demonstrations you plan on doing.\n\n > What temperature do the magnets need to be?\n\nRoom temperature.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "822307",
"title": "Maglev",
"section": "Section::::Technology.:Evaluation.:Stability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "Superconducting magnets on a train above a track made out of a permanent magnet lock the train into its lateral position. It can move linearly along the track, but not off the track. This is due to the Meissner effect and flux pinning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "461227",
"title": "Superconducting magnet",
"section": "Section::::Operation.:Persistent mode.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1301,
"text": "An alternate operating mode used by most superconducting magnets is to short-circuit the windings with a piece of superconductor once the magnet has been energized. The windings become a closed superconducting loop, the power supply can be turned off, and persistent currents will flow for months, preserving the magnetic field. The advantage of this \"persistent mode\" is that stability of the magnetic field is better than is achievable with the best power supplies, and no energy is needed to power the windings. The short circuit is made by a 'persistent switch', a piece of superconductor inside the magnet connected across the winding ends, attached to a small heater. When the magnet is first turned on, the switch wire is heated above its transition temperature, so it is resistive. Since the winding itself has no resistance, no current flows through the switch wire. To go to persistent mode, the supply current is adjusted until the desired magnetic field is obtained, then the heater is turned off. The persistent switch cools to its superconducting temperature, short-circuiting the windings. Then the power supply can be turned off. The winding current, and the magnetic field, will not actually persist forever, but will decay slowly according to a normal inductive (L/R) time constant:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "822307",
"title": "Maglev",
"section": "Section::::Technology.:Comparison with conventional trains.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "BULLET::::- Magnet reliability: Superconducting magnets are generally used to generate the powerful magnetic fields to levitate and propel the trains. These magnets must be kept below their critical temperatures (this ranges from 4.2 K to 77 K, depending on the material). New alloys and manufacturing techniques in superconductors and cooling systems have helped address this issue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23102251",
"title": "StarTram",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Generation 1 System.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "The tunnel tube itself for Gen-1 has no superconductors, no cryogenic cooling requirements, and none of it is at higher elevation than the local ground surface. Except for probable usage of SMES as the electrical power storage method, superconducting magnets are only on the moving spacecraft, inducing current into relatively inexpensive aluminum loops on the acceleration tunnel walls, levitating the craft with 10 centimeters clearance, while meanwhile a second set of aluminum loops on the walls carries an AC current accelerating the craft: a linear synchronous motor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "92377",
"title": "Electromagnet",
"section": "Section::::High field electromagnets.:Superconducting electromagnets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 906,
"text": "When a magnetic field higher than the ferromagnetic limit of 1.6 T is needed, superconducting electromagnets can be used. Instead of using ferromagnetic materials, these use superconducting windings cooled with liquid helium, which conduct current without electrical resistance. These allow enormous currents to flow, which generate intense magnetic fields. Superconducting magnets are limited by the field strength at which the winding material ceases to be superconducting. Current designs are limited to 10–20 T, with the current (2017) record of 32 T. The necessary refrigeration equipment and cryostat make them much more expensive than ordinary electromagnets. However, in high power applications this can be offset by lower operating costs, since after startup no power is required for the windings, since no energy is lost to ohmic heating. They are used in particle accelerators and MRI machines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1646838",
"title": "Grid energy storage",
"section": "Section::::Forms.:Superconducting magnetic energy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 1124,
"text": "Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) systems store energy in the magnetic field created by the flow of direct current in a superconducting coil which has been cryogenically cooled to a temperature below its superconducting critical temperature. A typical SMES system includes three parts: superconducting coil, power conditioning system and cryogenically cooled refrigerator. Once the superconducting coil is charged, the current will not decay and the magnetic energy can be stored indefinitely. The stored energy can be released back to the network by discharging the coil. The power conditioning system uses an inverter/rectifier to transform alternating current (AC) power to direct current or convert DC back to AC power. The inverter/rectifier accounts for about 2–3% energy loss in each direction. SMES loses the least amount of electricity in the energy storage process compared to other methods of storing energy. SMES systems are highly efficient; the round-trip efficiency is greater than 95%. The high cost of superconductors is the primary limitation for commercial use of this energy storage method.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28728",
"title": "Superconducting magnetic energy storage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) systems store energy in the magnetic field created by the flow of direct current in a superconducting coil which has been cryogenically cooled to a temperature below its superconducting critical temperature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9m69sq
|
At what age does human hearing fully mature?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hearing in infancy is much less sensitive (to quiet, high, and low sounds) than in adulthood. An informative paragraph from a review of the topic (pdf: [Mattock, Amitay, & Moore, 2010](_URL_0_)):\n\n\"It is not entirely clear when human hearing begins, but behavioural indices, such as fetal movements in response to external sound, suggest that it is around the 25th week of gestation (Lecanuet et al., 1995). However, this ‘onset of hearing’ marks but one significant event in a developmental sequence that begins at conception and continues, according to a recent cortical evoked-potential study (Poulsen et al., 2007), to somewhere beyond 40 years of age. Despite this widely protracted period of development, it is clear that most major changes in auditory perception occur relatively early in a child’s life. Newborn infants have tone-detection thresholds that are 30–70 dB higher than adults. Sensitivity then improves dramatically, so that, by 6 months, it is possible to observe thresholds for high-frequency sounds that are only 10 dB or so higher than those of young adults. But, while high-frequency sensitivity matures early (by around 2 years), lowfrequency sensitivity continues to develop until about 10 years of age.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1602257",
"title": "Presbycusis",
"section": "Section::::Presentation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 897,
"text": "Usually occurs after age 50, but deterioration in hearing has been found to start very early, from about the age of 18 years. The ISO standard 7029 shows expected threshold changes due purely to age for carefully screened populations (i.e. excluding those with ear disease, noise exposure etc.), based on a meta-analysis of published data. Age affects high frequencies more than low, and men more than women. One early consequence is that even young adults may lose the ability to hear very high frequency tones above 15 or 16 kHz. Despite this, age-related hearing loss may only become noticeable later in life. The effects of age can be exacerbated by exposure to environmental noise, whether at work or in leisure time (shooting, music, etc.). This is noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) and is distinct from presbycusis. A second exacerbating factor is exposure to ototoxic drugs and chemicals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49604",
"title": "Hearing loss",
"section": "Section::::Epidemiology.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 213,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 213,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "Data from the United States in 2011-2012 found that rates of hearing loss has declined among adults aged 20 to 69 years, when compared with the results from an earlier time period (1999-2004). It also found that adult hearing loss is associated with increasing age, sex, race/ethnicity, educational level, and noise exposure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49604",
"title": "Hearing loss",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "There is a progressive loss of ability to hear high frequencies with aging known as presbycusis. For men, this can start as early as 25 and women at 30. Although genetically variable it is a normal concomitant of ageing and is distinct from hearing losses caused by noise exposure, toxins or disease agents. Common conditions that can increase the risk of hearing loss in elderly people are high blood pressure, diabetes or the use of certain medications harmful to the ear. While everyone loses hearing with age, the amount and type of hearing loss is variable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1602257",
"title": "Presbycusis",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "Hearing loss is only weakly correlated with age. In preindustrial and non-industrial societies, persons retain their hearing into old age. In the Framingham cohort study, only 10% of the variability of hearing with age could be explained by age-related physiologic deterioration. Within family groups, heredity factors were dominant; across family groups, other, presumably sociocusis and nosocusis factors were dominant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1187487",
"title": "Sensorineural hearing loss",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Presbycusis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 1282,
"text": "Progressive age-related loss of hearing acuity or sensitivity can start as early as age 18, primarily affecting the high frequencies, and men more than women. Such losses may not become apparent until much later in life. Presbycusis is by far the dominant cause of sensorineural hearing loss in industrialized societies. A study conducted in Sudan, with a population free from loud noise exposures, found significantly less cases of hearing loss when compared with age-matched cases from an industrialized country. Similar findings were reported by a study conducted of a population from Eastern island, which reported worse hearing among those that spent time in industrialized countries when compared with those that never left the island. Researchers have argued that factors other than differences in noise exposure, such as genetic make up, might also have contributed to the findings. Hearing loss that worsens with age but is caused by factors other than normal aging, such as noise-induced hearing loss, is not presbycusis, although differentiating the individual effects of multiple causes of hearing loss can be difficult. One in three persons have significant hearing loss by age 65; by age 75, one in two. Age-related hearing loss is neither preventable nor reversible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10269587",
"title": "Echoic memory",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "Findings of a (MMN) study, also suggest that the duration of auditory sensory memory increases with age, significantly between the ages of two and six years old from 500-5000ms. Children 2 years of age exhibited an MMN response in ISI between 500ms and 1000ms. Children 3 years old have a MMN response from 1 to 2 seconds, 4 year olds over 2 seconds, and 6-year-old children from 3 to 5 seconds. These developmental and cognitive changes occur at a young age, and extend into adulthood until eventually decreasing again at old age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16413778",
"title": "Ageing",
"section": "Section::::Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "BULLET::::- Almost half of people older than 75 have hearing loss (presbycusis) inhibiting spoken communication. Many vertebrates such as fish, birds and amphibians do not suffer presbycusis in old age as they are able to regenerate their cochlear sensory cells, whereas mammals including humans have genetically lost this ability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1j48v5
|
why does a gyroscope resist being rotated
|
[
{
"answer": "This video is far greater than any words I can possibly convey: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "45832",
"title": "Gyrocompass",
"section": "Section::::Operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 999,
"text": "A gyroscope, not to be confused with gyrocompass, is a spinning wheel mounted on a set of gimbals so that its axis is free to orient itself in any way. When it is spun up to speed with its axis pointing in some direction, due to the law of conservation of angular momentum, such a wheel will normally maintain its original orientation to a fixed point in outer space (not to a fixed point on Earth). Since our planet rotates, it appears to a stationary observer on Earth that a gyroscope's axis is completing a full rotation once every 24 hours. Such a rotating gyroscope is used for navigation in some cases, for example on aircraft, where it is known as heading indicator or directional gyro, but cannot ordinarily be used for long-term marine navigation. The crucial additional ingredient needed to turn a gyroscope into a gyrocompass, so it would automatically position to true north, is some mechanism that results in an application of torque whenever the compass's axis is not pointing north.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24050869",
"title": "Inertial navigation system",
"section": "Section::::Basic schemes.:Gimballed gyrostabilized platforms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "Two gyroscopes are used to cancel gyroscopic precession, the tendency of a gyroscope to twist at right angles to an input torque. By mounting a pair of gyroscopes (of the same rotational inertia and spinning at the same speed in opposite directions) at right angles the precessions are cancelled and the platform will resist twisting. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44125",
"title": "Gyroscope",
"section": "Section::::Description and diagram.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "The behaviour of a gyroscope can be most easily appreciated by consideration of the front wheel of a bicycle. If the wheel is leaned away from the vertical so that the top of the wheel moves to the left, the forward rim of the wheel also turns to the left. In other words, rotation on one axis of the turning wheel produces rotation of the third axis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44125",
"title": "Gyroscope",
"section": "Section::::Description and diagram.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 894,
"text": "A gyroscope is a wheel mounted in two or three gimbals, which are pivoted supports that allow the rotation of the wheel about a single axis. A set of three gimbals, one mounted on the other with orthogonal pivot axes, may be used to allow a wheel mounted on the innermost gimbal to have an orientation remaining independent of the orientation, in space, of its support. In the case of a gyroscope with two gimbals, the outer gimbal, which is the gyroscope frame, is mounted so as to pivot about an axis in its own plane determined by the support. This outer gimbal possesses one degree of rotational freedom and its axis possesses none. The inner gimbal is mounted in the gyroscope frame (outer gimbal) so as to pivot about an axis in its own plane that is always perpendicular to the pivotal axis of the gyroscope frame (outer gimbal). This inner gimbal has two degrees of rotational freedom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31070915",
"title": "Principles of Motion Sensing",
"section": "Section::::Motion Sensors.:Gyroscopes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 807,
"text": "Gyroscopes measure the angular rate of rotational movement about one or more axes. Gyroscopes can measure complex motion accurately in multiple dimensions, tracking the position and rotation of a moving object unlike accelerometers which can only detect the fact that an object has moved or is moving in a particular direction. Further, unlike accelerometers and compasses, gyroscopes are not affected by errors related to external environmental factors such as gravitational and magnetic fields. Hence, gyroscopes greatly enhance the motion sensing capabilities of devices and are used for advanced motion sensing applications in consumer devices such as full gesture and movement detection and simulation in video gaming. The Nintendo Wii MotionPlus accessory and the Nintendo 3DS incorporate gyroscopes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44125",
"title": "Gyroscope",
"section": "Section::::Consumer electronics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 736,
"text": "Since the gyroscope allows the calculation of orientation and rotation, designers have incorporated them into modern technology. The integration of the gyroscope has allowed for more accurate recognition of movement within a 3D space than the previous lone accelerometer within a number of smartphones. Gyroscopes in consumer electronics are frequently combined with accelerometers (acceleration sensors) for more robust direction- and motion-sensing. Examples of such applications include smartphones such as the Samsung Galaxy Note 4, HTC Titan, Nexus 5, iPhone 5s, Nokia 808 PureView and Sony Xperia, game console peripherals such as the PlayStation 3 controller and the Wii Remote, and virtual reality sets such as the Oculus Rift.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44125",
"title": "Gyroscope",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "A gyroscope (from Ancient Greek γῦρος \"gûros\", \"circle\" and σκοπέω \"skopéō\", \"to look\") is a device used for measuring or maintaining orientation and angular velocity. It is a spinning wheel or disc in which the axis of rotation (spin axis) is free to assume any orientation by itself. When rotating, the orientation of this axis is unaffected by tilting or rotation of the mounting, according to the conservation of angular momentum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dv8zde
|
why can you cook some things from frozen but not others?
|
[
{
"answer": "You *can't* cook originally fresh chicken from frozen??\n\nUh oh...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " Well if you try to cook it straight out of the freezer you will cook the outside but on the inside it will still be frozen.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Usually stuff you cook from frozen has already been cooked once, and you're basically just heating it up. It's easier to do that than it is to make sure the food is actually cooked all the way through if you're trying to cook frozen, raw chicken.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't know what you've been told, but in terms of food safety, cooking all types of frozen chicken (whether you bought it frozen or not) is perfectly fine. \n\nHowever, cooking frozen chicken takes longer than defrosted chicken, which can be an issue because chicken can get dried out very easily.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The colder something is when you start cooking it, the harder it is for it to cook through evenly. With a raw-frozen chicken breast, you run the risk of over cooking the outside layers of the meat without the middle part getting cooked enough to be safe to eat. The heat just can’t penetrate to the center of the meat evenly enough because what it’s penetrating is so so cold. Under-cooked poultry is unsafe to eat because of microscopic critters that could be in there that are killed when the meat is cooked to a certain temperature (I think it’s 165 F for chicken).. \n\nIt’s not an issue for cooked-frozen chicken because it’s already been cooked and those critters have already been cooked/killed. The worst thing that happens in this case is that the middle of the meat is cold, but it was already cooked before you even bought it. Also, when companies prepare these pre-cooked chicken breasts, they tend to flatten them out for exactly the reasons I’m writing about here: They cook faster and more evenly that way. \n\nIt’s less of an issue with some meats than with others, I can only guess because they have fewer critters than live in them, or their critters get killed at a lower temperature. With beef, less of an issue. With pork, just as big an issue as with poultry.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It depends on the cooking process. Slow cooking processes work fine from frozen. Fast processes can be a problem, if the food can't transfer the heat fast enough the outside burns before the inside is cooked enough. Chicken can be more of a problem, because the required internal temp is higher. You can cook home frozen just like you cook equivalent pre-frozen. You can't cook a whole chicken with processes that would work for a breast filet, no matter who does the freezing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It sounds like you might be confusing two different pieces of advice.\n\nOne common piece of advice is to make sure you defrost things before you cook them. This is not so much for food safety, as it is to ensure the thing you're cooking cooks evenly. If you put a frozen chicken breast in the oven, and bake it, it's likely that the outside will burn before the inside is cooked throughout, or that the whole piece will dry out when you try to cook it thoroughly. Defrosting normalizes the temperature and helps make sure all parts of the chicken (or whatever else you're cooking) cook at the same rate.\n\nThe other piece of advice is to not re-freeze things that have defrosted without first cooking them. This is true, but only for things that have thawed outside of the refrigerator. The concern here is, if food thaws to a warmer temperature (as if it were in your car, or in the garage, or out on the counter), as microbes previously inactivated by the freezing process, can again become active at temperatures above 40F and start multiplying leading to foodborne illness.\n\nSo for that reason most people will say if you thaw something, you need to cook it (to kill the microbes again) before re-freezing it.\n\nBut in reality, if you take a store bought piece of frozen chicken, thaw it in your fridge (at 35F), you could re-freeze it without worry.\n\nEDIT: spelling",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "339605",
"title": "Frozen food",
"section": "Section::::Preservatives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "Frozen products do not require any added preservatives because microorganisms do not grow when the temperature of the food is below , which is sufficient on its own in preventing food spoilage. Long-term preservation of food may call for food storage at even lower temperatures. Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), a tasteless and odorless stabilizer, is typically added to frozen food because it does not adulterate the quality of the product.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10646",
"title": "Food",
"section": "Section::::Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 185,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 185,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "Foods that spoil easily, such as meats, dairy, and seafood, must be prepared a certain way to avoid contaminating the people for whom they are prepared. As such, the rule of thumb is that cold foods (such as dairy products) should be kept cold and hot foods (such as soup) should be kept hot until storage. Cold meats, such as chicken, that are to be cooked should not be placed at room temperature for thawing, at the risk of dangerous bacterial growth, such as \"Salmonella\" or \"E. coli\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7367038",
"title": "Vacuum packing",
"section": "Section::::Preventing freezer burn.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "When foods are frozen without preparation, freezer burn can occur. It happens when the surface of the food is dehydrated, and this leads to a dried and leathery appearance. Freezer burn also ruins the flavor and texture of foods. Vacuum packing reduces freezer burn by preventing the food from exposure to the cold, dry air.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "339605",
"title": "Frozen food",
"section": "Section::::Effectiveness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "Freezing is an effective form of food preservation because the pathogens that cause food spoilage are killed or do not grow very rapidly at reduced temperatures. The process is less effective in food preservation than are thermal techniques, such as boiling, because pathogens are more likely to be able to survive cold temperatures rather than hot temperatures. One of the problems surrounding the use of freezing as a method of food preservation is the danger that pathogens deactivated (but not killed) by the process will once again become active when the frozen food thaws.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "339605",
"title": "Frozen food",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "Freezing food preserves it from the time it is prepared to the time it is eaten. Since early times, farmers, fishermen, and trappers have preserved grains and produce in unheated buildings during the winter season. Freezing food slows down decomposition by turning residual moisture into ice, inhibiting the growth of most bacterial species. In the food commodity industry, there are two processes: mechanical and cryogenic (or flash freezing). The freezing kinetics is important to preserve the food quality and texture. Quicker freezing generates smaller ice crystals and maintains cellular structure. Cryogenic freezing is the quickest freezing technology available due to the ultra low liquid nitrogen temperature .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10646",
"title": "Food",
"section": "Section::::Classifications and types of food.:Frozen food.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "Freezing food preserves it from the time it is prepared to the time it is eaten. Since early times, farmers, fishermen, and trappers have preserved grains and produce in unheated buildings during the winter season. Freezing food slows down decomposition by turning residual moisture into ice, inhibiting the growth of most bacterial species. In the food commodity industry, there are two processes: mechanical and cryogenic (or flash freezing). The freezing kinetics is important to preserve the food quality and texture. Quicker freezing generates smaller ice crystals and maintains cellular structure. Cryogenic freezing is the quickest freezing technology available due to the ultra low liquid nitrogen temperature .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "339605",
"title": "Frozen food",
"section": "Section::::Defrosting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "People sometimes defrost frozen foods at room temperature because of time constraints or ignorance; such foods should be promptly consumed after cooking or discarded and never be refrozen or refrigerated since pathogens are not killed by the freezing process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cemhl3
|
how does the https transfer the key to decrypt the data without compromising the contents of said data?
|
[
{
"answer": "To try to simplify, these kinds of protocols work by having the reciever send the lock, instead of the sender transmitting the key.\n\nAn analogy is that I send you a combination safe, you put the thing inside it and send it back to me. The combination to open the safe is only ever known by me, but this way once you put something into the safe you know nobody else (not even yourself) can open it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If data could be encrypted with a paint colour, then...\n\nIf I wanted to send you encrypted data, first I would send you some random colour paint.\n\nNext, you and I would independently choose a second secret random colour paint (both different) and mix it with the first colour I just sent you. We would come up with two new colours.\n\nWe then send each other our new paint colours, and mix in our own second secret random colour with each other's new colour. The result is that we both come up with the same final colour (the final colour each being a total mix of the three colours: the original, your secret colour, and my secret colour).\n\nI can now use this final colour to encrypt the data, knowing that you will have independently come up with the exact same colour.\n\nIf someone else were watching us send these colours, they would get the first colour and the third pair of colours that were produced, but it would be very difficult for them to figure out what each of our secret colours were; it would be difficult for them to un-mix the third colour back to the first colour and whatever secret colour we each chose, so they would not be able to produce their own final colour.\n\nHTTPS uses mathematics that have similar properties, easy to compute one way, difficult to reverse.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "49707456",
"title": "KeRanger",
"section": "Section::::Discovery.:Encryption process.:Encrypted files.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "After connecting to the C2 server, it will retrieve the encryption key, then start the process. It will first encrypt the \"/Users\" folder, then after that \"/Volumes\" There are also 300 file extensions that are encrypted, such as:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "296370",
"title": "Certificate authority",
"section": "Section::::Issuing a certificate.:Example.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "The rest of the communication then proceeds using the new (disposable) symmetric key, so when the user enters some information to the bank's page and submits the page (sends the information back to the bank) then the data the user has entered to the page will be encrypted by their web browser. Therefore, even if someone can access the (encrypted) data that was communicated from the user to www.bank.example, such eavesdropper cannot read or decipher it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46999487",
"title": "Identity-based conditional proxy re-encryption",
"section": "Section::::Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "One of the key features of IBCPRE is that when Alice as a data owner encrypts messages, the encryption is done for herself and only Alice herself can decrypt the encrypted messages using her secret key. There is no need for Alice to know in advance about who that she would like to share the encrypted messages with. In other words, picking the friends to share with by Alice can be done after she encrypts the messages and uploads to the Server.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "296356",
"title": "Web of trust",
"section": "Section::::Operation of a web of trust.:Simplified explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "Users encrypt their information with the recipient's public key, and only the recipient's private key will decrypt it. Each user then digitally signs the information with their private key, so when the recipient verifies it against the users own public key, they can confirm that it is the user in question. Doing this will ensure that the information came from the specific user and has not been tampered with, and only the intended recipient can read the information (because only they know their private key).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "296370",
"title": "Certificate authority",
"section": "Section::::Issuing a certificate.:Example.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 779,
"text": "Public-key cryptography can be used to encrypt data communicated between two parties. This can typically happen when a user logs on to any site that implements the HTTP Secure protocol. In this example let us suppose that the user logs on to their bank's homepage www.bank.example to do online banking. When the user opens www.bank.example homepage, they receive a public key along with all the data that their web-browser displays. The public key could be used to encrypt data from the client to the server but the safe procedure is to use it in a protocol that determines a temporary shared symmetric encryption key; messages in such a key exchange protocol can be enciphered with the bank's public key in such a way that only the bank server has the private key to read them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1065362",
"title": "End-to-end encryption",
"section": "Section::::Challenges.:Man-in-the-middle attacks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "End-to-end encryption ensures that data is transferred securely between endpoints. But, rather than try to break the encryption, an eavesdropper may impersonate a message recipient (during key exchange or by substituting his public key for the recipient's), so that messages are encrypted with a key known to the attacker. After decrypting the message, the snoop can then encrypt it with a key that they share with the actual recipient, or their public key in case of asymmetric systems, and send the message on again to avoid detection. This is known as a man-in-the-middle attack.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "175560",
"title": "Ciphertext",
"section": "Section::::Conceptual underpinnings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "In a symmetric-key system, Bob knows Alice's encryption key. Once the message is encrypted, Alice can safely transmit it to Bob (assuming no one else knows the key). In order to read Alice's message, Bob must decrypt the ciphertext using formula_6 which is known as the decryption cipher, formula_7\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3y0l6n
|
What would happen to the children of prostitutes in Roman society?
|
[
{
"answer": "In Roman society, children weren't seen as full people. If a parent possessed a child that was unwanted they would abandon them until they either were adopted by somebody that did want them, or succumbed to exposure. It would come to no surprise then, that this was a common practice among prostitutes in Roman society. (Not to discourage a more comprehensive answer, if there was something special about the children of prostitutes then I'd be very interested in hearing it)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31718194",
"title": "Women in Classical Athens",
"section": "Section::::Economic activity.:Prostitution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "Athenian prostitutes probably committed infanticide more frequently than married citizen women; Sarah Pomeroy suggests that they would have preferred daughters – who could become prostitutes – to sons. Some prostitutes also bought slaves, and trained abandoned children to work in the profession.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3952114",
"title": "Sexuality in ancient Rome",
"section": "Section::::Sex, marriage, and society.:Prostitution.:Pleasure and infamy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 196,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 196,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "Prostitutes were among those persons in Rome categorized as \"infames\", enjoying few legal protections even if they were technically not slaves. \"Infamia\" as a legal status once entered into could not be escaped: a prostitute was \"not only a woman who practices prostitution, but also one who has formerly done so, even though she has ceased to act in this manner; for the disgrace is not removed even if the practice is subsequently discontinued\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20938527",
"title": "Prostitution in ancient Rome",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 830,
"text": "Prostitution in ancient Rome was legal and licensed. In ancient Rome, even Roman men of the highest social status were free to engage prostitutes of either sex without incurring moral disapproval, as long as they demonstrated self-control and moderation in the frequency and enjoyment of sex. At the same time, the prostitutes themselves were considered shameful: most were either slaves or former slaves, or if free by birth relegated to the \"infames\", people utterly lacking in social standing and deprived of most protections accorded to citizens under Roman law, a status they shared with actors and gladiators, all of whom, however, exerted sexual allure. Some large brothels in the 4th century, when Rome was becoming officially Christianized, seem to have been counted as tourist attractions and were possibly state-owned.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "488066",
"title": "Floralia",
"section": "Section::::Games.:Participation of prostitutes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "Prostitutes participated in the Floralia as well as the wine festival (Vinalia) on April 23. According to the satirist Juvenal, prostitutes danced naked and fought in mock gladiator combat. Many prostitutes in ancient Rome were slaves, and even free women who worked as prostitutes lost their legal and social standing as citizens, but their inclusion at religious festivals indicates that sex workers were not completely outcast from society.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15157915",
"title": "Prostitution",
"section": "Section::::History.:Ancient Rome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 740,
"text": "Prostitution in ancient Rome was legal, public, and widespread. A registered prostitute was called a meretrix while the unregistered one fell under the broad category prostibulae. There were some commonalities with the Greek system, but as the Empire grew, prostitutes were often foreign slaves, captured, purchased, or raised for that purpose, sometimes by large-scale \"prostitute farmers\" who took abandoned children. Indeed, abandoned children were almost always raised as prostitutes. Enslavement into prostitution was sometimes used as a legal punishment against criminal free women. Buyers were allowed to inspect naked men and women for sale in private and there was no stigma attached to the purchase of males by a male aristocrat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1081926",
"title": "Child prostitution",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 993,
"text": "Prostitution of children dates to antiquity. Prepubescent boys were commonly prostituted in brothels in ancient Greece and Rome. According to Ronald Flowers, the \"most beautiful and highest born Egyptian maidens were forced into prostitution...and they continued as prostitutes until their first menstruation.\" Chinese and Indian children were commonly sold by their parents into prostitution. Parents in India sometimes dedicated their female children to the Hindu temples, where they became \"devadasis\". Traditionally a high status in society, the devadasis were originally tasked with maintaining and cleaning the temples of the Hindu deity to which they were assigned (usually the goddess Renuka) and learning skills such as music and dancing. However, as the system evolved, their role became that of a temple prostitute, and the girls, who were \"dedicated\" before puberty, were required to prostitute themselves to upper class men. The practice has since been outlawed but still exists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14442548",
"title": "Prostitution in Ecuador",
"section": "Section::::Child prostitution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "Many child prostitutes have been abandoned or orphaned by one or both parents; some poverty-stricken parents also sell their children, wittingly or unwittingly, into prostitution. More than half of the girls involved in prostitution work in illegal establishments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1j5kc0
|
Was there a peaceful coexistence between the early Christian groups?
|
[
{
"answer": "I can come up with a couple examples:\n > And certain men which came down from Judaea taught the brethren, and said, Except ye be circumcised after the manner of Moses, ye cannot be saved.\nWhen therefore Paul and Barnabas had no small dissension and disputation with them, they determined that Paul and Barnabas, and certain other of them, should go up to Jerusalem unto the apostles and elders about this question.\n\nThat would be Acts 15:1-2. That would be an account of Paul having a dispute with \"Judaizers\". \n\nIn another example, we can see Paul encouraging coexistence\n > For it has been reported to me by Chloe's people that there is rquarreling among you, my brothers. What I mean is that seach one of you says, “I follow Paul,” or “I follow Apollos,” or “I follow Cephas,” or “I follow Christ.” Is Christ divided? Was Paul crucified for you? Or were you baptized in the name of Paul?\n\nIt seems that at least with that one issue of \"Do you have to be circumcised?\", Paul would be willing to go to war. But while we have no specific examples of how Paul, Apollos and Cephas differ, it must have not been that big of a deal to Paul.\n\nThose were examples of Paul interacting with Jewish Christians. What follows would be examples of Paul interacting with Gnostic Christioans\n\n > But you have this in your favor: You hate the practices of the Nicolaitans, which I also hate.\n\nor alternatively\n\n > For if someone comes to you and preaches a Jesus other than the Jesus we preached, or if you receive a different spirit from the Spirit you received, or a different gospel from the one you accepted, you put up with it easily enough.\n\nPaul said both of these things, but he said the opposite thing to different groups. \n\nConclusions:\n\nIt seems to me that pretty much all blanket statements become tropes because for every postulate, one can find counterexamples. But I think your three categories are spot on I think you would find people who retain their Jewish thinking, people who retain their Greek thinking, and people for whom Christianity becomes a new paradigm.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6261436",
"title": "Kapsowar",
"section": "Section::::Clans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "The second and more prominent cause of these rivalries started when the Christian missionaries arrived. Two groups showed up in the pre-colonial period: the Protestant English missionaries under the African inland mission and the Catholic Irish missionaries. These two groups brought their animosities with them from Europe with Christianity. In the pursue of followers they used two differing methods:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38989564",
"title": "History of Medieval Cumbria",
"section": "Section::::Early Medieval Cumbria, 410–1066.:Vikings, Strathclyde Brythons, Scots, English and 'Cumbria', 875–1066.:Strathclyde Brythonic settlement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "It is thought possible that this settlement of fellow Christians was encouraged by the Anglo-Celtic aristocracy, probably with the support of the English south of the Cumbrian region, as a counterweight against the Hiberno-Norse. It may be that, up to around 927, an alliance of Scots, Brythons, Bernicians and Mercians fought against the Norse, who were themselves allied to their fellow Vikings based in York.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5942003",
"title": "History of Cumbria",
"section": "Section::::Medieval Cumbria.:Early medieval Cumbria, 410–1066.:Strathclyde British settlement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 122,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 122,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "It is thought possible that this settlement of fellow Christians was encouraged by the Anglo-Celtic aristocracy, probably with the support of the English south of the Cumbrian region, as a counterweight against the Hiberno-Norse. It may be that, up to around 927, an alliance of Scots, British, Bernicians and Mercians fought against the Norse, who were themselves allied to their fellow Vikings based in York.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6786589",
"title": "National and regional identity in Spain",
"section": "Section::::Aspects of unity and diversity within Spain.:Historical.:Unification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "The common non-Christian enemy has been usually considered the single crucial catalyst for the union of the different Christian realms. However, it was effective only for permanently reconquered territories. Much of the unification happened long after the departure of the last Muslim rulers. Just as Christians remained in Arab Spain after the Christian conquest, so too did Muslims and Arab culture remain after that conquest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28187599",
"title": "Reformation in Ireland",
"section": "Section::::Religious policy of Queen Elizabeth I.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "The issue of religious and political rivalry continued during the two Desmond Rebellions (1569–83) and the Nine Years' War (1594–1603), both of which overlapped with the Anglo-Spanish War, during which some rebellious Irish nobles were helped by the Papacy and by Elizabeth's arch-enemy Philip II of Spain. Due to the unsettled state of the country Protestantism made little progress, unlike in Celtic Scotland and Wales at that time. It came to be associated with military conquest and colonisation and was therefore hated by many. The political-religious overlap was personified by Adam Loftus, who served as Archbishop and as Lord Chancellor of Ireland.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28804567",
"title": "Karo Batak Protestant Church",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "The first Christian envangelism was conducted among the Karo people in 1890 by the Netherlands Missionary Society. Due to the perceived association with the colonialism of the Dutch East Indies, only a minority of the Karo converted initially, and it was not until after Indonesian independence in 1945 that Christianity acquired significant support among the Karo people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34919647",
"title": "Jesuit Missions amongst the Huron",
"section": "Section::::Consequences of Jesuit Missions with the Huron.:Christianity and Huron’s Social Weakening.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 799,
"text": "The factionalism dividing Christian converts and traditionalists seriously weakened the Huron confederacy in the 1640s. Due to Jesuit insistence on emphasizing aha incompatibility of Christianity and traditional spirituality rather than noting convergences, Huron Christians tended to distance themselves from the traditional practices of their people and threatened ties that had once bound communities together. Converts refused to participate in shared feasts, Christian women rejected traditionalist suitors, they carefully observed Catholic fasts, and they also withheld Christian remains from the Feast of the Dead, which was an important ritual of disinterment and collective reburial. The Jesuit missionary Jean de Brébeuf described the spectacle in \"The Jesuit Relations\", explaining that,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a4jtug
|
how the casino know where we put our bets on the roulette and how do they avoid us lying that we won the bet?
|
[
{
"answer": "Each player has different colored chips. There is a big table with all the possible options that you can bet on. There's a space for each number, for black, for red, for odd numbers, etc. You have to put your chips on the table before the dealer waves and says no more bets. There is a camera right above it. Then the ball lands on a particular color. If your bet wins, the dealer puts the correct amount of money on top.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The really ELI5 answer is: They watch you.\n\nThe dealer is watching first and foremost, it's their responsibility. Most of them have also been doing it long enough that even if they don't see you place extra chips on a winning bet (called capping a bet, not to be confused with pulling money off a losing bet called pinching a bet) they will often notice if they look away and look back and more chips were there than they remembered.\n\nBut cameras are always watching. Even if the eyes behind the camera aren't watching you at that very moment the camera is recording so it's as simple as going back on a youtube video to double check if anyone did anything funny on that table.\n\nAnd it's a crime. Around these parts it's similar to theft and at best you're going to give the money back and get your ass kicked out and at worst end up in jail.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1504334",
"title": "Sic bo",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "Players place their bets on certain areas of the table as shown in the picture above. The dealer then picks up a small chest containing the dice, which he/she closes and shakes. Finally the dealer opens the chest to reveal the combination.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6062",
"title": "Craps",
"section": "Section::::Bank craps.:Rules of play.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "Each casino may set which bets are offered and different payouts for them, though a core set of bets and payouts is typical. Players take turns rolling two dice and whoever is throwing the dice is called the \"shooter\". Players can bet on the various options by placing chips directly on the appropriately-marked sections of the layout, or asking the base dealer or stickman to do so, depending on which bet is being made.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6062",
"title": "Craps",
"section": "Section::::Bank craps.:Joining a game.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "BULLET::::- If the dealer's button is \"On\", the table is in the point round where casinos will allow odds behind an existing Pass line to be bet. Some casino do not allow new pass line bets while a point has been established. Some casinos will place the bet straddling the outer border of the pass line so as to indicate that it is to be paid the same odds as a place bet, instead of just even money. Other casinos will take the bet on the pass line after a point has been established, known as put betting, which is a disadvantage to the player (since the seven is the most common roll and likely to happen before the \"point\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6062",
"title": "Craps",
"section": "Section::::Types of wagers.:Multi-roll bets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "Casino rules vary on this; some of these bets may not be callable, while others may be considered \"working\" during the come-out. Dealers will usually announce if bets are working unless otherwise called off. If a non-working point number placed, bought or laid becomes the new point as the result of a come-out, the bet is usually refunded, or can be moved to another number for free.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26487",
"title": "Roulette",
"section": "Section::::Rules of play against a casino.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "The roulette table usually imposes minimum and maximum bets, and these rules usually apply separately for all of a player's inside and outside bets for each spin. For inside bets at roulette tables, some casinos may use separate roulette table chips of various colors to distinguish players at the table. Players can continue to place bets as the ball spins around the wheel until the dealer announces \"no more bets\" or \"rien ne va plus\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26487",
"title": "Roulette",
"section": "Section::::Common etiquette practices.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 174,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 174,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "BULLET::::- All call bets are considered courtesy bets and are only placed if the dealer has time to change and place the bets. The bet is considered taken only if the dealer and the inspector dealer has repeated the bet. If the dealer does not take the bet, they will announce \"no bet\". To argue with the dealer about which bets have been taken is considered extremely impolite and will most likely render a warning from the inspector dealer or pit boss.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6062",
"title": "Craps",
"section": "Section::::Types of wagers.:Multi-roll bets.:Place.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "Players can bet any point number (4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10) by placing their wager in the come area and telling the dealer how much and on what number(s), \"30 on the 6\", \"5 on the 5\" or \"25 on the 10\". These are typically \"Place Bets to Win\". These are bets that the number bet on will be rolled before a 7 is rolled. These bets are considered working bets, and will continue to be paid out each time a shooter rolls the number bet. By rules, place bets are not working on the come out roll but can be \"turned on\" by the player. Players may remove or reduce (bet must be at least table minimum) this bet anytime before it loses (seven out).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3zjwon
|
How did France's Revolutionary Army equip itself? How could it supply almost a million men?
|
[
{
"answer": "The French Revolutionary army was an odd animal. Hodgepodge and haphazard, the Revolutionary army was very different than the previous armies of France. Rather than the restrained, well kept armies dressed in white, the French Revolutionary army was funded and equipped with what they found or given.\n\nThe French Revolution and the declaration of the Republic pulled power from the King and placed it in the hands of the people, this included the rights and ability to produce arms. Almost right away, the French Assembly started setting up more foundries and manufactures to produce armaments. Rather than the famed Charleville factory, which made muskets, factories were set up all throughout France to produce hundreds of thousands of muskets \n\nOf course, not all soldiers carried or wore French items. War was the best supplier of arms for the French as they would often take abandoned muskets and artillery guns as well as taking the clothes of the dead or from prisoners. Since the .69 calibre musket was generally the smallest calibre used by European armies, the French didn't need to worry about using different ammunition and often used captured enemy cartridges.\n\nOther units such as members of the national guard would wear their own clothes, being required a blue jacket of a certain style and given a pike if muskets were not available.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26532764",
"title": "Lazare Carnot",
"section": "Section::::Political career.:Military accomplishments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1417,
"text": "The creation of the French Revolutionary Army was largely due to his powers of organization and enforcing discipline. In order to raise more troops for the war, Carnot introduced conscription: the \"levée en masse\" approved by the National Convention was able to raise France’s army from 645,000 troops in mid-1793 to 1,500,000 in September 1794. He was the first to execute the modern waging of war with mass armies and strategic planning realized by the Revolution. As a military engineer, Carnot favored fortresses and defensive strategies. He developed innovative defensive designs for forts, including the Carnot wall, called after him. However, with the constant invasions he decided to take his strategic planning to an offensive strike. From his intellect sprang the maneuvers and organization that turned the tides of war from 1793 to 1794. The basic idea was to have a massive army separated into several units that could move more quickly than the enemy and attack from the flanks rather than head on, which had led to resounding defeats before Carnot was elected to the Committee of Public Safety. This tactic was extremely successful against the more traditional tactics of existing European armies. It was his initiative to train the conscripts in the art of war and to place new recruits with experienced soldiers rather than having a massive volunteer army without any real idea of how to wage battle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3413472",
"title": "French Revolutionary Army",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "The French Revolutionary Army () was the French force that fought the French Revolutionary Wars from 1792 to 1802. These armies were characterised by their revolutionary fervour, their poor equipment and their great numbers. Although they experienced early disastrous defeats, the revolutionary armies successfully expelled foreign forces from French soil and then overran many neighboring countries, establishing client republics. Leading generals included Jourdan, Bonaparte, Masséna and Moreau.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22728179",
"title": "Belgian Legion",
"section": "Section::::French Revolutionary era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "The French Revolutionary armies incorporated a number of \"legions\" of foreign volunteers during the French Revolutionary Wars after 1792. These included a number of units recruited among exiles from the failed Brabant (1789–90) and Liège revolutions (1789–91). A number of separate units were organised, including:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3413472",
"title": "French Revolutionary Army",
"section": "Section::::Formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 769,
"text": "Revolutionary fervour, along with calls to save the new regime, resulted in a large influx of enthusiastic, yet untrained and undisciplined, volunteers. These were the first \"sans-culottes\", so called because they wore peasants' trousers rather than the knee-breeches used by the other armies of the time. France's desperate military situation meant that these men were quickly inducted into the army. One reason for the success of the French Revolutionary Army is the \"amalgamation\" (\"amalgame\") strategy organized by military strategist Lazare Carnot, later Napoleon's Minister of War. He assigned, to the same regiment (but in different battalions), both young volunteers enthusiastic at the thought of dying for liberty and old veterans from the former royal army.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "868407",
"title": "Campaigns of 1793 in the French Revolutionary Wars",
"section": "Section::::Campaigns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 745,
"text": "The revolutionary government prepared a full mobilization of the nation (see Levée en masse), showing no mercy to internal or external enemies. According to Mignet's\" History of the French Revolution\": \"The republic had very soon fourteen armies, and twelve hundred thousand soldiers. France, while it became a camp and a workshop for the republicans, became at the same time a prison for those who did not accept the republic.\" They proceeded to suppress Caen, Lyon, and Marseille, although the counter-revolutionary forces turned Toulon over to Britain and Spain on 29 August, resulting in the capture of much of the French navy, and Toulon was not retaken by Dugommier (with the assistance of the young Napoleon Bonaparte) until 19 December.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3413472",
"title": "French Revolutionary Army",
"section": "Section::::\"Levée en masse\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "This increased the size of the Revolutionary Armies dramatically, providing the armies in the field with the manpower to hold off the enemy attacks. Carnot was hailed by the government as the \"Organizer of Victory\". By September 1794, the Revolutionary Army had 1,500,000 men under arms. Carnot's \"levée en masse\" had provided so much manpower that it was not necessary to repeat it again until 1797.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "611740",
"title": "French Army",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "From 1792, the French Revolutionary Army fought against various combinations of European powers, initially reliant on large numbers and basic tactics, it was defeated bloodily but survived and drove its opponents first from French soil and then overran several countries creating client states.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cmuyip
|
why does playing a game at higher frames than originally intended (e.g. 60fps instead of 30fps) often cause glitches with the physics?
|
[
{
"answer": "These games run the FPS and the physics engine in the same loop, and make some assumptions about the speed. They don't calculate physics that would have happened since the last calculation, they just calculate another 1/30 of a second of physics. So, by increasing the FPS, you increase the number of physics calculations but not the time its calculated for, resulting in 'faster' physics.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Graphics and physics are processed separately. Think about the inside of your computer. It has a \"processor\", which is technically called a CPU, or \"central processing unit\", that handles all of the math and interactions between things, etc. Then you have the \"graphics card\", which is technically called a GPU, or \"graphics processing unit\". Note how they are both distinct processing units. Basically, graphics require so much memory that you have to do them separately.\n\nNow, the CPU tells the GPU what it should be doing in general, such as \"make the character move forward by flying/walking/etc.\" but the GPU does the calculations of what it looks like, such as your feet hitting the ground and the weapon swaying in your arms. To a large degree, where you see your character is what the CPU recognizes for physics.\n\nSo, the CPU and GPU are linked, but let's say the GPU is updating information faster than the CPU (such as playing at 60 fps on a game intended for 30 fps). You run your character into a wall. Your character model running forward happens at a faster speed than the CPU registers the collision of your character against the wall. For a brief moment (milliseconds), your character model passes into the object model of the wall. When the CPU next refreshes, it calculates a collision, since it has a program saying those two models can't intersect, but since you are intersecting, it forces you out of the wall at high speeds.\n\nYou can do similar things playing at low FPS, but the logic is a backward (CPU registers movement but character model never intersects with another object).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1241036",
"title": "Official versions of Doom",
"section": "Section::::Consoles.:3DO Interactive Multiplayer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "\"Maximum\" thoroughly panned this version for its lack of PAL optimization, large borders, choppy frame rate even on the smallest possible screen size, bland color palette, music which is lacking in atmosphere, and load times. They added that the frame rate and slowdown make the game too easy: \"When large amounts of monsters arrive to beat the crap out of you, the game slows down to such an extent that you have ages to line up your shots and fire\". With their only praise being for the intuitive and effective control configuration, they gave it one out of five stars. \"GamePro\" called it \"the worst console version of \"Doom\" so far\", chiefly due to the choppy frame rate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51415764",
"title": "Bound (video game)",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "The game's developers were forced to sacrifice visual effects for performance, because they did not want the game to run with motion blur or framerate drops, due to the hardware limitations of the PlayStation 4. The game runs at a stable 60 frames per second (FPS), and Staniszewski believes that games that run at lower FPS than 60 are not the \"proper way that games should look on TVs\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "980242",
"title": "MDK (video game)",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 1264,
"text": "Because sniper mode was a major part of the game, with the ability to zoom up to 100x, the team decided not to employ any of the usual techniques to limit pop-up, such as clipping and fogging. A major technical issue was that of frame rate. Shiny felt most PC games maintained frame rate by using big pixels in low resolution, which works as long as the game is not running SVGA mode. Based on their experiences developing for consoles, they wanted to take a different approach; using small pixels in high resolution. They set a target of maintaining a constant frame rate of at least 30fps at all times on all machines, and so they simply play-tested the game multiple times. Any moment when the frame rate dropped below 30, they either removed something from that particular part of the game, rewrote the graphics code, or altered the artwork until they could get the frame rate back up to where they wanted without having to reduce the resolution or increase the pixel size. According to Bruty, \"We had no idea how fast we could get the engine when we started. The game would run too slow if we textured everything, so some parts were just flat-shaded for speed. We did our best to make that look like a design choice, or shadows, but it was a tricky balance.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13846141",
"title": "Positron (video game)",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 661,
"text": "This game is notable because of its speed. In particular, the game has probably the fastest player fire-rate of any of the non-scrolling shooters of the period. Most similar games of the time will only let you fire again when the previous laser bolt has either hit an alien or left the screen. \"Positron\" has no such limits leading to a much quicker game. It also differs from most such games in that if a life is lost, the sheet begins again regardless of the number of enemies killed. This makes for an infuriating game if the player is killed by the last enemy of the sheet and can lead to effectively repeating the same sheet over until all lives are lost.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5911724",
"title": "Enthusiast computing",
"section": "Section::::Hardware description.:Display.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "It is clear that a fast response time and high refresh rate is desired in order to display smooth motion. A framerate of 60 frames per second (FPS) is generally the minimum acceptable framerate in a video game for enthusiasts, with some enthusiasts preferring 144 FPS or even 165 FPS, to match the refresh rate of their monitor (144 Hz or 165 Hz, respectively). Some gaming monitors can be overclocked to achieve even higher refresh rates. Apart from the primary display, some enthusiasts choose to use a secondary display or more to their PC. Many players game using 3 monitors, which requires 3 times the graphics performance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25414501",
"title": "Star Wars: The Force Unleashed II",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Technology.:Special effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "Interpolating the graphics in 30FPS was opted due to the large variety of rendering technologies that were practical to developers, as well as a less stringent time schedule. Although Andreev felt that it was not impossible to produce a video game in 60FPS graphics, he felt that it would require much more rigorous efforts on art, engineering, and design. \"It is fair to say that in a lot of cases,\" he explained, \"during pre-production, studios try to see what it would take to make a 60FPS game. Then, they get something that doesn't look very pretty when running at 60, realising that all the art has to be produced very carefully as well as level and game design.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3074864",
"title": "MOS Technology 8568",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "Owing to this somewhat cumbersome method of controlling the 8568, the maximum possible frame rate in bit-mapped mode is generally too slow for arcade-style action video games, in which bit-intensive manipulation of the display is required.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1al2o0
|
What are the properties of plasma formed at reentry in the atmosphere?
|
[
{
"answer": "Oxygen glows blue due to [glow discharge](_URL_0_) while re-entry plasma is basically a [black body](_URL_2_) and its color depends on its temperature. \n\nAccording to [NASA](_URL_3_) the space shuttle reaches 3000 Farenheit, which is 1900 Kelvin which corresponds to orange-red black body radiation.\n\nEDIT: Here is a [Temperature chart](_URL_1_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3265197",
"title": "Plasma recombination",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "Plasma recombination is a process by which positive ions of a plasma capture a free (energetic) electron and combine with electrons or negative ions to form new neutral atoms (gas). Recombination is an exothermic reaction, meaning heat releasing reaction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25916521",
"title": "Plasma (physics)",
"section": "Section::::Complex plasma phenomena.:Impermeable plasma.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 730,
"text": "In 2013, a group of materials scientists reported that they have successfully generated stable impermeable plasma with no magnetic confinement using only an ultrahigh-pressure blanket of cold gas. While spectroscopic data on the characteristics of plasma were claimed to be difficult to obtain due to the high pressure, the passive effect of plasma on synthesis of different nanostructures clearly suggested the effective confinement. They also showed that upon maintaining the impermeability for a few tens of seconds, screening of ions at the plasma-gas interface could give rise to a strong secondary mode of heating (known as viscous heating) leading to different kinetics of reactions and formation of complex nanomaterials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2756938",
"title": "Corona treatment",
"section": "Section::::Other technologies.:Atmospheric plasma treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 739,
"text": "Atmospheric-pressure plasma treatment is very similar to corona treatment but there are a few differences between them. Both treatments may use one or more high voltage electrodes which charge the surrounding blown gas molecules and ionizes them. However in atmospheric plasma systems, the overall plasma density is much greater which enhances the rate and degree to which the ionized molecules are incorporated onto a materials' surface. An increased rate of ion bombardment occurs which may result in stronger material bonding traits depending on the gas molecules used in the process. Atmospheric plasma treatment technology also eliminates a possibility of treatment on a material's non-treated side; also known as backside treatment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23114936",
"title": "Induction plasma",
"section": "Section::::Induction plasma torch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 645,
"text": "In practice, the selection of plasma gases in an induction plasma processing is first determined by the processing chemistry, i.e., if the processing requiring a reductive or oxidative, or other environment. Then suitable second gas may be selected and added to argon, so as to get a better heat transfer between plasma and the materials to treat. Ar–He, Ar–H, Ar–N, Ar–O, Air, etc. mixture are very commonly used induction plasmas. Since the energy dissipation in the discharge takes places essentially in the outer annular shell of plasma, the second gas is usually introduced along with the sheath gas line, rather than the central gas line.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "486384",
"title": "Plasma afterglow",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 855,
"text": "The external electromagnetic fields that sustained the plasma glow are absent or insufficient to maintain the discharge in the afterglow. A plasma afterglow can either be a temporal, due to an interrupted (pulsed) plasma source, or spatial, due to a distant plasma source. In the afterglow, plasma-generated species de-excite and participate in secondary chemical reactions that tend to form stable species. Depending on the gas composition, super-elastic collisions may continue to sustain the plasma in the afterglow for a while by releasing the energy stored in rovibronic degrees of freedom of the atoms and molecules of the plasma. Especially in molecular gases, the plasma chemistry in the afterglow is significantly different from the plasma glow. The afterglow of a plasma is still a plasma and as thus retains most of the properties of a plasma.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26448345",
"title": "Plasma actuator",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "Plasma actuators operating at the atmospheric conditions are promising for flow control, mainly for their physical properties, such as the induced body force by a strong electric field and the generation of heat during an electric arc, and the simplicity of their constructions and placements. In particular, the recent invention of glow discharge plasma actuators by Roth (2003) that can produce sufficient quantities of glow discharge plasma in the atmosphere pressure air helps to yield an increase in flow control performance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1872987",
"title": "Relativistic plasma",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 645,
"text": "Such plasmas may be created either by heating a gas to very high temperatures or by the impact of a high-energy particle beam. A relativistic plasma with a thermal distribution function has temperatures greater than around 260 keV, or 3.0 GK (5.5 billion degrees Fahrenheit), where approximately 10% of the electrons have formula_2. Since these temperatures are so high, most relativistic plasmas are small and brief, and are often the result of a relativistic beam impacting some target. (More mundanely, \"relativistic plasma\" might denote a normal, cold plasma moving at a significant fraction of the speed of light relative to the observer.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1qb7p9
|
what difference does the wheel size make, specifically in regards to winter tires?
|
[
{
"answer": "You want narrow tires for snow/ice. 245/45R18 aren't that narrow. \nUsually what people do is buy a cheap set of steel rims in a size common on econoboxes, so they cay buy cheap, tall, narrow econobox winter tires to put on them. Also because you can slide around into curbs and only mess up your cheap steel rims and not your nice alloy ones.\n\nThat said, your plan will work fine - especially since you live in Calgary and chinooks melt most of the snow. I never changed to winter tires when I lived in S Alberta.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1333814",
"title": "Tread",
"section": "Section::::Tires.:Snow tires.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "Snow tires or Winter tires are tires designed for use in colder weather, snow and ice. To improve traction, they are made of different rubber and have a different tread pattern from regular street tires.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9523363",
"title": "Snow tire",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 786,
"text": "Snow tires—also called winter tires—are tires designed for use on snow and ice. Snow tires have a tread design with larger gaps than those on summer tires, increasing traction on snow and ice. Such tires that have passed a specific winter traction performance test are entitled to display a \"Three-Peak Mountain Snow Flake\" symbol on their sidewalls. Tires designed for winter conditions are optimized to drive at temperatures below . Some snow tires have metal or ceramic studs that protrude from the tire to increase traction on hard-packed snow or ice. Studs abrade dry pavement, causing dust and creating wear in the wheel path. Regulations that require the use of snow tires or permit the use of studs vary by country in Asia and Europe, and by state or province in North America.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10334744",
"title": "Alloy wheel",
"section": "Section::::Aftermarket wheels.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 721,
"text": "A sizable selection of alloy wheels are available to automobile owners who want lighter, more visually appealing, rarer, and/or larger wheels on their cars. Although replacing standard steel wheel and tire combinations with lighter alloy wheels and potentially lower profile tires can result in increased performance and handling, this doesn't necessarily hold when increasingly large wheels are employed. Research by \"Car and Driver\" conducted using a selection of differently sized alloy wheels from all outfitted with the same make and model of tires showed that both acceleration and fuel economy suffered with larger wheels. They also noted that ride comfort and noise were negatively affected by the larger wheels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "305399",
"title": "Porphyry (geology)",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Modern.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "In countries where many cars have studded winter tires such as Sweden, Finland and Norway, it is common that highways are paved with asphalt made of porphyry aggregate to make the wearing course withstand the extreme wear from the spiked tires. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "917653",
"title": "Wheel sizing",
"section": "Section::::Wheel size.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "Replacing the wheels on a car with larger ones can involve using tires with a smaller profile. This is done to keep the overall radius of the wheel/tire the same as stock to ensure the same clearances are achieved. Larger wheels are typically desired for their appearance but could also offer more space for brake components. This comes at a performance price though as larger wheels weigh more. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65037",
"title": "Tire",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Automotive.:Light–medium duty.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 770,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Winter\"—Snow tires are designed for use on snow and ice. They have a tread design with larger gaps than those on summer tires, increasing traction on snow and ice. Such tires that have passed a specific winter traction performance test are entitled to display a \"Three-Peak Mountain Snow Flake\" symbol on their sidewalls. Tires designed for winter conditions are optimized to drive at temperatures below . Some snow tires have metal or ceramic studs that protrude from the tire to increase traction on hard-packed snow or ice. Studs abrade dry pavement, causing dust and creating wear in the wheel path. Regulations that require the use of snow tires or permit the use of studs vary by country in Asia and Europe, and by state or province in North America.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65037",
"title": "Tire",
"section": "Section::::Manufacturing.:Components.:Tread.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "Different tread designs address a variety of driving conditions. As the ratio of tire tread area to groove area increases, so does tire friction on dry pavement, as seen on Formula One tires, some of which have no grooves. High-performance tires often have smaller void areas to provide more rubber in contact with the road for higher traction, but may be compounded with softer rubber that provides better traction, but wears quickly. Mud and snow (M&S) tires employ larger and deeper slots to engage mud and snow. Snow tires have still larger and deeper slots that compact snow and create shear strength within the compacted snow to improve braking and cornering performance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ngifg
|
why i get so many nose bleeds in the winter and other people don't
|
[
{
"answer": "Its something to do with the sensitivity of the blood vessels in your nose and how the cold dry air of winter often exacerbates said sensitivity. Atleast thats how I think of it because I'm getting the fucking nose bleeds too.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Cold air is dry air. You may be able to make the nosebleeds stop by getting a humidifier for your home, or at least for your bedroom.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Shower more. Seriously. By regularly getting nice hot steam and moisture up in there, it keeps it from drying out.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You aren't alone! I don't feel like it's really winter until I wake up with a bloody pillowcase :/",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Its something to do with the sensitivity of the blood vessels in your nose and how the cold dry air of winter often exacerbates said sensitivity. Atleast thats how I think of it because I'm getting the fucking nose bleeds too.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Cold air is dry air. You may be able to make the nosebleeds stop by getting a humidifier for your home, or at least for your bedroom.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Shower more. Seriously. By regularly getting nice hot steam and moisture up in there, it keeps it from drying out.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You aren't alone! I don't feel like it's really winter until I wake up with a bloody pillowcase :/",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6977217",
"title": "Nasal cycle",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "It is possible that the nasal cycle may exacerbate the nasal congestion caused by the common cold, as the lack of motility of the cilia in one half of the nose may lead to an uncomfortable sensation of not being able to shift mucus by blowing the nose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "637512",
"title": "Nosebleed",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "Nosebleeds can occur due to a variety of reasons. Some of the most common causes include trauma from nose picking, blunt trauma (such as a motor vehicle accident), or insertion of a foreign object (more likely in children). Relative humidity (including centrally heated buildings), respiratory tract infections, chronic sinusitis, rhinitis or environmental irritants can cause inflammation and thinning of the tissue in the nose, leading to a greater likelihood of bleeding from the nose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1738117",
"title": "Nasal congestion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "Nasal congestion has many causes and can range from a mild annoyance to a life-threatening condition. Most people prefer to breathe through the nose (historically referred to as \"obligate nasal breathers\"). Nasal congestion in an infant in the first few months of life can interfere with breastfeeding and cause life-threatening respiratory distress; in older children and adolescents it is often just an annoyance but can cause other difficulties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19799359",
"title": "Nasal fracture",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "Nasal fractures are caused by physical trauma to the face. Common sources of nasal fractures include sports injuries, fighting, falls, and car accidents in the younger age groups, and falls from syncope or impaired balance in the elderly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26083160",
"title": "Throat irritation",
"section": "Section::::Post-nasal drip.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "Also called rhinorrhea, is a very common medical disorder that occurs when the nasal tissues are congested and the excess fluid runs either at the back of the throat or out of the nose. Post-nasal drip can be caused by the common cold, allergies to dust, smoking, or pet dander. Even spicy foods can sometimes cause post-nasal drip. Runny nose is not life-threatening but can be uncomfortable and socially unacceptable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "534130",
"title": "Nasal concha",
"section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Dysfunction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "Large, swollen conchae, often referred to clinically as turbinates, may lead to blockage of nasal breathing. Allergies, exposure to environmental irritants, or a persistent inflammation within the sinuses can lead to turbinate swelling. Deformity of the nasal septum can also result in enlarged turbinates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "728467",
"title": "Hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia",
"section": "Section::::Epidemiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "Most people with HHT have a normal lifespan. The skin lesions and nosebleeds tend to develop during childhood. AVMs are probably present from birth, but don't necessarily cause any symptoms. Frequent nosebleeds are the most common symptom and can significantly affect quality of life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
193eu5
|
the amazon web services
|
[
{
"answer": "The basic idea is that Amazon has *shitloads* of computers, all set up so that if one goes down, nobody will ever notice. They've designed their system to handle massive spikes of customers so they can handle the holiday rush. Once they had all this figured out, they realized they could rent out server space/time.\n\nEC2 gives you a virtual server that you can use for whatever you want - most people use them for web servers but that's not a requirement. You can create & destroy them on the fly from software, depending on the load. It's easy to clone fully-configured servers, rather than having to set each one up by hand.\n\nS3 is a way to store files for your website and redistribute them. You don't have to worry about buying new hard drives when you run out of space, doing back ups or even making sure you have enough bandwidth. Like EC2, you can easily manipulate things automatically with software.\n\nOne of the downsides to EC2 is that, while you can create and destroy servers automatically, you can't store much on them. If you wanted to run a database, for example, where you needed a lot of fast, reliable storage space it just wouldn't work. EBS gives you 'drives' you can attach to your EC2 instances.\n\nFor data that you want to keep around, but don't plan on using, there's Glacier. You 'pack it away' and can get to it if you need it, but it might take a while to get. If you want to keep data going back a few years to be safe, but never actually read anything older than 3 months - this is where you put it. It's a lot cheaper than the other storage services.\n\nThe RDS is (big surprise) a database. Once your server load gets past a certain point, it's hard to just add another database - RDS hides all the complexity of that from you and handles scaling and sharding and all the stuff you need when a site gets huge.\n\nThere's a bunch more services that tie in to these things. Some things, like the queuing service, start to make sense when your system is running on hundreds of servers at once.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "51172107",
"title": "List of Amazon products and services",
"section": "Section::::Other services.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 124,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 124,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "Amazon Webstore allowed businesses to create custom e-commerce online stores using Amazon technology. Sellers selected the category for their business, and paid a commission of 1-2%, plus credit-card processing fees and fraud protection, and a subscription fee depending on the bundle option for an unlimited number of listings. Amazon has chosen a limited number of companies to become an implementation solution provider for them. The Amazon Webstore is no longer available to new merchants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "90451",
"title": "Amazon (company)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "Amazon.com, Inc. (), is an American multinational technology company based in Seattle, Washington that focuses on e-commerce, cloud computing, digital streaming, and artificial intelligence. It is considered one of the Big Four technology companies along with Google, Apple, and Facebook.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1691376",
"title": "Amazon Web Services",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 909,
"text": "Amazon Web Services (AWS) is a subsidiary of Amazon that provides on-demand cloud computing platforms to individuals, companies, and governments, on a metered pay-as-you-go basis. In aggregate, these cloud computing web services provide a set of primitive abstract technical infrastructure and distributed computing building blocks and tools. One of these services is Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud, which allows users to have at their disposal a virtual cluster of computers, available all the time, through the Internet. AWS's version of virtual computers emulate most of the attributes of a real computer including, hardware central processing units (CPUs) and graphics processing units (GPUs) for processing, local/RAM memory, hard-disk/SSD storage); a choice of operating systems; networking; and pre-loaded application software such as web servers, databases, customer relationship management (CRM), etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "90451",
"title": "Amazon (company)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 745,
"text": "In 2002, the corporation started Amazon Web Services (AWS), which provided data on Web site popularity, Internet traffic patterns and other statistics for marketers and developers. In 2006, the organization grew its AWS portfolio when Elastic Compute Cloud (EC2), which rents computer processing power as well as Simple Storage Service (S3), that rents data storage via the Internet, were made available. That same year, the company started\" Fulfillment by Amazon \"which managed the inventory of individuals and small companies selling their belongings through the company internet site. In 2012, Amazon bought Kiva Systems to automate its inventory-management business, purchasing Whole Foods Market supermarket chain five years later in 2017.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "90451",
"title": "Amazon (company)",
"section": "Section::::Products and services.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "Amazon.com's product lines available at its website include several media (books, DVDs, music CDs, videotapes and software), apparel, baby products, consumer electronics, beauty products, gourmet food, groceries, health and personal-care items, industrial & scientific supplies, kitchen items, jewelry, watches, lawn and garden items, musical instruments, sporting goods, tools, automotive items and toys & games. Amazon has separate retail websites for some countries and also offers international shipping of some of its products to certain other countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13457839",
"title": "Social commerce",
"section": "Section::::Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "BULLET::::3. Commerce – Being able to fulfill customers' needs via a transactional web presence, typically online retailers, banks, insurance companies, travel sales sites provide the most useful business-to-consumer services. Business-to-business sites range from online storage and hosting to product sourcing and fulfillment services. Amazon emerged in the 1990s and has gone on to dominate the B2C commerce space extending its services beyond traditional retail commerce.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31555205",
"title": "Amazon Product Advertising API",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "Amazon's Product Advertising API, formerly Amazon Associates Web Service (A2S) and before that known as Amazon E-Commerce Service (ECS), is a web service and application programming interface (API) that gives application programmers access to Amazon's product catalog data. Accessible via either the SOAP or REST protocols it enables products to be listed and/or sold through third-party websites and applications. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
efvaim
|
How centralized was the Sassanid Empire?
