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3dzmmm
|
why does wikipedia cost so much to maintain if most of the people work for free editing the pages?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Wikimedia Foundation, the parent organization of Wikipedia, employs a lot of people to maintain the site and the hosting. That isn't free.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The traffic Wikipedia endures on a daily basis is what drives the cost up so high. The actual size of the website is pretty easy to maintain.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Wikipedia gets almost 500 million unique visitors per year. And each unique visitor might view dozens of pages.\nEven if it only costs one cent to serve all the pages a single person might view in a year, that's still five million dollars worth of bandwidth and hosting. And that doesn't even take into account the paid employees, technical troubleshooting and upkeep, etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6014851",
"title": "Reliability of Wikipedia",
"section": "Section::::Notable incidents.:Conflict-of-interest editing on Wikipedia.:Editing for financial rewards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 202,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 202,
"end_character": 1191,
"text": "In an October 2012 \"Salon\" story, Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales stated that he was against the practice of paid editing of Wikipedia, as are a number long-time members of Wikipedia's community. Nonetheless, a number of organizations do pay employees to edit Wikipedia articles, with one writer, Soraya Field Fiorio, stating that she writes commissioned Wikipedia articles for writers and musicians for $30 an hour. According to Fiorio, her clients control the article's content in the same way that they control press releases, which function as part of publicity strategies. In January 2007, Rick Jelliffe claimed in a story carried by CBS and IDG News Service that Microsoft had offered him compensation in exchange for his future editorial services on OOXML. A Microsoft spokesperson, quoted by CBS, commented that \"Microsoft and the writer, Rick Jelliffe, had not determined a price and no money had changed hands, but they had agreed that the company would not be allowed to review his writing before submission\". CBS also quoted Jimmy Wales as having expressed his disapproval of Microsoft's involvement: \"We were very disappointed to hear that Microsoft was taking that approach.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38341050",
"title": "Wikipedian in residence",
"section": "Section::::Compensation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "While Wikipedia discourages direct paid compensation for article editing and prohibits undisclosed advocacy, Wikipedians in residence are permitted to be compensated for work on-wiki – either by offering credit, stipend, or salary – through their sponsoring institutions they adhere to strict guidelines against engaging in public relations or marketing for their institution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1877499",
"title": "Gratis versus libre",
"section": "Section::::Use in open-access academic publishing.:Comparison with use in software.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 758,
"text": "1. Source code accessibility and use. For published research articles, the case for making their text accessible free for all online (Gratis) is even stronger than it is for software code, because in the case of software, some developers may wish to give their code away for free, while others may wish to sell it, whereas in the case of published research article texts, \"all\" their authors, without exception, give them away for free: None seek or get royalties or fees from their sale. On the contrary, any access-denial to potential users means loss of potential research impact (downloads, citations) for the author's research—and researcher-authors' employment, salary, promotion and funding depends in part on the uptake and impact of their research.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5043734",
"title": "Wikipedia",
"section": "Section::::Access to content.:Methods of access.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 153,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 153,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "Because Wikipedia content is distributed under an open license, anyone can reuse or re-distribute it at no charge. The content of Wikipedia has been published in many forms, both online and offline, outside of the Wikipedia website.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16920259",
"title": "Free content",
"section": "Section::::Usage.:Media.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "While extensive reuse of free content from one website in another website is legal, it is usually not sensible because of the duplicate content problem. Wikipedia is amongst the most well-known databases of user-uploaded free content on the web. While the vast majority of content on Wikipedia is free content, some copyrighted material is hosted under .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55606972",
"title": "Predictions of the end of Wikipedia",
"section": "Section::::Factors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Wikipedia is crowdsourced by a few million volunteer editors. Tens of thousands contribute the majority of contents, and several thousand do quality control and maintenance work. In the 2010s, their numbers have not steadily grown and have sometimes declined. Various sources have predicted that Wikipedia will eventually have too few editors to be functional and collapse due to lack of participation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34726061",
"title": "Conflict-of-interest editing on Wikipedia",
"section": "Section::::Wikipedia on conflict-of-interest editing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "Wikipedia is edited by volunteer contributors. The is a \"generally accepted standard that editors should attempt to follow\". This guideline \"strongly discourages\" COI editing and advises those with a financial conflict of interest, including paid editors, to refrain from direct article editing. The , which has legal ramifications, \"requires\" that editors disclose their \"employer, client, and affiliation\" with respect to any contribution for which they are paid, including talk-page contributions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2n374l
|
why do certain grapes make your mouth dry when you bite into them?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because they have [tannin](_URL_1_) in them. Tannin is an [astringent](_URL_0_) compound, which means it binds to certain proteins in your mouth and tends to shrink and constrict body tissue.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They have a lot of tannin in them which creates the sour pucker your mouth flavour that you get from some dry wines. The reason for this is that tannin is not present in any food which gives us nutritional value and thus our bodies evolved to give the dry mouth signal when eating something with a lot of tannin. Obviously now days we ignore that reflex of the body and continue to drink that glorious scarlet liquid. I am about to tuck into a bottle of Gewurztraminer and a small cheese board. \n\nEdit: Sorry I realised I was wrong, it's not that tannin is in things with low nutritional value, it's that tannin makes your digestive system less effecient by bonding with the digestive juices which in turn decreases the amount of nutrition gained from food eaten whoile the tannins are present in the body. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5173107",
"title": "Apple cider vinegar",
"section": "Section::::Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "Ingestion of apple cider vinegar in tablet form poses a risk of injury to soft tissues of the mouth, throat, stomach, and kidneys. Irritation and redness are common when the eyes come into contact with vinegar, and corneal injury can occur. Using vinegar as a topical medication, ear cleaning solution, or eye wash, is hazardous. Due to its acidity, exposure of teeth from consuming undiluted apple cider vinegar may damage tooth enamel. Although small amounts of apple cider vinegar may be used as a food flavoring, it may be unsafe for use by pregnant and breastfeeding women and by children.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "113723",
"title": "Raisin",
"section": "Section::::Raisin production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "Raisins are produced commercially by drying harvested grape berries. For a grape berry to dry, water inside the grape must be removed completely from the interior of the cells onto the surface of the grape where the water droplets can evaporate. However, this diffusion process is very difficult because the grape skin contains wax in its cuticle, which prevents the water from passing through. In addition to this, the physical and chemical mechanisms located on the outer layers of the grape are adapted to prevent water loss.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2020571",
"title": "Synsepalum dulcificum",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "The berry itself has a low sugar content and a mildly sweet tang. It contains a glycoprotein molecule, with some trailing carbohydrate chains, called miraculin. When the fleshy part of the fruit is eaten, this molecule binds to the tongue's taste buds, causing sour foods to taste sweet. At neutral pH, miraculin binds and blocks the receptors, but at low pH (resulting from ingestion of sour foods) miraculin binds proteins and becomes able to activate the sweet receptors, resulting in the perception of sweet taste. This effect lasts until the protein is washed away by saliva (up to about 30 minutes).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1052621",
"title": "Sémillon",
"section": "Section::::Viticulture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "The grape is also key to the production of sweet wines such as Sauternes. For the grapes to be used for sweet wine production, they need to have been affected by Botrytis (also known as \"noble rot\"). This fungus dries out the grapes, thus concentrating the sugar and flavours in the grape berry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3545196",
"title": "Vișinată",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "Also as a variation, some people smash the sour cherries before putting them in the jar, or at least take out the kernels, break them open, and add the inside into the jar. The inner, soft part of the kernel adds some almond-like flavor to the drink. There is a risk, however, that the filtering will be more difficult, and the resulting drink will not clear up if you smash the fruit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "373172",
"title": "Winemaking",
"section": "Section::::Crushing and primary (alcoholic) fermentation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "If increased skin extraction is desired, a winemaker might choose to crush the grapes after destemming. Removal of stems first means no stem tannin can be extracted. In these cases the grapes pass between two rollers which squeeze the grapes enough to separate the skin and pulp, but not so much as to cause excessive shearing or tearing of the skin tissues. In some cases, notably with \"delicate\" red varietals such as Pinot noir or Syrah, all or part of the grapes might be left uncrushed (called \"whole berry\") to encourage the retention of fruity aromas through partial carbonic maceration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40712658",
"title": "Lysiana exocarpi",
"section": "Section::::Ethnobotany.:Bushfood.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 1130,
"text": "According to Les Hiddins, Aboriginal people would eat the fruit without chewing so they wouldn't stick to the tongue. The ripeness of the berry is indicated not only by its softness, but often also by a slight translucence. When quite ripe the sticky, gelatinous, sweet pulp surrounding the single seed is pleasant to eat, but its great stickiness often make the seed almost impossible to spit out. Birds have the same difficulty and may sometimes be seen wiping their beaks free of seeds against the branch of a tree. Jennifer Isaacs lists berries of \"L. exocarpi\" and \"L.spathulata\" as being eaten in the Central desert Peter Latz notes that the calories obtained would be rather low. Aborigines often pluck whole branches from the tree and pick off the berries at their leisure. These berries are particularly favored by children. Although all Aboriginal groups have two or more names for mistletoes, it appears that they do not give separate names to each species. The Walpiri word for both \"L. murrayi\" and \"L. spathulata\" is \"pawurlirri\". The Antakirinja people around Coober Pedy call the berries of \"L. exocarpi\" Ngantja.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ezcbpa
|
what goes into a whiteboard paint that makes it finish like a dry erase board and not a normal paint?
|
[
{
"answer": "Dry/wet erase markers are basically just an ink that dries into something that doesn't stick well to a surface - dry erase forms a film, wet erase is water soluble. \n\nThis works on any surface, in theory - you could use dry erase on rough wood, except that it would seep into pores and cracks and other rough spots before it dries, making it really hard to remove. \n\nOn the other hand, if you use it on something smooth and \"non-porous\" (which means it has no holes, even tiny tiny ones), it's very easy to wipe off the surface. \n\nSimilarly, you can use high gloss tile as a white board, but if you use tile that isn't high gloss, you will have a very hard time wiping it off. \n\nWhiteboard paint is mostly just a paint that doesn't have those tiny holes. It's very very smooth, which makes it more shiny. It also has chemicals that make it have high surface tension (like a water drop) so that it dries nice and smooth, unlike normal paint that's designed to not hold together as well, making it flow into cracks better.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "469661",
"title": "Whiteboard",
"section": "Section::::Surface materials.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 1031,
"text": "BULLET::::- steel or aluminum: Painted steel and aluminum dry erase also have a wide range of quality. Painted surfaces tend to be smoother, which leads to better methods of erasing. The painted surface is generally a multiple layer of coatings made up of a base coat in color (most commonly white) and a clear performance coating that is the dry erase component. Paint varies from electron beam cured coatings to UV and other coating systems. Good commercial grade painted steel or aluminum has excellent dry erase properties and many will be able to have permanent marker cleaned from the surface. Any coated surface is susceptible to scratching. Painted steel surfaces are magnetic and allow the use of magnets. Painted aluminum surfaces are rarely used as a base for whiteboards as they are not magnetic and are more expensive than steel. Painted steel whiteboards are most commonly used for custom printed whiteboards. These products are used as tracking boards, patient information boards and tournament and training boards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "469661",
"title": "Whiteboard",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "A whiteboard (also known by the terms marker board, dry-erase board, wipe board, dry-wipe board, and pen-board) is a glossy, usually white surface for nonpermanent markings. Whiteboards are analogous to blackboards, but with a smoother surface allowing rapid marking and erasing of markings on their surface. The popularity of whiteboards increased rapidly in the mid-1990s and they have become a fixture in many offices, meeting rooms, school classrooms, and other work environments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23701959",
"title": "White lined chipboard",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "White lined chipboard, also referred to as: WLC, GD, GT or UD, is a grade of paperboard typically made from layers of waste paper or recycled fibers. Most often it comes with two to three layers of coating on the top and one layer on the reverse side. Because of its recycled content it will be grey from the inside.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "423640",
"title": "Paperboard",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Pulping.:Bleaching.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "Pulp used in the manufacture of paperboard can be bleached to decrease colour and increase purity. Virgin fibre pulp is naturally brown in colour, because of the presence of lignin. Recycled paperboard may contain traces of inks, bonding agents and other residue which colors it grey.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1890199",
"title": "Interactive whiteboard",
"section": "Section::::Technologies.:Potential issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 112,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 112,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "Permanent markers and use of regular dry erase markers can create problems on some interactive whiteboard surfaces because interactive whiteboard surfaces are most often melamine, which is a porous, painted surface that can absorb marker ink. Punctures, dents and other damage to surfaces are also a risk.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3172978",
"title": "Plasterwork",
"section": "Section::::Plastering.:Modern interior plastering techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "In plasterboard a specialized form of sheet rock known as \"greenboard\" (because on the outer paper coating is greenish) is screwed onto the wall-frames (studs) of the home to form the interior walls. At the place where the two edges of wallboards meet there is a seam. These seams are covered with mesh tape and then the seams and the screw heads are concealed with the drywall compound to make the wall seem as one uniform piece. The drywall plaster is a thick paste. Later this is painted or wallpapered over to hide the work. This process is typically called \"taping\" and those who use drywall are known as \"tapers\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58675654",
"title": "Chalkboard paint",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "Chalkboard paint is a specialized paint that creates a chalkboard like coating that can be utilized as a writing surface in the same manner as a traditional chalkboard or blackboard. Chalkboard paint is commonly made out of a mixture of talc, acrylic, water, glycol, titanium dioxide, carbon black, opacifiers, silica, and esters. It may also contain acetone, propane, butane, xylene, ethylbenzene, amorphous silica, n-butyl acetate, and propylene glycol methyl ether acetate which are industrial standard ingredients used in inks and paints as thinners, olfactory, and pigmentation agents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3vtiit
|
government encouraging marriage
|
[
{
"answer": "It's not so much marriage that they're encouraging as being a stay-at-home spouse. There's only really a tax benefit if one person is making most of the money. If the two people make even close to the same amount of money, they pay less in taxes by filling separately. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37644080",
"title": "Supporting Healthy Marriage Project",
"section": "Section::::Early concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1001,
"text": "\"Although promoting marriage is undeniably a laudable aim, whether government programs can effectively promote marriage is far from certain. Government has virtually no track record on this issue. Moreover, before Congress commits to making significant investments in an unproven arena, policy makers must address an even more fundamental question: Can marriage really be a panacea that helps poor women and their children lead better lives or are supporters of marriage promotion overpromising the benefits of their agenda? Answering this question isn’t easy. Although the empirical evidence in support of marriage is incontrovertible, there is still a great deal we need to know before state [TANF] programs move too rapidly into uncharted territory. Studies on the 'retreat from marriage' in the United States abound, but we have surprisingly little information about the marital behavior of those women about whom policy makers are most concerned: low-income and welfare-dependent unwed mothers.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31754619",
"title": "Marriage promotion",
"section": "Section::::Summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "A major impetus behind marriage promotion is increasing father involvement. Low-income fathers are forced to take more responsibility for childrearing and their relationships with female partners. From a starting point of underfunded schools, poverty and family chaos, they often do poorly in school and drop out. Fathers are urged to get married to the women that they impregnate so that they can establish traditional families, according to the \"Alliance for Marriage\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37644080",
"title": "Supporting Healthy Marriage Project",
"section": "Section::::Opposition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "\"The Alternatives to Marriage Project opposes marriage promotion because it stigmatizes unmarried people and institutionalizes discrimination against singles and diverse family forms. We believe that policies designed to help children should focus on supporting all the types of families in which children really live. We believe that people who care for one another should be supported in their efforts to build healthy, happy relationships ... There is no evidence that it is an effective way to help people escape poverty. It diverts funds from poverty-fighting programs that have been proven to work.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37644080",
"title": "Supporting Healthy Marriage Project",
"section": "Section::::Proponents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "\"By fostering better life decisions and stronger relationship skills, marriage programs can increase child well-being and adult happiness and reduce child poverty and welfare dependence. Yet opponents make it sound as if the government would be forcing people into unhappy unions. It's nonsense.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31754619",
"title": "Marriage promotion",
"section": "Section::::Summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "Childbirth with marriage is supported along with the marriage promotion as two people can raise a baby better than an unwed mother or father. Marriage was promoted in the 1990s in order to promote family values. Rising divorce rates in the 1980s and 1990s in addition to plummeting marriage rates, however, allowed then-current U.S. President George W. Bush to pass a nationwide marriage promotion law in the 2000s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37644080",
"title": "Supporting Healthy Marriage Project",
"section": "Section::::Early concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "\"Marriage promotion represents a cornerstone of social conservatives' domestic policy agenda, and proposals designed to promote and strengthen marriage are gaining currency at all levels of government. Since taking office, President Bush has promised to invest in marriage promotion on an unprecedented scale through his proposal to reauthorize the nation's welfare reform law, and legislation pending before Congress would allocate substantial funding toward that end. Yet even as the president waits for Congress to act, his administration is finding ways to devote significant funding to marriage promotion activities through existing programs and funding streams.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31754619",
"title": "Marriage promotion",
"section": "Section::::Summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Marriage promotion may also lead to discrimination against single-parent families that actually increases their poverty and hardship. Some marriage promotion supporters advocate promoting marriage by excluding single-parent families from some public benefits. Marriage promotion also teaches women to be dependent on a spouse instead of being economically independent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3l3qvw
|
why are music apps like spotify so much more ad intensive on phones than their computer counter parts?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's rather simple really. Consider a billboard on the side of a road. If the road is a highway with many cars driving past, the billboard will be much more effective than a billboard next to a small farm road. The internet is the same, people tend to advertise where the most users are. Advertisers have tools that tells them how much traffic they get from mobile devices vs their computer counterparts.\n\nThe simple fact is most users are digesting content on a mobile device, which they have with them all the time (e.g. smart phone) as opposed to a desktop computer where they will only spend time on occasionally. By running more ads on mobile, advertisers are reaching more people than they would on desktop.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not really about the number of users at all. Look at television- a show with 100k viewers on some deep cable channel has the same amount of commercials as a show with 2 million viewers on a more popular channel. Less users just means lower cost of advertising, but there's not a significant enough \"lack of advertisers\" to not be able to play you an ad.\n\n\nThe reason there are more ads on mobile is because it costs more to play the songs. Music services such as Spotify pay money to the rights holders (a small number of music publishing companies) to be able to play you the songs that they own. Those music publishing companies have decided that, for whatever reason, they will charge Spotify and other streaming services more money to play their songs on mobile devices vs. desktops.\n\n\nTherefore, to offset the extra cost, Spotify (like all companies) passes that cost off to you in terms of more ads.\n\n\nA few years ago, Spotify (non premium) was just like Pandora in that it would only stream you songs in a discover / radio way on mobile, where you could only choose a starting point and had no real control over what actual specific songs you would be hearing. Then Spotify renegotiated contracts with the music publishing companies allowing them to steam you artists and playlists on mobile, as long as it was on shuffle and more than x number of songs (I think the number was 20). \n\n\nTL;DR\n\n\nIt's not about number of users. It's about how much it costs for streaming services to secure the rights to songs, and it's more expensive on mobile devices so they need more ads to pay for them. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20148343",
"title": "Spotify",
"section": "Section::::Platforms.:Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 935,
"text": "In November 2011, Spotify introduced a Spotify Apps service that made it possible for third-party developers to design applications that could be hosted within the Spotify computer software. The applications provided features such as synchronised lyrics, music reviews, and song recommendations. In June 2012, Soundrop became the first Spotify app to attract major funding, receiving $3 million from Spotify investor Northzone. However, after the June 2014 announcement of a Web API that allowed third-party developers to integrate Spotify content in their own web applications, the company discontinued its Spotify Apps platform in October, stating that its new development tools for the Spotify web player fulfilled many of the advantages of the former Spotify Apps service, but \"would ensure the Spotify platform remained relevant and easy to develop on, as well as enabling you to build innovative and engaging music experiences\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2132342",
"title": "IPod advertising",
"section": "Section::::Silhouette style.:Evolution of the Silhouette Style.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "BULLET::::- iPod Touch adverts increasingly move to promote the computing, gaming and internet purposes of the product with background music often being the only reminder it is a music player too. At the same time iPod adverts have started to decline as the priority for production and sales shifts to the computing platform devices such as the iPod Touch and iPhone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2653220",
"title": "Music in advertising",
"section": "Section::::Functions of music in advertising.:Effects on credibility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "On the other hand, the use of music in advertising, especially on platforms such as social media or television, are seen as less credible compared to advertisements that lack music and are placed in newspapers or articles. Consumers tend to have a more positive attitude towards commercials that supply accurate and relevant information about a product or a service that the consumer desires. Consumers rely on the credibility of what's being advertised so in order for them to trust in the advertisers' message or product there has to be solidified evidence for it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20148343",
"title": "Spotify",
"section": "Section::::Platforms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "Spotify has client software available for Windows, macOS, and Linux PCs, along with Android, and iOS smartphones and tablets. It also has a proprietary protocol known as \"Spotify Connect\", which lets users listen to music through a wide range of entertainment systems, including speakers, receivers, TVs, cars, and smartwatches. Spotify also features a web player, for those who are unable to – or do not want to – download any app. Contrary to the apps, the web player does not have the ability to download music for offline listening. In June 2017, Spotify became available as an app through Windows Store.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55391579",
"title": "Criticism of Spotify",
"section": "Section::::Business practices.:Allegations of unfair artist compensation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "In response, Spotify claims that they are benefiting the music business by \"migrating them away from piracy and less monetized platforms, and allowing them to generate far greater royalties than before\" by offering a free, ad-supported service tier, and then encouraging users to opt into the paid subscription.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23818735",
"title": "Criticism of Apple Inc.",
"section": "Section::::Accusations of anti-competitive behavior.:App Store transaction fee.:Spotify.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 2298,
"text": "In July 2015, music-streaming service Spotify sent an email to its iOS subscribers, urging them to cancel their App Store subscriptions, wait for expiration, and then sign up for paid membership through Spotify's website, bypassing the 30% App Store transaction fee and making the service more affordable. Approximately a year later, \"Recode\" reported that Spotify's general counsel Horacio Gutierrez had sent a letter to Apple's then-general counsel Bruce Sewell, saying that the company was \"causing grave harm to Spotify and its customers\" because it wouldn't approve an update to the Spotify app. Apple hadn't approved the new version due to \"business model rules\", requiring that Spotify use the iTunes payments system if it \"wants to use the app to acquire new customers and sell subscriptions\". Gutierrez severely criticized the chain of events, writing that \"This latest episode raises serious concerns under both U.S. and EU competition law. ... It continues a troubling pattern of behavior by Apple to exclude and diminish the competitiveness of Spotify on iOS and as a rival to Apple Music, particularly when seen against the backdrop of Apple's previous anti-competitive conduct aimed at Spotify.\" He also described the App Store approval process as a \"weapon to harm competitors\". In a response reported by \"BuzzFeed News\", Bruce Sewell said that \"We find it troubling that you are asking for exemptions to the rules we apply to all developers and are publicly resorting to rumors and half-truths about our service\", adding that \"Our guidelines apply equally to all app developers, whether they are game developers, e-book sellers, video-streaming services or digital music distributors; and regardless of whether or not they compete against Apple\". Sewell further claimed that the company \"did not alter our behavior or our rules\" when introducing its own Apple Music streaming service, and that there was \"nothing in Apple’s conduct\" to support anti-competitive claims. Zach Epstein of \"BGR\" opined that Spotify was angry because \"it’s not a non-profit\" that did not have free rein over its app built on another company's service, and concluded with the remark that \"Apparently, Apple shouldn’t be compensated for giving Spotify access to tens of millions of potential subscribers\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41155",
"title": "Firmware",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Consumer products.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 633,
"text": ", most portable music players support firmware upgrades. Some companies use firmware updates to add new playable file formats (codecs); iriver added Vorbis playback support this way, for instance. Other features that may change with firmware updates include the GUI or even the battery life. Most mobile phones have a Firmware Over The Air firmware upgrade capability for much the same reasons; some may even be upgraded to enhance reception or sound quality, illustrating that firmware is used at more than one level in complex products (in a CPU-like microcontroller versus in a digital signal processor, in this particular case).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4ovv0g
|
why are there so many more 'simple' medical procedures available for humans than there are for animals?