|
[
{
"answer": "Honestly, it's hard to say. By the time of the Arab invasion, the Sasanian monarchy had by and large collapsed, and Khusrau Anushirwan's decision to split the empire into four administrative regions exacerbated this, turning it into, effectively, a series of principalities governed by the powerful nobility.\n\nI've expanded a bit on this [here](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "47634469",
"title": "List of ancient great powers",
"section": "Section::::Ancient Near East.:Ancient Iran.:Sassanid Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 1029,
"text": "The Sassanid Empire is the name used for the fourth Iranian dynasty, and the second Persian Empire (226–651). The empire's territory encompassed all of today's Iran, Iraq, Armenia, Afghanistan, eastern parts of Turkey, and parts of Syria, Pakistan, and large parts of Caucasia, Central Asia and Arabia. During Khosrow II's rule in 590–628 Egypt, Jordan, Palestine, Lebanon were also briefly annexed to the Empire, as well as far west as western Asia Minor. The Sassanid era, encompassing the length of the Late Antiquity period, is considered to be one of the most important and influential historical periods in Iran. In many ways the Sassanid period witnessed the highest achievement of Persian civilization. The empire is furthermore known for being the arch-rival of the neighboring Roman–Byzantine Empire for a period of over 400 years. As the Parthians were replaced by the Sassanids, they carried on the already century long lasting Roman–Persian Wars, which would eventually become the longest conflict in human history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24931761",
"title": "List of shahanshahs of the Sasanian Empire",
"section": "Section::::Sasanian state organization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "Throughout its existence, the Sassanid Empire was an absolute monarchy. The Shahenshah was the height of authority, with satraps ruling over their satrapies underneath them. The shahanshah was the highest form of authority throughout the empire, but often faced rebellions from their satraps. In fact, the Sasanian Empire had been founded when a satrap rebelled against the Parthian Empire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7515928",
"title": "Iraq",
"section": "Section::::History.:Ancient Iraq.:Babylonian and Persian periods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "The Sassanids of Persia under Ardashir I destroyed the Parthian Empire and conquered the region in 224 AD. During the 240s and 250's AD, the Sassanids gradually conquered the independent states, culminating with Assur in 256 AD. The region was thus a province of the Sassanid Empire for over four centuries, and became the frontier and battle ground between the Sassanid Empire and Byzantine Empire, with both empires weakening each other, paving the way for the Arab-Muslim conquest of Persia in the mid-7th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "881388",
"title": "Persian carpet",
"section": "Section::::History.:The Sasanian Empire: 224–651.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "The Sasanian Empire, which succeeded the Parthian Empire, was recognized as one of the leading powers of its time, alongside its neighbouring Byzantine Empire, for a period of more than 400 years. The Sasanids established their empire roughly within the borders set by the Achaemenids, with the capital at Ctesiphon. This last Persian dynasty before the arrival of Islam adopted Zoroastrianism as the state religion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25014576",
"title": "Davan",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "The Sassanid Empire (also spelled Sasanid Empire, Sassanian Empire, or Sasanian Empire), known to its inhabitants as Ērānshahr and Ērān, was the last pre-Islamic Persian Empire, ruled by the Sasanian Dynasty from 224 to 651. The Sassanid Empire, which succeeded the Parthian Empire, was recognized as one of the two main powers in Western Asia and Europe, alongside the Roman Empire and later the Byzantine Empire, for a period of more than 400 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5876413",
"title": "Sasanian Empire",
"section": "Section::::Society.:Urbanism and nomadism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 116,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 116,
"end_character": 978,
"text": "In contrast to Parthian society, the Sassanids renewed emphasis on a charismatic and centralized government. In Sassanid theory, the ideal society could maintain stability and justice, and the necessary instrument for this was a strong monarch. Thus, the Sasanians aimed to be an urban empire, at which they were quite successful. During the late Sasanian period, Mesopotamia had the largest population density in the medieval world. This can be credited to, among other things, the Sasanians founding and re-founding a number of cities, which is talked about in the surviving Middle Persian text Šahrestānīhā ī Ērānšahr (the provincial capitals of Iran). Ardashir I himself built and re-built many cities, which he named after himself, such as Veh-Ardashir in Asoristan, Ardashir-Khwarrah in Pars and Vahman-Ardashir in Meshan. During the Sasanian period, many cities with the name \"Iran-khwarrah\" were established. This was because Sasanians wanted to revive Avesta ideology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1336477",
"title": "King of Kings",
"section": "Section::::Historical usage.:Iran.:Achaemenid usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 951,
"text": "The Achaemenid Empire, established in 550 BC after the fall of the Median Empire, rapidly expanded over the course of the sixth century BC. Asia Minor and the Lydian kingdom was conquered in 546 BC, the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 539 BC, Egypt in 525 BC and the Indus region in 513 BC. The Achaemenids employed satrapal administration, which became a guarantee of success due to its flexibility and the tolerance of the Achaemenid kings for the more-or-less autonomous vassals. The system also had its problems; though some regions became nearly completely autonomous without any fighting (such as Lycia and Cilicia), other regions saw repeated attempts at rebellion and secession. Egypt was a particularly prominent example, frequently rebelling against Achaemenid authority and attempting to crown their own Pharaohs. Though it was eventually defeated, the Great Satraps' Revolt of 366–360 BC showed the growing structural problems within the Empire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
52pd01
|
How did the jellyfish lifecycle evolve?
|
[
{
"answer": "just a highschool student, so this might be wrong, please correct me if i am: the polyp phase is adapted to sitting at the sea floor and getting food there, having is tentacles pointing upwards and its mouth adapted to eat stuff that it finds there. after it gets enough time to grow and mature, the adult jellyfish we're used to seeing has a shape that's adapted to swimming and can go find food in the open sea without competing with the younger ones, while also getting to reproduce wherever it happens to go, spreading the population over a larger area.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Cnidarians (the phylum that includes sea jellies) is a very interesting and complex group of organisms. Something that unites them is their life cycle, going from polyp to medusa. Some have extended polyp stages like the anemone, and some have extended medusa stages like the sea jelly. It's hard to say exactly why evolution happens. A chance mutation may have been beneficial leading that trait to be passed on. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9214162",
"title": "Turritopsis dohrnii",
"section": "Section::::Life cycle.:Biological immortality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "Most jellyfish species have a relatively fixed life-span, which varies by species from hours to many months (long-lived mature jellyfish spawn every day or night; the time is also fairly fixed and species-specific). The medusa of \"Turritopsis dohrnii\" is the only form known to have developed the ability to return to a polyp state, by a specific transformation process that requires the presence of certain cell types (tissue from both the jellyfish bell surface and the circulatory canal system).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50185",
"title": "Jellyfish",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "Jellyfish are found all over the world, from surface waters to the deep sea. Scyphozoans (the \"true jellyfish\") are exclusively marine, but some hydrozoans with a similar appearance live in freshwater. Large, often colorful, jellyfish are common in coastal zones worldwide. The medusae of most species are fast growing, mature within a few months and die soon after breeding, but the polyp stage, attached to the seabed, may be much more long-lived. Jellyfish have been in existence for at least 500 million years, and possibly 700 million years or more, making them the oldest multi-organ animal group.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50185",
"title": "Jellyfish",
"section": "Section::::Life history and behavior.:Lifespan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "Little is known of the life histories of many jellyfish as the places on the seabed where the benthic forms of those species live have not been found. However, an asexually reproducing strobila form can sometimes live for several years, producing new medusae (ephyra larvae) each year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5394932",
"title": "Phyllorhiza punctata",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "True jellyfish go through a two-stage life cycle which consists of a medusa stage (adult) and a polyp stage (juvenile). In the medusa stage male jellyfish release sperm into the water column and the female jellyfish gathers the sperm into her mouth where she holds the eggs. Once fertilization occurs and larvae are formed they leave their mother and settle to the ocean floor. Once on the bottom a polyp form occurs and this form reproduces asexually by \"cloning\" or dividing itself into other polyps. Jellyfish can live for up to five years in the polyp stage and up to two years in the medusa stage(active).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50185",
"title": "Jellyfish",
"section": "Section::::Life history and behavior.:Life cycle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "Jellyfish have a complex life cycle which includes both sexual and asexual phases, with the medusa being the sexual stage in most instances. Sperm fertilize eggs, which develop into larval planulae, become polyps, bud into ephyrae and then transform into adult medusae. In some species certain stages may be skipped.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44933658",
"title": "Carybdea marsupialis",
"section": "Section::::Biology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 817,
"text": "The life history of this box jellyfish is complex. The sexes are separate and sexual reproduction takes place with the emission of gametes into the open water. After fertilisation, a planula larva forms which later develops into a cubopolyp with a few tentacles. This can reproduce asexually by budding, the buds soon becoming detached. At first they creep across the substrate with the tentacular region leading. During this mobile stage, pieces may become detached or the cubopolyp may split transversely; these fragments regenerate their missing parts within 72 hours. The resulting polyps then attach themselves to the substrate and grow a full complement of 24 tentacles. About a month later they become detached, the multiple tentacles are reabsorbed and the four tentacles typical of the medusa phase develop.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9214162",
"title": "Turritopsis dohrnii",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "Turritopsis dohrnii, the immortal jellyfish, is a species of small, biologically immortal jellyfish found in the Mediterranean Sea and in the waters of Japan. It is one of the few known cases of animals capable of reverting completely to a sexually immature, colonial stage after having reached sexual maturity as a solitary individual. Others include the jellyfish \"\" and \"Aurelia\" sp.1.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
oswhi
|
How do our bodies stay together?
|
[
{
"answer": "Big question my friend.\n\nCovalent Bonds: Atoms form together to form molecules. I am not a quantum physicist, so I can not explain this process perfectly, but simply put, atoms join together because that is what they do. That is the nature of out universe. By sharing electrons, they form a lower energy state, and they like to have low energy. This is a very strong bond. Thus, water, tends to stay as water, rather than breaking down into hydrogen and oxygen. So, first we need to think of the various types of big molecules that make up your body. Remembering, that generally speaking, molecules are stable, and wont break down unless acted on. And they are stable because of covalent bonds, the sharing of electrons that atoms like to do.\n\nFats: Fats... you know what they are. But on a molecular level, they are long changes of carbon atoms hung together, with some hydrogen atoms. Different fats have different lengths of carbon, hung together in slightly different ways. This is what makes some fats liquid at room temperature, and some solid.\n\nProteins: Proteins are where you body gets exciting. These are made from little molecular building blocks called \"amino acids\" There are 21 different amino acids that your body uses. And each one is a group of 10-40 atoms joined together via those covalent bonds. The body knows what to do with these amino acids through various complex systems. Think of them like lego blocks. They all have slightly different shapes and properties, but they all join together, \n\nDNA: DNA (and other nucleic acid) is also made building blocks, 4 or 5 different types. This is (generally) the information store for your cells. Think of it like a book, but instead of having hundreds of thousands of different words, DNA has 4. The order of those words tell the story. In this case, DNA tells the body how to make protein. \n\nCarbohydrates. Sugars, starches. Again, we have building blocks. You may have heard of glucose? Well that is your sugar buidling block. This can get joined with other similar things, to make long chain sugars, that your body stores for energy (along with fats, which are also energy stores).\n\nNow you know what makes up a cell, lets build one. Your body is made up of millions of cells. About a 10th the width of a human hair. They are little bags, The wall of the bag is made up of those fats we talked about. Slightly modified, so that they like to disolve in water at one end, and hide from water in the other. If you get enough of these fats together, the spontaneously form into little bags, much like how soapy water will spontaneously form bubbles. Inside the bag, i.e. the cell, smaller little bags of fats are made, where different reactions happen. What kind of reactions? Well this is where protein comes in.\n\nProteins can be made to do huge amounts of amazing things, just like lego. With a few buidling blocks, you can make almost anything.\n\nLook at this video\n\n_URL_0_\n\nThis is a protein in action. They have many truly amazing actions. Muscle contration is because of long fibres of proteins in your muscles pulling on each other. You see because of light sensitive proteins in your retina. You name it, proteins are doing it. The other amazing thing they can do, is force chemical reactions. Here they are called \"enzymes\". They can act in various ways, but just think about it like the protein grabbing one molecule, and another, and then forcing them together. They force them together in such a perfect way, that the form new covalent bonds. Your enzymes produce a lot of the raw material for your body by forcing molecules together, or breaking them apart (there are a few things we can't make, and hence we need to eat them, like vitamins).\n\nSo, now we have cells, bags of fat, with proteins working inside.\n\nFinally, on those cells, other proteins can sit; trapped in the fats. These proteins can be used to make your cells rigid (otherwise they would just be floppy bags). And they can also join together with the proteins on other cells. Linking all the cells together to form organs.\n\nSO there you go\n\nAtoms go with other atoms via covalent bonds, which are very strong, to form molecules. Molecules get joined up (also via covalent bonds) to make fats, DNA, protein and carbohydrates.\n\nModified fats make the cell wall, and proteins inside the bags do the molecular work, including making new things, and fixing old things. Proteins of the surfaces of the cells, make the cells rigid, and join cells together to make tissues. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm not sure if this a question about chemical bonding, or what align things in the body. Contrary to simple cell diagrams you would see in a textbooks, cells aren't simple liquid-filled sacs: both the inside and outside of cells and their components (organelles) are packed with structural proteins that keep things together. It is these proteins that \"stick\" cells together and facilitate movement within and outside the cell",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "653348",
"title": "Human musculoskeletal system",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
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"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "This system describes how bones are connected to other bones and muscle fibers via connective tissue such as tendons and ligaments. The bones provide stability to the body. Muscles keep bones in place and also play a role in the movement of bones. To allow motion, different bones are connected by joints. Cartilage prevents the bone ends from rubbing directly onto each other. Muscles contract to move the bone attached at the joint.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31356632",
"title": "Moatfield Ossuary",
"section": "Section::::Difficulties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "There were difficulties matching bones to one another due to the high amount of commingling of remains. Also, many bones in the body mature at different stages and therefore one individual may show maturation of some bones while still developing others. This made piecing together of entire individuals difficult and thus making inferences regarding health of individuals less distinct. Also, the sex of individuals was not clear since the entire skeletons were not able to be articulated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1364342",
"title": "Strategies for Engineered Negligible Senescence",
"section": "Section::::Types of aging damage and treatment schemes.:Extracellular crosslinks—GlycoSENS.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "Cells are held together by special linking proteins. When too many cross-links form between cells in a tissue, the tissue can lose its elasticity and cause problems including arteriosclerosis, presbyopia and weakened skin texture. These are chemical bonds between structures that are part of the body, but not within a cell. In senescent people many of these become brittle and weak.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4099",
"title": "Bone",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Mechanical.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "Bones serve a variety of mechanical functions. Together the bones in the body form the skeleton. They provide a frame to keep the body supported, and an attachment point for skeletal muscles, tendons, ligaments and joints, which function together to generate and transfer forces so that individual body parts or the whole body can be manipulated in three-dimensional space (the interaction between bone and muscle is studied in biomechanics).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8967165",
"title": "Multibody system",
"section": "Section::::Concept.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "A body is usually considered to be a rigid or flexible part of a mechanical system (not to be confused with the human body). An example of a body is the arm of a robot, a wheel or axle in a car or the human forearm. A link is the connection of two or more bodies, or a body with the ground. The link is defined by certain (kinematical) constraints that restrict the relative motion of the bodies. Typical constraints are:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "210242",
"title": "Joint",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 784,
"text": "A joint or articulation (or articular surface) is the connection made between bones in the body which link the skeletal system into a functional whole. They are constructed to allow for different degrees and types of movement. Some joints, such as the knee, elbow, and shoulder, are self-lubricating, almost frictionless, and are able to withstand compression and maintain heavy loads while still executing smooth and precise movements. Other joints such as sutures between the bones of the skull permit very little movement (only during birth) in order to protect the brain and the sense organs. The connection between a tooth and the jawbone is also called a joint, and is described as a fibrous joint known as a gomphosis. Joints are classified both structurally and functionally.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9507756",
"title": "Synovial sac",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "The synovial sac is one of the seven parts of a joint located in the body, along with muscle, tendon, ligament, bone, articular cartilage and bursa. The synovial sac is a thin tissue that lines the joint. It is filled with a fluid that works like oil in a car, lubricating the joint and making it move easily. If this sac is ruptured or destroyed from continuous use or being overweight over a long period of time, it may cause the bones to become stiff and can cause arthritis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2q5qem
|
Why would an asteroid impact produce more than a hole in the ground?
|
[
{
"answer": "Keep in mind that meteors impact really, really fast. The meteorite that produced [Meteor Crater](_URL_0_) is theorized to have impacted at 12.8km/s. At that speed, it doesn't just leave a hole in the ground: The meteor is heated by the extreme deformation, and most or all of it is immediately vaporized in a large explosion. The pressure wave and heat emitted in this explosion are what causes all the damage. This pressure and heat are basically the same way that nuclear bombs cause so much damage. In the case of that meteor in 1908, friction from the atmosphere alone was enough to heat it to the point of exploding, so it was much more destructive over a wide area than it would be if it had hit the ground. Nuclear bombs are also deployed in this manner; they detonate in the air to damage a much wider area.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Given enough speed running into a fluid (like air) is just like running into a solid. It happens rather frequently. Sometimes they are big too;\n\n- _URL_1_\n\nAs for the \"how\" try this article ;\n\n- _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "174069",
"title": "Asteroid impact avoidance",
"section": "Section::::Deflection efforts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "An impact by a asteroid on the Earth has historically caused an extinction-level event due to catastrophic damage to the biosphere. There is also the threat from comets entering the inner Solar System. The impact speed of a long-period comet would likely be several times greater than that of a near-Earth asteroid, making its impact much more destructive; in addition, the warning time is unlikely to be more than a few months. Impacts from objects as small as in diameter, which are far more common, are historically extremely destructive regionally (see Barringer crater).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "174069",
"title": "Asteroid impact avoidance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "In 2016, a NASA scientist warned that the Earth is unprepared for such an event. In April 2018, the B612 Foundation reported \"It's 100 per cent certain we'll be hit [by a devastating asteroid], but we're not 100 per cent sure when.\" Also in 2018, physicist Stephen Hawking, in his final book \"Brief Answers to the Big Questions\", considered an asteroid collision to be the biggest threat to the planet. Several ways of avoiding an asteroid impact have been described. Nonetheless, in March 2019, scientists reported that asteroids may be much more difficult to destroy than thought earlier. In addition, an asteroid may reassemble itself due to gravity after being disrupted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38623877",
"title": "Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System",
"section": "Section::::Context.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "Future impacts are bound to occur, with much higher odds for smaller regionally damaging asteroids than for larger globally damaging ones. The 2018 final book of physicist Stephen Hawking, \"Brief Answers to the Big Questions\", considers a large asteroid collision the biggest threat to our planet. In April 2018, the B612 Foundation reported \"It's a 100 per cent certainty we'll be hit [by a devastating asteroid], but we're not 100 per cent sure when.\" In June 2018, the US National Science and Technology Council warned that America is unprepared for an asteroid impact event, and has developed and released the \"\"National Near-Earth Object Preparedness Strategy Action Plan\"\" to better prepare.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21626",
"title": "Near-Earth object",
"section": "Section::::History of human awareness of NEOs.:Risk.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 816,
"text": "The potential of catastrophic impacts by near-Earth comets was recognised as soon as the first orbit calculations provided an understanding of their orbits: in 1694, Edmond Halley presented a theory that Noah's flood in the Bible was caused by a comet impact. Human perception of near-Earth asteroids as benign objects of fascination or killer objects with high risk to human society has ebbed and flowed during the short time that NEAs have been scientifically observed. Scientists have recognised the threat of impacts that create craters much bigger than the impacting bodies and have indirect effects on an even wider area since the 1980s, after the confirmation of a theory that the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event (in which dinosaurs died out) 65 million years ago was caused by a large asteroid impact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32190623",
"title": "2011 MD",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "Emily Baldwin of \"Astronomy Now\" said that there was no threat of collision, and should the asteroid enter Earth's atmosphere, it would \"mostly burn up in a brilliant fireball, possibly scattering a few meteorites\", causing no likely harm to life or property on the ground.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "174060",
"title": "(29075) 1950 DA",
"section": "Section::::Possible Earth impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "The energy released by a collision with an object the size of \"\" would cause major effects on the climate and biosphere, which would be devastating to human civilization. The discovery of the potential impact heightened interest in asteroid deflection strategies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "63794",
"title": "Impact event",
"section": "Section::::Impacts and the Earth.:Frequency and risk.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 665,
"text": "Impact conditions such as asteroid size and speed, but also density and impact angle determine the kinetic energy released in an impact event. The more energy is released, the more damage is likely to occur on the ground due to the environmental effects triggered by the impact. Such effects can be shock waves, heat radiation, the formation of craters with associated earthquakes, and tsunamis if water bodies are hit. Human populations are vulnerable to these effects if they live within the affected zone. Large seiche waves arising from earthquakes and large-scale deposit of debris can also occur within minutes of impact, thousands of kilometres from impact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7rafie
|
Are there problems in computer science that no algorithm can solve for all inputs?
|
[
{
"answer": "Are you familiar with Undecidable problems:\n\n_URL_1_\n\nand specifically the Halting problem?:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nAlso an important excerpt:\n\n > Alan Turing proved in 1936 that a general algorithm running on a Turing machine that solves the halting problem for all possible program-input pairs necessarily cannot exist.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't know of a problem that isn't solvable for *all* inputs, but the closest I can think of would be the [busy beaver problem](_URL_0_). It is known that this problem is undecidable in general, and there are only four instances of the problem that have been solved in total.\n\nThe problem is, roughly: given a Turing machine with a fixed number of states and tape symbols, how long can such a machine execute and still eventually halt? \n\nIn a sense it is a dual to the halting problem itself, and the halting problem is how we can prove that it is undecidable. If we knew that any halting 4-state Turing machine could only execute for a maximum of N transitions, then you could run any 4-state Turing machine for N transitions and determine that if the machine has not stopped yet then it will never stop. In effect, the busy beaver problem is an oracle for the halting problem, and thus must be undecidable itself.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "People have already given the correct answer to this, namely that yes there are indeed decision problems that are undecidable, and functions that are not computable.\n\nBut I feel like adding that your intuition that there could be some problem that is *so complex* that we just can't solve it is not quite right. Complexity is not the problem - there is something inherently self-referential about the question. Since a Turing machine (which is equivalent to any reasonable model of computation) operates on strings, and a Turing machine can also be represented as a string, a Turing machine can be forced to run *on itself* as input. So you are going to run into difficulties that are related to \"this statement is a lie\" and \"the set of all sets that do not contain themselves\". What Turing did was leverage this difficulty in the correct way to show that the Halting problem is undecidable.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2658308",
"title": "Endgame tablebase",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 971,
"text": "Physical limitations of computer hardware aside, in principle it is possible to solve any game under the condition that the complete state is known and there is no random chance. Strong solutions, i.e. algorithms that can produce perfect play from any position, are known for some simple games such as Tic Tac Toe/Noughts and crosses (draw with perfect play) and Connect Four (first player wins). Weak solutions exist for somewhat more complex games, such as checkers (with perfect play on both sides the game is known to be a draw, but it is not known for every position created by less-than-perfect play what the perfect next move would be). Other games, such as chess (from the starting position) and Go, have not been solved because their game complexity is far too vast for computers to evaluate all possible positions. To reduce the game complexity, researchers have modified these complex games by reducing the size of the board, or the number of pieces, or both.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65858",
"title": "Eliezer Yudkowsky",
"section": "Section::::Work in artificial intelligence safety.:Capabilities forecasting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "In on artificial intelligence, Stuart Russell and Peter Norvig raise the objection that there are known limits to intelligent problem-solving from computational complexity theory; if there are strong limits on how efficiently algorithms can solve various computer science tasks, then intelligence explosion may not be possible. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21506",
"title": "Numerical analysis",
"section": "Section::::Generation and propagation of errors.:Numerical stability and well-posed problems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 759,
"text": "So an algorithm that solves a well-conditioned problem may be either numerically stable or numerically unstable. An art of numerical analysis is to find a stable algorithm for solving a well-posed mathematical problem. For instance, computing the square root of 2 (which is roughly 1.41421) is a well-posed problem. Many algorithms solve this problem by starting with an initial approximation \"x\" to formula_2, for instance \"x\" = 1.4, and then computing improved guesses \"x\", \"x\", etc. One such method is the famous Babylonian method, which is given by \"x\" = \"x\"/2 + 1/\"x\". Another method, called 'method X', is given by \"x\" = (\"x\" − 2) + \"x\". A few iterations of each scheme are calculated in table form below, with initial guesses \"x\" = 1.4 and \"x\" = 1.42.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20914512",
"title": "Lateral computing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "The traditional or conventional approach to solving computing problems is to either build mathematical models or have an IF- THEN -ELSE structure. For example, a brute-force search is used in many chess engines, but this approach is computationally expensive and sometimes may arrive at poor solutions. It is for problems like this that lateral computing can be useful to form a better solution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5205878",
"title": "Computational mechanics",
"section": "Section::::Process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "BULLET::::3. Computer programs are made to solve the discretized equations using direct methods (which are single step methods resulting in the solution) or iterative methods (which start with a trial solution and arrive at the actual solution by successive refinement). Depending on the nature of the problem, supercomputers or parallel computers may be used at this stage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8501",
"title": "Distributed computing",
"section": "Section::::Theoretical foundations.:Models.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 737,
"text": "Theoretical computer science seeks to understand which computational problems can be solved by using a computer (computability theory) and how efficiently (computational complexity theory). Traditionally, it is said that a problem can be solved by using a computer if we can design an algorithm that produces a correct solution for any given instance. Such an algorithm can be implemented as a computer program that runs on a general-purpose computer: the program reads a problem instance from input, performs some computation, and produces the solution as output. Formalisms such as random access machines or universal Turing machines can be used as abstract models of a sequential general-purpose computer executing such an algorithm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "603026",
"title": "Parameterized complexity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 635,
"text": "The existence of efficient, exact, and deterministic solving algorithms for NP-complete, or otherwise NP-hard, problems is considered unlikely, if input parameters are not fixed; all known solving algorithms for these problems require time that is exponential (or at least superpolynomial) in the total size of the input. However, some problems can be solved by algorithms that are exponential only in the size of a fixed parameter while polynomial in the size of the input. Such an algorithm is called a fixed-parameter tractable (fpt-)algorithm, because the problem can be solved efficiently for small values of the fixed parameter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5cgg8f
|
do all software have bugs in their code or can there be bug-free software?
|
[
{
"answer": "As software becomes more complex, the likelihood that it will be used in unforseen ways increases exponentially. \n\nThere are tons of bug-free software. Have you ever seen a 4-function calculator crash? Probably not. \n\nBut, realistically, the chances of having something as complex as Windows or MacOS or a modern day video-game not have any bugs is zero. There's just too much going on.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A bug in program just means that there is a discrepancy between what the programmer wanted it to do and what it actually does. I.e. it crashes when someone inputs numbers or is too slow to be convenient. \nWith small snippets it's very easy to make a software which doesn't have such mistakes. For example, a program which replies to all inputs with \"hello\" would be rather hard to get wrong.\n\nHowever, when you expand the scope of the project, guaranteeing perfect operation becomes impossible. With arbitrary inputs, people intentionally trying to break it and potentially millions of lines of code all interacting with each other, it's impossible to confirm that the software works perfectly in every situation imaginable.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37085",
"title": "Software bug",
"section": "Section::::Bug management.:Software releases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 798,
"text": "It is common practice to release software with known, low-priority bugs. Most big software projects maintain two lists of \"known bugs\" – those known to the software team, and those to be told to users. The second list informs users about bugs that are not fixed in a specific release and workarounds may be offered. Releases are of different kinds. Bugs of sufficiently high priority may warrant a special release of part of the code containing only modules with those fixes. These are known as \"patches\". Most releases include a mixture of behavior changes and multiple bug fixes. Releases that emphasize bug fixes are known as \"maintenance\" releases. Releases that emphasize feature additions/changes are known as major releases and often have names to distinguish the new features from the old.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15098354",
"title": "List of software bugs",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "Many software bugs are merely annoying or inconvenient but some can have extremely serious consequences – either financially or as a threat to human well-being. The following is a list of software bugs with significant consequences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37085",
"title": "Software bug",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.:Typographical errors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "Bugs usually appear when the programmer makes a logic error. Various innovations in programming style and defensive programming are designed to make these bugs less likely, or easier to spot. Some typos, especially of symbols or logical/mathematical operators, allow the program to operate incorrectly, while others such as a missing symbol or misspelled name may prevent the program from operating. Compiled languages can reveal some typos when the source code is compiled.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37085",
"title": "Software bug",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "A software bug is an error, flaw, failure or fault in a computer program or system that causes it to produce an incorrect or unexpected result, or to behave in unintended ways. The process of finding and fixing bugs is termed \"debugging\" and often uses formal techniques or tools to pinpoint bugs, and since the 1950s, some computer systems have been designed to also deter, detect or auto-correct various computer bugs during operations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1906495",
"title": "Software rot",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Unused code.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "Infrequently used portions of code, such as document filters or interfaces designed to be used by other programs, may contain bugs that go unnoticed. With changes in user requirements and other external factors, this code may be executed later, thereby exposing the bugs and making the software appear less functional.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37085",
"title": "Software bug",
"section": "Section::::Debugging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "Some classes of bugs have nothing to do with the code. Faulty documentation or hardware may lead to problems in system use, even though the code matches the documentation. In some cases, changes to the code eliminate the problem even though the code then no longer matches the documentation. Embedded systems frequently work around hardware bugs, since to make a new version of a ROM is much cheaper than remanufacturing the hardware, especially if they are commodity items.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45638",
"title": "Undocumented feature",
"section": "Section::::Software.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 702,
"text": "While an incorrect use of the term, in some cases software bugs are referred to jokingly as undocumented features. This usage may have been popularised in some of Microsoft's responses to bug reports for its first Word for Windows product, but doesn't originate there. The oldest surviving reference on Usenet dates to 5 March 1984. Between 1969 and 1972, Sandy Mathes, a systems programmer for PDP-8 software at Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) in Maynard, MA, used the terms \"bug\" and \"feature\" in her reporting of test results to distinguish between undocumented actions of delivered software products that were \"unacceptable\" and \"tolerable\", respectively. This usage may have been perpetuated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7308rw
|
Did Martin Luther condemn peasants because he truly believed that they were acting like savages, or was he trying to look good for the political leaders that the peasants went against?
|
[
{
"answer": "My estimation is that Luther meant what he wrote concerning the 1525 Peasants' Rebellion. More broadly, he wasn't politically ignorant, but he was also not really known for flattering those in authority or trying to look good for political leaders against his own views. He knew how to say things in a persuasive way, but I have a great deal of trouble believing he'd go to such lengths to please the princes against his better judgment.\n\nIn looking at his writings concerning the events, I think this holds true, that's he did believe what he wrote. There's three important documents here: *Admonition to Peace*, a reply to the 12 Articles of the Swabian Peasants; *Against the Robbing and Murdering Hordes of Peasants*; and *An Open Letter on the Harsh Book Against the Peasants*. All are from 1525, at different stages of the events - the first is fairly moderate; the second, much more extreme; and the third, a response to the criticism he received for the second.\n\nIn the first, the *Admonition*, Luther acknowledged that the peasants had some just cause to be upset; he addressed the rulers:\n\n > As temporal rulers you do nothing but cheat and rob the people so that you may lead a life of luxury and extravagance. The poor common people cannot bear it any longer... Since you are the cause of this wrath of God, it will undoubtedly come upon you, unless you mend your ways in time.\n\nTo the peasants in the same *Admonition* he wrote:\n\n > You, too, must be careful that you take up your cause justly and with a good conscience... But if you act unjustly and have a bad conscience, you will be defeated.\n\nHe continues:\n\n > The fact that the rulers are wicked and unjust does not excuse disorder and rebellion, for the punishing of wickedness is not the responsibility of everyone, but of the worldly rulers who bear the sword. Thus Paul says in Romans 13 and Peter, in 1 Peter 3, that the rulers are instituted by God for the punishment of the wicked.\n\n > The rulers unjustly take your property; that is the one side. On the other hand, you take from them their authority, in which their whole property and life and being consist. Therefore you are the far greater robbers than they, and you intend to do worse things than they have done.\n\nHe goes on to describe and condemn any breakdown of law and order and mob rule, and concluding:\n\n > In saying this it is not my intention to justify or defend the rulers in the intolerable injustices which you suffer from them. They are unjust, and commit heinous wrongs against you; that I admit. If, however, neither side accepts instruction and you start to fight with each other - may God prevent it! - I hope that neither side will be called Christian.\n\nRemember, this is from the first of those three writings, the *Admonition*, which is the more moderate and earliest of them. It was only when this preaching failed and the violence escalated that he then advocated for the princes' use of force to crush the rebellion and restore civil order. \n\nLuther was consistent throughout his career in respecting civil order and had a strong aversion to any civil rebellion, chaos, mob rule, etc. It's easy to mistake him at first glance, assuming in his opposition to the authority of the papacy he cared little for such things, but it's quite the opposite. He valued authority highly indeed; his opposition to papal authority was because he was concerned with higher authority of God and Scripture. His political philosophy was broadly defined by his perspective of the Two Kingdoms - the right-hand kingdom is defined by the Gospel of God's grace and salvation by faith in Christ alone, while the left-hand kingdom is concerned with matters of this world and included (but was not necessarily limited to) civil government and earthly rulers. It's important to note that this is not a distinction between church and state; both the right-hand and left-hand kingdoms are ultimately ruled by God for the good of His people, but one is characterized by Law and one by Gospel.\n\nPrimary source: *Luther: Selected Political Writings*, edited by J. M. Porter",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "41207308",
"title": "German Peasants' War",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Luther and Müntzer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 941,
"text": "Martin Luther, the dominant leader of the Reformation in Germany, took a middle course in the Peasants' War. He criticized both the injustices imposed on the peasants, and the rashness of the peasants in fighting back. He also tended to support the centralization and urbanization of the economy. This position alienated the lesser nobles, but shored up his position with the burghers. Luther argued that work was the chief duty on earth; the duty of the peasants was farm labor and the duty of the ruling classes was upholding the peace. He could not support the Peasant War because it broke the peace, an evil he thought greater than the evils the peasants were rebelling against. Therefore, he encouraged the nobility to swiftly and violently eliminate the rebelling peasants. Later, Luther also criticized the ruling classes for their merciless suppression of the insurrection. Luther has often been sharply criticized for his position.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13972141",
"title": "Twelve Articles",
"section": "Section::::Martin Luther and the Twelve Articles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "But Luther was not happy with the peasants’ revolts and their invoking him. Possibly he also saw their negative effect on the Reformation as a whole. He called upon the peasants and urged them to keep peace. He also wrote to the gents:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2807560",
"title": "Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants",
"section": "Section::::Luther's writings.:\"Admonition to Peace\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "The peasants had used the Bible to support their grievances, and in turn, to justify their rebellion, and Luther would turn it against them. He spoke out against the peasants, specifically rebutting \"The Twelve Articles of the Christian Union of Upper Swabia\", joining with Roman Catholics to combat the angry horde. Luther's \"Admonition to Peace\" was written to serve several functions, initially to prevent bloodshed at the hands of armed peasant mobs, but also to remove the misinterpretation of scripture as justification for violence, and finally as a response to several appeals that called for his counsel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2807560",
"title": "Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants",
"section": "Section::::Luther's writings.:\"Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 999,
"text": "Luther goes so far as to justify the actions of the Princes against the peasants, even when it involves acts of violence. He feels that they can be punished by the lords on the basis that they have “become faithless, perjured, disobedient, rebellious, murderers, robbers, and blasphemers, whom even a heathen ruler has the right and authority to punish”. He even venerates those who fight against the peasants, stating that “anyone who is killed fighting on the side of the rulers may be a true martyr in the eyes of God”. He closes with a sort of disclaimer, “if anyone thinks this too harsh, let him remember that rebellion is intolerable and that the destruction of the world is to be expected every hour”. One of the reasons why Luther urged that the secular authorities crush the peasant rebellion was because of St. Paul's teaching of the doctrine of Divine Right of Kings in his epistle to the , which says that all the authorities are appointed by God, and should not therefore be resisted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2807560",
"title": "Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants",
"section": "Section::::Luther's writings.:\"Open Letter on the Harsh Book Against the Peasants\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "He also states that the princes were too severe in their punishment of the peasants and that they would be punished by God for their behaviour. With this document it became clear that Luther was a socially conservative man, who would not threaten secular authority.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13972141",
"title": "Twelve Articles",
"section": "Section::::Martin Luther and the Twelve Articles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "The peasants had to burden the many encumbrances they were charged with and in Martin Luther’s and the reformation’s stance they saw the affirmation that most of those were not provided for by the will of God.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2807560",
"title": "Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants",
"section": "Section::::Context.:Luther and the Peasants: Reluctant Inspiration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 959,
"text": "The relationship between the Protestant Reformation and the Peasants' War has long been a subject of debate. A traditional understanding in this matter is that the Peasants' Revolt stemmed from Martin Luther's doctrine of spiritual freedom and the application of his ideas as religious justification for social and political upheaval. It is true that Luther offered useful tools to the peasants: his focus on \"Sola Scriptura\" put emphasis upon the priesthood of all believers. This strengthened the idea of 'Godly law', that social constructs counter to Godly law could not command the allegiance of the people and justified rebellion. Perhaps also influential to the revolt was the example of Luther, as his work was a rebellion against the two most significant authorities of the era when he opposed both the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor. It is likely that Luther's views simply coincided with the desires of the peasants, and were used for that reason.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cbhqx2
|
why do more razor blades = a closer shave and more razor burn?
|
[
{
"answer": "Each item on a razor blade pulls the skin tighter and tighter as it passes over the skin. A 5 blade razor will pull from the back of the head, and then each blade which will slice closer and closer to the stretched skin. Since your skin isn’t perfectly smooth you end up ‘shaving’ a little bit of your skin off which causes irritation and inflammation, aka razor burn.\n\nIf you suffer from this, use a single blade safety razor.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "More blades removes more layers of skin, allowing you to remove more of the hair than like a single blade. Losing the extra layers of dermis causes the razor burn.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1703365",
"title": "Straight razor",
"section": "Section::::Modern use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "Still others argue that straight razors provide a superior shave through a larger blade and greater control of the blade, including the blade angle. Straight razors cover a much greater area per shaving stroke, because their cutting edge is much longer than any of the multi-blade razors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "155154",
"title": "Shaving",
"section": "Section::::Shaving methods.:Wet shaving.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "Double-edge razors are named so because the blade that they use has two sharp edges on opposite sides of the blade. Current multi-bladed cartridge manufacturers attempt to differentiate themselves by having more or fewer blades than their competitors, each arguing that their product gives a greater shave quality at a more affordable price.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1703365",
"title": "Straight razor",
"section": "Section::::Modern use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "Straight razors are also much easier to clean and can handle tougher shaving tasks, such as longer facial hair, than modern multi-blade razors, which tend to trap shaving debris between their tightly packed blades and are easily clogged, even with relatively short stubble.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "155154",
"title": "Shaving",
"section": "Section::::Effects of shaving.:Razor burn.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "In some cases multi-bladed razors can cause skin irritation by shaving too close to the skin. Switching to a single- or double-bladed razor and not stretching the skin while shaving can mitigate this.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "155154",
"title": "Shaving",
"section": "Section::::Effects of shaving.:Razor burn.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "\"Razor burn\" is an irritation of the skin caused by using a blunt blade or not using proper technique. It appears as a mild rash 2–4 minutes after shaving (once hair starts to grow through sealed skin) and usually disappears after a few hours to a few days, depending on severity. In severe cases, razor burn can also be accompanied by razor bumps, where the area around shaved hairs get raised red welts or infected pustules.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20261",
"title": "Machete",
"section": "Section::::Manufacturing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "In comparison to most other knives, which are commonly heat treated to a very high degree of hardness, many machete blades are tempered to maximum toughness, often nearly spring tempered. This results in a tougher blade, more resistant to chipping and breaking, with an edge that is easier to sharpen but does not retain sharpness as well, due to its lower hardness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "486442",
"title": "Razor",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "These new safety razors did not require any serious tutelage to use. The blades were extremely hard to sharpen, and were meant to be thrown away after one use, and rusted quickly if not discarded. They also required a smaller initial investment, though they cost more over time. Despite its long-term advantages, the straight razor lost significant market share. And as shaving became less intimidating and men began to shave themselves more, the demand for barbers providing straight razor shaves decreased.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1vt977
|
why are rear wheel drive cars better for racing than front wheel drive cars
|
[
{
"answer": "Mostly because 1) when a car accelerates, weight is shifted to the rear. More weight = more traction. By the same token, less weight in the front means less traction. 2) Steering is easier because in a FWD car, the front wheels have to move the vehicle AND steer. You can get a lot of negative side-effects like torque-steer and understeer. RWD cars propel from the rear and allow the front wheels to just steer. Pretty oversimpified, tho.\n\nedit: words",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "if you look at all the \"hot hatch\" type cars, they are tryig to push more power than any other type of car through the front weels. They can only realistically go up to like 300hp without needing all sorts of clever trickery to eliminate torque steer, wheel spin, heavy steering, etc. Its simpler and easier in high power cars to jut put the power to the back for a plethora of reasons, which have already been stated so I won't waste your time. Also, people tend not to realize this but race cars are as a general rule extremely simple. So in following that logic rear wheel drive is the common choice",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As others have said, weight transfer and the pushing/pulling effect are parts of it. When the car accelerates, the weight is put onto the rear tires. For drag racing/accelerating, this makes RWD better because you can put more power down. In the corners, RWD also wins because although weight is being transferred off of the front wheels, the rear wheels sort of push the front end down again. This allows a RWD to corner much faster than a FWD. RWD also allows for better weight distribution. One of the best handling cars in the world, the 1st-gen Mazda Miata, is able to have an almost perfect 49.5/50.5 F/R weight distribution because of its drivetrain. RWD is also more controllable if one end of the car loses traction. It's faster to oversteer around a corner than to plow through it understeering, although keeping the tires gripping is still the fastest line. That, in a nutshell, is why RWD is favored by racers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Makes doing donuts easier.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "All of these are great answers. I'm an automotive engineer, and I've studied this exact question. The major reason is the transfer of effective sprung weight (as people here have mentioned). Basically, as a car accelerates, the centre of mass is effectively shifted backwards. This means there is more weight over the rear wheels, increasing the normal force between the rear tires and road surface. As frictional force is directly proportional to this (normal) force, the rear tires have increased grip under acceleration. The same principles apply with deceleration (braking) which is why our main braking system (brake pedal as opposed to handbrake) is on the front wheels.\n\nEdit: If we were explaining it like we were 25 year olds, the transfer of effective mass is explained by Einstein's theory of equivalence, that the effects of gravity and acceleration are equatable. This means that as you accelerate, it's as if gravity is acting on the rear of the car more than the front.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14304514",
"title": "Mid-engine, four-wheel-drive layout",
"section": "Section::::Benefits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "A computer-controlled four-wheel-drive differential system allows a car to both accelerate and corner more quickly, since it can vary the amount of torque going to the front and rear wheels, and therefore vary how much the car behaves like a front- or rear-wheel-drive car. This means that through a fast corner the car is able to display more “neutral” handling - with less oversteer or understeer. This is a much more efficient means of turning and allows for faster cornering speeds as opposed to a two-wheel or conventional four-wheel-drive system. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1309511",
"title": "Three-wheeler",
"section": "Section::::Configurations.:Two front.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 796,
"text": "A configuration of two wheels in the front and one wheel at the back presents two advantages: it has improved aerodynamics, and that it readily enables the use of a small lightweight motorcycle powerplant and rear wheel. This approach was used by the Messerschmitt KR200 and BMW Isetta. Alternatively, a more conventional front-engine, front wheel drive layout as is common in four-wheeled cars can be used, with subsequent advantages for transversal stability (the center of mass is further to the front) and traction (two driven wheels instead of one). Some vehicles have a front engine driving the single rear wheel, similar to the rear engine driving the rear wheel. The wheel must support acceleration loads as well as lateral forces when in a turn, and loss of traction can be a challenge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "779651",
"title": "Automobile handling",
"section": "Section::::Factors that affect a car's handling.:Delivery of power to the wheels and brakes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "One reason that sports cars are usually rear wheel drive is that power induced oversteer is useful, to a skilled driver, for tight curves. The weight transfer under acceleration has the opposite effect and either may dominate, depending on the conditions. Inducing oversteer by applying power in a front wheel drive car is possible via proper use of \"Left-foot braking.\" In any case, this is not an important safety issue, because power is not normally used in emergency situations. Using low gears down steep hills may cause some oversteer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "698802",
"title": "Lotus Elan",
"section": "Section::::Elan M100.:Handling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 150,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 150,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "The choice of front-wheel drive is unusual for a sports car, but according to Lotus sales literature, \"for a given vehicle weight, power and tyre size, a front wheel drive car was always faster over a given section of road. There were definite advantages in traction and controllability, and drawbacks such as torque steer, bump steer and steering kickback were not insurmountable.\" This was the only front-wheel-drive vehicle made by Lotus. Every model made since the M100 Elan, such as the Lotus Elise, has been rear-wheel drive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "924253",
"title": "Mid-engine design",
"section": "Section::::Benefits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "In most automobiles, and in sports cars especially, ideal car handling requires balanced traction between the front and rear wheels when cornering, in order to maximize the possible speed around curves without sliding out. This balance is harder to achieve when the heavy weight of the engine is located far to the front or far to the rear of the vehicle. Some automobile designs strive to balance the fore and aft weight distribution by other means, such as putting the engine in the front and the transmission and battery in the rear of the vehicle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "901482",
"title": "Transaxle",
"section": "Section::::Front-engine, rear-wheel drive transaxles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "Front-engine, rear-wheel drive vehicles tend to have the transmission up front just after the engine, but sometimes a front engine drives a rear-mounted transaxle. This is generally done for reasons of weight distribution, and is therefore common on sports cars. Another advantage is that as the driveshaft spins at engine speed it only has to endure the torque of the engine, instead of that torque multiplied by the 1st gear ratio. This design was pioneered in the 1934 Škoda Popular, and then in the 1950 Lancia Aurelia, designed by Vittorio Jano.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61261",
"title": "Lotus Seven",
"section": "Section::::Analysis of the Seven's performance.:Handling.:Aerodynamics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "In general, cars with non-optimised aerodynamics tend to be free of adverse aerodynamic effects on handling, but the front wheel arches, of all but the Series I, cause lift at high speeds. Like the good straight line performance, the car's nimble handling is limited in speed range, and this is not usually important in a car intended for public roads.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1igyss
|
If the Moon is slowly moving away from us, what will happen to the Earth when this actually happens?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Moon will never leave orbit. Its track widens at a rate of only a few centimeters per year, and given current rates of change, the Earth will become tidally locked with the Moon (keeping the same face constantly toward each other) long before it can to leave orbit. At that point its orbit will stop expanding, so we'll still have the Moon when the Sun expands into a red giant and engulfs us in its last days.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The earth is transfering its own rotational inertia into the rotational inertia of the earth moon system. This is done by tidal deformation of the earths crust. The result is that the earth rotation slows down and the moons orbital distance increases. When the earth becomes tidally locked to the moon this will stop and the moon will start to get closer to the earth again due to radiation of gravitational energy (this will take eons to matter).\n\nThere is less rotational energy in the earth moon system than is required to eject the moon. It will never leave earth's orbit due to purely internal influence.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24179592",
"title": "Future of Earth",
"section": "Section::::Solar evolution.:Post-red giant stage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 656,
"text": "Currently, the Moon is moving away from Earth at a rate of 4 cm (1.5 inches) per year. In 50 billion years, if the Earth and Moon are not engulfed by the Sun, they will become tidelocked into a larger, stable orbit, with each showing only one face to the other. Thereafter, the tidal action of the Sun will extract angular momentum from the system, causing the lunar orbit to decay and the Earth's spin to accelerate. In about 65 billion years, it is estimated that the Moon may end up colliding with the Earth, due to the remaining energy of the Earth–Moon system being sapped by the remnant Sun, causing the Moon to slowly move inwards toward the Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24179592",
"title": "Future of Earth",
"section": "Section::::Solar evolution.:Red giant stage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 761,
"text": "The drag from the solar atmosphere may cause the orbit of the Moon to decay. Once the orbit of the Moon closes to a distance of , it will cross the Earth's Roche limit. This means that tidal interaction with the Earth would break apart the Moon, turning it into a ring system. Most of the orbiting ring will then begin to decay, and the debris will impact the Earth. Hence, even if the Earth is not swallowed up by the Sun, the planet may be left moonless. The ablation and vaporization caused by its fall on a decaying trajectory towards the Sun may remove Earth's mantle, leaving just its core, which will finally be destroyed after at most 200 years. Following this event, Earth's sole legacy will be a very slight increase (0.01%) of the solar metallicity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44474",
"title": "Saturn",
"section": "Section::::Observation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "This is the result of the fact that the moon’s orbit around the Earth is tilted to the orbit of the Earth around the Sun – and so most of the time, the moon will pass above or below Saturn in the sky, and no occultation will occur. It is only when Saturn lies near the point that the moon’s orbit crosses the \"plane of the ecliptic\" that occultations can happen – and then they occur every time the moon swings by, until Saturn moves away from the crossing point.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5672031",
"title": "Orbit of the Moon",
"section": "Section::::Tidal evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 879,
"text": "The Moon is gradually receding from Earth into a higher orbit, and calculations suggest that this would continue for about 50 billion years. By that time, Earth and the Moon would be in a mutual spin–orbit resonance or tidal locking, in which the Moon will orbit Earth in about 47 days (currently 27 days), and both the Moon and Earth would rotate around their axes in the same time, always facing each other with the same side. This has already happened to the Moon—the same side always faces Earth—and is also slowly happening to the Earth. However, the slowdown of Earth's rotation is not occurring fast enough for the rotation to lengthen to a month before other effects change the situation: approximately 2.3 billion years from now, the increase of the Sun's radiation will have caused Earth's oceans to evaporate, removing the bulk of the tidal friction and acceleration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61182504",
"title": "Earth phase",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "If the Moon's rotation were purely synchronous, Earth would not have any noticeable movement in the Moon's sky. However, due to the Moon's libration, Earth does perform a slow and complex wobbling movement. Once a month, as seen from the Moon, Earth traces out an approximate oval 18° in diameter. The exact shape and orientation of this oval depend on one's location on the Moon. As a result, near the boundary of the near and far sides of the Moon, Earth is sometimes below the horizon and sometimes above it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "602678",
"title": "Extraterrestrial skies",
"section": "Section::::The Moon.:The Earth from the Moon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "If the Moon's rotation were purely synchronous, Earth would not have any noticeable movement in the Moon's sky. However, due to the Moon's libration, Earth does perform a slow and complex wobbling movement. Once a month, as seen from the Moon, Earth traces out an approximate oval 18° in diameter. The exact shape and orientation of this oval depend on one's location on the Moon. As a result, near the boundary of the near and far sides of the Moon, Earth is sometimes below the horizon and sometimes above it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5024887",
"title": "Solar eclipse",
"section": "Section::::Predictions.:Geometry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "The Moon's orbit around the Earth is inclined at an angle of just over 5 degrees to the plane of the Earth's orbit around the Sun (the ecliptic). Because of this, at the time of a new moon, the Moon will usually pass to the north or south of the Sun. A solar eclipse can occur only when new moon occurs close to one of the points (known as nodes) where the Moon's orbit crosses the ecliptic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6y3eqi
|
what is that strange feeling of numbness we get when we wake up in the middle of the night?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yer probably describin' the physical consequences of *sleep paralysis.*\n\nYarr! Yer not alone in askin', and kind strangers have explained:\n\n1. [ELI5: Sleep Paralysis ](_URL_7_)\n1. [ELI5: Sleep paralysis and why it happens. ](_URL_0_)\n1. [ELI5: Sleep Paralysis ](_URL_2_)\n1. [ELI5: Sleep paralysis? ](_URL_1_)\n1. [ELI5: How does sleep paralysis work and why does it happen? ](_URL_3_)\n1. [ELI5: Sleep paralysis ](_URL_6_)\n1. [ELI5: What happens during sleep paralysis? ](_URL_4_)\n1. [ELI5: What does Sleep paralysis feel like? What happens during it? ](_URL_5_)\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32401027",
"title": "James Jackson Putnam",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "Putnam has given his name to Putnam’s acroparaesthesia, a condition characterized by numbness, tingling, anaesthesia and discolouration of the hands on waking in the morning. Together with Charles L. Dana M.D. (1852–1935) he also described the Putnam-Dana syndrome which is a form of generalized subacute neurological degeneration caused by Vit.B deficiency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5247535",
"title": "Mysteries of the Unknown",
"section": "Section::::Commercials.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "In 1989, actress Julianne Moore appeared in a \"Mysteries of the Unknown\" commercial explaining out of body experience. The narration describes her waking up in the middle of the night with the feeling of something cold on her shoulder...it was the ceiling, as she was looking down at her own body from above.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "888915",
"title": "Hypnagogia",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Other sensations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 683,
"text": "Gustatory, olfactory and thermal sensations in hypnagogia have all been reported, as well as tactile sensations (including those kinds classed as paresthesia or formication). Sometimes there is synesthesia; many people report seeing a flash of light or some other visual image in response to a real sound. Proprioceptive effects may be noticed, with numbness and changes in perceived body size and proportions, feelings of floating or bobbing as if their bed were a boat, and out-of-body experiences. Perhaps the most common experience of this kind is the falling sensation, and associated hypnic jerk, encountered by many people, at least occasionally, while drifting off to sleep.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20870489",
"title": "La Grande Vie (novella)",
"section": "Section::::La Grande Vie.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "In a cool night, always in the same summer, the feeling of distress evolved in the heart of Poucy, it does more emotions and decided it was time to leave home .While Thumb was sick, she met a young man who comforted and gave him the strength to follow in Poucy the return trip.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "240832",
"title": "Restless legs syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "RLS sensations range from pain or an aching in the muscles, to \"an itch you can't scratch\", a \"buzzing sensation\", an unpleasant \"tickle that won't stop\", a \"crawling\" feeling, or limbs jerking while awake. The sensations typically begin or intensify during quiet wakefulness, such as when relaxing, reading, studying, or trying to sleep.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10528",
"title": "Essential tremor",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "ET-related tremors do not occur during sleep, but people with ET sometimes complain of an especially coarse tremor upon awakening that becomes noticeably less coarse within the first few minutes of wakefulness. Tremor and disease activity/intensity can worsen in response to fatigue, strong emotions, low blood sugar, cold and heat, caffeine, lithium salts, some antidepressants, and other factors. It is typical for the tremor to worsen in \"performance\" situations, such as when writing a check for payment at a store or giving a presentation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4692926",
"title": "Zhang Xiaogang",
"section": "Section::::Life and career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "\"At that time, my inspiration primarily came from the private feelings I had at the hospital. When I lay on the white bed, on the white bed sheet, I saw many ghost-like patients comforting each other in the crammed hospital wards. When night dawned, groaning sounds rose above the hospital and some of the withering bodies around had gone to waste and were drifting on the brink of death: these deeply stirred my feelings. They were so close to my then life experiences and lonely miserable soul.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2h13vd
|
how come only the skin on the palm of our hands and at the bottom of our feet get 'soggy' when we are in water for too long? why not our arms or legs etc?
|
[
{
"answer": "_URL_0_ \n \n\"...Common perception is that wrinkling is a local effect on the skin, unconnected to rest of the body... \nEinar Wilder-Smith, a neurologist at the National University of Singapore, has done research looking into the wrinkling effect over the past decade. His research suggests that finger wrinkling relies on nerve endings that entangle sweat glands and blood vessels in our fingers. “",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Nobody knows. However [some scientists believe](_URL_0_) it is to give our ancestors better grip on wet/slippery objects, and it is a nervous reaction.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "249922",
"title": "Callus",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "Sometimes a callus occurs where there is no rubbing or pressure. These hyperkeratoses can have a variety of causes. Some toxic materials, such as arsenic, can cause thick palms and soles. Some diseases, such as syphilis, can cause thickening of the palms and soles as well as pinpoint hyperkeratoses. There is a benign condition called \"keratosis palmaris et plantaris\", which produces corns in the creases of the fingers and non-weight bearing spaces of the feet. Some of this may be caused by actinic keratosis, which occurs due to overexposure to sun or with age and hormonal shifts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5830123",
"title": "Pustulosis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "Pustulosis is highly inflammatory skin condition resulting in large fluid-filled blister-like areas - pustules. Pustulosis typically occurs on the palms of the hands and/or the soles of the feet. The skin of these areas peels and flakes (exfoliates).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "653750",
"title": "Wrinkle",
"section": "Section::::Skin.:Water-immersion wrinkling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 628,
"text": "The wrinkles that occur in skin after prolonged exposure to water are sometimes referred to as \"pruney fingers\" or water aging. This is a temporary skin condition where the skin on the palms of the hand or feet becomes wrinkly. This wrinkling response may have imparted an evolutionary benefit by providing improved traction in wet conditions, and a better grasp of wet objects. However, a 2014 study attempting to reproduce these results was unable to demonstrate any improvement of handling wet objects with wrinkled fingertips. Furthermore, the same study found no connection between fingertip wrinkling and touch sensation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36912190",
"title": "Trifluridine/tipiracil",
"section": "Section::::Adverse effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "Between 1 and 10% of people have skin and mucosa issues, like rashes and itchiness, or mouth sores, as well as skin sloughing, numbness, redness, and swelling of their palms and soles. Dizziness and confusion are common as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "735136",
"title": "Ibn Zuhr",
"section": "Section::::Works.:Kitab al-Taysir.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "There are lice under the hand, ankle and foot like worms, and sores affecting the same areas. If the skin is removed, there appears from various parts of it, a very small animal which can hardly be seen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1825573",
"title": "Blood blister",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "Blood blisters also may occur with friction caused by constant rubbing of skin against a surface. Because of this, baseball pitchers, rowers, and drummers often contract blood blisters on the fingers and palms. They also form as a result of frostbite.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2898359",
"title": "Cycling glove",
"section": "Section::::Basic functionality.:Comfort.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "However, excess padding can lead to other problems. Normally the hands will rest on the bones in the heel of the hand - too much padding will tend to press on the soft tissues between these and can compress the nerves in the hands, causing something akin to carpal tunnel syndrome.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7a6t3s
|
why and how is bottling up your feelings bad for your health
|
[
{
"answer": "It'll make you neurotic. If you can't process and come to acceptance of your emotions, it can lead to anxiety, depression, bouts of anger, unhealthy impulses, and self destructive coping mechanisms.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because burying your feelings tends to make them last longer and even get worse. Negative feelings accumulate in our unconscious and cause negative emotional responses to other stimulus that may not have caused negative feelings without that extra baggage. \n\n\nWhen you are emotionally hurt, angry, etc, you experience a bunch of physical symptoms which are typically lumped together as “stress”. They can include increased heart rate and blood pressure, increased production of various hormones and other biochemical messages within your body, etc. \n\nAll of these physical responses actually have an evolutionary purpose - your body is trying to get ready for whatever physical exercise you may need to undergo to escape from whatever danger is causing your stress. Ultimately, your body is built to survive, and stress is an indicator to your body that survival may be at risk, better get ready. \n\nHowever, modern stress isn’t really about survival of the “better-run-or-get-eaten” variety. And moreover, it doesn’t go away in a few minutes to an hour the way evolution has taught our bodies stress is likely to behave. Instead, we remain stressed for days, weeks, months, and our bodies undergo that chemical “better be ready” thing far longer than our ancestors ever had to. So we end up with higher blood pressure and heart disease, weakened immune systems, lack of sleep, headaches, even just grinding our teeth. It can all affect our health negatively. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Among other things stress can lead to heart disease. Just like lack of sleep caused by stress. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30074251",
"title": "Emotional well-being",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "Good emotional health leads to better physical health, prevents diseases, and makes it possible to enjoy life and be happier. In this way one can become a \"medicine person\" through mirror neurons, those that lead to empathy and fire to imitate the emotions of others. Mirror neurons are what make people feel good when they are with someone who is positive, cheerful and motivational. At the other extreme are the so-called \"toxic people\", who make others around them feel bad.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23525212",
"title": "Guided imagery",
"section": "Section::::Evidence and explanation.:Psychoneuroimmunology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 721,
"text": "Because of this interplay, a person's negative thoughts, feelings, and perceptions, such as pessimistic predictions about the future, regretful ruminations upon the past, low self-esteem, and depleted belief in self-determination and a capacity to cope can undermine the efficiency of the immune system, increasing vulnerability to ill health. Simultaneously, the biochemical indicators of ill health monitored by the immune system feeds back to the brain via the nervous system, which exacerbates thoughts and feelings of a negative nature. That is to say, we feel and think of ourselves as unwell, which contributes to physical conditions of ill health, which in turn cause us to feel and think of ourselves as unwell.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47978099",
"title": "Audio therapy",
"section": "Section::::Hypotheses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 721,
"text": "Because of this interplay, a person's negative thoughts, feelings, and perceptions, such as pessimistic predictions about the future, regretful ruminations upon the past, low self-esteem, and depleted belief in self-determination and a capacity to cope can undermine the efficiency of the immune system, increasing vulnerability to ill health. Simultaneously, the biochemical indicators of ill health monitored by the immune system feeds back to the brain via the nervous system, which exacerbates thoughts and feelings of a negative nature. That is to say, we feel and think of ourselves as unwell, which contributes to physical conditions of ill health, which in turn cause us to feel and think of ourselves as unwell.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14230294",
"title": "Distress (medicine)",
"section": "Section::::Management.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "People often find ways of dealing with distress, in both negative and positive ways. Examples of positive ways are listening to music, calming exercises, coloring, sports and similar healthy distractions. Negative ways can include but are not limited to use of drugs including alcohol, and expression of anger, which are likely to lead to complicated social interactions, thus causing increased distress.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10145037",
"title": "Affective events theory",
"section": "Section::::Psychosomatic complaint and health concerns due to emotions experienced at work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 1058,
"text": "Research suggests that poor physical, mental, and emotional health can result from negative emotions experienced at work. This may be due to perfectionist dispositional tendencies that interact with daily hassels manifested through psychosomatic complaints. Workers who experience frequent thoughts of needing to be perfect tend to report more psychosomatic complaint. Psychosomatic complaint may also occur as a response to emotional dissonance caused by the need to suppress one's true feelings toward co-workers and more so toward patients, students, customers, or clients. Emotional labour or emotion work is required to achieve the effect required by the organization. As a consequence, workers may 'act' as opposed to 'feel' positive or negative emotions at work to remain compliant with an organizational code of conduct. However, adherence to such organizational norms may belie the true internal state of the individual worker. Authenticity and emotional harmony in such situations, may yield to dissonance and negatively impact on workers' health.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1889161",
"title": "Helpfulness",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "This effect states that those who feel bad for another person in a situation will be more likely to help compared to a person who feels bad for themselves in that situation. For example, a study was performed that had people imagine that their best friend had cancer. In this study, the researchers examined people's attention to grief. Those that were focused on the worries of the best friend were those that were more helpful compared to the people who had more selfish worries such as \" I will have to act happy when really I am sad about my friends situation\" (Meyers, 447).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30074251",
"title": "Emotional well-being",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 826,
"text": "The implications of decreased emotional well-being are related to mental health concerns such as stress, depression, and anxiety. These in turn, contribute to physical health concerns such as digestive disorders, sleep disturbances, and general lack of energy. The profile of a person prone to emotional distress is likely someone with low self-esteem, pessimistic, emotionally sensitive, very self-critical…, people who need to constantly assert themselves through their emotions. They also tend to be timid, overly worried about the future, and focused on the past. As Dr. Marisa Navarro says in her book La Medicina Emocional (Emotional Medicine), \"no one is safe from suffering this emotional state. It is a very serious problem that can result in constant states of anger, sadness, worry and even anxiety or depression\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
b8a2l7
|
what is the laplacian operator (in both scalar and vector forms) in vector calculus?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Laplacian can be thought of as the \"curvature\" of a function. To grossly simplify it, you could say it takes the average of the gradients of a function. For example, a flat surface will have no curvature and thus has a Laplacian of 0.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7213829",
"title": "Vector Laplacian",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "In mathematics and physics, the vector Laplace operator, denoted by formula_1, named after Pierre-Simon Laplace, is a differential operator defined over a vector field. The vector Laplacian is similar to the scalar Laplacian. Whereas the scalar Laplacian applies to a scalar field and returns a scalar quantity, the vector Laplacian applies to a vector field, returning a vector quantity. When computed in orthonormal Cartesian coordinates, the returned vector field is equal to the vector field of the scalar Laplacian applied to each vector component.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32640",
"title": "Vector calculus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "Vector calculus, or vector analysis, is a branch of mathematics concerned with differentiation and integration of vector fields, primarily in 3-dimensional Euclidean space formula_1 The term \"vector calculus\" is sometimes used as a synonym for the broader subject of multivariable calculus, which includes vector calculus as well as partial differentiation and multiple integration. Vector calculus plays an important role in differential geometry and in the study of partial differential equations. It is used extensively in physics and engineering, especially in the description of\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "461537",
"title": "Laplacian vector field",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "In vector calculus, a Laplacian vector field is a vector field which is both irrotational and incompressible. If the field is denoted as v, then it is described by the following differential equations:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32640",
"title": "Vector calculus",
"section": "Section::::Operators and theorems.:Differential operators.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "Vector calculus studies various differential operators defined on scalar or vector fields, which are typically expressed in terms of the del operator (formula_2), also known as \"nabla\". The three basic vector operators are:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44921963",
"title": "Second covariant derivative",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "In the math branches of differential geometry and vector calculus, the second covariant derivative, or the second order covariant derivative, of a vector field is the derivative of its derivative with respect to another two tangent vector fields. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32640",
"title": "Vector calculus",
"section": "Section::::Generalizations.:Different 3-manifolds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "Vector calculus is initially defined for Euclidean 3-space, formula_10 which has additional structure beyond simply being a 3-dimensional real vector space, namely: a norm (giving a notion of length) defined via an inner product (the dot product), which in turn gives a notion of angle, and an orientation, which gives a notion of left-handed and right-handed. These structures give rise to a volume form, and also the cross product, which is used pervasively in vector calculus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "174706",
"title": "Laplace operator",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 636,
"text": "In mathematics, the Laplace operator or Laplacian is a differential operator given by the divergence of the gradient of a function on Euclidean space. It is usually denoted by the symbols , . The Laplacian of a function at a point , is (up to a factor) the rate at which the average value of over spheres centered at deviates from as the radius of the sphere grows. In a Cartesian coordinate system, the Laplacian is given by the sum of second partial derivatives of the function with respect to each independent variable. In other coordinate systems such as cylindrical and spherical coordinates, the Laplacian also has a useful form.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3gtyc4
|
How historically accurate are Shakespeare's histories?
|
[
{
"answer": "As Bill Bryson Notes in his edition of the Eminent Lives series, the history plays were highly reflective of the mood and political movements of the time and always looking to curry favour with the Monarch as well as provide entertainment for Londoners of all classes. This, it is believed, is where we get the warped interpretation of King Richard the 3rd as a person and ruler - as Shakespeare was almost demonising the last Plantagenet King who was superseded through war by the Tudor Dynasty, to which Elizabeth belonged.\n\nThis point would naturally provide inaccuracies in terms of character and actual legacy of the historical figures - but also, there are some hard-factual inaccuracies too. For example, as Bryson puts it, \n\n > \"Whether by design or or from ignorance, he could be \nbreathtakingly casual with facts...In Henry VI part I, for example, he dispatches Lord Talbot twenty-two years early, conveniently \nallowing him to predecease Joan of Arc.\n\nAlso, again either through ignorance or poetic license, there are Geographical and seemingly obvious inaccuracies in his comedies and tragedies. A glaring example is,\n\n > \"...In the Tempest and Two Gentlemen of Verona he has Prospero and Valentine set sail from, respectively, Milan and Verona, even though both cities are a good two days' travel from salt water.\n\nSo although Shakespeare it is believed had a good education in Stratford, his plays [history, comedy and tragedy alike] abound with factual errors, embellishments and misplacements. Whether this was through ignorance, poetic license, fear of arrest for outraging the nobility/monarch is a matter of speculation. His more worldly audience (such as merchants and the nobility) would have known to a certain extent, whether the common audience would have cared is unknown, but royal and aristocratic patrons definitely would have cared if the history plays showed them and their ilk in a less than positive light.\n\nEdit: At present, my only quotable source is this book by Bill Bryson, as I have literally just finished reading it and am away from my bookcase. I will add further citations from other works if people request, but it won't be for a good few days! \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29248563",
"title": "List of Shakespeare authorship candidates",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "Mainstream Shakespeare scholars maintain that biographical interpretations of literature are unreliable for attributing authorship, and that the convergence of documentary evidence for Shakespeare’s authorship—title pages, testimony by other contemporary poets and historians and official records—is the same as that for any other author of the time. No such supporting evidence exists for any other candidate, and Shakespeare’s authorship was not questioned during his lifetime or for centuries after his death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27250998",
"title": "Anonymous (2011 film)",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.:Fictional drama.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 610,
"text": "In an interview with \"The Atlantic\", scriptwriter John Orloff was asked, \"In crafting your characters and the narrative, how were you able to find the right balance between historical fact, fiction, and speculation?\" Orloff responded, \"Ultimately, Shakespeare himself was our guide. The Shakespeare histories are not really histories. They're dramas. He compresses time. He adds characters that have been dead by the time the events are occurring. He'll invent characters out of whole cloth, like Falstaff in the history plays. First and foremost it's a drama, and just like Shakespeare we're creating drama.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "308807",
"title": "Shakespearean history",
"section": "Section::::Sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "The source for most of the English history plays, as well as for \"Macbeth\" and \"King Lear\", is the well-known Raphael Holinshed's \"Chronicle\" of English history. The source for the Roman history plays is Plutarch's \"Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans Compared Together\", in the translation made by Sir Thomas North in 1579. Shakespeare's history plays focus on only a small part of the characters' lives, and also frequently omit significant events for dramatic purposes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147615",
"title": "Raphael Holinshed",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "Shakespeare used the revised second edition of the \"Chronicles\" (published in 1587) as the source for most of his history plays, the plot of \"Macbeth\", and for portions of \"King Lear\" and \"Cymbeline\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15422988",
"title": "Holinshed's Chronicles",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "The \"Chronicles\" have traditionally been a source of interest to many because of their extensive links to Shakespeare's history plays, as well as \"King Lear\", \"Macbeth\" and \"Cymbeline\". Recent studies of the \"Chronicles\" have focused on a inter-disciplinary approach; numerous literary scholars having studied the traditional historiographical materials through a literary lens, with a focus on how contemporary men and women would have read historical texts. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15422988",
"title": "Holinshed's Chronicles",
"section": "Section::::Influence on Shakespeare.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "Shakespeare is widely believed to have used the revised second edition of the \"Chronicles\" (published in 1587) as the source for most of his history plays, the plot of \"Macbeth\", and for portions of \"King Lear\" and \"Cymbeline\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59375",
"title": "Titus Andronicus",
"section": "Section::::Setting and sources.:Sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 786,
"text": "In his efforts to fashion general history into a specific fictional story, Shakespeare may have consulted the \"Gesta Romanorum\", a well known thirteenth-century collection of tales, legends, myths, and anecdotes written in Latin, which took figures and events from history and spun fictional tales around them. In Shakespeare's lifetime, a writer known for doing likewise was Matteo Bandello, who based his work on that of writers such as Giovanni Boccaccio and Geoffrey Chaucer, and who could have served as an indirect source for Shakespeare. So, too, could the first major English author to write in this style, William Painter, who borrowed from, amongst others, Herodotus, Plutarch, Aulus Gellius, Claudius Aelianus, Livy, Tacitus, Giovanni Battista Giraldi, and Bandello himself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7ic323
|
What happens when hadrons collide in a particle accelerator?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes, energy and momentum are conserved. There are many different processes which can occur when particles collide, depending on the types of particles and the collision energy. But the total energy and momentum are always conserved.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "At high energies, the collisions often produce a lot of new particles.\n\nOverall energy and momentum are conserved (they are conserved in *every* process if we ignore cosmology), but instead of two high energy particles you often get somewhere between 10 and 100 particles at lower energy per particle.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9476",
"title": "Electron",
"section": "Section::::History.:Particle accelerators.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "particle collider was ADONE, which began operations in 1968. This device accelerated electrons and positrons in opposite directions, effectively doubling the energy of their collision when compared to striking a static target with an electron. The Large Electron–Positron Collider (LEP) at CERN, which was operational from 1989 to 2000, achieved collision energies of 209 GeV and made important measurements for the Standard Model of particle physics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17157367",
"title": "Automatic calculation of particle interaction or decay",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "Particle accelerators or colliders produce collisions (interactions) of particles (like the electron or the proton). The colliding particles form the \"Initial State\". In the collision, particles can be annihilated or/and exchanged producing possibly different sets of particles, the \"Final States\". The Initial and Final States of the interaction relate through the so-called scattering matrix (S-matrix).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38754853",
"title": "Initial and final state radiation",
"section": "Section::::Explanation of initial and final states.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "Particle accelerators and colliders produce collisions (interactions) of particles (like the electron or the proton). In the terminology of the quantum state, the colliding particles form the \"Initial State\". In the collision, particles can be annihilated or/and exchanged, producing possibly different sets of particles, the \"Final States\". The Initial and Final States of the interaction relate through the so-called scattering matrix (S-matrix).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3001488",
"title": "Bruno Touschek",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 892,
"text": "On 7 March 1960, Touschek gave a talk in Frascati where he proposed the idea of a collider: a particle accelerator where a particle and its antiparticle circulate the same orbit in opposite direction. When bunches of opposite-moving particles and antiparticles collide, they annihilate and produce new particles depending on the collision energy. This concept is at the base of all present-day very high energy particle accelerators, such as the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN. The first electron-positron storage ring, called Anello Di Accumulazione (ADA), was constructed in Frascati under Touschek's supervision in the early sixties. During the next decade more electron-positron rings followed and their outcomes changed completely some of the physics community perceptions of the world. One of the transitions, the elementary hadrons by then turned to be composite particles after.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2461619",
"title": "Collider Detector at Fermilab",
"section": "Section::::How CDF works.:Layer 1: the beam pipe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "The beam pipe is the innermost layer of CDF. The beam pipe is where the protons and anti-protons, traveling at approximately 0.99996 c, collide head on. Each of the protons is moving extremely close to the speed of light with extremely high energies. Therefore, in a collision, much of the energy is converted into mass. This allows proton- anti-proton annihilation to produce daughter particles, such as top quarks with a mass of 175 GeV, much heavier than the original protons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17834640",
"title": "Hadron collider",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "A hadron collider is a very large particle accelerator built to test the predictions of various theories in particle physics, high-energy physics or nuclear physics by colliding hadrons. A hadron collider uses underground tunnels to accelerate, store, and collide two particle beams.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1041641",
"title": "Radiation hardening",
"section": "Section::::Major radiation damage sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "BULLET::::- Particle accelerators produce high energy protons and electrons, and the secondary particles produced by their interactions produce significant radiation damage on sensitive control and particle detector components, of the order of magnitude of 10 MRad[Si]/year for systems such as the Large Hadron Collider.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4nexpg
|
Celebrations in liberated countries WW2
|
[
{
"answer": "Although it is common to see flag-waving and bouquet-throwing civilians greeting Allied troops, this is not always representative of experiences across Europe. It is important to note that in many places in Europe, some of which were flattened by preliminary bombing operations or artillery shelling, displayed neither euphoria nor gratitude to Allied troops. Additionally, the liberations of Europe came unevenly in rural and urban regions, an important dynamic many fail to appreciate.\n\nOne example to illustrate this is the battle for the Schelde in the southern Netherlands between October and November 1944. As a way to open the port of Antwerp, First Canadian Army was given the task to clear the islands of the Dutch province of Zeeland, which protrude into the North Sea and overlook the route into the port. Given the resource and personnel shortages of First Canadian Army, Lt.-Gen. Guy Simmonds and British Admiral Bertram Ramsay proposed to bomb the dykes of Walcheren island, which was well below sea level, and flood the island. Beginning on 3 October 1944, over 10,000 tons of ordnance were dropped on the island (and elsewhere) to flood optimal German defensive positions prior to executing amphibious attacks. By 28 October 1944, thousands of hectares of the province were flooded with saltwater. For the sake brevity, I will say that the Allied action killed about 10 percent of Westkapelle on the first day of the operation and we know that villages elsewhere experienced similar casualties.\n\nIn the end, many towns and villages in Zeeland have a very different understanding and memory of the Second World War. \"Liberation\" in autumn 1944 made houses uninhabitable, flooded arable land with saltwater, and ensured that the war would be synonymous with inundation. The *Bevrijdingsdag* (Liberation Day) celebrated in May in the northern provinces is inapplicable to this province.\n\nIn places where Allies were greeted joyously by Dutch civilians, some of the gatherings were spontaneous and others were permitted by SHAEF Civil Affairs units or hitherto \"illegal\" resistance groups like the *Ordedienst*, which, depending on the region in the Netherlands, acted as translators and guides for some Canadian units. The photos you mention above typically belie the anger and frustration many civilians sought to express to local authorities and Allied troops. In at least one case, elements of 2 Canadian Corp needed to protect members of the NSB/Nazi sympathizers from Dutch civilians, and ensure they were turned over to the correct authorities for interrogation. Civilians sought first and foremost justice rather than jubilation. In general, and I must emphasize the generality of this statement, the euphoria of civilians depicted in the media is often taken from towns or regions which were not devastated by \"mopping up\" operations or large-scale aerial bombardment. \n\nFor more on Belgium, see Peter Schrijvers' *Liberators: Allies and Belgian Society* (Cambridge University Press, 2009). For the above example, see [one of my articles](_URL_0_). I hope this helps.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3696647",
"title": "Dade Battlefield Historic State Park",
"section": "Section::::History.:1990s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "In 1996, the Dade Battlefield State Historic Site hosted the first annual World War II Commemorative Day. Since the first event, the commemoration has grown to include reenactors representing both the Allies and the Axis, vendors, music, encampments, vehicles, and food.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2771372",
"title": "Kentwell Hall",
"section": "Section::::Events and historical re-enactments.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "In April 1995, Kentwell Hall presented a World War II re-enactment for the first time. This was timed to coincide with the prelude to the national commemoration of the 50th anniversary of VE Day. The event was designed to recreate the look and feel of wartime Britain, with volunteers representing both military and civilian life. Further World War II events have been presented by Kentwell in the years since.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49591863",
"title": "The War Is Over (1945 film)",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "On August 14, 1945, the United Nations at war with the Axis powers celebrated VJ Day, the day on which Japan surrendered in the Second World War. While Canadians celebrated in the streets, troops ships begin bringing back Canadian military forces, ready to come back to a peaceful and prosperous Canada.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10124277",
"title": "Puerto Ricans in World War II",
"section": "Section::::Post World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "The American participation in the Second World War came to an end in Europe on May 8, 1945 when the western Allies celebrated \"V-E Day\" (Victory in Europe Day) upon Germany's surrender, and in the Asian theater on August 14, 1945 \"V-J Day\" (Victory over Japan Day) when the Japanese surrendered by signing the Japanese Instrument of Surrender.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33849631",
"title": "Camp Las Casas",
"section": "Section::::History.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "The American participation in the Second World War came to an end in Europe on May 8, 1945 when the western Allies celebrated \"V-E Day\" (Victory in Europe Day) upon Germany's surrender, and in the Asian theater on August 14, 1945 \"V-J Day\" (Victory over Japan Day) when the Japanese surrendered by signing the Japanese Instrument of Surrender.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22764602",
"title": "Gilberto José Marxuach",
"section": "Section::::Military career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "The American participation in the Second World War came to an end in Europe on May 8, 1945, when the western Allies celebrated \"V-E Day\" (Victory in Europe Day) upon Germany's surrender, and in the Asian theater on August 14, 1945 \"V-J Day\" (Victory over Japan Day) when the Japanese surrendered by signing the Japanese Instrument of Surrender.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17335289",
"title": "Time of Remembrance and Reconciliation for Those Who Lost Their Lives during the Second World War",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "The Time of Remembrance and Reconciliation for Those Who Lost Their Lives during the Second World War (May 8 and May 9) is an annual international day of remembrance designated by Resolution 59/26 of the United Nations General Assembly on November 22, 2004. The resolution urges 'Member States, organizations of the United Nations system, non-governmental organizations and individuals' to pay tribute to the victims of World War II.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2i25zr
|
Are there any examples of prophecies that have led to war?
|
[
{
"answer": "Apparently not haha",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24876440",
"title": "Falsehood in War-Time",
"section": "Section::::Summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "\"Falsehood in War-time\" identifies the role propaganda played in World War I, in general and specific terms and lists more than 20 falsehoods that were circulated during the First World War. Ponsonby regards these falsehoods as a fundamental part of the way the war effort was created and sustained, claiming that without lies there would be \"no reason and no will for war\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2046575",
"title": "Star Prophecy",
"section": "Section::::Messianism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "The prophecy was often employed during the troubled years that led up to the Jewish Revolt, the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem (70 CE) and the suicidal last stand of the Sicarii at Masada in 73 CE. The Star Prophecy appears in the Qumran texts called the Dead Sea scrolls. \"This was the prophecy that was of such importance to all resistance groups in this period, including those responsible for the documents at Qumran and the revolutionaries who triggered the war against Rome, not to mention the early Christians\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "87334",
"title": "Prophecy",
"section": "Section::::Judaism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "Notably Maimonides, philosophically suggested there once were many levels of prophecy, from the highest such as those experienced by Moses, to the lowest where the individuals were able to apprehend the Divine Will, but not respond or even describe this experience to others, citing in example, Shem, Eber and most notably, Noah, who, in biblical narrative, does not issue prophetic declarations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1061521",
"title": "Prophecy of the Popes",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 717,
"text": "Several historians have concluded that the prophecies are a late 16th‑century forgery. Spanish monk and scholar Benito Jerónimo Feijóo y Montenegro wrote in his \"Teatro Crítico Universal\" (1724–1739), in an entry called \"Purported prophecies\", that the high level of accuracy of the alleged prophecies up until the date they were published, compared with their high level of inaccuracy after that date, is evidence that they were created around the time of publication. The prophecies and explanations given in Wion correspond very closely to a 1557 history of the popes by Onofrio Panvinio (including replication of errors made by Panvinio), which may indicate that the prophecies were written based on that source.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24876440",
"title": "Falsehood in War-Time",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "Falsehood in War-time, Containing an Assortment of Lies Circulated Throughout the Nations During the Great War, written by Arthur Ponsonby in 1928 lists and refutes pieces of propaganda used by the Allied Forces (Russia, France, Britain and the United States) against the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria).After the Second World War, a new edition of the book was given the updated title Falsehood in War-Time: Propaganda Lies of the First World War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23638087",
"title": "Chen prophecy",
"section": "Section::::Other prophetic texts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "Other instances of such prophecy are the \"Wan Nian Ke\" (\"10,000 Years' Poem\") by Jiang Ziya, composed early in the Western Zhou dynasty; and the \"Cang Tou\" (\"Secret Record\") by Li Chunfeng, composed during the Tang dynasty.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5358728",
"title": "Les Prophéties",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "Les Prophéties (The Prophecies) is a collection of prophecies by French physician Nostradamus, the first edition of which appeared in 1555 by the publishing house Macé Bonhomme. His most famous work, it is a collection of poems, quatrains, united in ten sets of verses (\"Centuries\") of 100 quatrains each.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
g1o3qr
|
why do some humans become depressed/anxious when all alone and other humans don't?
|
[
{
"answer": "I don't believe there's a single person who wouldn't get depressed when left alone too long. We're a social species and there are many cases where extended isolation has severely damaged people's mental well-being. \n\nNow I think there are definitely people who get depressed faster than the others. Every person is different and it's not really a symptom of anything more than your personality.\n\nI generally am good left to my own devices. But, in a case like this where I'm left alone too long I feel an itch to see people. I miss the company of others even if I don't relish actually speaking to them.\n\nThere's loads of things nowadays online about \"introverts\" and \"extroverts\" and people are very quick to say they are one or the other but psychology is not as simple as \"you exhibit one behaviour. You are X\". Everyone is different and needs their own levels of social interaction to keep sane and I think that may just be human nature. \n\nThere's nothing wrong with you for preferring your own company and there's nothing wrong with wanting to be around people as long as you're not doing harm to yourself and those around you. It's all about knowing yourself and your needs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I imagine that in our evolution, being alone could mean you were losing some social opportunity, and could even be dangerous. Or it could be fine and give time to rest and plan.\n\nSo maybe there is natural brain variation in how people tend to respond. Or it may depend on how they are feeling about themselves and their social situation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2267424",
"title": "Beck's cognitive triad",
"section": "Section::::Beck's cognitive model of depression.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "People with depression often view themselves as unlovable, helpless, doomed or deficient. They tend to attribute their unpleasant experiences to their presumed physical, mental, and/or moral deficits. They tend to feel excessively guilty, believing that they are worthless, blameworthy, and rejected by self and others. They may have a very difficult time viewing themselves as people who could ever succeed, be accepted, or feel good about themselves and this may lead to withdrawal and isolation, which further worsens the mood. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14585748",
"title": "Belongingness",
"section": "Section::::Behavior/social problems.:Depression.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "People who are depressed often fail to satisfy their need for belonging in relationships and therefore, report fewer intimate relationships. Those who are depressed appear to induce negative affect in other individuals, which consequently elicits rejection and the loss of socially rewarding opportunities. Depressed people are less likely to feel a sense of belonging and are more likely to pay attention to negative social interactions. Research has found that depressive symptoms may sensitize people to everyday experiences of both social rejection and social acceptance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50015690",
"title": "Attachment and Health",
"section": "Section::::Attachment Styles.:Insecure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "Anxious-preoccupied people tend to view themselves less positively than they view others. They are more likely to become highly anxious when they are away from their attachment partners and are at risk of becoming, or seeming, dependent. They tend to agree with statements such as “I want to be completely emotionally intimate with others, but I often find that others are reluctant to get as close as I would like\", and \"I am uncomfortable being without close relationships, but I sometimes worry that others don't value me as much as I value them.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25532085",
"title": "Foreign language anxiety",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "Potential negative events that people cannot see or handle with their ability often leads to anxiety. Also, if individuals are highly anxious, that kind of habitualised reactions may cause those who have experienced many threatening situations in the past to be more likely perceive future situations as threatening. As well, if their anxiety are traits rather than states, self-efficacy must result from past successes, vicarious experiences and social persuasion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14585748",
"title": "Belongingness",
"section": "Section::::Psychological needs.:Attachments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 1478,
"text": "The breaking of social bonds and threats to those bonds are primary sources of negative affect. People feel anxious, depressed, guilty or lonely when they lose important relationships. Social exclusion is the most common cause of anxiety. Anxiety is a natural consequence of being separated from others. Examples include children suffering from separation anxiety from being separated from their mothers. Adults act similarly when their loved ones leave for a period of time. Memories of past rejection and imagining social rejection all elicit negative emotions. Losses of attachments lead directly to anxiety. If people are excluded from social groups, people get anxious, yet the anxiety is removed when they experience social inclusion. Failing to feel accepted can lead to social and general depression. Depression and anxiety are significantly correlated. Social exclusion is also a major cause of jealousy, which is a common reaction when one's relationships are threatened. Jealousy is cross-culturally universal and in all cultures, sexual jealousy is common. It was said earlier that belongingness needs can only truly be met with social contact, but social contact by itself does not shield people against loneliness. Loneliness matters more when there is a lack of intimacy as opposed to lack of contact. Another negative affect is guilt, which is caused to make the other person want to maintain the relationship more, such as paying more attention to that person.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "922",
"title": "Anxiety",
"section": "Section::::Risk factors.:Psychological.:Evolutionary psychology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "An evolutionary psychology explanation is that increased anxiety serves the purpose of increased vigilance regarding potential threats in the environment as well as increased tendency to take proactive actions regarding such possible threats. This may cause false positive reactions but an individual suffering from anxiety may also avoid real threats. This may explain why anxious people are less likely to die due to accidents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2195142",
"title": "Wallflower (people)",
"section": "Section::::Connection to Sociology.:Social anxiety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "Although they recognize that the fear is excessive and unreasonable, people with social anxiety disorder feel powerless against their anxiety. They are terrified they will humiliate or embarrass themselves. The anxiety can interfere significantly with daily routines, occupational performance, or social life, making it difficult to complete school, interview and get a job, and have friendships and romantic relationships.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1yqjoo
|
if keeping your heart rate up is good for you during exercise, is the same true of watching scary movies, playing video games, or other passive heart rate boosters?
|
[
{
"answer": "Heart rate increases due to exercise are healthier than heart rate increases due to terror (eg. watching a scary movie). Terror-based heart rate increases are accompanied by a spike in adrenaline, which can be damaging to your heart over time. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When you are afraid, anxious, or stressed, the main causes of passive heart rate increase, your body releases cortisol. [It has a lot of negative effects](_URL_0_) including decreased immune function, weight gain, muscle break-down, and decreased thyroid activity. Source provided is one of many you can find.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "Exercise for your heart is good for maintaining health overall because it is participating in a physical activity, but any thing that causes a \"passive\" boost to your heart is caused by stress, which is a mental activity. There is many different forms of stress that are both positive and negative towards your health, and there are many reasons that causes it. It certainly depends on your initial reaction to certain events, e.g. falling in love, watching scary movies, looking at a pair of breasts for 10 minutes, playing multiplayer FPS video games (i.e. internet lag), throwing a surprise party, or popping the question. Your reactions to these events, based on stress, good or bad, causes you to release a chemical called cortisol. Cortisol has both negative and positive values to what it does to your heart, and overall health. It depends on the events you are experiencing that causes such values to have either a good or bad impact on your heart rate (and health). E.g. a cardiac arrest can develop from the release of cortisol in a stressful situation, like your friends scaring the living bejeebers out of you, or a frail old man.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "36168126",
"title": "Iranian traditional medicine",
"section": "Section::::Temperaments, basis for Iranian traditional medicine.:Everything has a temperament.:Exercise, lack of movement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "But high-intensity exercise would drive the body to excessive coldness, weakness, getting blue face or lips after exercise; moreover after heavy exercise heart rate would take much longer to return to base which is not healthy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "432986",
"title": "Physical fitness",
"section": "Section::::Activity guidelines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "The intensity at which we exercise is key, and light activity such as strolling and housework is unlikely to have much positive impact on the health of most people. For aerobic exercise to be beneficial it must raise your heartbeat and make you sweat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "939218",
"title": "Rhythm game",
"section": "Section::::Health and education.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 2044,
"text": "Rhythm games have been used for health purposes. For example, research has found that dancing games dramatically increase energy expenditure over that of traditional video games, and that they burn more calories than walking on a treadmill. Scientists have further suggested that, due to the large amount of time children spend playing video games and watching television, games that involve physical activity could be used to combat obesity. Studies have found that playing \"Dance Dance Revolution\" can provide an aerobic workout, in terms of a sufficiently intense heart rate, but not the minimum levels of VO2 max. Based on successful preliminary studies, West Virginia, which has one of the highest rates of obesity and its attendant diseases in the US, introduced \"Dance Dance Revolution\" into its schools' physical education classes. According to \"The New York Times\", more than \"several hundred schools in at least 10 states\" have used \"Dance Dance Revolution\" (along with \"In the Groove\") in their curricula. Plans have been made to increase the number into the thousands in an effort to mitigate the country's obesity epidemic. Arnold Schwarzenegger, former Governor of California, was a noted proponent of the game's use in schools. In Japan, celebrities reported losing weight after playing \"Dance Dance Revolution\", which drove sales of the game's home console version. Bemani's testers also found themselves losing weight while working on the game. There is further anecdotal evidence that these games aid weight loss, though the University of Michigan Health System has cautioned that dance games and other exergames should only be a starting point towards traditional sports, which are more effective. Dance games have also been used in rehabilitation and fall-prevention programs for elderly patients, using customised, slower versions of existing games and mats. Researchers have further experimented with prototypes of games allowing wider and more realistic stepping than the tapping actions found in commercial dance games.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12206603",
"title": "Wii Fit",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1018,
"text": "A study published by Tokyo's National Institute of Health and Nutrition concluded that only 33% of the exercises (22 of a total of 68) qualified as medium-intensity, with the rest as low-intensity. No exercises qualified as high-intensity. The researchers concluded that only one-third of the exercises qualify towards the exercise guidelines provided by the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) and the American Heart Association (AHA), and that the exercises offered less benefits \"than authentic sports or exercises because playing these active video games involved little horizontal locomotion.\" However, to reach 30 minutes of moderate activity (5 times a week) as suggested by the ACSM, significantly more time is required, due to the repeated manual navigations of the menus required between each exercise and the inability to program customized exercise routines, repetitions, or time limits (or even personalized intensities—the \"trainer\" will never modify the speed based on the user's fitness level).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12235163",
"title": "Ballistic training",
"section": "Section::::Criteria.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "5. Co-ordination. Research at the University of Connecticut found that high-intensity training has profound effects on the nervous system. The exercise had to be of an intensity that elevate the heart rate to 90% of maximum rate and had to sustain that rate for at least 20 seconds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33411597",
"title": "Video games in education",
"section": "Section::::Using video games in the classroom.:Possible benefits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 717,
"text": "According to an article on interactive video games in physical education, many of these types of games are not just animated exercise. Many have different assessments and scores based on performance of skills. Some have heart rate monitors and estimate caloric expenditure. Others are designed with enhancing motor abilities in mind. Abilities such as balance, hand-eye coordination, agility and core strength are a few of the motor skills enhanced. These engaging and interactive games have the ability to teach kids about the some physiological functions of the body. One example is that these games can help show kids how their heart reacts to different activities by using the heart rate monitor within the game.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3115848",
"title": "Cardiorespiratory fitness",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "Regular exercise makes these systems more efficient by enlarging the heart muscle, enabling more blood to be pumped with each stroke, and increasing the number of small arteries in trained skeletal muscles, which supply more blood to working muscles. Exercise improves not just the respiratory system but the heart by increasing the amount of oxygen that is inhaled and distributed to body tissue. A 2005 Cochrane review demonstrated that physical activity interventions are effective for increasing cardiovascular fitness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3rvc37
|
What exactly caused Europeans to be seen as barbarians by the Chinese?
|
[
{
"answer": "I believe your question stems from debate regarding the precise definition of the Chinese term 夷 (*yi*) which appears to have arisen in the mid-19th century. This term was variously translated as 'foreigner' or 'barbarian' - the latter use promulgated by a Pomeranian missionary-cum-translator in China in the early 19th century, the former championed by Waley (1889-1966) and earlier documentation provided by individuals ranging from Matteo Ricci (1552-1610) to British envoy George Macartney (1737-1806) - which made no note of *yi* as a perjorative.\n\nAdditionally the Qing Chinese stressed that *yi* merely designated foreigners deemed as 'easterners' (the British most regularly visited Eastern ports), with *man* designating southern foreigners, *rong* northerners, and so forth. The British interpreted the term as highly offensive and showing of contempt - and indeed the term did have currency as a frequent distinguisher of Chinese culture from outsiders - the extent of distaste it showed for the latter being the subject of bitter discourse.\n\nIndeed the issue of *yi* coloured relations between Britain and Qing China to such a degree that article 51 of the Anglo-Chinese Treaty of Tianjin (1858) specifically addresses its use, prohibiting its official use in reference to the British government (with a translation of the article [here](_URL_0_)). Historian Lydia Liu writes \"Never has a lone word among the myriad languages of humanity made so much history as the Chinese character *yi*.\" There is certainly an argument that the supposition of *yi* as a strict pejorative by the British served as perfect reasoning for diplomatic aggression British policymaking showed in the country at the time. \n\nQing attitudes towards foreigners in reality were much more varied. Initial official opinion of Europeans was born of naivety - they were not seen as any more powerful or influential prior to the 19th century than traders who had been visting China for over a millennium. Their customs and produce were mere curiosities at best to the emperors of the late Ming and early Qing and not considered dangerous or influential with regards to imperial authority. Contrary to popular opinion, Chinese opinion was not cemented in opposition to European aggression even after the Second Opium War (1856-1860) - a marked negative trend in Chinese attitudes towards Europeans was only really noticeable in the period surrounding and subsequent to the Sino-French War of 1884-1845 by which point Western intentions became clear for all to see and the dynasty was seen as in peril. \n\nEven at this point amongst opposition there was an ingrained psychological phenomenon in Chinese society which pinned much blame on the Qing for the inability to successfully govern and modernise at the rise of European imperialism - providing a fatal weakness that it would be natural for foreigners to exploit. Whilst some by this point proclaimed of \"selling my soul to the foreign devil\" (Lu Xun, 1890s), others equally became open critics of the Qing regime in a brazenness rarely seen prior. Whilst the last Qing emperors placed great importance on the understanding of foreign society and technology, openly praising Western methods became taboo and individuals such as the pro-Western Qing ambassador to London of the late 19th century was physically assaulted, impeached and finally dismissed for his opinions. \"He cannot serve human beings / So how can he serve demons?\" read one proclamation.\n\nThe zenith of anti-European sentiment in China would be reached with the Boxer Rebellion of 1899-1901 - a nationalist movement strongly opposed to Western imperialism and the strangehold the West had on China by this point - and unofficially supported by the Qing regime. The arrival of troops of the [Eight-Nation alliance](_URL_1_) under a humanitarian guise and the effective complete subjugation of imperial power it resulted in imprinted a lasting stigma in Chinese sentiment towards the West which continued to exist to a greater or lesser extent throughout the 20th century. Whilst it would be unreasonable to surmise that the Chinese showed no contempt for Westerners prior to imperialistic designs on the Qing empire [indeed the superiority of Chinese culture generally had been a core tenant of dynasties of past], there is certainly a strong argument that this merely served as justification for otherwise what was clearly Western expansionist aggression towards Qing China beginning with policy-making leading up to the First Opium War (1839-1842) and arguably only ending with the dissolution of the empire in 1912 - throughout which anti-Western sentiment amongst the populace of Qing China would *truly* root itself.\n\n**Sources:**\n\n*The Opium War* - Julia Lovell\n\n*The Clash of Empires* - Lydia Liu\n\n*China: A History* - John Keay",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Haven't most cultures considered other cultures barbaric at one time or another? Maybe this is more of a social science question? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "360876",
"title": "Supremacism",
"section": "Section::::Racism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "In Asia, ancient Indians considered all foreigners barbarians. The Muslim scholar Al-Biruni wrote that the Indians called foreigners impure. A few centuries later, Dubois observes that \"Hindus look upon Europeans as barbarians totally ignorant of all principles of honour and good breeding... In the eyes of a Hindu, a Pariah (outcaste) and a European are on the same level.\" The Chinese viewed the Europeans as repulsive, ghost-like creatures, and even as devils. Chinese writers also referred to the Europeans as barbarians.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "113147",
"title": "Barbarian",
"section": "Section::::In international historical contexts.:East Asia.:China.:Idealization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "From ancient to modern times the Chinese attitude toward people not Chinese in culture—\"barbarians\"—has commonly been one of contempt, sometimes tinged with fear ... It must be noted that, while the Chinese have disparaged barbarians, they have been singularly hospitable both to individuals and to groups that have adopted Chinese culture. And at times they seem to have had a certain admiration, perhaps unwilling, for the rude force of these peoples or simpler customs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40182149",
"title": "Four Barbarians",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "Four Barbarians was a Chinese term for various ancient non-Chinese peoples bordering ancient China, namely, the \"Dōngyí\" \"Eastern Barbarians\", \"Nánmán\" \"Southern Barbarians\", \"Xīróng\" \"Western Barbarians\", and \"Běidí\" \"Northern Barbarians\". These terms have historically been mistaken as being \"derogatory\", although their use in Chinese is largely neutral, akin to the word \"foreigner\" in english.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "113147",
"title": "Barbarian",
"section": "Section::::In international historical contexts.:East Asia.:China.:Modern reinterpretations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "Christopher I. Beckwith's 2009 \"The Barbarians\" epilogue provides many references, but overlooks H. G. Creel's 1970 \"The Barbarians\" chapter. Creel descriptively wrote, \"Who, in fact, were the barbarians? The Chinese have no single term for them. But they were all the non-Chinese, just as for the Greeks the barbarians were all the non-Greeks.\" Beckwith prescriptively wrote, \"The Chinese, however, have still not yet borrowed Greek \"barbar\"-. There is also no single native Chinese word for 'foreigner', no matter how pejorative,\" which meets his strict definition of \"barbarian.\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1164148",
"title": "Lambing Flat riots",
"section": "Section::::Antipathy on the Goldfields.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "European resentment of the apparent success of the Chinese first surfaced as petty complaints: Europeans made stereotyped claims that the Chinese muddied the water holes, they worked on the Sabbath, they were thieves, they had insanitary habits, they accepted low wages and would drive down the value of labour. But because the Chinese were distinctive in appearance, language and dress, they became classic targets for xenophobia, and surly resentment became systematic hatred.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "331452",
"title": "Yellow Peril",
"section": "Section::::Xenophobia.:Germany and Russia.:European memory of Mongols.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 1110,
"text": "Despite that justifying historical background, Yellow Peril racism was not universally accepted in the societies of Europe. French intellectual Anatole France said that Yellow Peril ideology was to be expected from a racist man such as the Kaiser. Inverting the racist premise of Asian invasion, France showed that European imperialism in Asia and Africa indicated that the European White Peril was the true threat to the world. In his essay \"The Bogey of the Yellow Peril\" (1904), the British journalist Demetrius Charles Boulger said the Yellow Peril was racist hysteria for popular consumption. Asian geopolitical dominance of the world is \"the prospect, placed before the uninstructed reading public, is a revival of the Hun and Mongol terrors, and the names of Attila and Genghis are set out in the largest type to create feelings of apprehension. The reader is assured, in the most positive manner, that this is the doing of the enterprising nation of Japan\". Throughout the successful imperial intrigues facilitated by Germany's Yellow Peril ideology, the Kaiser's true geopolitical target was Britain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "113147",
"title": "Barbarian",
"section": "Section::::In international historical contexts.:East Asia.:China.:History and terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "Chinese historical records mention what may now perhaps be termed \"barbarian\" peoples for over four millennia, although this considerably predates the Greek language origin of the term \"barbarian\", at least as is known from the thirty-four centuries of written records in the Greek language. The sinologist Herrlee Glessner Creel said, \"Throughout Chinese history \"the barbarians\" have been a constant motif, sometimes minor, sometimes very major indeed. They figure prominently in the Shang oracle inscriptions, and the dynasty that came to an end only in 1912 was, from the Chinese point of view, barbarian.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4oerta
|
What were/are historians' responses to Max Weber's theories?
|
[
{
"answer": "As a related question, am I wrong in thinking that Weber's definition of the minimal requirement for a state (monopoly on the legitimate use of force within a limited and defined area) is still pretty damn useful?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19455",
"title": "Max Weber",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 133,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 133,
"end_character": 610,
"text": "Weber has influenced many later social theorists, such as Theodor Adorno, Max Horkheimer, György Lukács and Jürgen Habermas. Different elements of his thought were emphasised by Carl Schmitt, Joseph Schumpeter, Ludwig Lachmann, Leo Strauss, Hans Morgenthau, and Raymond Aron. According to the Austrian economist Ludwig von Mises, who had met Weber during his time at the University of Vienna, \"The early death of this genius was a great disaster for Germany. Had Weber lived longer, the German people of today would be able to look to this example of an 'Aryan' who would not be broken by National Socialism.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19455",
"title": "Max Weber",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "Weber also made a variety of other contributions in economic history, as well as economic theory and methodology. Weber's analysis of modernity and rationalisation significantly influenced the critical theory associated with the Frankfurt School. After the First World War, Max Weber was among the founders of the liberal German Democratic Party. He also ran unsuccessfully for a seat in parliament and served as advisor to the committee that drafted the ill-fated democratic Weimar Constitution of 1919. After contracting Spanish flu, he died of pneumonia in 1920, aged 56.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19455",
"title": "Max Weber",
"section": "Section::::Critical responses to Weber.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 136,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 136,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "Weber's explanations are highly specific to the historical periods he analysed. Some academics disagree, pointing out that, despite the fact that Weber did write in the early twentieth century, his ideas remain alive and relevant for understanding issues like politics, bureaucracy, and social stratification today.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3012782",
"title": "Interpretations of Max Weber's liberalism",
"section": "Section::::Interpretations.:Political views.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 769,
"text": "Wolfgang J. Mommsen initiated debate by arguing this in the 1959 German publication of \"Max Weber and German Politics 1890–1920\". Mommsen questioned the sociologist's liberal reputation. According to Mommsen, Weber's sociological idea of charismatic authority was evident in his political views, and was \"close to fascist notions of plebiscitary leadership.\" Mommsen wrote that Weber's theory of democracy \"lent itself all too readily to an authoritarian reinterpretation\" Mommsen also associated Weber with the rise of Hitler: \"Weber's teachings concerning charismatic leadership coupled with the radical formulation of the meaning of democratic institutions, contributed to making the German people inwardly ready to acclaim the leadership position of Adolf Hitler.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1685327",
"title": "Wolfgang Mommsen",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1584,
"text": "Mommsen wrote a biography of Max Weber in 1958. His dissertation, on Max Weber and German politics, published in English in 1984, revolutionized the \"understanding of the 20th century's most influential sociologist by setting him firmly in the context of his times, and showing him to be a liberal nationalist and imperialist, much to the horror of many of his admirers. He went on to demonstrate that a knowledge of Weber's political thought and action was essential if one were to grasp accurately his theory of power. This was an outstanding achievement, and Wolfgang followed it up by playing a leading role in editing a new, comprehensive edition of Weber's works... The Mommsens were related to Weber by marriage, so there was something particularly iconoclastic in Wolfgang's book, which caused a huge storm when it first appeared.\" His main areas of expertise were in 19th century-20th century British and German history. His interests were wide-ranging and he wrote about diplomatic, social, intellectual, and economic history. Mommsen championed a \"Sonderweg\" (\"special path\") interpretation of German history. Echoing the views of Hans-Ulrich Wehler and Fritz Fischer, he argued that 19th century Germany was only partially modernized. Economic modernization was not accompanied by political modernization. Much of Mommsen's comparative studies of British and German history concern why, in his view, the British had both a political and economic modernization while the Germans had only the latter. An Anglophile, Mommsen very much enjoyed teaching and living in Britain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19455",
"title": "Max Weber",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 802,
"text": "Weber's main intellectual concern was understanding the processes of rationalisation, secularisation, and \"disenchantment\" that he associated with the rise of capitalism and modernity. He saw these as the result of a new way of thinking about the world. Weber is best known for his thesis combining economic sociology and the sociology of religion, elaborated in his book \"The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism\", in which he proposed that ascetic Protestantism was one of the major \"elective affinities\" associated with the rise in the Western world of market-driven capitalism and the rational-legal nation-state. He argued that it was in the basic tenets of Protestantism to boost capitalism. Thus, it can be said that the spirit of capitalism is inherent to Protestant religious values.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29120601",
"title": "Marxist schools of thought",
"section": "Section::::Western Marxism.:The Frankfurt School.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "Max Weber exerted a major influence, as did Sigmund Freud (as in Herbert Marcuse's Freudo-Marxist synthesis in the 1954 work \"Eros and Civilization\"). Their emphasis on the \"critical\" component of theory was derived significantly from their attempt to overcome the limits of positivism, crude materialism and phenomenology by returning to Immanuel Kant's critical philosophy and its successors in German idealism, principally Hegel's philosophy, with its emphasis on negation and contradiction as inherent properties of reality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4bjd07
|
why is a two-state solution for palestine/israel so difficult? it seems like a no-brainer.