|
[
{
"answer": "Most animals don't have insurance. There are procedures for a lot of stuff, but not everybody can or wants to pay $5,000 when a cat & dog can be replaced for nothing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Mostly it's money. Most people simply can't afford to spend multiple thousands of dollars on a pet.\n\nThe other big problems is that animals cannot take care of themselves. You can't prescribe a horse bed rest, because it's a horse and it isn't going to rest unless you keep it doped to the gills. Seriously injured animals are just not nearly as likely to recover a good quality of life as humans.\n\nIt also helps to remember that as animals go, humans are incredibly robust. We are really, really good at taking a beating.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It depends on the owner and the vet to be honest. A cat with two paralyzed legs can survive you can adapt two wheelers for it ( like a tiny wheelchair) if you take proper care of it but it takes time and money and owners are not willing to do that for their pets. I wouldnt have put that cat down by what you are saying, only if asked. But also its not only the paralyzed legs that is the problem your kitty would've been incontinent, would've been more prone to bladder infections, his bladder would need to be expressed, like I said its up to the owner and what is willing to do for its pet so that is why sometimes the humane thing to do is euthanize them because even tho you love them you just dont have the time to care for them. Im using your case as an example tho in some cases pets just dont recover and they live in constant pain so the better thing for them is to put them down. \n\nAnimal's bodies simply cannot handle stress the way we do. \n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "my coworkers dog got hit by a car. his dog's medical bill currently stands at $25,000. the dog's alive but owner is about to go bankrupt. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8653561",
"title": "Exploratory surgery",
"section": "Section::::Exploratory surgery in animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "Because animals cannot voice their symptoms as easily as humans, exploratory surgery is more common in animals. Exploratory surgery is done when looking for a foreign body that may be lodged in the animal's body, when looking for cancer, or when looking for various other gastrointestinal problems. It is a fairly routine procedure that is done only after tests and bloodwork reveal nothing abnormal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33983952",
"title": "Overview of discretionary invasive procedures on animals",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "Numerous procedures performed on domestic animals are more invasive than purely cosmetic alterations, but differ from types of veterinary surgery that are performed exclusively for urgent health reasons. Such procedures have been grouped together under the technical term \"mutilatory\" by the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons in a report describing the reasons for their being conducted and their welfare consequences, and by others. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12623169",
"title": "Veterinary anesthesia",
"section": "Section::::Application in animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 796,
"text": "Anesthesia is required for many surgical procedures which require the patient to be immobile, unaware, and without pain. Furthermore, anesthesia aims to minimize the surgical stress response. In addition, certain diagnostic procedures require anesthesia, notably stomach or airway endoscopy, bone marrow sampling, and occasionally ultrasound. Aggressive animals may require anesthesia in order to handle and perform a physical exam or obtain blood for testing. Exotic animals frequently require anesthesia for simple procedures (such as taking a radiograph or catheter placement) due to lack of domesticity. Animals may require anesthesia for therapeutic procedures, such as urinary catheterization to relieve obstruction, injection into a mass, or removing fluid from the eye to treat glaucoma.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "450528",
"title": "Cruelty-free",
"section": "Section::::Alternatives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 938,
"text": "As technology developed, outdated animal testing is being replaced with quicker, cheaper and more accurate methods. Critics point out that humane alternatives can be slow to implement, costly, and test only one compound at a time. Alternatives have shown positive results. For example, \"reconstructed human epidermis\"—which uses human skin donated from cosmetic surgery to replace the rabbit Draize skin test—is more relevant to human reactions. Other methods replace the Draize eye test by using in vitro (test-tube) human tissue. Computer-based systems allow for isolation of a select tissue or organ to conduct tests in an extremely controlled environment. These tests not only reduce animal testing, but are more precise and accurate at protecting humans from toxic substances. Another cruelty-free option is using ingredients that have already been established as safe, such as the 20,000 ingredients in the European Union database.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28364947",
"title": "List of medieval European scientists",
"section": "Section::::High Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "Avenzoar (1091–1161), from Muslim Spain, introduced an experimental method in surgery, employing animal testing in order to experiment with surgical procedures before applying them to human patients. He also performed the earliest dissections and postmortem autopsies on both humans as well as animals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33103088",
"title": "Veterinary medicine in the United Kingdom",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Other professionals are also permitted to perform some animal treatment, through exemptions in the law, and these include manipulation techniques such as physiotherapy, chiropractic and osteopathy. Other alternative medicine therapies, such as homeopathy, acupuncture, phytotherapy and aromatherapy may only be performed by a licensed veterinary surgeon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52335789",
"title": "Animal welfare and rights in the Netherlands",
"section": "Section::::Animal issues.:Animals used for research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "According to official statistics, 403,370 research procedures were carried out on animals in 2016 (not including invertebrates), a 16% fall from 2015, and down almost 40% from 2000. Mice, rats, birds, and fish accounted for over 90% of animals used. On a scale of severity, 69% of procedures were classified as mild, 22% as moderate, 3.3% as severe, and 6% as non-recovery (i.e. the animal is killed while under anesthesia).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1hj6xf
|
what is the difference between fat, saturated fat and trans fat? and what is the sudden big deal about trans fat?
|
[
{
"answer": "Fats are a type of carbon-chain that your body uses for energy. Carbon atoms are able to form up to four bonds with other atoms.\n\nSo a saturated fat is where the carbon chain is entirely single-bonded. The 'saturated' part comes in because most of those carbon bonds are bonded to hydrogen atoms; in fact, the most number of hydrogen atoms the carbon chain can hold (thus 'saturated' with hydrogen atoms). Studies have shown that saturated fats are associated heart disease and other vascular issues. Saturated fats typically come from animals, and typically solid at room temperature as the single-bonded carbon chains are very flexible and can tightly pack with each other.\n\nUnsaturated fats have one or more of those single carbon bonds have been changed into a double-bond. This removes some of the hydrogen atoms from the chain as a result. Mono-unsaturated means only carbon double-bond has been formed, but you can have poly-unsaturated which can have several carbon double-bonds in the chain. Unsaturated fats are typically from plant sources, and are usually liquid form at room temperature because the double-bond is a much more rigid bond and causes the carbon chain to take a sort of 'kinked' shape.\n\n[Here's a picture of the two types just for a comparison.](_URL_0_) Note the way the unsaturated chain is bent at the double-bond, that will be important in the next section.\n\nTrans-fats are a type of unsaturated fat, and studies have also linked these to heart disease to an even greater degree of severity than saturated fats. As I said earlier, unsaturated fats are typically liquid (more bonds = more likely to be liquid at room temperature), and humans usually use solid fats for cooking. As such a process called 'hydrolyzing' which adds hydrogen atoms to the fat chain, removing some of the double-bonds so that the unsaturated fat can be made into a more marketable form.\n\nNow remember that 'kink' I mentioned in the unsaturated fat? Well when a double-bond is made, it can take one of two forms (called isomers), known as either trans- or cis- arrangement, which basically describes how the atoms are arranged relative to each other. Cis- arrangements are the common form in nature, but the artificial hydrolyzing process creates trans- isomers of the fat.\n\nHere's an image of a [trans](_URL_2_) compared to a [cis](_URL_1_) unsaturated fatty acid. Both have the same number of atoms, but vastly different shapes, and this geometric arrangement impacts how they interact with the body.\n\nThe exact mechanisms that make trans-fat unhealthy for you aren't exactly known, but one leading theory is that the body simply doesn't have the enzymes to breakdown trans-fats as they are artificially created. This is partially supported by another study that found naturally occuring trans-fats that did not seem to carry the same health risks (as they were naturally occur, thus creatures evolved ways to break them down, as opposed to our artificially created trans-fats).\n\nNot a nutritionist or a science major, so I may have glossed over some important details, but I think I got the basics covered.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This answer assumes some knowledge of atoms and molecules, and obviously there are more complex explanations. But the short version is that saturated fats and trans fats are bad, mmmkay?\n\nFat is a type of macronutrient - our body can burn fat molecules for energy, the same way it can burn protein and carbohydrate molecules. Fat molecules are mostly made of chains of carbon atoms, with hydrogen atoms bonded to them.\n\n[Saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fat](_URL_0_) refers to the chemical structure of the fat molecule. Saturated fats have the maximum number hydrogen molecules bonded to every carbon atom (they are *saturated* with hydrogen), but unsaturated fats have one (mono) or more (poly) double bonds between carbon atoms somewhere along the chain, which means fewer hydrogen atoms.\n\nThe more saturated a fat is, the more likely it is to lead to an increase in the proportion of LDL ('bad') cholesterol in your blood, and contribute to coronary heart disease. Unsaturated fats are more likely to increase the proportion of HDL ('good') cholesterol.\n\nTrans fats are a special type of *unsaturated* fat, and are almost exclusively man-made. The 'trans' part of the name refers to the arrangement of the atoms around the carbon atom. Usually the hydrogen atoms are on the same side of the carbon atom (the *cis* configuration), but in a trans fat they are on opposite sides (the *trans* configuration). The outcome is that trans fat molecules act like even worse versions of saturated fats, despite being unsaturated.\n\nIn 2002 [The US National Academy of Science concluded](_URL_1_) that there is no safe level of consumption for trans fats. Every gram of man-made trans fat you eat contributes to factors that can lead to your early death.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "263487",
"title": "Trans fat",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "Although trans fats are edible, consuming trans fats has been shown to increase the risk of coronary artery disease in part by raising levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL, often termed \"bad cholesterol\"), lowering levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL, often termed \"good cholesterol\"), increasing triglycerides in the bloodstream and promoting systemic inflammation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "263487",
"title": "Trans fat",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "Trans fat, also called trans-unsaturated fatty acids or trans fatty acids, is a type of unsaturated fat that occurs in small amounts in meat and milk fat. It became widely produced industrially from vegetable and fish oils in the early 20th century for use in margarine and later also in snack food, packaged baked goods, and for frying fast food.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11042",
"title": "Fat",
"section": "Section::::Fatty acids and human health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "Numerous studies have also found that consumption of \"trans\" fats increases risk of cardiovascular disease. The Harvard School of Public Health advises that replacing \"trans\" fats and saturated fats with \"cis\" monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats is beneficial for health. a 2014 meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials found that reducing fat and cholesterol intake does not effect cardiovascular disease or all cause mortality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "512662",
"title": "Cardiovascular disease",
"section": "Section::::Risk factors.:Diet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "High trans-fat intake has adverse effects on blood lipids and circulating inflammatory markers, and elimination of trans-fat from diets has been widely advocated. In 2018 the World Health Organization estimated that trans fats were the cause of more than half a million deaths per year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "263487",
"title": "Trans fat",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "In light of recognized evidence and scientific agreement, nutritional authorities consider all trans fats equally harmful for health and recommend that their consumption be reduced to trace amounts. The World Health Organization recommended that trans fats make up no more than 1% of a person's diet in 2003 and, in 2018, introduced a 6-step guide to eliminate industrially-produced trans-fatty acids from the global food supply.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "263487",
"title": "Trans fat",
"section": "Section::::Nutritional guidelines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "Because of these facts and concerns, the NAS has concluded there is no safe level of trans fat consumption. There is no adequate level, recommended daily amount or tolerable upper limit for trans fats. This is because any incremental increase in trans fat intake increases the risk of coronary artery disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3620439",
"title": "Authentic Labor Front",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "Following the implementation of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in 1994, the FAT became one of the main organizations to oppose it. The FAT has participated in international \"cross-border solidarity\" campaigns with other unions such as the United Electrical Workers of the United States and the United Steelworkers in the United States and Canada. It has also engaged in other social justice initiatives, such as campaigns around women's rights. Though independent from any political party, the FAT tends to side with the center-left National Regeneration Movement (MORENA).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5ebo93
|
How does human saliva composition differ from that of cats and dogs?
|
[
{
"answer": "saliva is for:\n\n* keep the mucosa wet\n* lubricate food with water (or it may be too dry)\n* dissolve taste vector molecules inside food (very important because it's like a fast chemical analysis on the food and may help to decide if that thing can be eaten)\n* start to digest food\n* keep a microorganism-free environment (or at least try)\n\nsaid that, it's no surprise that, since we are different from cats and dogs, we all have different salivas (and different digestive secretion at the end of the day, because saliva is *just another digestive secretion*).\n\nwe are made to eat different things so it's not strange that we have different microorganisms in our mouths so the different salivas try to protect from different dangers, and we try to predigest what we have eaten.\n\ncats and dogs are not starch eaters while humans eat starch.\nI wouldn't find it strange if there wasn't any amylase ( the starch digester enzyme) at all in carnivorous animals' saliva like cats and dogs, where there is amylase in human saliva, and that's normal because we are more omnivorous.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7118482",
"title": "Dog behavior",
"section": "Section::::Social behavior.:Scent.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 847,
"text": "Dogs have an olfactory sense 40 times more sensitive than a human's and they commence their lives operating almost exclusively on smell and touch. The special scents that dogs use for communication are called pheromones. Different hormones are secreted when a dog is angry, fearful or confident, and some chemical signatures identify the sex and age of the dog, and if a female is in the estrus cycle, pregnant or recently given birth. Many of the pheromone chemicals can be found dissolved in a dog's urine, and sniffing where another dog has urinated gives the dog a great deal of information about that dog. Male dogs prefer to mark vertical surfaces and having the scent higher allows the air to carry it farther. The height of the marking tells other dogs about the size of the dog, as among canines size is an important factor in dominance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1044754",
"title": "Dog communication",
"section": "Section::::Olfactory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 1274,
"text": "Dogs have an olfactory sense 40 times more sensitive than a human's and they commence their lives operating almost exclusively on smell and touch. The special scents that dogs use for communication are called pheromones. Different hormones are secreted when a dog is angry, fearful or confident, and some chemical signatures identify the sex and age of the dog, and if a female is in the estrus cycle, pregnant or recently given birth. Many of the pheromone chemicals can be found dissolved in a dog's urine, and sniffing where another dog has urinated gives the dog a great deal of information about that dog. Male dogs prefer to mark vertical surfaces with urine and having the scent higher allows the air to carry it further. The height of the marking tells other dogs about the size of the dog, as among canines size is an important factor in dominance. Dogs (and wolves) not only use urine but also their stools to mark their territories. The anal gland of canines give a particular signature to fecal deposits and identifies the marker as well as the place where the dung is left. A small degree of elevation may be sought, such as a rock or fallen branch, to aid scent dispersal. Scratching the ground after defecating is a visual sign pointing to the scent marking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "207336",
"title": "Salivary gland",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "The salivary glands in mammals are exocrine glands that produce saliva through a system of ducts. Humans have three paired major salivary glands (parotid, submandibular, and sublingual) as well as hundreds of minor salivary glands. Salivary glands can be classified as serous, mucous or seromucous (mixed).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42160504",
"title": "Interspecies friendship",
"section": "Section::::Friendships between non-human animals.:Dogs and cats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "Dogs (\"Canis lupus familaris\") and cats (\"Felis catus\") that coexist in close quarters are two unrelated species that often display companionship towards each other. Many coexisting dogs and cats exhibit friendly relationships involving behaviours such as playing and sleeping together, grooming each other and understanding differences in body language and communication. Dogs and cats often engage in mutual nose sniffing which is a form of greeting displayed in cats that is not normally observed in dogs. Dogs may acquire this behaviour from the understanding of cat communication signals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2015873",
"title": "Hypoallergenic dog breed",
"section": "Section::::Scientific findings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "All dogs shed, and all dogs produce dander and saliva in some degree. As noted above, the amount of the allergenic protein present on the dander and in saliva varies by breed. Also, the amount of the allergen can be reduced or eliminated in individual dogs by treatments such as bathing. But for most breeds, when not regularly bathed, even a dog who sheds very little or has little dander can trigger a reaction in a sensitive person.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "95910",
"title": "Bichon Frise",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Hypoallergenic qualities and shedding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "as they are bred to be hypoallergenic. It is important to note that human sensitivity to dog fur, dander, and saliva varies considerably. Although hair, dander, and saliva can be minimised, they are still present and can stick to \"clothes and the carpets and furnishings in your home\"; inhaling the allergens, or being licked by the dog, can trigger a reaction in a sensitive person.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "159421",
"title": "Urination",
"section": "Section::::Other species.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 125,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 125,
"end_character": 818,
"text": "Domestic dogs mark their territories by urinating on vertical surfaces (usually at nose level), sometimes marking over the urine of other dogs. When one dog marks over another dog's urine, this is known as \"counter-marking\" or \"overmarking\". Male dogs urine-mark more frequently than female dogs, typically beginning after the onset of sexual maturity. Male dogs, as well as wolves, sometimes lift a leg and attempt to urinate even when their bladders are empty – this is known as a \"raised-leg display\", \"shadow-urination\", or \"pseudo-urination\". They typically mark their territory due to the presence of new stimuli or social triggers in a dog's environment, as well as out of anxiety. Marking behavior is present in both male and female dogs, and is especially pronounced in male dogs that have not been neutered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2d01d2
|
How would 17th century sailing companies, navies, and pirates deal with men who fell overboard?
|
[
{
"answer": "My friend /u/RMission wrote an article on this subject, in particular how people back then would be revived from drowning: \n \n[Resuscutation of Drowning Victims at Sea](_URL_0_). \n \nIt will inform you of the subject more than you could imagine. ",
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"answer": "It's from the 19th century and not the 17th, but Herman Melville talked about the subject a little in his novel [White Jacket](_URL_0_) (in which he describes life aboard a Man-o-War).\n\nHere one passage I found:\n\n > In men-of-war, night and day, week in and week out, two life-buoys are kept depending from the stern; and two men, with hatchets in their hands, pace up and down, ready at the first cry to cut the cord and drop the buoys overboard. Every two hours they are regularly relieved, like sentinels on guard. No similar precautions are adopted in the merchant or whaling service.\n\n...\n\n > Next day, just at dawn, I was startled from my hammock by the cry of \"All hands about ship and shorten sail!\" Springing up the ladders, I found that an unknown man had fallen overboard from the chains; and darting a glance toward the poop, perceived, from their gestures, that the life-sentries there had cut away the buoys.\n\n > It was blowing a fresh breeze; the frigate was going fast through the water. But the one thousand arms of five hundred men soon tossed her about on the other tack, and checked her further headway.\n\n > \"Do you see him?\" shouted the officer of the watch through his trumpet, hailing the main-mast-head. \"Man or buoy, do you see either?\"\n\n > \"See nothing, sir,\" was the reply.\n\n > \"Clear away the cutters!\" was the next order. \"Bugler! call away the second, third, and fourth cutters' crews. Hands by the tackles!\"\n\n > In less than three minutes the three boats were down; More hands were wanted in one of them, and, among others, I jumped in to make up the deficiency.\n\n > \"Now, men, give way! and each man look out along his oar, and look sharp!\" cried the officer of our boat. For a time, in perfect silence, we slid up and down the great seething swells of the sea, but saw nothing.\n\n > \"There, it's no use,\" cried the officer; \"he's gone, whoever he is. Pull away, men—pull away! they'll be recalling us soon.\"\n\n > \"Let him drown!\" cried the strokesman; \"he's spoiled my watch below for me.\"\n\n > \"Who the devil is he?\" cried another.\n\n > \"He's one who'll never have a coffin!\" replied a third.\n\n > \"No, no! they'll never sing out, 'All hands bury the dead!' for him, my hearties!\" cried a fourth.\n\n > \"Silence,\" said the officer, \"and look along your oars.\" But the sixteen oarsmen still continued their talk; and, after pulling about for two or three hours, we spied the recall-signal at the frigate's fore-t'-gallant-mast-head, and returned on board, having seen no sign even of the life-buoys.\n\n > The boats were hoisted up, the yards braced forward, and away we bowled—one man less.",
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "50767",
"title": "Privateer",
"section": "Section::::Legal framework and relation to piracy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "Some crews were treated as harshly as naval crews of the time, while others followed the comparatively relaxed rules of merchant ships. Some crews were made up of professional merchant seamen, others of pirates, debtors, and convicts. Some privateers ended up becoming pirates, not just in the eyes of their enemies but also of their own nations. William Kidd, for instance, began as a legitimate British privateer but was later hanged for piracy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34239084",
"title": "Piracy in the Atlantic World",
"section": "Section::::The life of a pirate.:Governance and shipboard relations.:Rank.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "Failure of captains and other officers to condescend to seamen could result in the desire for the crew to mutiny, thus challenging the officers' right to deference. The late 18th century's challenges to monarchical and aristocratic power structures bled over into shipboard life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1004392",
"title": "Andrew de Guldeford",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "De Guldeford claimed his ships to be amongst 'the guardians of the sea', but offered no warrant or authority to this effect, and proceeded to board the Manx ships by force of arms, removing the money, and goods, and taking away with him one of the Manx ships. Further, the pirates carried off a number of the Manx men with them back to Ireland, where they were imprisoned.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "213568",
"title": "Laccadive Islands",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "In 1697, the notorious pirate Captain Kidd and his crew brought their ship, the \"Adventure Galley\", to the Laccadive Islands. The undisciplined crew chopped up the local boats for firewood, and raped the local women. When the men retaliated by killing the ship's cooper, the pirates attacked the village and beat up the people who lived there.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19433522",
"title": "Shrine of Our Lady of Bonaria",
"section": "Section::::History and traditional account.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "On March 25, 1370, a ship coming from Spain was traveling towards Italy when it was seized by a terrible storm that put the lives of the crew and passengers at risk. The captain, in a last attempt to save the crew of the ship, ordered the sailors to cast into the sea the ship's cargo. This was done but without any aid to the sailors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34239084",
"title": "Piracy in the Atlantic World",
"section": "Section::::\"Enemies of all mankind\".:Attitude toward death.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 156,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 156,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "On every voyage a sailor would face the risk of falling overboard and drowning, starvation, disease, abuse, accidents in the rigging, and attack. Once a sailor abandoned his law-abiding career to become a pirate he knowingly increased his chance of expediting his own death exponentially. Once convicted as a pirate, a sailor faced an almost certain demise of being hanged at the execution docks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54997242",
"title": "Jacob Evertson",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Another ship.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "At the time Yankey had a 40-gun 100-man Dutch ship while Evertson sailed a 26-gun, 50-man barque. Despite many of their men having deserted, the two pirates refused to destroy their ships, pleading with Molesworth, “We beg you to consider that if our ships are broken up we shall be left destitute of all livelihood in present and future, and to allow us the use of them. We have neither of us money to purchase an estate ashore.” Molesworth repeated his demand, and the pirates sailed away.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8yfcor
|
How can I identify who the people buried at the grave site I found on my families texas red river ranch are?
|
[
{
"answer": "Texas counties will typically have a Tax Assessor-Collector and a County Clerk. The Clerk keeps records of birth and death, amongst others. Their records may well have been co-located and both lost in the same fire, but you never know. If by \"tax office\" you didn't mean the County Clerk, you may want to check with them.\n\nThere are also census roles, immigration logs, and various other sorts of documents that can be used but are hard to track down. As mentioned elsewhere, genealogists often have these already in a processed and search-able form.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2064449",
"title": "Glenwood Cemetery (Houston, Texas)",
"section": "Section::::Notable burials.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1065,
"text": "This historic cemetery is the final resting place of a number of individuals who were citizens of the short-lived Republic of Texas. The grave sites of those individuals have been designated with metal markers and are frequently decorated with the flag of the Republic and State of Texas. Charlotte Baldwin Allen, wife of Augustus Chapman Allen, founder City of Houston, has her grave marked by a large monument. Charlotte's brother, Horace Baldwin, was a mayor during the Republic; and her daughter, Eliza Allen Converse, was touted as \"the first child born in Houston.\" Another early arrival to Houston was William Robinson Baker, who worked for the Houston Town Company starting in 1837. He was later a Houston mayor. He is buried next to his wife, Hestor Eleanor Runnels. Other citizens of the Texas Republic were Hiram Runnels, a former Governor of Mississippi (18331835), and James Wilson Henderson, who served as Governor of Texas in 1853. Anson Jones, the last president of the Republic of Texas, committed suicide at the Capitol Hotel and is buried here. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29966043",
"title": "Agua Mansa, California",
"section": "Section::::History.:Agua Mansa Pioneer Cemetery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 915,
"text": "Records of who is buried in the cemetery are incomplete but about 1,400 (as of October 2018) names have been identified out of a total of 2,000 estimated burials. Only a few grave markers remain today. The earliest known interment was that of Louis Robidoux, who came to California in 1844 and bought the Jurupa Rancho near today's City of Riverside. Another burial was that of Cornelius Jensen in 1886; Jensen was a Danish sea captain who established a store at Agua Mansa before moving to part of the Robidoux ranch. Jensen's wife, Mercedes Alvarado, is also buried in the cemetery along with other members of her family. Lorenzo Trujillo, the original patriarch of the community, is also believed to rest somewhere in a grave that long ago lost its marker. Isaac Slover, a mountain man and bear hunter who came to California in his old age (and who was killed in 1854 by a bear), is also buried in the cemetery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50779058",
"title": "Greenwood/Memory Lawn Mortuary & Cemetery",
"section": "Section::::Notable interments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "Among the notable people interred in the cemetery are three Arizona Territory Governors, six Arizona State Governors, a Secretary of Arizona Territory, a U.S. Congressman, a Mayor of Phoenix, two recipients of the Medal of Honor, the founders of the cities of Glendale, Arizona and Chandler, race-car drivers, including the winner of the 1958 Indianapolis 500, journalists and the mother and step-father of a former First Lady.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3277500",
"title": "Texas State Cemetery",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "The cemetery is divided into two sections. The smaller one contains around 900 graves of prominent Texans, while the larger has over 2,000 marked graves of Confederate veterans and widows. There is room for 7,500 interments; the cemetery is about half full, after including plots chosen by people who are eligible for burial.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50779058",
"title": "Greenwood/Memory Lawn Mortuary & Cemetery",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "Greenwood/Memory Lawn Mortuary & Cemetery is the official name given to a cemetery located at 2300 West Van Buren Street in Phoenix, Arizona owned by Dignity Memorial. The cemetery, which resulted as a merger of two historical cemeteries, Greenwood Memorial Park and Memory Lawn Memorial Park, is the final resting place of various notable citizens of Arizona. Pioneers, governors, congressman, government officials, journalists, race car drivers, soldiers, actors and actresses are among the many notable citizens who are interred in the cemetery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40147707",
"title": "Austin Cemetery",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "The Austin Cemetery, in Austin, Nevada, United States, is a cemetery whose first known burials were in 1863. It consists of four cemetery sections: Masonic and Odd Fellows sections on the north of U.S. 50, and Calvary (Catholic) and \"Citizens\" sections on the south side. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2003.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34634638",
"title": "Oakfield Cemetery (Wantagh, New York)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1158,
"text": "The first person recorded as having been buried in the Old Burying Ground is J. Checker Jones, who died on September 1, 1862. Saint Matthias Church's records show the names of 108 individuals buried in the cemetery, two thirds of whom have the last name of Jackson, taken from the Jacksons who owned and freed their slaves. The last burial registered by the Town of Hempstead was of Charles Jackson, who died on June 17, 1943. The most notable people buried there are four black soldiers from Wantagh who served in the U.S. Army during the Civil War. The names of these soldiers are Morris Jackston (1841-March 11, 1187), Gilbert Jackson (1845-September 28, 1916), David C. Jackson (1839-Oct. 1, 1905) and Edward S. (or Sands E.) Jackson (1825-February 9, 1903). Unfortunately, due to vandalism that has taken place throughout history, the headstones for these four soldiers are the only ones that still remain in the entire cemetery and have been repositioned by the Town of Hempstead to lay flat, as this makes them harder to be stolen. As late as the 1960s, residents counted thirty-nine stones still standing, but vandals rapidly carried these all away.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1uyn5v
|
what sound properties do different musical instruments have different from each other?