|
[
{
"answer": "Because Israel is about the size of New Jersey, splitting it would make it downright tiny. Liveable land isn't exactly plentiful as it's mostly desert. It would also require resettling a whole lot of people. Also, the area around Israel has a lot of cliffs and strategic value when it comes to defending the country from the many enemies that surround it. Giving that up would allow a single person with a rocket launcher to fire at pretty much any target they wanted. And then there's the fact that the country of Israel owns the land and doesn't want to give it up.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's because the situation is an endlessly spiralling disaster. The Jewish people have been persecuted so much throughout history up to and including the Holocaust that they felt the only way they would ever be safe would be to create a Jewish State. They had also been forcibly expelled from numerous other nations throughout history. In 1922, the League of Nations gave control of the region to Britain, who basically allowed numerous Jews to move in so that they'd stop immigrating to Britain. Now this is all well and good, since the region was a No Man's Land.\n\n..Except there were people living there. It's pretty much right out of Eddie Izzard's 'But Do You Have a Flag?'. The people we now know as Palestinians rioted about it, were denounced as violent. Militant groups sprang up, terrorist acts were done, military responses followed. \n\nFurther complicating matters is the fact that the people known now as Palestinians weren't united before all of this, and even today, you have competing groups claiming to be the sole legitimate government of Palestine, the Palestinian Authority and Hamas. So even if you want to negotiate, who with? There's an endless debate about legitimacy and actual regional control before you even get to the table.\n\nSo the discussion goes \n\n\"Your people are antisemitic terrorists\" \n\n\"You stole our land and displaced us\" \n\n\"Your people and many others in the world displaced us first and wanted to kill us.\"\n\n\"That doesn't give you any right to take our home. And you keep firing missiles at us.\"\n\n\"Because you keep launching terrorist attacks against us\"\n\n\"That's not us, it's the other guys\"\n\n\"If you're the government, control them.\"\n\nAnd on, and on, and on, and on. The conflict's roots are ancient, and everybody's a little guilty, and everybody's got a bit of a point. \nBear in mind that this is also the my-first-foreign-policy version. The real situation is much more complex.\n\nOh, and this is before you even get started with the complexities of the religious conflict and how both groups believe God wants them to rule over the same place.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hard-liners and spoiler groups on both sides. Hard-liners don't want to compromise with the other side and maintain enough control to prevent meaningful negotiations from coming to fruition (consider that Abbas would have gone with Oslo II but for fear of assassination). Spoiler groups (settlers and people attacking other people) keep mucking up the negotiation process and give the hard-line argument credence. \n\nThat, historic persecution experienced on both sides leading to both feeling like they're victims, historic claims to the land, religion, propaganda, and a whole host of other factors has lead to an impasse. But hard-liners and spoiler groups are a large part of it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Arab nations refused to accept a 2 state solution back when Israel was founded, instead choosing to launch an attack on Israel. The major powers in the region refused to accept any Jewish state at all there. This war and subsequent wars were won by Israel, solidifying opposition to it existence. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Two primary factors: extremists opposed to peace and then one major sticking point for each side - the right of return for Palestinians and dismantling of settlements for Israel. It's been almost 50 years since the 1967 war, but the Palestinians who lost their land in the aftermath want it back. The Israelis who are on that land say no way. Similarly, Israel keeps building settlements in the West Bank and won't give up most of the them in a peace treaty.\n\nThere are lots of other details, but that's the key - the parties fight over the details. And then if they start to get close on anything, some extremist launches a terrorist attack or rocket attack or murders someone and things fall apart. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "The truth is, many people on both sides aren't really interested in a 2-state solution. Many Palestinians want to destroy the state of Israel and reclaim their ancestral homeland (see Hamaz). And many Israeli policy-makers want Palestinian territories to remain in a state of limbo with no official recognition as a country.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Alright, I live in Israel, and here's my take. Obviously, this issue is polarizing, but as far as I know the most common reason is this: Security.\n\nPretty much everyone, left and right, maybe excluding the ultra-radical right, would give land, fund, supply, and support a Palestinian nation without a second thought **if it can reasonably assumed that said nation won't attack us**. [Israel has given huge amounts of religiously significant land for sustainable peace before](_URL_2_) and all of Israel agrees that was a great decision. On the other hand, when Israel gave up land unilaterally, without a reasonable promise of peace, it turned into [the geopolitical equivalent of a waking nightmare](_URL_1_), and is widely regarded as one is Israel's greatest mistakes.\n\nThe standing opinion in Israel is that terrorist organizations are too well rooted, that the Palestinian population can't be trusted to do peace, and that the current Palestinian Authority is either unable or unwilling to enforce order in Palestine (this particular opinion, as far as I can gather, is shared by Palestinians as well). This opinion is only reinforced by the recent wave of violence arriving from both Israeli Arabs and Palestinians.\n\nAs of right now, I have to admit, the prospect of a nation populated by people educated by [this sort of stuff](_URL_0_), led by the current PA, being a bottle rocket-launch away from my house, terrifies me to my core.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "A two state solution would be\n\n1. Unfair to the Jewish people, because they have a historical right to whole Israel\n\n2. Unfair to Palestinians, because they have a historical right to whole Israel.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "There's a couple of issues here.\n\nOne is that there is land that is holy and sacred to both, and both countries want that in their state. A lot of Jerusalem falls into this category.\n\nThe other issue is right of return. There are millions of people who want to return to their family's homeland, but in a two-state solution, a lot of these people will be on the wrong side of the border and will never be able to return home.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "My Egyptian professor explained it this way:\n\n\"Imagine you enroll in my class and on the first day of class I tell you that I'll give you a D+ in the class right here, right now. And then you can walk out, go about your life, never come to class, never do papers, never take tests, and I'll still give you a passing grade. (Hey, a D+ is technically passing...).\n\nSome of you might take that offer. But other of you who have bigger aspirations would never settle for the bare minimum when you know you can achieve much more.\"\n\nThe Israelis are willing to do a two state solution, but they'll never give Jerusalem (and other prime areas) to the Palestinians. And the Palestinians want more than just the perceived left overs. They want Jerusalem, the West Bank, etc., too. So you have both groups wanting the same specific plots of land.\n\nTo complicate the matter, neither the Israelis nor the Palestinians speak in a unified voice. While some people in both camps would be willing to sacrifice the areas it wants in order to work together and have peace, others at the extremes of both camps won't compromise and won't settle. So even if the Israelis and the Palestinian Authority came up with a plan, there would be sizable populations on both sides that wouldn't agree to it and would continue to fight for the whole enchilada. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Let's not forget that Israel remains a proxy war for a lot of other nations on both sides, with a ton of national and religious pride, along with hundreds of billions of dollars in profit for profiteers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You have a house. It's not necessarily a particularly nice house, but a lot of it has sentimental value. Then your rich neighbour comes along and says \n\n\"Hi Palestine, this is my buddy Israel. He actually used to live here! Long before you bought the place, though. Anyway, he's fallen on hard times recently so he's going to be moving into your front room and the master bedroom. Indefinitely. Come on, he's had a really rough time of it!\"\n\nYou're not really happy about that. In fact, you kick up a fuss about it for months. You argue with Israel; Israel fights back just as hard because he feels he deserves the house. Then your rich neighbour, and a few others, come round and say\n\n\"We totally get that you're unhappy with this! Completely understandable. So what we'll do is ask Israel to give you back half of the front room, *and* the cupboard where you keep your shoes. He keeps the master bedroom, though, because it's really special to him. I know you liked it too, but in fairness, he lived there first.\"\n\nNo-brainer, right?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Has any country other than Israel ever been asked to give back land it won in a war?",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I need an ELI5 to explain to me why it is a no brainer. Perhaps the most complex ongoing conflict that exists on this earth... ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "The Israelis are militarily dominant and don't want to give up land when they don't have to. Also Palestine would be chopped in two between the West Bank and Gaza. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Imagine you have a brother who you've never gotten along with. You fight all the time, and on top of that for most of your life the rest of the people you know has largely either joined in or just allowed it. Now in your house there is a room that he likes, even though it is not his room. It's a family room, for everyone. You both hang out there sometimes. Your parents decide that, since you don't have a room and don't feel safe in other areas of the house and community, that should be your room. But your brother is still there. He likes to hang out there. Now, he has been hanging out there before it was your room. He feels justified to it as he has been there so long. But your parents say it is your room, and it's where you feel most safe. So whose room is it? Should you let him have part of the room so he'll leave you alone in your part, or should you claim the room all for yourself?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Palestinian people were so foolish back in WWI era.They thought if they fight against Ottoman Empire, Brits would give them freedom.\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "To be fair, in 1967, UN security council resolution 242 mandated the withdrawal of Israel from the acquired land.\nOf course, what country would withdraw from land just because of a UN resolution? Except, Israel has been expanding and growing in the West Bank. The EU has declared those settlements illegal. It's not like there has been any reason for the Palestinian violence to stop because expansion hasn't really stopped. But what about Gaza? Well it's taken over by a terrorist group. Gazan leadership doesn't trust West Bank leadership because it believes that political movement and the stone throwing has led to nothing on that side. West Bank leadership says: well you keep trying to shoot shitty missiles and then you get yourself and a bunch of other people killed. You're also under an 8 (9 now?) year siege, so STFU.\n\nI think it'll be hard to provide the whole image in an ELI5 without some assumptions that are usually bias. But I hope you get as much of it as possible. Ultimately, I think the situation is too complicated for most of us to understand. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Israel doesn't want two states and faces no real pressure from the US which could force it to compromise. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "The Palestinian Authority is Israel's negotiating partner, but doesn't actually have sufficient authority in either the moral or practical sense over the majority of Palestinians at this point. Hamas is a terrorist group and a lasting peace with Israel is contradictory to its mission and inherent reason for existence. Israel is understandably reluctant make the obvious necessary concessions for a peace treaty with the Palestinian authority when the periodic wars would still likely continue afterwards with Hamas and other Palestinian terrorist groups like Hezbollah.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "One state solution: state won't be Jewish anymore\n\n\nTwo state solution : settlements are to deep within areas \n\n \nFull out genocide : impossible , too many repercussions and logistics.\n\n\n\nAnd there you have it , we can't solve it because we are in a deadlock . ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\nRead the Hamas Covenant of 1988.\n\nIsrael has repeatedly tried to come to the table for a solution, but they are dealing with a democratically elected yet unrecognised government whose goal is to destroy jews in the region.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Another factor on top of what /u/zap283 said is that Israel is worried that bringing palestinian rule close to the heavily populated areas ie. Tel Aviv, would make them vulnerable to rocket attacks and invasion much more quickly - a state alongside israel can be used as a platform for a successful war.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Because, you can't steal someone else's land, then want to make a deal to split it in two. Well, not without a bit of pushback.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What about a one-state solution? One where everyone has equal rights?",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "It's a messy situation. Key points:\n\n* Israel wants more territory.\n\n* Palestine wants their territory back.\n\n* Palestine is really \"with their backs to the wall\", they have a fight or die situation.\n\n* Israel has powerful friends, so they get away with a lot of stuff.\n\n* Most big players on the national scene profit from the ongoing conflict, in one way or another.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Palestinian here:\n\nIsrael and Palestine are so connected in very different levels, these connections make it very hard to simply separate it to two states and move on.\n\nOther than that, Palestinian are not mature enough to have their own state with borders (yes, you will not hear that from Palestinians), but this is the truth, Israel knows that, and they won't leave the borders of Jordan just like that, Palestinians don't have army, they have a LOT of corruption, and they need a lot of work before being able to become a successful state (if ever), leaving the borders will create a lot of trouble to Israel itself as there is no clear borders for the west bank with Israel.\n\nThird, which is probably the most important thing, is religion, in Jewish religion, what really matters is Judea and Samaria Area which is the west bank basically, there is no mention to Telaviv, Natanya in the bible, however there is Hebron, Nablus, Jerusalem, so they will not leave it just like that.\n\nEDIT: I can think of another reason which is Israeli Allies, Arab (especially gulf states) are standing next to Israel, as they have a lot of common interest in fighting Iran and Hezbullah.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Ahmed owns an apple together with Aytac, when they engage in a fight at school with other people Aytac loses his share and Ahmed has it by himself a while. Then comes John and takes hold of it, and later gives it to Shlomo. Ahmed needs this apple to survive, and so does Shlomo, says Shlomo. Shlomo says that Ahmed and Shlomo should share it together. Ahmed says that Shlomo has no right to one single part of the apple, because Shlomo never did anything to grow it. Shlomo responds that if he does not get a share of the apple he will die, because John, Gael, Ivan and Timmy and everyone else on this planet otherwise will kill Shlomo. Which is weird, because Shlomo shares apples with all these people already and they go along with it. And then Shlomo tells an endless story day in and day out about what Hans once did to him. Shlomo has a habit of exaggerating and lying about things so it's not necessarily true at all; but even if it was, how could it be Ahmed's fault? Why does he have to share his apple with Shlomo at all? Shlomo owns the apple factory down the street and has all the apples he needs already. You see kids, Shlomo is a bit of a cunt, and we should not give him any apples, and hopefully he will learn to grow his own. This will end the conflict, this is the no-brainer.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "A two state solution requires all kinds of compromises. Firstly there has to be agreement on who gets what land. The most contentious aspect is who gets a right over Jerusalem. Then there has to be agreement on whether Palestinians who were displaced (kicked out or fled voluntarily depending on who you believe) when Israel was formed get a right to return to Israel. \n\nThese things are hard to agree on because both sides want a bunch of concession and preconditions just to establish enough goodwill to even begin a proper negotiation process. Neither side are willing to make the initial concession because it compromises their security or their bargaining position or because they don't have the internal support to make those concessions. \n\nEven if Israeli's and Palestinians each had very progressive, peace-orientated leaders, those leaders might risk alienating their support base if they compromise too much too quickly. Both nations are highly divided and skittish about how to approach the situation. \n",
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{
"answer": "This question can be answered by another: What borders will the two states have? UN Resolution? 1967? Current borders? There's no fair answer.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "As someone who has been on holiday there....\n\nIts mostly the politicians, who like in most places are voted in largly by old people...\n\nQuite a lot of the young people are very much pro peace, infact almost everybody is (except for the weirdo American immigrants you get there who are all hyper pro violence)\n\nMost people wether arab or Jew will tell you the same thing.\n\"we would love to have peace, but if you give them an inch they take a mile, they want to push us into the sea/desert\"\n\nAlso America giving Israel a blank cheque for defence doesn't help",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Whenever they try a 2 state solution map they both want to control the high points in case of future conflict and they can't agree. Then a bomb blows up, a missile gets fired and it's over. ",
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{
"answer": "So I'm pretty late to the party, but hopefully writing this is not a waste of time.\n\nThere's a lot of good explanations here, but the national security and great power politics explanations are missing. That's something I figured I'd fill in. \n\nTL;DR: For the Great Powers that can forcefully bring about peace, it's more important to maintain control over oil resources than bring a lasting peace between Israel and the Palestinians. \n\nLong Version: \n\nThe post-Ottoman Arab world was a mess. This was the first time in almost 500 years that Arabs had self rule, and there was a giant political struggle. The unity of nationalism against a perceived oppressor gave way to the bickering of factional politics, and this is not the factional politics of the Democrats and the Republicans. You usually had three main factions: the Islamists, the Western educated liberal elites, and the Communists. These three sides were constantly vying for control of the newly established states across the Arab world. \n\nEgypt is a great example of this. The Communists (Nasir) and the Islamists (The Brotherhood) banded together and ousted the King (WELE). Instead of creating a unity government, though, Nasir reneged on his deal with the Islamists, imprisoned as many as he could, took apart their grass roots systems, and declared them illegal. This, in turn, radicalized the Islamists, which eventually ended in the killing of Nasir's heir, Sadat. The maturation of the Islamists led to their deradicalization and renunciation of violence and culminated in the election of Morsi. Then they were deposed, horribly persecuted by Sisi, and the radicalization has started all over again.\n\nIt's also important to note that the Communists and the WELEs are actually very fluid. This is actually the source of a lot of the instability in the Middle East, particularly Israel (getting there, I promise). The Nassirid communists turned into the liberal establishment under Sadat and culminated into the Western backed Mubarak. \n\nThese narratives repeat themselves across the Arab world: Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Syria, Iraq, etc. In fact, Saddam was a \"Ba'thi,\" and Ba'this are usually communists. This is one of the reasons that he was so horribly oppressive to both Sunni and Shia Islamists, and both were happy to see him gone. \n\nNow, none of this would be particularly important. It would just be another tale of post-colonial and post-imperial turmoil which has grasped the majority of the world after the fall of the colonial empires of Europe in WWII. Well, it wouldn't be, if not for oil.\n\nAccess to and securing of resources has and does push the majority of power politics, and this is true today. Oil basically runs the world. After WWII, the US made it a priority to control oil resources in the Middle East, because that is the most important National Security issue for a nascent great power. The problem, though, is that the Arabs are too fluid. You never know when there will be an Islamist or Communist or WELE. Ideally, we'd like the WELEs to come to the top and stay there, but it's never a guarantee. What's worse is that, during the 50s, almost all the Arab governments were Communists or Communist leaning (except for the \"Gulf\" states, who are their own brand of tribal governance). \n\nThe US needed a base, a stable nation from where the US could manage the region. That base was Israel (note that, from the 70s, we made an important decision under Kissinger to \"manage\" the fluidity by supporting strong men. These guys would keep a lid on the politics, in return we would give them power and materials, and in return they would give us their loyalty over the Soviets. It's not a coincidence that this policy brought an end to the wars between Israel and its neighbors). Don't listen to the rhetoric that Israel is a key \"ally\" of the US in the region. Israel is not an ally; Israel is our vassal. And it's one of the best kind of vassals.\n\nThe huge wave of immigration to the region of European Jews, which had been fervently opposed and blocked by the Ottomans, came to a head under the British. The Children of Israel went from 3% of the population to 30. The ensuing chaos sparked great racial hatred between the two groups. Interestingly, the first terrorists in the Holy Land were Zionist nationalists attacking British and Palestinian targets. The Holocaust led to a great guilt gripping the powers of Europe, and they recognized that something had to be done to prevent such a thing from happening ever again.\n\nThey found their answer in the very vocal and politically well situated Zionist movement. Up to this point, the Zionist movement had been A movement, not THE movement, among Western Jews. Many Orthodox Jews still opposed it at the time (many Hassidic still do, btw). But Zionism was primarily a nationalist movement, not a religious one. And it afforded the US an amazing opportunity. \n\nThe tensions created after the fall of the Ottomans between the Arabs and the Jews was huge. A British pull out would almost certainly lead to the eradication of the nascent state, and the land would be ripped apart and divided among the Arab nations. This meant that Israel's very existent was dependent on someone outside of the region. \n\nThe US became that guarantor. During the ensuing war of 48, the US supplied Israel with the material and diplomatic cover it needed to survive. This, however, had an unforeseen effect on the Zionist movement: it deeply emboldened it. Up to this point, there were extremists in the movement that wanted ALL of historic Palestine, but a lot of Zionists were happy with the terms of the British, the so called '47 borders. In the ensuing war of '48, however, the extremist militias of the Zionist movement engaged in mass ethnic cleansing, forcibly expelling nearly half a million Palestinians from their homes and taking the land (they made up some story about Arab commanders telling the Palestinians to leave, but this is mostly accepted as a farcical national myth by most historians, and was first disproved by Israeli historians). The US had no choice but to let them keep it. The Israelis knew we needed them, and the Communist Arabs sided with the Soviets. \n\nThis, more than anything else, is the root problem of the conflict. Like most major conflicts in the world, this conflict was a proxy war between great powers trying to leverage their dominance over a very important region using a Grand Strategy known as Off-Shore Balancing. The Soviets and the US tried to empower their vassals and client states in the region to gain an upper hand over the other, and, by way of that dominance, take control of resources. \n\nThe question now, though, is why is it so difficult to make a peace once the Soviets are gone? I think the answer is two fold:\n\n1. Many in the national security scene still believe that Israel is a vital vassal in the region in terms of maintaining control of the oil resources. The Arab Spring kind of proved to many of them that the Arabs are not stable governments, and so maintaining a powerful vassal to manage the region is still important.\n\n2. The Holocaust was, rightly, a great trauma for the global Jewish population. Immediately after the war of '48, they had flashbacks to the Holocaust. They would not allow what happened in Germany to happen in Israel (and the threat was very real, because of the immense racial tensions during the Mandate Period of Palestinian history). To make sure that Israel was always properly protected, the Jewish community in the US, primarily, but around the Western world in general, established very important political institutions to advocate for the protection of the Jewish state.\n\nWhen you combine a national security interest with a powerful political lobby, one which many politicians believe is more powerful than the NRA, it's almost impossible to make it do anything. \n\nAnd that is, in short, the national security reason for the Israel/Palestine conflict.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "If it seems like a no brainer then you clearly have no idea what the conflict is about. There is no possible ELI5 about this without completely undermining how serious and pervasive this conflict is, culturally/economically/historically etc. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Just because it seems like a no-brainer to an outsider doesn't mean the people like it. I expect you might say the same about the US in 1860. Just make it two states. One slave and one free. It's a no-brainer.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "The biggest issue is that there are extremists on both sides that refuse a two-state solution. Hamas, the Settlers, and a whole lot of politicians, again, from both sides, refuse to let that be a viable outcome. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "1. Israel has a proportional representation voting system with very low thresholds for getting seats. As a result, governments tend to be coalition governments reliant on hardliners for support.\n\n2. The Palestinian authority lacks the resources to effectively govern the occupied territories. In that power vacuum, organizations like Hamas have been able to step in and provide governance. However, this also commits more people to a hardline approach.\n\n3. Even beyond the political system, some Israelis settled in the Occupied territories, making it harder to trade away territory. An Israeli terrorist also assassinated Yitzhak Rabin over the Oslo process. Similarly, terrorist attacks by Palestinian groups can also derail the peace process, pushing support towards hardliners. Israelis may then clamp down on Palestinians, deepening mutual resentment.\n\n4. In many respects, a meaningful two-state solution is impossible. The Occupied Territories are economically reliant on interactions with Israel, and are likely to remain so. A two-state solution might also fail on other fronts (e.g. what sort of rights would gay Palestinians have). \n\n5. Many of the issues involved in resolving the crisis are indivisible. While Arafat and Barak were generally willing to trade land, some land-related issues like the temple mount in Jerusalem were harder to resolve. Elsewhere, giving up land may create vulnerabilities (e.g. the Golan heights could be used to launch rockets into Israel). \n\n6. Each side has a different vision of history, and that informs their negotiating positions. Arafat argued that just accepting the Occupied Territories was a compromise in itself, because they comprised of only 22% of historical Palestine (e.g. the British Palestinian mandate). The main sticking point in negotiation is right of return. Many Palestinians fled (or were kicked out) Israel in the 1948 war, becoming refugees. The descendants of these refugees now number 4 million, and believe they are entitled to return to Israel (and potentially to receive compensation). ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Lots of general platitudes, political opinions, and recaps of Israeli-Palestinian history, so I won't delve into those. Instead, the specific issues that are way harder than you probably think:\n\n1. Many people simply don't *want* the two-state solution. Either because of religious reasons (\"god gave us the land\", on both the Jewish and Muslim sides of the argument), because of nationalist entitlement, exasperation with the 20-year attempt to reach it, security considerations, or other reasons. That number was always at around half of the Palestinian and Israeli population, and it's recently becoming a majority.\n\n1. Jerusalem. The Palestinians want a capital in the eastern part of it, while the Israelis strongly object to dividing Jerusalem. And I don't see anyone giving that part up. Both cite political, historical and religious reasons for their insistence. Incidentally, dividing cities, let alone capitals, is generally considered an undesirable thing in international law (Berlin is a famous example). If Jerusalem would indeed be divided, it would be an interesting precedent, with very interesting (read: difficult) challenges.\n\n2. Palestinian Refugees. About two-thirds of all the Palestinians in the world are descended from 1948 refugees from Israel proper. The Palestinian people overwhelmingly demand that all of them would \"return\" to Israel, turning it into a Palestinian-majority state. Needless to say, there's precisely 0% that that Israelis would ever agree to that. The Palestinian leadership is more willing to compromise on this, but it's doubtful they have the mandate to do so. \n\n You might've heard about the Israeli demand for the Palestinians to recognize them as a \"Jewish State\"? That's what they're talking about. The Palestinians object to that, because it would mean preemptively giving up the \"right of return\". And that's exactly why the Israeli are demanding that. Basically, the Israelis are afraid that when the Palestinians are talking about a \"two state solution\", they mean \"one pure, Jew-free Palestinian state, and one Palestinian-majority, Palestinian-ruled state\". Which is no two-state solution at all.\n\n3. Security. Basically, the Israelis already tried a withdrawal from Gaza, without even asking anything in return, and the result was a Hamas-controlled terror enclave that shot thousands of rockets at Israeli cities. If it happens in the West Bank, which is *far* closer to Israel's population center, it would absolutely paralyze Israel and its economy. There is no obvious technological or military solution to that.\n\n4. The settlements. While most settlements are in easy-to-annex blocks, some were intentionally put in the middle of Palestinian territory, with long roads leading to them. At least one of them, Ariel, is a relatively big town, with its own university. Combine that with the fact that Gaza and the West Bank are non-contiguous, and simply drawing a map of the Israeli-Palestinian border becomes a very non-trivial one. \n\n Although, on a personal note, I think that's actually the easier part of this. Most Israelis, and even some settlers, *are* willing to give up settlements for a true peace agreement. That could not be said about the other items on this list.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "A lot of people really aren't answering the question, they are just telling you about the situation, the problem is the US (not just the US but it's simplified) and Israel are allies so why give up land?",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Its simple, there is hardly any Palestinian land left to create a viable Palestinian state because almost all of it has been colonized and Palestinians displaced. I really don't understand why people keep thinking this is a complex and ancient topic! No it's not, it started in 1948 and it's a beef over land and human rights, not religion or some ancient feud. ",
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"answer": "So, Jewish person from Israel, speaking from first hand events.\n\nI am currently in Israel for school with several other people, all non-Israelis. The fundamental issue that a lot of them question is; if we don't care what people think of us, why don't we \"nuke\" the Palestinians.\n\nEvery Israeli native, and many foreigners obviously realize why this is a bad idea, but the \"nuke-em\" perspective(which represents many people from around the world, mostly north-to-Central America) are both less educated and louder than the median, which tends to send everything into uproar and cast a bad light about the whole discussion.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Netanyahu has been calling for negotiations without preconditions for years now. It's the Palestinians who keep demanding preconditions and refusing to negotiate without them.\n\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Because the Muslim political movement is aggressive and chauvinistic at the very core; they simply do not want to co-exist with anyone else.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "It may not be popular on reddit, but I think [this explanation](_URL_0_) is a perfect answer: Most Israelis want to live in peace and are willing to accept a neighboring Palestinian state. And most Palestinians do not want Israel to exist. ",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "46216",
"title": "Israeli–Palestinian conflict",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
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"text": "Many attempts have been made to broker a two-state solution, involving the creation of an independent Palestinian state alongside the State of Israel (after Israel's establishment in 1948). In 2007, the majority of both Israelis and Palestinians, according to a number of polls, preferred the two-state solution over any other solution as a means of resolving the conflict. Moreover, a majority of Jews see the Palestinians' demand for an independent state as just, and thinks Israel can agree to the establishment of such a state. The majority of Palestinians and Israelis in the West Bank and Gaza Strip have expressed a preference for a two-state solution. Mutual distrust and significant disagreements are deep over basic issues, as is the reciprocal scepticism about the other side's commitment to upholding obligations in an eventual agreement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "407109",
"title": "One-state solution",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
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"text": "Support for a one-state solution is increasing as Palestinians, frustrated by lack of progress in negotiations aiming to establish the two-state solution, increasingly see the one-state solution as an alternative way forward. In April 2016, U.S. Vice President Biden said that because of Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu's policy of steady expansion of settlements, an eventual \"one-state reality\" with Israeli Jews no longer in the majority was the likely outcome.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "407109",
"title": "One-state solution",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
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"text": "Depending on various points of view, a one-state solution to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict is presented as a situation in which Israel would ostensibly lose its character as a Jewish state and the Palestinians would fail to achieve their national independence within a two-state solution or, alternatively, as the best, most just, and only way to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36499347",
"title": "Zero-state solution",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "In the context of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, a zero-state solution, based on a proposal by the Ariel Center for Policy Research (ACPR), assumes that there is no unique Palestinian identity and that the Palestinians in the West Bank should get \"restoration of Jordanian citizenship\" while Egypt should have responsibility for the Gaza Strip. Israel thus has no reason to agree to assimilate them or provide them with a state, since they were part of those countries until their territory was captured in the 1967 Six-Day War. This proposal is very similar to the three-state solution advocated by some commentators.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1409458",
"title": "Consociationalism",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "In addition to the two-state solution, some have argued for a one-state solution under a consociational democracy in the state of Israel to solve the Arab–Israeli conflict, but this solution is not very popular, nor has it been discussed seriously at peace negotiations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39913797",
"title": "Al-Haq",
"section": "Section::::Issues and campaigns.:Relations to Israel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 712,
"text": "Al-Haq board members have expressed their feelings of doubt towards a two-state solution. One wrote that “If there cannot be two states, there will be one, and it will have a Palestinian majority.” Another said that a two-state solution looks increasingly unlikely. He went on to say that birthrates suggest Jews will eventually be a minority once again, and “unless continued military occupation and all-out apartheid is the desired path, now may be the time for Israelis to start putting in place the kinds of legal and constitutional safeguards that will protect all minorities, now and in the future, in a single democratic state of Israel-Palestine. This is both the right thing and the smart thing to do.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36806601",
"title": "Oslo Accords",
"section": "Section::::Alternatives to the Oslo Accords.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "Although not an alternative to the accords themselves, a one-state solution would be an alternative to the two-state solution envisaged in the accords. This would combine Israel and the Palestinian territories into a single state with one government. An argument for this solution is that neither side can justly claim a state on all of the land. An argument against it is that it would endanger the safety of the Jewish minority.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3iteh7
|
how does using a throwaway account protect your identity on reddit?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's to prevent people in your life who know your reddit username from knowing that the stuff posted by the throwaway is from the same person.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A throwaway account is a new account that have no connection to your main account or real identity (if your real identity is known).\n\nSo obviously, there is no way for someone to know who the throwaway is. So you are anonymous. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well OP, a quick look through your Reddit history, I see several pictures of the same cat which I can presume belongs to you or your family, I see you've posted some marijuana purchases, and I see that you have been active on /r/NoFap. \n\nMaybe you can imagine wanting to post a *really* embarrassing secret to Reddit. It probably wouldn't be a good idea to post that to the same account where you posted pictures of your face. Someone could look at your post history and they might know who you are in real life!\n\nThat's the kind of situation where some people might make a throwaway account. They can still reveal the secret, and there's no worry that an outsider might look at their post history and be able to identify them.\n\nThat being said, a throwaway account likely still logs IP access. In theory, any admin of Reddit could easily correlate a throwaway with a main account if accessed through the same IP address. You could work around this by using a different network, perhaps a cafe with wifi; or you could use Tor.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3974048",
"title": "Identity fraud",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "A person's personal information may be surreptitiously obtained, commonly described as identity theft, in a variety of ways. A fraudster may use another person's basic personal details (such as name, address, username and PIN) to access the victim's online accounts, including banking accounts, email, and social media accounts. Such access may be for the purpose of obtaining further personal information on the target. More seriously, the information may then be used in truly fraudulent activities, such as opening a credit card account in the victim's name, and then charging purchases to that account, or the entering into a loan agreement in the victim's name. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "650653",
"title": "Electronic assessment",
"section": "Section::::Advantages.:Academic dishonesty.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 1017,
"text": "Identity fraud can occur in the traditional or online classroom. There is a higher chance in online classes due to the lack of proctored exams or instructor-student interaction. In a traditional classroom, instructors have the opportunity to get to know the students, learn their writing styles or use proctored exams. To prevent identity fraud in an online class, instructors can use proctored exams through the institutions testing center or require students to come in at a certain time for the exam. Correspondence through the phone or video conferencing techniques can allow an instructor to become familiar with a student through their voice and appearance. Another option would be personalize assignments to students backgrounds or current activities. This allows the student to apply it to their personal life and gives the instructor more assurance the actual student is completing the assignment. Lastly, an instructor may not make the assignments heavily weighted so the students do not feel as pressured.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11421471",
"title": "Internet fraud prevention",
"section": "Section::::Identity theft.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 963,
"text": "Fortunately, there are precautions that consumers can take to prevent identity theft. There are simple ways in which to avoid becoming a victim of identity fraud and an easy way to remember them is the acronym SCAM. SCAM reminds us to 1. Be stingy when giving out personal information to others 2. Check financial information regularly and recognize when something strange has occurred 3. Ask for a copy of your credit report often, and 4. Maintain careful financial records. It is necessary to be aware of phishing and to always be cautious of giving your personal information out through e-mail, website or over the phone. Also be sure that the phone number, name and mailing address registered to your bank account is all correct as there are cases in which bank statements have been sent to false addresses and identities have been stolen. Check these bank statements regularly and be sure that there are no charges to your account that you do not recognize.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46526",
"title": "Advance-fee scam",
"section": "Section::::Common elements.:Anonymous communication.:Email hijacking/friend scams.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "Some fraudsters hijack existing email accounts and use them for advance-fee fraud purposes. The fraudster impersonates associates, friends, or family members of the legitimate account owner in an attempt to defraud them. A variety of techniques such as phishing, keyloggers, and computer viruses are used to gain login information for the email address.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20989418",
"title": "List of email scams",
"section": "Section::::Email scams.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 718,
"text": "BULLET::::- Online dating scam: Usually this scam begins at an online dating site, and is quickly moved to personal email, online chat room, or social media site. Once off the dating site, the perpetrator will usually try to steer the conversation to something sexual in nature. Not long after the victim will receive an email indicating that their name, picture, and phone number have been posted on a site where they are named a cheater. The option to view the site is given for a small fee. The option to have the pictures and transcript removed from the site for a larger fee is also given. There are no reports from the FBI however, that indicate that the records are actually removed once payment has been made.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42426523",
"title": "Anonymous social media",
"section": "Section::::Degrees of anonymity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 976,
"text": "Across different forms of anonymous social media there are varying degrees of anonymity. Some applications require users to sign up for an account, even though their profile is not linked to their posts. While they still remain anonymous, some of these sites have the ability to sync up with the user's contact list or location to develop a context within the social community and help personalize the user's experience, such as Yik Yak or Secret. Other sites, such as 4chan and 2channel, allow for a purer form of anonymity as users are not required to make any kind of account, and posts default to the username of 'Anonymous'. While users can still be traced through their IP address, there are anonymizing services like I2P or various proxy server services that encrypt a user's identity online by running it through different routers. Secret users must provide a phone number or email when signing up for the service, and their information is encrypted into their posts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "428364",
"title": "Phishing",
"section": "Section::::Technique.:Website forgery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "An attacker can also potentially use flaws in a trusted website's own scripts against the victim. These types of attacks (known as cross-site scripting) are particularly problematic, because they direct the user to sign in at their bank or service's own web page, where everything from the web address to the security certificates appears correct. In reality, the link to the website is crafted to carry out the attack, making it very difficult to spot without specialist knowledge. Such a flaw was used in 2006 against PayPal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
qtbdj
|
the process of brewing
|
[
{
"answer": "Yeast eats sugar and excretes ethanol and carbon dioxide as a waste products. Eventually there is so much alcohol in the solution the yeast dies off and you have an alcoholic beverage.\n\nFor beer, the sugar typically comes form a specially prepared malted barely. Most homebrewers start with a kit that has all the grains prepared. You basically mix everything together and put it in a large bottle that lets the CO2 escape, and let it set for days or even weeks until all the yeast dies. If everything went right, now you have beer. Yay, beer! ",
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"answer": "In my experience, most people do the \"partial mash\" method. Meaning, you get a lot of your sugar from extract, and then add some specialty grains.\n\nExtract is the sugar and byproducts of grains that have germinated, and then baked - a process called \"malting.\" You need a lot of grains to homebrew a typical 5gal batch of beer. Extract simplifies this because you don't have to by many pounds of malted barley.\n\nThe specialty grains are used to give unique flavors to your beer, and you typically use about 1.5-2.5lbs per 5gal homebrew batch.\n\nHops are used to 1) add flavor, and 2) \"cancel out\" the excess sugar flavors after the fermenting process is done.\n\nYeast is used to convert the sugar from the extract and specialty grains into carbon dioxide and alcohol.\n\nNow, with all that - here is a simple explanation on how to brew beer at home\n\n- Start by filling a stock pot with about 2.5gals of water, and place it over a burner on high\n\n- While the water is heating up, you place your specialty grains in grain bags (think large tea bags), and you steep the grains while the water is heating\n\n- Just before boil, you remove the steeping grains (because it they get too hot, your beer will end up tasting a bit nasty)\n\n- At boil, you add your extract - bits at a time, as to not \"boil over\" the stock pot.\n\n- Now, recipes call for different types of hop additions. One is call \"boiling hops\" - meaning you add them while you are boiling your beer (which typically lasts for an hour). The other is called \"finishing hops,\" and are added just before you complete boiling.\n\n- After boiling is over, you cool down the \"wort\" to the temp required for the yeast (about 70F for ales, and 30-40F for most lagers).\n\n- You then transfer your wort to a 5gal glass bottle (\"carboy\") and \"pitch\" your yeast.\n\n- Wait for a several days while the yeast makes beer, and blows off CO2\n\n- After the beer has settled down, you \"rack\" it to another container. This lets you get rid of all the dead yeast cells and left over \"junk\" that may have been in your beer.\n\n- You can then age your beer as long as you want, or get ready to bottle/keg as soon as it clarifies.\n\n- Bottling: you add a bit of sugar to the beer, and bottle it. The left over yeast will consume the new sugar and carbonate the beer in the bottle.\n\n- Kegging: dump all the beer in a keg, attach a CO2 to the keg, and carbonate for several days.\n\n- LAST BUT MOST IMPORTANT STEP: drink.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4410",
"title": "Brewing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "Brewing is the production of beer by steeping a starch source (commonly cereal grains, the most popular of which is barley) in water and fermenting the resulting sweet liquid with yeast. It may be done in a brewery by a commercial brewer, at home by a homebrewer, or by a variety of traditional methods such as communally by the indigenous peoples in Brazil when making cauim. Brewing has taken place since around the 6th millennium BC, and archaeological evidence suggests that emerging civilizations including ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia brewed beer. Since the nineteenth century the brewing industry has been part of most western economies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7984",
"title": "Drink",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Fermentation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "When brewing beer, there are four primary ingredients – water, grain, yeast and hops. The grain is encouraged to germinate by soaking and drying in heat, a process known as malting. It is then milled before soaking again to create the sugars needed for fermentation. This process is known as mashing. Hops are added for flavouring, then the yeast is added to the mixture (now called wort) to start the fermentation process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10048",
"title": "Ethanol",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Fermentation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Fermentation is the process of culturing yeast under favorable thermal conditions to produce alcohol. This process is carried out at around . Toxicity of ethanol to yeast limits the ethanol concentration obtainable by brewing; higher concentrations, therefore, are obtained by fortification or distillation. The most ethanol-tolerant yeast strains can survive up to approximately 18% ethanol by volume.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4502",
"title": "Biotechnology",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 803,
"text": "These processes also were included in early fermentation of beer. These processes were introduced in early Mesopotamia, Egypt, China and India, and still use the same basic biological methods. In brewing, malted grains (containing enzymes) convert starch from grains into sugar and then adding specific yeasts to produce beer. In this process, carbohydrates in the grains broke down into alcohols, such as ethanol. Later, other cultures produced the process of lactic acid fermentation, which produced other preserved foods, such as soy sauce. Fermentation was also used in this time period to produce leavened bread. Although the process of fermentation was not fully understood until Louis Pasteur's work in 1857, it is still the first use of biotechnology to convert a food source into another form.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19555342",
"title": "Brewery",
"section": "Section::::Brewing process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 1310,
"text": "Fermentation begins as soon as yeast is added to the cooled wort. This is also the point at which the product is first called beer. It is during this stage that fermentable sugars won from the malt (maltose, maltotriose, glucose, fructose and sucrose) are metabolized into alcohol and carbon dioxide. Fermentation tanks come in many shapes and sizes, from enormous cylindroconical vessels that can look like storage silos, to five-gallon glass carboys used by homebrewers. Most breweries today use cylindroconical vessels (CCVs), which have a conical bottom and a cylindrical top. The cone's aperture is typically around 70°, an angle that will allow the yeast to flow smoothly out through the cone's apex at the end of fermentation, but is not so steep as to take up too much vertical space. CCVs can handle both fermenting and conditioning in the same tank. At the end of fermentation, the yeast and other solids have fallen to the cone's apex can be simply flushed out through a port at the apex. Open fermentation vessels are also used, often for show in brewpubs, and in Europe in wheat beer fermentation. These vessels have no tops, making it easy to harvest top-fermenting yeasts. The open tops of the vessels increase the risk of contamination, but proper cleaning procedures help to control the risk.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4410",
"title": "Brewing",
"section": "Section::::Ingredients.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "Yeast is the microorganism that is responsible for fermentation in beer. Yeast metabolises the sugars extracted from grains, which produces alcohol and carbon dioxide, and thereby turns wort into beer. In addition to fermenting the beer, yeast influences the character and flavour.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27876537",
"title": "Brewing methods",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "Beer is produced through steeping a sugar source (commonly malted cereal grains) in water and then fermenting with yeast. Brewing has taken place since around the 6th millennium BC, and archeological evidence suggests that this technique was used in ancient Egypt. Descriptions of various beer recipes can be found in Sumerian writings, some of the oldest known writing of any sort. Brewing is done in a brewery by a brewer, and the brewing industry is part of most western economies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
b4jtsq
|
why does screaming relieve physical pain to an extent?
|
[
{
"answer": "The theory is that the the part of the brain used for pain and the part of the brain we use for talking or yelling kind of “overlap,” so we can’t really use both at the same time. The brain is quite interesting, but sometimes it really sucks at multitasking, so we’re able to use one part or the other, but not at the same time. Screaming can even be used for pain management, although others around you may not appreciate it very much. It’s an interesting area that’s still being studied.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Evolutionary response. Part of the pain is purely psychological. Pain means that danger is nearby and the primal part of your brain wants you to warn the herd. You shout out conforming to instincts and the satisfied brain settles down for a while.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Screaming helps trigger our brain's \"fight or flight\" response. In the response the brain releases loads of adrenaline which helps our heart speed up, gives us maximum strength, and numbs our response to pain. This is why people talk about not even feeling being shot. The adrenaline is so high your response to pain is little to none.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Multiple doctors have told me that, if you have the urge to cry or scream, to do so. The reason why; bc it supposedly relaxes your body and eases the stiffness and tension, which then relieves some of the pain. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The body has two basic modes of being: rest/digest and fight/flight. This allows us to respond to a changing environment and accidents. Pain is a signal that encourages us to rest/digest. However, if we face immediate danger then the body will create natural painkillers that temporarily relieve the pain, since our brain is telling our body that it needs to be in fight/flight mode: \"No time to rest/digest now!\"\n\nWhen we scream, we can activate our fight/flight response mode. Many warrior cultures used screaming to prepare for battle. This would make sense as a way of activating the body's natural painkillers.\n\nDepending on the context, screaming can also be intended as a signal to others. Humans are social creatures with brain chemistry that feels pain more strongly when we feel disconnected. Since physical pain is such a personal thing it is natural that the experience of it also triggers a feeling of disconnection, which is itself painful. Screaming as a signal to others could lead to social rewards that in themselves trigger natural painkillers.\n\nEdit: fixing autocorrect...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Alot of the top comments have really smart responses, but they ignore that when you scream, youre releasing more CO2 than normal, and in turn your heart will be pumping more oxygenated blood through your body. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Additionally, why does yelling and swearing relieve stress in most people?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My psych professor explained the \"pain gate\" hypothesis to us: basically, the amount of information that is able to pass up and through to the part of the brain that processes pain is limited. By yelling, or rubbing your belly, or concentrating on something else or any number of stimuli or a combination of stimuli, you are giving your brain enough extra info to process that the raw \"pain\" data that gets through is limited.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In addition to the physiological responses shared, there is also a psychological one - our society has evolved toward altruism where our natural instinct is to help those who alert us to pain or danger. Screaming is your brains way of sending a distress signal to others around you who might be able to help. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not an expert, but it's mostly due to your brain focusing on something else. Like if you have a headache, watching a interesting movie or playing a video game makes your brain \"forget\" the pain (no loud sounds or bright lights of course)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I majored in sensory psych and among the course load I took “pain and suffering” and “sensory perception” and it has to do with giving your brain something else to process. The pain receptors are a more visceral, primitive system and so is auditory perception, than say your neocortex or outer layer brain processing of reasoning. The brain has limited bandwidth so when you give a good hard scream it is focusing on processing the yell and the scream and if it’s real good, the physical sensation of the primal yell. So it temporarily numbs you.\n\nThere are a lot of interesting things that numb pain. For instance capsaicin activates pain receptors and after several days of overloading pain receptors, the brain will “turn down” the pain signal in the same area so it is useful in chronic surface pain management. \n\nObviously screaming ain’t a long term treatment though. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is a theory that ties this together with endorphins and to a lesser extent adrenaline. This connects the \"kia\" (shouting while striking) in karate, the valsava and scream in lifting, and screaming / growling / cursing when you stub your toe on a table leg.\n\nThe temporary excitement kind of tells pain to quiet down so you can focus on the matter hand. In sport, it reduces natural inhibitions to allow for maximal effort. In toe-stubbing it basically gives you a break to run from or attack your table.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I honestly don't know the direct answer but it reminds me of a fantastic NPR show where an anthropologist discovers a word in a native tribe that makes them want to decapitate people. The word \"Legit\" seems to be a composite of intense emotions for these people. After his wife dies in an accident he says he finally understood the meaning behind the word as his only way of coping with the pain is through an intense wailing. I would say this is closely related. \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I asked in college and my professor said “My understanding is that yelling or screaming release adrenaline and endorphins which are natural at creating euphoria or masking sympathies of pain.”\n\nSo, screaming creates a catharsis , which is pleasurable psychologically, hence endorphins released. \n\nBut screaming is a subconscious response to pain, which releases adrenaline to survive. \n\nThe two mix together to temporarily remove “feelings” of pain. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Put in simple words...When you scream you exhale the air within your body which relaxes you and pain fades away a bit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It’s actually quite simple. Screaming is linked in our brain to aggression and pain response. Both trigger a release of endorphins, such as adrenaline and cortisol, that result in a decrease of pain reactivity. Learned this in my anatomy class when studying fight or flight response.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "“We found that the amygdala—but not auditory cortex—is specifically sensitive to temporal modulations in the roughness range (Figure 4B). These results demonstrate that rough sounds specifically target neural circuits involved in fear/danger processing [27, 28] and hence provide evidence that roughness constitutes an efficient acoustic attribute to trigger adapted reactions to danger.”\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Screaming causes a feeling of rush inside you, and that feeling will temporarily override the feeling of pain.\n\nThere’s only a few feelings you can self generate inside you by your self, the ones I’m aware of are screaming as you’ve mentioned, speeding to cause a rush feeling of adrenaline (my favourite) and then self inflicting pain - which is not necessary if you’re aware of the other 2.\n\nThese work with both physical and emotional pain.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Limited understanding of the brain here, but working on the gate theory of pain and signal transmission between neurons it’s like; neurons are roadways leading to your brain that can only handle so much traffic, once a lane is full another gateway opens and signal moves forward. If you experience pain and utilize your senses; sound, sight, touch, smell, equilibrium, taste you can flood the lanes causing a traffic congestion. Pain takes a priority in the traffic lanes, like an ambulance or fire engine, but the more congestion there is the more information the brain has to process and so....yelling/screaming engages another sense organ/pathway causing ‘traffic’ which slows everything down. This, the activation of gateways along the pains path are already occupied, slowing down the signal of pain. Your not minimizing/relieving pain, just working the system)))))",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Muscles store tension, and in most animals they have a natural deactivation mechanism (body tremors) that release this tension. In humans though due to our higher brain function and us being highly social we can override this deactivation mechanism because it's not always convenient at the given time to go through it. The problem is we tend to do it so much we can get stuck in the \"on position\" for the tension and our muscles get locked in place, this is trauma.\n\nSo when you scream you are activating multiple muscle groups, particularly in your core muscles and neck, common muscles that get locked in. By activating them you are actually releasing tension built into them and triggering a tremor that causes them to heal. There is also a hormonal release associated with it that floods your system with pain dampening hormones.\n\nIf you want to learn more about this look into **Polyvagal Theory**",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "TL;DR: Pain is encouraged by a disruptive event in your body, such as stubbing your toe. This sends a signal upwards in the nervous system to your brain. Pain is produced within the brain itself. When the brain determines that a certain sensation is unimportant, it will send a signal downwards to 'block' the upward signal. This is called the descending pathway (DP). Screaming encourages your fight or flight response which will cause your brain to filter out the unnecessary pain signals by activating the DP.\n\n\n\nI know this post is a little old, but I think I can shed some light. I am a physical therapist and currently the field is heavily influenced by pain science, the study of how pain is produced, modulated, and perceived. I think the best way to answer this question is to first understand how pain is produced. Contrary to what you may think, the 'production' of pain does not occur in the painful area. Let's use a stubbed toe as an example. When you stub your toe, dedicated nerves from your toe send a signal to your spinal cord that an event has occurred at your toe. Another nerve then sends the same signal to your thalamus (part of the brain) stating the same thing, \"an event has occurred at your toe.\" From here the thalamus has to decide if this \"event\" is bad or not based on a lot of life experiences you already have and context of your surroundings (this is a simplified statement, the real process here is likely very complex).\n\nSo, if the thalamus determines the \"event\" is bad, it then sends a signal to your sensory cortex (another part of your brain) and pain is finally generated and perceived. This final step is the only thing that truly produces pain. If the thalamus had decided the event was normal and not dangerous, you would not perceive pain because the signal would stop there.\n\nNow that we understand the production of pain, we can talk a bit about how pain is modulated. This refers to our bodies ability to influence the intensity of the pain signal as it travels from your stubbed toe to your sensory cortex. There are many components to this, but I will just speak on one that is important to the question above: the descending pathway (DP). The DP is a series of nerves that travels from the brain to the spinal cord. When this is active, it sends it's signal to the same place in the spinal cord as your stubbed toe first did. However, it acts in the opposite way. Your stubbed toe encourages your spinal cord nerve to send the signal up to the brain. The DP tells that nerve not to. In a way, the DP says that this stubbed toe signal is not important, please ignore. This is a super important pathway and is actually similar to how opioids work but they come with some unfortunate side effects. I won't get into this too much here because I have already written a lot.\n\nThe DP is the pathway that most likely plays a role in how screaming alleviates the pain. As people have noted, screaming encourages the fight or flight response in you. This is called a sympathetic state of your nervous system. A sympathetic state will cause your brain to prioritize only the most important sensations to encourage survival. In that process, the DP will activate for any unimportant pain signals such as your stubbed toe. Running from a potential threat is more important than your toe, so your brain dampens that signal with the DP.\n\nEdit: formatting",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3911668",
"title": "Screaming",
"section": "Section::::As a phenomenon.:Communication and language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 807,
"text": "Elaine Scarry, writer and literature professor, talks about language in connection to pain and she thinks that pain almost destroys the language because it brings people back into a state where sounds and screams are dominating as they were their means of communication before they learned how to speak. Pain cannot actually be communicated, as it is a personal experience and can only be experienced individually. Pain, as any other concept, is actually an individual experience that can only be communicated as an idea and it also is to be interpreted as. Hegel writes: “The biggest relief when having pain is to be able to scream it out […] through this expression, the pain becomes objective and this makes the connection between the subject, who is alone in pain, and the object, that is not in pain.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3911668",
"title": "Screaming",
"section": "Section::::As a phenomenon.:In psychology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "In psychology, the scream is an important theme in the theories of Arthur Janov. In his book \"The Primal Scream\", Janov claims that the cure for neurosis is to confront the patient with his suppressed pain resulting from an experienced trauma. This confrontation gives birth to a scream. Janov believes that it is not necessary that it heals the patient from his trauma. The scream is only a form of expression of primal pain, which comes from one's childhood, and the reliving of this pain and its expression. This finally appears through the scream and can cure the patient from his neurosis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17389946",
"title": "Crying",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "The question of the function or origin of emotional tears remains open. Theories range from the simple, such as response to inflicted pain, to the more complex, including nonverbal communication in order to elicit altruistic helping behavior from others. Some have also claimed that crying can serve several biochemical purposes, such as relieving stress and clearance of the eyes. Crying is believed to be an outlet or a result of a burst of intense emotional sensations, such as agony, surprise or joy. This theory could explain why people cry during cheerful events, as well as very painful events.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "143803",
"title": "Tears",
"section": "Section::::Social aspects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "Some modern therapy movements such as Re-evaluation Counseling teach that crying is beneficial to health and mental well-being, encouraging it positively. An insincere display of grief or dishonest remorse is sometimes called crocodile tears in reference to an Ancient Greek anecdote that crocodiles would pretend to weep while luring or devouring their prey. In addition, in medical terms, someone is said to have crocodile tears syndrome as an uncommon consequence of recovery from Bell's palsy, in which faulty regeneration of the facial nerve causes sufferers to shed tears while eating.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "521571",
"title": "Laryngitis",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Acute.:Trauma.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "BULLET::::- Often due to excessive use of the vocal folds such as excessive yelling, screaming, or singing. Though this often results in damage to the outer layers of the vocal folds, the subsequent healing may lead to changes in the physiology of the folds. Another potential cause of inflammation may be overuse of the vocal cords. Laryngeal trauma, including iatrogenic (caused by endotracheal intubation), can also result in inflammation of the vocal cords.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41757168",
"title": "Laughter yoga",
"section": "Section::::Scientific evidence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "Laughter has been shown to decrease cortisol, the body's stress hormone. When this hormone is elevated it can cause issues like high blood pressure, weight gain, and memory loss. It also increases endorphins, which lowers pain in the body. Yoga has been shown to decrease cortisol and increase endorphins. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3911668",
"title": "Screaming",
"section": "Section::::As a phenomenon.:Communication and language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "Arnal and colleague demonstrated that human screams exploit a unique acoustic property, roughness, that selectively activates the auditory brain as well as the amygdala, a deep brain structure involved in danger processing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7kgamb
|
what makes something “music”?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's a bit like asking what makes something art. There's no one definition that everyone agrees on. Personally I believe something is art when it is called art by its creator. By extension, something is music when it is art (by the definition above) and it is sonic in nature.\n\nPeople who say you don't make music are elitist dickholes, don't pay any attention to them. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22938",
"title": "Performing arts",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Music.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "Music is an art form which combines pitch, rhythm, and dynamic in order to create sound. It can be performed using a variety of instruments and styles and is divided into genres such as folk, jazz, hip hop, pop, and rock, etc. As an art form, music can occur in live or recorded formats, and can be planned or improvised.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "90317",
"title": "Fine art",
"section": "Section::::Music.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "Music is an art form and cultural activity whose medium is sound organized in time. The common elements of music are pitch (which governs melody and harmony), rhythm (and its associated concepts tempo, meter, and articulation), dynamics (loudness and softness), and the sonic qualities of timbre and texture (which are sometimes termed the \"color\" of a musical sound). Different styles or types of music may emphasize, de-emphasize or omit some of these elements. Music is performed with a vast range of instruments and vocal techniques ranging from singing to rapping; there are solely instrumental pieces, solely vocal pieces (such as songs without instrumental accompaniment) and pieces that combine singing and instruments. The word derives from Greek μουσική (mousike; \"art of the Muses\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29560452",
"title": "The arts",
"section": "Section::::Performing arts.:Music.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 837,
"text": "Music is an art form whose medium is sound and silence, occurring in time. Common elements of music are pitch (which governs melody and harmony), rhythm (and its associated concepts tempo, metre, and articulation), dynamics, and the sonic qualities of timbre and texture. The creation, performance, significance, and even the definition of music vary according to culture and social context. Music ranges from strictly organized compositions (and their reproduction in performance) through improvisational music to aleatoric pieces. Music can be divided into genres and subgenres, although the dividing lines and relationships between music genres are often subtle, sometimes open to individual interpretation, and occasionally controversial. Within \"the arts,\" music may be classified as a performing art, a fine art, and auditory art.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18839",
"title": "Music",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 825,
"text": "Music is an art form and cultural activity whose medium is sound organized in time. General definitions of music include common elements such as pitch (which governs melody and harmony), rhythm (and its associated concepts tempo, meter, and articulation), dynamics (loudness and softness), and the sonic qualities of timbre and texture (which are sometimes termed the \"color\" of a musical sound). Different styles or types of music may emphasize, de-emphasize or omit some of these elements. Music is performed with a vast range of instruments and vocal techniques ranging from singing to rapping; there are solely instrumental pieces, solely vocal pieces (such as songs without instrumental accompaniment) and pieces that combine singing and instruments. The word derives from Greek μουσική (\"mousike\"; \"art of the Muses\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37914091",
"title": "Karevan",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 790,
"text": "Music, in general, is able to generate a wide range of discussions since it is a very common topic among a lot of people. It creates a lot of emotions and at the same time communicate a various message to various audiences. Its significance and relevance can be seen in different perspectives in our lives. Music can convey meaning in three ways, one way is through sounds ability to imitate another sound in the environment an example of this is the khoomei singer who is able to imitate an environmental sound like that of a running horse or the flow of water in a river. Sound can also portray ideas as shown by the rhythm of a drum associated with a musical family in Dakar Senegal. Another sound is an aerophone. in both these instruments, sounds become a representation of phenomena.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8249",
"title": "Definition of music",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "The \"Concise Oxford Dictionary\" defines music as \"the art of combining vocal or instrumental sounds (or both) to produce beauty of form, harmony, and expression of emotion\" . However, some music genres, such as noise music and musique concrète, challenge these ideas by using sounds not widely considered as musical, beautiful or harmonius, like randomly produced electronic distortion, feedback, static, cacophony, and sounds produced using compositional processes which utilize indeterminacy (; ).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13444712",
"title": "Philosophy of music",
"section": "Section::::Philosophical issues.:Definition of music.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1069,
"text": "\"Explications of the concept of music usually begin with the idea that music is organized sound. They go on to note that this characterization is too broad, since there are many examples of organized sound that are not music, such as human speech, and the sounds non-human animals and machines make.\" There are many different ways of denoting the fundamental aspects of music which are more specific than \"sound\": popular aspects include melody (pitches that occur consecutively), harmony (pitches regarded as groups—not necessarily sounding at the same time—to form chords), rhythm, meter and timbre (also known as a sound's \"color\"). However, noise music may consist mainly of noise. Musique concrète often consists only of sound samples of non-musical nature, sometimes in random juxtaposition. Ambient music may consist of recordings of wildlife or nature. The arrival of these avant-garde forms of music in the 20th century have been a major challenge to traditional views of music as being based around melodies and rhythms, leading to broader characterizations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3t5n5k
|
why don't refugees, if they have to pay up to 1000 dollars in order to get crammed on a sketchy boat, use that money to arrange their own, less sketchy boat with fewer people?
|
[
{
"answer": "They use smugglers because that is their only option. Legitimate travel methods are not allowing them out of the country and buying their own boat would cost far more than what the smugglers are charging if there are even boats available for purchase and people who know how to operate them for hire at this point in time. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is a classic economic question, I suppose.\n\n1) Information. Refugees might not know how much it would cost to pool these resources themselves. They might not be able to find a boat or captain themselves. They might need help when they get there.\n\n2) Would it really be cheaper to do it that way? What would the refugees do when they get their? Sell the boat? To who? Well the smugglers don't have to buy a new boat or hire a new captain every time. So that saves money.\n\n3) Is this some sort of strange victim blaming?\n\nEDIT: grammar and typos",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "438046",
"title": "Refugee camp",
"section": "Section::::Economy, work and income.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "However, refugee hosting countries do not usually follow this policy and instead do not allow refugees to work legally. In many countries the only option is either to work for a small incentive (with NGOs based in the camp) or to work illegally with no rights and often bad conditions. In some camps it is accepted that refugees set up their own businesses. Some refugees even became rich with that. Those without a job or without relatives and friends who send remittances, need to sell parts of their food rations to get cash. As support does not usually provide cash effective demand may not be created\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41255208",
"title": "Persons with reduced mobility",
"section": "Section::::Ferry Travel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "Travelling by ferry is still a problem for persons with disadvantaged / reduced mobility as most passenger ships currently operating, were designed prior to the current European and British legislation on equality for disadvantaged / reduced mobility persons. Many ferry companies cannot provide adequate accessible facilities due to the design of the ship. Requests to travel from persons with reduced mobility, can be refused on the grounds of safety, under a legal requirement that all passengers need to be evacuated from a vessel in less than 30 minutes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48864549",
"title": "Rice production in Haiti",
"section": "Section::::Impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "It is not uncommon for Haitians to illegally immigrate due to the inability to secure work visa for many poor rural Haitians. In many ways, they face a harsher risk leaving Haiti than those who choose to stay. Those traveling into another country illegally often choose to arrive on a boat. However, the boats have been proven to be extremely dangerous and there is a large percentage of Haitians who die at sea in an attempt to reach their destination. There was one instance that occurred in 2000 in which a boat, carrying Haitians to the Turks and Caicos Islands, capsized and killed sixty people that were on board.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "536839",
"title": "Red Hook, Brooklyn",
"section": "Section::::Location.:IKEA.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "A once-free ferry service for shoppers from Manhattan proved more popular than expected. Though weekday ferry tickets start from $5, passengers who make purchases of over $10 can get a $5 ferry credit toward the cost of the shuttle ticket. The ferry, operated by New York Water Taxi, is still free on weekends.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26977557",
"title": "Air travel disruption after the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption",
"section": "Section::::Stranded travelers.:Alternative transport routes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Many people who had to travel, particularly those stranded while away from their home countries, faced large costs for unanticipated travel and accommodation at a time of scarcity. Some costs were covered by compensation from airlines and travel insurance, although there were many disputes over payments. Some people incurred large taxicab fares over long distances, such as John Cleese, who took a taxi from Oslo to Brussels and paid €3,000 for the journey.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17355024",
"title": "Immigrant benefits urban legend",
"section": "Section::::Canadian origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 683,
"text": "I think the effort to resettle refugees in smaller communities is an excellent effort. These refugees may find it easier to integrate into a smaller community especially if accompanied by some of their compatriots. I also find it interesting that the federal government provides a single refugee with a monthly allowance of $1,890 and each can also get an additional $580 in social assistance for a total of $2,470. This compares very well to a single pensioner who after contributing to the growth and development of Canada for 40 years can only receive a monthly maximum of $1,012 in old age pension and Guaranteed Income Supplement. Maybe our pensioners should apply as refugees?\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25361305",
"title": "Carol Bernstein Ferry",
"section": "Section::::Personal giving.:Philanthropic goals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "Although the Ferrys rarely wrote checks for more than two or three thousand dollars at a time, they gave larger amounts – sometimes more than $25,000 a year – to major companies who were doing work the Ferrys considered very important. Another prerequisite for these large checks was that the company had to have a large enough budget that the Ferrys' money would help without creating a situation in which leadership could be corrupted by a huge new influx of funds. Some of the organizations the Ferrys continually supported include:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
jzk9x
|
Cows have bacteria in their stomachs to help break down cellulose in grass in order to digest it. Could a human be inoculated with these bacteria, and then be able to eat grass?
|
[
{
"answer": "The bacteria are part of it, but remember that ruminants like cows have a four compartment stomach. First, the plant material enters the rumen and is separated into solid and liquid layers. The solid is regurgitated as the cud, which is masticated further and swallowed again. So, even if we innoculate ourselves with the stomach flora of bovine, have them survive the human stomach and have the human survive as well, we would encounter the rough task of heaving up our grassy lunch, chewing up the vomitus and swallowing it. Then there is the possibility that not enough nutrients may be extracted from the plant matter. Based on that, I'd say it isn't feasible.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The bacteria are part of it, but remember that ruminants like cows have a four compartment stomach. First, the plant material enters the rumen and is separated into solid and liquid layers. The solid is regurgitated as the cud, which is masticated further and swallowed again. So, even if we innoculate ourselves with the stomach flora of bovine, have them survive the human stomach and have the human survive as well, we would encounter the rough task of heaving up our grassy lunch, chewing up the vomitus and swallowing it. Then there is the possibility that not enough nutrients may be extracted from the plant matter. Based on that, I'd say it isn't feasible.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5267764",
"title": "Economic importance of bacteria",
"section": "Section::::Useful bacteria.:Digestion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "Bacteria living in the gut of cattle, horses and other herbivores, for example \"Ruminococcus\" spp., help digest the cellulose component of their diet by secreting the enzyme cellulase. Cellulose is the major source of energy for these animals. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23092516",
"title": "Atmospheric methane",
"section": "Section::::Emissions accounting of methane.:Natural sources of atmospheric methane.:Animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "Ruminant animals, particularly cows and sheep, contain bacteria in their gastrointestinal systems that help to break down plant material. Some of these microorganisms use the acetate from the plant material to produce methane, and because these bacteria live in the stomachs and intestines of ruminants, whenever the animal \"burps\" or defecates, it emits methane as well. Based upon a study in the Snowy Mountains region, the amount of methane emitted by one cow is equivalent to the amount of methane that around 3.4 hectares of methanotrophic bacteria can consume.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10341263",
"title": "United States raw milk debate",
"section": "Section::::Quality standards for milk.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 625,
"text": "Somatic cells originate only from inside the animal's udder, while bacteria are usually from external contamination, such as insufficient cleaning of the milk transport equipment or insufficient external cleansing of the cow’s udder and teats prior to milking. Milking equipment can also be accidentally knocked or kicked off an animal onto the floor, and contaminants on the barn floor can be sucked into the milk line by the system vacuum. A filter sock or filter disk in the pipeline prevents large particulate contaminants from entering the milk bulk tank, but cannot remove bacterial contamination once it has occurred.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6911",
"title": "Cellulose",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "Some animals, particularly ruminants and termites, can digest cellulose with the help of symbiotic micro-organisms that live in their guts, such as \"Trichonympha\". In human nutrition, cellulose is a non-digestible constituent of insoluble dietary fiber, acting as a hydrophilic bulking agent for feces and potentially aiding in defecation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5635076",
"title": "Syntrophy",
"section": "Section::::Microbial syntrophy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "Another example is the many organisms that feed on faeces or dung. A cow diet consists mainly of grass, the cellulose of which is transformed into lipids by micro-organisms in the cow's large intestine. These micro-organisms cannot use the lipids because of lack of oxygen in the intestine, so the cow does not take up all lipids produced. When the processed grass leaves the intestine as dung and comes into open air, many organisms, such as the dung beetle, feed on it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1757377",
"title": "Somatic cell count",
"section": "Section::::Bacteria plate count.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 630,
"text": "Somatic cells originate only from inside the animal's udder, while the bacteria are usually from external contaminations, such as insufficient cleaning of the milk transport equipment or insufficient external cleansing of the cow's udder and teats prior to milking. Milking equipment can also be accidentally knocked or kicked off an animal onto the floor, and contaminants on the barn floor can be sucked into the milk line by the system vacuum. A filter sock or filter disk in the pipeline prevents large particulate contaminants from entering the milk bulk tank, but cannot remove bacterial contamination once it has occurred.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1028429",
"title": "Cud",
"section": "Section::::Rumination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "The alimentary canal of ruminants, such as cattle, giraffes, goats, sheep, alpacas, and antelope, are unable to produce the enzymes required to break down the cellulose and hemicellulose of plant matter. Accordingly, these animals have developed a symbiotic relationship with a wide range of microbes, which largely reside in the reticulorumen, and which are able to synthesize the requisite enzymes. The reticulorumen thus hosts a microbial fermentation which yields products (mainly volatile fatty acids and microbial protein), which the ruminant is able to digest and absorb. This allows the animals to extract nutritional value from cellulose which is usually undigested.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4skh8n
|
How do we know that the Andromeda galaxy is 2.5 million light years away from Earth if it takes 2.5 million years for light to get there in the first place?
|
[
{
"answer": "Andromeda is billions of years old so we have plenty of old light hitting us. The light being 2.5 million years old is of little concern. Measuring cosmic distance is actually pretty hard to do and requires being clever. [Here's my favorite lecture on the topic](_URL_0_), it's by Fields Medalist Terrance Tao and is very accessible and well explained.\n\nThere are several ways to measure the distance to Andromeda, but the basic idea is that if you know how bright a star is supposed to be, and you see the same type of star far away, then the apparent brightness will be related to the distance. [Cepheid variables](_URL_1_) are one type of star you can do this with.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you mean \"how do we know it hasn't moved in the last 2.5 million light years,\" well, we don't.\n\nI mean, it has definitely moved - we know it's moving towards us (very slowly) from the measurements we've taken (or it *was* moving towards 2.5 million years ago). By now it's actually about ~~0.0025~~ 900 light years closer to us than it looks, which isn't very much.\n\nIt's *possible* some powerful entity has wiped it from existence in the last 2.5 million light years, but it's not very likely.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "173592",
"title": "The Urantia Book",
"section": "Section::::Critical views.:Criticism of its science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Andromeda Galaxy is claimed to be \"almost one million\" light years away, repeating the understandings of the 1920s, but the galaxy is now understood to be 2.5 million light years away.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29468127",
"title": "UDF 423",
"section": "Section::::Distance measurements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "The \"distance\" of a far away galaxy depends on how it is measured. With a redshift of 1, light from this galaxy is estimated to have taken around 7.7 billion years to reach Earth. However, since this galaxy is receding from Earth, the present comoving distance is estimated to be around 10 billion light-years away. In context, Hubble is observing this galaxy as it appeared when the Universe was around 5.9 billion years old.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "983401",
"title": "NGC 1",
"section": "Section::::General.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "Based on its redshift of approximately 0.015177 and thus recessional velocity of 4450 km/s, the distance of the galaxy from the Solar System can be calculated using Hubble's Law. Using current observation data, this places the galaxy at approximately 210 to 215 million light-years from Earth, which is in good agreement with redshift-independent distance estimates of 175 to 245 million light years. An opposing measurement of the galaxy's recessional velocity of 2215km/s would place the galaxy only about 100 million light-years away. However, this is regarded unlikely by most astronomers and believed to be a misattributed value for a different galaxy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34253810",
"title": "2012 in science",
"section": "Section::::Events, discoveries and inventions.:December.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 778,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 778,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "BULLET::::- Astronomers report that the most distant known galaxy, UDFj-39546284, is now estimated to be even further away than previously believed. The galaxy, which is estimated to have formed around \"380 million years\" after the Big Bang (about 13.75 billion years ago), is approximately 13.37 billion light years from Earth. (\"Space.com\")\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1750193",
"title": "Ursa Major I Dwarf",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "It estimated to be located at a distance of about 330,000 light-years (100 kpc) from the Earth. That is about twice the distance to the Large Magellanic Cloud; the largest and most luminous satellite galaxy of the Milky Way.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27145281",
"title": "PKS 2000-330",
"section": "Section::::Distance measurements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "The \"distance\" of a far away galaxy depends on what distance measurement you use. With a redshift of 3.77, light from this active galaxy is estimated to have taken around 11.7 billion years to reach us. But since this galaxy is receding from Earth at an estimated rate of 274,681 km/s (the speed of light is 299,792 km/s), the present (co-moving) distance to this galaxy is estimated to be around 22.7 billion light-years (6947 Mpc).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27060658",
"title": "3C 147",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "The \"distance\" of a far away galaxy depends on what distance measurement you use. With a redshift of 0.545, light from this active galaxy is estimated to have taken around 5.1 billion years to reach us. But as a result of the expansion of the Universe, the present (co-moving) distance to this galaxy is about 6.4 billion light-years (1974 Mpc).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1qdt9l
|
Were gladiators assigned to a single gladiator type, or did they change fighting styles from fight to fight?
|
[
{
"answer": "To the best of my knowledge gladiators were assigned a single 'style' and trained in that area. The reason for this is actually quite simple, some styles (i.e. Retiarius) took a large amount of skill to preform well. A lanista would not want to invest a large amount of time and money into training a slave as a gladiator only to have him die in the arena as a result of lack of skill. Switching styles would be a huge disadvantage to the gladiator, he will not be as skilled, and to the lanista, who will have to invest even more money and time into training him. \n\nIf we think of a typical ludus, the number of gladiators could range from a handful to a large number, the exact number of gladiators within a typical ludus is unknown to me but you wouldn't want too many for fear of a revolt, especially considering you were training these men to fight. The fact that a lanista had the ability to chose from different gladiators means that he could train different men in different styles, therefore having a wide array of skilled men at his disposal.\n\nIt should also be noted that to be considered a 'good' gladiatorial match, the fight could not be over too quickly. To prolong a fight and strike in the right places (i.e. not immediately lethal or crippling) required an enormous amount of skill and good experience and knowledge of ones weapons and equipment, another reason to keep your gladiator in a single style.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've contacted one of my professors for assistance in answering this. She teaches a class on Greek and Roman Sport and Spectacle. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9054221",
"title": "List of Roman gladiator types",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "There were many different types of gladiators in ancient Rome. Some of the first gladiators had been prisoners-of-war, and so some of the earliest types of gladiators were experienced fighters; Gauls, Samnites, and \"Thraeces\" (Thracians) used their native weapons and armor. Different gladiator types specialized in specific weapons and fighting techniques. Combatants were usually pitted against opponents with different, but more or less equivalent equipment, for the sake of a fair and balanced contest. Most gladiators only fought others from within the same school or Ludus, but sometimes specific gladiators could be requested to fight one from another Ludus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35757696",
"title": "Deadliest Warrior (season 1)",
"section": "Section::::Episode 1: Apache vs. Gladiator.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "BULLET::::- Though gladiators were class based and each had designated weapons, for this episode a generalized gladiator was used that combined weapons and armor of different classes. This was done so that the gladiator would be able to compete at different ranges, normally unnecessary in that they had one weapon combination (sword and shield, trident and net, etc.) and only fought other gladiators of opposite classes to optimize the entertainment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28173937",
"title": "List of Deadliest Warrior episodes",
"section": "Section::::Season 1 Deadliest Warrior.:Episode 1: Apache vs. Gladiator.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "BULLET::::- Though gladiators were class based and each had designated weapons, for this episode a generalized gladiator was used that combined weapons and armor of different classes. This was done so that the gladiator would be able to compete at different ranges, normally unnecessary in that they had one weapon combination (sword and shield, trident and net, etc.) and only fought other gladiators of opposite classes to optimize the entertainment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1607755",
"title": "Retiarius",
"section": "Section::::History and role.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1858,
"text": "Roman gladiators fell into stock \"categories\" modelled on real-world precedents. Almost all of these classes were based on military antecedents; the \"retiarius\" (\"net-fighter\" or \"net-man\"), who was themed after the sea, was one exception. Rare gladiator fights were staged over water; these may have given rise to the concept of a gladiator based on a fisherman. Fights between differently-armed gladiators became popular in the Imperial period; the \"retiarius\" versus the scaly \"secutor\" developed as the conflict of a fisherman with a stylised fish. The earlier \"murmillones\" had borne a fish on their helmets; the \"secutores\" with their scaly armour evolved from them. However, because of the stark differences in arms and armour between the two types, the pairing pushed such practices to new extremes. Roman art and literature make no mention of \"retiarii\" until the early Imperial period; for example, the type is absent from the copious gladiator-themed reliefs dating to the 1st century found at Chieti and Pompeii. Nevertheless, graffiti and artifacts from Pompeii attest to the class's existence by this time. Fights between \"retiarii\" and \"secutores\" probably became popular as early as the middle of the 1st century CE; the net-fighter had become one of the standard gladiator categories by the 2nd or 3rd century CE and remained a staple attraction until the end of the gladiatorial games. In addition to the man-versus-nature symbolism inherent in such bouts, the lightly armoured \"retiarius\" was viewed as the effeminate counterpoint to the manly, heavily armoured \"secutor\". The \"retiarius\" was also seen as water to the \"secutor\"'s fire, one constantly moving and escaping, the other determinedly inescapable. Another gladiator type, the \"laquearius\" (\"noose-man\"), was similar to the \"retiarius\" but fought with a lasso in place of a net.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25507",
"title": "Roman Empire",
"section": "Section::::Daily life.:Recreation and spectacles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 167,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 167,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "The Romans thought gladiator contests had originated with funeral games and sacrifices in which select captive warriors were forced to fight to expiate the deaths of noble Romans. Some of the earliest styles of gladiator fighting had ethnic designations such as \"Thracian\" or \"Gallic\". The staged combats were considered \"munera\", \"services, offerings, benefactions\", initially distinct from the festival games \"(ludi)\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12336",
"title": "Gladiator",
"section": "Section::::The games.:Combat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "Combats between experienced, well trained gladiators demonstrated a considerable degree of stagecraft. Among the cognoscenti, bravado and skill in combat were esteemed over mere hacking and bloodshed; some gladiators made their careers and reputation from bloodless victories. Suetonius describes an exceptional \"munus\" by Nero, in which no-one was killed, \"not even \"noxii\" (enemies of the state).\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11729954",
"title": "Inaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre",
"section": "Section::::Verus and Priscus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "Details of most of the gladiatorial combats are not recorded. Suetonius writes that they were lavish and Dio that there were both single combats and fights between groups. One fight, between the gladiators Verus and Priscus, was recorded by Martial:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4fj2if
|
why are divorce rates so high in america where people can choose their spouse but low in india where it's arranged?