|
[
{
"answer": "This has a lot to do with overtones and resonance. \n\nResonance is pretty self-explanatory: how well something (in the case an instrument) resonates throughout a room or building due to the sound waves bouncing and amplifying for a short period of time. \n\nOvertones are what make a sound \"thick.\" When an instrument plays a note, there is a dominant pitch that registers. However, there is also normally other pitches that \"surround\" that pitch to make it sound fuller. Think of a male falsetto note, or Pavarotti hitting that same note. One is thin without many overtones, and one is huge and thick.\n\nIf you play a note around a middle C on a piano and on a trumpet and a well-trained tenor sings the same note, none of these three things will sound the same as you have mentioned. This is because the piano has a fairly thin sound (less overtones), the trumpet uses its brass make-up to increase resonance and overtones, and a tenor would use his entire chest and nasal cavity to resonate the sound a fill an opera house. This applies for all musical instruments with some louder, thinner-sounding, thicker-sounding, irritating, warm and colorful etc..\n\nThis isn't a conclusive answer to your question but it is a little knowledge that I know and I hope it's helpful.",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "413740",
"title": "Ear training",
"section": "Section::::Timbre recognition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "Each type of musical instrument has a characteristic sound quality that is largely independent of pitch or loudness. Some instruments have more than one timbre, e.g. the sound of a plucked violin is different from the sound of a bowed violin. Some instruments employ multiple manual or embouchure techniques to achieve the same pitch through a variety of timbres. If these timbres are essential to the melody or function, as in shakuhachi music, then pitch training alone will not be enough to fully recognize the music. Learning to identify and differentiate various timbres is an important musical skill that can be acquired and improved by training.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14405771",
"title": "Speech science",
"section": "Section::::Transmission of speech.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "There are two types of tones: pure tones and complex tones. The musical note produced by a tuning fork is called a pure tone because it consists of one tone sounding at just one frequency. Instruments get their specific sounds — their timbre — because their sound comes from many different tones all sounding together at different frequencies. A single note played on a piano, for example, actually consists of several tones all sounding together at slightly different frequencies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45540952",
"title": "Conservation and restoration of musical instruments",
"section": "Section::::Classification Systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "There are around a handful of different classification systems known for musical instruments. From the 1960s, Curt Sachs and Erich Moritz von Hornbostel's system for the Classification of Musical Instruments is divided into two main sections with several subcategories. The first section is “Idiophones- musical instruments in which vibrating solid material (ex. stone, wood, and metal) is used to produce sound and are differentiated according to how you make it vibrate.” The subcategories are as follows: \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41232",
"title": "Harmonic",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 846,
"text": "Most acoustic instruments emit complex tones containing many individual partials (component simple tones or sinusoidal waves), but the untrained human ear typically does not perceive those partials as separate phenomena. Rather, a musical note is perceived as one sound, the quality or timbre of that sound being a result of the relative strengths of the individual partials. Many acoustic oscillators, such as the human voice or a bowed violin string, produce complex tones that are more or less periodic, and thus are composed of partials that are near matches to integer multiples of the fundamental frequency and therefore resemble the ideal harmonics and are called \"harmonic partials\" or simply \"harmonics\" for convenience (although it's not strictly accurate to call a partial a harmonic, the first being real and the second being ideal).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1664363",
"title": "Consonance and dissonance",
"section": "Section::::Physiological basis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "For instance, two notes played simultaneously but with slightly different frequencies produce a beating \"wah-wah-wah\" sound. Musical styles such as traditional European classical music consider this effect objectionable (\"out of tune\") and go to great lengths to eliminate it. Other musical styles such as Indonesian gamelan consider this sound an attractive part of the musical timbre and go to equally great lengths to create instruments that produce this slight \"roughness\" (, ).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4385464",
"title": "Electronic tuner",
"section": "Section::::Regular types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1143,
"text": "Most musical instruments generate a fairly complex waveform. It contains a number of harmonic partials, including the fundamental frequency (which a typical listener perceives as the pitch of the note) and additional \"harmonics\" (also called \"partials\" or \"overtones\"). Each instrument produces different ratios of harmonics, which is what makes notes of the same pitch played on different instruments (e.g., an A 440 Hz note played on oboe, violin or electric guitar) sound different. As well, this waveform constantly changes. This means that for non-strobe tuners to be accurate, the tuner must process a number of cycles and use the pitch average to drive its display. Background noise from other musicians or harmonic overtones from the musical instrument can impede the electronic tuner from \"locking\" onto the input frequency. This is why the needle or display on regular electronic tuners tends to waver when a pitch is played. Small movements of the needle, or LED, usually represent a tuning error of 1 cent. Typical accuracy of these types of tuners is around ±3 cents. Some inexpensive LED tuners may drift by as much as ±9 cents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "77892",
"title": "Timbre",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "In simple terms, timbre is what makes a particular musical sound have a different sound from another. For instance, it is the difference in sound between a guitar and a piano playing the same note at the same volume. Both instruments can sound equally tuned in relation to each other as they play the same note, and while playing at the same amplitude level each instrument will still sound distinctively with its own unique tone color. Experienced musicians are able to distinguish between different instruments of the same type based on their varied timbres, even if those instruments are playing notes at the same fundamental pitch and loudness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
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] | null |
1rdpsh
|
does heat affect the energy absorbed by a solar panel?
|
[
{
"answer": "[Wiki section](_URL_0_)\n\nSo your run of the mill solar panel works because the electrons in the silicon are separated into two layers. There is a bottom layer of electrons with the silicon itself (the valence band), a layer of no electrons (band gap) and a top layer of electrons that move around (conduction band). A photovoltaic cell works be having a photon (light particle) come in and give its energy to an electron in the lower layer so that it can jump from the inner layer over the layer of nothing and into the top layer where the electron can move around and essentially create a current. [This is also why silicon is called a semi conductor, because it conducts in some situation and insulates in others]. \n\nNow, that band gap (the layer of nothing) is partially dependent on temperature. Temperature is sort of like the average energy of all the electrons, the majority of which are in the lower valence band. A higher temperature means that they will have a bit more energy and the band gap will be smaller, so you'll get more current out of your cell which is good.\n\n Bandgap has its fingers in many pies though, and changing the temperature is changing the bandgap. Changing the bandgap will change the highest possible voltage that the circuit can have. Higher temperatures end up having lower maximum voltages\n\n[This graph](_URL_1_) pretty much explains what happens with temperature. Higher temperatures mean higher current and lower maximum voltage. The voltage rapidly decreases though, so you can think of it as either on or off, and so you'd generally want higher temperatures. At any rate, the effect is fairly marginal. \n\nedit:I wrote this on the fly so I can reword things if it is confusing. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't have the knowledge of semiconductor physics to explain why solar panels work less well when they're hot. Most things, as they get hot, act as if they have a higher resistance to the flow of electricity. But why is that? One explanation I see is that hot atoms jump around more than cold ones (that's the definition of \"hot\" on an atomic level), so the electrons have a harder time flowing around the atoms. See _URL_0_\n\nAnyway, regardless of the actual reason, I see no conflict in the answers that I have googled. When I googled this, every single answer said: \"solar panels deliver less power when they are hotter\".\n\nHere's an explanation that claims to explain why. I don't claim that I understand it in detail: _URL_1_\n\nHere's someone actually doing the test and their resulting data (just one of many that I found): _URL_2_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29324571",
"title": "Solar cell efficiency",
"section": "Section::::Technical methods of improving efficiency.:Radiative cooling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "An increase in solar cell temperature of approximately 1 °C causes an efficiency decrease of about 0.45%. To prevent this, a transparent silica crystal layer can be applied to solar panels. The silica layer acts as a thermal black body which emits heat as infrared radiation into space, cooling the cell up to 13 °C.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45693651",
"title": "Application of silicon-germanium thermoelectrics in space exploration",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "Near the sun, solar cell performance deteriorates from high incident particle flux and high temperatures from heat flux. However, thermoelectric energy conversion systems that use thermoelectric materials (e.g. SiGe alloys) as a supplemental source of power for missions near the sun can operate unprotected in vacuum and air environments under high temperatures due to their low sensitivity to radiation damage. Such properties have made SiGe thermoelectrics convenient for power generation in space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36056523",
"title": "Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems",
"section": "Section::::Research and development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "Applied Optics and functional Surfaces Solar energy systems convert solar radiation incident on the earth into thermal, electrical or chemical energy. In order to better transmit, reflect, absorb, filter, redirect or concentrate the incoming radiation, Fraunhofer ISE develops optical components and systems. This business area serves as an interdisciplinary field and serves many areas of solar technology: windows and facades, solar thermal collectors, concentrator systems for photovoltaics and solar power plants as well as photovoltaic module technology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25451813",
"title": "Plasmonic solar cell",
"section": "Section::::Recent advancements.:Third generation.:Hot carrier cells.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 1417,
"text": "A problem with solar cells is that the high energy photons that hit the surface are converted to heat. This is a loss for the cell because the incoming photons are not converted into usable energy. The idea behind the hot carrier cell is to utilize some of that incoming energy which is converted to heat. If the electrons and holes can be collected while hot, a higher voltage can be obtained from the cell. The problem with doing this is that the contacts which collect the electrons and holes will cool the material. Thus far, keeping the contacts from cooling the cell has been theoretical. Another way of improving the efficiency of the solar cell using the heat generated is to have a cell which allows lower energy photons to excite electron and hole pairs. This requires a small bandgap. Using a selective contact, the lower energy electrons and holes can be collected while allowing the higher energy ones to continue moving through the cell. The selective contacts are made using a double barrier resonant tunneling structure. The carriers are cooled which they scatter with phonons. If a material with a large bandgap of phonons then the carriers will carry more of the heat to the contact and it won't be lost in the lattice structure. One material which has a large bandgap of phonons is indium nitride. The hot carrier cells are in their infancy but are beginning to move toward the experimental stage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1358074",
"title": "Solar mirror",
"section": "Section::::Solar thermal applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "The intensity of solar thermal energy from solar radiation at the surface of the earth is about , of area normal to the direction of the sun, under clear-sky conditions. When solar energy is unconcentrated, the maximum collector temperature is about . This is useful for space heating and heating water. For higher temperature applications, such as cooking, or supplying a heat engine or turbine-electrical generator, this energy must be concentrated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36541521",
"title": "COMPASS-2",
"section": "Section::::TCS – thermal-control system.:Main tasks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 118,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 118,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "The energy from the incoming electromagnetic radiation is basically converted into heat. Thus it is the most important base for the thermal budget. Relevant for the TCS is the direct solar radiation, the reflected solar radiation from the Earth/Moon and the infrared radiation of the Earth/Moon. Therefore, it is very important to know the chronological sequence and the orbital parameters because these parameters will all be considered and processed in our thermal analysis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8855042",
"title": "Building insulation materials",
"section": "Section::::Reflective insulation and radiant barriers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 169,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 169,
"end_character": 1083,
"text": "Reflective insulation and radiant barriers reduce the radiation of heat to or from the surface of a material. Radiant barriers will reflect radiant energy. A radiant barrier by itself will not affect heat conducted through the material by direct contact or heat transferred by moist air rising or convection. For this reason, trying to associate R-values with radiant barriers is difficult and inappropriate. The R-value test measures heat transfer through the material, not to or from its surface. There is no standard test designed to measure the reflection of radiated heat energy alone. Radiated heat is a significant means of heat transfer; the sun's heat arrives by radiating through space and not by conduction or convection. At night the absence of heat (i.e. cold) is the exact same phenomenon, with the heat radiating described mathematically as the linear opposite. Radiant barriers prevent radiant heat transfer equally in both directions. However, heat flow to and from surfaces also occurs via convection, which in some geometries is different in different directions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
46ywe0
|
why do most countries use the same calendar?
|
[
{
"answer": "Europe and North America, which use a calendar based on the Christian calendar, export a lot of goods around the world. Other countries use the calendar because their major western trading partners do. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most countries in Europe came to use the Julian calendar (developed by the Romans), with some revisions endorsed by the Catholic Church, which we call the Gregorian calendar. The power of European colonization, trade, missionary work and military might spread it across the globe, and the last holdouts eventually bowed in the face of the benefits of standardization. Some do maintain parallel calendars to the Gregorian calendar, though.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Colonization.\n\nThe world was conquered by a few super powers and they implemented their culture, including calendars and timekeeping, wherever they went. Besides, travel and trade are easier when everyone is tracking time the same way. So, some places still respect their cultural calendars (like the Chinese and Hebrew calendars) while officially operating with the same calendar as the rest of the world.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It makes it way easier to organise dates. Thus making it easier to trade with different people on the planet or establish global relationships. \n\nIf there would be another calendar in place in France for example, I would be slightly discouraged trying to establish a private or professional relationship there. \n\nSame goes for the time.\n\n**TL;DR** It just makes things easier on a global scale",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why didn't a standard measurement system take off? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As explained below, a lot of standardisation comes from not only Exploration Era European powers spreading the Gregorian calender, making other nations at the time use it for trade benefits. \n\nHowever some countries still adhere to their own standards. \n\nFor example- the one I know of is Japan, where while in international business they'll use the A.D. time scale, but in every day life, they use the number of years since their latest emperor was coronated (IIRC) . \nSo currently it's the 26th year of Akihito's reign as Emperor, which over there is known as the Heisei (㍻) Period. So in most governmental and every day things the date is written as ㍻26年2月22日 or The Heisei Era's 26th year, 2nd Month, 22nd Day.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Trade. Wars are fun to learn about, but economics shaped history. \n\nBut just so you know, there have been attempts. The French went so far as to euro-fy time. Down to ten hours in a day and even 100 \"decimal minutes\" in an hour. \n\nMy favorite is kodaks calendar. They used it for the internal business structure as late as the 90's, but it was also proposed as an international replacement. Kodak used it so long mainly because it made bookkeeping and accounting much easier because it you didn't have to worry about months with varying numbers of days. Plus it had the convenient effect of putting every date, every month, every year on the same day. The third of the month is *always* a Tuesday. The 20? Always a Friday (and yes the 13th too). The original proposal also moved holidays to where they were always on Monday. \n\nFor those wondering, the extra month was called Sol and it was in the summer (obviously). And for those of you who did the math, we got a December 29th. A holiday called year day. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44100110",
"title": "Adoption of the Gregorian calendar",
"section": "Section::::Present situation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "Some countries use other calendars alongside the Gregorian calendar, including India (Indian national calendar), Bangladesh (Bengali calendar), Nepal (Vikram Samvat), Pakistan (Islamic calendar), Israel (Hebrew calendar) and Myanmar (Burmese calendar), and other countries use a modified version of the Gregorian calendar, including Thailand (Thai solar calendar), Japan (Japanese calendar), North Korea (North Korean calendar) and Taiwan (Minguo calendar).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13950019",
"title": "Civil calendar",
"section": "Section::::Civil calendars worldwide.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "The majority of countries in the world use the Gregorian calendar as their sole civil calendar. Countries which do not use the Gregorian calendar are Afghanistan and Iran, which use the Solar Hijri calendar, Ethiopia (Ethiopian calendar) and Nepal (Vikram Samvat). Some countries use other calendars alongside the Gregorian calendar: Bangladesh (Bangla calendar), India (Indian national calendar) and Israel (Hebrew calendar).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5377",
"title": "Calendar",
"section": "Section::::Calendar subdivisions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "Because the number of days in the \"tropical year\" is not a whole number, a solar calendar must have a different number of days in different years. This may be handled, for example, by adding an extra day in leap years. The same applies to months in a lunar calendar and also the number of months in a year in a lunisolar calendar. This is generally known as intercalation. Even if a calendar is solar, but not lunar, the year cannot be divided entirely into months that never vary in length.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15512766",
"title": "Dual dating",
"section": "Section::::East Asia.:China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "The Republic of China started using the Gregorian calendar on 1 January 1912, but the lunisolar Chinese calendar is still used along with the Gregorian calendar, especially when determining certain traditional holidays. The reference has been a longitude of 120°E since 1929, which is also used for Chinese Standard Time (UTC+8). China, Hong Kong, Macau, Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore and Taiwan all have legal holidays based on the lunisolar Chinese calendar, with the most important one being the Chinese New Year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15512766",
"title": "Dual dating",
"section": "Section::::European countries and their colonies: Old Style and New Style dates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "During the period between 1582, when the first countries adopted the Gregorian calendar, and 1923, when the last European country adopted it, it was often necessary to indicate the date of an event in both the Julian calendar and the Gregorian calendar. Also, even before 1582, the year sometimes had to be double dated because different countries began the year on different dates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6966",
"title": "Chinese calendar",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 766,
"text": "Like Chinese characters, variants of this calendar are used in different parts of the Chinese cultural sphere. Korea, Vietnam, and the Ryukyu Islands adopted the calendar, and it evolved into Korean, Vietnamese, and Ryukyuan calendars. The main difference from the traditional Chinese calendar is the use of different meridians, which leads to some astronomical events—and calendar events based on them—falling on different dates. The traditional Japanese calendar also derived from the Chinese calendar (based on a Japanese meridian), but its official use in Japan was abolished in 1873 as part of reforms after the Meiji Restoration. Calendars in Mongolia and Tibet have absorbed elements of the traditional Chinese calendar, but are not direct descendants of it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44100110",
"title": "Adoption of the Gregorian calendar",
"section": "Section::::Countries that used lunisolar calendars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "They had used lunisolar calendars previously. None of them used the Julian calendar; the Old Style and New Style dates in these countries usually mean the older lunisolar dates and the newer Gregorian calendar dates respectively. In these countries, the old style calendars were similar but not all the same. The Arabic numerals may be used for both calendar dates in modern Japanese and Korean languages, but not for Chinese old-style dates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
13anho
|
Is dandruff really related to your water and how hard/soft it is?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well there are lots of causes for dandruff actually.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nNow this only lists medical reasons for dandruff, but we can already see it is a complex problem.\n\nWe know hard water is caused by a high amount of minerals dissolved into the water. We can see this by placing water on a black plate and allowing it to evaporate and observing the white/yellow residue left behind.\n\nThis same residue is left on your hair and scalp. \n\nIt usually would cause a fine powdery dandruff vs large flakes though.\n\nHad water also causes soap to not lather properly leaving soap scum behind. This us also harder to rinse off properly. _URL_1_\n\nTry rinsing better or using white vinegar just before you get out of the shower. Dont worry it will dry odorless.\n\n ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "393023",
"title": "Dandruff",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "Dandruff is a skin condition that mainly affects the scalp. Symptoms include flaking and sometimes mild itchiness. It can result in social or self-esteem problems. A more severe form of the condition, which includes inflammation of the skin, is known as seborrhoeic dermatitis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "967636",
"title": "Malassezia",
"section": "Section::::Role in human diseases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "A project in 2007 has sequenced the genome of dandruff-causing \"Malassezia globosa\" and found it to have 4,285 genes. \"M. globosa\" uses eight different types of lipase, along with three phospholipases, to break down the oils on the scalp. Any of these 11 proteins would be a suitable target for dandruff medications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "393023",
"title": "Dandruff",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Seborrhoeic dermatitis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "Inflammation and extension of scaling outside the scalp exclude the diagnosis of dandruff from seborrhoeic dermatitis. However, many reports suggest a clear link between the two clinical entities - the mildest form of the clinical presentation of seborrhoeic dermatitis as dandruff, where the inflammation is minimal and remain subclinical.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "393023",
"title": "Dandruff",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Microorganisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 761,
"text": "Older literature cites the fungus \"Malassezia furfur\" (previously known as \"Pityrosporum ovale\") as the cause of dandruff. While this species does occur naturally on the skin surface of both healthy people and those with dandruff, in 2007 it was discovered that the responsible agent is a scalp specific fungus, \"Malassezia globosa\", that metabolizes triglycerides present in sebum by the expression of lipase, resulting in a lipid byproduct oleic acid. During dandruff, the levels of \"Malassezia\" increase by 1.5 to 2 times its normal level. Oleic acid penetrates the top layer of the epidermis, the stratum corneum, and evokes an inflammatory response in susceptible people which disturbs homeostasis and results in erratic cleavage of stratum corneum cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35954442",
"title": "Selenium in biology",
"section": "Section::::Medical use of synthetic selenium compounds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "The substance loosely called selenium sulfide (with the approximate formula SeS) is the active ingredient in some anti-dandruff shampoos. The selenium compound kills the scalp fungus \"Malassezia\", which causes shedding of dry skin fragments. The ingredient is also used in body lotions to treat Tinea versicolor due to infection by a different species of \"Malassezia\" fungus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12629141",
"title": "Piroctone olamine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "It is often used in anti-dandruff shampoo as a replacement for the commonly used compound zinc pyrithione. It is structurally similar to ciclopirox and pyrithione, containing a substituted pyridine (pyridinone) group which inhibits ergosterol synthesis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "584777",
"title": "Thermophobia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "In pharmacy, a thermophobic foam consisting of 0.1% betamethasone valerate was found to be at least as effective as conventional remedies for treating dandruff. In addition, the foam is non-greasy and does not irritate the scalp. Another use of thermophobic material is in treating hyperhydrosis of the axilla and the palm: A thermophobic foam named Bettamousse developed by Mipharm, an Italian company, was found to treat hyperhydrosis effectively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
usy6b
|
What causes that sound my laptop makes when I am loading something?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's most likely the hard disk drive you're referring to. It contains a metallic disc that rotates very quickly, and a magnetic head retrieves and writes data to it. They contain a small motor to drive the disc and the process causes some noise (a clicking or crunching sound).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are two motors inside a hard drive. The spindle motor makes a constant relatively quiet noise. The other is the \"voice coil\" which makes angular movements of the read/write heads. This is what makes the chattering noise you are referring to. Often, data are widely distributed over the disk surface and not accessed sequentially, meaning the read/write head assembly moves to many hundreds of different locations per second.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2569253",
"title": "Hdparm",
"section": "Section::::Usage examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "Current web browsers like Chrome write regularly small chunks when browsing in order not to lose any important data when the application crashes. However, this lets the disk spin very often as the drive repeatedly needs to unleash and then park its heads. The generated noises can be thus regarded as distracting by the user. To circumvent this issue, you can switch the drive to the lowest degree of power management (next value, 255, turns power management off):\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7355118",
"title": "Brontok",
"section": "Section::::Symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "The computer also restarts when trying to open the Windows Command Prompt and prevents the user from downloading files. It also pop ups the default Web browser and loads a web page (HTML) which is located in the \"My Pictures\" (or on Windows Vista, \"Pictures\") folder. It creates .exe files in folders usually named as the folder itself (..\\documents\\documents.exe) this also includes all mapped network drives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7284057",
"title": "Compaq Presario 3000",
"section": "Section::::Quality Issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "The speaker (placed below the arrow keys) tends to rust because of the palm of our hands resting on top of it. This makes the laptop discolored and it's not easy to repaint that part because any new paint applied clogs the holes and blocks the audio.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37428589",
"title": "Fusion Drive",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "The operating system automatically manages the contents of the drive so the most frequently accessed files are stored on the faster flash storage, while infrequently used items move to or stay on the hard drive. For example, if spreadsheet software is used often, the software will be moved to the flash storage for faster user access. In software, this logical volume speeds up performance of the computer by performing both caching for faster writes and auto tiering for faster reads.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1094698",
"title": "Commodore DOS",
"section": "Section::::Technical overview.:1541 directory and file types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "On the Commodore 64, entering will flood the screen with garbage instead of loading the directory into BASIC RAM. This is because the drive assigns the directory a load address of $0401 (1025), which is equivalent to the start of BASIC for the Commodore PET, but corresponds to the default screen memory in the C64 (starting with the second character on the first line of the screen).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7247692",
"title": "Security and safety features new to Windows Vista",
"section": "Section::::Other features and changes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "BULLET::::- To prevent accidental deletion of Windows, Vista does not allow formatting the boot partition when it is active (right-clicking the C: drive and choosing \"Format\", or typing in \"Format C:\" (w/o quotes) at the Command Prompt will yield a message saying that formatting this volume is not allowed). To format the main hard drive (the drive containing Windows), the user must boot the computer from a Windows installation disc or choose the menu item \"Repair Your Computer\" from the Advanced System Recovery Options by pressing F8 upon turning on the computer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32279697",
"title": "Hard disk drive performance characteristics",
"section": "Section::::Access time.:Seek times & characteristics.:Effect of audible noise and vibration control.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 699,
"text": "Some desktop- and laptop-class disk drives allow the user to make a trade-off between seek performance and drive noise. For example, Seagate offers a set of features in some drives called Sound Barrier Technology that include some user or system controlled noise and vibration reduction capability. Shorter seek times typically require more energy usage to quickly move the heads across the platter, causing loud noises from the pivot bearing and greater device vibrations as the heads are rapidly accelerated during the start of the seek motion and decelerated at the end of the seek motion. Quiet operation reduces movement speed and acceleration rates, but at a cost of reduced seek performance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fabqp7
|
what does 'dry' mean in alcohol
|
[
{
"answer": "Imagine you worked at an ice cream shop.\n\nYou have 3 main types of ice cream.\n'Lip-smacking' sweet, 'Lemony-fruity' sorbet, and 'Cool-down' mint. \n\nIt can get a little tricky to explain minty flavours to customers, as there's a fine line for what some people may identify as 'cold' (which all ice cream is) and the cooling flavour of say, 'peppermint'. To communicate a little more effectively on the difference, it may be easier to have a different flavour identifier, in this case maybe...'cold-spicy'?\n\nThe term 'dry' in the drinks industry is similar to this in the sense that, in many cases, 'dry' simply refers to the more pronounced evidence of 'alcohol' flavour. The most well-known example of this is when ordering a 'Martini' cocktail. Asking for a dryer Martini just communicates that you like a higher ratio of alcohol vs the other additives (water & vermouth). Similarly, with white wine, a dryer tasting wine usually is an indication of the lesser amount of sugar levels of the wine prior to bottling. As all alcoholic beverages contain ethyl alcohol, the term 'dry' helps define the more clear & crisp flavour in certain 'boozy' flavoured drinks. \n\nThis is a very simplistic explanation, and misses out a lot of detail in the realm of sensory profiling in the biz, but it's a base understanding of how the term is used. \n\nSource: bar guy",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In a very simplified way it refers to how sweet or, in this case, not sweet a drink is. A dry drink is not going to have much sugary (or fruity - another term used) taste in the mouth. \n\nSo a fruity drink is sweet while a dry drink is not sweet to the taste.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "dry is the term used to describe the sensation of alcohol evaporating off of your tongue. It's generally the opposite of sweet.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Fully dry (“brut”) means the yeast have converted all available sugar to alcohol, leaving little/no residual sugar. A brut beer still has some residual sugar, and this is because yeast can’t eat maltose (malt sugar). In contrast, the sugar in fruit alcohol (cider, wine, champagne, etc) is fully digestible to the yeast, so a brut wine will have no residual sugar.\n\n*EDIT - other redditors have made right what I got wrong in the comments below. Here's a fresh take at the point I was attempting to make: It is a challenge to produce a fully dry maltose-based alcohol (e.g. beer) because the yeast will naturally cease activity before all sugar is consumed. Conversely, it is a challenge to produce a sweet or semi-sweet fructose-based alcohol (e.g. cider) because the yeast will generally be active until all sugar is consumed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As the other commenter said, it's essentially the opposite of sweet. Dryness refers to how much of the sugar has been converted to alcohol. The drier it is, the less sugar left after the fermentation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A few people have touched on a few accurate points here but dry can have several meanings, when it's in regards to a white wine or a rose it is generally a reduced sweetness due to the variety of grape and when it is harvested, with a red wine it is generally the tannin content that has the drying effect in your mouth,\n\nA dry gin can be two things, a London dry gin, which is a classification of gin not necessarily due to the sweetness, it's related to the distilling and steeping process involved in creating gin, whereas a non London dry gin that is dry is related to sweetness and mouth feel.\n\nDry cocktails are a combination of sweetness tasting, potentially tannin content, and acidity, but is a combination\n\nIt's a bit more complicated than this but this is the general outline for your average consumer\n\nSource; bartender for 3 and a bit years at nice venues",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It very much is the opposite of sweet. But one thing I also like to mention is that it is so the opposite of sweet it feels dry. Its taken me a long time to like dry wine because it feels counterintuitive on the tongue. This liquid makes your mouth quite literally feel dry thats how unsweet it is. It certainly isn't bad and once your used to it is pretty good actually but its different for sure.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Wow, this was a rabbit hole - but I did some research.\n\nFirst, the meaning is pretty easy (and covered) - dry alcohol means not sweet. (London Dry Gin is a different story I'm not going into). So, if you see a wine or beer or alcohol listed as dry, there is usually a sweeter counterpart.\n\nBut, why \"dry\" to describe \"not sweet.\" The best answer I've been able to find is that we can trace the term centuries back - to the extent you need to look at french text from the 1200s for the first recorded references to \"vin sec\" (dry wine). When terms are that old, you usually loose the etymology - so all that is left is our best guesses.\n\nOne very good thought is that wine used to not be aged the way it is now. We lost the art of tightly sealing jars (perfected by Greeks and Romans) in the dark ages, so if you let wine age too long it would go bad. Aging is one way we can breakdown the chemicals that make a wine astringent. If you drink a very astringent wine, you will notice your mouth feels dry. Sweet wines (wines with more sugars in them) mask the astringency and would not have a dry mouth feel. As different ways of making wines and alcohols evolved in the ensuing centuries, we were able to make not-sweet alcohols that don't have this effect, but the term \"dry\" stuck.\n\nFor more extensive reading with lots of links: [_URL_0_](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yo! After panning through the replies, I figured I'd drop some thoughts here. Source: I am a Certified (edit: now Advanced!) Sommelier and a Certified Specialist of Spirits.\n\n**Dry, as some have mentioned, is the word used to describe the opposite of sweet.** I will reference a few laws below that use this definition in legal practice to confirm this as the internationally accepted, and in many cases, legally-binding definition.\n\nWater is dry. Add sugar to it and it has some level of sweetness. You might hear words like \"off-dry\" to describe a small amount of sugar, \"semi-sweet\" a bit sweeter yet, and \"sweet\" or \"lusciously sweet\" to describe things even sweeter still. These are typically used to describe ranges of sugar expressed in **grams of sugar per liter**, which, if you multiply by bald eagles and divide by original colonies, can be converted to American. ;)\n\nFor reference, Coca-Cola has \\~126g/L of sugar. It's what most industry folk would call something like \"sweet\", \"cloyingly sweet\", or \"lusciously sweet\". [Source.](_URL_1_)\n\nThe amount of sugar in a wine can typically be found (except by many American producers) by searching google for \"(insert wine name here) tech sheet\". For example, find the technical notes for Moët & Chandon Imperial Brut [here](_URL_0_), where sugar is listed under \"dosage\" to be 9g/L. Keep in mind that most bottles encountered in the wild are 750mL, so to obtain a sugar level per bottle, simply multiply by .75.\n\nA few laws for describing dryness, for the purpose of confirming the above definition:\n\nGerman wines are allowed to call their wines \"trocken\" (dry in German) if and only if the wine has 9g/L of sugar or fewer.\n\nVouvray, a wine-making village along France's Loire River Valley, only allows for their wines to be labeled \"sec\" (dry in French) if the wines have 8g/L of sugar or fewer.\n\nSee below for a law on Gin.\n\n & #x200B;\n\n**Common misconceptions:** \"Dry\" is often used by consumers to refer to the drying sensation one experiences after taking a sip of a beverage. This is a mistake, because the technical word to describe that sensation is \"bitterness”, while the word most often used to describe the bitterness coming from grape and oak tannins is “tannic”. However, most beverage professionals (assuming they're paying attention) are in tune with the fact that this misconception is quite prevalent, so an astute salesperson should respond to \"I'd like a dry wine\" with something to the effect of \"Dry as in 'the absence of sugar' or dry as in 'dries my mouth out'?\"\n\nThe word \"tannic\" describes the sensation of astringency brought on by tannin, a compound--long name polyphenols--found in grape skins. Red wine, which is colored by leaving the crushed grape skins in the juice until the color seeps out--think of a tea bag leaching out its color--are prone to having tannin by the nature of this process. The longer the skins stay in the juice (sometimes as long as several weeks) to color, flavor, and add texture to the wine, the more tannin will be extracted from the skins, and the more the wine will dry your mouth out. But, again, this is not \"dryness\" technically, this is tannin--polyphenols--binding to your saliva and leaving a drying, sandpaper-like, cottonmouth feeling. Tannin can also be found in such things as tea leaves. Think over-steeped tea.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nAbout things like gin specifically, London Dry Gin is a spirit which must, by law, be flavored predominantly by juniper and have no more than .1g/L of sugar. This level of sugar is what the industry folk would call \"bone dry\". Keep in mind that this is different from \"Dry Gin\" and simply \"Gin\", which are principally made the same way (by flavoring a neutral spirit) but may have different interpretations of flavors and different levels of alcohol and sweetness.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nDryness is also distinct from alcohol content in terms of organoleptic qualities, though high levels of alcohol can change the mouthfeel (especially adding viscosity, a liquid's resistance to flow or \"thickness\") and add a perceived sweetness--a bone dry liquid with the viscosity of maple syrup may seem sweeter to the taster than a bone dry liquid with the viscosity of skim milk simply by perception, even though the two liquids in question have the same amount of sugar.\n\n & #x200B;\n\n**A word of caution:** As alluded to above, many wines and spirits are regulated by law in their production. Those which are not so regulated (American products, and products of countries who don't have bi-lateral trade agreements with countries who do regulate these things) are a great deal more laissez-faire when it comes to what words and designations end up on their products. A wine labeled \"dry\" in the states has no required limit of sugar. It could have 200g/L and face no legal recourse for naming it as such. Do your research on wines if you have any questions!!\n\n & #x200B;\n\nHope this is helpful! Happy Thursday!",
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"answer": "I’m a home brewer who occasionally also makes mead and wine so here’s my crack at it:\n\nAll booze starts off as super sweet sugary liquid. Yeast eats most sugars and poops alcohol. The more sugar that has been converted to alcohol, the “drier” the drink.",
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"answer": "As everyone said, dry = not sweet. \n\nWith vermouth, dry vermouth is a whole different product than sweet vermouth. Sweet vermouth is normally dark, and dry is normally a white vermouth.\n\nOr, if you’re talking martini, dry means less vermouth. In this sense you’re thinking of “dry” vs “wet.”\n\nSource: bartender",
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"answer": "Lots of talk about wine but I havent seen how it applies to beer mentioned so Ill take a stab at it. \n\nYeast eats sugar and makes alcohol. Malted barley (pre-beer) is sugar. Sometimes the yeast cant eat all the sugar and some is left. This leads to 'residual sweetness'. Think Russian imperial stout maybe?Sometimes the yeast eats all the sugar available and leaves a 'dry' beer like in a brut IPA. Sometimes a non-fermentable sugar (lactose) is added like in a milk stout. This also leaves a sweeter taste. \n\nOriginal gravity (O.G) Vs Final gravity (F.G.) is a helpful way to see this. O.G. is a measure of the sugar in a wort (pre-beer) available. F.G. is a measure of the amount of sugar when fermentation is finished. The higher the F.G. the sweeter the beer, the lower, the more alcohol and dryer the beer. Roughly.",
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"answer": "In terms of actual chemistry, dry ethanol is ethanol with very little water. As both molecules are polar, they mix very readily. Removing water from ethanol can be done via distillation, followed by adding Magnesium Sulfate. It may be needed to dry ethanol if left open for a while when you need a pure ethanol solvent. This is not the same term as 'dry' when referring to an alcoholic beverage however - I believe in that context it refers to the flavour of the beverage.",
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"answer": "If you are wondering \\*why\\* unsweet alcohol is characterized as \"dry,\" it actually goes all the way back to Hippocrates. He observed that people who drink too much wine could become dehydrated, and he also noted that the consumption of alcohol often brought a feeling of warmth, so he thought of wine as being both dry and hot, relative to other liquids. The \"heat\" of wine had nothing to do with its temperature (just like its \"dryness\" was unrelated to its liquid state), but rather with some sort of internal quality that is evidenced by what happens when you drink it.\n\nNoting that the sweetness of a wine inversely correlates with its suppressive effect on salivation, acrid wines were described as more ‘dry’ than sweet wines. \n\nFor ultimately similar reasons, we can refer to certain kinds of comedy as \"dry\" -- deadpan delivery lacks the outward signs of cheer associated with blood, which he thought of as particularly wet -- or as \"dark\" (associated with \"black bile,\" melan choler, from which we get the word melancholy).",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Dry just means not sweet, as in the lack of sweetness. Something that is dry usually either contains less sugar or has some ingredients or flavors that hide the sweetness.\n\nThat is why the 2 varieties of vermouth are sweet and dry or sweet and not sweet.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Dry means no residual sugar.\n\nAlcohol is made by yeast consuming sugars and producing alcohol plus carbon dioxide. A “dry” product is one where the yeasts were allowed to consume all sugar. Semi-dry, semi-sweet or sweet are the other options, all based on the remaining sugar content. Yeasts will continue to consume sugars as long as they exist so to make a semi sweet product for example you have to either kill the yeast (arrested fermentation) or allow it to ferment to dry then remove the yeasts and then back sweeten with sugar or fruit juices.\n\n(I work at a cidery)",
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"answer": " Dry as in the opposite of sweet. Less sweet, and more of the other flavors. The sweet can only be less, there is no actual literal opposite to it, it's just that the other flavors counterbalance the sweet.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nThe most obvious opposite of sweet is sour\n\n & #x200B;\n\nBut there is also astringency. That pucker the back of your tongue taste. Sumac has this taste, for comparison.\n\nSome bitterness also often comes along with the astringency, and is also part of the \"opposite\" of sweet\n\nAn astringent is something that constricts tissues. Witch Hazel, which you can buy OTC at any pharmacy, is an astringent. There are things in certain fruit juices and I think botanicals that are astringent that you taste. Since it constricts the tissues on your tongue, it literally feels like it's trying to dry out your tongue.",
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{
"answer": "Bartender here, just wanted to add a few things to the glorious comment from our resident som and spirits expert. \n\n\nAs far as London dry gin goes, that’s the title of one of five different types of gin. London dry is the most regulated and has very specific parameters it must conform to in order to be labeled as London dry. The other gin types are old Tom, genever, contemporary, and plymouth. You can think of these in terms of whiskey if that helps. For example, both bourbon and scotch are whiskeys, but they have very different requirements to be labeled as such. \n\n\nSimilarly, dry vermouth is a type of vermouth, or fortified wine. There are other types of fortified wine which may or may not be called vermouth, such as cocchi americano or blanc vermouth. The other most popular vermouth is sweet vermouth, which gets its name from the burnt sugar present in most sweet vermouths. You’ll find dry vermouth, the straw colored stuff, in a martini, and you’ll find sweet vermouth, the brown stuff, in a Manhattan. \n\n\nCheers!\n\n\nEdit: it’s also very popular to order a “dry” martini. In that context, what the guest usually means is that they want a martini made with less dry vermouth. It’s frustrating and extremely counter intuitive, but that’s the typical nomenclature used by the average consumer.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I believe it has to do with having less or no residual sugars or the lack of the ability of the palate to detect them. Sugar tend to round the mouth feel of a drink make it \"softer\" on the palate.\n\n non expert but I took a wine class in school so take this with a grain of salt..",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4189181",
"title": "Dryness (taste)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "Dryness is a property of beverages that describes the lack of a sweet taste. This may be due to a lack of sugars, the presence of some other taste that masks sweetness, or an underabundance of simple carbohydrates that can be converted to sugar by enzymes in the mouth (amylase in particular). The term \"dry\" may be applied to types of beer, wine, distilled spirits, or any other form of alcoholic beverage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "2068260",
"title": "Dry drunk",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "Dry drunk is a informal expression which describes an alcoholic or former alcoholic who no longer drinks but otherwise maintains the same behavior patterns of an alcoholic. They may have many different emotions during the period of them becoming sober.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2068260",
"title": "Dry drunk",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "The dry drunk is portrayed with feelings of profound depression and frustration and with the indecisive feeling of wanting a drink that they have given up. Several alcoholics drink for about 10-20 years before maintaining sobriety and get used to their personality and character traits that are embodied by their drunkard selves. During this phase of dry drunk, the addicts face restlessness, frustration, anger, impatience and craving. The symptoms of dry drunkenness are irregular and become less intense as the period of sobriety increases. Most of the symptoms of dry drunkenness can be noticed in the initial phase of sobriety.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "2068260",
"title": "Dry drunk",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 609,
"text": "A dry drunk can be described as a person who refrains from alcohol or drugs, but still has all the unresolved emotional and psychological issues which might have fueled the addiction to begin with. These unresolved issues continue to have a hold on their psyche and hence, they act like \"dry drunks.\" In most cases, alcohol dependency is a substantial factor in the lives of the alcoholics and accepting sobriety comes with its own challenges and understanding of their personality. Despite leaving alcohol and de-addicting themselves, most of their personalities are an embodiment of their drunkard selves. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21282070",
"title": "Taste",
"section": "Section::::Further sensations and transmission.:Astringency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "When referring to wine, \"dry\" is the opposite of \"sweet,\" and does not refer to astringency. Wines that contain tannins and so cause an astringent sensation are not necessarily classified as \"dry\", and \"dry\" wines are not necessarily astringent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4189181",
"title": "Dryness (taste)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 229,
"text": "In a dry martini, \"dry\" refers to the amount of vermouth used in the drink. A \"perfect\" martini – or any other cocktail that uses vermouth, such as a Perfect Manhattan – is a martini made with equal parts dry and sweet vermouth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "683030",
"title": "Canada Dry",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "The \"Dry\" in the brand's name refers to not being sweet, as in a dry wine. When John J. McLaughlin, who first formulated \"Canada Dry Pale Ginger Ale\", originally made his new soft drink, it was far less sweet than other ginger ales then available; as a result, he labelled it \"dry\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2wsusd
|
How did currency work in the Soviet economy if it was a command economy?
|
[
{
"answer": "Under a price fixing system you didn't have to deal with inflation you don't want because you (the government) set the price, thus by definition you didn't have inflation (outside of the black market anyway) if you don't increase prices. Instead, the problem you had to deal with were shortages (as the Soviet Union actually have to deal with) because prices don't adjust. Note that this wasn't always the case and there were bouts of inflation in the Soviet period, but unlike in a market economy, you could always just fix prices to avoid it and exchange the problem of inflation for the problem of people waiting in long lines to buy consumer goods.\n\nThe banking system was completely state ran, capital allocation was done through the bureaucracy. Household savings etc would be handled by the Sperbank, Investment was handled by the Stroibank, and another bank ran foreign exchanges. Above those you had the Gosbank, which was the core of the state banking system. In effect, the USSR had a single state ran banking monopoly.\n\nMoney sort of mattered when you are dealing with the consumer economy, workers were paid in wage, and bought goods in wage. However, cash didn't factor into the equation when you start talking about exchange between enterprises. If enterprise A transfers raw material to factory B for use, the Gosbank would oversee the process and credit A's account while debiting B's account without direct exchange of money between those two entities.\n\nOne implication of this is, of course, that inter-enterprise lending is not allowed because there is no mechanism for it except through barter (which did take place). Enterprises in the Soviet Union were forbidden from holding onto cash except paying worker's wage.\n\nForeign trade was conducted through the Vneshtorgbank. An enterprise producing trade goods would first sell it to the Vneshtorgbank, which would then credit its account, then sell it to foreign countries for hard currency. Which it would then hold on to until it needs it to buy foreign imports, which it would do with the foreign currency it holds. Then it will sell the imports to a Soviet firm, debiting and crediting accounts as needed in the process.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4610544",
"title": "Economic planning",
"section": "Section::::In socialism.:Planning versus command.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "Economic analysts have argued that the economy of the former Soviet Union actually represented an administrative or command economy as opposed to a planned economy because planning did not play an operational role in the allocation of resources among productive units in the economy since in actuality the main allocation mechanism was a system of command-and-control. As a result, the phrase administrative command economy gained currency as a more accurate descriptor of Soviet-type economies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4610544",
"title": "Economic planning",
"section": "Section::::Around the world.:Soviet Union.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "The economy of the Soviet Union operated in a centralized and hierarchical manner. The process used directives which were issued to lower-level organizations. Thus, the Soviet economic model was often referred to as a command economy or an administered economy as plan directives were enforced by inducements in a vertical power structure, but planning played little functional role in the allocation of resources.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26779",
"title": "Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "The Soviet Union became the first country to adopt a command economy, whereby production and distribution of goods were centralized and directed by the government. The first Bolshevik experience with a command economy was the policy of War communism, which involved the nationalization of industry, centralized distribution of output, coercive requisition of agricultural production, and attempts to eliminate money circulation, private enterprises and free trade. After the severe economic collapse, Lenin replaced war communism by the New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1921, legalising free trade and private ownership of small businesses. The economy quickly recovered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43069513",
"title": "Socialist economics",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Economic planning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "Economic planning is not synonymous with the concept of a \"command economy\", which existed in the Soviet Union, and was based on a highly bureaucratic administration of the entire economy in accordance to a comprehensive plan formulated by a central planning agency, which specified output requirements for productive units and tried to micromanage the decisions and policies of enterprises. The command economy is based on the organizational model of a capitalist firm, but applies it to the entire economy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43069513",
"title": "Socialist economics",
"section": "Section::::Elements of socialism in practice.:Centrally planned economies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 1502,
"text": "A centrally planned economy combines public ownership of the means of production with centralised state planning. This model is usually associated with the Soviet-style command economy. In a centrally planned economy, decisions regarding the quantity of goods and services to be produced are planned in advance by a planning agency. In the early years of Soviet central planning, the planning process was based upon a selected number of physical flows with inputs mobilized to meet explicit production targets measured in natural or technical units. This material balances method of achieving plan coherence was later complemented and replaced by value planning, with money provided to enterprises so that they could recruit labour and procure materials and intermediate production goods and services. The Soviet economy was brought to balance by the interlocking of three sets of calculation, namely the setting up of a model incorporating balances of production, manpower and finance. The exercise was undertaken annually and involved a process of iteration (the \"method of successive approximation\"). Although nominally a \"centrally planned\" economy, in reality formulation of the plan took place on a more local level of the production process as information was relayed from enterprises to planning ministries. Aside from the USSR and Eastern bloc economies, this economic model was also utilized by the People's Republic of China, Socialist Republic of Vietnam, Republic of Cuba and North Korea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "7843",
"title": "Planned economy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "A command economy or administrative command economy describes a country using Soviet-type economic planning which was characteristic of the former Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc before most of these countries converted to market economies. These terms highlight the central role of hierarchical administration and public ownership of production in guiding the allocation of resources in these economic systems. In command economies, important allocation decisions are made by government authorities and are imposed by law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34370768",
"title": "Hyperinflation in early Soviet Russia",
"section": "Section::::History.:Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "With the nation's currency in shambles, Soviet economic officials discussed implementation of a new monetary device to facilitate the exchange of products, such as \"labor units,\" but the period of War Communism came to a close in 1921 before any such idea could be implemented.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2gu59s
|
With Scotland's rejection of independence is there any other British territory/colony that did the same in history?