|
[
{
"answer": "Research shows that \"love marriages\" and \"arranged marriages\" end up with similar levels of happiness.\n\nSo the difference in divorce rate can't be attributed to differences in happiness.\n\nDivorce became common in the USA in the last 50 years because (1) the social taboo against it faded, (2) women gained greater rights, and (3) women gained greater career prospects so they could more easily live without a husband.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Isn't it frowned upon if people get divorced there? For all I know they aren't allowed to.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To say the least getting a divorce in the US is way easier than in India. Womens rights, social acceptance of divorce and financial independence in some parts of India are decades behind, so this is like asking \"Why have there been less divorces in the 50's than now?\" - \"Because now, they can\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Divorce rates in the U.S. have fallen in recent decades [se chart](_URL_0_), after all those wishing for them but not doing so because of the taboo finally did so, and because people are waiting longer to get married and have a better idea about who they are, what they want in a spouse, etc.\n\nBut in reference to your question, presumably the types of cultures that would arrange marriages would also be the kind that would look down upon divorce very strongly, and probably would be the kind in which the woman would have little means of support were she to leave her husband. And some cultures, arranges marriages are more of a business transaction than about love and personal fulfillment.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4794092",
"title": "Arranged marriage in the Indian subcontinent",
"section": "Section::::Low incidence of divorce in India.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "In India, marriage is thought to be for life, and the divorce rate is extremely low. Only 1.1% of marriages in India result in a divorce compared with over 45.8% in the United States, though the Indian figure appears to be rising. Opinion is mixed on the implications of this change: \"for traditionalists the rising numbers portend the breakdown of society while, for some modernists, they speak of a healthy new empowerment for women.\" However, there are no credible research reports or surveys that provide authoritative data on divorce rates yet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "293133",
"title": "Culture of India",
"section": "Section::::Family structure and marriage.:Arranged marriage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "In India, the divorce rate is low — 1% compared with about 40% in the United States. These statistics do not reflect a complete picture, though. There is a dearth of scientific surveys or studies on Indian marriages where the perspectives of both husbands and wives were solicited in-depth. Sample surveys suggest the issues with marriages in India are similar to trends observed elsewhere in the world. The divorce rates are rising in India. Urban divorce rates are much higher. Women initiate about 80 percent of divorces in India.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26503411",
"title": "Arranged marriage",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.:Stability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 1136,
"text": "Divorce rates have climbed in the European Union and the United States with increase in autonomous marriage rates. The lowest divorce rates in the world are in cultures with high rates of arranged marriages such as Amish culture of United States (1%), Hindus of India (3%), and Ultra-Orthodox Jews of Israel (7%). According to a 2012 study by Statistic Brain, 53.25 percent of marriages are arranged worldwide. The global divorce rate for arranged marriages was 6.3 percent, which could be an indicator for the success rate of arranged marriages. This has led scholars to ask if arranged marriages are more stable than autonomous marriages, and whether this stability matters. Others suggest that the low divorce rate may not reflect stability, rather it may reflect the difficulty in the divorce process and social ostracism to the individuals, who choose to live in a dysfunctional marriage rather than face the consequences of a divorce. Also, the perception of high divorce rates attributed to self-arranged marriages in the United States is being called into question while the Hindus in India continue to enjoy low divorce rates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17885544",
"title": "Divorce of same-sex couples",
"section": "Section::::Divorce rates.:United Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "According to Office for National Statistics, divorce rate of heterosexual couples is at its lowest since 1971 in England and Wales. The divorce rate for same-sex couples increased in 2016 and 2017, which the Office for National Statistics explained as a likely result of the fact that same-sex marriages have only been legal since 2014.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2539563",
"title": "Sociology of the family",
"section": "Section::::Divorce.:Trends.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "Divorce rates in Canada and the United States fluctuated in a similar pattern, though the United States still has the highest divorce rate in the world (50% higher than Canada's). The following are several possible causes for the increased rate of divorce:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27420142",
"title": "Chinese rural left behind women",
"section": "Section::::Individual issues.:Lack of security in terms of marriage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "Because the together time between the couples has been decreasing, and the discrepancy of urbanization level between genders has gradually extended which tended to induce the societal heterogeneity between genders larger, the possibility of divorce rate has been consequently increasing. One sample study in a county of one central province showed that 65% of the divorce cases in 2008 were involved with rural women who were left behind.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2539563",
"title": "Sociology of the family",
"section": "Section::::Divorce.:Trends.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "The divorce rate in western countries has generally increased over time. Divorce rates have however started to decrease over the last twenty years. In the USA, divorce rate changed from l.2 per 1000 marriages in 1860 to 3.0, 4.0 and 7.7 in 1890, 1900, 1920 then to, 5.3, 4.7, 4.1 and 3.7 per 1000 marriages in 1979, 1990, 2000 and 2004 respectively. People are less inclined to stay in unhappy relationships to keep the family unit intact and the maintain consistency in their children's lives, the way previous generations did. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
zlla8
|
why do (uk) car insurance prices vary from week to week/month to month?
|
[
{
"answer": "Insurance companies try to get the very best price that you (or people like you) are will to pay. This involves the company using data analytics to find the perfect price point for every kind of customer.\n\nSource: I work in the industry. I build the rules that optimise prices.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5119007",
"title": "Bonus-malus",
"section": "Section::::French Insurance Price Calculation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "In France, the prices of insurance are calculated as function of the car type, subscribed insurance options, and also Bonus/Malus value (%), stating how many years the driver used the car without any accident or another event relevant to the insurance. It means, that the bonus/malus is assigned to the insured person and also to family members (e.g. wife), who are allowed to drive the car.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42605624",
"title": "Real Insurance",
"section": "Section::::Pay-as-you-drive insurance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "In 2008, Real Insurance was the first insurance company to offer pay-as-you-drive (PAYD) insurance in Australia, whereby the car insurance premium is reduced for drivers with low kilometres usage. Such drivers can specify in advance the number of kilometres they plan to drive, in return for reduced premiums.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25307503",
"title": "Accident management",
"section": "Section::::Accident management in the UK.:Motor insurance claims.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "In 2008 the UK insurance industry paid out £18.4 million per day in private motor car claims, and more than one in six private drivers make a motoring claim each year, according to figures from the Association of British Insurers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "567696",
"title": "Vehicle insurance",
"section": "Section::::Basis of premium charges.:Distance.:Reasonable distance estimation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 147,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 147,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "Another important factor in determining car-insurance premiums involves the annual mileage put on the vehicle, and for what reason. Driving to and from work every day at a specified distance, especially in urban areas where common traffic routes are known, presents different risks than how a retiree who does not work any longer may use their vehicle. Common practice has been that this information was provided solely by the insured person, but some insurance providers have started to collect regular odometer readings to verify the risk.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17809456",
"title": "Motability",
"section": "Section::::How the scheme works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 877,
"text": "Customers choose a new car every three years or a wheelchair-accessible vehicle every five years. More than 30 manufacturers currently offer cars through the scheme, with premium manufacturers such as BMW, Audi and Mercedes becoming popular alternatives to more mainstream suppliers such as Ford and Vauxhall. Insurance for two people, vehicle excise duty, servicing with a free replacement vehicle, tyres and breakdown cover are all included in a single monthly payment. This payment is made automatically by the Department for Work and Pensions to Motability Operations under the authority of a form CP50 signed by the hirer. At the end of the contract period, the customer can choose to take another brand new vehicle. The customer may also wish to purchase their current vehicle directly from Motability at the end of their contract either for their own use or a friend's.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2654641",
"title": "Usage-based insurance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "Usage-based insurance (UBI) also known as pay as you drive (PAYD) and pay how you drive (PHYD) and mile-based auto insurance is a type of vehicle insurance whereby the costs are dependent upon type of vehicle used, measured against time, distance, behavior and place.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1038873",
"title": "Vehicle registration plates of Germany",
"section": "Section::::Format.:Special codes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "BULLET::::- Cars (or more often, motorbikes) with seasonal number plates have two numbers at the end of the plate indicating the months between which they are registered to drive, with the licence being valid from the start of the upper month until the end of the lower month. This results in lower car taxes, as well lower insurance premiums.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
uqoxc
|
What would a person experience if they took a dose of LSD while in a Sensory Deprivation chamber?
|
[
{
"answer": "If you are not opposed to some Googling, searching for John C Lilly might bring some answers for you. Sorry I cannot provide more information. r/drugs might also be able to prove some insight.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43433837",
"title": "Harris Isbell",
"section": "Section::::Research.:General methodology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 879,
"text": "In the psychedelic studies, subjects had the choice of staying in an individual room or mingling with other subjects in a common area. Observations and measurements were taken before the substance of interest was ingested, and hourly thereafter (following a 10-minute rest in bed). Physical measurements included pulse, blood pressure, rectal temperature, kneejerk reflex sensitivity, and pupil diameter (opiates cause constriction (miosis) while LSD causes dilation (mydriasis)). Psychological measurements consisted of a self-evaluation form with multiple statements (e.g., \"I am confused\"), as well as evaluation by experienced and trained observers. Some subjects had negative reactions to LSD (as noted above), but others found the experience \"pleasant\", or even \"dearly loved\" it as long as the dosage was not too high (less than 2 micrograms per kilogram of body weight).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25018749",
"title": "Holmesburg Prison",
"section": "Section::::Experimentation at Holmesburg Prison.:Types of experiments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "The United States Army contracted Kligman to test the effects of certain mind-altering drugs, with these experiments conducted in trailers on the prison grounds. Subjects from this set of experiments say they weren't aware what drugs they were given due to the lack of consent forms. The drugs produced a variety of lasting effects, such as temporary paralysis, and sudden long-term violent behavior, with half of the subjects reporting to have experienced hallucinations for days. Many prisoners stayed away from the Army experiments due to rumors that they involved LSD and resulted in participants going crazy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8748",
"title": "N,N-Dimethyltryptamine",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Subjective psychedelic experiences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1076,
"text": "In the 1990s, Rick Strassman and his colleagues conducted a five-year-long DMT study at the University of New Mexico. The results provided insight about the quality of subjective psychedelic experiences. In this study participants received the DMT dosage intravenously via injection and the findings suggested that different psychedelic experiences can occur, depending on the level of dosage. Lower doses (0.01 and 0.05 mg/kg) produced somaesthetic and emotional responses, but not hallucinogenic experiences (e.g., 0.05 mg/kg had mild mood elevating and calming properties). In contrast, responses produced by higher doses (0.2 and 0.4 mg/kg) researchers labeled as \"hallucinogenic\" that elicited \"intensely colored, rapidly moving display of visual images, formed, abstract or both\". Comparing to other sensory modalities the most affected was visual domain. Participants reported visual hallucinations, less auditory hallucinations and specific physical sensation progressing to a sense of bodily dissociation, as well as experiences of euphoria, calm, fear, and anxiety.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57383759",
"title": "Montreal experiments",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "Inspired by Donald Hebb's experiment on sensory deprivation and human cognition, Cameron included these techniques in his treatment program. Patients were deprived of their senses by covering ears, eyes and/or skin. Furthermore, patients were given little food, water and oxygen, and instead injected with drugs (LSD, curare) to keep them in a paralyzed state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17537",
"title": "Lysergic acid diethylamide",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Psychological.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 959,
"text": "The most common immediate psychological effects of LSD are visual hallucinations and illusions (colloquially known as \"trips\"), which can vary greatly depending on how much is used and how the brain responds. Trips usually start within 20–30 minutes of taking LSD by mouth (less if snorted or taken intravenously), peak three to four hours after ingestion, and last up to 12 hours. Negative experiences, referred to as \"bad trips\", produce intense negative emotions, such as irrational fears and anxiety, panic attacks, paranoia, rapid mood swings, intrusive thoughts of hopelessness, wanting to harm others, and suicidal ideation. It is impossible to predict when a bad trip will occur. Good trips are stimulating and pleasurable, and typically involve feeling as if one is floating, disconnected from reality, feelings of joy or euphoria (sometimes called a \"rush\"), decreased inhibitions, and the belief that one has extreme mental clarity or superpowers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "33632441",
"title": "Psychoactive drug",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Military.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "In May 2003, recently released Pakistani captive Sha Mohammed Alikhel described the routine use of psychoactive drugs in the Guantanamo Bay detention center. He said that Jihan Wali, a captive kept in a nearby cell, was rendered catatonic through the use of these drugs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "227239",
"title": "Dissociative",
"section": "Section::::Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 618,
"text": "At sub-anesthetic doses, dissociatives alter many of the same cognitive and perceptual processes affected by other hallucinogenic drugs such as mescaline, LSD, and psilocybin; hence they are also considered hallucinogenic, and psychedelic. Perhaps the most significant subjective differences between dissociatives and the classical hallucinogens (such as LSD and mescaline) are the dissociative effects, including: depersonalization, the feeling of being unreal, disconnected from one's self, or unable to control one's actions; and derealization, the feeling that the outside world is unreal or that one is dreaming.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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] | null |
62lrpk
|
how is it that the us pay more taxes towards healthcare than most countries with universal healthcare, but majority of the citizens don't receive the benefits? where does all of the tax money go?
|
[
{
"answer": "THe US does not pay more TAX MONEY towards healthcare. They do pay more money towards healthcare. That is a major distinction, because it introduces a private party that has a vested interest in collecting profit.",
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{
"answer": "Well, there are various reasons.\n\n1) The US, by and large, does not price control it's medicine. That means that corporation can ask people and the governement to pay their price, rather than having to negotiate.\n\n2) High healthcare costs cause the poor to postpone visiting a doctor untill it gets really, really bad. This causes costs to go up. A small infection that could have been treated with a bit of antibiotics can turn into a lifethreatening condition if ignored for long enough.\n\n3) Overtreatment. Caused by defensive medicine and the way healthcare payments are made. In order to get more billable (and profitable items) or in order to avoid lawsuits, doctors often order unnecessairy but expensive tests.",
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"answer": "Insurance companies salaries, costs and profits and the costs for people that process insurance claims in the docs office/hospital siphon off 30% or so. If we got rid of them costs would go down but there would be a huge number of newly unemployed.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "One major factor in the UK's health system being relatively [cost-efficient per capita](_URL_0_) compared to the rest of the world is that NHS attempts to standardize purchase costs for medical items across all their hospitals, with the overall volume of orders being so large that there is significant leverage available for pricing negotiations.\n\nSecondly, the fact that the healthcare system is government funded means that there is a direct link between drug prices and the cost of funding, which gives the government a great incentive to keep the prices down.\n\nIn the US (as I understand it) there's a disconnect all the way along the chain. Looking just at medicine, drug companies sell drugs to healthcare providers. Healthcare providers \"sell\" them to patients, but healthcare insurers are often paying the bills. \n\nAs the healthcare provider is effectively a middle-man, the financial distress in this system is born by the healthcare insurers (ignoring people going bankrupt over medical bills, which is another entirely disgusting matter). The healthcare provider has no real reason to make the effort to decrease their bills for consumable items, as the cost is shunted on to the next party in any event.\n\nThe healthcare insurers have two options: press for lower prices to be provided by medical providers, or increase premiums. One of these is difficult to do as they're not party to purchasing contracts, and I'm unsure if they'd ever intervene in this way. The other involves passing cost along to a semi-captive market making a distress purchase.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Health care is very expensive in the US. Tax supported health care goes mainly to those over 65 and desperately poor people. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > Where does all of the tax money go?\n\nTo the insurance companies, whose CEOs and senior executives are paid exhorfbitant salaries and bonuses in compensation.\n\n**Edit:** Downvotes by those in denial or disagreement (or insurance company trolls) in no way refute or impugn the statement.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29697910",
"title": "Patient-centered outcomes",
"section": "Section::::Key Outcomes.:Cost-Effective Care in the United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1267,
"text": "The United States pays more in healthcare expenditure per capita than any other country. Healthcare expenditures the United States accounts for approximately 16% of the country's gross domestic product and per capita spending on healthcare is more than twice that of other developed nations. Given these statistics, healthcare in the United States is no better than in other countries, with the more than 50 million people uninsured and astronomical healthcare prices and expenditures. Much of what accounts for the high expenditures is the fact that a large percentage of money going into healthcare is put towards wasteful or unnecessary expenses. Examples of these non-economical expenditures include excessive administrative costs, fraud, and abuse within the healthcare system (both among providers and patients), and misallocated treatments and procedures. This misuse of funds jeopardizes providers to offer the best services to their patients and leaves reduced funds for research into developing new diagnostic and treatment technologies. Abuse of healthcare funds in the United States is a barrier that patient-centered outcomes face as it diverts funds from healthcare professionals who are dedicated to promoting the idea of patient-centered healthcare. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "32022",
"title": "Economy of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Health care.:Cost.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 1107,
"text": "The high cost of health care in the United States is attributed variously to technological advance, administration costs, drug pricing, suppliers charging more for medical equipment, the receiving of more medical care than people in other countries, the high wages of doctors, government regulations, the impact of lawsuits, and third party payment systems insulating consumers from the full cost of treatments. The lowest prices for pharmaceuticals, medical devices, and payments to physicians are in government plans. Americans tend to receive more medical care than people do in other countries, which is a notable contributor to higher costs. In the United States, a person is more likely to receive open heart surgery after a heart attack than in other countries. Medicaid pays less than Medicare for many prescription drugs due to the fact Medicaid discounts are set by law, whereas Medicare prices are negotiated by private insurers and drug companies. Government plans often pay less than overhead, resulting in healthcare providers shifting the cost to the privately insured through higher prices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27553159",
"title": "Health care in the United States",
"section": "Section::::System efficiency and equity.:Efficiency.:Value for money.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 703,
"text": "A study of international health care spending levels published in the health policy journal \"Health Affairs\" in the year 2000 found that the United States spends substantially more on health care than any other country in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and that the use of health care services in the U.S. is below the OECD median by most measures. The authors of the study conclude that the prices paid for health care services are much higher in the U.S. than elsewhere. While the 19 next most wealthy countries by GDP all pay less than half what the U.S. does for health care, they have all gained about six years of life expectancy more than the U.S. since 1970.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24987493",
"title": "Health care reforms proposed during the Obama administration",
"section": "Section::::Motivation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 118,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 118,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "According to 2009 World Bank statistics, the U.S. had the highest healthcare costs relative to the size of the economy (GDP) in the world, even though estimated 50.2 million citizens (approximately 15.6% of the September 2011 estimated population of 312 million) lacked insurance. In March 2010, billionaire Warren Buffett commented that the high costs paid by U.S. companies for their employees' health care put them at a competitive disadvantage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23455596",
"title": "Healthcare reform debate in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Cost debate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "In 2009, the U.S. had the highest health care costs relative to the size of the economy (GDP) in the world, with an estimated 50.2 million citizens (approximately 16% of the September 2011 estimated population of 312 million) without insurance coverage. Some critics of reform counter that almost four out of ten of these uninsured come from a household with over $50,000 income per year, and thus might be uninsured voluntarily, or opting to pay for health care services on a \"pay-as-you-go\" basis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16463132",
"title": "Healthcare reform in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Motivation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "According to 2009 World Bank statistics, the U.S. had the highest health care costs relative to the size of the economy (GDP) in the world, even though estimated 50 million citizens (approximately 16% of the September 2011 estimated population of 312 million) lacked insurance. In March 2010, billionaire Warren Buffett commented that the high costs paid by U.S. companies for their employees' health care put them at a competitive disadvantage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38853402",
"title": "Health care finance in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Payment systems.:Public.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "The exemption of employer-sponsored health benefits from federal income and payroll taxes distorts the health care market. The U.S. government, unlike some other countries, does not treat employer funded health care benefits as a taxable benefit in kind to the employee. The value of the lost tax revenue from a benefits in kind tax is an estimated $150 billion a year. Some regard this as being disadvantageous to people who have to buy insurance in the individual market which must be paid from income received after tax.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2of7qo
|
how is lizard squad hacking xbox live?
|
[
{
"answer": "DDOS attacks on their servers. They did the same to EA earlier. Completely destroyed the use of all their online games.\n\nEdit: think of it as someone using up all the bandwidth so that no one else can use the internet. Like powering on a torrent at full speed, while your playing a game of Fifa online. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's getting fucking annoying that's for sure. I'm thinking they plan to shut down PSN, Xbox Live, and Steam on Christmas.",
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},
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"answer": "I think we should also explain how to stop these attacks and why even with billions of dollars, it can be difficult to completely negate these attacks. \nOne way to protect a network from DDOS is to just have LOTS and LOTS of bandwidth and spread your information over LOTS of servers. which of course takes LOTS of money. \nAnother is of course proper network security, a firewall looks for and blocks non important or false network traffic, they try to filter out basic attacks and block repeat signals so that you can free up bandwidth and make yourself harder to hit. Of course the big corporations have very expensive and well maintained firewalls, but no wall is immune if the attacker is dedicated, persistent and willing to do the work. \nand the last ability a company has to defend themselves are their network maintainers/defenders. These people are supposed to be able to see the attacks as they come in and modify the firewall to customize it against the attacks coming in. Most hacking attempts, specially BOT nets, use a one size fits all attack. Each computer firing the same type of \"ammunition\" so a skilled defender can see the pattern and tell the firewall to ignore those packets. But it requires a lot of skill and costs a lot of money to maintain a full time skilled network defense. Most companies have an outside source that they can call upon to protect their networks. Once the attack occurs, they can call up the company to have someone come out to fix the wall and stop the attack. \nYou'll also notice that most of these attacks are only for a few hours at most and that's why. It takes time to figure out the attack and patch the firewall to stop it, but it will happen sooner or later. \nBut that's why even billion dollar tech companies can be targeted and shut down. it won't last long, but when you are talking losing millions in sales and such, and also spending hundreds of thousands of dollars to stop it it is sometimes worth just paying them to not hit you. \nHope this clears up some other questions that might come up. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Lizard squad is using a technique called a \"Distributed Denial of Service.\" This isn't a hack or an act of \"breaking into\" a computer-network system. Instead the goal is to clog up the bandwidth available to people to access the system.\n\nYou can think of it as a public pool on a hot summer day. The pool is a service with a maximum number of people who can be in and swimming at one time. On most days it has a fair number of people who are in swimming around and on others it may have fewer. Sometimes it is closed for maintenance.\n\nThen there's that day when too many people are there. You're in the queue to get in but it's hard to establish any kind of order. People are pushing and shoving to get through first and many are frustrated when they do get in because the pool is already full. As soon as one person gets out another two or three fight over the spot. And what's worse is a lot of the people in the pool aren't even doing anything but standing around.\n\n**A DDoS takes a large volume of computers and other devices that can access the internet and continuously sends requests towards a target.** Xbox Live is a service with many servers in many locations, implying that an attack like this has taken some time to prepare and execute. The computers in the DDoS only have to send as many \"requests\" as they can each second. They don't have to wait for responses from the Xbox Live servers, **they just have to send so many requests that the servers cannot keep up, effectively preventing others from accessing this service.**",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "331948",
"title": "Lizard (comics)",
"section": "Section::::In other media.:Video games.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "BULLET::::- In the Super NES and Genesis video game \"Spider-Man Animated Series\", Lizard is a boss of the sewers in every stage in the game (except the Brooklyn Bridge and Ravencroft Prison). He is optional and can be avoided to escape the sewers. When he is defeated, he transforms back into Dr. Connors, but an attack on Connors in the SNES version will cause him to change and become more powerful. In the Genesis version he will change back automatically after a short time, however he does not become invincible or stronger. He is also a mini boss in the final level of the SNES version where he can't be attacked after turning into Connors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40424927",
"title": "The Playroom (2013 video game)",
"section": "Section::::Minigames.:AR Bots.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "AR Bots is a minigame that places thirty robots in the DualShock 4 controller screen. Players can interact with the robots through the controller, utilizing the motion sensor. The robots can also be displayed on the television instead of the controller screen by gesturing up on the touch pad.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "1839583",
"title": "Video game bot",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "Bots written for first-person shooters usually try to mimic how a human would play a game. Computer-controlled bots may play against other bots and/or human players in unison, either over the Internet, on a LAN or in a local session. Features and intelligence of bots may vary greatly, especially with community created content. Advanced bots feature machine learning for dynamic learning of patterns of the opponent as well as dynamic learning of previously unknown maps – whereas more trivial bots may rely completely on lists of waypoints created for each map by the developer, limiting the bot to play only maps with said waypoints.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1839583",
"title": "Video game bot",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "In video games, a bot is a type of AI expert system software that plays a video game in the place of a human. Bots are used in a variety of video game genres for a variety of tasks: a bot written for a first-person shooter (FPS) works very differently from one written for a massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG). The former may include analysis of the map and even basic strategy; the latter may be used to automate a repetitive and tedious task like farming.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "331948",
"title": "Lizard (comics)",
"section": "Section::::In other media.:Video games.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "BULLET::::- Lizard appears in the 2009 video game \"\", voiced by Marc Samuel. He is a boss exclusive to the game's Wii, NDS, PS2, and PSP versions. He appears as one of the villains controlled by the Fold. Lizard attacks the heroes at the portal that leads out of the Negative Zone Prison alongside Electro, Grey Gargoyle, and Scorcher.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "855364",
"title": "Cheating in online games",
"section": "Section::::Bots and software assistance.:Aimbots and triggerbots.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "Some servers allow inactive players to spectate, watching the game from the viewpoints of the active players. Recording of gameplay actions is also often possible. If someone was using a targeting aimbot, the bot would be obvious to the spectator as unnatural exact position tracking. Some aimbots and triggerbots attempt to hide from spectators the fact they are being used through a number of methods, such as delaying firing to hide the fact it shoots the instant an opponent is in the cheater's crosshair. Some Triggerbot programs can be easily toggled on and off using the mouse or keyboard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6925732",
"title": "Transformers: The Battle to Save the Earth",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 893,
"text": "Once the Autobot reaches the location, the player switches to first-person view to shoot down the Decepticons and prevent them from stealing valuable resources and building their ultimate weapon. In the middle of the game, the Decepticons steal a mechanical Tyrannosaurus from Dinosaur Park, using a nuclear rod they stole from the nuclear power plant cooling tower, and send it towards the shuttle base. The player must attempt to prevent the dinosaur robot from destroying the space shuttle in the complex. After destroying the space shuttle, the Decepticons attempt to steal the cosmic dust that is left behind, as well as a laser from a research facility. The Decepticons then move onto the zoo to use the enhanced laser on the hippo exhibit to make it into a giant hippo, and it is sent to the pipe junction. Once the hippo arrives at the pipe junction it destroys it, and the game ends.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
axv8tx
|
What did British military recruitment look like in the Scottish highlands in the 18th century? Specifically, how did the consequences of Jacobite Rebellions impact highlander's willingness to serve/the British ability to garner interest in military service?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is a very insightful barrage of questions, and while I am tempted to try to answer them in detail, I would instead like to recommend a handful of top-notch works that comprehensively address these issues far better than I could hope to do. I would consider all of these absolutely indispensable for the purposes of your interest as stated above:\n\n* Allan Macinnes, *C**lanship, Commerce and the House of Stuart, 1603-1788*\n* Christopher Whatley, *Scottish Society 1707-1830: Beyond Jacobitism, Towards Industrialisation*\n* A.J. Youngson, *After the Forty-Five: The Economic Impact on the Scottish Highlands*\n* Andrew Mackillop, *More Fruitful than the Soil: Army, Empire and the Scottish Highlands 1715-1815*\n* Robert Clyde, *From Rebel to Hero: The Image of the Highlander 1745-1830*\n* Victoria Henshaw, *Scotland and the British Army, 1700-1750: Defending the Union*\n\nYou might also wish to have a look at forthcoming work by Nicola Martin on British imperialism in the Scottish Highlands and North America after Culloden.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nA couple of thoughts in addendum:\n\n* Have a close look at the words of the 1746 Dress Act. There has been some recent work done by Jenn Scott and others analyzing both the wording and ramifications of that temporary law. Other recent articles of interest on the subject are from the [Scottish Tartans Authority](_URL_2_) and [Jo Watson](_URL_3_).\n* We must consider if the Clearances (which happened both within and outwith the Highlands) were the primary cause of 'cultural collapse' or whether the clan system was already threatened earlier in the eighteenth century between Jacobite risings. A good trawl through both Macinnes and Mackillop above should collectively address that question pretty thoroughly, or at least offer some insights. Some say it was the cultural 'genocide' aimed at the Highlands after Culloden that did the most damage, bolstered by widespread forfeitures and the abolition of heritable jurisdictions. Others lean toward it being caused by the natural modernization and improvement toward which some chiefs and other landowners were already headed (Cameron of Lochiel, for example).\n* A very important point (and complex irony) which emerges from your questions is how Britain implemented Highland regiments into their cause of empire even directly after Culloden, while at the same time 'civilizing' what was considered by many to be a rogue element in British society. Simon Fraser, Master of Lovat, is often served up as a prime example of how tepid Jacobitism could be transmogrified into heroic nationalism – especially with so many opportunities for military engagement in the New World and on the Continent.\n* It is also worth weighing whether the British government in the eighteenth century necessarily equated Highlanders with Jacobitism, despite the national and international composition of the rebel army in 1745-6 and its attempts to unify under a 'tartan mask'. After all, powerful elites like Duncan Forbes of Culloden and John Campbell, Lord Loudoun, were ultra-patriotic Highlanders who distinguished themselves as heroes of the British nation both during and well after the Forty-five. What does this also tell us about the variability or even speciousness of Jacobitism-as-nationalism in the eighteenth century? Were Whig and Hanoverian lawmakers in favor of the Union any less patriotic than the conservative Jacobite supporters of an ancient, Divine Right monarchy? Was dissolution of the Union really a priority for most Jacobites in 1745 as opposed to 1715, when it was still a very fresh issue?\n* You will read much more from Mackillop, but the issue of recruiting on both sides was a fascinating one in the middle of the century. Many communities in the Highlands were quite reluctant to send men into battle and thereby away from farms and crops, regardless of for whom they were fighting. The Jacobite army, which had the relative luxury of spending most of its time on 'familiar' ground, faced massive waves of desertion after significant battles due to men bearing off to attend their homesteads. Some scholars suggest they would always come back, but my own opinion is that it was an uphill battle all the way just to keep men in ranks – and their increasingly draconian recruitment tactics bear this out. I will spare you further analysis here, but you would be welcome to read my [doctoral thesis](_URL_0_) for more on the motivation and the constituency of the Jacobite army.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nWishing you continued luck in your historical search!\n\n & #x200B;\n\nWith best wishes,\n\nDr Darren S. Layne\n\nCreator and Curator, [The Jacobite Database of 1745](_URL_1_)\n\n(recently of the Institute for Scottish Historical Research, University of St Andrews)",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4320562",
"title": "Scottish regiment",
"section": "Section::::History.:Highland regiments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 851,
"text": "The original Highland regiments were raised in the 18th century with the object of recruiting rank and file solely from the Scottish Highlands. However, due to the Highlands becoming extensively depopulated through the course of the 19th and 20th centuries, the Highland regiments of the British Army have witnessed a long-term decline in the proportion of recruits from the Highlands and have long recruited many Lowland Scots and others. The major 20th century exceptions to this rule were the First and Second World Wars, when many Highland men joined up. Around the time that the first Highland regiments were raised the Highlands had recently been a hotbed for several revolts against the establishment, namely the Jacobite Rebellions, so the loyalties of the Highlanders were often deemed suspect in the early history of the Highland regiments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1673711",
"title": "History of the British Army",
"section": "Section::::Eighteenth century.:Organisation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "The later Jacobite risings were centred in the Scottish Highlands. From the late 17th century, the Government had organised Independent Highland Companies in the area, from clans which supported the Hanoverian monarchs or the Whig governments, to maintain order or influence in the Highlands. In 1739 the first full regiment, the 42nd Regiment of Foot, was formed in the region. More were subsequently raised. For many years, highland regiments were to be the most colourful and distinctive units in the British Army, retaining much of the traditional highland dress such as the kilt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "5462982",
"title": "42nd Regiment of Foot",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1017,
"text": "After the Jacobite rising of 1715 the British government did not have the resources or manpower to keep a standing army in the Scottish Highlands. As a result, they were forced to keep order by recruiting men from local Highland clans that had been loyal to the Whigs. This proved to be unsuccessful in deterring crime, especially cattle rustling. Therefore, Independent Highland Companies (of what would be known as the \"Black Watch\") were raised as a militia in 1725 by General George Wade to keep \"watch\" for crime. He was commissioned to build a network of roads to help in the task. The six Independent Highland Companies were recruited from local clans, with one company coming from Clan Munro, one from Clan Fraser of Lovat, one from Clan Grant and three from Clan Campbell. These companies were commonly known as \"Am Freiceadan Dubh\", or the \"Black Watch\", this name may well have been due to the way they dressed. Four more companies were added in 1739 to make a total of ten Independent Highland Companies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59930892",
"title": "Jacobite Army (1745)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "The Jacobite Army, sometimes referred to as the \"Highland Army\", was the military force assembled by Charles Edward Stuart and his Jacobite supporters during the 1745 Rising that attempted to restore the House of Stuart to the British throne.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38880030",
"title": "Independent Highland Companies",
"section": "Section::::18th century.:The 1760s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "During the Seven Years’ War a number of unidentified Independent Highland Companies were raised but were almost immediately sent south to the Scottish Lowlands or to England as new recruits and could scarcely be regarded as true Independent Companies but were more like a recruitment agency for the British Army. There were no more Independent Highland Companies formed after 1763 but from those that had been before emerged the world-famous Highland regiments during the remainder of the 18th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59930892",
"title": "Jacobite Army (1745)",
"section": "Section::::Recruitment.:Recruiting methods and motivation.:Deserters and conscripts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 694,
"text": "Many of the Jacobite regiments were themselves affected quite heavily by desertion and during the later phases of the rebellion the Jacobite administration implemented an equivalent of the old Scottish 'fencible' system, demanding that landowners provide one properly equipped man for every £100 of rent. The quotas were filled in various ways and one third of the Jacobites from Banffshire were reported to have been 'hired out by the County': as with the British army, paid substitution was also common, in which an individual hired another person to serve in their place. Such hired men were usually treated leniently after the Rising; many were released or simply left undisturbed at home.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59930892",
"title": "Jacobite Army (1745)",
"section": "Section::::Recruitment.:Areas of recruitment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "In contrast to 1715, many joined the Jacobites in 1745 for reasons other than Stuart loyalism. While 46% of the Jacobite army came from the Highlands and Islands, there is no evidence this was any more common in the Highlands post-1715 than elsewhere in Scotland. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9en3x7
|
Ancient Greek Capitalism
|
[
{
"answer": "I cannot directly address the question, beyond saying \"it depends on your source.\" But if you'd like context...\n\n & #x200B;\n\nMarx was not alone in the characterization. Adam Smith also maintained that there was a definitive change in the economic system. He did not go back to Ancient Greece, but he goes back to what we may call the end of Mercantilism. What I'm hoping is read into this is that a change did occur that Smith is attempting to explain. The merchants, in this case, are looking to get themselves rich. In his narrative they don't really understand the full economics, except that by pressuring their monarchs to alter the economic system they'll be rich. This happens to generally work out. [Adam Smith](_URL_0_):\n\n & #x200B;\n\n > The different progress of opulence in different ages and nations has given occasion to two different systems of political œconomy with regard to enriching the people. The one may be called the system of commerce, the other that of agriculture. I shall endeavour to explain both as fully and distinctly as I can, and shall begin with the system of commerce. It is the modern system, and is best understood in our own country and in our own times. \n...When those countries became commercial, the merchants found this prohibition \\[upon trading precious medals as capital\\], upon many occasions, extremely inconvenient. They could frequently buy more advantageously with gold and silver than with any other commodity the foreign goods which they wanted, either to import into their own, or to carry to some other foreign country. They remonstrated, therefore, against this prohibition as hurtful to trade. \n > \n > They \\[the merchants\\] represented, first, that the exportation of gold and silver in order to purchase foreign goods, did not always diminish the quantity of those metals in the kingdom. That, on the contrary, it might frequently increase that quantity; because, if the consumption of foreign goods was not thereby increased in the country, those goods might be re-exported to foreign countries, and, being there sold for a large profit, might bring back much more treasure than was originally sent out to purchase them. Mr. Mun compares this operation of foreign trade to the seed-time and harvest of agriculture. \n > \n > If we only behold, \\[says he\\] the actions of the husbandman in the seed-time, when he casteth away much good corn into the ground, we shall account him rather a madman than a husbandman. But when we consider his labours in the harvest, which is the end of his endeavours, we shall find the worth and plentiful increase of his action. \n...Such as they were, however, those arguments convinced the people to whom they were addressed. They were addressed by merchants to parliaments and to the councils of princes, to nobles and to country gentlemen, by those who were supposed to understand trade to those who were conscious to themselves that they knew nothing about the matter. That foreign trade enriched the country, experience demonstrated to the nobles and country gentlemen as well as to the merchants; but how, or in what manner, none of them well knew. The merchants knew perfectly in what manner it enriched themselves. It was their business to know it. But to know in what manner it enriched the country was no part of their business. \n\n\nIt would be inaccurate to say that Marx just lifted Smith wholesale, but there is a certain parity that can be made. For instance, the Manifesto by [Marx](_URL_1_) essentially explains the process similarly:\n\n & #x200B;\n\n > The discovery of America, the rounding of the Cape, opened up fresh ground for the rising bourgeoisie. The East-Indian and Chinese markets, the colonisation of America, trade with the colonies, the increase in the means of exchange and in commodities generally, gave to commerce, to navigation, to industry, an impulse never before known, and thereby, to the revolutionary element in the tottering feudal society, a rapid development. \n > \n > The feudal system of industry, in which industrial production was monopolised by closed guilds, now no longer sufficed for the growing wants of the new markets. The manufacturing system took its place. The guild-masters were pushed on one side by the manufacturing middle class; division of labour between the different corporate guilds vanished in the face of division of labour in each single workshop. \n > \n > Meantime the markets kept ever growing, the demand ever rising. Even manufacturer no longer sufficed. Thereupon, steam and machinery revolutionised industrial production. The place of manufacture was taken by the giant, Modern Industry; the place of the industrial middle class by industrial millionaires, the leaders of the whole industrial armies, the modern bourgeois. \n > \n > Modern industry has established the world market, for which the discovery of America paved the way. This market has given an immense development to commerce, to navigation, to communication by land. This development has, in its turn, reacted on the extension of industry; and in proportion as industry, commerce, navigation, railways extended, in the same proportion the bourgeoisie developed, increased its capital, and pushed into the background every class handed down from the Middle Ages. \n > \n > We see, therefore, how the modern bourgeoisie is itself the product of a long course of development, of a series of revolutions in the modes of production and of exchange.\n\nMarx was interested in this process, how this occurred. Feudalism came from somewhere, and it was probably a similar process, so it's applied further out.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nIt seems to me that the position that Ancient Greece was simply a capitalist country is less historical than overtly political. If one can say that capitalism is the natural state of existence that everyone practiced and Marx perverted it, then you can score a propaganda point. However, nothing we know about ancient Athens concerns fiat systems, and Adam Smith himself notes a transition.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nSo while I cannot say with certainty that there is no historian out there that claims that Ancient Athens was a capitalist country, it seems problematic.",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1232997",
"title": "Oikonomos",
"section": "Section::::In Ancient Greece.:Role in the \"Oikos\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1346,
"text": "The \"oikos\" was the primary unit of economic organization within the ancient Greek world. Genuine urban commercial centers were relatively uncommon and sparse. Additionally, lack of trust between members of an \"oikos\" and nonmembers usually prevented larger businesses not associated with an \"oikos\" from forming. For these reasons, the \"oikos\" remained the pillar of ancient Greek economy. An \"oikos\" was expected to be self sufficient in what it produced for itself. Thinkers such as Aristotle considered the self-sufficient \"oikos\" to be the fundamental, indivisible constituent of the \"polis\". In order to be a true \"oikos,\" it had to be entirely self-sustaining it what it produced and consumed, as well as maintain its population over time. Most of the processing and storage facilities needed to run a farm, such as grain stores and oil presses, were found on the land owned by the \"oikos\". The continued existence of the \"oikos\" was dependent on its ability to store goods for the future and the prudence of the \"oikonomos\" in anticipating future needs. Chance weather events, warfare, sick animals, pests, and even aging members of the \"oikos\" could seriously threaten its existence. Households which practiced a trade in addition to or instead of farming, often had their workshops located within the house in a room facing the street.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13280365",
"title": "Ancient economic thought",
"section": "Section::::Ancient Greco-Roman World.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "Several ancient Greek and Roman thinkers made various economic observations, especially Aristotle and Xenophon. Many other Greek writings show understanding of sophisticated economic concepts. For instance, a form of Gresham’s Law is presented in Aristophanes’ \"Frogs\", and beyond Plato's application of sophisticated mathematical advances influenced by the Pythagoreans is his appreciation of fiat money in his \"Laws\" (742a–b) and in the pseudo-Platonic dialogue, \"Eryxias\". Bryson of Heraclea was a neo-platonic who is cited as having heavily influenced early Muslim economic scholarship.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20867787",
"title": "Economic history of the world",
"section": "Section::::Antiquity: Classical Era.:Developments in economic awareness and thought.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "Greek and Roman thinkers made various economic observations, especially Aristotle and Xenophon. Many other Greek writings show understanding of sophisticated economic concepts. For instance, a form of Gresham’s Law is presented in Aristophanes’ Frogs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12050351",
"title": "Greece in the 5th century BC",
"section": "Section::::The Delian League and Athenian dominance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 725,
"text": "The wealth of Athens attracted talented people from all over Greece, and also created a wealthy leisure class who became patrons of the arts. The Athenian state also sponsored learning and the arts, particularly architecture. Athens became the centre of Greek literature, philosophy (see Greek philosophy) and the arts (see Greek theatre). Some of the greatest figures of Western cultural and intellectual history lived in Athens during this period: the dramatists Aeschylus, Aristophanes, Euripides, and Sophocles, the philosophers Aristotle, Plato, and Socrates, the historians Herodotus, Thucydides, and Xenophon, the poet Simonides and the sculptor Pheidias. The city became, in Pericles's words, \"the school of Hellas\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13280365",
"title": "Ancient economic thought",
"section": "Section::::Medieval Islamic world.:Early Muslim thinkers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "Many scholars trace the history of economic thought through the Muslim world, which was in a Golden Age from the 8th to 13th century and whose philosophy continued the work of the Greek and Hellenistic thinkers and came to influence Aquinas when Europe \"rediscovered\" Greek philosophy through Arabic translation. A common theme among these scholars was the praise of economic activity and even self-interested accumulation of wealth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7757234",
"title": "History of Islamic economics",
"section": "Section::::Classical Islamic economic thought.:Early Islamic economic thinkers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "Many scholars trace the history of economic thought through the Muslim world, which was in a Golden Age from the 8th to 13th century and whose philosophy continued the work of the Greek and Hellenistic thinkers and came to influence Aquinas when Europe \"rediscovered\" Greek philosophy through Arabic translation. A common theme among these scholars was the praise of economic activity and even self-interested accumulation of wealth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47634469",
"title": "List of ancient great powers",
"section": "Section::::Ancient Europe.:Ancient Greece.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 128,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 128,
"end_character": 972,
"text": "Ancient Greece is the civilization belonging to the period of Greek history lasting from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to 146 BC and the Roman conquest of Greece after the Battle of Corinth. At the center of this time period is Classical Greece, which flourished during the 5th to 4th centuries BC, at first under Athenian leadership successfully repelling the military threat of Persian invasion. The Athenian Golden Age ends with the defeat of Athens at the hands of Sparta in the Peloponnesian War in 404 BC. Following the conquests of Alexander the Great, Hellenistic civilization flourished from Central Asia to the western end of the Mediterranean Sea. Classical Greek culture had a powerful influence on the Roman Empire, which carried a version of it to many parts of the Mediterranean region and Europe, for which reason Classical Greece is generally considered to be the seminal culture which provided the foundation of Western civilization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
}
] | null |
2yhbza
|
why would putin admit he ordered the annexation of crimea?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think mostly to show that he can. He is demonstrating his power. Opposing Putin tends to have it's downsides as well....",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Keep in mind when he claims he said it. \n\nBasically, Putin's position (and you can take this back to either Soviet or Czarist understanding) is to be hyper-concerned with any unstable or destabilising border area. Russia's \"security dilemma\" is one in which its leaders never feel secure unless they can control the areas around them, and then around those areas, and so on and so on.\n\nPutin's orders can be defended from a security standpoint - Ukraine looked like it was about to degenerate into either an anti-Russian unstable state or a completely destabilised state in a civil war. \n\n Beyond the historical claims on Crimea, Russia is not simply going to allow a strategically vital area either fall apart or fall into the hands of either an enemy or an unknown.\n\nSo, at home, Putin can say to the Russian people (and those abroad), \"When it looked like our safety, security, and well-being could be compromised, I acted immediately. Besides this, I acted in such a way as to minimise casualties, maintain stability, and maximise the benefit to our people. Whatever issues the Ukrainian peoples have with their governments, and we are happy to discuss these with the Ukrainian government, must never be allowed to threaten or endanger Russia or her citizens. I acted to protect the Russians in Crimea, and those Russians believed their safety and prosperity would be better served reuniting with Russia.\"\n\nAbroad, Putin can state quite simply, \"This area was ours before the end of the Cold War, it continues to be of vital strategic importance. With the continuing instability in Ukraine which was taking an evermore aggressive outlook along ethnic lines, I acted to ensure the safety of Russians, the continued stability of a strategically and economically vital area, and I did so in as peaceful a manner as possible. There were no massive crackdowns or murders as in the Soviet days, we have not confiscated private property, and a vote of the Crimean peoples has validated our actions. It is very easy to tell a man how to put out a fire when the flames are not licking at your own doorstep, if the West had offered anything other than castigation and criticism of Russia, perhaps we could have worked together. They did not, and so we put out the flames ourselves.\"\n\nSo why admit it? There are a variety of ways he can benefit both at home and abroad which make him look like a wise and pragmatic leader, and by ignoring it he can't take advantage of those factors.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31750",
"title": "Ukraine",
"section": "Section::::History.:Civil unrest, Russian intervention, and annexation of Crimea.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 742,
"text": "The ousting of Yanukovych prompted Vladimir Putin to begin preparations to annex Crimea on 23 February 2014. Using the Russian naval base at Sevastopol as cover, Putin directed Russian troops and intelligence agents to disarm Ukrainian forces and take control of Crimea. After the troops entered Crimea, a controversial referendum was held on 16 March 2014 and the official result was that 97 percent wished to join with Russia. On 18 March 2014, Russia and the self-proclaimed Republic of Crimea signed a treaty of accession of the Republic of Crimea and Sevastopol in the Russian Federation. The UN general assembly responded by passing resolution 68/262 that the referendum was invalid and supporting the territorial integrity of Ukraine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52093484",
"title": "Russian irredentism",
"section": "Section::::History.:Post-USSR (21st century).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 660,
"text": "The annexation of Crimea led to a new wave of Russian nationalism, with large parts of the Russian far right movement aspiring to annex even more land from Ukraine, including the unrecognized Novorossiya. Vladimir Socor proposed that Vladimir Putin's speech after the annexation of Crimea was a \"de facto\" \"manifesto of Greater-Russia Irredentism\". However, after international sanctions were imposed against Russia in early 2014, within a year the \"Novorossiya\" project was suspended: on 1 January 2015, the founding leadership announced the project has been put on hold, and on 20 May the constituent members announced the freezing of the political project.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42228673",
"title": "Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation",
"section": "Section::::History.:Crimean status referendum.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "On 4 March, Russian President Vladimir Putin said Russia was not considering annexing Crimea. He said of the peninsula that \"only citizens themselves, in conditions of free expression of will and their security can determine their future\". Putin later acknowledged that he had ordered \"work to bring Crimea back into Russia\" as early as February. He also acknowledged that in early March there were \"secret opinion polls\" held in Crimea, which, according to him, reported overwhelming popular support for Crimea's incorporation into Russia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42228673",
"title": "Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation",
"section": "Section::::Transition and aftermath.:Economic implications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "The first Deputy to Minister of Finance of Russian Federation Tatyana Nesterenko said in her interview to \"Forbes Woman\" that the decision to annex Crimea was made by Russian President Vladimir Putin exclusively, without consulting Russia's Finance Ministry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6951166",
"title": "George Soros",
"section": "Section::::Political and economic views.:Views on Russia and Ukraine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 149,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 149,
"end_character": 1204,
"text": "In July 2015, Soros stated that Putin's annexation of Crimea was a challenge to the \"prevailing world order,\" specifically the European Union. He hypothesized that Putin wants to \"destabilize all of Ukraine by precipitating a financial and political collapse for which he can disclaim responsibility, while avoiding occupation of a part of eastern Ukraine, which would then depend on Russia for economic support.\" In November 2015, Russia banned the Open Society Foundations (OSF) and the Open Society Institute (OSI)-- two pro-democracy charities founded by Soros—stating they posed a \"threat to the foundations of the constitutional system of the Russian Federation and the security of the state.\" In January 2016, 53 books related to Soros's \"Renewal of Humanitarian Education\" program were withdrawn at the Vorkuta Mining and Economic College in the Komi Republic, with 427 additional books seized for shredding. A Russian intergovernmental letter released in December 2015 stated that Soros's charities were \"forming a perverted perception of history and making ideological directives, alien to Russian ideology, popular\". Most of these books were published with funds donated by Soros's charities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42105897",
"title": "Timeline of the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "The annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation took place in the aftermath of the 2014 Ukrainian revolution. On 22–23 February, Russian President Vladimir Putin convened an all-night meeting with security services chiefs to discuss extrication of deposed President, Viktor Yanukovych, and at the end of that meeting Putin remarked that \"we must start working on returning Crimea to Russia.\". Russia sent in soldiers on February 27, 2014. Crimea held a referendum. According to official Russian and Crimean sources 95% voted to reunite with Russia. The legitimacy of the referendum has been questioned by the international community on both legal and procedural grounds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44311872",
"title": "Serhiy Lyovochkin",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "Lovochkin stated in October 2014 that Crimea was annexed by Russia in March 2014 because Russian President Vladimir \"Putin was betrayed by our irresponsible leaders too many times, until he stopped taking Ukraine seriously\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
703q1n
|
During the Second World War, were there any Red Army units deployed, say, deep within Siberia or the -Stan countries, that were never sent to fight against Germany?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes, since after all, throughout the war the USSR maintained a border with the Japanese controlled regions of China, and Japan wasn't exactly a friend, but it was not a particularly strong force.\n\nTo start, just prior to the outbreak of World War II the two powers had been involved in low level clashes, most notably Khalkhin Gol in the spring and summer of 1939. This tension aside however, once Germany launched Barbarossa in 1941, Japan and the USSR remained at peace, honoring their neutrality pact, until the very last moments of the war when the USSR invaded Manchuria as per agreement with the Wwestern Allies. Although the two Axis powers were nominally in a military alliance, Japan was not obligated to join in the conflict with the Soviets, and spurned German requests to join them unless certain conditions were met - which never were. \n\nThat fall the Soviets began moving large numbers of troops from the Far East to their fight in the west, which through September had been minimal, but in October became a torrent. From June through September, only seven divisions were moved, while October-November alone saw 12 Divisions, plus 12 naval rifle brigades. Although the impact of Richard Zorge, a spy working in Japan who reported on Japanese unwillingness to do anything less than back a clear winner and help with the clean up, should be noted, just how important Zorge was is a matter of debate - there is no question that it helped solidify the correctness of the decision in Stalin's mind, but the pressing threat from the Germans was enough that even without such assurances, the Soviets were faced with little choice, it was simply a gamble they couldn't afford not to take. Additionally, while the movement of 19 Divisions is by no means insignificant, due to increasing numbers of call-ups, the strength of the Soviet forces in the Far East was actually increased following the transfers, having averaged between 43 to 48 Divisions during the period they were occurring, but 51 to 53 by early 1942. By no means was that a full-throated military force, in comparison to what was being fielded against Germany, but it was hardly something to dismiss.\n\nAfter Dec. 7, 1941, the Japanese threat was greatly reduced. Not only had the immediate chance of Japanese intervention dissipated with the failure to take Moscow and speedily bring the USSR to its knees, but Japan entering conflict with the western Allies following Pearl Harbor meant that her eyes were focused elsewhere. Despite this, the Soviets hardly neglected the Far East, continuing to raise divisions stationed there, which reached 65 by mid-1942. In the face of Operation Blau, although it did slightly raise fears again of Japanese intervention, 10 divisions were sent to the Stalingrad Front. \n\nFollowing victory at Stalingrad, the concerns with Japan were less that she might join Germany her war against the Soviets, but now quite the reverse, when and how the Soviets would join the Western Allies in *their* war against Japan. Although in no rush, Stalin was looking ahead, beginning construction of additional rail capacity for the eventual transfer of forces east, and committing, in late 1943, to joining the Pacific War once Germany was defeated. By the fall of 1944, the General Staff had began work on initial preparations for conflict in the Far East, and the General Staff's recommendations were officially accepted in June, 1945, with orders sent out to the commanders of the Far Eastern and Transbaikal to be prepared within a month for operations to commence. Offensive operations were launched at midnight, August 9th immediately following the delivery of news to the Japanese ambassador that war had begun. By this point, the Soviets had built up a force of roughly 1.5 million men who utterly overwhelmed the poor quality and understrength Japanese forces in Manchuria, who made considerable gains before JApan's unconditional surrender less than a week later (although operations would continue for several days beyond that).\n\n\nDavid M. Glantz (2017) The Impact of Intelligence Provided to the Soviet Union by Richard Zorge on Soviet Force Deployments from the Far East to the West in 1941 and 1942, The Journal of Slavic Military Studies, 30:3, 453-481\n\nHASEGAWA, TSUYOSHI. \"SOVIET POLICY TOWARD JAPAN DURING WORLD WAR II.\" Cahiers Du Monde Russe 52, no. 2/3 (2011): 245-71. ",
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},
{
"answer": "Yes, since after all, throughout the war the USSR maintained a border with the Japanese controlled regions of China, and Japan wasn't exactly a friend, but it was not a particularly strong force.\n\nTo start, just prior to the outbreak of World War II the two powers had been involved in low level clashes, most notably Khalkhin Gol in the spring and summer of 1939. This tension aside however, once Germany launched Barbarossa in 1941, Japan and the USSR remained at peace, honoring their neutrality pact, until the very last moments of the war when the USSR invaded Manchuria as per agreement with the Wwestern Allies. Although the two Axis powers were nominally in a military alliance, Japan was not obligated to join in the conflict with the Soviets, and spurned German requests to join them unless certain conditions were met - which never were. \n\nThat fall the Soviets began moving large numbers of troops from the Far East to their fight in the west, which through September had been minimal, but in October became a torrent. From June through September, only seven divisions were moved, while October-November alone saw 12 Divisions, plus 12 naval rifle brigades. Although the impact of Richard Zorge, a spy working in Japan who reported on Japanese unwillingness to do anything less than back a clear winner and help with the clean up, should be noted, just how important Zorge was is a matter of debate - there is no question that it helped solidify the correctness of the decision in Stalin's mind, but the pressing threat from the Germans was enough that even without such assurances, the Soviets were faced with little choice, it was simply a gamble they couldn't afford not to take. Additionally, while the movement of 19 Divisions is by no means insignificant, due to increasing numbers of call-ups, the strength of the Soviet forces in the Far East was actually increased following the transfers, having averaged between 43 to 48 Divisions during the period they were occurring, but 51 to 53 by early 1942. By no means was that a full-throated military force, in comparison to what was being fielded against Germany, but it was hardly something to dismiss.\n\nAfter Dec. 7, 1941, the Japanese threat was greatly reduced. Not only had the immediate chance of Japanese intervention dissipated with the failure to take Moscow and speedily bring the USSR to its knees, but Japan entering conflict with the western Allies following Pearl Harbor meant that her eyes were focused elsewhere. Despite this, the Soviets hardly neglected the Far East, continuing to raise divisions stationed there, which reached 65 by mid-1942. In the face of Operation Blau, although it did slightly raise fears again of Japanese intervention, 10 divisions were sent to the Stalingrad Front. \n\nFollowing victory at Stalingrad, the concerns with Japan were less that she might join Germany her war against the Soviets, but now quite the reverse, when and how the Soviets would join the Western Allies in *their* war against Japan. Although in no rush, Stalin was looking ahead, beginning construction of additional rail capacity for the eventual transfer of forces east, and committing, in late 1943, to joining the Pacific War once Germany was defeated. By the fall of 1944, the General Staff had began work on initial preparations for conflict in the Far East, and the General Staff's recommendations were officially accepted in June, 1945, with orders sent out to the commanders of the Far Eastern and Transbaikal to be prepared within a month for operations to commence. Offensive operations were launched at midnight, August 9th immediately following the delivery of news to the Japanese ambassador that war had begun. By this point, the Soviets had built up a force of roughly 1.5 million men who utterly overwhelmed the poor quality and understrength Japanese forces in Manchuria, who made considerable gains before JApan's unconditional surrender less than a week later (although operations would continue for several days beyond that).\n\n\nDavid M. Glantz (2017) The Impact of Intelligence Provided to the Soviet Union by Richard Zorge on Soviet Force Deployments from the Far East to the West in 1941 and 1942, The Journal of Slavic Military Studies, 30:3, 453-481\n\nHASEGAWA, TSUYOSHI. \"SOVIET POLICY TOWARD JAPAN DURING WORLD WAR II.\" Cahiers Du Monde Russe 52, no. 2/3 (2011): 245-71. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3495672",
"title": "Internal Troops",
"section": "Section::::History of the Soviet Internal Troops.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "During World War II, most units of the NKVD Internal Troops were engaged alongside Red Army forces against Axis troops. They participated in the defense of Moscow, Leningrad, the Brest Fortress, Kiev, Odessa, Voronezh, Stalingrad, the North Caucasus and were heavily engaged during the Battle of Kursk.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "177451",
"title": "Spetsnaz",
"section": "Section::::History.:Timeline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "During World War II, Red Army reconnaissance and sabotage detachments formed under the supervision of the Second Department of the General Staff of the Soviet Armed Forces. These forces were subordinate to front commanders. The infamous NKVD internal-security and espionage agency also had their own special purpose (\"osnaz\") detachments, including many saboteur teams who were airdropped into enemy-occupied territories to work with (and often take over and lead) the Soviet Partisans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4891602",
"title": "Sino-Soviet conflict (1929)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "The conflict was the first major combat test of the reformed Soviet Red Army – one organized along the latest professional lines – and ended with the mobilization and deployment of 156,000 troops to the Manchurian border. Combining the active-duty strength of the Red Army and border guards with the call-up of the Far East reserves, approximately one-in-five Soviet soldiers was sent to the frontier, the largest Red Army combat force fielded between the Russian Civil War (1917–1922) and the Soviet Union's entry into the Second World War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16119649",
"title": "List of infantry divisions of the Soviet Union 1917–57",
"section": "Section::::Divisions of the Second World War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "Zaloga notes that the Red Army formed at least 42 'national' divisions during the Second World War, including four Azeri, five Armenian, and eight Georgian rifle divisions and a large number of cavalry divisions in Central Asia, including five Uzbek cavalry divisions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3010721",
"title": "Soviet Armed Forces",
"section": "Section::::History.:Second World War.:Barbarossa, 1941–1945 (Great Patriotic War).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "At the time of the Nazi assault on the Soviet Union in June 1941, the Red Army had 303 divisions and 22 brigades (4.8 million troops), including 166 divisions and 9 brigades (2.9 million troops) stationed in the western military districts. Their Axis opponents deployed on the Eastern Front 181 divisions and 18 brigades (3.8 million troops). The first weeks of the war saw the annihilation of virtually the entire Soviet Air Force on the ground, the loss of major equipment, tanks, artillery, and major Soviet defeats as German forces trapped hundreds of thousands of Red Army soldiers in vast pockets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14441898",
"title": "150th Rifle Division",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Its Red Army′s predecessor fought on the Eastern Front of World War II from 1941 to 1945. It gained fame as a formation, whose soldiers raised the Soviet flag over the Reichstag shortly before the end of the war. The nickname ‘Idritskaya’ was given to the Soviet division on July 23, 1944, by the order № 207 for its heroic battle in the town of Idritsa. The Division fought at Schneidemühl and Berlin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53182738",
"title": "Kantokuen",
"section": "Section::::Soviet response.:Strengths and weaknesses of the combatants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 694,
"text": "Organizationally, although Soviet forces in the Far East on paper amounted to some 32 division-equivalents by December 1941, they were regarded as only barely sufficient for defensive operations. Compared to a typical Japanese division, pre-war Red Army units possessed slightly less manpower, but had greater access to long-range, higher caliber artillery. After the German invasion, however, the Red Army was reorganized so that each division had scarcely half the manpower and a fraction of the firepower of either its German or Japanese counterpart. Hence, to achieve superiority on the battlefield the Soviets would have to concentrate several divisions to counter each of the opponent's.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
mdzl6
|
fifo & lifo (accounting)
|
[
{
"answer": "Let's say you buy 10 widgets at $1 a piece, then later you buy 10 more at $1.10. You then sell 5 of them. How much are the remaining 15 widgets worth? FIFO means first-in-first-out, LIFO means last-in-first-out, meaning do you count those 5 you sold out of the first batch you bought (the $1 ones), or the last batch you bought (the $1.10 ones).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Let's say you buy 10 widgets at $1 a piece, then later you buy 10 more at $1.10. You then sell 5 of them. How much are the remaining 15 widgets worth? FIFO means first-in-first-out, LIFO means last-in-first-out, meaning do you count those 5 you sold out of the first batch you bought (the $1 ones), or the last batch you bought (the $1.10 ones).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "86908",
"title": "FIFO and LIFO accounting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "FIFO and LIFO accounting are methods used in managing inventory and financial matters involving the amount of money a company has to have tied up within inventory of produced goods, raw materials, parts, components, or feedstocks. They are used to manage assumptions of costs related to inventory, stock repurchases (if purchased at different prices), and various other accounting purposes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "182655",
"title": "Inventory",
"section": "Section::::Accounting for inventory.:FIFO vs. LIFO accounting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 669,
"text": "FIFO treats the first unit that arrived in inventory as the first one sold. LIFO considers the last unit arriving in inventory as the first one sold. Which method an accountant selects can have a significant effect on net income and book value and, in turn, on taxation. Using LIFO accounting for inventory, a company generally reports lower net income and lower book value, due to the effects of inflation. This generally results in lower taxation. Due to LIFO's potential to skew inventory value, UK GAAP and IAS have effectively banned LIFO inventory accounting. LIFO accounting is permitted in the United States subject to section 472 of the Internal Revenue Code.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22147332",
"title": "Enterprise Finance Guarantee",
"section": "Section::::Details.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "The EFG is designed primarily as a means of providing working capital to businesses, however loans can also be provided for other purposes such as asset purchase, business expansion or acquisition, or property/equipment purchase.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14463785",
"title": "Outline of accounting",
"section": "Section::::Key concepts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "BULLET::::- FIFO and LIFO – accounting techniques used in managing inventory and financial matters involving the amount of money a company has tied up within inventory of produced goods, raw materials, parts, components, or feed stocks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "265324",
"title": "Cost of goods sold",
"section": "Section::::Identification conventions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 672,
"text": "BULLET::::- Last-In First-Out (LIFO) is the reverse of FIFO. Some systems permit determining the costs of goods at the time acquired or made, but assigning costs to goods sold under the assumption that the goods made or acquired last are sold first. Costs of specific goods acquired or made are added to a pool of costs for the type of goods. Under this system, the business may maintain costs under FIFO but track an offset in the form of a LIFO reserve. Such reserve (an asset or contra-asset) represents the difference in cost of inventory under the FIFO and LIFO assumptions. Such amount may be different for financial reporting and tax purposes in the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "86908",
"title": "FIFO and LIFO accounting",
"section": "Section::::LIFO.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "\"LIFO\" stands for \"last-in, first-out\", meaning that the most recently produced items are recorded as sold first. Since the 1970s, some U.S. companies shifted towards the use of LIFO, which reduces their income taxes in times of inflation, but since International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) banned LIFO, more companies returned to FIFO.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "86908",
"title": "FIFO and LIFO accounting",
"section": "Section::::LIFO.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "In the United States, publicly traded entities which use LIFO for taxation purposes must also use LIFO for financial reporting purposes but such companies are also likely to report a LIFO reserve to their shareholders. A number of tax reform proposals have argued for the repeal of LIFO tax provision. The \"Save LIFO Coalition\" argues in favor of the retention of LIFO.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2p6bz1
|
why are guns legal but switch blade knives are illegal?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because laws are not necessarily logical or moral, and in fact are often very arbitrary. I have no idea why people don't understand this.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There's no National Knife Association to tell idiot politicians why those laws won't do what they think they'll do.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Mostly sensationalism.](_URL_1_)\n\nFor example: \n\n > In The Toy That Kills, Pollack wrote that the switchblade was \"Designed for violence, deadly as a revolver - that’s the switchblade, the 'toy' youngsters all over the country are taking up as a fad. Press the button on this new version of the pocketknife and the blade darts out like a snake’s tongue. Action against this killer should be taken now\". To back up his charges, Pollack quoted an unnamed juvenile court judge as saying: \"It’s only a short step from carrying a switchblade to gang warfare\".\n\nAlso, they're legal to own and even carry in many places, [including a large number of states in the U.S.](_URL_0_)\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The law was passed in the 50s when they became associated with criminals on TV and in movies. It scared the public as a whole thus passing the switchblade law in the late 50s. \n\nTo get a better understanding to why the law still stands today i decided to ask a law enforcement officer.\n\nHe basically told me that if you are pissed off or in a fight with someone what are you more likely to use on them? A gun or a switchblade? \n\nA swtichblade is so easy to pull out press a button and just use it when you are in a fight it can actually be more dangerous.\n\n\n\n ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A switchblade is a fighting knife, pure and simple. It frequently falls foul of offensive weapons law because of this.\n\nFirearms have many uses including hunting and competitive target shooting up to and including Olympic Games level.\n\nTypically you will find jurisdictions that ban switchblades will also have laws against certain firearms or CCW, only allowing hunting and sporting arms.\n\nIn more open states of the US with open or concealed carry firearm laws, knife laws are also more liberal.\n\nAlso bear in mind firearms and knives are usually covered by different laws written at different times and lawmakers do not always refer back to existing law. They pitch it to what they feel is appropriate at the time, not proportionate to a gun law written a decade back.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some guns are legal, but not all.\n\nSome knives are legal, but not all.\n\nSome states have decided that a switchblade serves no purpose but to make it easier to use a concealed knife to harm someone, and banned them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I had a switchblade once, but it was a modified hairbrush.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "623099",
"title": "Switchblade",
"section": "Section::::Legality.:United States.:State laws.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 141,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 141,
"end_character": 991,
"text": "In addition to federal law, some U.S. states have laws restricting or prohibiting automatic knives or switchblades, sometimes as part of a catchall category of \"deadly weapons\" or \"prohibited weapons\". A number of states prohibit or severely restrict ownership or possession of automatic knives or switchblades as deadly or prohibited weapons, occasionally inserting exceptions to enforcement for short-bladed knives, while others such as New Hampshire and Arizona have no restrictions on sale, ownership, possession, or carry (in most circumstances). An automatic knife or switchblade may be legal or illegal in a given state depending upon the particular blade style, i.e. is patterned after knives designed solely for stabbing or thrusting, such as the dirk, dagger, poignard, or stiletto. A few states even grant individual police officers discretion to determine whether any object with potential offensive capability (switchblade, screwdriver, broken bottle, etc.) is a deadly weapon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "623099",
"title": "Switchblade",
"section": "Section::::History.:Present day.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 800,
"text": "The ability to purchase or carry switchblades or automatic knives continues to be heavily restricted or prohibited throughout much of Europe, with some notable exceptions. In Britain, the folding type of switchblade is commonly referred to as a flick knife. In the UK, knives with an automated opening system are nearly impossible to acquire or carry legally; although they can legally be owned, it is illegal to manufacture, sell, hire, give, lend, or import such knives. This definition would nominally restrict lawful ownership to 'grandfathered' automatic knives already in possession by their owner prior to the enactment of the applicable law in 1959. Even when such a knife is legally owned, carrying it in public without good reason or lawful authority is also illegal under current UK laws.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "623099",
"title": "Switchblade",
"section": "Section::::Legality.:Canada.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "Switchblades are mostly illegal to sell, buy, trade, carry and possess. Part III of the Criminal Code defines such knives as prohibited weapons (\"armes défendues\"). While certain businesses can be granted a licence to acquire and possess prohibited weapons such as switchblades for use as props in movie productions, these exemptions do not apply to individuals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "623099",
"title": "Switchblade",
"section": "Section::::History.:1950s gang usage and controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 754,
"text": "The new laws treated all automatic-opening knives as a prohibited class, even knives with utility or general-purpose blades not generally used by criminals. Curiously, the sale and possession of stilettos and other 'offensive' knives with fixed or lockback blades were not prohibited. In other U.S. states, the sale and possession of switchblade knives remained legal, particularly in rural states where a significant proportion of the population possessed firearms. As late as 1968, Jack Pollack was still writing lurid articles demanding further federal legislation prohibiting the purchase or possession of switchblade knives nationwide. New York congressman Lester L. Wolff (D) even read one of Pollack's articles into the U.S. Congressional Record.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "623099",
"title": "Switchblade",
"section": "Section::::Legality.:Belgium.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "Article 3, §1 of the 2006 Weapons Act lists the switchblade or automatic knife (\"couteaux à cran d’arrêt et à lame jaillissante\") as a prohibited weapon. In Belgium, the police and local jurisdictions are also allowed to prohibit the carrying or possession of a wide variety of knives, which are not explicitly banned by law, if the owner cannot establish a legitimate reason (\"motif légitime\") for having that knife, particularly in urban areas or at public events.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1197392",
"title": "Ballistic knife",
"section": "Section::::Legality in the United States.:Current law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1221,
"text": "Similar to conventional automatic knives, federal law makes ballistic knives with a spring-operated blade illegal to possess, manufacture, sell, or import \"in or affecting interstate commerce.\" This means they are illegal to import from outside the United States, as well as buy or sell over state lines, including possessing or making them \"with intent\" to sell over state lines. The federal law also makes it a separate crime to use or possess a ballistic knife during the commission of a federal crime of violence, with a minimum sentence of 5 years in a federal prison. Federal law does not prohibit the possession, manufacture, or sale of a ballistic knife within a state's boundaries, and the individual laws of each state or territory must be consulted to determine whether possession, manufacture, or sale within a given state is legal (many states have statutes that regulate or prohibit the acquisition or possession of ballistic knives, and penalties vary from state to state). Like the federal switchblade law, an exception is made for sale to the United States Armed Forces within the confines of a contract, as well as possession by duly-authorized members of the Armed Forces in performance of their duty.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "623099",
"title": "Switchblade",
"section": "Section::::Legality.:Finland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "In Finland switchblade or automatic knives are legal to purchase or possess. All knives are considered as dangerous weapons and it is forbidden to carry any knife without a proper cause. The law forbids carrying or importing any automatic knife that has the blade completely hidden like OTF switchblades. The restriction does not apply to importing historically significant knives or those with significant artistic value. The law requires that switchblades be cased and secured while being transported.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4pa9wo
|
What are meteorites made from?
|
[
{
"answer": "In the broad sense Meteorites are for the most part made of the same minerals Earth is made of (there may also be volatile species [ice, CO2, and rarely organic molecules, etc.], those burn up on rentry for the most part and I'll leave their discussion to others if they feel like joining in). That being said, it is the combinations of these minerals, it is the ways they relate to one another and their isotopic ratios which are mostly of interest.\n\nThe most common minerals are iron & nickel sulphides, iron oxydes, olivine, various silicates. [There are various elaborate classification schemes](_URL_0_), and the basic fundamental distinction reflects the relative proportion of silicates and non-silicate materials, ranging from stony, stony-iron and iron meteorites. Each has several sub categories.\n\nIn terms of relating these compositions to terrestrial materials, what meteorites most look like is what is termed \"unevolved mafic to ultramafic igneous rocks\" (although there are several minor and subtle chemical differences). These are rocks derived from primary melting of the mantle, and whose composition is close to that of the resulting primary melt. They are rocks you might find in the lower part of the ocean floor, or in some kinds of igneous intrusions called [Mafic/ultramafic layered complexes](_URL_2_). They are typically undersaturated in silica, and consist mostly in olivine and pyroxene, with locally variable amounts of oxyde or sulphide minerals settling along the bottom. Some comparable (but not identical) rock types in these environments you could look at to have a gross first approximation of meteorite mineralogy might be [peridotites](_URL_3_), magnetite cumulates and magmatic segregation copper-nickel ores [(see slide 22)](_URL_1_), as well as some basalts/gabbros. Mostly dark and dense stuff.\n\nGranite is a quite evolved igneous rock, which is supersaturated in silica (hence all the quartz). It is quite unlike most meteoritic material.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19937",
"title": "Meteorite",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 652,
"text": "A meteorite is a solid piece of debris from an object, such as a comet, asteroid, or meteoroid, that originates in outer space and survives its passage through the atmosphere to reach the surface of a planet or moon. When the object enters the atmosphere, various factors such as friction, pressure, and chemical interactions with the atmospheric gases cause it to heat up and radiate energy. It then becomes a meteor and forms a fireball, also known as a shooting star or falling star; astronomers call the brightest examples \"bolides\". Meteorites vary greatly in size. For geologists, a bolide is a meteorite large enough to create an impact crater.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3846760",
"title": "Tagish Lake (meteorite)",
"section": "Section::::Analysis and classification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "The meteorite contains an abundance of organic materials, including amino acids. The organics in the meteorite may have originally formed in the interstellar medium and/or the solar protoplanetary disk, but were subsequently modified in the meteorites' asteroidal parent bodies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1784060",
"title": "Astronomy on Mars",
"section": "Section::::Astronomical phenomena.:Comets and meteors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "As on Earth, when a meteor is large enough to actually impact with the surface (without burning up completely in the atmosphere), it becomes a meteorite. The first known meteorite discovered on Mars (and the third known meteorite found someplace other than Earth) was Heat Shield Rock. The first and the second ones were found on the moon by the Apollo missions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47362739",
"title": "Desert Fireball Network",
"section": "Section::::Science of Fireball Tracking.:What can we learn from meteorites?\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 685,
"text": "Meteorites are metallic or stony objects that fall to the Earth's surface from space. Scientists believe that most meteorites originate from asteroids within the asteroid belt of our solar system, but there is an increasing amount of evidence to suggest some may come from comets. Some meteorites also come from larger planetary bodies, such as the moon and Mars. Meteorites typically preserve their histories from the time when they were first accreted on their parent body, to when they were ejected from that body and landed on Earth, so our understanding of planetary body formation and evolution over the last 4.56 billion years becomes better each time a new meteorite is found.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15318146",
"title": "Allende meteorite",
"section": "Section::::Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "The meteorite was formed from nebular dust and gas during the early formation of the Solar System. It is a \"stony\" meteorite, as opposed to an \"iron,\" or \"stony iron,\" the other two general classes of meteorite. Most Allende stones are covered, in part or in whole, by a black, shiny crust created as the stone descended at great speed through the atmosphere as it was falling towards the earth from space. This causes the exterior of the stone to become very hot, melting it, and forming a glassy \"fusion crust.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36259166",
"title": "List of meteorite minerals",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "A meteorite mineral is a mineral found chiefly or exclusively within meteorites or meteorite derived material. This is a list of those minerals, excluding minerals also commonly found in terrestrial rocks. As of 1997 there were approximately 295 mineral species which have been identified in meteorites.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67216",
"title": "Martian meteorite",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "A Martian meteorite is a rock that formed on the planet Mars and was then ejected from Mars by the impact of an asteroid or comet, and finally landed on the Earth. Of over 61,000 meteorites that have been found on Earth, 224 were identified as Martian . These meteorites are thought to be from Mars because they have elemental and isotopic compositions that are similar to rocks and atmosphere gases analyzed by spacecraft on Mars. In October 2013, NASA confirmed, based on analysis of argon in the Martian atmosphere by the Mars Curiosity rover, that certain meteorites found on Earth thought to be from Mars were indeed from Mars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1x4x6m
|
does cancelling my credit card hurt my credit? or is it better to keep it and not use it?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hurts your credit. Just don't use it and let it expire. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The age of your credit history does go toward calculating your credit score. Also the number of credit accounts you have can also increase your score. \n\nYou would more than likely, in the long run, be better off keeping the account. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Banks look at the total of all your credit lines, and the total of all of your debt. What they want to see is your debt to be a relatively low percentage of your total credit line. As the percentage of total debt goes up in relation to the total credit line, your credit rating goes down.\n\nWhen you cancel a credit card you reduce your total credit line by x amount (whatever credit line that card had). That will cause any debt you still have to now be a larger percentage of your total credit line, which can harm your credit.\n\nIf you have no other debt, it may not matter much if you cancel the card. But it's also useful to just keep the credit line open and not use it. That keeps your total credit line larger, and your debt percentage lower which helps your credit rating.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15905434",
"title": "Credit card hijacking",
"section": "Section::::Cancellation barrier.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "A simple solution to this problem is to call the credit card company, request a new card with a different account number, and cancel the previous account. They will transfer the debt amount from the old account to the new account. This makes companies that have the credit card information unable to continue charging the credit card of the person. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2183979",
"title": "Universal default",
"section": "Section::::Ban on forms of universal default.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "However, this law did not prohibit all forms of universal default. Credit card companies have begun the practice of canceling altogether the accounts of customers who are delinquent or in default with other credit agencies even if the customer is still in good standing with the credit card company.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15905434",
"title": "Credit card hijacking",
"section": "Section::::Cancellation barrier.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "This second form of credit card hijacking was created by marketers who recognized that subscription based services generally have relatively low periodic billing amounts which will generally go unnoticed on any given credit card statement. So what happens is that long after the user loses interest in the subscription, they forget to cancel the subscription and because the periodic billing is so low, they don’t tend to notice it on their credit card statement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1198837",
"title": "Egg Banking",
"section": "Section::::Controversies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "On 2 February 2008, Egg chose to cancel the credit cards of 161,000 (7%) of its customers. The bank gave customers 35 days' notice, after which they would not be able to spend more on their cards. While publicised as an attempt to purge \"risky\" customers from their books, many affected customers came forward with claims that they had excellent credit histories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1471699",
"title": "Credit card debt",
"section": "Section::::Statistics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 780,
"text": "Declines in credit card debt are often misinterpreted because they fail to include information about charge-offs. The possible causes for a decline in credit card debt are consumers paying down their debt, credit card companies writing charged-off debt off their books, or a combination of the two. Inclusion of charged-off debt can therefore significantly impact debt trends and the characterization of a nation's financial health. For example, the $10.3 billion decrease in outstanding credit card debt in Q3 2010 relative to the previous quarter might at first glance seem to be a significant consumer pay down. However, considering that the Q3 credit card charge-off rate was $16.9 billion, consumers actually increased their overall debt by $6.6 billion during this quarter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "509648",
"title": "Perception management",
"section": "Section::::Business.:Marketing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 858,
"text": "This fact has necessitated the need for almost every citizen to have a credit card. However, many credit cards companies manage their perception to make sure that people continue to need credit cards, and control their perception so that many people do not fully understand what they are getting into. However, the fact that the average household in the United States is in over fifteen thousand dollars worth of debt never reaches the widespread public. Instead, they publicize how they will help if a card gets stolen, or that they have the lowest interest percentage compared to the other major competitors. But no company tells their customers that the promoted interest rate more than doubles if they do not pay the minimum balance on time. For instance, Discover's interest rate increases to 18.99% after the first minimum balance is not paid on time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16616591",
"title": "Overspending",
"section": "Section::::Credit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "Sources of credit such as credit cards enable overspending by allowing consumers to spend beyond their income. Financial counselors advise indebted consumers to avoid buying goods on credit and even to cut up their credit cards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1uppyo
|
how do massive cold fronts, like the one being experienced in america right now, occur?
|
[
{
"answer": "The cold front that is being experienced by the United States and Canada right now is known as a polar vortex. Polar vortexes are strong winds found in the upper level of the atmosphere that normally stay over the north pole. On occasion the vortex can be distorted, causing cold air to spill to the south. \n\n[Source](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[NPR had a pretty good explanation](_URL_0_) -- basically, you've got high pressure air to the west, high pressure to the east, and in between the cold arctic air. The arctic air is getting squeezed by the two systems on each side, and when you squeeze something it has to squirt out somewhere. The arctic air is getting squirted out all over the US this time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42231524",
"title": "2013–14 North American winter",
"section": "Section::::Events.:December cold wave.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 605,
"text": "On December 1, 2013, the weakening of the polar vortex led to the beginning of an abnormally cold trend in the Eastern and Central United States. On December 6, the continued deterioration of the polar vortex led to the jet stream pushing southward, bringing record cold temperatures across the Eastern U.S. During the cold wave, which extended from December 6–10, over 150 daily precipitation records and close to 100 daily snowfall records were broken across the northeastern, southeastern and south central United States. Numerous airline flights were canceled and there were reports of power outages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20279444",
"title": "Cold front",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 854,
"text": "A cold front is the leading edge of a cooler mass of air, replacing at ground level a warmer mass of air, which lies within a fairly sharp surface trough of low pressure. It forms in the wake of an extratropical cyclone, at the leading edge of its cold air advection pattern, which is also known as the cyclone's dry conveyor belt circulation. Temperature differences across the boundary can exceed from one side to the other. When enough moisture is present, rain can occur along the boundary. If there is significant instability along the boundary, a narrow line of thunderstorms can form along the frontal zone. If instability is less, a broad shield of rain can move in behind the front, which increases the temperature difference across the boundary. Cold fronts are stronger in the fall and spring transition seasons and weakest during the summer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20279444",
"title": "Cold front",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics of boundaries around an extratropical cyclone.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 815,
"text": "Cold fronts form when a cooler air mass moves into an area of warmer air in the wake of a developing extratropical cyclone. The warmer air interacts with the cooler air mass along the boundary, and usually produces precipitation. Cold fronts often follow a warm front or squall line. Very commonly, cold fronts have a warm front ahead but with a perpendicular orientation. In areas where cold fronts catch up to the warm front, the occluded front develops. Occluded fronts have an area of warm air aloft. When such a feature forms poleward of an extratropical cyclone, it is known as a trowal, which is short for TRough Of Warm Air aLoft. A cold front is considered a warm front if it begins to retreat ahead of the next extratropical cyclone along the frontal boundary, and called a stationary front if it stalls.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56190866",
"title": "2017–18 North American cold wave",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "The 2017–18 North American cold wave was an extreme weather event in North America in which record low temperatures gripped much of the Central, Eastern United States, and parts of Central and Eastern Canada. Starting in late December as a result of the southward shift of the polar vortex, extremely cold conditions froze the eastern United States in the last few days of 2017 as well as into the new year. Following a brief respite in mid-January, cold temperatures swung back into the eastern U.S. shortly afterwards. The cold wave finally dissolved by around January 19, as near-average temperatures returned.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20279444",
"title": "Cold front",
"section": "Section::::Temperature changes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 743,
"text": "Cold fronts are the leading edge of cooler air masses, hence the name \"cold front\". They have stronger temperature changes during the fall (autumn) and spring and during the middle of winter. Temperature changes associated with cold fronts can be as much as 50 °F (30 °C). When cold fronts come through, there is usually a quick, yet strong gust of wind, that shows that the cold front is passing. In surface weather observations, a remark known as FROPA is coded when this occurs. The effects from a cold front can last from hours to days. The air behind the front is cooler than the air it is replacing and the warm air is forced to rise, so it cools. As the cooler air cannot hold as much moisture as warm air, clouds form and rain occurs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39094534",
"title": "2013 extreme weather events",
"section": "Section::::Cold spring in the Northern Hemisphere.:North America.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "The cold wave in the United States was influenced by a low-pressure area called a \"Clipper\" which brought an Arctic cold front that caused rapidly falling temperatures and strong northwest winds with gusts of .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48551844",
"title": "Climatic regions of Argentina",
"section": "Section::::Patagonia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 851,
"text": "Cold fronts usually move from west to east, or from southwest to northeast, but rarely from the south. Because of this, these cold fronts do not result in the cold being intense since they are moderated as they pass over the surrounding oceans. In the rare cases when cold fronts move northwards from the south (Antarctica), the cold air masses are not moderated by the surrounding oceans, resulting in very cold temperatures throughout the region. In general, the passage of cold fronts is more common in the south than in the north, and occurs more in winter than in summer. The movement of warm, subtropical air into the region occurs frequently in summer up to 46S. When warm subtropical air arrives in the region, the air is dry, resulting in little precipitation, and causes temperatures to be higher than those observed in northeast Argentina.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ldrry
|
why is it so difficult to not flinch when something jumps out at you on a screen(like a scary movie for example) even though our brain registers that it is fake and expected?
|
[
{
"answer": "Reflexes occur *much* faster than rational thought. It's been shown that people reacting to painful stimuli move away from the stimuli before the rational centers of the brain are even activated. This means that your rational brain is not even involved when you flinch - you know it's fake, but that knowledge isn't relevant to the reflexes. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "515983",
"title": "The Theory of Moral Sentiments",
"section": "Section::::\"The Theory of Moral Sentiments\": The Sixth Edition.:Part I: Of the propriety of action.:Part I, Section I: Of the Sense of Propriety.:Part I, Section I, Chapter I: Of Sympathy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "He also proposes a natural 'motor' response to seeing the actions of others: If we see a knife hacking off a person's leg we wince away, if we see someone dance we move in the same ways, we feel the injuries of others as if we had them ourselves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43368717",
"title": "Virtual reality sickness",
"section": "Section::::Theories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "The resolution on animation can also cause users to experience this phenomenon. When animations are poor, it causes another type of discord between what is expected and what is actually happening on the screen. When onscreen graphics do not keep the pace with the users' head movements, it can trigger a form of motion sickness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34393613",
"title": "Mental factors (Buddhism)",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "BULLET::::- The main mind is like screen in a cinema, and the mental factors are like the images projected on the screen. In this analogy, we typically do not notice the screen because we are so caught up on the images.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146000",
"title": "Amygdala",
"section": "Section::::Neuropsychological correlates of amygdala activity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "Studies in 2004 and 2006 showed that normal subjects exposed to images of frightened faces or faces of people from another race will show increased activity of the amygdala, even if that exposure is subliminal. However, the amygdala is not necessary for the processing of fear-related stimuli, since persons in whom it is bilaterally damaged show rapid reactions to fearful faces, even in the absence of a functional amygdala.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "675275",
"title": "Distraction",
"section": "Section::::In medicine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "Essentially, when exposed to an unpleasant image, the subject feels initial discomfort. However, after being exposed to it once with their full attention, the subject feels much less discomfort the second time they are exposed. When the subject distracts themselves from the initial unpleasant image, the subject feels more discomfort the second time when they are required to attend to the image. The experimenters’ conclusion is thus: “the obtained results suggest that distraction inhibits elaborate processing of the stimulus' meaning and adapting to it.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30459645",
"title": "Posture (psychology)",
"section": "Section::::Analysis.:Changing factors.:Interpersonal attitudes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "BULLET::::- Orientation of the body. Usually people talk directed toward each other, but not squarely face to face, which can be indicative of a confrontational stance. In conversation, the participants' bodies are usually turned toward each other at an angle. When a person ignores someone else, they tend to ignore or avoid contact by showing the other person their side or back.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "219718",
"title": "Appeal to emotion",
"section": "Section::::Influence of emotion on persuasion.:Positive emotions.:Empathy and compassion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "Dan Ariely notes that appeals that, through visual cues or otherwise, make us focus on specific, individual victims affect our attitudes and lead us to take action whereas, \"when many people are involved, we don’t. A cold calculation does not increase our concern for large problems; instead, it suppresses our compassion.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7zjn85
|
How does the cosmic microwave background persist? Why hasn't it been distorted and destroyed by new sources of energy pumping into space?
|
[
{
"answer": "Basically CMB, it is a picture of a age, the last scattering surface age, and it is the name of that because, the photon crosssection is very low, basically a photon of cmb can interact with gravitation lens and matter. So if you observe through the MW disk, you will see a interference, but in the deep space basically the photon don't interact. \n\nWith you are interested for more information, read about and decoupling of matter and radiation \n\nAnd more about sashwolfe effect. \n\nI hope this helps. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The universe is largely transparent. Sure, some parts of the radiation have been absorbed, and there is a bit of new emission at this wavelength range, but overall it is not a large effect and it can be taken into account.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > How does the cosmic microwave background persist?\n\nEnergy is conserved, and the CMB is mostly not interacting with anything, so it *must* persist. The laws of physics require it.\n\n > Why hasn't it been distorted and destroyed by new sources of energy pumping into space?\n\nBecause it doesn't interact directly with almost any of these other energy sources, and there isn't that much energy being \"pumped into space\" in the first place -- not nearly as much as is already there due to the CMB. There is more total EM radiation intensity from the CMB than all other EM radiation sources combined. The other EM radiation is also at different wavelengths. EM radiation does not self-interact, and it is easy to distinguish radiation with different wavelengths, so the signal of CMB radiation is easily separable from other sources.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7376",
"title": "Cosmic microwave background",
"section": "Section::::Relationship to the Big Bang.:Primary anisotropy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 762,
"text": "The structure of the cosmic microwave background anisotropies is principally determined by two effects: acoustic oscillations and diffusion damping (also called collisionless damping or Silk damping). The acoustic oscillations arise because of a conflict in the photon–baryon plasma in the early universe. The pressure of the photons tends to erase anisotropies, whereas the gravitational attraction of the baryons, moving at speeds much slower than light, makes them tend to collapse to form overdensities. These two effects compete to create acoustic oscillations, which give the microwave background its characteristic peak structure. The peaks correspond, roughly, to resonances in which the photons decouple when a particular mode is at its peak amplitude.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4116",
"title": "Big Bang",
"section": "Section::::Observational evidence.:Hubble's law and the expansion of space.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "Measurements of the effects of the cosmic microwave background radiation on the dynamics of distant astrophysical systems in 2000 proved the Copernican principle, that, on a cosmological scale, the Earth is not in a central position. Radiation from the Big Bang was demonstrably warmer at earlier times throughout the universe. Uniform cooling of the CMB over billions of years is explainable only if the universe is experiencing a metric expansion, and excludes the possibility that we are near the unique center of an explosion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5378",
"title": "Physical cosmology",
"section": "Section::::Areas of study.:Cosmic microwave background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 1152,
"text": "The cosmic microwave background is radiation left over from decoupling after the epoch of recombination when neutral atoms first formed. At this point, radiation produced in the Big Bang stopped Thomson scattering from charged ions. The radiation, first observed in 1965 by Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson, has a perfect thermal black-body spectrum. It has a temperature of 2.7 kelvins today and is isotropic to one part in 10. Cosmological perturbation theory, which describes the evolution of slight inhomogeneities in the early universe, has allowed cosmologists to precisely calculate the angular power spectrum of the radiation, and it has been measured by the recent satellite experiments (COBE and WMAP) and many ground and balloon-based experiments (such as Degree Angular Scale Interferometer, Cosmic Background Imager, and Boomerang). One of the goals of these efforts is to measure the basic parameters of the Lambda-CDM model with increasing accuracy, as well as to test the predictions of the Big Bang model and look for new physics. The results of measurements made by WMAP, for example, have placed limits on the neutrino masses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20097",
"title": "Microwave",
"section": "Section::::Microwave uses.:Radio astronomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 714,
"text": "A major recent focus of microwave radio astronomy has been mapping the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR) discovered in 1964 by radio astronomers Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson. This faint background radiation, which fills the universe and is almost the same in all directions, is \"relic radiation\" from the Big Bang, and is one of the few sources of information about conditions in the early universe. Due to the expansion and thus cooling of the Universe, the originally high-energy radiation has been shifted into the microwave region of the radio spectrum. Sufficiently sensitive radio telescopes can detected the CMBR as a faint signal that is not associated with any star, galaxy, or other object.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7376",
"title": "Cosmic microwave background",
"section": "Section::::Future evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "Assuming the universe keeps expanding and it does not suffer a Big Crunch, a Big Rip, or another similar fate, the cosmic microwave background will continue redshifting until it will no longer be detectable, and will be overtaken first by the one produced by starlight, and later by the background radiation fields of processes that are assumed will take place in the far future of the universe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7376",
"title": "Cosmic microwave background",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 788,
"text": "The interpretation of the cosmic microwave background was a controversial issue in the 1960s with some proponents of the steady state theory arguing that the microwave background was the result of scattered starlight from distant galaxies. Using this model, and based on the study of narrow absorption line features in the spectra of stars, the astronomer Andrew McKellar wrote in 1941: \"It can be calculated that the 'rotational temperature' of interstellar space is 2 K.\" However, during the 1970s the consensus was established that the cosmic microwave background is a remnant of the big bang. This was largely because new measurements at a range of frequencies showed that the spectrum was a thermal, black body spectrum, a result that the steady state model was unable to reproduce.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "847879",
"title": "Age of the universe",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 1224,
"text": "The discovery of microwave cosmic background radiation announced in 1965 finally brought an effective end to the remaining scientific uncertainty over the expanding universe. It was a chance result from work by two teams less than 60 miles apart. In 1964, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson were trying to detect radio wave echoes with a supersensitive antenna. The antenna persistently detected a low, steady, mysterious noise in the microwave region that was evenly spread over the sky, and was present day and night. After testing, they became certain that the signal did not come from the Earth, the Sun, or our galaxy, but from outside our own galaxy, but could not explain it. At the same time another team, Robert H. Dicke, Jim Peebles, and David Wilkinson, were attempting to detect low level noise which might be left over from the Big Bang and could prove whether the Big Bang theory was correct. The two teams realized that the detected noise was in fact radiation left over from the Big Bang, and that this was strong evidence that the theory was correct. Since then, a great deal of other evidence has strengthened and confirmed this conclusion, and refined the estimated age of the universe to its current figure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
282ngn
|
If someone paralyzed from the waist down breaks their leg, will their body still know and be able to repair it?
|
[
{
"answer": "Paralyzation and regeneration are two different things. Just because paralyzed people don't feel their legs doesn't mean the body ignores it completely...ya just can't feel bad stuff happening to it. There's actually a disease people can have where the body feels no pain. Was covered in a House episode though I can to remember its official name right off hand. \n\nAnyway, if the tissue is still alive, blood flowing through it and everything else, then it will heal just like anything else...that person just won't feel the process. It's a boon and a curse really. People could really hurt themselves pretty bad if they couldn't feel things happening to them. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Paralysis is a result of nervous system dysfunction. If a limb is still viably attached to a person, though paralyzed, then lots of usual processes can still occur. A fracture will cause bleeding and inflammation. Chemical signals will be emitted which travel through the blood and attract white blood cells. Platelets will adhere and form clots. Approximated bone fragments can knit together as the initial fibrinous callus made of clot, inflammatory material, and other things is infiltrated with collagen fibers and then mineralized by osteoblasts. All through chemical signals.\n\nYour nervous system has very little input into many body processes like these.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "645580",
"title": "Trampoline",
"section": "Section::::Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "Another of the most common sources of serious injury is an attempt to perform somersaults without proper training. In some cases, people land on their neck or head, which can cause paralysis or even death. In an infamous incident in the 1960s, pole-vaulting champion Brian Sternberg became paralyzed from the neck down in a trampoline accident.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "291594",
"title": "Paris–Roubaix",
"section": "Section::::Course.:Main cobbled sectors.:Trouée d'Arenberg.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "What I went through, only I will ever know. My knee cap completely turned to the right, a ball of blood forming on my leg and the bone that broke, without being able to move my body. And the pain, a pain that I wouldn't wish on anyone. The surgeon placed a big support [\"un gros matériel\"] in my leg, because the bone had moved so much. Breaking a femur is always serious in itself but an open break in an athlete of high level going flat out, that tears the muscles. At 180 beats [a minute of the heart], there was a colossal amount of blood being pumped, which meant my leg was full of blood. I'm just grateful that the artery was untouched.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27562858",
"title": "2010 Rutgers Scarlet Knights football team",
"section": "Section::::During the season.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "During the October 16 game vs Army, defensive tackle Eric LeGrand suffered a spinal cord injury. He underwent emergency surgery to stabilize his spine at Hackensack University Medical Center. He is paralyzed from the neck down, but has regained sensation throughout his body, which might lead to a more complete recovery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7562355",
"title": "Veniamin Mandrykin",
"section": "Section::::Injury.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "As of July 2017, his legs were paralyzed and his hands had very minimal movement with no expectation of further recovery. Crash-related criminal charges were dropped by agreement with other people who were injured as passengers in his car.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "362699",
"title": "Shane MacGowan",
"section": "Section::::Personal life.:2015 accident.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "\"It was a fall and I fell the wrong way,\" he stated in an interview with Vice's Leonie Cooper. \"I broke my pelvis, which is the worst thing you can do. I'm lame in one leg, I can't walk around the room without a crutch. I am getting better, but it's taking a very long time. It's the longest I've ever taken to recover from an injury. And I've had a lot of injuries.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28747761",
"title": "Qadir Bakhsh",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "He has been partially paralyzed since 2003 and been receiving treatment at the Lyari General Hospital. A recent stroke had left him unable to use his right leg and hand and he needs to undergo regular physiotherapy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31036492",
"title": "Canadian Spinal Research Organization",
"section": "Section::::Spinal cord injuries (SCI).:Spinal injury.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "Sometimes only the bony structures and/or ligaments are damaged, resulting in various kinds of fractures (broken bones and discs or dislocations) and an unstable spine. Though the area affected will probably need to be immobilized until healing results, the spinal cord is not affected.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
adm2su
|
Buddhism originated in India but today, most of India is either Hindu or Muslim. Conversely, Buddhism is very common in East Asian countries such as Japan. What were some of the key factors that lead to the decline of Buddhism in India and its rise in East Asia?
|
[
{
"answer": "One of the interesting things about the spread of Buddhism is that it took a very roundabout route through the northwest of the Indian subcontinent and Central Asia (what is now Afghanistan and Pakistan) into East Asia along the Silk Road routes -- so the form it reached China in (Mahayana) was a bit separated from the credo of the original Buddha.\n\nThe 'golden age' of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent coincided with its institutionalization by the Mauryan Empire, especially during the reign of Asoka. In fact, [he issued a series of multilingual (some are in Greek and Aramaic) edicts](_URL_0_) throughout the empire advertising the non-violent morals of Buddhism, that he had converted various peoples in his empire (including Greeks), and that he had sent missionaries as far away as Sri Lanka and the Hellenistic kingdoms of the west. Stupas and Buddhist seminaries were sponsored en masse -- though these were institutions that ultimately relied on imperial or communal support and funding. While Buddhism became entrenched in a few places, such as Gandhara (a region that now straddles Afghanistan and Pakistan, [known for Graeco-Buddhist art](_URL_4_)), it largely petered out outside of a select few pilgrimage points, universities and monasteries. It just wasn't endearing enough to the common imagination, nor did it attract much imperial support in the bulk of the subcontinent. So Buddhism went on a steady decline in the subcontinent, coinciding with the emergence of Hinduism and Islam.\n\nBack to Gandhara and the northwest frontier, however: Buddhism flourished thanks to the capture of the region by Graeco-Bactrians and Kushans, who again institutionalized the religion through stupa-construction and funding of Buddhist monasteries and scholars. Mahayana Buddhism also emerged here, especially through humanistic depictions of the Buddha (whereas Buddhism was originally aniconic) and the concept of *boddhisattvas*. One of the principal *vajrapanis* (or protectors of the Buddha) in Graeco-Buddhist art is Hercules, for example, while Gandharan Buddhas aesthetically resemble depictions of the Hellenistic god Apollo. This is also evident from the travel accounts of Chinese traveller [Fa-hsien](_URL_3_), who travelled to the region during Hephthalite rule (better known as the Huns). He mentions the Buddhist mythology endemic to the region (such as fables that the Buddha had slain dragons there) and stupas built by the Kushan emperor [Kanishka I](_URL_6_), whose reign also saw the flourishing of Graeco-Buddhist art and Silk Road trade with Han and Tang-dynasty China.\n\nAlso during this period was the [migration of many Gandharans and the Gandharan language into what is now Xinjiang in western China](_URL_5_). The Gandharan language was a Sanskritic one written in either Greek or Aramaic script at various points in history, but in China, it was principally the language of Buddhism. Through the many Gandhari-language scrolls peppered throughout Silk Road oases and Buddhist monasteries, it is evident that Gandharan Buddhism -- with its heavy Hellenistic and Iranian influence -- was the medium by which Buddhism spread to China. There were even some prolific figures like the Kashmiri monk [Kumarajiva](_URL_1_) who translated works like the Diamond Sutra directly from Sanskrit to Chinese, introducing tens of thousands of Sanskritic loanwords into the Chinese language. Important also were an Iranian people called the Sogdians, who left Buddhist inscriptions all over the Hindu Kush and the Hunza Valley of northern Pakistan -- they were primarily Zoroastrian and eventually Muslim, but the artwork Sogdians constructed in China and along the Silk Road often blends Iranian, Chinese, Hellenistic and Buddhistic motifs and elements.\n\nFinally, it's important to note that the period of greatest incursion of Buddhism was during the Tang-dynasty period; that dynasty is known widely for its cosmopolitanism, and was deeply engaged with the geo-political affairs of Central Asia, Iran and the Tibetan plateau. Their capital at Chang'an (modern Xi'an), for example, hosted great shrines, temples and monasteries of various 'Western' religions, such as Nestorian Christianity, Buddhism, Zoroastrianism and Islam, and a very multi-ethnic population that still characterizes western China today. Buddhist monasteries were sponsored by the state, and members of the royal family even converted to Buddhism during this period. The famous Buddhist monk [Xuanzang](_URL_2_) even travelled throughout Central Asia and India to collect Sanskrit texts during this period, and was accordingly celebrated by the contemporary Tang emperor.\n\nThat cosmopolitanism ended with the devastating An Lushan Rebellion, which led to increasing xenophobia and the persecution of 'non-native' religions like Zoroastrianism, Christianity, Manichaeism and Islam. Although Buddhism did not escape repression, it was endearing enough to establish long-standing monasteries and seminaries and thus survived until the decentralization of the Tang dynasty, by which point it flourished with native Chinese artistic and mythological elements. What was different about Buddhism, as compared to Zoroastrianism, Nestorian Christianity, Islam and Manichaeism, was that it had very little backing among the Central Asian foes of the Tang dynasty; Manichaeism, for example, was sponsored by a Uighur khanate that had opposed the Tang, and Zoroastrianism was the principal religion of the Sogdians, who constituted a considerable antagonistic faction during the An Lushan rebellion. Christianity and Islam, likewise, was endearing to various Turkic tribes.\n\nSources:\n\n*The Silk Road: A New History* by Valerie Hansen ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7274740",
"title": "Buddhism and Hinduism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "Buddhism attained prominence in the Indian subcontinent as it was supported by royal courts, but started to decline after the Gupta era and virtually disappeared from India in the 11th century CE, except in some pockets of India. It has continued to exist outside of India and has become the major religion in several Asian countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "297223",
"title": "Buddhism in the West",
"section": "Section::::Early modern and colonial encounters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 875,
"text": "This recognition that Buddhism was indeed a distinct Asian religion with its own texts and not just a form of local paganism, led Catholic missionaries to see Buddhism as a serious rival to Christianity in Asia and to promote its further study so as to combat it. They also sought to explain how such a religion could exist which appeared to deviate from those originating from divine revelation and yet also contained numerous similarities (monastic orders, virgin birth of its founder, belief in heaven and hell, etc.). Because of this, many Portuguese writers explained the Buddhist religion as a form of Christianity corrupted by the devil and some even said Buddhists were \"in league with the devil\". Catholic missionaries in Asia especially criticized the Buddhist view of rebirth, their \"idol worship\" and their denial of the immortality of the soul or a first cause.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1335588",
"title": "Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "The decline of Buddhism has been attributed to various factors, especially the regionalisation of India after the end of the Gupta Empire (320–650 CE), which led to the loss of patronage and donations as Indian dynasties turned to the services of Hindu Brahmins. Another factor was invasions of north India by various groups such as Huns, Turco-mongols and Persians and subsequent destruction of Buddhist institutions such as Nalanda and religious persecutions. Religious competition with Hinduism and later Islam were also important factors. Islamization of Bengal\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "515258",
"title": "Greco-Buddhism",
"section": "Section::::Historical outline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "Buddhism in India was a major religion for centuries until a major Hindu revival from around the 5th century, with remaining strongholds such as Bengal largely ended during the Islamic invasions of India.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "458455",
"title": "Battle of Talas",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath and historical significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "With the decline of Central Asian Buddhism, Chinese Buddhism was now cut off from Indian Buddhism and developed into an independent religion with distinct spiritual elements. Indigenous Buddhist traditions like Pure Land Buddhism and Zen emerged in China. China became the center of East Asian Buddhism, following the Chinese Buddhist canon, as Buddhism spread to Japan and Korea from China.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "591605",
"title": "Dalit Buddhist movement",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "Buddhism originated in ancient India and grew after Ashoka adopted it. By the 2nd century CE, Buddhism was widespread in India and had expanded outside of India into Central Asia, East Asia and parts of Southeast Asia. During the Middle Ages, Buddhism slowly declined in India, while it vanished from Persia and Central Asia as Islam became the state religion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10710364",
"title": "Religion in India",
"section": "Section::::History.:Rise of Shramana Religions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 710,
"text": "The decline of Buddhism in India has been attributed to a variety of factors, which include the resurgence of Hinduism in the 10th and 11th centuries under Sankaracharya, the later Turkish invasion, the Buddhist focus on renunciation as opposed to familial values and private property, Hinduism's own use and appropriation of Buddhist and Jain ideals of renunciation and ahimsa, etc. Although Buddhism virtually disappeared from mainstream India by the 11th century CE, its presence remained and manifested itself through other movements such as the Bhakti tradition, Vaishnavism and the Bauls of Bengal, who are influenced by the Sahajjyana form of Buddhism that was popular in Bengal during the Pala period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6gmtvd
|
stop-motion animation
|
[
{
"answer": "Conceptually, there's not much to it. \n\n1. Set your camera on a tripod or other device to ensure it stays in exactly the same place\n2. pose your clay figure/doll/paper cutout/clothes\n3. take a photograph.\n4. SLIIIIIIGHTLY move your figure towards it's next position. \n5. Take another pic.\n6. Repeat *thousands* of times. \n7. Take your photographs and play them back at 30 pictures a second. Tada! Motion!\n8. Add in sound effects and music via video editing software, just like you can for a \"regular\" movie clip.\n\nThe secret sauce that makes it look so good is practice and patience. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Videos are essentially a number of still images played in quick succession. Stop motion videos consist of a number of individually clicked still images, each clicked after making slight changes in the subject's position. When they're all put together and played in quick succession in a video, it produces an illusion of movement. \n\nNot to be mistakened with time-lapse video where a number of still images are clicked at equally spaced time intervals and then put together into a video, generating a speedened up version of the captured events. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "593",
"title": "Animation",
"section": "Section::::Techniques.:Stop motion animation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "Stop-motion animation is used to describe animation created by physically manipulating real-world objects and photographing them one frame of film at a time to create the illusion of movement. There are many different types of stop-motion animation, usually named after the medium used to create the animation. Computer software is widely available to create this type of animation; traditional stop motion animation is usually less expensive but more time-consuming to produce than current computer animation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27036",
"title": "Stop motion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 728,
"text": "Stop motion is an animated-film making technique in which objects are physically manipulated in small increments between individually photographed frames so that they will appear to exhibit independent motion when the series of frames is played back as a fast sequence. Dolls with movable joints or clay figures are often used in stop motion for their ease of repositioning. Stop-motion animation using plasticine figures is called clay animation or \"clay-mation\". Not all stop motion, however, requires figures or models: stop-motion films can also be made using humans, household appliances, and other objects, usually for comedic effect. Stop motion using humans is sometimes referred to as pixilation or pixilate animation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39433264",
"title": "Anomalisa",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Animation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "Kaufman and Johnson have described the process of stop-motion animation as \"laborious\" and found challenges in making the puppets look lifelike and relatable. Animator Dan Driscoll said they found people on whom to model the puppets, studied human movement and facial expressions to produce a precise result, created the puppets and built the sets, and finally placed the puppets on the sets and moved them frame by frame to create the illusion of movement. Kaufman said the medium of stop-motion underpins the narrative of \"Anomalisa\" by drawing attention to small details viewers would not notice in a live-action film.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "927830",
"title": "Go motion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 798,
"text": "Go motion is a variation of stop motion animation which incorporates motion blur into each frame involving motion. It was co-developed by Industrial Light & Magic and Phil Tippett. Stop motion animation can create a disorienting, and distinctive staccato effect, because the animated object is perfectly sharp in every frame, since each frame of the animation was actually shot when the object was perfectly still. Real moving objects in similar scenes of the same movie will have motion blur, because they moved while the shutter of the camera was open. Filmmakers use a variety of techniques to simulate motion blur, such as moving the model slightly during the exposure of each film frame or using a glass plate smeared with petroleum jelly in front of the camera lens to blur the moving areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27036",
"title": "Stop motion",
"section": "Section::::History.:1980s to present.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "In the 1970s and 1980s, Industrial Light & Magic often used stop-motion model animation in such films as the original \"Star Wars\" trilogy: the chess sequence in \"Star Wars\", the Tauntauns and AT-AT walkers in \"The Empire Strikes Back\", and the AT-ST walkers in \"Return of the Jedi\" were all filmed using stop-motion animation, with the latter two films utilising go motion: an invention from renowned visual effects veteran Phil Tippett. The many shots including the ghosts in \"Raiders of the Lost Ark\" and the first two feature films in the \"RoboCop\" series use Tippett's go motion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27052778",
"title": "List of genres",
"section": "Section::::Film and television formats and genres.:Animation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 174,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 174,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "BULLET::::- Stop motion: similar to traditional animation; instead of using hand drawn pictures, stop motion films are made with small figurines or other objects that have their picture taken many times over a sequence of small movements to create animation frames. Examples are \"The Nightmare Before Christmas\", \"Coraline\", and \"Corpse Bride\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2158168",
"title": "Jack Halberstam",
"section": "Section::::Career.:\"The Queer Art of Failure\".:Chapter Six: Animating Failure: Ending, Fleeing, Surviving.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 838,
"text": "Stop-motion animation is the last point Halberstam touches on in this chapter. She goes into examples of \"SpongeBob SquarePants\", \"Mr. Fox\", \"Chicken Run\" and \"Coraline\" explaining how ideas of racism, entrapment, masculinity and political progression are present heavily in stop-motion films. Themes of remote control and imprisonment are also heavily present in stop-motion animation. The use of stop-motion animation can help evoke different emotions as well. For example, in \"Chicken Run\", the start-stop jerkiness allows the narrative to be even more humorous. Themes of remote control and imprisonment are also heavily present in stop-motion animation. However, we must remember that \"... the comedic soul of \"Chicken Run\" is not its operatic escape ... it's about the viewer's personal relationship with his or her inner chicken.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5s0qw0
|
How were ancient open-field battles organised?
|
[
{
"answer": "I can only answer this for Classical Greece, but I'm sure some of our resident experts will be willing to add the Roman perspective.\n\nSimply put, Greek armies were usually able to find one another because it was all but impossible for an army to move without being noticed. Armies are large masses of men, often wearing shiny metal armour and weapons, accompanied by countless servants and camp-followers, wagons carrying equipment and supplies, horses for cavalry, oxen to draw carts, and sheep and goats for sacrificing. The movement of armies was slow and noisy. It threw up vast clouds of dust and frightened flocks of birds. When encamped, an army betrayed itself through the light and smoke of its many fires; when on the move, it tended to be preceded by throngs of refugees. Even without scouts, it was often hard to miss an advancing army.\n\nThese general characteristics were made worse by the terrain of mainland Greece (and indeed most of the Greek world). About 80% of the peninsula is covered in mountains; most city-states occupied isolated valleys or coastal plains, accessible over land only through a few mountain passes. The routes of invading armies tended to be very predictable, and a simple watchtower or border fort with a small garrison would provide a city under attack with ample notice that an enemy was approaching. Some of the most admired achievements of Classical Greek generals were deceiving the enemy about campaign targets or stealing a march, so that land could be seized and ravaged before the enemy had time to organise its defence. Most of the time, if an invasion was imminent, its exact path into friendly territory was known before the enemy had set a foot beyond their borders.\n\nAs a result, the defender's choice whether or not to fight a pitched battle was usually an informed decision. They knew where the enemy was and how many men they had with them. They also knew the lay of the land and the extent to which it could be used to their advantage. If they felt they would be at a disadvantage, they might hide within their city walls and allow the enemy to put the countryside to the torch. If they felt they had a decent chance of winning, they would march out to fight.\n\nEven so, the aim of Greek generals was always to skew the odds in their favour as much as they possibly could. Sometimes two armies would shadow each other for days, looking for an opportunity to strike. Aineias the Tactician actually advises a defending city to allow its enemies to plunder, to wait until they are weighed down with loot and drunk with victory, and then to attack with fresh troops from all sides. Advantage was the watchword:\n\n > Contrive (…) to catch the enemy in disorder with your side in formation, to catch them unarmed while fully armed, to catch them asleep while wide awake, when they are visible to you but you are invisible to them, and face them when they find themselves in poor ground while you are in a strong position.\n\n-- Xenophon, *Education of Kyros* 1.6.35\n\nSince the defender knew his own land well, the invader had to be always on his guard against possible traps or ambushes. Large armies moved slowly, but surprise attacks could be launched by lean task forces carrying no baggage, ideally consisting of nimble and flexible troops (light infantry and cavalry), operating at a short distance from a city or fortified base. Nowhere was safe; marching columns had to be carefully protected against all eventualities. Sometimes local guides or hostages could be used to gain more intelligence, and horsemen and light infantry could act as scouts to prevent nasty surprises. Xenophon's ideal general is one who never lets his guard down:\n\n > On the march, whenever he knew that the enemy could fight him if they chose, he would lead his army in such a formation that he could most easily defend himself, moving on as quietly as the most modest girl, believing that this was the best way to keep calm and least vulnerable to panic, confusion, and blunders, and safest from surprise attack.\n\n-- Xenophon, *Agesilaos* 6.7\n\nSafest of all was to have the enemy in plain sight. If both sides were willing to fight a pitched battle, they would often end up encamped across from one another, waiting for the opportune moment. Greek armies tended to encamp on hills, to make sure they would have the advantage if they were to be suddenly attacked - but Greek commanders were smart enough not to attack an enemy in a strong position. The result was an awkward standoff. Neither side would be keen to give up its advantage, but there could be no decision without a battle, and militia armies couldn't afford to stay in the field forever. There were only two solutions. Either one side or the other would give up, break camp, and go home - or both sides would march down into the plain and fight it out.\n\nThe mutual decision to go down to level ground for a pitched battle has often been interpreted as a 'battle by agreement'. Indeed, Herodotos makes the Persian general Mardonios mock the Greeks for finding \"the best, most level piece of ground\" for their engagements; Polybios, who wrote in the 2nd century BC, argued that \"the ancients\" used to fight only on a place and time that had been agreed upon by both sides. However, Polybios' claim is clearly a nostalgic fantasy. He is in fact the earliest source ever to use the term *machê ex homologou* (battle by mutual consent); no Classical author knew this term. The record of Classical Greek battles proves that commanders of the period, far from announcing their moves in advance, always preferred to take the enemy by surprise - even when the time and place where the battle would be fought was clear. They tried to hide their deployment behind hills or tall grass; they tried to start their attack before the enemy was ready; sometimes they tried to decieve the enemy into thinking there would be no battle that day, only to charge when they turned away to make dinner. They frequently tried to hide key forces out of sight or to orchestrate attacks from unseen directions once the main force was already engaged. In short, they did everything they could to make sure that even a battle in the open plain was as little like a 'battle by agreement' as they could make it.\n\nSo where does Polybios' idea come from? It seems likely that he is referring to the one sole exception to the rule that Greeks did not arrange the conditions of battle beforehand. This exception is the so-called Battle of the Champions, fought between Argos and Sparta around 550 BC. To make sure the engagement was fair, the two city-states agreed that only 300 warriors on each side could take part, and that the rest would retreat to a distance where they could not be tempted to influence the outcome. The result is the only battle in Greek history that was fought fairly at an agreed-upon place and time.\n\nThe only trouble was that the two sides couldn't agree about the outcome. At the end of a long day's fighting, only 2 Argives and 1 Spartan were left standing; the Argives, confident in their numerical superiority, declared themselves victorious and went home. The one surviving Spartan, noting that there was no one else left on the battlefield, declared himself the winner, stripped the enemy dead and went home. Both Argos and Sparta claimed the victory; their disagreement turned violent; and in the end the matter was resolved in an all-out battle between the full armies of both sides. The attempt to fight a battle by mutual consent and under specific limitations proved a complete failure.\n\nAfter this debacle, no Greek conflict was ever again resolved by organising a battle at a predetermined time and place. The Greeks settled instead on committing massive violence on a preferrably unprepared enemy, knowing that armies were slow and cumbersome, men were easily frightened, and there was nothing better than to destroy the enemy at minimal risk to their own side. Open battles were only fought rarely, reluctantly, and at a bitter price.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1320415",
"title": "Fore people",
"section": "Section::::Military & warfare.:Fore warfare.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 1068,
"text": "In open-field battles, quarreling sides met on either side of the field, generally after sunrise. Intimidation tactics such as profuse chanting, singing, dancing, sudden advancements, and yelling profane insults were commonly used. The standard battle formation of a group normally had a defensive front line of men carrying wooden shields to protect themselves and their fellow men from falling arrows. Behind them were men armed with bows and arrows. Shots would be taken sporadically, as arrows were not made in abundance due to the lack of mass-production techniques in Fore society. As a result of this and the capability of fighters to dodge or block incoming arrows, deaths were minimal though common in these battles. In the rare occasion that more than a few people died in one battle, the tribe that suffered those deaths would commonly avenge them with ambush attacks on enemy villages. In the afternoon, fighting normally ended, to be continued after the following sunrise. Fore wars were relatively short, lasting anywhere from a few months to 2–3 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2636663",
"title": "Battle of Crocus Field",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "The so-called Battle of Crocus Field (Krokion pedion) (353 BC or 352 BC) was a battle in the Third Sacred War, fought between the armies of Phocis, under Onomarchos, and the combined Thessalian and Macedonian army under Philip II of Macedon. In the bloodiest battle recorded in Ancient Greek history, the Phocians were decisively defeated by Philip's forces. Philip's victory secured his appointment as ruler of Thessaly, marking an important step in the rise of Macedon to political ascendancy in Ancient Greece. Opinion amongst historians is divided as to the year of the battle; some favour 353 BC, and others 352 BC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13431",
"title": "Hungarian Defence Forces",
"section": "Section::::History.:Ancient, medieval, and early modern military.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 181,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 181,
"end_character": 689,
"text": "The Hungarian field armies were drawn up into an articulated formation (as it happened in Battle of Przemyśl (1099), Battle at Leitha (1146), Battle of Morvamező (1278), (1349), in three main battle (formation) (1146, 1278, 1349). According to the contemporary sources and later speculations, the first line was formed by light cavalry archers (Battle of Oslava (1116, 1146, 1260, 1278). Usually, they started the battle followed by a planned retreat (1116, 1146), Battle of Kressenbrunn (1260). The major decisive battles of the Hungarian army were placed in the second or third lines consisted mainly of the most valuable parts of the army – in general heavy cavalry (1146, 1278, 1349).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26221135",
"title": "Imperial Roman army",
"section": "Section::::Strategy and tactics.:Tactics.:Battle tactics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 273,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 273,
"end_character": 843,
"text": "When there were open field battles, the Roman usually made use of a multiple line system in order to have reserves available. Reserves were important factors in battle as the reinforcements both increased morale of those already in the front lines and also brought fresh troops to continue to push the enemy back. The leaders of the army rode behind the front line to see when and where to commit the reserves. They could reinforce wavering units to prevent a penetration in the main battle line or help a unit that was beating back the enemy make a breakthrough. This had to be done carefully as committing reserves too early would not achieve any progress, while tiring the troops engaged in prolonged fighting. Waiting too long to commit reserves could cause the first line to collapse and start spreading panic throughout the entire army.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30855309",
"title": "Roman infantry tactics",
"section": "Section::::Battle.:Initial preparations and movement for battle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "Historian Adrian Goldsworthy notes that such tentative pre-battle maneuvering was typical of ancient armies as each side sought to gain maximum advantage before the encounter. During this period, some ancient writers paint a picture of meetings between opposing commanders for negotiation or general discussion, as with the famous pre-clash conversation between Hannibal and Scipio at Zama. But whatever the truth of these discussions, or the flowery speeches allegedly made, the only encounter that ultimately mattered was battle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3692678",
"title": "Battle of Tegyra",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "The Battle of Tegyra (375 BC) (also known as the Battle of Tegyrae) was an ancient Greek battle between Theban and Spartan hoplite forces. In the battle, a Theban army under Pelopidas was challenged by a substantially larger Spartan force while retreating from an abortive attack on Orchomenus, but successfully attacked and routed the Spartans. The battle marked the first occasion in the historical record in which a Spartan force had been defeated by a numerically inferior enemy in a set battle (as opposed to irregular warfare, employed by Iphicrates).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13298",
"title": "Hoplite",
"section": "Section::::Warfare.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "Armies generally marched directly to their destination, and in some cases the battlefield was agreed to by the contestants in advance. Battles were fought on level ground, and hoplites preferred to fight with high terrain on both sides of the phalanx so the formation could not be flanked. An example of this was the Battle of Thermopylae, where the Spartans specifically chose a narrow coastal pass to make their stand against the massive Persian army. The vastly outnumbered Greeks held off the Persians for seven days.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
e25los
|
why did google let microsoft use chromium on edge?
|
[
{
"answer": "[Google is an advertising company, first and foremost](_URL_0_). Everything that they do, they do to further the goal of selling more ads.\n\nChrome, Drive, their MS Office knock-offs: their only purpose is to get people to use them and sink ever deeper into the Google ecosystem. That is why they are \"free\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "because it's the defacto standard; atleast for a majority of the mainstream internet now. IE sucked for everyone but especially for developers; i remember the stupid shit you had to do in order to achieve the same result as document.getelementbyid.innertext/innerhtml = blablahblah. hence you can probably defer from that fact that nobody would miss the old IE engine; whatever it was.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44904271",
"title": "Microsoft Edge",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Discontinuation of EdgeHTML and adoption of Chromium (2019–present).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "On December 6, 2018, Microsoft announced its intent to base Edge on the Chromium source code, using the same rendering engine as Google Chrome but with enhancements developed by Microsoft. It was also announced that there will be versions of Edge available for Windows 7, Windows 8, and macOS, and that all versions will be updated on a more frequent basis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "981649",
"title": "Trident (software)",
"section": "Section::::Microsoft alternatives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "In 2014, Trident was forked to create the engine EdgeHTML for Microsoft Edge on Windows 10. The new engine is \"designed for interoperability with the modern web\" and deprecates or removes a number of legacy components and behaviors, including document modes, ensuring that pure, standards-compliant HTML will render properly in browsers without the need for special considerations by web developers. This resulted in a completely new browser called Microsoft Edge, which replaces Internet Explorer as a stock browser of Windows and a base of Microsoft's web related services.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44904271",
"title": "Microsoft Edge",
"section": "Section::::Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "Microsoft initially announced that Edge would support the legacy Trident (MSHTML) layout engine for backwards compatibility, but later said that, due to \"strong feedback\", Edge would use a new engine, while Internet Explorer would continue to provide the legacy engine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17000438",
"title": "Font embedding",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "Because of the potential for copyright infringement, Microsoft Internet Explorer only permits embedded fonts that include digital rights management (DRM) protections. The Acid3 test requires font embedding with minimal DRM protections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1770496",
"title": "JavaScript engine",
"section": "Section::::Notable engines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "BULLET::::- Chakra is the current engine of the Microsoft Edge browser, forked from the same-named engine of Internet Explorer. However, Microsoft is now rebuilding Edge as a Chromium-based browser, so it will be using V8 instead of Chakra. Internet Explorer continues to use its version of Chakra.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5183232",
"title": "Browser extension",
"section": "Section::::History.:API conformity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "Because of Chrome's success, Microsoft created a very similar extension API for its Edge browser, with the goal of making it easy for Chrome extension developers to port their work to Edge. But after three years Edge still had a disappointingly small market share, so in December 2018 Microsoft announced that Edge is being rebuilt as a Chromium-based browser. (Chromium is Google's open-source project that serves as the functional core of Chrome and many other browsers.) This remade Edge should have the same API as Chrome, which will enable users to install extensions directly from the Chrome Web Store.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1956399",
"title": "Internet Explorer 3",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "This is the first version of Internet Explorer developed without Spyglass source code, but still used Spyglass technology, so the Spyglass licensing information remained in the program's documentation. In 1996 Microsoft said of its new browser \"\"Microsoft Internet Explorer 3.0 adds many new features which are great for HTML authors and demonstrates our accelerating commitment to W3C HTML standards.\"\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1z39jj
|
In evolution if mutations are random, how does bacteria learn to use the mutations correctly? Does the behavior mutate randomly too?