|
[
{
"answer": "Newfoundland was offered the opportunity to become a dominion with the Statute of Westminster 1931. This would have given it free self-rule in its domestic matters, basically just leaving it allied and in a privileged trading position with the United Kingdom and the other dominions, which included Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. A series of financial crises and near-bankruptcy caused Newfoundland to reject this arrangement, and its parliament requested that the British take up direct rule from London, which continued until it became a province of Canada in 1949. ",
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"answer": "Gibraltar has a unique governance structure, being officially a British Overseas Territory governed by a governor who reports directly to the British Crown. The UK government has responsibility for defense, external affairs and monetary policy, but the territory is self-governing internally and is an independent member of the EU. \n\nSpain continues to claim sovereignty over Gibraltar, but a proposal in 2002 for the two nations to share sovereignty (an international arrangement known as *condominium*) was rejected by the voters of Gibraltar, with 98.48% of voters voting no. \n\nThere is a movement in Gibraltar politics to form closer ties with the UK, possibly by incorporating into the UK itself, which would mean Gibraltar electing representatives to the British parliament, but I won't go into that too much because of the 20-year rule (which I have already overstepped by talking about the 2002 referendum). ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Only a couple colonies have given up/avoided offers of self rule, and all were due to economic and political turmoil. As already mentioned Newfoundland was one, but the Caribean colonies as well gave up self-rule. \n\nWhite planters were given legislative assemblies of varying kinds in the early 19th century, however with the abolition of slavery and the crash of the sugar industry they gave up self-rule some 70 years later. London ruled the Caribean through unelected Govenors/commissioners until the 1940s-50s when varies nationlist movements that were separate from the planters arose. \n\nI think it is worth noting that the Scots are one of the few members of the Empire who have been given a straight yes/no question on their participation. The overwhelming majority of colonies became independant through negotiations between London and representatives of some kind - be their nationalist movement leaders like Gandhi and Kenyatta, or Parliamentary leaders like John A MacDonald, Smutts, or Billy Hughes. Even the Irish, with their tradition of violent uprising negotiated the Anglo-Irish via a delegation from the Second Dail. \n\nI can not think of a single commonwealth member that has become independant directly because of a referendum. (And I would apperciate help finding one)\n\nSource: Canadian history undergrad, third year course in british history, stanley walports a new history of india. ",
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43473",
"title": "Wars of Scottish Independence",
"section": "Section::::The Second War of Independence: 1332–1357.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
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"text": "By the end of the campaign, Scotland was independent and remained thus, until the unification of the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland to create the single Kingdom of Great Britain was completed in the Treaty of Union of 1707.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "265256",
"title": "Politics of Scotland",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
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"text": "Today, the independence of Scotland from the United Kingdom remains a prominent political issue. On Thursday 18 September 2014, the Scottish electorate voted in a referendum on whether or not to become independent, and opted to stay as part of the United Kingdom, with 55.3% voting to stay in the United Kingdom and 44.7% voting for independence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "512734",
"title": "Mariano Rajoy",
"section": "Section::::Political positions.:Foreign policy.:Scottish independence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 660,
"text": "Scotland held a referendum on independence from the United Kingdom on Thursday 18 September 2014. In November 2013, Rajoy stated that an independent Scotland would have to reapply for membership of the European Union, causing considerable irritation to the devolved Scottish Government and criticism that Rajoy was interfering in the internal affairs of another state. Relations between the Spanish and devolved Scottish governments deteriorated further when the Scottish Government alleged that Rajoy invited a senior UK official to visit Madrid allegedly to co-ordinate British and Spanish opposition to the independence movements in Scotland and Catalonia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23107496",
"title": "Spain–United Kingdom relations",
"section": "Section::::Present day.:Scotland and Catalonia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 1253,
"text": "Scotland held a referendum on independence from the UK on 18 September 2014. In November 2013 the Spanish Prime Minister Mariano Rajoy had stated that an independent Scotland would have to reapply for membership of the European Union, causing considerable irritation to the Scottish Government. Relations between the Spanish and Scottish governments deteriorated further when the Scottish Government alleged that a senior UK Treasury official visited Spain ostensibly to co-ordinate British and Spanish opposition to the independence movements in Scotland and Catalonia. Rajoy was one of the few European heads of government to explicitly voice opposition to Scottish independence, primarily due to his fears that it would encourage the separatist drive in Catalonia. On the issue of Catalan independence, Prime Minister David Cameron had said that \"I don't believe that, in the end, [it's right to] try to ignore these questions of nationality, independence, identity\"... I think it’s right to make your arguments, take them on and then you let the people decide\" though he also added that \"I would never presume to tell people in Spain how to meet these challenges themselves; it's a matter for the Spanish Government and the Spanish Prime Minister.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43823332",
"title": "Constitutional status of Orkney, Shetland and the Western Isles",
"section": "Section::::Referenda.:2014 Scottish independence referendum.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "In the 2014 Scottish independence referendum, people voted on whether they wanted Scotland to become independent from the United Kingdom. Scotland as a whole voted 55.3% against independence. All three islands also voted against, with the Western Isles voting slightly less against independence, and Orkney and Shetland both voting significantly more against independence, than the national average\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44336349",
"title": "List of countries in the Eurovision Song Contest",
"section": "Section::::Unsuccessful attempts to participate.:Scotland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "Scotland would have been eligible to enter the contest had Scotland gained independence as a result of the 2014 Scottish independence referendum, as Scotland would, therefore, have been a separate country.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61188",
"title": "Scottish Parliament",
"section": "Section::::History of the Scottish Parliament.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "Before the Treaty of Union 1707 united the Kingdom of Scotland and the Kingdom of England into a new state called \"Great Britain\", Scotland had an independent parliament known as the Parliament of Scotland. Initial Scottish proposals in the negotiation over the Union suggested a devolved Parliament be retained in Scotland, but this was not accepted by the English negotiators.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6hxaha
|
How many times can a piece of plastic be recycled?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is highly dependent on how you want to recycle the plastic and the plastic material itself.\n\nA thermoset plastic is a non-reversible process, so it can't be used as re-grind in an injection molding process, whereas a thermoplastic may be able to be used depending on the performance required. Each time to process a thermoplastic it loses some of its properties, as well as potential effects on fillers. \n\nYou can also recycle plastic as an aggregate such as in products like extruded plastic lumber. Plastic isn't fully melted in the process, and the performance isn't as critical, so you can theoretically recycle the plastic more times.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1999119",
"title": "Plastic recycling",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "The percentage of plastic that can be fully recycled, rather than downcycled or go to waste, can be increased when manufacturers of packaged goods minimize mixing of packaging materials and eliminate contaminants. The Association of Plastics Recyclers have issued a \"Design Guide for Recyclability\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34604989",
"title": "Bag It (film)",
"section": "Section::::Recycling tags.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "The film shows that not all plastics that have recycling tags are actually recyclable. Plastics tagged as #3, #6 and #7 have low rates of recycling. Number three, polyvinyl chloride, is shown to be recycled 0% of the time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37201518",
"title": "Plastic pollution",
"section": "Section::::Reduction efforts.:Collection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "There are varying rates of recycling per type of plastic, and in 2011, the overall plastic recycling rate was approximately 8% in the United States. Approximately 2.7 million tons of plastics were recycled in the U.S. in 2011. Some plastics are recycled more than others; in 2011 \"29 percent of HDPE bottles and 29 percent of PET bottles and jars were recycled.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "944339",
"title": "Fibre-reinforced plastic",
"section": "Section::::Design considerations.:Disposal and recycling concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 1648,
"text": "As a subset of plastic, FR plastics are liable to a number of the issues and concerns in plastic waste disposal and recycling. Plastics pose a particular challenge in recycling because they are derived from polymers and monomers that often cannot be separated and returned to their virgin states. For this reason not all plastics can be recycled for re-use, in fact some estimates claim only 20% to 30% of plastics can be recycled at all. Fibre-reinforced plastics and their matrices share these disposal and environmental concerns. Investigation of safe disposal methods has led to two main variations involving the application of intense heat: in one binding agents are burned off - in the process recapturing some of the sunk material cost in the form of heat - and incombustible elements captured by filtration; in the other the incombustible material is burned in a cement kiln, the fibres becoming an integral part of the resulting cast material. In addition to concerns regarding safe disposal, the fact that the fibres themselves are difficult to remove from the matrix and preserve for re-use means FRP's amplify these challenges. FRP's are inherently difficult to separate into base materials, that is into fibre and matrix, and the matrix is difficult to separate into usable plastics, polymers, and monomers. These are all concerns for environmentally-informed design today. Plastics do often offer savings in energy and economic savings in comparison to other materials. In addition, with the advent of new more environmentally friendly matrices such as bioplastics and UV-degradable plastics, FRP will gain environmental sensitivity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "70154",
"title": "Resin identification code",
"section": "Section::::Consumer confusion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1048,
"text": "In the United States, use of the RIC in the coding of plastics has led to ongoing consumer confusion about which plastic products are recyclable. When many plastics recycling programs were first being implemented in communities across the United States, only plastics with RICs \"1\" and \"2\" (polyethylene terephthalate and high-density polyethylene, respectively) were accepted to be recycled. The list of acceptable plastic items has grown since then, and in some areas municipal recycling programs can collect and successfully recycle most plastic products regardless of their RIC. This has led some communities to instruct residents to refer to the form of packaging (i.e. \"bottles\", \"tubs\", \"lids\", etc.) when determining what to include in a curbside recycling bin, rather than instructing them to rely on the RIC. To further alleviate consumer confusion, the American Chemistry Council launched the \"Recycling Terms & Tools\" program to promote standardized language that can be used to educate consumers about how to recycle plastic products.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1923494",
"title": "Material efficiency",
"section": "Section::::Recycled Materials vs New Materials.:Plastics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 687,
"text": "Polystyrene from recycled material costs 88% less than without recycling, but a negligible amount of polystyrene is recycled in the United States because of the difficulty sorting it from other plastics. Other plastic products like polyethylene terephthalate soft drink bottles cost 76% less to manufacture form recycled materials, and this percentage as well as the variety of plastics that can be recycled is expected to increase with new separation technologies such as froth flotation and skin flotation. [3,6] Nonetheless, plastic degrades every time it's recycled, so some plastic will always need to come directly from fossil oils if such products are to continue to be produced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47051384",
"title": "Preserve (company)",
"section": "Section::::Process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Preserve sources the plastic used to make their products from both individuals looking to recycle and companies collecting #5 plastic. The company uses the recycled polypropylene plastic - most notably sourced from yogurt and hummus containers - to create eco-friendly, well-designed household products. So far, Preserve has reused over 100 tons of recycled materials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3xsy3o
|
when igniting a flammable substance from a gas canister, why doesn't the flame travel inwards towards the source and blow up the gas canister
|
[
{
"answer": "you need oxygen/fuel at a minimum ratio to combust. There is little or no oxygen in the gas canister.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because the gas canister is pushing the gas out and away, there is also no oxygen inside the canister, which prevents the gas inside from catching fire.\n\nIf you put a gas canister (with the valve shut) into a fire, two things could happen:\n\n* Some canisters (especially in laboratories) have security valves that open when there's too much pressure, the heat makes the gas inside expand, so the valve opens and releases the gas, it catches fire.\n* The gas inside keeps expanding untill the entire canister explodes, this is by far the worst alternative.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For some gases and liquids that CAN happen. Like ethylene oxide or nitro methane as examples. In fact they have to use detonation traps.\n\nOn nitro methane:\n_URL_0_\n\" The employer did not protect its employees from the recognized hazard of fire and explosion in that pipes, one-half inch or greater in diameter containing nitromethane and/or a nitroethane mixture, located in pipe racks in the nitroparaffin plant were not equipped with detonation traps.\"\n\nOn ethylene oxide:\n_URL_1_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19916613",
"title": "Radical (chemistry)",
"section": "Section::::Occurrence of radicals.:Combustion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 775,
"text": "Combustion consists of various radical chain reactions that the singlet radical can initiate. The flammability of a given material strongly depends on the concentration of radicals that must be obtained before initiation and propagation reactions dominate leading to combustion of the material. Once the combustible material has been consumed, termination reactions again dominate and the flame dies out. As indicated, promotion of propagation or termination reactions alters flammability. For example, because lead itself deactivates radicals in the gasoline-air mixture, tetraethyl lead was once commonly added to gasoline. This prevents the combustion from initiating in an uncontrolled manner or in unburnt residues (engine knocking) or premature ignition (preignition).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3199351",
"title": "Adiabatic flame temperature",
"section": "Section::::Common flames.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "Because most combustion processes that happen naturally occur in the open air, there is nothing that confines the gas to a particular volume like the cylinder in an engine. As a result, these substances will burn at a constant pressure allowing the gas to expand during the process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2495757",
"title": "Gas flare",
"section": "Section::::Overall flare system in industrial plants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "The released gases and liquids are routed through large piping systems called \"flare headers\" to a vertical elevated flare. The released gases are burned as they exit the flare stacks. The size and brightness of the resulting flame depends upon the flammable material's flow rate in joules per hour (or btu per hour).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3721845",
"title": "Rotational–vibrational coupling",
"section": "Section::::Conservation of angular momentum.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "The causal mechanism is in the energy conversions: the explosion of the gunpowder converts potential chemical energy to the potential energy of a highly compressed gas. As the gas expands, its high pressure exerts a force on both the projectile and the interior of the barrel. It is through the action of that force that potential energy is converted to kinetic energy of both projectile and barrel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20922",
"title": "Molotov cocktail",
"section": "Section::::Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "In action, the wick is lit and the bottle hurled at a target such as a vehicle or fortification. When the bottle smashes on impact, the ensuing cloud of fuel droplets and vapour is ignited by the attached wick, causing an immediate fireball followed by spreading flames as the remainder of the fuel is consumed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "888192",
"title": "Fire triangle",
"section": "Section::::Role of water in fire-fighting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "Cases also exist where the ignition factor is not the activation energy. For example, a smoke explosion is a very violent combustion of unburned gases contained in the smoke created by a sudden fresh air input (oxidizer input). The interval in which an air/gas mix can burn is limited by the explosive limits of the air. This interval can be very small (kerosene) or large (acetylene).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59710588",
"title": "Tlahuelilpan pipeline explosion",
"section": "Section::::Incident.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 788,
"text": "It is believed that the fountain caused fumes of the fuel to fill the air which later ignited in a huge fireball that consumed the surrounding fields which had been soaked with fuel. The pipeline at the rupture point was estimated to carry around 10,000 barrels of gasoline at . The exact cause of the fire that ignited the spill is not yet known. Investigators' first hypothesis was that the gases produced by the leak and the electricity sparks caused by the friction of people's synthetic clothes may have caused the explosion. The explosion was particularly deadly because the free gasoline attracted large numbers of people to the breach zone. Residents also stated that the shortage of gasoline in the area may have prompted many to attend the scene when they heard of the breach. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bvw2zq
|
Was there a sort of international court dialect used between European monarchs in medieval times, or were there just a lot of translators
|
[
{
"answer": "Okay, there were a couple of different things going on here. In the first place, we need to remember that monolingual inhabitants of monolingual nation-states is a comparatively recent notion. Medieval Europe was a giant quilt of different competing dialects, pidgins, creoles, and languages. As a result, aristocrats especially would frequently be fluent in several other languages. It's now time for a block quote because Tyerman said the next part best.\n\n > Learning to speak, even read, other languages came as less of a burden to twelfth-century western aristocrats than to some of their modern successors. In addition to his own local vernacular, an educated nobleman would have daily confronted Latin (if only in church or at prayers) and probably numerous other vernaculars, if only orally. Henry II of England was fluent in northern French and Latin, with a smattering of other western European languages; his son Richard I cracked jokes in Latin and recited verse in northern and southern French. To rule England or Sicily, Norman rulers or their officials needed to be trilingual. (Tyerman 234).\n\nIn addition, French was something of a *lingua franca* among Western European aristocrats and also your mercantile classes. If you look at Wolfram von Eschenbach's *Parzival*, you'll see that he occasionally drops a bit of French in to show his courtliness. Basically, French in the twelfth through fifteenth centuries had a status among Western European elites very similar to that of English among global elites today. For a good example of how French culture especially affected German aristocrats, I'd recommend a look at Joachim Bumke's *Courtly Culture*, my copy of which seems to have grown legs.\n\nIn my own neck of the woods, namely thirteenth-century England, you see an aristocracy that almost certainly spoke the Anglo-Norman dialect of French and also English. Richter and Rothwell have pretty convincingly shown that within about a generation of the 1066 Norman Conquest most English nobles spoke English as their first language. In the first half of the thirteenth century, your aristocracy was probably fully bilingual. By contrast, by the second half of the thirteenth century, we can get a sense that your nobility might have been more comfortable in English than with French (Crane 110). Even so, elites were more comfortable with French than Latin, and that holds true even at the rank of the parish priest (Richter 190).\n\nThere's some evidence of French as a living language even in fourteenth-century England (see, for example, Richard Ingham's “The Persistence of Anglo-Norman, 1230-1362,\" but we're on pretty firm ground to say that by the later fourteenth century your English aristocracy was mostly Anglophone but more or less fluent in French as a learned language.\n\nSidebar: even as early as the late twelfth century, the term \"Marlborough French\" -- a sneer for the French of England -- could be used as a punchline by someone like Walter Map, the raconteur who wrote *De nugis curialium* (*On the Trifles of the Court*).\n\nDoes that answer your question?\n\n**Sources**\n\nBumke, Joachim. *Courtly Culture: Literature and Society in the High Middle Ages*. Translated by Thomas Dunlap. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1991.\n\nIngham, Richard. “The Persistence of Anglo-Norman, 1230-1362.\" In *Language and Culture in Medieval Britain: The French of England, c. 1100 – c. 1500*, edited by Jocelyn Wogan-Browne *et al*, 44-54. York: York Medieval Press, 2009. \n\nRichter, Michael. *Sprache und Gesellschaft im Mittelalter: Untersuchungen zur mündlichen Kommunikation in England von der Midde des 11. bis zum beginn des 14. Jahrhunderts*. Stuttgart: A. Hiersemann, 1979.\n\nRothwell, William. \"The Teaching and Learning of French in Later Medieval England.\" *Zeitschrift für französische Sprache und Literatur* 111 (2001): 1-18.\n\nTyerman, Christopher. *God's War: A New History of the Crusades*. Cambridge, MA: Belknap, 2006.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11292933",
"title": "Anglo-Norman language",
"section": "Section::::Trilingualism in Medieval England.:Language of administration and justice.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "During the 12th century, development of the administrative and judicial institutions took place. Because the king and the lawyers at the time normally used French, it also became the language of these institutions. From the 12th century until the 15th century, the courts used three languages: Latin for writing, French as the main oral language during trials, and English in less formal exchanges between the judge, the lawyer, the complainant or the witnesses. The judge gave his sentence orally in Norman, which was then written in Latin. Only in the lowest level of the manorial courts were trials entirely in English.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9608235",
"title": "Castellania (Valletta)",
"section": "Section::::Courthouse.:Language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "Tuscan Italian, and to some extant Latin, was used as the main functioning language of the courts throughout the periods of the knights, French occupation, British periods, until at least 1879 when the courts had already moved out of the building.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1653918",
"title": "Arabist",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 717,
"text": "Translations were made into medieval Latin or Church Latin, then Europe's \"lingua franca\", or into medieval Spanish, which was the vernacular language of that time and place. Early translations included works by Avicenna, Al-Ghazali, Avicebron, etc.; books on astronomy, astrology, and medicine; and the works of some of the Ancient Greek philosophers, especially Aristotle, who unlike Plato had previously been relatively unknown and largely ignored in European Christendom. The philosophical translations were accompanied by the Islamic commentaries, e.g., on Al-Ghazali, Ibn Sina (Avicenna), and Ibn Rushd (Averroës), to the point of there being an identifiable Averroist school of philosophy in Christian Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7599170",
"title": "Legal English",
"section": "Section::::Historical development.:Style.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "Whereas legal language in the Medieval period combined Latin, French, and English to avoid ambiguity. According to Walter Probert, judicial lawyers, roughly starting in the twentieth century, often manipulate the language to be more persuasive of their campaign ideals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7599170",
"title": "Legal English",
"section": "Section::::Historical development.:Style.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 714,
"text": "In 2004, David Crystal proposed a stylistic influence upon English legal language. During the Medieval period, lawyers used a mixture of Latin, French and English. To avoid ambiguity, lawyers often offered pairs of words from different languages. Sometimes there was little ambiguity to resolve and the pairs merely gave greater emphasis, becoming a stylistic habit. This is a feature of legal style that continues to the present day. Examples of mixed language doublets are: \"breaking and entering\" (English/French), \"fit and proper\" (English/French), \"lands and tenements\" (English/French), and \"will and testament\" (English/Latin). Examples of English-only doublets are \"let and hindrance\" and \"have and hold\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1561553",
"title": "History of sign language",
"section": "Section::::Development of sign language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "Even earlier, between 1500 and 1700, it seems that members of the Turkish Ottoman court were using a form of signed communication (Miles). Many sought-after servants were deaf, as, some argue, they were seen as more quiet and trustworthy. Many diplomats and other hearing members of the court, however, also learned and communicated amongst one another through this signing system, which was passed down through the deaf members of the court.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3677513",
"title": "Francesc Eiximenis",
"section": "Section::::Works.:In Latin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "There were also a lot of translations during the 15th and 16th centuries. The \"Llibre de les Dones\" was translated into Spanish. One of the Spanish translations was used for the education of the four daughters of the Catholic Monarchs. The \"Llibre dels Àngels\" had great international success and was translated into several languages: Spanish, Latin, French and even Flemish (it was possibly the only book from the medieval Catalan literature that was translated into that language). And the \"Vida de Jesucrist\" was translated into Spanish and French.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
76xnq6
|
- are speed bumps designed to damage your car if you go over them too fast?