|
[
{
"answer": "'Mutation' refers to somewhat random modification of a cell's genome. This usually affects only affects a few proteins. A cell doesn't just mutate and create a complex structure like a flagellum. That sort of evolution takes a long time, think millions of years. In addition, mutation is only a small part of what drives evolution.\n\nAs for which came first, the flagellum or the behavior, that's a bit like asking if the chicken or the egg came first. Both could happen or they could co-evolve at the same time. That is entirely dependent on the species though. And to answer that question for just one species is incredibly difficult and takes years of research.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Something complex like a flagellum does not appear in a single generation. More likely it will evolve from an existing structure and as that transitions toward a \"new\" structure like the flagellum in your example behavioral traits will evolve along with it. Keep in mind though that this will happen over many many generations in a gradient fashion. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's kind of like breaking a continuous string of changing passwords. The population of bacteria doesn't know what the password is or how it will change, so it does a brute force method and throws everything at it. Some fail along the way and don't pass, others crack it and get to the next password. Each time it passes an environmental check, i.e. the password, it marks a mutation that is well suited for that environment. The changes are incremental, but the rate of mutation may vary as with the environment. It has no end goal except to survive in the current moment. Not every mutation results in a change, however. They may code for the same protein or be useless until something triggers its usefulness. The thing is you only get to see the successful organisms that make it, not the endless dead ones that have lined its path. \n\nWith simple organism, there is no thought in behavior. It is a result of its functions, some may swim in circles, some may not even know how to swim. Again, only the successful ones get to move on.\n\nTL;DR: Evolution throws everything against the wall until one sticks.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Bacteria don't \"know\" anything, they just react, chemically and physically to their environment.\n\nThere is no \"plan\" to evolution. Mutations happen all the time, but because they are random, most either do nothing, or are actually harmful, resulting in the death of the organism. \n\nEvolution happens because every once in a great while, a mutation occurs that creates some slight advantage. Over MASSIVE amounts of time, these can build up, and eventually the species looks very different from its older form.\n\nBacteria can develop antibiotic resistance so quickly because their generations are so quick, sometimes only minutes long, and there are so many cells, rather than one large multicellular organism. This gives many more chances for mutation. \n\nAlso, bacteria have ways of sharing genes amongst themselves, so beneficial mutations can spread either through inheritance, or through sideways gene swapping, something multicellular organisms can't do.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Bacteria don't know anything because they aren't conscious. Physics drives their chemistry to happen and that is what causes them to function and react to their environment. Compounds and molecules are just bumping in to each other and reacting according to the laws of physics and chemistry, and this causes everything that happens inside the bacteria to take place.\n\nSay, for instance, a new protein evolves that helps a bacterium stick to something. Well that protein would most likely be something that is expressed in the outer membrane so that it can grab on to something. In this proteins previous form, it didn't cause the cell to stick to something at all, or it was somewhat sticky but not enough to stick permanently. Now that the protein has changed, it just causes the bacterium to stick automatically. There is no conscious thought about it, it just sticks. If that new protein leads to the increased survivability of that bacterium then it will reproduce more than other bacteria in that specific area where being sticky is advantageous and the new protein will spread.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This should really blow your mind, then.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nNot only are its 'flagella' actually an entirely separate species of bacteria in their own right, they are attached to the cell wall via special mounting brackets that are _also_ a different species.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19812169",
"title": "Frances Arnold",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "One advantage of directed evolution is that the mutations do not have to be completely random; instead they can be random enough to discover unexplored potential, but not so random as to be inefficient. The number of possible mutation combinations is astronomical, but instead of just randomly trying to test as many as possible, Arnold integrates her knowledge of biochemistry to narrow down the options, focusing on introducing mutations in areas of the protein that are likely to have the most positive effect on activity and avoiding areas in which mutations would likely be, at best, neutral and at worst, detrimental (such as disrupting proper protein folding).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1530353",
"title": "Mutation rate",
"section": "Section::::Measurement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "This is very important to mutation rates because it proves experimentally mutations can occur without selection being a component. Therefore, mutations occur at random in bacteria (and other organisms.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1647936",
"title": "Luria–Delbrück experiment",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 659,
"text": "Luria and Delbrück proposed that these results could be explained by the occurrence of a constant rate of random mutations in each generation of bacteria growing in the initial culture tubes. Based on these assumptions Delbrück derived a probability distribution (now called the Luria–Delbrück distribution) that gives a relationship between moments consistent with the experimentally obtained values. The distribution that follows from the directed adaptation hypothesis (the Poisson distribution) predicted moments inconsistent with the data. Therefore, the conclusion was that mutations in bacteria, as in other organisms, are random rather than directed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1647936",
"title": "Luria–Delbrück experiment",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "The Luria–Delbrück experiment (1943) (also called the Fluctuation Test) demonstrates that in bacteria, genetic mutations arise in the absence of selection, rather than being a response to selection. Therefore, Darwin's theory of natural selection acting on random mutations applies to bacteria as well as to more complex organisms. Max Delbrück and Salvador Luria won the 1969 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in part for this work.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3964699",
"title": "Alternative theories of quantum evolution",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "A mechanism proposed by quantum evolution is to imagine that the configuration of DNA in a cell is held in a quantum superposition of states, and that \"mutations\" occur as a result of a collapse of the superposition into the \"best\" configuration for the cell. The proponents of this approach liken the operation of DNA to the operation of a quantum computer, which selects one from a multitude of possible outcomes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19702",
"title": "Mutation",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Induced mutation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 743,
"text": "Whereas in former times mutations were assumed to occur by chance, or induced by mutagens, molecular mechanisms of mutation have been discovered in bacteria and across the tree of life. As S. Rosenberg states, \"These mechanisms reveal a picture of highly regulated mutagenesis, up-regulated temporally by stress responses and activated when cells/organisms are maladapted to their environments—when stressed—potentially accelerating adaptation.\" Since they are self-induced mutagenic mechanisms that increase the adaptation rate of organisms, they have some times been named as adaptive mutagenesis mechanisms, and include the SOS response in bacteria, ectopic intrachromosomal recombination and other chromosomal events such as duplications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "579390",
"title": "Gene prediction",
"section": "Section::::Comparative genomics approaches.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "This is based on the principle that the forces of natural selection cause genes and other functional elements to undergo mutation at a slower rate than the rest of the genome, since mutations in functional elements are more likely to negatively impact the organism than mutations elsewhere. Genes can thus be detected by comparing the genomes of related species to detect this evolutionary pressure for conservation. This approach was first applied to the mouse and human genomes, using programs such as SLAM, SGP and TWINSCAN/N-SCAN and CONTRAST.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3p5rmh
|
Why didn't Germany go through Luxembourg instead of Belgium in WWI?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Germans **DID** go through Luxembourg, they just went through Luxembourg **and** Belgium. The problem with just going through Luxembourg, is that it creates an incredibly cramped 'battlespace' if you will, with not a lot of room for the massive German Armies (970 000 men alone advanced through Belgium) to maneuver. This complicates maneuver, logistics, and it would force the Germans to reduce the actual forces involved in the attack, resulting in a large reserve, but in a smaller invasion, one that is advancing through difficult terrain in the Ardennes/Schnee Eiffel area, and into the area of the northernmost segments of the French fortress line. This gives the French an immense advantage, even greater because the German invasion would essentially be playing out as **they** had expected it to, with a German thrust through southern Belgium, Luxembourg, and Northern Lorraine, and with German reserve divisions uncommitted. \n\n > then Britain wouldn't have been dragged into the war, meaning the Germans wouldn't be halted after the Marne.\n\nFor one thing, the Germans are invading France, and still invading a neutral country, both countries of which have made no aggressive moves against them. This is still a violation of the international laws, treaties, and customs that the British and others had worked so hard to make part of the European state system; it still constitutes a threat to the Balance of Power in Europe. In late July, there **was** talk of Germany only invading 'a corner of Belgium', and while this may make intervention more difficult, it is still unlikely to prevent the British from intervening. \n\nMoreover, the BEF played only a small role in the Marne; the bulk of the fighting and the crucial delaying actions which took place before hand was/were done by the French and Belgians respectively. As has been noted, this German invasion is now undertaken in circumstances less advantageous than in August 1914, so there's every possibility that the French counter-offensives and offensives at the Frontiers would succeed, though this is speculation.\n\nOther answers:\n\n* [Why didn't Germany just go around Belgium in the invasion of France?] (_URL_0_)\n* [Why was invading Belgium a bad move by Germany?] (_URL_1_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23180963",
"title": "Battle of Belgium",
"section": "Section::::Pre-battle plans.:Belgium's strained alliances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 923,
"text": "The Belgians much preferred an alliance with the United Kingdom. The British had entered the First World War in response to the German violation of Belgian neutrality. The Belgian Channel ports had offered the German Imperial Navy valuable bases, and such an attack would offer the German \"Kriegsmarine\" and the \"Luftwaffe\" bases to engage in strategic offensive operations against the United Kingdom in the coming conflict. But the British government paid little attention to the concerns of the Belgians. The lack of this commitment ensured the Belgian withdrawal from the Western Alliance, the day before the remilitarisation of the Rhineland. The lack of opposition to the remilitarisation served to convince the Belgians that France and Britain were unwilling to fight for their own strategic interests, let alone Belgium's. The Belgian General Staff was determined to fight for its own interests, alone if necessary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37926986",
"title": "Belgium in World War I",
"section": "Section::::German invasion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 949,
"text": "When World War I began, Germany invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg as part of the Schlieffen Plan, in an attempt to capture Paris quickly by catching the French off guard by invading through neutral countries. It was this action that technically caused the British to enter the war, as they were still bound by the 1839 agreement to protect Belgium in the event of war. On 2 August 1914, the German government demanded that German armies be given free passage through Belgian territory, although this was refused by the Belgian government on 3 August. The Belgian King Albert I addressed his Parliament on 4 August, saying \"Never since 1830 has a graver hour sounded for Belgium. The strength of our right and the need of Europe for our autonomous existence make us still hope that the dreaded events will not occur.\" The same day German troops invaded Belgium crossing the frontier at dawn. Liège was attacked on 4 August and fell on 7 August.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41003457",
"title": "Economic history of World War I",
"section": "Section::::Allies.:Belgium.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 1065,
"text": "The Germans invaded Belgium at the start of the war and Belgium remained occupied for the entire war. There was both large-scale spontaneous militant and passive resistance. Over a 1.4 million refugees fled to France or to neutral Netherlands. Over half the German regiments in Belgium were involved in major incidents. After the atrocities by the German army in the first few weeks of the war, German civil servants took control and were generally correct, albeit strict and severe. Belgium was heavily industrialized; while farms operated and small shops stayed open some large establishments shut down or drastically reduced their output. The faculty closed the universities; many publishers shut down their newspapers. Most Belgians \"turned the four war years into a long and extremely dull vacation,\" according to Kossmann. In 1916 Germany deported 120,000 men to work in Germany; this led to protests from neutral countries and they were returned. Germany then stripped some factories of useful machinery, and used the rest as scrap iron for its steel mills.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3697506",
"title": "Eupen-Malmedy",
"section": "Section::::History.:Provisional Belgian administration, 1919–25.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 803,
"text": "During World War I, Belgium was invaded by the German Empire and, between 1914 and 1918, much of Belgium's territory was under German military occupation. With the defeat of Germany in 1918, Belgian politicians attempted to expand Belgian territory at German expense. However, the settlement at the Treaty of Versailles proved disappointing for Belgium. Belgium failed to gain any territory from the Netherlands or Luxembourg, but was awarded the small German colonial territory of Ruanda-Urundi in Africa and Eupen-Malmedy in Europe, together with the previously neutral territory of Moresnet. At the time, Eupen-Malmedy had approximately 64,000 residents. Although the Belgian government attempted to depict Eupen-Malmedy as an ethnically Belgian territory, many Belgians were suspicious of the move.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19320362",
"title": "Schrecklichkeit",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "When Germany invaded Belgium in 1914, the German high command expected to sweep through the country with negligible opposition. The German army was many times larger and stronger than the Belgian army, and the Germans therefore thought that any resistance by Belgium would be futile. German leaders had even suggested to the Belgian government that in the event of war, the Belgians should just line up along the roads and watch the Germans march through. Belgium's refusal to accept these German presumptions and its resistance to the German advance came as a surprise, and disrupted the German timetable for advancing into France.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53687987",
"title": "Diplomatic history of World War I",
"section": "Section::::Allies.:Belgium.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 2513,
"text": "Although the German invasion of Belgium in 1914 was the major factor in causing British entry into the war, the government of Belgium itself played a small role in diplomatic affairs. Its main role came as a recipient of relief from neutral countries, and its use by the Allies is a propaganda weapon against the Germans, and their emphasis on the atrocities involved in the Rape of Belgium. On 2 August 1914, the German government demanded that German armies be given free passage through Belgian territory. This was refused by the Belgian government on 3 August. King Albert I addressed his Parliament on 4 August, saying \"Never since 1830 has a graver hour sounded for Belgium. The strength of our right and the need of Europe for our autonomous existence make us still hope that the dreaded events will not occur.\" The same day German troops Invaded the dawn. Almost all of Belgium was occupied for the entire war, with the exception of a sliver in the far west, which was under the control of the Belgian Army. The government itself was relocated to the city of Sainte-Adresse in France; it still controlled the Belgian Congo in Africa. Belgium officially continued to fight the Germans, but the amount of combat was nominal. Belgium never joined the Allies. However, its foreign minister Paul Hymans was successful in securing promises from the allies that amounted to co-belligerency. Britain, France and Russia pledged in the \"Declaration of Sainte-Adresse\" in February 1916 that Belgian would be included in the peace negotiations, its independence would be restored, and that it would receive a monetary compensation for Germany for the damages. At the Paris peace conference in 1919, Belgium officially ended its historic neutral status, and became first in line to receive reparations payments from Germany. However, it received only a small bit of German territory, and was rejected in its demands for all of Luxembourg and part of the Netherlands. It was given colonial mandates over the German colonies of Rwanda and Burundi. Hymans became the leading spokesman for the small countries at Paris, and became president of the first assembly of the new League of Nations. When war began in 1914, Hymans met with President Wilson in Washington and got major promises of relief and food support. Relief was directed primarily by an American Herbert Hoover and involved several agencies: Commission for Relief in Belgium, American Relief Administration, and Comité National de Secours et d'Alimentation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2198844",
"title": "Allies of World War II",
"section": "Section::::Other affiliated state combatants.:Belgium.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 860,
"text": "Before the war, Belgium had pursued a policy of neutrality and only became an Allied member after being invaded by Germany on 10 May 1940. During the ensuing fighting, Belgian forces fought alongside French and British forces against the invaders. While the British and French were struggling against the fast German advance elsewhere on the front, the Belgian forces were pushed into a pocket to the north. Finally, on 28 May, the King Leopold III surrendered himself and his military to the Germans, having decided the Allied cause was lost. The legal Belgian government was reformed as a government in exile in London. Belgian troops and pilots continued to fight on the Allied side as the Free Belgian Forces. Belgium itself was occupied, but a sizeable Resistance was formed and was loosely coordinated by the government in exile and other Allied powers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fdd1pi
|
how are doctors so sure a person can't regain consciousness once their vitals shuts down?
|
[
{
"answer": "They have seen many people's vital signs shut down. When none of those people can be revived after X minutes, they start to think that nobody can ever be revived after X minutes. Nothing is every 100.0% certain, but they make decisions based on most probably outcomes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A heart beat circulates blood carrying oxygen around the body, without oxygen cells rapidly start to die and other organs fail, without a heartbeat and lungs breathing all organs including the brain are going to get worse rather than better.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The part of the brain that controls organs is a very basic part of the brain that the earliest organisms used. Higher level of thinking comes with millions of years of advancement. Therefore, certain things shut down in a somewhat predicable order and if *that* part of the brain is deteriorating, then it doesn't look good for the more advanced parts such as conscious thinking.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm going to assume that by \"vitals\" you mean the two vital organs heart and lungs.\n\nThe truth is we don't know on an individual basis who is going to survive what period of cardiac arrest (which is when the heart stops), but data from group studies enable us to give educated opinions based on systematic experience.\n\nThere are a few key facts to consider: the airways and lungs supply oxygen to the blood, and the heart takes that oxygen-filled blood and pumps it around to the body. Together these two organs keep the body well supplied with oxygen, which is crucial for cells to extract energy from the food we eat.\n\nSome cells can survive longer without oxygen by burning the food in an alternative way, but they sacrifice a lot of energy for this. Our brain cells can't do this because they need maximum energy output 24/7 because they're working so hard.\n\nOur brain is really what we \"are\" - it is where our personality, our consciousness and our memories reside, it is what we use to feel love, joy and all other emotions. Therefore, as soon as the brain dies, we are dead, no matter if the heart is beating or not. The heart is nothing more than a special muscle.\n\nThis means that if we stop breathing, or our heart stops beating, the single-most important organ for survival *is the same organ that is worst equipped to cope with a lack of oxygen*. The brain burns through oxygen so quickly that if it doesn't get a constant supply of it, it will start to die within minutes. And, crucially, brain tissue doesn't regenerate like skin or bone.\n\nThat's why if a heart stops for many minutes, and no one is doing CPR, it is highly likely that even if you can get the heart beating again, the person will never wake up again because too much brain tissue has already died.\n\nThere is a lot of data where scientists have looked at the time between when the heart stops, and when the heart started beating again. For every minute with no heart beat (and no CPR) the chance of a successful recovery decreases about 10 percetage points (meaning that after 10 minutes the chances of recovery are practically zero). Experiments with animals and single cells in laboratories show similar results.\n\n**TL;DR: The heart and lungs supply oxygen to the brain. The brain can't handle oxygen deprivation, which is what happens when \"the vitals shut down\". If the brain is dead, there is no chance of regaining consciousness**.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3577810",
"title": "Omission (law)",
"section": "Section::::Criminal law.:Failure to provide medical treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 733,
"text": "In death with dignity situations where a patient is incapable of communicating his wishes, a doctor may be relieved of his duty, as the House of Lords recognised in \"Airedale National Health Service Trust v Bland\" (1993) AC 789. Here a patient who had survived for three years in a persistent vegetative state after suffering irreversible brain damage in the Hillsborough disaster continued to breathe normally, but was kept alive only by being fed through tubes. It was held that treatment could properly be withdrawn in such circumstances, because the best interests of the patient did not involve him being kept alive at all costs. Lord Goff nevertheless drew a fundamental distinction between acts and omissions in this context:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "398561",
"title": "General anaesthesia",
"section": "Section::::Maintenance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "At the end of surgery, administration of anaesthetic agents is discontinued. Recovery of consciousness occurs when the concentration of anaesthetic in the brain drops below a certain level (usually within 1 to 30 minutes, depending on the duration of surgery).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6553484",
"title": "Brain biopsy",
"section": "Section::::Aftercare.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "The patient is monitored in the recovery room for several hours following the biopsy. Neurological assessments are performed once the patient is fully awake and if left without deficit, most patients can be discharged the day after surgery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7562669",
"title": "Hospital emergency codes",
"section": "Section::::Codes.:Code blue.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "In some hospitals or other medical facilities, the resuscitation team may purposely respond slowly to a patient in cardiac arrest, a practice known as \"slow code\", or may fake the response altogether for the sake of the patient's family, a practice known as \"show code\". Such practices are ethically controversial, and are banned in some jurisdictions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4578333",
"title": "Tremulous",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "Human players do not automatically regenerate health over time, however they are equipped with a one-time use medkit which heals the remaining health at the time of activation over a period of time, and can be replenished at a medical station.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "804779",
"title": "Cardiac surgery",
"section": "Section::::Types of cardiac surgery.:Open-heart surgery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "Dr. Wilfred G. Bigelow of the University of Toronto found that procedures involving opening the patient's heart could be performed better in a bloodless and motionless environment. Therefore, during such surgery, the heart is temporarily stopped, and the patient is placed on cardiopulmonary bypass, meaning a machine pumps their blood and oxygen. Because the machine cannot function the same way as the heart, surgeons try to minimize the time a patient spends on it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60575",
"title": "Cardiac arrest",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Do not resuscitate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "Some people choose to avoid aggressive measures at the end of life. A do not resuscitate order (DNR) in the form of an advance health care directive makes it clear that in the event of cardiac arrest, the person does not wish to receive cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Other directives may be made to stipulate the desire for intubation in the event of respiratory failure or, if comfort measures are all that are desired, by stipulating that healthcare providers should \"allow natural death\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3alatl
|
What is the Origin of Yahweh?
|
[
{
"answer": "Mark Smith in *The Early History of God* and *The Origins of Biblical Monotheism* traces the original cult center of Yahweh to the town of Tayma in NW Arabia. According to this theory the proto-Israelites were a combo of local Canaanites and migratory shepherds (much like the modern bedouins). The migratory shepherds were spending part of their time in and around Tayma where they picked up Yahweh worship and then carried him into Canaan where he was adopted by their more settled relatives. He then first joined the Canaanite pantheon and then superseded it.\n\nThe theory isn't universally accepted yet, but it has become the most popular among biblical academics. Other competing theories are that he was imported from Mesopotamia or that Yahweh originally started as a nickname for the Canaanite God El, and eventually replaced or superseded El. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In general, however, it seems that the Tetragrammaton (the ineffable four letter name of G-d) is associated with the South, particularly the southern wastes (the Negev Desert and similar places). If He does have a geographical origin outside of the land of Israel, it is likely somewhere to the South. One of the main problems is we have no historical record of Israelites outside of the biblical account in the earliest periods, the archeological evidence doesn't point unambiguously to any one clear origin, all the Biblical texts are undated. The G-d of Israel, being aniconic, is particularly hard to trace. You'll have a cultic stand with a blank space on it, and archeologists will ask, \"Is this an attempt to iconically represent the Tetragrammaton, which resists iconic representation?\"\n\nThere's also a theory that YHVH is the causative form of the Hebrew root meaning \"to be\", meaning roughly \"He who caused to Be\", so when we see the name translated as \"LORD of the Hosts\", it could be reparsed as \"He who caused the heavenly host to be\". This is fairly convincing, especially in light of G-d's answer to Moses, \"I am who I am\" or \"I am I am\" (Exodus 3:14). This would point to the name being a title, rather than a proper name originally. \n\nG-d's other common name in the Hebrew Bible is \"El\" or \"Elohim\". This relates to the West Semitic word meaning \"god\" and also the name of the chief of Caanite pantheon. Arabic is a South Semitic language, but Allah comes from the exact same origin. See more about [El in Ugaritic myth](_URL_0_) (Ugarit is the best preserved source of pre-Israelite documents from the Land of Canaan). Particularly convincing is some presumably early texts seem to imply that people think G-d had a consort, [Asherah](_URL_1_). It's confusing because in the Hebrew Bible there's also references to Asherah as a sacred pole or maybe a sacred grove associated with cultic sites, so it's unclear in the text whether Asherah represents a diety or an object or a place.\n\nYou can point to many points of similarity between Israelite religious practices and those of other Ancient Near Eastern peoples, but there are clear differences. It's ultimately unclear exactly how Israelite monotheism emerged, and what its exact relationship was to other traditions. Some argue that strict monotheism dates to the earliest stratum of Israelite history but country folk ('am ha'eretz) continued to conduct religious rituals to other gods. Others argue that strict monotheism wasn't consolidated until the reforms of Hezekiah and Josiah, just before the Babylonian Exile. The exact origins of the Tetragrammaton and the monotheistic thought associated with it will never be fully clear. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13820024",
"title": "The Early History of God",
"section": "Section::::Summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "Yahweh, he argues, originated in Edom/Midian/Teman as a warrior-god and was subsequently assimilated into the highland pantheon headed by El and his consort, Asherah and populated by Baal and other deities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34257",
"title": "Yahweh",
"section": "Section::::Bronze Age origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "There is almost no agreement on the origins of Yahweh. His name is not attested other than among the Israelites, and seems not to have any plausible etymology. \"Ehyeh ašer ehyeh\" (\"I Am that I Am\"), the explanation presented in Exodus 3:14, appears to be a late theological gloss invented to explain Yahweh's name at a time when the original meaning had been forgotten.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34257",
"title": "Yahweh",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "Yahweh was the national god of the Iron Age kingdoms of Israel (Samaria) and Judah. His exact origins are disputed, although they reach back to the early Iron Age and even the Late Bronze: his name may have begun as an epithet of El, head of the Bronze Age Canaanite pantheon, but the earliest plausible mentions of Yahweh are in Egyptian texts that refer to a similar-sounding place name associated with the Shasu nomads of the southern Transjordan. Some scholars believe that Yahweh was originally thought to be one of the seventy sons of El, who later killed his siblings and displaced his father El at the head of the Israelite pantheon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34257",
"title": "Yahweh",
"section": "Section::::Graeco-Roman syncretism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "Yahweh is frequently invoked in Graeco-Roman magical texts dating from the second century BCE to the fifth century CE, most notably in the Greek Magical Papyri, under the names Iao, Adonai, Sabaoth, and Eloai. In these texts, he is often mentioned alongside traditional Graeco-Roman deities and Egyptian deities. The archangels Michael, Gabriel, Raphael, and Ouriel and Jewish cultural heroes such as Abraham, Jacob, and Moses are also invoked frequently. The frequent occurrence of Yahweh's name was likely due to Greek and Roman folk magicians seeking to make their spells more powerful through the invocation of a prestigious foreign deity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34257",
"title": "Yahweh",
"section": "Section::::Bronze Age origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1105,
"text": "The oldest plausible recorded occurrence of 'Yahweh' is as a place-name, \"land of Shasu of yhw\", in an Egyptian inscription from the time of Amenhotep III (1402–1363 BCE), the Shasu being nomads from Midian and Edom in northern Arabia. In this case a plausible etymology for the name could be from the root \"HWY\", which would yield the meaning \"he blows\", appropriate to a weather divinity. There is considerable but not universal support for this view, but it raises the question of how he made his way to the north. The widely accepted Kenite hypothesis holds that traders brought Yahweh to Israel along the caravan routes between Egypt and Canaan. The strength of the Kenite hypothesis is that it ties together various points of data, such as the absence of Yahweh from Canaan, his links with Edom and Midian in the biblical stories, and the Kenite or Midianite ties of Moses. However, while it is entirely plausible that the Kenites and others may have introduced Yahweh to Israel, it is unlikely that they did so outside the borders of Israel or under the aegis of Moses, as the Exodus story has it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "571416",
"title": "Hallelujah",
"section": "Section::::Interpretation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "The second part, Yah, is a shortened form of YHWH, the name for the Creator. The name ceased to be pronounced in Second Temple Judaism, by the 3rd century BC due to religious beliefs. The correct pronunciation is not known, however, it is sometimes rendered by Christians as \"Yahweh\" or \"Jehovah\". The Septuagint translates Yah as Kyrios (the ), because of the Jewish custom of replacing the sacred name with \"Adonai\", meaning \"the Lord\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1242447",
"title": "Theophoric name",
"section": "Section::::Judaism and biblical.:Yahweh.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "\"Yahū\" or \"Yah\" is the abbreviation of YHWH when used as a suffix in Hebrew names; as a prefix it appears as \"Yhō-\", or \"Yo\". It was formerly thought to be abbreviated from the Masoretic pronunciation \"Yehovah\". There is an opinion that, as Yahweh is likely an imperfective verb form, \"Yahu\" is its corresponding preterite or jussive short form: compare \"yiŝthawe\" (imperfective), \"yiŝtáhû\" (preterit or jussive short form) = \"do obeisance\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
uby62
|
If the Alsace-Lorriane region had not been taken away from France after the Franco-Prussian War would it have any effect on politics of Europe?
|
[
{
"answer": "That depends.\n\nAlsace-Lorraine was certainly a very serious problem between France and Germany, but so was crowning the Emperor in Versailles and a number of other slights during the Franco-Prussian war.\n\nIMO, if they had left Alsace-Lorraine with France, they could have patched things up. Also IMO, I don't think there's any way for Germany to *not* take Alsace-Lorraine given the nationalist momentum at play.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes! In every classroom in France between the end of the Franco-Prussian War and the start of World War I, every kid was taught that the evil Prussians had \"Stolen\" Alsace-Lorraine from France. It is easy trace one of the roots of French/German antipathy back to this event, because Prussia took the region almost exclusively to deal a heavy psychological defeat on the French. One of the principles of France throughout its history is that it is simply unacceptable to lose (or sell) a part of the homeland (the hexagon). Alsace-Lorraine was viewed as a thoroughly French region, and this was of the utmost humiliation in France. \n\nI do think however, that if Bismarck wanted to look serious in his unification goal, he had no choice but to capture Alsace-Lorraine, because it still had a significant German population. \n\nIt's also important to note that the Alsaciens were never fully supportive of the Prussian Empire, in fact many Germans who tried to emigrate to t he region had difficulty settling and marrying there. Furthermore, mixed couples always preserved French language and culture and passed it on to their children. Thus, Alsace-Lorraine was never really assimilated into Germany; and it strengthened the French impression that Alsace-Lorraine was wrongfully taken away from France. \n\ni'm not ready to say that a French alsace would've avoided much of the French/German antagonism, but I think it's safe to say that it did have a major role in the mutual hatred (it was hatred), and an easy way for French politicians to exhort even more hatred towards Germany. It certainly was also one of the main \"motivators\" used on soldiers during WWI, and a crowing achievement of the War (on the French side) was the re-claim of the region. \n\n*Edit: Grammar*",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "292341",
"title": "French Algeria",
"section": "Section::::Government and administration.:Under the Third Republic (1870–1940).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "The loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Prussia in 1871 after the Franco-Prussian War, led to pressure on the French government to make new land available in Algeria for about 5,000 Alsatian and Lorrainer refugees who were resettled there. During the 1870s, both the amount of European-owned land and the number of settlers were doubled, and tens of thousands of unskilled Muslims, who had been uprooted from their land, wandered into the cities or to colon farming areas in search of work.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "364964",
"title": "Mulhouse",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 767,
"text": "After the Prussian victory in the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871), Mulhouse was annexed to the German Empire as part of the territory of Alsace-Lorraine (1871–1918). The city was briefly occupied by French troops on 8 August 1914 at the start of World War I, but they were forced to withdraw two days later in the Battle of Mulhouse. The citizens of Alsace who unwisely celebrated the appearance of the French army were left to face German reprisals, with several citizens sentenced to death. After World War I ended in 1918, French troops entered Alsace. Germany ceded the region to France under the Treaty of Versailles. After the Battle of France in 1940, it was occupied by German forces until its return to French control at the end of World War II in May 1945.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40047495",
"title": "Protestant Church of Augsburg Confession of Alsace and Lorraine",
"section": "Section::::History.:Reshape: Lutheran bodies in Alsace-Lorraine forming the EPCAAL.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "After France had declared war on North Germany and invaded its component state of Prussia in 1870 the latter's troops and allied forces had defeated France in 1871 (Franco-German War). By the Treaty of Frankfurt France then ceded Alsace and northeastern Lorraine, becoming the new Alsace-Lorraine. 286,000 French Lutherans and their chief bodies then happened to reside within Unified Germany. The 45,000 Lutherans living in remaining France (la France intérieure), soon growing in number to 80,000 through Lutheran Optants from the annexed areas and other immigrants, had to reorganise their religious community forming new bodies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2647677",
"title": "France in the long nineteenth century",
"section": "Section::::General aspects.:Geography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "With the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, France lost her provinces of Alsace and portions of Lorraine to Germany (see Alsace-Lorraine); these lost provinces would only be regained at the end of World War I.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50447378",
"title": "History of Freiburg",
"section": "Section::::The Weimar Republic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "The unification of Alsace to France after the loss of the First World War meant for Freiburg the loss of part of its land. The city also lost its garrison when a 50 kilometre demilitarised zone was established on the right bank of the Rhine, where industrial settlements were banned. Both of these contributed to the economic decline of the region.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48129",
"title": "Alsace",
"section": "Section::::History.:Struggle between France and united Germany.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 1128,
"text": "The Franco-Prussian War, which started in July 1870, saw France defeated in May 1871 by the Kingdom of Prussia and other German states. The end of the war led to the unification of Germany. Otto von Bismarck annexed Alsace and northern Lorraine to the new German Empire in 1871. France ceded more than 90% of Alsace and one-fourth of Lorraine, as stipulated in the treaty of Frankfurt. Unlike other members states of the German federation, which had governments of their own, the new \"Imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine\" was under the sole authority of the Kaiser, administered directly by the imperial government in Berlin. Between 100,000 and 130,000 Alsatians (of a total population of about a million and a half) chose to remain French citizens and leave \"Reichsland Elsaß-Lothringen\", many of them resettling in French Algeria as Pieds-Noirs. Only in 1911 was Alsace-Lorraine granted some measure of autonomy, which was manifested also in a flag and an anthem (Elsässisches Fahnenlied). In 1913, however, the Saverne Affair (French: Incident de Saverne) showed the limits of this new tolerance of the Alsatian identity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56398518",
"title": "History of Alsace",
"section": "Section::::Struggle between France and united Germany.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 1128,
"text": "The Franco-Prussian War, which started in July 1870, saw France defeated in May 1871 by the Kingdom of Prussia and other German states. The end of the war led to the unification of Germany. Otto von Bismarck annexed Alsace and northern Lorraine to the new German Empire in 1871. France ceded more than 90% of Alsace and one-fourth of Lorraine, as stipulated in the treaty of Frankfurt. Unlike other members states of the German federation, which had governments of their own, the new \"Imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine\" was under the sole authority of the Kaiser, administered directly by the imperial government in Berlin. Between 100,000 and 130,000 Alsatians (of a total population of about a million and a half) chose to remain French citizens and leave \"Reichsland Elsaß-Lothringen\", many of them resettling in French Algeria as Pieds-Noirs. Only in 1911 was Alsace-Lorraine granted some measure of autonomy, which was manifested also in a flag and an anthem (Elsässisches Fahnenlied). In 1913, however, the Saverne Affair (French: Incident de Saverne) showed the limits of this new tolerance of the Alsatian identity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1nfzhk
|
Other than the Doolittle Raid did Jimmy Doolittle do anything with a major impact on WWII?
|
[
{
"answer": "Doolittle's main impact on the war actually came before the hostilities. When he was working for Shell, he convinced the company to invest in the property/plant/equipment to refine 100-octane gasoline before there was a market for it. He correctly predicted that engine technology would evolve to suit the new fuel when it was available, and that current engines could run better than on the 87-octane standard avgas of the time.\n\nThe innovation was rather timely for the war, as the first bulk shipments of the product to Britain arrived shortly after the Fall of France. Where the RAF was outperformed over France, they suddenly had a boost which helped them defeat the Luftwaffe in the Battle of Britain. \n\nBeyond the raid which bears his name, Doolittle was also instrumental in turning the tide of the air war before the Normandy landings. As the newly minted head of the eight airforce, he reversed the policy of close fighter escort. Under him, fighter pilots were instructed to chase down fleeing German fighters to shoot them down, and approved a wider range of fighter sweeps which caught many of the Germans on the ground. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "159895",
"title": "Doolittle Raid",
"section": "Section::::In popular culture.:Books.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Doolittle's Tokyo Raiders\", by C. V. Glines (1964) – tells the complete story of the raid, including the unique experiences of each B-25 crew. A quarter century later he followed up with a second account, \"The Doolittle Raid: America's daring first strike against Japan\" (1988), incorporating information from first-hand accounts of the Raiders and from Japanese sources.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20524832",
"title": "David M. Jones",
"section": "Section::::World War II.:Doolittle Raid.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "In early 1942, Jones volunteered for the Doolittle Project – a secret bombing raid to be launched on Japan in retaliation for the December 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor. During the training phase of this project, he acted as navigation and intelligence officer for the ad hoc squadron of B-25 bombers. On April 18, 1942, the Doolittle Raid launched from the United States Navy's aircraft carrier , dropping their bombs on Tokyo and four other Japanese cities. This raid was the first good news that the Americans had from the Pacific front.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5934518",
"title": "Propaganda in Japan during the Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II",
"section": "Section::::Themes.:Anti-Western.:Allied atrocities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 130,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 130,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "While minimizing the effect of the Doolittle Raid, propaganda also depicted the raiders as inhuman demons attacking civilians. Shortly after those of the raiders who had been captured had been tortured, and some executed, the \"Nippon Times\" denounced British treatment of German prisoners of war, claiming that American and British prisoners held by Japan were being treated in accordance with international law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28696991",
"title": "Richard A. Knobloch",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Wartime.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "During World War II he participated in the Doolittle Raid. A member of the 17th Bombardment Group, he trained at Columbia Army Air Base, South Carolina, and Eglin Field, Florida, for the raid on the Japanese homeland. He flew as the co-pilot of Crew 13, in B-25B Mitchell, AAF Ser. No. \"40-2247\", which bombed Yokosuka. The crew bailed out successfully near Poyang, China, within three miles of Japanese forces, but were not detected. Taken to Poyang by Chinese soldiers, they were recovered by way of Poyang Lake, Chuchow, bused to Hengyang and flown to Chungking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49186769",
"title": "Stephen Jurika",
"section": "Section::::World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "In October 1941, Jurika joined the crew of the newly commissioned aircraft carrier as its Flight Deck and Intelligence Officer. He briefed the participants in the April 1942 Doolittle Raid on the best industrial and military targets in the city, and the best routes to get to them, and instructed them on how to identify themselves to people in China. He would later be portrayed by Leon Ames in the 1944 movie about the raid, \"Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39591381",
"title": "Charles Ross Greening",
"section": "Section::::World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "On April 18, 1942, then Captain Greening, piloting the \"Hari Kari-er\", a B-25B Mitchell medium bomber, launched from the United States Navy's aircraft carrier , in the Doolittle Raid of Japan. He led a flight of three aircraft to bomb oil refineries, docks, warehouses and industrial areas of Yokohama. He and his crew survived the raid, reaching China in the area northeast of Quzhou before they ran out of gas and had to abandoned their aircraft. After the Doolittle raid, he went back to the war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "99304",
"title": "Pearl Harbor (film)",
"section": "Section::::Historical accuracy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 956,
"text": "The portrayal of the planning of the Doolittle Raid, the air raid itself, and the raid's aftermath, is considered one of the most historically inaccurate portions of the film. In the film, Jimmy Doolittle and the rest of the Doolittle raiders had to launch from USS \"Hornet\" 624 miles off the Japanese coast and after being spotted by a few Japanese patrol boats. In actuality, the Doolittle raiders had to launch 650 miles off the Japanese coast and after being spotted by only one Japanese patrol boat. In the film, all of the raiders are depicted as dropping their bombs on Tokyo, with some of the bomb blasts obliterating entire buildings. In actuality, the Doolittle raiders did bomb Tokyo but also targeted three other industrial cities, and the damage inflicted was minimal. The film shows the Doolittle raider airmen in China overcoming the Japanese soldiers in a short gun battle with help from a strafing B-25, which never happened in real life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3gd7ty
|
What would happen if a celestial body like the moon or small planet were to pass by us close enough to enter our atmosphere?
|
[
{
"answer": "I want to start to answer this question by helping you understand just how unlikely this scenario is. The height of our atmosphere is on the order of 100km. To help you picture how thin our atmosphere is, this is basically [equivalent](_URL_0_) to the thickness (not the radius) of a penny compared to an NBA basketball. \n\nSo this is the setup. You have a full size basketball with a penny sitting on top representing our atmosphere. Now you want a moon or small planet to skim our atmosphere without hitting the planet. You can represent this by a baseball or ping pong ball or whatever. I challenge you to throw the baseball at the basketball and knock the penny off without actually hitting the basketball. The odds are just exceptionally small.\n\nThe overwhelmingly likely outcome is either the object misses the Earth entirely and nothing too important happens (except maybe disturbing the orbit of our own moon slightly) or else a collision with the surface of the Earth, killing all life and generating so much heat that the entire surface of the planet could be molten for a while.\n\nIn the event that something large *does* manage to skim through our atmosphere despite the crazy small odds, I don't know enough to give you a detailed answer, but maybe a planetary scientist could stop by and speculate. I suspect that it would do enough damage to eject a portion of our atmosphere and heat the rest of it up, almost stirring things up like a rock skipping over water. There would likely be global weather and climate changes, but I don't know what they would be. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Something to consider is how fast such a body would have to be moving in order to skim the atmosphere *without colliding with Earth*. As others have pointed out, the atmosphere is vanishingly thin on a planetary scale. For something between Earth and Moon sized to pass by us without actually coming into contact with the Earth it would have to be moving *fast*, otherwise gravity would attract the bodies to one another and they would collide.\n\nHow fast? I don't know the maths, but tiny little satellites need velocities around 8 km/s just to stay in orbit so I'd say a moon-sized body will need a LOT more speed. Most likely at the kind of speeds we're talking, the atmosphere would catch on fire through sheer friction and the shockwaves would destroy anything beneath the atmospheric \"skidmark\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1300322",
"title": "J002E3",
"section": "Section::::Potential impact with Earth or Moon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "The object's Earth orbital paths occasionally take it within the radius of the Moon's orbit, and could result in eventual entry into Earth's atmosphere, or collision with the Moon. The Apollo 12 empty S-IVB, Instrument Unit, and spacecraft adapter base, had a mass of about . This is less than one-fifth of the mass of the Skylab space station, which was constructed from a similar S-IVB and fell out of orbit on 11 July 1979. Objects with a mass of about enter Earth's atmosphere approximately 10 times a year, one of which impacts the Earth's surface approximately once every 10 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "749032",
"title": "Transit of minor planets",
"section": "Section::::Transits of the moon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "It is theoretically possible for minor planets on an Earth-crossing orbit could transit the Moon. However, such events would be extremely rare since only a few catalogued minor planets, such as 2004 FH, have come closer to Earth than the distance of the Moon. Such an event might be observable (an asteroid with 25 metres diameter at a distance of 380,000 km has an angular diameter of 0.01\"), but none has been observed as yet, although there have been some reports of such events, sometimes classified as UFO-sightings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51143",
"title": "Giant-impact hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Difficulties.:Lack of a Venusian moon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 762,
"text": "If the Moon was formed by such an impact, it is possible that other inner planets also may have been subjected to comparable impacts. A moon that formed around Venus by this process would have been unlikely to escape. If such a moon-forming event had occurred there, a possible explanation of why the planet does not have such a moon might be that a second collision occurred that countered the angular momentum from the first impact. Another possibility is that the strong tidal forces from the Sun would tend to destabilize the orbits of moons around close-in planets. For this reason, if Venus's slow rotation rate began early in its history, any satellites larger than a few kilometers in diameter would likely have spiraled inwards and collided with Venus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38058647",
"title": "Origin of the Moon",
"section": "Section::::Other hypotheses.:Capture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "One problem is understanding the capture mechanism. A close encounter of two planetary bodies typically results in either collision or altered trajectories. For this hypothesis to work, there might have been a large atmosphere around the primitive Earth, which would slow the movement of the Moon by aerobraking before it could escape. That hypothesis may also explain the irregular satellite orbits of Jupiter and Saturn. However, this hypothesis does not adequately explain the essentially identical oxygen isotope ratios of the two bodies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "602678",
"title": "Extraterrestrial skies",
"section": "Section::::The Asteroid Belt.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "Some asteroids that cross the orbits of planets may occasionally get close enough to a planet or asteroid so that an observer from that asteroid can make out the disc of the nearby object without the aid of binoculars or a telescope. For example, in September 2004, 4179 Toutatis came about four times the distance from the Earth that the Moon does. At the closest point in its encounter, the Earth would have appeared about the same size as the Moon appears from Earth. The Moon would also be easily visible as a small shape in Toutatis's sky at that time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1558077",
"title": "Moon landing",
"section": "Section::::Uncrewed landings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "More recently, other nations have crashed spacecraft on the surface of the Moon at speeds of around , often at precise, planned locations. These have generally been end-of-life lunar orbiters that, because of system degradations, could no longer overcome perturbations from lunar mass concentrations (\"masscons\") to maintain their orbit. Japan's lunar orbiter Hiten impacted the Moon's surface on 10 April 1993. The European Space Agency performed a controlled crash impact with their orbiter SMART-1 on 3 September 2006.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58626467",
"title": "July 1969",
"section": "Section::::July 20, 1969 (Sunday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "BULLET::::- At the time of the landing, the Moon and the two astronauts were from the Earth. Collins, alone in Columbia for twenty-one and a half hours, maintained an orbit ranging from to , and when he was on the far side of the diameter Moon, was at least away from the nearest human being, \"with no radio contact with Earth or his crewmates and a 2100 mile-wide ball of rock between him and every other human who ever lived.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
zynzn
|
Why do my stationary eyes fade to black in a little to no light environment?
|
[
{
"answer": "I have never experienced this \"fade to black\". Honestly, it doesn't sound like something that should be happening. If there is enough light in the room for your eyes to see around you, your vision should not fade at all due to a lack of motion. It might be a good idea to mention this to your doc. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "(edit: combined comments)\n\nThis sounds like the [Ganzfeld Effect]( _URL_2_)\n\nor maybe [Troxler's Fading](_URL_3_)\n\nThe visual system can do some pretty crazy things when deprived of visual stimulas. Such as the [Prisoner's cinema](_URL_0_) effect.\n \nHumans are a very visual creature and when we have abnormal cession(wrong word?) of motion in our visual field our brains start to do some pretty crazy acrobatics. \n\nI would also think some specific [optical illusions](_URL_1_) would play on this type of visual effect.\n\nI am in no way trained in visual physiology, but these seem to fall into your interest and maybe others who ware trained in these fields can answer more fully.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23593959",
"title": "LED street light",
"section": "Section::::Disadvantages of LED street lights.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "BULLET::::- As a result of the Purkinje effect, the dark-adapted human eye is very sensitive to blue and green light that LED street lights emit in large amounts, as compared to the yellow and orange high-pressure sodium lights that are typically being replaced. This magnifies the effect of light pollution - particularly sky glow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "569650",
"title": "Stimulus modality",
"section": "Section::::Light modality.:Adaptation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 729,
"text": "The eye is able to detect a visual stimulus when the photons (light packets) cause a photopigment molecule, primarily rhodopsin, to come apart. Rhodopsin, which is usually pink, becomes bleached in the process. At high levels of light, photopigments are broken apart faster than can be regenerated. Because a low number of photopigments have been regenerated, the eyes are not sensitive to light. When entering a dark room after being in a well lit area, the eyes require time for a good quantity of rhodopsin to regenerate. As more time passes, there is a higher chance that the photons will split an unbleached photopigment because the rate of regeneration will have surpassed the rate of bleaching. This is called adaptation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1894873",
"title": "Eye movement",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Saccades.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "The eyes are never completely at rest. They make fast random jittering movements even when we are fixated on one point. The reason for this random movement is related to the photoreceptors and the ganglion cells. It appears that a constant visual stimulus can make the photoreceptors or the ganglion cells become unresponsive; on the other hand a changing stimulus will not. Therefore, the random eye movement constantly changes the stimuli that fall on the photoreceptors and the ganglion cells, making the image more clear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5921",
"title": "Color",
"section": "Section::::Perception.:Afterimages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "After exposure to strong light in their sensitivity range, [[Photoreceptor cell|photoreceptors]] of a given type become desensitized. For a few seconds after the light ceases, they will continue to signal less strongly than they otherwise would. Colors observed during that period will appear to lack the color component detected by the desensitized photoreceptors. This effect is responsible for the phenomenon of [[afterimage]]s, in which the eye may continue to see a bright figure after looking away from it, but in a [[complementary color]].\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19097368",
"title": "On Vision and Colours",
"section": "Section::::Content.:Chapter 2—On Colors.:§ 12.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 949,
"text": "Afterimages (spectra) appear after a mechanical shock to the eye. The eye's activity is convulsively divided. Transitory pathological spectra appear from glare or dazzle. The retina's activity is disorganized from over-stimulation. A dazzled eye sees red when looking at brightness and green when looking into darkness. The retina's activity is forcefully divided by the powerful stimulation. When the eye strains to see in dim light, the retina is voluntarily activated and intensively divided. Blue eyeglasses counter the effect of orange candlelight and produce the effect of daylight. An additional proof of the subjective nature of color, namely that it is a function of the eye itself and is only secondarily related to external objects, is given by the daguerreotype. It objectively shows that color is not essential to the appearance of an object. Also, people who are color blind would see color if it was in the object and not in the eye.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3132998",
"title": "Lilac chaser",
"section": "Section::::Other effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "If after looking at the effect for 5 minutes or so, one moves one's eyes elsewhere (e.g., to another point on the figure or to a blank sheet of white paper), one will see a stationary ring of 12 green discs that will fade after a short time. These green discs are the afterimages of the 12 lilac discs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "790468",
"title": "Pulfrich effect",
"section": "Section::::Demonstration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "A similar effect can be achieved by using a stationary camera and continuously rotating an otherwise stationary object. If the movement stops, the eye looking through the dark lens (which could be either eye depending on the direction the camera is moving) will \"catch up\" and the effect will disappear. One advantage of this system is that people not wearing the glasses will see a perfectly normal picture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
igc3w
|
Physics Question: Driving in the rain. Does more rain hit your windshield as you go faster?
|
[
{
"answer": "Imagine uniformely distributed droplets ahead of your car. Look at the volume in front uf your windshield, forming a right cuboid (\"rectangular box\") the area of your windshield, but with a varying depth of 1, 2 and 3 meters.\n\nAt time t_0 there are, say, 100 drops within the first meter, 100 more in the second, and 100 more in the 3rd. Assume, that each drop leaving the cuboid below is refilled by another one from above.\n\nAs you drive the 10 meters in 1 second, 100 drops will hit your windshield. But at triple speed, 30 meters in 1 second, 300 drops will hit it. So, the answer is yes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > Does your front windshield strike twice as many drops per unit time if you go twice as fast?\n\nClose to it. The rate of water hitting your windscreen is equal to the density of raindrops, multiplied by the relative velocity of the rain, multiplied by the cross-sectional area of the windscreen in their relative direction of motion.\n\nThe density of raindrops does not increase with your speed, so that's simple.\n\nThe relative velocity does increase - but it doesn't double when you double your speed. The rain already has a downwards component of velocity (and some horizontal velocity from wind), and you are effectively giving it a boost in its horizontal velocity. You add these together (vector addition!) to get the rain's velocity. So because the rain already has some velocity, doubling the contribution from your car's motion does not double the entire thing. But it *will* increase its velocity and the rate of water impacting your windscreen. However, rain drops fairly quickly, so you have to be going at a decent rate for this to be noticeable - i.e. you'd see the rain falling more \"backwards\" than \"downwards\".\n\nThe third effect is that if the rain is going straight down, its target the cross-sectional area of your windscreen as seen from above. It's not hitting your windscreen at exactly 90°, it's seeing it \"side on\" and has a smaller target. But as you accelerate, this will change - the \"target\" gets bigger until the rain is hitter your windscreen at right angles to the surface. At this point, the apparent cross-sectional area of your wind-screen is maximised, and you get more water on your screen.\n\n**tl;dr:** Accelerating increases the drops per unit time, but it's not just proportional to your speed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "59793473",
"title": "Windshield phenomenon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "The windshield phenomenon (or windscreen phenomenon) is a term given to the anecdotal observation that people tend to find fewer insects smashed on the windscreens of their cars now compared to a decade or several decades ago. This effect has been ascribed to major global declines in insect abundance. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12186381",
"title": "Citroën Berlingo électrique",
"section": "Section::::Speed and range.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "BULLET::::- As with any vehicle, driving in the heavy rain increases rolling resistance and therefore decreases the miles-per-gallon for petrol/diesel and reduces the miles-per-charge for electric vehicles. Typically reduction is about 15% .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1219767",
"title": "Didier Pironi",
"section": "Section::::1982 German Grand Prix.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "In the rain, one of the many problems caused by \"ground effect\" F1 cars was that the spray was forced out from under the side pods as a fine mist and virtually created a fog. To those behind, this made cars in front close to invisible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "645083",
"title": "Formula One car",
"section": "Section::::Performance.:Lateral acceleration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 762,
"text": "Since the force that creates the lateral acceleration is largely friction, and friction is proportional to the normal force applied, the large downforce allows an F1 car to corner at very high speeds. As an example of the extreme cornering speeds; the Blanchimont and Eau Rouge corners at Spa-Francorchamps are taken flat-out at above , whereas the race-spec touring cars can only do so at 150–160 km/h (note that lateral force increases with the square of the speed). A newer and perhaps even more extreme example is the Turn 8 at the Istanbul Park circuit, a 190° relatively tight 4-apex corner, in which the cars maintain speeds between (in 2006) and experience between 4.5 \"G's\" and 5.5 \"G's\" for 7 seconds—the longest sustained hard cornering in Formula 1.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30426",
"title": "Total internal reflection",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "Rain sensors for automatic windscreen/windshield wipers have been implemented using the principle that total internal reflection will guide an infrared beam from a source to a detector if the outer surface of the windshield is dry, but any water drops on the surface will divert some of the light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59924918",
"title": "Decline in insect populations",
"section": "Section::::Evidence.:Anecdotal evidence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 982,
"text": "The windshield phenomenon—car windscreens covered in dead insects after even a short drive through a rural area in Europe and North America—seems also largely to have disappeared; in the 21st century, drivers find they can go an entire summer without noticing it. John Rawlins, head of invertebrate zoology at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History, speculated in 2006 that more aerodynamic car design could explain the change. Entomologist Martin Sorg told \"Science\" in 2017: \"I drive a Land Rover, with the aerodynamics of a refrigerator, and these days it stays clean.\" Rawlins added that land next to high-speed highways has become more manicured and therefore less attractive to insects. In 2004 the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds organised a Big Bug Count, issuing \"splatometers\" to about 40,000 volunteers to help count the number of insects colliding with their number plates. They found an average of one insect per 5 miles (8 km), which was less than expected.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1092291",
"title": "Geo Storm",
"section": "Section::::Reviews.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "The shape of the body was not the only thing automotive journalists criticized. The engine was described as a \"buzzbomb\" or \"just plain noisy\". A few reviewers disliked the suspension, saying the Storm has \"above average body lean and needs more rebound control\". Some complained about the small cargo area, visibility and the absence of headroom for backseat passengers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
37dcdi
|
why are we able to speak well over 6,000 languages, and yet are unable to effectively communicate with our domesticated brethren?
|
[
{
"answer": "As far as we know humans are the only animal to use language.\n\nThe sounds other animals make would be more analogous to human body language than to speech.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3289550",
"title": "Simultaneous bilingualism",
"section": "Section::::Bilingual acquisition.:Language input in bilingual acquisition.:Separation of language input.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "However, the lack of language separation by person does not necessarily lead to failure to communicate effectively in two languages. Further studies have shown that a \"one person, one language\" approach may not be necessary for the early separation of language systems to occur. Children appear to be able to disentangle the two languages themselves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "622156",
"title": "English-speaking world",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "Estimates that include second language speakers vary greatly, from 470 million to more than 2 billion. David Crystal calculates that, as of 2003, non-native speakers outnumbered native speakers by a ratio of 3 to 1. When combining native and non-native speakers, English is the most widely spoken language worldwide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11278682",
"title": "Tandem language learning",
"section": "Section::::Drawbacks to tandem language learning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "BULLET::::1. Insufficient knowledge: Native speakers may lack sufficient knowledge to teach their own language to others. It may also be very challenging and time consuming for students to be methodologically and pedagogically apt to design meaningful learning experiences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1068783",
"title": "Monolingualism",
"section": "Section::::Reasons for persistence.:Predominance of English.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 1357,
"text": "The predominance of English in many sectors, such as world trade, technology and science, has contributed to English-speaking societies being persistently monolingual, as there is no relevant need to learn a second language if all dealings can be done in their native language; that is especially the case for English-speakers in the United States, particularly the Northern United States and most of the Southern United States, where everyday contact with other languages, such as Spanish and French is usually limited. The country's large area and the most populous regions' distance from large non-English-speaking areas, such as Mexico and Quebec, increase the geographic and economic barriers to foreign travel. Nevertheless, the requirement for all school children to learn a foreign language in some English speaking countries and areas works against this to some extent. Although the country is economically interdependent with trade partners such as China, American corporations and heavily-Americanized subsidiaries of foreign corporations both mediate and control most citizens' contact with most other nations' products. There is a popular joke: \"What do you call a person who speaks three languages? A trilingual. What do you call a person who speaks two languages? A bilingual. What do you call a person who speaks one language? An American.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "228047",
"title": "Human communication",
"section": "Section::::Category.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1019,
"text": "Spoken language involves speech, a mostly human quality to acquire. For example, chimpanzees are humans' closest relative, but they are unable to produce speech. Chimpanzees are the closest living species to humans. Chimpanzees are closer to humans, in genetic and evolutionary terms, than they are to gorillas or other apes. The fact that a chimpanzee will not acquire speech, even when raised in a human home with all the environmental input of a normal human child, is one of the central puzzles we face when contemplating the biology of our species. In repeated experiments, starting in the 1910s, chimpanzees raised in close contact with humans have universally failed to speak, or even to try to speak, despite their rapid progress in many other intellectual and motor domains. Each normal human is born with a capacity to rapidly and unerringly acquire their mother tongue, with little explicit teaching or coaching. In contrast, no nonhuman primate has spontaneously produced even a word of the local language.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27079097",
"title": "Intercultural bilingual education",
"section": "Section::::Other similar models.:North America.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 755,
"text": "In the U.S. and Canada there are an estimated 184 living indigenous languages—however, only 20 of these 184 are currently learned in a naturalistic environment by children (that is to say, learned at home through immersion with family and community). Many of these minority languages are part of the various Native American tribes which, through the history of reservation creation and racism by the dominant society, have come close to extinction. Similarly to the case with the Hispanicization of Latin America, the prevailing idea that English is a prestige language associated with opportunity and literacy led to an ambivalence towards sustaining various tribal languages—despite the important role they play in tribal community and ethnic identity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17524",
"title": "Language",
"section": "Section::::Social contexts of use and transmission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "However, languages differ from biological organisms in that they readily incorporate elements from other languages through the process of diffusion, as speakers of different languages come into contact. Humans also frequently speak more than one language, acquiring their first language or languages as children, or learning new languages as they grow up. Because of the increased language contact in the globalizing world, many small languages are becoming endangered as their speakers shift to other languages that afford the possibility to participate in larger and more influential speech communities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6z9hfu
|
how do clocks compensate for the fact that a day isn't a full 24 hours?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's such an insignificant amount of time that it's not really noticable. That's why leap years are only every 4 years instead of more often.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "That's what leap years are for but there is also a thing called leap seconds. Every once in a while scientists add a second for instance 4:59:60 then 5:00:00 to compensate for this.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Clocks are mechanical and are not 100% accurate to begin with. They become more inaccurate over time. Otherwise, many internet based clocks sync with servers that keep time for them called NTP (network time protocol) servers. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A day *is* a full 24 hours, give or take a leap second every year or two. Until we invented atomic clocks, a day was exactly 24 hours by definition.\n\nLeap years are a separate issue, they correct for the fact that there aren't exactly 365 24-hour days in a year.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There's two kinds of days. A solar day is nearly exactly 24 hours. A sidereal day is 23 hours, 56 minutes, and change. There are 365.24 solar days in a year, but 366.24 sidereal days in the same time. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Understood. Thanks everyone!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30723089",
"title": "Cotehele clock",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.:Going Train.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Also, the very short section of the foliot that allows weight adjustment makes it clear that this clock was never used for unequal hours (12 hours from sunrise to sunset, making hours shorter in winter and longer in summer), but was always used to measure equal hours and probably run 24 hours per day. The shortness of the grooved outer sections would not allow the clock to strike 12 times within 8 hours in winter or 12 times within 16 hours in summer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5152648",
"title": "Date and time representation by country",
"section": "Section::::Local conventions.:Time.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 799,
"text": "In most English-speaking regions, particularly the United States and the Commonwealth, the 12-hour clock is the predominant form of stating the time, with the 24-hour clock used in contexts where unambiguity and accurate timekeeping are important, such as for public transport schedules. Nonetheless, usage is inconsistent: in the UK, train timetables will typically use 24-hour time, but road signs indicating time restrictions (e.g. on bus lanes) typically use 12-hour time, e.g. \"Monday–Friday 6.30–8.30pm\". The BBC website uses the 24-hour clock for its TV and radio programme listings, while BBC promotions for upcoming programmes give their times according to the 12-hour clock. Punctuation and spacing styles differ, even within English-speaking countries (6:30 p.m., 6:30 pm, 6.30pm, etc.).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29214943",
"title": "Thirteenth stroke of the clock",
"section": "Section::::Why don't 24-hour clocks strike thirteen?\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 823,
"text": "Most countries around the world use the 24-hour system for technical purposes and in documents such as timetables; the United States is an exception, although US military bodies do use the 24-hour clock. Most digital clocks can be set to show the time as, for example, 13:00, and this is frequently done. However, typical analogue clock design conserves the 12-hour system, and so does everyday speech. In English, in fact, the term \"13 o'clock\" is not used; when referring to something like a timetable that uses the 24-hour clock, or in a military context, one would say \"Thirteen hundred hours\". In other European languages, the terms equivalent to \"13 o'clock\" are used, e.g. in French one can refer to 1pm as \"\"treize heures\"\", though many people would also say \"\"une heure de l'après-midi\"\", the equivalent of \"1pm\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14004",
"title": "Hour",
"section": "Section::::Counting hours.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "Many different ways of counting the hours have been used. Because sunrise, sunset, and, to a lesser extent, noon, are the conspicuous points in the day, starting to count at these times was, for most people in most early societies, much easier than starting at midnight. However, with accurate clocks and modern astronomical equipment (and the telegraph or similar means to transfer a time signal in a split-second), this issue is much less relevant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29214943",
"title": "Thirteenth stroke of the clock",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "A physicist and mathematician notes the problem with his variation on the same general idea. He points out that if a clock strikes the thirteenth hour then it has counted wrongly and reflects on the other twelve hours of the clock's strokes as then they could also be wrong.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47548",
"title": "Daylight saving time",
"section": "Section::::Rationale.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "By synchronously resetting all clocks in a region to one hour ahead of standard time, individuals who follow such a year-round schedule will wake an hour earlier than they would have otherwise; they will begin and complete daily work routines an hour earlier, and they will have available to them an extra hour of daylight after their workday activities. However, they will have one less hour of daylight at the start of each day, making the policy less practical during winter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41548",
"title": "Phase-locked loop",
"section": "Section::::Practical analogies.:Clock analogy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "Some clocks have a timing adjustment (a fast-slow control). When the owner compared his wall clock's time to the reference time, he noticed that his clock was too fast. Consequently, he could turn the timing adjust a small amount to make the clock run a little slower (frequency). If things work out right, his clock will be more accurate than before. Over a series of weekly adjustments, the wall clock's notion of a second would agree with the reference time (locked both in frequency and phase within the wall clock's stability).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
30k413
|
is google licensing its fiber optics?