|
[
{
"answer": "Some are, yes. We have the normal speed bumps but there is a whole road nearby that uses ~~his~~ these rubber things bolted down and even if you are going really slowly the jolt they give you is enormous. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "every time you drive your car, yes, the suspension will suffer wear & tear. If you hit bumps like they weren't there, you will just wear out the suspension a bit sooner.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you hit them too fast, the suspension will pack down and you risk smacking the front plastics of the car into the ground. \n\nProperly shaped and sized speed bumps shouldn't do any damage as long as you slow down enough.\n\nMost speed bumps should be driven over at less than 20mph. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Speed bumps are intended to force drivers to slow their speed. Most are designed in such a way to make it uncomfortable for the driver to take them too fast, but are not intended to damage their vehicle. Others are poorly designed and *will* damage the vehicle, even at a reasonable speed. Even properly designed speed bumps can damage a vehicle if the vehicle is going much too fast, though.\n\nThe wear and tear you experience going over a speed bump is negligible. You'll experience more wear and tear through simple road driving because you do more road driving than you spend time driving over speed bumps.\n\nThing to remember about speed bumps is this: the speed that it is safest to driver over the speed bump is the speed you are supposed to be driving on the road even where there are no speed bumps. If you are going 45 mph, then slow down to 25 mph to go over the speed bump, accelerate back up to 45, slow down to 25, again to go over the next speed bump, you are doing it wrong. You should be traveling 25 up to the speed bump, over the speed bump and between the speed bump. The city likely placed the speed bump on that road because drivers are travelling that road too fast.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Square edge bumps (rough roads, potholes) will wear your suspension out faster than speed bumps because these are felt as impacts that are transmitted to the bushings in your suspension. \n\nSpeed bumps are smooth, they are soaked up by the normal travel of suspension and are not jarring impacts. As long as you are not bottoming out your suspension by going over them too fast (felt as a clunk) they will not hurt your car. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No, speed bumps are designed so that if *you* drive over them too fast, *you* will damage your car. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Let me tell you a story;\n\nBack in college I got a ride with this guy from my class, cool guy but thick, there were 5 of us in the car and 2 Lads were goading him in to speeding.\n\nThen they saw a speed bump and one guy said “I bet you can’t get air off that speed bump”. This guy goes full pelt into a speed bump trying to get air, as soon as he hit the speed bump the front of his car disintegrated. It felt like I’d been smashed by a truck, the whole front end of his car was all jacked up and so were our bodies.\n\nSpeed bumps are designed to act more like a wall the faster you go, so yeah they are designed to destroy your car unless you take them slow.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When you hit a speed bump too fast, it causes the suspension to compress in a very short amount of time, which generates high peak forces in the suspension that can damage seals and bushings. It's all about the mass, the displacement (speed bump), and speed. Increasing any of those will increase the impulse. Increase the impulse too much, and stuff will break.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In portuguese, speed bumps are called \"quebra-molas\". roughly translated, it means \"suspension-breaker\". So yes, I think so.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33878345",
"title": "30 km/h zone",
"section": "Section::::Reasons for implementation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 989,
"text": "Research has shown that reducing driver speeds in built-up areas reduce injuries for all road users, including motorists, bicyclists, and pedestrians. The link between vehicle speed and pedestrian crash severity has been established by research studies, with crash severity increasing as a function of motor vehicle speeds. If a vehicle hits a pedestrian while traveling most pedestrians will survive a crash, often sustaining only minor injuries. Minor increases in impact speed have been shown to have a profound effect on crash severity. At , almost all crashes result in severe injuries and roughly half are fatal; and at , fully 90% of crashes are fatal. The dramatic differences in fatality rates are a key part of the theory behind 20 mph and 30 km/h zones. Other studies have revealed that lower speeds reduce \"community severance\" caused by high speed roads in neighbourhoods, i.e. there is more neighborhood interaction and community cohesion when speeds are reduced to 30 km/h.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "460557",
"title": "Speed bump",
"section": "Section::::Speed bumps.:Dynamic speed bumps.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "Dynamic speed bumps differ from conventional speed bumps in that they only activate if a vehicle is traveling above a certain speed. Vehicles traveling below this speed will not experience the discomfort of a conventional speed bump. Dynamic speed bumps may allow the passage of emergency vehicles at higher speeds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2325044",
"title": "Impact (mechanics)",
"section": "Section::::Impacts causing damage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 845,
"text": "Road traffic accidents usually involve impact loading, such as when a car hits a traffic bollard, water hydrant or tree, the damage being localized to the impact zone. When vehicles collide, the damage increases with the relative velocity of the vehicles, the damage increasing as the square of the velocity since it is the impact kinetic energy (1/2 mv) which is the variable of importance. Much design effort is made to improve the impact resistance of cars so as to minimize user injury. It can be achieved in several ways: by enclosing the driver and passengers in a safety cell for example. The cell is reinforced so it will survive in high speed crashes, and so protect the users. Parts of the body shell outside the cell are designed to crumple progressively, absorbing most of the kinetic energy which must be dissipated by the impact. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "460557",
"title": "Speed bump",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 769,
"text": "Although speed bumps are effective in keeping vehicle speeds down, their use is sometimes controversial—as they can increase traffic noise, may damage vehicles if traversed at too great a speed, and slow emergency vehicles. Poorly-designed speed bumps that stand too tall or with too-sharp an angle can be disruptive for drivers, and may be difficult to navigate for vehicles with low ground clearance, even at very low speeds. Many sports cars have this problem with such speed bumps. Speed bumps can also pose serious hazards to motorcyclists and bicyclists if they are not clearly visible, though in some cases a small cut across the bump allows those vehicles to traverse without impediment. Speed bumps cost $50–200 and may need replacement over time due to wear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5361228",
"title": "Event data recorder",
"section": "Section::::Operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "Some EDRs only keep track of the car's speed along its length and not the speed going sideways. Analysts generally look at the momentum, energy, and crush damage, and then compare their speed estimates to the number coming out of the EDR to create a complete view of the accident.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "354679",
"title": "Road traffic safety",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 891,
"text": "Vehicle speed within the human tolerances for avoiding serious injury and death is a key goal of modern road design because impact speed affects the severity of injury to both occupants and pedestrians. For occupants, Joksch (1993) found the probability of death for drivers in multi-vehicle accidents increased as the fourth power of impact speed (often referred to by the mathematical term δv (\"delta V\"), meaning change in velocity). Injuries are caused by sudden, severe acceleration (or deceleration); this is difficult to measure. However, crash reconstruction techniques can estimate vehicle speeds before a crash. Therefore, the change in speed is used as a surrogate for acceleration. This enabled the Swedish Road Administration to identify the KSI risk curves using actual crash reconstruction data which led to the human tolerances for serious injury and death referenced above.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2295679",
"title": "Side collision",
"section": "Section::::Occurrences and effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "For speed, in Europe in 2015, it is considered that best designed cars provide serious front crash protection with speeds up to 70 km/h for car occupants wearing seat belts in frontal impacts and 50 km/h in side impacts It is considered that passenger car fatalities and seriously \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ofah9
|
the purpose of the recent orion flight and what it means for both future space exploration as well as nasa itself?
|
[
{
"answer": "It was to first test out if the Orion was safe for human Flight. If something went wrong with the capsule, they could use the data to avoid astronauts being killed.\n\nAs far as the future is concerned, this can really mean anything. NASA is currently planning to use this series of vehicle to transport humans to mars, and to set up a colony there. For the expedition participants, it will be a one way trip.\n\nThe Orion is designed to be able to dynamically attach to a lot of different add ons, like a larger living area on long expeditions, using the same example as mars.\n\nIn the future, this may be used as what brings astronauts to iss, since its reusable and cheaper than space shuttle to maintain. The rockets designed to launch it with(not this test flights, this time they used delta IV heavy; the actual one is still in construction) will allow deep space exploration line never before due to its massive thrust.\n\nSo really, in short it means manned space exploration and colonization.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7316655",
"title": "List of NASA missions",
"section": "Section::::Crewed missions.:Future.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 872,
"text": "NASA brought the Orion MPCV back to life from the defunct Constellation Program and successfully test launched the first capsule on December 5, 2014 aboard EFT-1. After a near perfect flight traveling 3600 miles above Earth, the spacecraft was recovered for study. NASA plans to use the Orion crew vehicle to send humans to deep space locations such as the Moon, Near Earth Asteroids, and Mars starting in the 2020s. Orion will be powered by NASA's new heavy lift vehicle, the Space Launch System (SLS), which is currently under development. Orion's next flight, along with the first SLS flight, is slated to launch in June 2020, with the designation of Exploration Mission 1. This mission will send an uncrewed Orion capsule around the Moon. It will be succeeded by Exploration Mission 2, sending a crewed Orion spacecraft to an undetermined location in the early 2020s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16014461",
"title": "Multiple satellite imaging",
"section": "Section::::Future.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "NASA is currently focused on the Vision for Space Exploration and has reduced current funding for scientific unmanned space exploration in favor of human exploration. These budget cuts have slowed the multiple satellite imaging development but it continues. While Project Prometheus and other scientific missions have ended other projects such as Terrestrial Planet Finder continue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "454300",
"title": "Constellation program",
"section": "Section::::Replacements and alternatives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "NASA continues development of the Orion spacecraft for deep space travel. In an effort to reduce costs, it has contracted for private development of vehicles for use in low Earth orbit. The Commercial Crew Development program seeks one or more vehicles to bring people to and from the International Space Station, and for the launch vehicle involves human-rating the United States Air Force's Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicles. Private spacecraft are already operating under the Commercial Resupply Services program bringing cargo to ISS.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11667533",
"title": "Space Launch Initiative",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "The primary goal of this research was to increase safety and reliability and to reduce overall costs associated with building, flying and maintaining the nation's next generation of space launch vehicles. NASA anticipated that these advances would revitalize the nation's space transportation capabilities, and dramatically improve NASA's ability to conduct science and exploration missions in space. This program was ended with the cancellation of the X-33 and X-34 in 2001 along with the conclusion of the X-43 program. In November 2002 it was evolved into the Orbital Space Plane Program and the Next Generation Launch Technology Program.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1716270",
"title": "USS Anchorage (LPD-23)",
"section": "Section::::Service history.:Recovering Orion space capsules for NASA.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1235,
"text": "NASA marked a major milestone in the agency's program to reestablish America's manned space program when it carried out EFT-1 with Orion on 5 December 2014. Orion launched atop a Delta IV rocket from Space Launch Complex 37B at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida, made two orbits of the planet during a four and a half hour mission, and splashed down in the Pacific. \"Anchorage\", Military Sealift Command-manned salvage ship , Helicopter Sea Combat Squadron 8 (HSC-8), EODMU-11, Mobile Diving and Salvage Company 11-17, Fleet Weather Center San Diego, and Fleet Combat Camera Pacific took part in the recovery when the spacecraft splashed down. \"Anchorage\" recovered Orion's crew module, forward bay cover, and parachutes. A bridge team especially trained for the operation maneuvered \"Anchorage\" alongside Orion, and lowered small boats to retrieve her. Divers attached lines from the small boats to guide the capsule toward \"Anchorage\", where a NASA-designed winch hauled the module into the well deck. \"We practiced this recovery many times with safety as the number one priority,\" \"Anchorage\"s Chief Boatswain's Mate Jason B. Roberts explained. \"The sailors were focused and completed the mission at hand successfully.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "454300",
"title": "Constellation program",
"section": "Section::::Designs.:Vehicles.:Orion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "The Orion Crew Exploration Vehicle was designed for the Constellation program as a crew compartment for use in low Earth orbit. Lockheed Martin was selected as the prime contractor for the Orion project on August 31, 2006, and Boeing was selected to build its primary heat shield on September 15, 2006. NASA initially planned to develop different Orion capsules tailored for specific missions. The Block I Orion was to be used for International Space Station missions and other Earth orbit missions, while the Block II and III variants were designed for deep-space exploration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15803679",
"title": "MoonLITE",
"section": "Section::::International collaboration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "The American space agency NASA became interested in the project in 2007 during the work of a BNSC/NASA Joint Working Group on lunar exploration. NASA could have contributed various parts to the mission.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3i7bpg
|
Any good sources on the illegal smuggling of slaves into the US in the 19th Century?
|
[
{
"answer": "You could look into the De Wolfe family, of Rhode Island. Slavers, congressmen, financiers of the Episcopal church in RI.\n\nThe New York Times just came out with an article on Rhode Island's role in the illegal slave trade:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nThere is a great documentary from a few years back, which won awards and I'm pretty sure was played on PBS, called Traces of the Trade, which also follows the De Wolfe family. My favorite part is when they get a map of the family's holdings in Cuba post-Civil War and figure out that they still owned slaves, but in Cuba instead of in the US:\n\n_URL_1_\n\nAn amateur historian named Cynthia Mestad Johnson wrote James Dewolf and the Rhode Island Slave Trade based on primary sources in the Rhode Island archives. That book is on Amazon.\n\nI'm no specialist in the illegal slave trade myself so I can't give you more than that. Sorry. I just know about these guys because they had links to Cuba, which is my field of study.\n\nEdit: Damn, I read your principle question but not so much your follow up questions. Here goes:\n\n > Who was involved? \n\nDirectly, major figures in much of the US, including the North. The De Wolfe family was one of the single most important families of its state and were able to do so with impunity. I'm sure their case isn't the only one.\n\n > How profitable was the trade? \n\nProfitable enough to make the De Wolfe's one of the richest families of their time. The wealth also found its way into the local economy where the slavers lived. The slavers would buy irons from local blacksmiths, rope from rope makers, food stores from local farmers, etc., and thus these would indirectly partake in the immense gains that slavers would make.\n\nEric Williams spoke of a similar phenomenon occurring in English cities, like Liverpool, in his book Capitalism and Slavery, but with the difference that it was at least legal when English slavers were doing it in the 17th and 18th centuries.\n\n > What happened to those who were caught?\n\nOn this point I am totally ignorant. Perhaps a specialist in the American slave trade could answer this better.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "55565",
"title": "Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves",
"section": "Section::::Effectiveness and prosecutions for slaving.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "While there are no exact figures known, historians estimate that up to 50,000 slaves were illegally imported into the United States after 1808, mostly through Spanish Florida and Texas, before those states were admitted to the Union.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53087",
"title": "Jean Lafitte",
"section": "Section::::Galveston.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 1028,
"text": "In April 1818, the United States passed a law prohibiting the import of slaves into any port in the United States. The law left several loopholes, giving permission to any ship to capture a slave ship, regardless of the country of origin. Slaves captured in such actions who were turned over to the customs office would be sold within the United States, with half the profits going to the people who turned them in. Lafitte worked with several smugglers, including Jim Bowie, to profit from the poorly written law. Lafitte's men identified slave ships and captured them. Smugglers would purchase the slaves for a discounted price, march them to Louisiana, and turn them in to customs officials. A representative of the smuggler would purchase the slaves at the ensuing auction, and the smuggler would be given half of the purchase price. The smuggler became the lawful owner of the slaves and could resell them in New Orleans, or transport them for sale in other parts of the Deep South, which was the major market of the time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27372858",
"title": "Sierra Leonean Americans",
"section": "Section::::History.:Slavery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1282,
"text": "Between 1787 and 1804, it was illegal to bring new slaves into the United States. However, a second infusion of 23,773 Africans came into South Carolina between 1804 and 1807, as new cotton plantations on the Sea Islands began to expand their need for labor, and landowners petitioned the South Carolina legislature to reopen the trade. Africans from Sierra Leone and other parts of West Africa continued to be kidnapped or purchased by renegade slavers long after the importation of African was made permanently illegal in the United States in 1808. The coastlines of South Carolina and Georgia, with their numerous rivers, islands, and swamps, provided secret landing sites for the underground sale of slaves. More late, in 1841, illegally captured slaves, being in his most Mende people, and in lesser extent Temne people and members of other tribes, managed to take control of their slave ship, La Amistad, bound for La Havana. The Amistad eventually reached American waters and those slaves were able to secure their freedom after the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in their favor. Most of those slaves returned to Africa. Only some of them remained in the United States, acquiring the American citizenship. Slavery was finally abolished after of 1865, after the American Civil War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15318631",
"title": "Clotilda (slave ship)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "The importation of slaves into the United States had been banned by Congress through an act enacted on March 2, 1807 (effective January 1, 1808), but the practice continued illegally until this vessel was burned and scuttled soon after arrival at Mobile Bay in an attempt to destroy the evidence. The sponsors had arranged to buy slaves in Whydah, Dahomey, on May 15, 1859. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41449415",
"title": "Charles Augustus Lafayette Lamar",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "Charles Augustus Lafayette Lamar (1824-1865) was known as an American businessman from Savannah who invested in the ship \"Wanderer\" to import slaves from Africa in 1858, decades after it was prohibited by law. The ship ran blockades and brought 409 surviving slaves from the Congo to the United States for sale. The ship was later impounded. Although Lamar and numerous other defendants were prosecuted, none was convicted of any crime. This was the penultimate slave ship known to have brought in slaves before the Civil War, and the last with a large cargo. The last was \"Clotilda\", which brought 110 slaves to Mobile, Alabama on July 9, 1860.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "253264",
"title": "Slavery in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Agitation against slavery.:High demand and smuggling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 150,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 150,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "Despite the ban, slave imports continued through smugglers bringing in slaves past the U.S. Navy's African Slave Trade Patrol to South Carolina, and overland from Texas and Florida, both under Spanish control. Congress increased the punishment associated with importing slaves, classifying it in 1820 as an act of piracy, with smugglers subject to harsh penalties, including death if caught. After that, \"it is unlikely that more than 10,000 [slaves] were successfully landed in the United States.\" But, some smuggling of slaves into the United States continued until just before the start of the Civil War; see \"Wanderer\" (slave ship) and \"Clotilde\" (slave ship)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27992",
"title": "Slavery",
"section": "Section::::History.:Modern history.:Americas.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 171,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 171,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "Congress, during the Jefferson administration prohibited the importation of slaves, effective 1808, although smuggling (illegal importing) was not unusual. Domestic slave trading, however, continued at a rapid pace, driven by labor demands from the development of cotton plantations in the Deep South. Those states attempted to extend slavery into the new Western territories to keep their share of political power in the nation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
tjtmh
|
Is it true heavier people require more alcohol to get drunk.
|
[
{
"answer": "It has to do with body weight, stomach content, gender and genetics. reducing your body weight could have an effect, but it would be easier to just start drinking on an empty stomach if you were trying to get intoxicated, and eat beforehand if you were trying to avoid it. \n\nBut yes, if you lost Lot of weight, it could have an effect, just not a gigantic one \nEDIT: spelling",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "I believe a major factor has to do with total body water, something that I believe would change with the fat content of a person. \n_URL_0_ - \"Total body water volume (TBW) is one factor that determines the functional effect of a standard dose of alcohol. Because women and the elderly generally have lower TBW values than men and younger persons, respectively, less alcohol needs to be consumed by women and elders to achieve the same or higher blood alcohol levels compared to men and younger persons.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Tangentially related question, but do fatter (obese) people have more blood? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2230412",
"title": "Empty calories",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "BULLET::::- Alcohol: beer, wine, hard spirits and other alcoholic beverages. While moderate amounts can lead to weight gain, chronic consumption of large amounts of alcohol can lead to weight loss because alcoholic liver disease is characterized by an increased metabolic rate and impaired muscle protein synthesis, resulting in sarcopenia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2772469",
"title": "Alcohol education",
"section": "Section::::The Effects of Alcohol on the Brain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "Alcohol has been known to have grave effects on the human brain. It has been shown that heavy drinking may have extensive and far-reaching effects on the brain such as simple \"slips\" in memory to permanent and debilitating conditions. Moderate drinking can even lead to the same types of impairments related with heavy drinking. Effects of long-term and short-term alcohol intake may include difficulty walking, blurred vision, slurred speech, slowed reaction times, impaired memory, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "404063",
"title": "Drinking culture",
"section": "Section::::Binge drinking.:Geographic disparity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "\"Chronic heavy drinkers display functional tolerance when they show few obvious signs of intoxication even at high blood alcohol concentrations (BAC's), which in others would be incapacitating or even fatal. Because the drinker does not experience significant behavioral impairment as a result of drinking, tolerance may facilitate the consumption of increasing amounts of alcohol. This can result in physical dependence and alcohol-related organ damage.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "404063",
"title": "Drinking culture",
"section": "Section::::Binge drinking.:Geographic disparity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "These varying capacities do not, however, avoid all health risks inherent in heavy alcohol consumption. Alcohol abuse is associated with a variety of negative health and safety outcomes. This is true no matter the individual's or the ethnic group's perceived ability to \"handle alcohol\". Persons who believe themselves immune to the effects of alcohol may often be the most at risk for health concerns and the most dangerous of all operating a vehicle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51805386",
"title": "Subjective response to alcohol",
"section": "Section::::Theoretical models.:Differentiator Model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 688,
"text": "Findings by King and colleagues, which are largely corroborated by a recent meta-analysis, suggest that the Differentiator Model best characterizes heavy drinkers at risk for developing alcohol use disorder. Specifically, over the course of several studies, heavy drinkers reported greater positive SR on the ascending limb of intoxication and lower negative SR on the descending limb, in relation to light drinkers. Increased sensitivity to alcohol's stimulating effects along rising BAC and muted sensitivity to alcohol's sedative effects along waning BAC were subsequently predictive of future increases in binge drinking, blackouts, hangovers and alcohol use disorder symptomatology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19592348",
"title": "Binge drinking",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 743,
"text": "According to the NIAAA definition of \"heavy drinkers\", men may be at risk for alcohol-related problems if their alcohol consumption exceeds 14 standard drinks per week or four drinks per day, and women may be at risk if they have more than seven standard drinks per week or three drinks per day. Despite this risk, a 2014 report in the National Survey on Drug Use and Health found that only 10% of either \"heavy drinkers\" or \"binge drinkers\" also met the criteria for alcohol dependence, while only 1.3% of non-binge drinkers met this criteria. An inference drawn in this study is that evidence-based policy strategies and clinical preventive services may effectively reduce binge drinking without requiring addiction treatment in most cases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7697517",
"title": "College health",
"section": "Section::::Alcohol.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "more than two drinks per day for men would be considered the maximum amount of alcohol consumption to be considered moderate use. This shows that drinking can be beneficial in moderation. Binge drinking and alcoholism, however, have proven to be harmful.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9xn1ks
|
The new kilogram definition seems complex. Why not define it in terms of the mass of a proton?
|
[
{
"answer": "It is not possible to precisely collect X protons under conditions that it could be used for a standard of mass. You could try for example saying that a kilogram is the mass of (0.1 m)^3 of water, but then you'd have to control precisely for temperature, pressure, isotopic composition, etc in a way that is precise to 10 parts per billion. The new Planck's constant definition is sufficiently precise.\n\nThere was an attempt to do as you suggest, and make it based on the [number of atoms in a very pristine sphere](_URL_0_), but it wasn't as practical as the Planck's constant way.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "That was - kind of - the alternative approach, where the kilogram was going to be defined via the Avogardo costant and the mass of a set number of silicon atoms. In practice it was shown that counting atoms accurately is not that easy, and finally the Kibble balance was chosen. \n\nSee here for more details: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The new definition, based on Planck's constant, is actually *more* elegant than the previous definition (which actually was similar to what you are describing, a relationship between subatomic particles and weight) because it is defined with a few of the known constants in the universe.\n\nMany measurements and observations are relative. They depend on factors like where the object is that you are measuring, or from what direction or speed the object is being observed. Gravity is like that, so is speed. Things that *aren't* like that are the speed of light and the charge of an electron. So this means a kilogram, as newly defined, more precise than ever before and shouldn't change anywhere in the universe. \n\nFor lots of everyday observations, nothing will change, but for very precise calculations, like orbits of stellar bodies and weights of tiny doses of medication, it will help us make better predictions. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The mass per proton changes depending on how many of them you have together due to binding energy. As a result 2 protons individually have more slightly mass than if they were bound together. This makes them very bad for using as a metric since the mass of the proton is not a constant but varies depending on it's interactions with other particles. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"Why not define [a kilogram] in terms of the mass of a proton?\"\n\nThe goal is to define a basic unit of mass that everyone can use. In theory, it doesn't matter whether that unit is kilogram-sized or proton-sized, or < Avogadro# > -protons-sized. However, in practice, you want to be able to define that unit of mass from the results of a repeatable experiment, so that everyone around the world can use as close to the same value as each other. The goal is maximum consistency.\n\nSo you can't just say that the unit is the mass of a proton, because not many people can measure that directly. If someone wants to say how much mass of a chemical they used in a reaction, well they can't really count up the protons very easily. With the old method, where the unit was the mass of the standard Kilogram artefact, you can measure that directly (with a set of scales, or something fancier).\n\nThe new method avoids (directly) measuring the mass of anything. All you need to do is measure the time of a second (based on easily-measurable atomic clocks) and the length of a meter (based on somewhat-easily-measurable speed of light). You also need to know the Planck constant, but as long as everyone uses the same constant (which they will because it gets standardized when it comes to base unit calibration), then everyone's mass measurements will match just as closely as their time and distance measurements matched.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30291341",
"title": "2019 redefinition of the SI base units",
"section": "Section::::Impact on base unit definitions.:Kilogram.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "The definition of the kilogram changed fundamentally; the previous definition defined the kilogram as the mass of the international prototype kilogram, which is an artefact rather than a constant of nature. The new definition relates the kilogram to, amongst things, the equivalent mass of the energy of a photon given its frequency, via the Planck constant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30291341",
"title": "2019 redefinition of the SI base units",
"section": "Section::::Impact on base unit definitions.:Kilogram.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "For illustration, an earlier proposed redefinition that is equivalent to this 2019 definition is: \"\"The kilogram is the mass of a body at rest whose equivalent energy equals the energy of a collection of photons whose frequencies sum to [] hertz.\"\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21961",
"title": "Nucleon",
"section": "Section::::Tables of detailed properties.:Nucleons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 225,
"text": " The masses of the proton and neutron are known with far greater precision in atomic mass units (u) than in MeV/c, due to the relatively poorly known value of the elementary charge. The conversion factor used is 1 u = MeV/c.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23317",
"title": "Proton",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "In a July 2017 paper, researchers measured the mass of a proton to be (the values in parentheses being the statistical and systematic uncertainties, respectively), which is lower than measurements from the CODATA 2014 value by three standard deviations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59715",
"title": "Scientific notation",
"section": "Section::::Order of magnitude.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "Scientific notation also enables simpler order-of-magnitude comparisons. A proton's mass is . If written as , it is easier to compare this mass with that of an electron, given below. The order of magnitude of the ratio of the masses can be obtained by comparing the exponents instead of the more error-prone task of counting the leading zeros. In this case, −27 is larger than −31 and therefore the proton is roughly four orders of magnitude ( times) more massive than the electron.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61149311",
"title": "Alternative approaches to redefining the kilogram",
"section": "Section::::Ampere-based force.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "This approach would define the kilogram as \"the mass which would be accelerated at precisely when subjected to the per-metre force between two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross section, placed one metre apart in vacuum, through which flow a constant current of elementary charges per second\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "174316",
"title": "James Chadwick",
"section": "Section::::Researcher.:Cambridge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "An accurate value for the mass of the neutron could be determined from this process. Chadwick and Goldhaber tried this and found that it worked. They measured the kinetic energy of the proton produced as 1.05 MeV, leaving the mass of the neutron as the unknown in the equation. Chadwick and Goldhaber calculated that it was either 1.0084 or 1.0090 atomic units, depending on the values used for the masses of the proton and deuteron. (The modern accepted value for the mass of the neutron is .) The mass of the neutron was too large to be a proton–electron pair.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1fu0tc
|
How do millipedes walk?