|
[
{
"answer": "Google isn't licensing their fiber optics. What's happening is that Google is succeeding in their goal to force ISPs to step up their game. Google believes fast, affordable internet should be available to everyone. The current market is happy for a single ISP to have a monopoly over each area. Google is breaking that pattern by building their own fiber optic network, offering blistering speeds for a relatively low price. This is spurring the competition to make changes to stay competitive, so companies like AT & T are building their own fiber optic networks to compete with Google's.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1077225",
"title": "IPTV",
"section": "Section::::Vendors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 130,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 130,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "Google Fiber offers an IPTV service in various US cities which includes up to 1 Gigabit-speed internet and over 290 channels depending on package via the fiber optic network being built out in Kansas City Kansas and Kansas City Missouri.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15891439",
"title": "Gigabit Wireless",
"section": "Section::::Wireless broadband.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "In June 2016, Google Fiber acquired Webpass to boost its effort in its experiments with wireless technologies. As a result, Google Fiber put its effort on fiber to the premises on hold to explore more on the cheaper wireless alternative. By early 2017, the Webpass division of Google Fiber expanded 1 Gbit/s wireless service to customers in many cities in the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26668052",
"title": "Google Fiber",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "Google Fiber is part of the Access division of Alphabet Inc. It provides fiber-to-the-premises service in the United States, providing broadband Internet and IPTV to a small and slowly increasing number of locations. In mid-2016, Google Fiber had 68,715 television subscribers and was estimated to have about 453,000 broadband customers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26668052",
"title": "Google Fiber",
"section": "Section::::Acquisition of Webpass.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 134,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 134,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "On June 22, 2016, Google Fiber bought Webpass, an Internet service provider that has been in business for 13 years and specializes in high-speed Internet for business and residential customers. They have a large presence in California and specifically the Bay Area as well as San Diego, Miami, Miami Beach, Coral Gables, Chicago, and Boston. The deal closed in October 2016.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26668052",
"title": "Google Fiber",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "Google Fiber announced expansion to Austin, Texas, and Provo, Utah, in April 2013, and subsequent expansions in 2014 and 2015 to Atlanta, Charlotte, the Triangle, Nashville, Salt Lake City, and San Antonio.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1092923",
"title": "Google",
"section": "Section::::Products and services.:Internet services.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "In February 2010, Google announced the Google Fiber project, with experimental plans to build an ultra-high-speed broadband network for 50,000 to 500,000 customers in one or more American cities. Following Google's corporate restructure to make Alphabet Inc. its parent company, Google Fiber was moved to Alphabet's Access division.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26668052",
"title": "Google Fiber",
"section": "Section::::April Fools' hoaxes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 145,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 145,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "On April Fools' Day 2012, Google Fiber announced that their product was an edible Google Fiber bar instead of fiber-optic Internet broadband. It is stated that the Google Fiber bar delivers \"what the body needs to sustain activity, energy, and productivity.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
duohmk
|
blue light from screens reduces melatonin, but doesn’t that mean more serotonin?
|
[
{
"answer": "No, it doesnt work that way. Oddly enough dopamine and melatonin are inversely linked (one goes up and the other goes down). But contrary to popular belief that has more of an effect on movement than on mood. But it is thought to be related to why people can get a bit addicted to screen time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "50732180",
"title": "The Role of Serotonin in Visual Orientation Processing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1725,
"text": "Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine) is a monoamine neurotransmitter that plays a role in mood, eating, sleeping, arousal and potentially visual orientation processing. To investigate its function in visual orientation, researchers have utilised MDMA, or as it is commonly referred to, Ecstasy (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine). MDMA is known to affect serotonin neurons in the brain and cause neurotoxicity. Serotonin has been hypothesised to be involved in visual orientation because individuals who use MDMA exhibit an increase in the magnitude of the tilt aftereffect (TAE). The TAE is a visual illusion where viewing lines in one direction, for an extended period of time, produces the perception of a tilt in the opposite direction to vertical lines subsequently viewed. This effect is proposed to occur due to lateral inhibition to orientation sensitive neurons in the occipital lobe. Lateral inhibition is where neurons that become activated to a particular orientation send inhibitory signals to their neighbouring neurons. The degree of orientation that each neuron becomes maximally excited to is referred to as the tuning bandwidth. Lateral inhibition consequently plays a pivotal role in each neuron's tuning bandwidth, such that if lateral inhibition no longer occurs, a greater number of neurons will become stimulated to the same orientation. This results in the activated neurons becoming adapted to the same orientation stimulus, if the stimulus is viewed for a period of time. As a consequence, if those neurons are subsequently 'shown' another stimulus that differs slightly in its orientation, those neurons are no longer able to achieve the same level of response as compared to other non-adapted neurons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "699110",
"title": "Light therapy",
"section": "Section::::Techniques.:Light boxes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "The production of the hormone melatonin, a sleep regulator, is inhibited by light and permitted by darkness as registered by photosensitive ganglion cells in the retina. To some degree, the reverse is true for serotonin, which has been linked to mood disorders. Hence, for the purpose of manipulating melatonin levels or timing, light boxes providing very specific types of artificial illumination to the retina of the eye are effective.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50732180",
"title": "The Role of Serotonin in Visual Orientation Processing",
"section": "Section::::MDMA and Visual Orientation Processing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 808,
"text": "Recent research investigating MDMA has revealed the neurotoxic effect of the drug on brain serotonin neurons. Long term and potentially permanent changes to serotonergic axons have been noted in animal and primate studies where they were administered doses of MDMA similar to those taken by some human users. MDMA has subsequently been used to investigate the role that serotonin may play in visual orientation processing. Serotonin neurons are thought to reside in the occipital lobe, which is an area of the brain responsible for visual processing of line orientation, edges, motion and stereoscopic depth perception. Because MDMA is known to affect serotonin and that serotonin is thought to be involved in vision, individuals who take MDMA may exhibit differences in their visual orientation processing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2327886",
"title": "Theanine",
"section": "Section::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacodynamics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "Theanine increases serotonin, dopamine, GABA, and glycine levels in various areas of the brain, as well as BDNF and NGF levels in certain brain areas. However, its effect on serotonin is still a matter of debate in the scientific community, with studies showing increases and decreases in brain serotonin levels using similar experimental protocols. It has also been found that injecting spontaneously hypertensive mice with theanine significantly lowered levels of 5-hydroxyindoles in the brain. Researchers also speculate that it may inhibit glutamate excitotoxicity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50732180",
"title": "The Role of Serotonin in Visual Orientation Processing",
"section": "Section::::MDMA and Visual Orientation Processing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 610,
"text": "The relationship between the effect of MDMA and serotonin's role in visual orientation processing has been investigated following a prior study conducted in the 1990s by Maisini, Antonietti and Moja (1990). Their experiment involved subjects ingesting a mixture which significantly reduced brain serotonin levels. This reduction in serotonin resulted in an increase in the magnitude of the TAE in those subjects. This study has since been used as the foundation for the idea that MDMA neurotoxicity, due to its effect on serotonin neurons, could influence the magnitude of the TAE in individuals who use MDMA.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50732180",
"title": "The Role of Serotonin in Visual Orientation Processing",
"section": "Section::::Present Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 823,
"text": "The results of the study indicated that the amphetamine abstinent Ecstasy group showed a broader tuning bandwidth than the controls. This demonstrates that MDMA use produces changes to serotonergic functioning as it disrupts lateral inhibition between orientation sensitive neurons. This disruption causes the neurons to activate to a wider range of orientations other than their preferred orientation. This finding, therefore, supports the idea that serotonin plays a role in sharpening the tuning bandwidths of orientation neurons. Overall, the results support the idea that \"MDMA-mediated serotonin depletion can lead to broader orientation tuning bandwidths\" p. 163. The authors do, however, go on to say that although deficits in certain tasks are present, the extent of these deficits requires further investigation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50732180",
"title": "The Role of Serotonin in Visual Orientation Processing",
"section": "Section::::Present Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1249,
"text": "A study by Brown, Edwards, McKone and Ward (2007), additionally investigated MDMA's effect on serotonin neurons. Their research also stemmed from Masini et al. (1990). They were interested in serotonin's role in lateral inhibition to orientation sensitive neurons and how MDMA use may change this system and produce wider tuning bandwidths. The study consisted of two groups, Ecstasy users and controls, who were shown brief displays of the TAE illusion. The results of the study support the idea that serotonin damage due to MDMA use causes lateral inhibition to diminish amongst orientation sensitive neurons in the occipital lobe. This was demonstrated by the Ecstasy group showing a greater increase in the magnitude of the TAE illusion compared to the controls. The authors stated that perhaps \"serotonin is involved in the extent to which the sensitivity of neurons is reduced during adaptation\" p. 445. It could be that the decrease in sensitivity of the post-adaptation orientation neurons is further diminished by decreased serotonergic functioning, which increases the magnitude of the TAE. Their research lends support to the idea that MDMA use affects lateral inhibition and that serotonin plays a role in visual orientation processing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
yzl3u
|
why don't girls ask guys out?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because our culture has long been focused on men being in a dominant role. Asking someone out is a dominant action and not expected of girls.\n\nNot that hard really.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Traditionally, men are seen as dominant. Men are viewed as the gender which is in charge. They make choices and women accept the choices men make. It's the same reason fathers give their daughters away at weddings. The idea is that the woman needs a man to take ownership/care for her because she's unable to do so herself. Thus, she's under the care of her father until he gives her to her husband at which point she becomes under his care.\n\nPlus, we often look down on women who embrace their sexuality. It's appropriate for a man, like myself, to be willing to sleep with basically any decent looking girl. But it's entirely inappropriate for a woman to do the same. They're cognizant of that (socially acceptable yet objectively objectionable) fact. \n\nI dunno, it's a complicated world. (Irrelevant Childish Gambino quote: \"sometimes the stupid shit is the real shit\".) But please realize that a situation which appears unfair to men can be explained by a larger context in which men are privileged. Don't let your perspective be limited to your own experiences, because when you do that you miss out on a lot. Preaching over; because men are seen as appropriate sexual aggresors while women should be demure. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > it's a bit unfair. It just leaves guys to play a crazy guessing game\n\nSee, you didn't need our help. You figured it out on your own.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They've been told not to since they were young. They've been told to wait for the guy to do it",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's not that people haven't tried to change the customs, either...\n\n_URL_0_\n\nBut society remains stubbornly set on \"women aren't allowed to ask men out\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Others have answered about the cultural reasons for this but I'm going to talk about evolution.\n\nIn humans (and most mammals) females are the nurturing parent. They have the responsibility to bear young and, consequently are always confident that they are the parent of their own child. By contrast, males potentially can get away with an investment of a few minutes but can also be quite uncertain that they contributed genes to the child produced by the female they have slept with.\n\nFemales therefore want to try to ensure that any male that fathers their child is willing to stick around to assist with child rearing. Whether or not they actually *intend* on having children every time they have sex is irrelevant. Millions of years of evolution have pushed females to want to ensure that males are the \"real deal\" so to speak.\n\nMales on the other hand benefit from spreading their 'seed' far and wide. This gives them the best chance for having their genes passed on to the next generation. Note however that, should the male ever be confident that the child is his (there's an equation for the probability threshold but it's roughly around 50% confidence as the limit) then he should actually want to nurture it.\n\nSo how does this play out in the real world?\n\nFemales don't want to approach males for sex because that doesn't allow the female to test her potential partner for stability, trustworthiness and nurturing potential. Additionally, a male when approached for sex by a female \"should\" always accept as that is a free chance to pass on his genes. Finally, males \"should\" approach as many females as possible for sex - for the same reason.\n\nObviously the real world isn't as black and white as all of this. Males can and do make a conscious decision to be more dependable in order to gain a mate and females can and do sample the male population in order to find the most suitable mate - remember that a promiscuous female is still 100% confident that any child is hers.",
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},
{
"answer": "because girls are cruel. \n\n^I ^am ^going ^through ^a ^dark ^phase ^of ^my ^life ^right ^now.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I missed that memo. I ask guys out often. If you aren't gonna make the move, then I will. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's just because of society's stupid standards and stereotypes. From a personal frame of reference, though, I will say that my current girlfriend actually asked me out...and it's a nice, solid, happy relationship.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19896174",
"title": "Momma's Boys",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "Throughout the series, the female contestants participate in competitions and are selected by the men for dates, with some of the contestants being eliminated at various intervals. Each woman receives a text message of \"yes\" if any of the men want to keep her in contention or \"no\" if none of them want to keep her in contention. If the men are undecided, they send a text message for the woman to meet them at the house's swimming pool, where the men have an additional opportunity to talk to her before deciding whether she should stay or go.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11825448",
"title": "Britain's Next Top Model (series 3)",
"section": "Section::::Episodes.:Week 1.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "The girls immediately faced their first challenge posing in front of the press, and then met stylist Hilary Alexander who asked each girl questions. Later, they arrived in the model house and they ran around trying to choose rooms. Lauren, Sherece, Krystal, Carly, and Lucy were upset because they didn't find beds for all of them (They eventually found beds downstairs).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17433109",
"title": "Kabhi Haan Kabhi Naa (TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Concept.:Dipankar.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "Even though all these boys are apart from each other in their personality and style, they are best friends who help each other setting up girls. The unanswered questions are that how do they manage to get so many girls despite everyone knows that they are just flirt? How do they ask girls out and get them to say yes?\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10163440",
"title": "Daisies (film)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "At one point, the girls meet an older woman, who begs them to stay for a bit, and remarks on how she misses her youth. The girls wait for her to step out, then rob her and leave, after which they philosophize about their actions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6407860",
"title": "H2O: Just Add Water",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "Everyday situations, such as bathing and dealing with rainy weather, become tricky as the girls struggle with their newfound abilities, which come with many advantages and disadvantages, while also trying to keep them a secret from everyone else, including their families. They soon adapt to their new abilities and lifestyles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28397941",
"title": "I Love Money (season 4)",
"section": "Section::::Episodes.:Episode 7: Battle of the Blonde Backstabber.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 2252,
"text": "In the morning, Craig tells the contestants there are no more teams and that they will be competing as individuals from here on out, and then they are given different colour tops to wear. Blonde Baller has huge target on her back as the male alliance wants her out. Sassy tries to help out Blonde Baller to take the target off her back and get rid of Punisher. When they get to the challenge, Craigs tells them the challenge is called \"Talk to the Hand\" which is based on moments of the \"of love\" shows where as soon as there is an argument the hands always go up, there is clip that shows Junk having a fight with Blonde Baller and her hand going up. What they have to do is put on a giant glove which is strapped to a vat above full of what Craig calls \"Nastiness.\" If they drop their hand, the vat tips on them. The person to hold their hand up the longest is paymaster, while the first person to drop their hand is automatically put in the box. Straight away with the challenge, Garth and Punisher keep tormenting Blonde Baller so that she will crack or get distracted so that her hand falls but all that does is distract Punisher so his hand drops and the vat falls on him, making him the dead last loser. He does not worry though, because he knows that his alliance has his back. However, Brooklyn and 6 gauge soon drop their arms which worries Punisher. Blonde Baller makes a comment about Garth's mother which offends him, as he says he is a mama's boy. This motivates Garth to keep his hand up longer to win the challenge and void Blonde Baller's check. Then Francisco drops his arm followed by Hot wings as she outs two arms which makes the vat drop. They then reach the 25-minute mark and six of them still have their hands up. Brittanya asks Punisher, \"Why did you have drop your arm? Now I have to keep my arm up longer.\" The hour goes past and Corn Fed then drops her arm. Sassy then decides to give out which annoys Blonde Baller, as she needed Sassy or herself to win so she will be safe. Mindy then drops her arm, then Blonde Baller's arm drops, which excites Punisher. Garth then asks Brittanya to drop her arm so he can be paymaster but Brittanya says no and Garth's arm drops, so Brittanya wins the challenge and becomes paymaster.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3296853",
"title": "The Fabulous Five (book series)",
"section": "Section::::Books.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 2458,
"text": "19. The Boys-Only Club – Katie is angered by a teacher's sexist remarks and mentions this to her friends. Because the girls are only 13, they do not see it as being such a huge deal. Tony's coming by just as they're speaking, so Katie turns and asks Tony to a movie to prove that girls can ask guys out, not always the other way around. Tony, embarrassed, mumbles that he already has plans to play video games with some of his own friends, all guys. Christie and Beth chime in, inviting themselves along and embarrassing Katie even more. Tony, uncomfortable and not quite knowing how to phrase it, blurts out that it's a guys-only gathering. Everyone else except Katie and Tony laugh. But partially because of Tony's clumsy wording, Katie also suspects Tony's friends of having sexist attitudes and accuses Tony of indirectly collaborating with sexist people. As a result, she and Tony argue. They both leave the cafeteria upset. Katie decides to form her own girls-only club, since she realizes that most of the girls in her school seem shallow and preoccupied with boyfriends, looks, and clothes. Laura surprises Katie and her friends by offering to help and agreeing that too many girls are too dependent on boys, but unfortunately the club deteriorates into a clothes-and-makeup fest under the pressure of some of the other girls who are reluctant to be associated with the word \"feminist\"; Katie is their only real example of one and she is so tight-laced and aggressive about it, it's no wonder they are turned off. Laura, disappointed in this change, loses interest and she and her Fantastic Foursome friends sneak off to Mama Mia's to go meet the guys, including Jana and Melanie's boyfriends while the girls \"club\" is trying on clothes and toying with makeup. Many of the girls are furious at Katie when they find out about Laura and her friends meeting the guys. Katie and Tony don't speak for almost a week, which leaves both of them feeling sad and guilty. When they do re-unite and start speaking again, Katie realizes that he likes to spend time with his guy friends just like she spends time with the Fabulous Five, an all-girl group. Tony and his friends change their video game playing club times to Saturday mornings so they can go to the movies with the girls on Friday nights. Katie also unearths a time capsule in her backyard and finds out a lot about a young woman who lived in 1918 and about how tough life was for females back then.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5wzpf8
|
why can't dc be transformed as easily as ac
|
[
{
"answer": "When you switch a DC signal on and off, you're turning it into an AC signal. \n\nIt's easier to manipulate the voltage and current of AC signals, because with AC we are able to use magnetic coupling as another degree of freedom. Magnetic fields can only create electric fields when they are changing, which requires a changing electric field, which is what AC signals are.\n\nWe *can* do voltage and current manipulation on DC signals themselves using semiconductors. This ends up being less common for high power scenarios.\n\nUsing magnetic coupling on DC signals which switch on and off rapidly is wasteful, because magnetic coupling is most efficient when the signal is a pure sinewave. Otherwise, energy can get lost in all the little non-primary constituent frequencies.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3455617",
"title": "Rapid transit technology",
"section": "Section::::Motive power.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "The electric power is generally DC rather than AC, even though this requires large rectifiers. DC motors were formerly more efficient for railway applications, and once a DC system is in place, converting it to AC is generally considered infeasible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42432999",
"title": "Three-phase micro-inverter",
"section": "Section::::Concept.:Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "Inexpensive inverters can convert DC power to AC by simply turning the DC side of the power on and off 120 times a second, inverting the voltage every other cycle. The result is a square-wave that is close enough to AC power for many devices. However, this sort of solution is not useful in the solar power case, where the goal is to convert as much of the power from the solar power into AC as possible. If one uses these inexpensive types of inverters, all of the power generated during the time that the DC side is turned off is simply lost, and this represents a significant amount of each cycle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "223356",
"title": "Power inverter",
"section": "Section::::Circuit description.:Basic design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "In one simple inverter circuit, DC power is connected to a transformer through the center tap of the primary winding. A switch is rapidly switched back and forth to allow current to flow back to the DC source following two alternate paths through one end of the primary winding and then the other. The alternation of the direction of current in the primary winding of the transformer produces alternating current (AC) in the secondary circuit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1149802",
"title": "Rotary converter",
"section": "Section::::Obsolescence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "AC replaced DC in most applications and eventually the need for local DC substations diminished along with the need for rotary converters. Many DC customers converted to AC power, and on-site solid-state DC rectifiers were used to power the remaining DC equipment from the AC supply.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1610496",
"title": "Economic history of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Late 19th century.:Commerce, industry and agriculture.:Electric lights and electric street railways.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 265,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 265,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "Using DC placed severe restrictions on the distance power could be transmitted due to power losses. With DC there was no way to transform power to high voltages, which would have reduced the current and lowered the transmission losses. Power can be safely generated to about 2000 volts, but this is a dangerous voltage for household use. With alternating current voltage can be changed up or down using a transformer. AC power began being widely introduced in the 1890s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37935577",
"title": "HVDC converter",
"section": "Section::::Electromechanical converters.:Line-commutated converters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "In a line-commutated converter, the DC current does not change direction; it flows through a large inductance and can be considered almost constant. On the AC side, the converter behaves approximately as a current source, injecting both grid-frequency and harmonic currents into the AC network. For this reason, a line-commutated converter for HVDC is also considered as a \"current-source converter\". Because the direction of current cannot be varied, reversal of the direction of power flow (where required) is achieved by reversing the polarity of DC voltage at both stations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18634614",
"title": "Active rectification",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "Using active rectification to implement AC/DC conversion allows a design to undergo further improvements (with more complexity) to achieve an active power factor correction, which forces the current waveform of the AC source to follow the voltage waveform, eliminating reactive currents and allowing the total system to achieve greater efficiency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
as54vl
|
if it takes about 8 minutes for sunlight to reach earth doesn’t that mean that it’s true position in the sky is 8 minutes ahead?
|
[
{
"answer": "EDIT: sorry, the first thing you said is not entirely true. The second is fine.\n\nThe sun's position in the sky is due to the rotation of the earth, much more than the orbit around the sun + difference from the speed of light. If the light reached us instantly, the sun would be an imperceptible fraction further forward or back (not sure which, need someone smarter). But it wouldn't be 8 minutes worth of rotation ahead in the sky.\n\nThe other thing you said is still true, yes some or even all of the stars we see could be dead and we won't know about it until the light gets here. The sun could disappear right now and you wouldn't know for 8 minutes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes and yes, most of the starts we see are probably dead and or in different point in the sky by now. Also if the sun exploded or just went out we wouldn’t know for 8 minutes ish ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Whose position in the sky? The Sun's? We're orbiting the Sun, it's mostly \"fixed in the sky\" as far as position, and its apparent movement (sunrise, noon, sunset, etc.) is because of the Earth's rotation, so our \"Sun position\" observation would be instantaneous.\n\nStars that are far away COULD be dead, yes, but their light is traveling still. We see them as they were billions of years ago.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "short answer - yes, to both questions\n\nto add a bit more, when the sun goes down, due to the 8(ish) minute delay and refraction in the atmosphere, the sun's position is actually just below the horizon when it appears to be just touching it\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "328341",
"title": "49th parallel north",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "From a point on the ground at this latitude, the sun is above the horizon for 16 hours, 12 minutes during the summer solstice and 8 hours, 14 minutes during the winter solstice This latitude also roughly corresponds to the minimum latitude in which astronomical twilight can last all night near the summer solstice. Slightly less than 1/8 of the Earth's surface is north of the 49th parallel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18178423",
"title": "30th parallel south",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "At this latitude the sun is visible for 14 hours, 5 minutes during the December solstice and 10 hours, 13 minutes during the June solstice. On December 21, the sun is at 83.83 degrees up in the sky and at 36.17 degrees on June 21.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9264",
"title": "Ecliptic",
"section": "Section::::Sun's apparent motion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "Because Earth takes one year to orbit the Sun, the apparent position of the Sun takes one year to make a complete circuit of the ecliptic. With slightly more than 365 days in one year, the Sun moves a little less than 1° eastward every day. This small difference in the Sun's position against the stars causes any particular spot on Earth's surface to catch up with (and stand directly north or south of) the Sun about four minutes later each day than it would if Earth would not orbit; a day on Earth is therefore 24 hours long rather than the approximately 23-hour 56-minute sidereal day. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18180838",
"title": "60th parallel south",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "At this latitude the sun is visible for 18 hours, 52 minutes during the summer solstice and 5 hours, 52 minutes during the winter solstice. On December 21, the sun is at 53.83 degrees up in the sky and 6.17 degrees on June 21.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5672031",
"title": "Orbit of the Moon",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:Inclination.:Inclination to the equator and lunar standstill.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "At higher latitudes, there will be a period of at least one day each month when the Moon does not rise, but there will also be a period of at least one day each month when the Moon does not set. This is similar to the seasonal behaviour of the Sun, but with a period of 27.2 days instead of 365 days. Note that a point on the Moon can actually be visible when it is about 34 arc minutes below the horizon, due to atmospheric refraction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18180788",
"title": "50th parallel south",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "At this latitude the sun is visible for 16 hours, 22 minutes during the December solstice and 8 hours, 4 minutes during the June solstice. On December 21, the sun is at 63.83 degrees in the sky and on June 21, the sun is at 16.17 degrees in the sky.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28483",
"title": "Solstice",
"section": "Section::::Cultural aspects.:Solstice determination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "In 2012, the journal DIO found that accuracy of one or two hours with balanced errors can be attained by observing the Sun's equal altitudes about S = twenty degrees (or d = about 20 days) before and after the summer solstice because the average of the two times will be early by q arc minutes where q is (πe cosA)/3 times the square of S in degrees (e = earth orbit eccentricity, A = earth's perihelion or Sun's apogee), and the noise in the result will be about 41 hours divided by d if the eye's sharpness is taken as one arc minute.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
yadhz
|
what are they talking about when they say a room or building has 'great acoustics'? how do you determine if a room has great acoustics?
|
[
{
"answer": "When someone makes noise, a sound wave travels from them to your ear, and that's how you hear it.\n\nMaybe you're picturing a laser-beam type wave, shooting from the sound source to your ear. If you could see it though, it would actually look more like a ripple on a lake, traveling outward in every direction from the source.\n\nDid you ever wonder how come you can hear a noise even if you can't see what made it? Sound can travel around corners and such, can't it? That's because sound waves can bounce almost every surface - especially hard ones - and go in new directions.\n\nSo now imagine you're in a room with another person and they make noise. This will all happen very fast - too fast maybe to consciously hear - but first you will hear that part of the ripple that happened to be in line with your ear. Then you'll hear the reflections of the parts of the ripple that hit the wall behind you or to your sides and are coming back your direction now. (And if you're closer to, say, the back wall, that reflection will reach your ear \\*just\\* before the side wall reflections). Then you'll hear further and fainter reflections, maybe a few that bounced off three or four surfaces before reaching your ear.\n\nThis all happens super-fast. But the overall effect is called \"reverberation\" and it can vary a lot.\n\nLet's imagine you're in a tiny tiled room, like a bathroom. If someone makes a loud noise there'll be a LOT of reflections coming at your ear very quickly after the source sound happenes. The reverberation you'll get will be ringy and harsh.\n\nOr let's imagine you're in a big cathedral. The source noise will be far away and by the time it reaches you will be blended with its own reflections, but also some other reflections will only reach you after a long bouncing journey. The reverberation will be blurry and booming.\n\n'Great acoustics' is when the sensation you get is clarity and pleasantness. There's minimal interference and the reverberation has a unique and warm effect on the raw source sound. Room shape, material surfaces, and the position of the source sound (and the listener's ear - that's why some seats cost more in fancy concert halls) all make a big difference to the sound.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "\"Great acoustics\" can be relative to what you're trying to accomplish. In recording studios, you'll notice a lot of rugs/blankets draped over things, etc. This is to absorb sound so the recording is in its most basic form and you can digitally manipulate it rather than having to have the singer/musician do it multiple times.\n\nSometimes, a lot of echo is desirable. In my high school there was a two-floor staircase that was really narrow. It was made completely of marble (school built in the 50's) or something similar. It echoed a *ton*. This was great in my all-male choir class. ~20 of us would line up in this staircase and sing 8 and 16 part harmonies. The echo allowed you to hear your own part really well and how it interacted with everyone else's part.\n\nIn concert halls there's a delicate balance to this. If the hall was completely dead, the orchestra/symphony/band/choir would sound really small and thin. You can definitely tell the difference as a player, too. If you're really in tune and the hall/room is built well you'll be able to hear overtones (notes created by your notes being in tune) more clearly than you would in \"dead\" rooms.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "'Good' acoustics will depend on the purpose of a room. The accoustics are considered good if you can hear what you want to.\n\nListening to a choir in a cathedral is good. The acoustics of the room in this case are created by the high ceiling and exposed stone. This means that sound bounces a lot, so you get lots of echo. This is good for choral music; rhe sound of the choir really fills the cathedral and you can't even hear that guy 10 rows forward that keeps coughing.\n\nNow, fill the same cathedral with tables and chairs and serve dinner. It's horrible acoustics! The sound of cutlery hitting plates is bouncing all over the place, and is so loud you can barely hear the other people at you table. You raise your voice to try and be heard, as does everyone else just making it even noisier and more difficult to hear what you want. This does not make for a pleasant dinner.\n\nLet's do the same tests in a big restaurant. The restaurant has a low ceiling, carpet, curtains, and lots of pictures on the walls. The choir sounds 'flat'. They can't make their sound fill the room, and people at the back can't really hear them very well. However, when dinner is served, people are able to hold conversations without raising their voices.\n\nI should point out that different types of music require different accoustics. Set up a rock band in the cathedral and it will sound horrible because all the bouncing sound makes it really hard to actually hear the song clearly.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1028926",
"title": "Architectural acoustics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"end_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "Architectural acoustics (also known as room acoustics and building acoustics) is the science and engineering of achieving a good sound within a building and is a branch of acoustical engineering. The first application of modern scientific methods to architectural acoustics was carried out by Wallace Sabine in the Fogg Museum lecture room who then applied his new found knowledge to the design of Symphony Hall, Boston.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "299813",
"title": "Acoustical engineering",
"section": "Section::::Subdisciplines.:Architectural acoustics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "Architectural acoustics (also known as building acoustics) is the science and engineering of achieving a good sound within a building. Architectural acoustics can be about achieving good speech intelligibility in a theatre, restaurant or railway station, enhancing the quality of music in a concert hall or recording studio, or suppressing noise to make offices and homes more productive and pleasant places to work and live. Architectural acoustic design is usually done by acoustic consultants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1198",
"title": "Acoustics",
"section": "Section::::Subdisciplines.:Architectural acoustics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "Architectural acoustics (also known as building acoustics) involves the scientific understanding of how to achieve good sound within a building. It typically involves the study of speech intelligibility, speech privacy, music quality, and vibration reduction in the built environment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "145372",
"title": "Audiophile",
"section": "Section::::Audio playback components.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "The interaction between the loudspeakers and the room (room acoustics) plays an important part in sound quality. Sound vibrations are reflected from walls, floor and ceiling, and are affected by the contents of the room. Room dimensions can create standing waves at particular (usually low) frequencies. There are devices and materials for room treatment that affect sound quality. Soft materials, such as draperies and carpets, can absorb higher frequencies, whereas hard walls and floors can cause excess reverberation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21189305",
"title": "Audio engineer",
"section": "Section::::Research and development.:Sub-disciplines.:Architectural acoustics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "Architectural acoustics is the science and engineering of achieving a good sound within a room. For audio engineers, architectural acoustics can be about achieving good speech intelligibility in a stadium or enhancing the quality of music in a theatre. Architectural Acoustic design is usually done by acoustic consultants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1028926",
"title": "Architectural acoustics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "Architectural acoustics can be about achieving good speech intelligibility in a theatre, restaurant or railway station, enhancing the quality of music in a concert hall or recording studio, or suppressing noise to make offices and homes more productive and pleasant places to work and live in. Architectural acoustic design is usually done by acoustic consultants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4569244",
"title": "Room modes",
"section": "Section::::Minimizing the effect of room resonances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "If a room is being constructed, it is possible to choose room dimensions for which its resonances are less audible. This is done by ensuring that multiple room resonances are not at similar frequencies. For example a cubic room would exhibit three resonances at the same frequency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
49me1r
|
Did FDR let Pearl Harbor happen? Was there knowledge that A, the attack was going to happen, and B, when?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hey there this has come up before!\n\nWould point you towards 2 of my previous answers on the subject: _URL_1_\n\n_URL_0_\n\nIt boils down to a combination of things people looking back to say \"conspiracy!\".\n\nThe big one is that it is much easier to say it was all planned, then that 50 years of rising geopolitical and racial tensions set into motion giant nations and bureaucracies whose eventual inevitable conclusion would be conflict in some sort. Frankly it is a testament to diplomacy that the war was held off as long as it was, because professionals on both sides of the ocean knew it was coming, and both navies had trained for generations to fight it, and according to some interpretations geopolitcs of the region made it a foregone conclusion base don both nation's goals.\n\nBut one major point I would use to say it is ridiculous that FDR had such advance knowledge of the attack and was of a mind to let it happen is he was doing the most damage he could to the Pacific Fleet. It was sheer coincidence that bad weather delayed *Enterprise* in returning or you could have added a carrier and a gaggle of escorts to the toll. \n\nBut the Battle Line was the real kicker. FDR was a Navy man at heart, had been Assistant Secretary in WW1, LOVED the Navy with all his heart, and also knew how it was planned on fighting Japan, with the battleships then settling into the mud of Pearl Harbor. \n\nItd be like going looking for a fight and then intentionally letting the first punch break your arm, you just lost the tool you planned on using to hit back with! ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24910700",
"title": "Duško Popov",
"section": "Section::::World War II.:Allegations regarding Pearl Harbor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "During a televised interview, Duško Popov related having informed the FBI on 12 August, 1941, of the impending attack on Pearl Harbor. Either the FBI chief J. Edgar Hoover did not report this fact to his superiors, or they, for reasons of their own, took no action. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25220674",
"title": "James Rusbridger",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Betrayal at Pearl Harbor:\" Churchill concealed warnings about Pearl Harbor from Roosevelt in order to get America in the war. But In a 1991 interview on Japanese television his co-author Eric Nave \"repudiated a large slice of what Rusbridger had written, calling it speculation.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2127720",
"title": "Day of Deceit",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "Day of Deceit: The Truth About FDR and Pearl Harbor is a book by Robert Stinnett. It alleges that Franklin Roosevelt and his administration deliberately provoked and allowed the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor to bring the United States into World War II. Stinnett argues that the attacking fleet was detected by radio and intelligence intercepts, but the information was deliberately withheld from Admiral Husband E. Kimmel, the commander of the Pacific Fleet at that time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48272849",
"title": "Joint Committee on the Investigation of the Pearl Harbor Attack",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "The Joint Committee on the Investigation of the Pearl Harbor Attack, also known as The Pearl Harbor Committee, was a committee of members of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives formed during the 79th United States Congress after World War II to investigate the causes of the 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor, and possible preventative measures against future attacks. The resolution for the formation of this committee passed in the Senate on September 6, 1945, and in the House on September 11, 1945. The final report of the committee issued on June 20, 1946.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49285957",
"title": "January 1942",
"section": "Section::::January 24, 1942 (Saturday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 171,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 171,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "BULLET::::- A committee assigned by President Roosevelt on December 18, 1941 to investigate the Pearl Harbor attack issued its report, putting the blame on Admiral Husband E. Kimmel and Lieutenant General Walter Short for failing to coordinate their defenses appropriately or taking measures reasonably required in the light of the warnings they had been given. Both men would receive death threats as a result of the report.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3111654",
"title": "Infamy Speech",
"section": "Section::::Impact and legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 820,
"text": "Roosevelt's framing of the Pearl Harbor attack became, in effect, the standard American narrative of the events of December 7, 1941. Hollywood enthusiastically adopted the narrative in a number of war films. \"Wake Island\", the Academy Award-winning \"Air Force\" and the films \"Man from Frisco\" (1944), and \"Betrayal from the East\" (1945), all included actual radio reports of the pre-December 7 negotiations with the Japanese, reinforcing the message of enemy duplicity. \"Across the Pacific\" (1942), \"Salute to the Marines\" (1943), and \"Spy Ship\" (1942), used a similar device, relating the progress of US–Japanese relations through newspaper headlines. The theme of American innocence betrayed was also frequently depicted on screen, the melodramatic aspects of the narrative lending themselves naturally to the movies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5365615",
"title": "James Wolfenden",
"section": "Section::::8th term.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "On September 22, Roosevelt, in replying to Republican charges about advance knowledge within the administration regarding the attack on Pearl Harbor, said anyone with such knowledge should notify the military boards who were conducting investigations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1xgzcm
|
rutherford's nuclear atom
|
[
{
"answer": "I can't summarize it better than the Wikipedia article, but I'd be happy to answer any more *specific* questions you have.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The atomic model prior to Rutherford was that of J.J. Thomson. Thomson's atom was made entirely out of electrons (the first sub-atomic particle identified) and held together by a diffuse positive force. \n\nRutherford's students Geiger and Marsden did an experiment where they shot alpha particles (a \"heavy\" form of radiation, now known to be helium nuclei) at a very thin gold foil. Most of the radiation went right through — which would be expected with Thomson's model. But sometimes some of it shot straight back again, \"reflecting\" off of the foil. This was incompatible with Thomson's model.\n\nRutherford proposed that this showed that Thomson's model was wrong. Instead of being a more or less homogenous soup of electrons and positive charge, the atom for Rutherford had a small, very dense core around which tiny electrons revolved like satellites. This would explain the Geiger-Marsden results — most of the time the alpha particles were just going through the electrons and thus passing through, but sometimes they struck the cores and were scattered backwards.\n\nThere were problems with Rutherford's model. He understood the rotating electrons in a classical way, which would mean that they ought to be losing energy over time. Bohr's atom rectified this problem by proposing that electrons worked in a quantum fashion. De Broglie gave better meaning to this by showing that the quantum orbits of Bohr corresponded to wave frequencies, meaning that the electron was in fact a matter-wave. Schrödinger worked out the full quantum wave mechanics of electrons and showed how they were in fact probability waves. Chadwick eventually showed that the nucleus contained not only positively-charged protons, but neutrally-charged neutrons as well. And so on.\n\nRutherford's atom was closer to the truth than Thomson's, but still fairly far from the modern understanding of the atomic model.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3917813",
"title": "Rutherford model",
"section": "Section::::Experimental basis for the model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "Rutherford presented his own physical model for subatomic structure, as an interpretation for the unexpected experimental results. In it, the atom is made up of a central charge (this is the modern atomic nucleus, though Rutherford did not use the term \"nucleus\" in his paper) surrounded by a cloud of (presumably) orbiting electrons. In this May 1911 paper, Rutherford only committed himself to a small central region of very high positive or negative charge in the atom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "3559678",
"title": "Rutherford (unit)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "The rutherford (symbol Rd) is a non-SI unit of radioactive decay. It is defined as the activity of a quantity of radioactive material in which one million nuclei decay per second. It is therefore equivalent to one megabecquerel, and one becquerel equals one microrutherford. One rutherford is equivalent to 2.703 × 10 curie.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3917813",
"title": "Rutherford model",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 600,
"text": "The Rutherford model was devised by Ernest Rutherford to describe an atom. Rutherford directed the Geiger–Marsden experiment in 1909 which suggested, upon Rutherford's 1911 analysis, that J. J. Thomson's plum pudding model of the atom was incorrect. Rutherford's new model for the atom, based on the experimental results, contained new features of a relatively high central charge concentrated into a very small volume in comparison to the rest of the atom and with this central volume also containing the bulk of the atomic mass of the atom. This region would be known as the \"nucleus\" of the atom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1416046",
"title": "History of chemistry",
"section": "Section::::19th century.:Late 19th century.:Ernest Rutherford.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 126,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 126,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "New Zealand-born chemist and physicist Ernest Rutherford is considered to be \"the father of nuclear physics.\" Rutherford is best known for devising the names alpha, beta, and gamma to classify various forms of radioactive \"rays\" which were poorly understood at his time (alpha and beta rays are particle beams, while gamma rays are a form of high-energy electromagnetic radiation). Rutherford deflected alpha rays with both electric and magnetic fields in 1903. Working with Frederick Soddy, Rutherford explained that radioactivity is due to the transmutation of elements, now known to involve nuclear reactions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9603",
"title": "Ernest Rutherford",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.:Nuclear physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 962,
"text": "Rutherford's research, and work done under him as laboratory director, established the nuclear structure of the atom and the essential nature of radioactive decay as a nuclear process. Patrick Blackett, a research fellow working under Rutherford, using natural alpha particles, demonstrated \"induced\" nuclear transmutation. Rutherford's team later, using protons from an accelerator, demonstrated \"artificially-induced\" nuclear reactions and transmutation. He is known as the father of nuclear physics. Rutherford died too early to see Leó Szilárd's idea of controlled nuclear chain reactions come into being. However, a speech of Rutherford's about his artificially-induced transmutation in lithium, printed in 12 September 1933 London paper \"The Times\", was reported by Szilárd to have been his inspiration for thinking of the possibility of a controlled energy-producing nuclear chain reaction. Szilard had this idea while walking in London, on the same day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "9603",
"title": "Ernest Rutherford",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "and thereby pioneered the Rutherford model of the atom, through his discovery and interpretation of Rutherford scattering by the gold foil experiment of Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden. He performed the first artificially induced nuclear reaction in 1917 in experiments where nitrogen nuclei were bombarded with alpha particles. As a result, he discovered the emission of a subatomic particle which, in 1919, he called the \"hydrogen atom\" but, in 1920, he more accurately named the proton. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21787470",
"title": "Alpha particle",
"section": "Section::::History of discovery and use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 659,
"text": "Rutherford went on to use alpha particles to accidentally produce what he later understood as a directed nuclear transmutation of one element to another, in 1917. Transmutation of elements from one to another had been understood since 1901 as a result of natural radioactive decay, but when Rutherford projected alpha particles from alpha decay into air, he discovered this produced a new type of radiation which proved to be hydrogen nuclei (Rutherford named these protons). Further experimentation showed the protons to be coming from the nitrogen component of air, and the reaction was deduced to be a transmutation of nitrogen into oxygen in the reaction\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2n9ko8
|
why do we not use airships nowadays? shouldn't there be a solution to the explosive problem by now?
|
[
{
"answer": "They'd be pretty slow compared to airplanes, cars, trains, basically any other modern method of travel. It would be such a novelty/niche market that it'd probably be hard to turn a profit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is a solution to the explosive problem, use helium instead of hydrogen. Its less efficient as a lifting gas but only slightly.\n\nThe big problem with airships is thier relative flimsyness, big airships had a horrible habit of breaking apart and crashing, even without going boom. They tend to be very weather dependent, they also need large ground crews to land and take off.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Don't listen to anyone here, they're all morons who can't do a cursory google before posting. Search for \"aerocraft\". You'll find a shit ton of companies trying to be first in the market of new rigid frame lighter than air vessels.\n\nWhy? Because they're cheap and extremely versatile. Lighter than air craft have huge lifting power and superior fuel efficiency than standard truck freight delivery. Unlike fixed wing aircraft, you can land a vessel right next to your factory, your grocery store, your warehouse, WHATEVER, and deliver. And while trains are extremely cheap to move bulk freight, they can only go so far as the nearest freight depot, and have to be transferred for local delivery. The cost of building the infrastructure for rail delivery everywhere is prohibitively expensive, and the cost of trains over short distances is actually more expensive than other means.\n\nSlow? An average speed of 80 mph is slow? And let us not forget, trucks are limited as to how they get to their destination because they're at the mercy of where the roads go. An aerocraft moving at 80 mph can travel \"as the crow flies\", point to point.\n\nSo trains, trucks, ships, and aircraft all have their place in logistics, but there is definitely a market for aerocrafts that promises bulk freight delivery at extremely competitive costs and times.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There never actually was an 'explosion problem' with airships even when they did commonly use hydrogen. Yes, this had its hazards compared to using the more expensive helium and that had to be managed, but statistically airships to this day retain a higher safety record than fixed wing aircraft. The chief problem for the evolution of the airship was its characterization as a 'terror weapon' after WWI and the systematic dismantling of most of the world's fleet of them, which led to a gap in its technology advance. Aircraft development has long been dominated by military applications and ultimately the airship, despite it's reputation, proved not particularly effective as a weapon because of low speed, weather susceptibility, and carrying capacity. Generally, aircraft technology that doesn't prove to be a good weapon has a hard time being financed. \n\nHowever, it's wrong to say that it was obsolesced because airships retain capabilities impossible for other aircraft, including extreme altitude capability, range, and energy efficiency. A 747 uses as much fuel taxiing on the runway before takeoff as the Hindenburg would use traveling from New York to Los Angeles. Today we have the means to make electric driven airships powered by photovoltaics that can travel non-stop around the world indefinitely at several times the speed of container ships. They can operate in VTOL and reach locations lacking in infrastructure. Their operational economy of scale is lower than other aircraft, which means that you can justify the operation of an intercontinental airship on a fraction of the transit volume needed to sustain the existence of a jet airliner. This makes it possible to provide transportation to places fixed wing aircraft can never hope to support economically. Telecommunications aerostats--airships designed for high altitude stationary use--can compete directly against satellites in cost-performance, supporting vast amounts of on-board solar power and being perpetually upgradeable. Airships have often been suggested for use as skycranes and in the future could take the role of gigantic 3D printers. Though it remains speculation at present, some suggest that future high performance materials may allow the creation of airships using no lift gasses all, relying on simply an internal vacuum for lift like a submarine in air. Its these capabilities that keep interest in airships going despite an ingrained cultural resistance in the aerospace community. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "672980",
"title": "Zeppelin NT",
"section": "Section::::Design.:Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 856,
"text": "The Zeppelin NT, being designed more than 60 years after the last generation of Zeppelins were built as well as making use of advances in material science and computer-aided design, has been claimed to overcome some of the typical disadvantages of airships, such as maneuverability, safety, and economics. In particular, the propulsion system offers significantly increased safety. In standard operations with a maximum payload, the gas cells do not create enough buoyancy to make the whole ship \"lighter-than-air.\" The negative buoyancy is overcome with the application of engine power. The buoyancy can change when traveling with a reduced payload and partially emptied fuel tanks, but typically the Zeppelin NT starts a journey with a net downward force of about ; on long trips, the airship can become lighter–than–air if much of its fuel is consumed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2221267",
"title": "Hybrid airship",
"section": "Section::::Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "Conventional airships have low operating costs because they need no engine power to remain airborne, but are limited in several ways, including low payload/volume ratios and low speeds. Additionally, ground handling of an airship can be difficult. Because it is floating, in even a light breeze it is susceptible to wind buffeting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58005",
"title": "Airship",
"section": "Section::::Current design projects.:Airships in space exploration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 163,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 163,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "Airships have been proposed as a potential cheap alternative to surface rocket launches for achieving Earth orbit. JP Aerospace have proposed the Airship to Orbit project, which intends to float a multi-stage airship up to mesospheric altitudes of 55 km (180,000 ft) and then use ion propulsion to accelerate to orbital speed. At these heights, air resistance would not be a significant problem for achieving such speeds. The company has not yet built any of the three stages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58005",
"title": "Airship",
"section": "Section::::History.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "While Germany determined that airships were obsolete for military purposes in the coming war and concentrated on the development of aeroplanes, the United States pursued a program of military airship construction even though it had not developed a clear military doctrine for airship use. When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941, bringing the United States into World War II, the U.S. Navy had 10 nonrigid airships:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "58005",
"title": "Airship",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 820,
"text": "Airships were the first aircraft capable of controlled powered flight, and were most commonly used before the 1940s; their use decreased over time as their capabilities were surpassed by those of aeroplanes. Their decline was accelerated by a series of high-profile accidents, including the 1930 crash and burning of British \"R101\" in France, the 1933 and 1935 storm-related crashes of the twin airborne aircraft carrier U.S. Navy helium-filled rigids, the and USS \"Macon\" respectively, and the 1937 burning of the German hydrogen-filled \"Hindenburg\". From the 1960s, helium airships have been used in applications where the ability to hover in one place for an extended period outweighs the need for speed and manoeuvrability, such as advertising, tourism, camera platforms, geological surveys, and aerial observation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1011776",
"title": "Hangar",
"section": "Section::::Airship hangars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 868,
"text": "Airship hangars or airship sheds are generally larger than conventional aircraft hangars, particularly in height. Most early airships used hydrogen gas to provide them with sufficient buoyancy for flight, so their hangars had to provide protection from stray sparks to keep the gas from exploding. Hangars that held several airships were at risk from chain-reaction explosions. For this reason, most hangars for hydrogen-based airships were built to house only one or two such craft. During the \"Golden Age\" of airship travel from 1900, mooring masts and sheds were constructed to build and house airships. The British government built a shed in Karachi for the R101, the Brazilian government built one in Rio de Janeiro, the for the German Zeppelins and the US government constructed Moffett Field, Akron, Ohio and Lakehurst Naval Air Station, Lakehurst, New Jersey.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12385122",
"title": "Semi-rigid airship",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "In the first decade of the twentieth century, semi-rigid airships were considered more suitable for military use because, unlike rigid airships, they could be deflated, stored and transported by land or by sea. Non-rigid airships had a limited lifting capacity due to the strength limitations of the envelope and rigging materials then in use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1selem
|
In the US during the 1800s, was it common for slaves to go insane?
|
[
{
"answer": "There was just a thread discussing this a couple of weeks ago, hopefully you can find some answers here: \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10899216",
"title": "History of Wicca",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Early modern witch trials.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 624,
"text": "During the 16th and 17th centuries, a widespread moral panic took place across Europe and the American colonies. The social and political turmoil following periods of widespread crop failure, war, and disease, led to numerous men and women being accused of practicing malevolant witchcraft, which resulted in the witch trials in the early modern period. The accused were put on trial and alleged to be witches who worshiped the Devil and committed acts of diabolism that included the cannibalism of children and desecration of the Eucharist. Between 40,000 and 60,000 people were executed for witchcraft during this period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3620019",
"title": "1840 United States Census",
"section": "Section::::Controversy over statistics for mental illness among Northern blacks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "The 1840 Census was the first that attempted to count Americans who were \"insane\" or \"idiotic\". Published results of the census indicated that alarming numbers of black persons living in non-slaveholding States were mentally ill, in striking contrast to the corresponding figures for slaveholding States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17050586",
"title": "Mental health in Singapore during the colonial period",
"section": "Section::::The first hospital for the mentally ill (1841–1928).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "Throughout the colonial period, \"isolation of the insane with proper justification was then thought necessary and custodial care was the mainstay of the day\". Treatments were administered under the belief that mental illness was caused by \"a foreign body that had to be expelled from the body\". Hence, all lunatics were forced to take purgatives which induced diarrhoea and vomiting once every month, regardless of their physical condition. For those who were \"under peculiar excitement\" (Ng 2001a, p. 18), \"soothing medicines\" (Ng 2001a, p. 18) were given and they were locked in their cells without restraints.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40315776",
"title": "A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom",
"section": "Section::::Content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "As early as the 11th century there are accounts of diabolic possession taking the form of epidemics of raving, dancing and convulsions, particularly among women and children. This became pronounced at the end of the 14th century after the Black Death. In the 16th century Paracelsus suggested it might be a physical disease, but in the 17th there were further outbreaks such as the Loudun possessions and those leading to the witch trials at Salem and Würzburg. Later outbreaks were dispersed by more sceptical and humane means.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42179285",
"title": "Run, Nigger, Run",
"section": "Section::::History and documentation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "In the mid-19th century, black slaves were not allowed off their masters' plantations without a pass, for fear that they would rise against their white owners; such uprisings had occurred before, such as the one led by Nat Turner in 1831. However, it remained common for slaves to slip away from the plantations to visit friends elsewhere. If caught, running from the slave patrols was considered better than attempting to explain oneself and facing the whip. This social phenomenon led the slaves to create a variety of songs regarding the patrols and slaves' attempts to escape them. One such song is \"Run, Nigger, Run\", which was sung on plantations in much of the Southern United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1913416",
"title": "Chatham Manor",
"section": "Section::::Slavery at Chatham.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "In January 1805, a number of Chatham slaves rebelled after an overseer ordered slaves back to work at what they considered was too soon after the Christmas holidays. The slaves overpowered and whipped their overseer and four others who tried to force them back to work. An armed posse put down the rebellion and punished those involved. One black man was executed, two died while trying to escape, and two others were deported, perhaps to a slave colony in the Caribbean, or to Louisiana.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28660168",
"title": "Sarah Basset",
"section": "Section::::Life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "During the late 1720s, Bermuda's elite began making claims of being victims of poison attacks by their slaves. In 1730, Thomas Foster, his spouse Sarah Foster, and a household slave, Nancey, were taken ill. On 2 June, the investigation into the elderly enslaved life of Sarah Bassett began, possibly Bermuda's most notorious case pertaining to an attempted murder of a slaveholder by a slave.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
93hsq3
|
How does the smoke, heat and debris from wildfires affect cloud and weather systems?
|
[
{
"answer": "Most areas have regular wind patterns that are determined by the heating of air. Hot air rises, and cold air sinks. Air, like most other things, likes to move from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. When hot air rises, the pressure beneath that air decreases, so surrounding air masses that are under pressure move into these areas. That’s how you get wind. A wildfire produces a lot of heat, which causes the air around it to rise. This can disrupt the regular wind patterns in an area and as a result makes predicting the movement of a wildfire incredibly difficult. It’s one of the reasons the current wildfire in California is so hard to deal with.\n\n\nWildfires also have the ability to affect cloud formation. More specifically, because of the heat’s effect on the water capacity of the air, and the emission of smoke/debris, wildfires can cause clouds to form. Hot air can hold more water than cold air, so when a wildfire burns it increases the air’s ability to hold water. Also because of the heat, water is more likely to evaporate from the ground and the plants near the fire. So the wildfire is putting more water into the air, which is needed to form clouds. Another thing that you need to form clouds is matter. Water droplets can’t form without something for water vapor to condense onto. They need some kind of material like, in the case of wildfires, smoke and debris. Wildfires produce a ton of matter that is perfect for water to condense onto. Since wildfires put a lot of water and debris into the air, this can lead to cloud formation. In some cases, the clouds can become large and heavy enough to rain, which can extinguish the fire.\n\n\nI hope this helps! I would be happy to answer any other questions if you have them. :)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "73231",
"title": "Weather forecasting",
"section": "Section::::Specialist forecasting.:Forestry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "Weather forecasting of wind, precipitations and humidity is essential for preventing and controlling wildfires. Different indices, like the \"Forest fire weather index\" and the \"Haines Index\", have been developed to predict the areas more at risk to experience fire from natural or human causes. Conditions for the development of harmful insects can be predicted by forecasting the evolution of weather, too.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11869917",
"title": "Southeast Asian haze",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Fire damage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "Haze fires can cause many kinds of damage that are local as well as transboundary. These include loss of direct and indirect forest benefits, timber, agricultural products and biodiversity. The fires also incur significant firefighting costs and carbon release to the atmosphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56106",
"title": "Wildfire",
"section": "Section::::Physical properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "Especially large wildfires may affect air currents in their immediate vicinities by the stack effect: air rises as it is heated, and large wildfires create powerful updrafts that will draw in new, cooler air from surrounding areas in thermal columns. Great vertical differences in temperature and humidity encourage pyrocumulus clouds, strong winds, and fire whirls with the force of tornadoes at speeds of more than . Rapid rates of spread, prolific crowning or spotting, the presence of fire whirls, and strong convection columns signify extreme conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7004443",
"title": "Arctic haze",
"section": "Section::::Origin of pollutants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 758,
"text": "Ship emissions, mercury, aluminium, vanadium, manganese, and aerosol and ozone pollutants are many examples of the pollution that is affecting this atmosphere, but the smoke from forest fires is not a significant contributor. Some of those pollutants figure among environmental effects of coal burning. Due to low deposition rates, these pollutants are not yet having adverse effects on people or animals. Different pollutants actually represent different colors of haze. Dr. Shaw discovered in 1976 that the yellowish haze is from dust storms in China and Mongolia. The particles were carried polewards by unusual air currents. The trapped particles were dark gray the next year he took a sample. That was caused by a heavy amount of industrial pollutants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20115268",
"title": "Wildfire modeling",
"section": "Section::::Environmental factors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "Weather influences fire through wind and moisture. Wind increases the fire spread in the wind direction, higher temperature makes the fire burn faster, while higher relative humidity, and precipitation (rain or snow) may slow it down or extinguish it altogether. Weather involving fast wind changes can be particularly dangerous, since they can suddenly change the fire direction and behavior. Such weather includes cold fronts, foehn winds, thunderstorm downdrafts, sea and land breeze, and diurnal slope winds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20115268",
"title": "Wildfire modeling",
"section": "Section::::Environmental factors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "It has long been recognized that \"fires create their own weather.\" That is, the heat and moisture created by the fire feed back into the atmosphere, creating intense winds that drive the fire behavior. The heat produced by the wildfire changes the temperature of the atmosphere and creates strong updrafts, which can change the direction of surface winds. The water vapor released by the fire changes the moisture balance of the atmosphere. The water vapor can be carried away, where the latent heat stored in the vapor is released through condensation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "391434",
"title": "Impact winter",
"section": "Section::::Possible mechanisms.:Multiple firestorms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 814,
"text": "In combination with the initial debris ejected into the atmosphere, if the impactor is extremely large ( or more), like the K/T boundary impactor (estimated ), there might be the ignition of multiple fire storms, possibly with a global reach into every dense, and therefore firestorm prone, forest. These wood fires might release enough amounts of water vapor, ash, soot, tar and carbon dioxide into the atmosphere to perturb the climate on their own, and cause the pulverized rock dust cloud blocking the sun to last longer. Alternatively it could cause it to last much shorter, as there would be more water vapor for the rocky aerosol particles to form cloud condensation nuclei. If it causes the dust cloud to last longer, it would prolong the Earth's cooling time, possibly causing thicker ice sheets to form.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ofzdr
|
why do we refer the secretary of state as mr. secretary, but never the ceo of microsoft as mr. ceo?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because of tradition which was developed to divide society into classes dating centuries back and how that contrasted with the bourgeois revolution in the XVIII century. The titles mean to convey someone's social position and indicate whether the interlocutor is positioned above or beneath in social rank.\n\nAsk yourself why we call monarchs \"your highness\", bishops and ambassadors \"your excellency\" and judges \"your honor\". It is all to do with the notion that position or birth makes someone stand higher or lower on the social ladder. Since republican governments inherited a lot from their monarchical predecessors the notion that state officials get honorary titles was understood as sign of prestige. Consider the famous anecdote about what title the US president was supposed to initially have. That however applies only to officials with a position. Note again that your regular clerk in the local government branch isn't Mr. Government Worker - although in some countries even entry-level staff get titles.\n\nCEO of companies are purely functional titles which describe their role i the company. They are in effect job descriptions and not position titles and as such differ in absolutely nothing from your entry level \"sales assistants\" or \"assistant regional managers\". There is some use for a honorary title during a board meeting: \"chairman\" and \"the board\" and some older companies - especially in Europe - had a \"president\". Modern high-tech companies are *yet* too formally egalitarian to do something like that regardless of the earnings and actual practical hierarchy. Notice I said *yet*. \n\nThose old European companies used to start as little manufacturing plants or shops where a bunch of \"burgers\" (middle-class town dwellers) would set up a company to earn some money. They would go into partnerships with nobles (people with titles) and since they couldn't own titles themselves and most of the were too poor or uninfluential to buy one or marry into a family they insisted on an egalitarian approach. That changed in the late XIX century when after 100 years of capitalist/industrial revolution the balance of power shifted in their favour but the language was already conditioned to the new title-less approach.\n\nHowever that also depended on the society in which the new institution developed. In Germany and Britain where social class was still strong and entrenched the language and social structure was less formal because it still operated in parallel to the old social class system. In Germany the nobility was eliminated from the primary role in society only after WW1 and in Britain only after WW2. In France where the French revolution wiped out most of the nobility by the end of XVIII century the industrialists had greater social and cultural influence and therefore the traditional language and code of conduct in French companies was much more hierarchical because they were filling a void. That's the result of a 100 years of living with or without nobles.\n\nNote also that artisan guilds in the medieval era did have titles for example - again to denote structure.\n\n--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\nTL;DR: Because of how power used to divide people into social classes. Most state positions were linked with social status and as such were reserved for the nobility or the church. No titles were allowed for the middle-class other than functional titles within the government of towns (mayor, councilor, alderman) and definitely no titles were allowed for functions involved with trade which was considered a disgraceful profession. So it was a formal ban on titles in business that shaped the language for the first few centuries and it carried on to this day.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "343044",
"title": "Chief operating officer",
"section": "Section::::Responsibilities and similar titles.:President.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "In a similar vein to the COO the title of corporate President as a separate position (as opposed to being combined with a \"C-Suite\" designation, such as \"President and CEO\" or \"President and COO\") is also loosely defined. The President is usually the legally recognized highest rank of corporate officer, ranking above the various Vice Presidents (including Senior Vice President and Executive Vice President), but on its own generally considered subordinate, in practice, to the CEO. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32293",
"title": "United States Secretary of State",
"section": "Section::::Duties and responsibilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 677,
"text": "As the highest-ranking member of the cabinet, the secretary of state is the third-highest official of the executive branch of the federal government of the United States, after the president and vice president, and is fourth in line to succeed the presidency, coming after the vice president, the speaker of the House of Representatives, and the president pro tempore of the Senate. Six secretaries of state have gone on to be elected president. Others, including Henry Clay, William Seward, James Blaine, William Jennings Bryan, John Kerry, and Hillary Clinton have been unsuccessful presidential candidates, either before or after their term of office as Secretary of State.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5681",
"title": "Corporate title",
"section": "Section::::Variations.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 778,
"text": "American companies are generally led by a CEO. In some companies, the CEO also has the title of \"president\". In other companies, a president is a different person, and the primary duties of the two positions are defined in the company's bylaws (or the laws of the governing legal jurisdiction). Many companies also have a CFO, a chief operating officer (COO) and other senior positions such as chief information officer (CIO), chief business officer (CBO), chief marketing officer (CMO), etc. that report to the president and CEO as \"senior vice presidents\" of the company. The next level, which are not executive positions, is middle management and may be called \"vice presidents\", \"directors\" or \"managers\", depending on the size and required managerial depth of the company.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25512102",
"title": "Departmental secretary",
"section": "Section::::Role.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "The secretary is also known as the chief executive of the department; the position is equivalent to the Permanent Secretary of a government department in the United Kingdom, and similar to director general in some non-Commonwealth countries, or (very roughly) chief executive officer (CEO) in a private company.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "92371",
"title": "Synecdoche",
"section": "Section::::Classification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "This type of reference is quite common in politics. The residence of an executive is often credited for the executive's action. A spokesperson of the Executive Office of the President of the United States is identified in \"The White House announced a new plan to reduce hunger.\" References to the King or Queen of the United Kingdom are made in the same fashion by referring to today's official residence, Buckingham Palace. Worldwide examples include \"the Sublime Porte\" of the Ottoman Empire, and \"the Kremlin\" of Russia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5681",
"title": "Corporate title",
"section": "Section::::Senior management.:Specific corporate officer positions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 702,
"text": "BULLET::::- President – legally recognized highest \"titled\" corporate officer, and usually a member of the board of directors. There is much variation; often the CEO also holds the title of president, while in other organizations if there is a separate CEO, the president is then second highest-ranking position. In such a case the president is often the COO and is considered to be more focused upon daily operations compared to the CEO, who is supposed to be the visionary. If the corporate president is not the COO (such as Richard Parsons of Time Warner from 1995–2001), then many division heads report directly to the CEO themselves, with the president taking on special assignments from the CEO.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35476668",
"title": "Executive compensation in the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1446,
"text": "While an executive may be any corporate \"officer\"—including president, vice president, or other upper-level manager—in any company, the source of most comment and controversy is the pay of chief executive officers (CEOs) (and to a lesser extent the other top five highest-paid executives) of large publicly traded firms. Most of the private sector economy in the United States is made up of such firms where management and ownership are separate, and there are no controlling shareholders. This separation of those who run a company from those who directly benefit from its earnings, create what economists call a \"principal–agent problem\", where upper-management (the \"agent\") has different interests, and considerably more information to pursue those interests, than shareholders (the \"principals\"). This \"problem\" may interfere with the ideal of management pay set by \"arm's length\" negotiation between the executive attempting to get the best possible deal for him/her self, and the board of directors seeking a deal that best serves the shareholders, rewarding executive performance without costing too much. The compensation is typically a mixture of salary, bonuses, equity compensation (stock options,etc.), benefits, and perquisites. It has often had surprising amounts of deferred compensation and pension payments, and unique features such as executive loans (now banned), and post-retirement benefits, and guaranteed consulting fees.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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