|
[
{
"answer": "A quick google search (\"Millipede locomotion\") gave me [this hefty mathematical paper](_URL_1_) but otherwise as far as I remember each pair of legs moves one after another in a wave. [This video](_URL_0_) shows the action clearly and simply. So essentially yes, they move in waves.\n\nAs for if they're ~~about~~ able to de-synchronize or otherwise move them independently I do not know. Each pair of legs has to move together on the segment they're attached to.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In robotics, locomotion with many legs is a common topic. Your eyes likely didn't deceive you; moving legs in a wave like pattern is a regular gait.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is for a caterpillar, but I presume that the mechanism of motion is similar if not the same for a millipede.\n\nIn *Essentials of Materials Science and Engineering*, the author compares dislocation motion in a material to the motion of a caterpillar. It states: \"A caterpillar will lift some of its legs at any given time and use that motion to move from one place to another rather than lifting all the legs at one time. Another way to visualize this is to think about how a fold or crease in a carpet would move if we were trying to remove it by pushing it across rather than by lifting the carpet.\"\n\n[Here](_URL_0_) is a snapshot of the not-all-that-informative accompanying graphic.\n\nGiven this description, one can definitely describe the locomotion in the form of a wave, as the motion propagates down the critter.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First question: it was not your imagination, that's about how it works indeed. They have a segmented body, and each segment has a pair of neural ganglia that contain a [Central Pattern Generator](_URL_5_), or CPG. This thing most probably is able to maintain the cycle of activity on its own, even if you isolate it from the body. Fish actually employ the same thing for swimming (they have a CPG for each segment of their body; that is - for each muscle that makes salmon in a store look stripy). Even humans have a [CPG for walking](_URL_2_), even though this one is not nearly as autonomous as in worms or fish.\n\nAnyway, so you have a bunch of CPG in a chain, and now you:\n\n1) Introduce connections between CPG on the left and on the right, controlling opposite legs. Usually it ensures a fixed phase delay between the legs, as it is important for maintaining a stable gait.\n\n2) connect CPGs to each other sequentially along the body, [making them interact](_URL_1_). Usually this kind of connection introduces a fixed lag between the phases of 2 CPGs nearby, which looks like a nice propagating wave in a centipede. \n\n3) You introduce long fibers that run along the whole length of the body, making connections on each CPG in each segment. Most animals have [at least 1 pair of fibers](_URL_3_) to [trigger escape responses](_URL_0_), and maybe a bunch of fibers to fine-tune the gait (to switch phase delays between the CPGs), and to [regulate speed](_URL_4_).\n\nNow, on your 2nd question. I don't know for sure (never studied centipedes), but I would expect them to have several speeds, and several gaits (at least forward / reverse motion). Most probably all these gaits will be pretty regular and \"symmetric\", because otherwise legs will move chaotically. These animals simply have too many legs to control each of them individually in a meaningful way, mathematically speaking. But maybe (probably) the levels of \"symmetry\" will be different: different phase lags between segments, and thus different \"wavelength\" along the body; different delay between left and right to make a turn, etc. (Edit: references)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1132756",
"title": "Animal locomotion",
"section": "Section::::Terrestrial.:Walking and running.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 1327,
"text": "Centipedes and millipedes have many sets of legs that move in metachronal rhythm. Some echinoderms locomote using the many tube feet on the underside of their arms. Although the tube feet resemble suction cups in appearance, the gripping action is a function of adhesive chemicals rather than suction. Other chemicals and relaxation of the ampullae allow for release from the substrate. The tube feet latch on to surfaces and move in a wave, with one arm section attaching to the surface as another releases. Some multi-armed, fast-moving starfish such as the sunflower seastar (\"Pycnopodia helianthoides\") pull themselves along with some of their arms while letting others trail behind. Other starfish turn up the tips of their arms while moving, which exposes the sensory tube feet and eyespot to external stimuli. Most starfish cannot move quickly, a typical speed being that of the leather star (\"Dermasterias imbricata\"), which can manage just in a minute. Some burrowing species from the genera \"Astropecten\" and \"Luidia\" have points rather than suckers on their long tube feet and are capable of much more rapid motion, \"gliding\" across the ocean floor. The sand star (\"Luidia foliolata\") can travel at a speed of per minute. Sunflower starfish are quick, efficient hunters, moving at a speed of using 15,000 tube feet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13242499",
"title": "Eastern chimpanzee",
"section": "Section::::Behaviour and ecology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Chimpanzees walk using the soles of their feet and their knuckles, and they can walk upright for short distances. Common chimpanzees are 'knuckle walkers', like gorillas, in contrast to the quadrupedal locomotion (a form of land animal locomotion using four legs) of orangutans and bonobos known as 'palm walkers' who use the outside edge of their palms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2077667",
"title": "Knuckle-walking",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 749,
"text": "Knuckle-walking helps with actions other than locomotion on the ground. For the gorilla the fingers are used for the manipulation of food, and in chimpanzees for the manipulation of food and for climbing. In anteaters and pangolins, the fingers have large claws for opening the mounds of social insects. Platypus fingers have webbing that extend past the fingers to aid in swimming, thus knuckle-walking is used to prevent stumbling. Gorillas move around by knuckle-walking, although they sometimes walk bipedally for short distances while carrying food or in defensive situations. Mountain Gorillas use knuckle walking plus other parts of their hand—fist walking doesn’t not use the knuckles, using the backs of their hand, and using their palms. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4280928",
"title": "Patellogastropoda",
"section": "Section::::Life habits.:Feeding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "Most limpets feed by grazing on algae which grows on the rock (or other surfaces) where they live. They scrape up films of algae with a radula, a ribbon-like tongue with rows of teeth. Limpets move by rippling the muscles of their foot in a wave-like motion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2077667",
"title": "Knuckle-walking",
"section": "Section::::Advantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "Knuckle-walking tends to evolve when the fingers of the forelimb are specialized for tasks other than locomotion on the ground. In the gorilla the fingers are used for the manipulation of food, and in chimpanzees for the manipulation of food and for climbing. In anteaters and pangolins the fingers have large claws for opening the mounds of social insects. Platypus fingers have webbing that extend past the fingers to aid in swimming, thus knuckle-walking is used to prevent stumbling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2077667",
"title": "Knuckle-walking",
"section": "Section::::Apes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "Chimpanzees and gorillas engage in knuckle-walking. This form of hand-walking posture allows these tree climbers to use their hands for terrestrial locomotion while retaining long fingers for gripping and climbing. It may also allow small objects to be carried in the fingers while walking on all fours. This is the most common type of movement for gorillas, although they also practice bipedalism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4901720",
"title": "Arthropod leg",
"section": "Section::::Myriapoda.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "Myriapods (millipedes, centipedes and their relatives) have seven-segmented walking legs, comprising coxa, trochanter, prefemur, femur, tibia, tarsus, and a tarsal claw. Myriapod legs show a variety of modifications in different groups. In all centipedes, the first pair of legs is modified into a pair of venomous fangs called forcipules. In most millipedes, one or two pairs of walking legs in adult males are modified into sperm-transferring structures called gonopods. In some millipedes, the first leg pair in males may be reduced to tiny hooks or stubs, while in others the first pair may be enlarged.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1dgnwp
|
How did this mountain ridge form? pic inside
|
[
{
"answer": "What you have there is an anticline structure - Imagine a fold in the rocks running NE-SW. MAybe 5-10 degrees dip on either side, but with the NW corner dipping down toward the NW, and the SE Corner dipping SE. These kind of large scale folds are very common in geology. Once the fold is excavated to the surface differential weathering can start to occur.\n\nThe axial ridge has exposed the lower strata, which are harder. Hence they stick up, while the surrounding softer material is eroded down to form a flat plateau. In the very centre, where the fold is doming slightly, even deeper but softer strata have been exposed, giving you the plateau in the middle. An easier to see example can be find in the Zagros: _URL_1_\n\nWhich look like this from an angle _URL_2_\n\nEDIT - I just built a 3D model of it you can pan around: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't know why folks like OrbitalPete take the time to give such detailed answers, but I sure am glad for it. Is the incentive just to give solid answers to solid questions? If so, just know there are people who are grateful for seeing this kind of knowledge share on the internet/reddit. Hope I'm not beating a dead horse saying this.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19862138",
"title": "Utrecht Hill Ridge",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "The Utrecht Hill Ridge was created 150.000 years ago as a push moraine in the Wolstonian Stage, a middle Pleistocene glacial period. Before that time the rivers Rhine and Meuse flowed more north, and created deposits of sand. The glaciers pushed these deposits in a southern and western direction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59494958",
"title": "Endless Chain Ridge",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "The ridge was named in 1907 by Mary Schäffer, the same year that Jasper National Park was established. In her book, \"A Hunter of Peace,\" Mary wrote: \"\"A short distance beyond the rock-slide and on the river's right, begins a low, rocky ridge, which for length and unadulterated ugliness cannot be beaten. We trailed it for a day and a half and then named it \"The Endless Chain\", well named too, for on reaching the Athabasca shores, we found that it still stretched on in an unbroken line for miles down the river.\"\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5407887",
"title": "Bickerton Hill",
"section": "Section::::Geography, geology and climate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "The ridge is formed from a sandstone outcrop of the Sherwood Sandstone Group, dating from the Early Triassic period around 250 million years ago. The sandstones are exposed forming extensive crags on the west flank of the northerly hill, as well as in smaller areas of the southerly hill. There are several natural caves. The two-storey cave known as Mad Allen's Hole (on the southerly hill at ) has an entrance partially blocked by boulders and is accessible via a circular hole at the rear. The Queen's Parlour, a large triple-chambered cave directly under the Raw Head trig point, might be partially quarried.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2343117",
"title": "Holme Fell",
"section": "Section::::Geology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "The summit ridge is formed from the dacitic lapilli-tuff of the Lincomb Tarns Formation. Further to the north west are outcrops of the volcaniclastic sandstones of the Seathwaite Fell Formation with sills of basaltic andesite.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35589623",
"title": "Mount Franklin (Victoria)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 797,
"text": "The mountain was created by a volcanic eruption about 470,000 years ago. It is fine example of a breached scoria cone. The breach in the south eastern rim (through which the road now enters) is thought to have been caused by lava flow breaking through the rim. The caldera is one of the deepest in the central highlands area. Earlier flows extend to the north and west. The coarse ejecta exposed around the summit includes red and green olivine and megacrysts of high-temperature (some of the largest known Victorian examples) and orthoclase (to 7 cm long) and augite (over 9 cm long). Lumps of Ordovician sedimentary and granitic bedrock also occur in the ejecta and small basalt blocks contain cores of crazed quartz. On the western slope is the parasitic scoria mound known as \"Lady Franklin\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47722723",
"title": "Hornberg (Virngrund)",
"section": "Section::::Location and shape.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 874,
"text": "The ridge is a continuation of the small plateau around Ellenberg in the Württemberg county of Ostalbkreis, with which it is only linked by a narrow strip of land as a result of valleys to the west and east. It then runs west and in an increasing curve towards the west, finally heading southwest. Compared with the plateau it is only slightly, or even insignificantly prominent, the aforementioned valleys and, especially the northern foreland around Georgenstadt, however, lie some 60–80 metres lower down. Its three \"kuppen\" follow one another on the gently sloping ridgeline on the upper right, along which a forest track runs. The car driver on the A 7 encounters the Hornberg as a forested and under-tunnelled hill ridge between the motorway junction of Dinkelsbühl/Fichtenau to the north and the motorway services of Ellwanger Berge (\"Ellwangen Hills\") to the south.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21156518",
"title": "Ridge Hill Shelf",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 729,
"text": "The Ridge Hill Shelf is a landform that forms part of the foothills of the Darling Scarp, a low escarpment that runs parallel with the west coast in southwest Western Australia. It was formed by coastal erosion of the scarp in the Pleistocene, when the sea level was higher, and the scarp located further west than at present. The action of coastal forces produced sand dunes that subsequently lithified into eolianite, and eroded the ironstone of the scarp, resulting in an iron-rich sandstone with a laterite cap. The iron gives the sandstone a dull purple-brown colour; depending on the extent of iron-enrichment, the sandstone may appear predominantly yellow, predominantly purple-brown, or a mottled combination of the two.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
b7xi4m
|
why dont oasis in deserts get filled by nearby sand over time
|
[
{
"answer": "An Oasis gets its water from underground aquifers. So the water would just push any sand away. Also the presence of plant life around it helps keep the terrain stable, reducing the amount of stuff that'd disrupt things.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "721635",
"title": "Kingdom of Khotan",
"section": "Section::::Location and geography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "The geographical position of the oasis was the main factor in its success and wealth. To its north is one of the most arid and desolate desert climates on the earth, the Taklamakan Desert, and to its south the largely uninhabited Kunlun Mountains (Qurum). To the east there were few oasis beyond Niya making travel difficult, and access is only relatively easy from the west. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1197234",
"title": "Dakhla Oasis",
"section": "Section::::History.:Prehistory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "The human history of this oasis started during the Pleistocene, when nomadic tribes settled sometimes there, in a time when the Sahara climate was wetter and where humans could have access to lakes and marshes. But about 6,000 years ago, the entire Sahara became drier, changing progressively into a hyper-arid desert (with less than 50 mm of rain per year). However, specialists think that nomadic hunter-gatherers began to settle almost permanently in the oasis of Dakhleh in the period of the Holocene (about 12,000 years ago), during new, but rare episodes of wetter times.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "505314",
"title": "Tabelbala",
"section": "Section::::Geography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "The oasis occupies a band of land between a stone mountain to the south and a large sand dune field, the Erg Er Raoui, to the north. The water table of the latter is relatively high, making irrigation agriculture possible. The foggara system was traditionally used, but has been in decline since the early twentieth century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8104",
"title": "Desertification",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 870,
"text": "Desertification is a type of land degradation in which a relatively dry area of land becomes a desert, typically losing its bodies of water as well as vegetation and wildlife. It is caused by a variety of factors, such as through climate change (particularly the current global warming) and through the overexploitation of soil through human activity. When deserts appear automatically over the natural course of a planet's life cycle, then it can be called a natural phenomenon; however, when deserts emerge due to the rampant and unchecked depletion of nutrients in soil that are essential for it to remain arable, then a virtual \"soil death\" can be spoken of, which traces its cause back to human overexploitation. Desertification is a significant global ecological and environmental problem with far reaching consequences on socio-economic and political conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3467435",
"title": "Khaybar",
"section": "Section::::History.:7th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "The oasis was divided into three regions: al-Natat, al-Shikk, and al-Katiba, probably separated by natural divisions, such as the desert, Harrat Khaybar lava drifts, and swamps. Each of these regions contained several fortresses or redoubts containing homes, storehouses and stables. Each fortress was occupied by a separate family and surrounded by cultivated fields and palm-groves. In order to improve their defensive capabilities, the settlers raised the fortresses up on hills or basalt rocks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3351048",
"title": "Battle of Khaybar",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Khaybar in the 7th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "The oasis was divided into three regions: al-Natat, al-Shikk, and al-Katiba, probably separated by natural divisions, such as the desert, lava drifts, and swamps. Each of these regions contained several fortresses or redoubts including homes, storehouses and stables. Each fortress was occupied by a separate family and surrounded by cultivated fields and palm-groves. In order to improve their defensive capabilities, the fortresses were raised up on hills or basalt rocks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "165391",
"title": "Antisemitism in Islam",
"section": "Section::::The Quran on Jews in its historical setting.:Remarks on Jews.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "The oasis was divided into three regions: al-Natat, al-Shikk, and al-Katiba, probably separated by natural divisions, such as the desert, lava drifts, and swamps. Each of these regions contained several fortresses or redoubts containing homes, storehouses and stables. Each fortress was occupied by a separate family and surrounded by cultivated fields and palm-groves. In order to improve their defensive capabilities, the settlers raised the fortresses up on hills or basalt rocks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3le4xg
|
what dictates a wonder of the world?
|
[
{
"answer": "There is no particular standard, only tradition. The Greeks made lists of amazing things from around the Mediterranean world familiar to them. Most of these lists made 7 choices because the number was (and often still is) considered lucky; counting the sun and moon, they knew of seven planets.\n\nAntipater of Sidon made a particularly popular list which many other authors referred to, and which has survived into the present day as *the* list of the Wonders of the Ancient World. His choices were arbitrary based on what he knew.\n\nRecently, people have tried to make lists of modern wonders based on various criteria. (The idea being that they are only possible with modern technology.) There's no particular list that is commonly accepted as authoritative.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17190600",
"title": "Worlds of Wonder (collection)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "Worlds of Wonder is a collection of three science fiction works by Olaf Stapledon: a short novel, a novella and a short story. It was published in 1949 by Fantasy Publishing Company, Inc. in an edition of 500 copies. All of the stories had originally been published in the United Kingdom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37990435",
"title": "Seven Wonders of the World (film)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "Seven Wonders of the World is a 1956 film in Cinerama. Lowell Thomas searches the world for natural and man-made wonders and invites the audience to try to update the ancient Greek list of the \"Wonders of the World\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19342741",
"title": "Wonders of the World",
"section": "Section::::Recent lists.:Other lists of wonders of the world.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Seven Wonders of the World is a 1956 film in which Lowell Thomas searches the world for natural and man made wonders and invites the audience to try to update the ancient Wonders of the World list.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19342741",
"title": "Wonders of the World",
"section": "Section::::Recent lists.:Other lists of wonders of the world.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "BULLET::::- British biographer, science writer, and novelist Ronald W. Clark published a book of man-made and natural wonders titled \"Wonders of the World\", which lists 52 wonders, one for each week of the year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12572736",
"title": "Wonder World (Texas)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "Wonder World is a natural theme park located in San Marcos, Texas. The park's primary attraction is Wonder Cave, an ancient earthquake cave and Recorded Texas Historic Landmark. Other attractions include an anti-gravity house, a trackless motor train, and a wildlife park. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3362800",
"title": "Worlds of Wonder (game)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "Worlds of Wonder is a 1982 multi-genre role-playing game publication produced by Chaosium. It is a boxed set consisting of four 16-page booklets: \"Basic Role-Playing\", \"Magic World\", \"Superworld\", and \"Future World\", an even shorter pamphlet on joining the settings together, a sheet of cardboard figures for each setting, and dice. The authors on the box are credited as Perrin (Steve Perrin), Henderson (Steve Henderson), Monson (Gordon Monson), Stafford (Greg Stafford), and Willin (Lynn Willis).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31086430",
"title": "Wonders of the Universe",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "Wonders of the Universe is a 2011 television series produced by the BBC, Discovery Channel, and Science Channel, hosted by physicist Professor Brian Cox. \"Wonders of the Universe\" was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two from 6 March 2011. The series comprises four episodes, each of which focuses on an aspect of the universe and features a 'wonder' relevant to the theme. It follows on from Cox's 2010 series for the BBC, \"Wonders of the Solar System\". An accompanying book with the same title was also published.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
73rsfz
|
inflation & deflation
|
[
{
"answer": "Inflation & Deflation aren't about currency rate, they are about price level in a country. Despite the reason inflation makes some products more expensive, or you can buy lesser with money you have. You can't increase salaries at the same time because it will cause futher increasing of the prices (it is actually one of the reasons). The problem of inflation is in behavior of people and firms, when prices go up people can't afford to buy some things therefore firm can't get their profit and won't be able to pay loans or invest in futher production, then the amount of supply will decrease. When supply decreases usually prices increase so there is a cycle: goods are expensive, people buy less, lesser goods are produces, goods are more expensive. \nDeflation is bad as well. If you can buy a can of coke for a dollar today and two cans next year, you will be saving more money and again, companies won't be able to pay loans etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "48847",
"title": "Deflation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "In economics, deflation is a decrease in the general price level of goods and services. Deflation occurs when the inflation rate falls below 0% (a negative inflation rate). Inflation reduces the value of currency over time, but deflation increases it. This allows more goods and services to be bought than before with the same amount of currency. Deflation is distinct from disinflation, a slow-down in the inflation rate, i.e. when inflation declines to a lower rate but is still positive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38286",
"title": "Inflation",
"section": "Section::::Related definitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "Other economic concepts related to inflation include: deflation a fall in the general price level; disinflation a decrease in the rate of inflation; hyperinflation an out-of-control inflationary spiral; stagflation a combination of inflation, slow economic growth and high unemployment; reflation an attempt to raise the general level of prices to counteract deflationary pressures; and asset price inflation a general rise in the prices of financial assets without a corresponding increase in the prices of goods or services.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "700316",
"title": "Disinflation",
"section": "Section::::Disinflation distinguished from deflation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 632,
"text": "If disinflation continues until the inflation rate is zero, the economy enters a deflationary period, with decreasing general prices on all goods and services produced. An example of this happened during the month of October 2008, when U.S. consumer prices fell (deflation) by 1.01% but the overall annual inflation rate simply decreased (disinflation) from an annual rate of 4.94% to 3.66%. So the distinction between deflation and disinflation at that point was simply one of which time period was referred to—the monthly basis or the annual basis. Over the year, prices were up 3.66% while over the month prices were down 1.01%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48847",
"title": "Deflation",
"section": "Section::::Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 715,
"text": "In this sense it is the opposite of the more usual scenario of inflation, whose effect is to tax currency holders and lenders (savers) and use the proceeds to subsidize borrowers, including governments, and to cause malinvestment as overinvestment. Thus inflation encourages short term consumption and can similarly over-stimulate investment in projects that may not be worthwhile in real terms (for example the housing or Dot-com bubbles), while deflation retards investment even when there is a real-world demand not being met. In modern economies, deflation is usually caused by a drop in aggregate demand, and is associated with economic depression, as occurred in the Great Depression and the Long Depression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1381812",
"title": "Reflation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "This distinction is predicated on a theory of economic growth where there is long-term growth in the economy and price level, which is widely accepted in economics. Just as disinflation is considered an acceptable antidote to high inflation, reflation is considered to be an antidote to deflation (which, unlike inflation, is considered bad regardless of its magnitude).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1381812",
"title": "Reflation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "Reflation, which can be considered a form of inflation (increase in the price level), is contrasted with inflation (narrowly speaking) in that \"bad\" inflation is inflation \"above\" the long-term trend line, while reflation is a recovery of the price level when it has fallen \"below\" the trend line. For example, if inflation had been running at a 3% rate, but for one year it falls to 0%, the following year would need 6% inflation (actually 6.09% due to compounding) to catch back up to the long-term trend. This higher than normal inflation is considered reflation, since it is a return to trend, not exceeding the long-term trend.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26818",
"title": "Stagflation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "In economics, stagflation, or recession-inflation, is a situation in which the inflation rate is high, the economic growth rate slows, and unemployment remains steadily high. It presents a dilemma for economic policy, since actions intended to lower inflation may exacerbate unemployment, and vice versa. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8dfsez
|
how do snails not lose all of their body mass as slime left on the floor while travelling?
|
[
{
"answer": "Imagine it like sweating. You can sweat and sweat, liquid comes out of you, but your body mass stays more or less the same.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They do lose some. But just like you can continue to make snot and saliva, pee and poop, they consume material to make more.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12763945",
"title": "Land snail",
"section": "Section::::Biology.:Physical characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 933,
"text": "Land snails move by gliding along on their muscular foot, which is lubricated with mucus and covered with epithelial cilia. This motion is powered by succeeding waves of muscular contractions that move down the ventral of the foot. This muscular action is clearly visible when a snail is crawling on the glass of a window or aquarium. Snails move at a proverbially low speed (1 mm/s is a typical speed for adult \"Helix lucorum\"). Snails secrete mucus externally to keep their soft bodies from drying out. They also secrete mucus from the foot to aid in locomotion by reducing friction, and to help reduce the risk of mechanical injury from sharp objects, meaning they can crawl over a sharp edge like a straight razor and not be injured. The mucus that land snails secrete with the foot leaves a slime trail behind them, which is often visible for some hours afterwards as a shiny \"path\" on the surface over which they have crawled.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3172714",
"title": "Cornu aspersum",
"section": "Section::::Behavior.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "In spite of its apparent slowness and limitations, the snail exploits the special nature of its mucus to achieve some startling feats. It can go up a slope at any angle, including upside down, resist being pulled off a firm surface with an adhesive strength several times its own weight, rest on a surface at any angle without any expenditure of energy, or, notoriously, climb a needle-like stem or pass over the edge of razor blade without harm, relying on the firmness of its mucus film in its shear-resistant phase.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24271430",
"title": "Mysticarion porrectus",
"section": "Section::::Ecology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "The snail often rests on leaves of shrubs and saplings, and also on the trunks of larger trees. It usually rests on its side, with the end part of its tail curved back. This tail area can act as a suction cup and because of the snail's habit of resting on leaves, these animals can be accidentally and unknowingly picked up by other animals, or even by cars and human beings, that brush against the foliage. Most arboreal snails have very sticky mucus, and this \"hitchhiking\" capability may account for the very extensive distributions of some of the smaller species, as they could easily travel on the feet or legs of birds or bats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3486849",
"title": "New Zealand mud snail",
"section": "Section::::Distribution.:Distribution within the United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "Mudsnails are impressively resilient. A snail can live for 24 hours without water. They can however survive for up to 50 days on a damp surface, giving them ample time to be transferred from one body of water to another on fishing gear. The snails may even survive passing through the digestive systems of fish and birds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54969",
"title": "Snail",
"section": "Section::::Slugs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "A shell-less animal is much more maneuverable and compressible, so even quite large land slugs can take advantage of habitats or retreats with very little space, retreats that would be inaccessible to a similar-sized snail. Slugs squeeze themselves into confined spaces such as under loose bark on trees or under stone slabs, logs or wooden boards lying on the ground. In such retreats they are in less danger from either predators or desiccation, and often those also are suitable places for laying their eggs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19880864",
"title": "Tarebia granifera",
"section": "Section::::Ecology.:Dispersal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "The sole of \"Tarebia granifera\" is proportionally small when compared to other thiarids and smaller snails with their higher coefficients were less able to grip the substratum in the face of moving water and so not did disperse as effectively as larger ones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12651126",
"title": "Bulinus nyassanus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "This detritus-feeder typically burrows slightly into the sediment, no more than , unlike some of its relatives like \"B. globosus\", which usually live on rocks or aquatic vegetation. Although only a minority of these snails are infected (generally 2% or less in \"B. nyassanus\"), they do play an important role in the spread of bilharzia (schistosomiasis), a parasite that causes \"snail fewer\" in humans. The snail-eating ciclid fish \"Trematocranus placodon\" has a preference for \"B. nyassanus\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5xbbj4
|
What were Aztec shield fringes made of?
|
[
{
"answer": "You are correct that fringes are made out of feathers. In section \"Defensive Weapons\" in Ross Hassig's book *Aztec Warfare* (1988: 85-88), he covers the topic of shields. While Hassig describes different construction material and methods for shields, he does not describe the fringe as anything but feathers. However, Hassig does not specify which feathers were used for the creation of a shield fringe, only that shield used feathers and the feathers offered protection by deflecting projectiles. If you look at the [feather shield](_URL_0_) located at the Museum fur Volkerkunde, Vienna, you can see that the feather fringe of this shield is not made with long feathers like the quetzal feather. Instead, it appears to have been made from shorter feathers. If feather shield construction is like other featherworking in Aztec culture, these feathers should have come from any number of birds and have been dyed before being attached to the shield.\n\nI hope this clears up any confusion.\n\n---\n\n* Hassig, Ross. Aztec warfare: Imperial expansion and political control. Vol. 188. University of Oklahoma Press, 1988.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "202388",
"title": "Spear-thrower",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Whittaker said the stone-tipped projectiles from the Aztec atlatl were not powerful enough to penetrate Spanish steel plate armor, but they were strong enough to penetrate the mail, leather and cotton armor that most Spanish soldiers wore. Whittaker said the Aztecs started their battles with atlatl darts followed with melee combat using the macuahuitl.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9188234",
"title": "Morion (helmet)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "A morion is a type of open helmet originally from the Kingdom of Castile (Spain), used from the beginning 16th to early 17th centuries, usually having a flat brim and a crest from front to back. Its introduction was contemporaneous with the exploration of North, Central and South America. Explorers such as Hernando de Soto and Coronado may have supplied them to their foot soldiers in the 1540s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30862962",
"title": "Macuahuitl",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "The maquahuitl (, other orthographic variants include , and ), a type of , was a common weapon used by the Aztec military forces and other cultures of central Mexico. It was noted during the 16th-century Spanish conquest of the region. Other military equipment recorded includes the round shield (, ), the bow (, ), and the spear-thrower (, ). Its sides are embedded with prismatic blades traditionally made from obsidian; obsidian is capable of producing an edge sharper than high-quality steel razor blades.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26897716",
"title": "Native American jewelry",
"section": "Section::::Northeastern Woodlands.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "Iroquois artists have carved ornamental hair combs from antlers, often from moose, since 2000 BCE. The combs are topped with anthropomorphic or zoomorphic imagery. These became more elaborate after the introduction of metal knives from Europe in the late 16th and 17th centuries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "995070",
"title": "Aztec warfare",
"section": "Section::::Equipment.:Armor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "\"Cuacalalatli\": The Aztec war helmet, carved out of hardwood. Shaped to represent different animals like howler monkeys, predatory cats, birds, coyotes, or Aztec deities. These helmets protected most of a warriors head down to the jawline, the design allowed the warrior to see through the animal's open jaw and they were decorated according to the wearer's tlahuiztli.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56970948",
"title": "Serpent labret with articulated tongue",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "The serpent labret with articulated tongue is a gold Aztec lip plug from the mid-second millennium AD. Made of a gold, copper and silver alloy, it was cast via the lost-wax process; the tongue, cast individually, can be retracted or extended, and swings from side to side with its wearer's movement. The serpent is thought to represent Xiuhcoatl. The labret entered the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art with a 2016 purchase, and is considered \"perhaps the finest Aztec gold ornament to survive the crucibles of the sixteenth century\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3243606",
"title": "Brown-throated sloth",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "The guard hairs are very coarse and stiff, and overlie a much softer layer of dense under-fur. The hairs are unusual in lacking a central medulla, and have numerous microscopic cracks across their surfaces. These cracks are host to a number of commensal species of algae, including \"Rufusia pillicola\", \"Dictyococcus bradypodis\", and \"Chlorococcum choloepodis\". The algae are generally absent in the hair of young sloths, and may also be absent in particularly old individuals, where the outer cuticle of the hair has been lost. Sloth hair also harbours a rich fungal flora.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
16l1s3
|
Did creatures such as terrestrial hermit crabs make it onto land before the ancestors of modern reptiles and mammals?
|
[
{
"answer": "There were terrestrial arthropods before there were terrestrial vertebrates. Terrestrial scorpions and millipedes predate early terrestrial bony fish. See the Wikipedia article on the [devonian](_URL_0_) for a brief discussion of these early terrestrial arthropods. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "34693203",
"title": "Terrestrial crab",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "A number of lineages of crabs have evolved to live predominantly on land. Examples of terrestrial crabs are found in the families Gecarcinidae and Gecarcinucidae, as well as in selected genera from other families, such as \"Sesarma\", although the term \"land crab\" is often used to mean solely the family Gecarcinidae.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5510",
"title": "Clipperton Island",
"section": "Section::::Environment.:Flora and fauna.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 894,
"text": "The only land animals known to exist are two species of reptiles (\"Gehyra insulensis\", a gecko, and \"Emoia cyanura,\" a skink), bright-orange land crabs (\"Johngarthia planata\", sometimes known as the 'Clipperton Crab', although it is also found on other islands in the eastern Pacific), birds, and rats. The rats probably arrived on large fishing boats that were wrecked on the island in 1999 and 2000. Bird species include white terns, masked boobies, sooty terns, brown boobies, brown noddies, black noddies, great frigatebirds, coots, martins (swallows), cuckoos and yellow warblers. Ducks have been reported in the lagoon. The island has been identified as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International because of the large breeding colony of masked boobies, with 110,000 individual birds recorded. The lagoon harbours millions of isopods, which swimmers say can deliver a painful sting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58119398",
"title": "Coenobita rubescens",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "They are the only known terrestrial hermit crab species on the Atlantic coast of western Africa. They were first described by the German zoologist Richard Greeff in the West African islands of São Tomé and Rolas, after initially being misidentified as \"Coenobita rugosus\". They are able to venture far inland, in altitudes exceeding . In spite of this, the ovigerous females must release the fertilized eggs in the ocean for the larvae to develop (as with all known species of terrestrial hermit crabs).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "275334",
"title": "Hermit crab",
"section": "Section::::Fossil record.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "The fossil record of \"in situ\" hermit crabs using gastropod shells stretches back to the Late Cretaceous. Before that time, at least some hermit crabs used ammonites' shells instead, as shown by a specimen of \"Palaeopagurus vandenengeli\" from the Speeton Clay, Yorkshire, UK from the Lower Cretaceous.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "932136",
"title": "Henderson Island (Pitcairn Islands)",
"section": "Section::::Fauna.:Other animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "The invertebrate species are largely unknown but a third of the island's known non-marine gastropods and insects are endemic. There are no native mammals but the Pacific rat, introduced by Polynesians 800 years ago, abounds. A skink (\"Emoia cyanura\"), and the green sea turtle have been identified, and an unidentified gecko has been reported. There are also crabs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34854334",
"title": "Cretatrizocheles",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "Cretatrizocheles olazagutiensis is an extinct hermit crab which existed during the Albian or Cenomanian of what is now Spain. It was described by René H.B. Fraaije, Adiël A. Klompmaker and Pedro Artal in 2012, and is the only species in the genus Cretatrizocheles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1525967",
"title": "Puerto Rican nesophontes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "It is believed that the animal was never observed by Europeans. Contemporary fossils with indigenous artifacts and introduced rat fossils indicate survival into the colonial era, possibly until the 16th century. The shrew lived in the island montane forest/brush endemic to western Puerto Rico and was an insectivore. There are fossil specimens located in London. It disappeared after introduction of rats and due to the destruction of its forest habitat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1jew59
|
why was there a theory that nothing can go faster then light?
|
[
{
"answer": "Your wording is odd. You ask \"why was there\" is if it's not a current theory. As far as we know, it still holds true. As to why, see the other commenter.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The relativity theory is very much valid.\n\nI can try to explain a bit, but it's probably better explained by minute physics.\n\nFirst watch this: \n_URL_2_\n\nand then watch this: \n_URL_1_\n\nIt's a great youtube channel in general, so if you're not bored yet, go here: \n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The theory of relativity relies on defining the speed of light in order to make the math work. The speed of light in a vacuum, c, is also the speed of physics (cause and effect). It's like the network latency between different parts of space.\n\nThe assumption that the speed of light is constant and that nothing can go faster that it makes the theory of relativity work. And relativity leads to some non-intuitive conclusions that can be tested experimentally. And those tests have all come back positive. And the theory of relativity at its core is simple and elegant; so it is likely that it is true.\n\nBy the way, if you're asking this question because you're thinking about faster-than-light travel, there are ways around that. Just think about how to travel without exceeding the speed of light through the space that you occupy. The Alcubierre Drive gets around this by stretching space ahead and behind you, so you're never breaking the speed of light even though you kind of are. Wormholes are another idea, where you travel along a shortcut that connects distant parts of space, but along that path you don't exceed the speed of light.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The idea is not that something's holding back particles from going beyond the speed of light, but rather, the idea is that its **logically impossible** for anything to go faster than light.\n\nThe speed-of-light is a fundamental constant of our universe. A large number of laws of physics are based on this constant. You can say its an \"innate property\" of our universe.\n\nSometime back, neutrinos were observed to go faster than light, and this was a shockwave to every physicist, because if it were true, then all our fundamental laws of physics would have to be re-worked. It was later found that this was due to an experimental error, and the neutrinos never traveled faster than light. This means our laws of physics were correct all along and all is well.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26962",
"title": "Special relativity",
"section": "Section::::Consequences derived from the Lorentz transformation.:Causality and prohibition of motion faster than light.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 117,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 117,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "This is not to say that \"all\" faster than light speeds are impossible. Various trivial situations can be described where some \"things\" (not actual matter or energy) move faster than light. For example, the location where the beam of a search light hits the bottom of a cloud can move faster than light when the search light is turned rapidly (although we should be clear that this does not violate causality or any other relativistic phenomenon).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14843",
"title": "Interstellar travel",
"section": "Section::::Propulsion.:Theoretical concepts.:Faster-than-light travel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "It is also debatable whether faster-than-light travel is physically possible, in part because of causality concerns: travel faster than light may, under certain conditions, permit travel backwards in time within the context of special relativity. Proposed mechanisms for faster-than-light travel within the theory of general relativity require the existence of exotic matter and it is not known if this could be produced in sufficient quantity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8978774",
"title": "Quantum nonlocality",
"section": "Section::::No information can travel faster-than-light.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "Nonlocality does not mean that information can travel faster-than-light. Indeed, quantum field theory preserves causality, meaning that no influence can be projected between two points faster than the speed-of-light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "297839",
"title": "Time dilation",
"section": "Section::::Velocity time dilation.:Simple inference of velocity time dilation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "This constancy of the speed of light means that, counter to intuition, speeds of material objects and light are not additive. It is not possible to make the speed of light appear greater by moving towards or away from the light source.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28736",
"title": "Speed of light",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "Empedocles (c. 490–430 BC) was the first to propose a theory of light and claimed that light has a finite speed. He maintained that light was something in motion, and therefore must take some time to travel. Aristotle argued, to the contrary, that \"light is due to the presence of something, but it is not a movement\". Euclid and Ptolemy advanced Empedocles' emission theory of vision, where light is emitted from the eye, thus enabling sight. Based on that theory, Heron of Alexandria argued that the speed of light must be infinite because distant objects such as stars appear immediately upon opening the eyes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55278",
"title": "Warp drive",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 799,
"text": "Einstein's theory of special relativity states that energy and mass are interchangeable, and speed of light travel is impossible for material objects that weigh more than photons. The problem of a material object exceeding light speed is that an infinite amount of kinetic energy would be required to travel at exactly the speed of light. This can theoretically be solved by warping space to move an object instead of increasing the kinetic energy of the object to do so. Such a solution to the faster than light travel problem leads to two directly opposite approaches to light-speed travel in science fiction: in the first, spaceships themselves are brought to light speed and beyond; in the second, not-yet-local space itself is made to come to the ship while the ship moves at sub-light speeds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28736",
"title": "Speed of light",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "In the 13th century, Roger Bacon argued that the speed of light in air was not infinite, using philosophical arguments backed by the writing of Alhazen and Aristotle. In the 1270s, Witelo considered the possibility of light travelling at infinite speed in vacuum, but slowing down in denser bodies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
90dv3t
|
why aren't news stations (local, national, international) required to cite sources?
|
[
{
"answer": "One reason that news reporters (be they text or video) are not required to cite sources is that doing so can result in the firing, the arrest, or even the execution of the people who are their sources. Journalists take protecting these sources very seriously. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because asking for sources and punishing s newspaper if they are absent is a pathway for censorship. Who defines if it's enough of a source? The government?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Who do you think has the power to make them do so?\n\n > Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.\n\nSo, in the US, at least, they can't (and shouldn't) be forced to.\n\nYou want to be careful that the medicine isn't worse than the disease. A free press is kind of a big deal in a free society.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You can't 'require' anything from the press, in the US. Freedom of the press means what it says on the tin.\n\nHalf the time, they're the ones doing primary journalism anyway when reporting on their relevant spheres, so they're their own source.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Aside from all of the wonderful explanations so far, I'd like to point out that if you contact a news station and ask for the specific sources that lead to a broadcast, they'll often email them to you at no cost. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They often do, for example when they interview someone and use that information they say so, \"During our interview the president said...\" Other times, when they use other news outlets they say which outlet they got the info from, \"The Associated Press reports that...\" When official statements come out they often refer to a press release or corporate/government report. The source citations can fly by unnoticed if you're not actively listening for them. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you are talking in the usa it goes with the freedom of the press. A true journalist would protect their source but make a great effort to see if the source is telling the truth.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The constitution.\n\nFreedom of speech. Freedom of press. You can report any story you want and choose to divulge or not divulge sources. Because the government cannot dictate the content. Of course if your story isn't accurate and causes damage to someone you may be subject to civil action against you. Free speech is not without consequence.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because the news station itself is the source. Their capture of the information through interview or video or both provides the informational content.\n\nThere are some cases where you will hear a newscaster say \"From our sister station at KXED in Des Moines.\" or \"NBC's National Correspondant Joe Blow\". That's their way of citing as well.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46285012",
"title": "British Virgin Islands news websites",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "Some news sites in the Territory allow a great deal of latitude to the public to comment anonymously upon articles (referred to, slightly misleadingly, as \"blogs\" locally). In a community as small as the British Virgin Islands anonymous comments often indicate inside knowledge in relation to news items, or serve as a \"vox populi\" in relation to developing stories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57414068",
"title": "Journalism source protection",
"section": "Section::::Regional instruments.:Latin America and the Caribbean.:Legal framework.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "Banisar wrote: \"There are important declarations from the Organisation of American States (OAS). Few journalists are ever required to testify on the identity of their sources. However direct demands for sources still occur regularly in many countries, requiring journalists to seek legal recourse in courts. There are also problems with searches of newsrooms and journalists' homes, surveillance and the use of national security laws\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10574314",
"title": "Digital journalism",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 827,
"text": "Mainstream news sites are the most widespread form of online newsmedia production. As of 2000, the vast majority of journalists in the Western world now use the internet regularly in their daily work. In addition to mainstream news sites, digital journalism is found in index and category sites (sites without much original content but many links to existing news sites), meta- and comment sites (sites about newsmedia issues like media watchdogs), and share and discussion sites (sites that facilitate the connection of people, like Slashdot). Blogs are also another digital journalism phenomenon capable of fresh information, ranging from personal sites to those with audiences of hundreds of thousands. Digital journalism is involved in the cloud journalism phenomenon, a constant flow of contents in the Broadband Society.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10574314",
"title": "Digital journalism",
"section": "Section::::Impact on readers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "News consumers must become Web literate and use critical thinking to evaluate the credibility of sources. Because it is possible for anyone to write articles and post them on the Internet, the definition of journalism is changing. Because it is becoming increasingly simple for the average person to have an impact in the news world through tools like blogs and even comments on news stories on reputable news websites, it becomes increasingly difficult to sift through the massive amount of information coming in from the digital area of journalism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20781999",
"title": "News",
"section": "Section::::News values.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 114,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 114,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "News values are the professional norms of journalism. Commonly, news content should contain all the \"Five Ws\" (who, what, when, where, why, and also how) of an event. Newspapers normally place hard news stories on the first pages, so the most important information is at the beginning, enabling busy readers to read as little or as much as they desire. Local stations and networks with a set format must take news stories and break them down into the most important aspects due to time constraints.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "202048",
"title": "Iraq Body Count project",
"section": "Section::::Method.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "IBC's online database shows the newspaper, magazine or website where each number is reported, and the date on which it was reported. However, this has been criticized as insufficient because it typically does not list the original sources for the information: that is, the NGO, journalist or government responsible for the number presented. Hence, any inherent bias due to the lack of reliable reports from independent or Allied sources is not readily available to the reader.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37744129",
"title": "Media of Honduras",
"section": "Section::::Internet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "The Internet has provided a means for newspapers and other media organizations to deliver news and, significantly, the means to look up old news. Some organizations allow their archives to be freely browsed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
gcg9k
|
What do sunglasses protect the eyes from?
|
[
{
"answer": " > UV radiation comes to mind first.\n\n[WHO - Effect of UV on Eyes](_URL_0_)\n\nTL;DR: UV is bad for your eyes. \n\n > * Do all glass lenses fully absorb UV? What about plastics?\n\nNo and no.\n\n[Sunglasses/protection (wikipedia)](_URL_1_)\n\nNever wear sunglasses that *don't* offer good UV protection. Dark lenses reduce the light entering the eye so the pupil dilates to allow more light in. Problem is that also lets more UV in. So shades without UV protection do *more* damage to your eyes than no shades at all.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "74844",
"title": "Glasses",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Sunglasses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "Sunglasses provide more comfort and protection against bright light and often against ultraviolet (UV) light. To properly protect the eyes from the dangers of UV light, sunglasses should have UV-400 blocker to provide good coverage against the entire light spectrum that poses a danger. Photochromic lenses, which are photosensitive, darken when struck by UV light. The dark tint of the lenses in a pair of sunglasses blocks the transmission of light through the lens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "173759",
"title": "Sunglasses",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 885,
"text": "The American Optometric Association recommends wearing sunglasses that block ultraviolet radiation (UV) whenever a person is in the sunlight to protect the eyes from UV and blue light, which can cause several serious eye problems. Its usage is mandatory immediately after some surgical procedures, such as LASIK, and recommended for a certain time period in dusty areas, when leaving the house and in front of a TV screen or computer monitor after LASEK. It is important to note that dark glasses that do not block UV radiation can be more damaging to the eyes than not wearing eye protection at all, since they tend to open the pupil and allow more UV rays into the eye. Sunglasses have long been associated with celebrities and film actors primarily from a desire to mask their identity. Since the 1940s, sunglasses have been popular as a fashion accessory, especially on the beach.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "173759",
"title": "Sunglasses",
"section": "Section::::Functions.:Protection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1015,
"text": "The most widespread protection is against ultraviolet radiation, which can cause short-term and long-term ocular problems such as photokeratitis, snow blindness, cataracts, pterygium, and various forms of eye cancer. Medical experts advise the public on the importance of wearing sunglasses to protect the eyes from UV; for adequate protection, experts recommend sunglasses that reflect or filter out 99% or more of UVA and UVB light, with wavelengths up to 400 nm. Sunglasses that meet this requirement are often labeled as \"UV400\". This is slightly more protection than the widely used standard of the European Union (see below), which requires that 95% of the radiation up to only 380 nm must be reflected or filtered out. Sunglasses are not sufficient to protect the eyes against permanent harm from looking directly at the Sun, even during a solar eclipse. Special eyewear known as solar viewers are required for direct viewing of the sun. This type of eyewear can filter out UV radiation harmful to the eyes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "74844",
"title": "Glasses",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "Sunglasses allow for better vision in bright daylight, and may protect one's eyes against damage from excessive levels of ultraviolet light. Typical sunglasses lenses are tinted for protection against bright light or polarized to remove glare; Photochromatic glasses are clear in dark or indoor conditions, but turn into sunglasses when in they come in contact with Ultraviolet light. Most over the counter sunglasses do not have corrective power in the lenses; however, special prescription sunglasses can be made.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "173759",
"title": "Sunglasses",
"section": "Section::::Functions.:Further functions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 778,
"text": "Sunglasses can be worn to hide one's eyes. They can make eye contact impossible, which can be intimidating to those not wearing sunglasses; the avoided eye contact can also demonstrate the wearer's detachment, which is considered desirable (or \"cool\") in some circles. Eye contact can be avoided even more effectively by using mirrored sunglasses. Sunglasses can also be used to hide emotions; this can range from hiding blinking to hiding weeping and its resulting red eyes. In all cases, hiding one's eyes has implications for nonverbal communication; this is useful in poker, and many professional poker players wear heavily tinted glasses indoors while playing, so that it is more difficult for opponents to read tells which involve eye movement and thus gain an advantage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1641646",
"title": "Eye protection",
"section": "Section::::Protection Categories.:Glare or stray light.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "The most common forms of eye protection against light are sunglasses. These primarily protect against UV light from the sun and help increase visibility in bright conditions. They often tend to be fashionable as well as practical.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7497745",
"title": "Glare (vision)",
"section": "Section::::Reducing factors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "Sunglasses are often worn to reduce glare; polarized sunglasses are designed to reduce glare caused by light reflected from non-metallic surfaces such as water, glossy printed matter or painted surfaces. An anti-reflective treatment on eyeglasses reduces the glare at night and glare from inside lights and computer screens that is caused by light bouncing off the lens. Some types of eyeglasses can reduce glare that occurs because of the imperfections on the surface of the eye.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3wz3ja
|
how are sentences by judges that are aimed at making an example out guilty parties not a violation of "equal justice under law", and therefore unconstitutional?
|
[
{
"answer": "Each type of crime has a valid minimum and maximum sentence. As long as the judge stays within these guidelines, it is 100% legal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44720",
"title": "Jury",
"section": "Section::::Jury sentencing.:Arguments for and against jury sentencing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 185,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 185,
"end_character": 880,
"text": "Arguments that have been raised against sentencing by jury are that juries are not as accountable as judges; that putting them in charge of determining both guilt and the sentence concentrates too much power in one body; and that different juries may differ widely in the sentences they impose. Counterarguments are that the lack of accountability of jurors to a higher authority preserves their judicial independence, and that judges are also capable of differing from other judges in the sentences they impose. Judges may even deviate from their own usual sentencing practices if the case is high-profile or a judicial election is coming up. Also, disparities are not always a sign of arbitrariness; sometimes they may reflect geographical differences in public attitudes toward a given crime, or a jury's taking proper account of the individual circumstances of each offender.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "103533",
"title": "Analogy",
"section": "Section::::Applications and types.:In normative matters.:Law.:\"Restrictions on the use of analogy in law\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "Analogy should not be resorted to in criminal matters whenever its outcome would be unfavorable to the accused or suspect. Such a ban finds its footing in the very principle: “\"nullum crimen, nulla poena sine lege\"”, a principle which is understood in the way that there is no crime (punishment) unless it is expressly provided for in a statutory provision or an already existing judicial precedent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51934004",
"title": "ALI rule",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 652,
"text": "The ALI rule, or American Law Institute Model Penal Code rule, is a recommended rule for instructing juries how to find a defendant in a criminal trial is not guilty by reason of insanity. It broadened the M'Naghten rule of whether a defendant was so mentally ill that he is unable to \"know\" the nature and quality of his criminal act, or know its wrongfulness, to a question of whether he had \"substantial capacity to appreciate the criminality of [his] conduct\". It also added a volitional component as to whether defendant was lacking in \"substantial capacity to conform his conduct to the law\". It arose from the case of \"United States v. Brawner.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22623709",
"title": "Oregon v. Ice",
"section": "Section::::Majority opinion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "Justice Ginsburg, joined by Justices Stevens, Kennedy, Breyer, and Alito, held that the Sixth Amendment does not prohibit a judge from determining facts that enter into his decision whether to order that sentences for discrete offenses be served consecutively or concurrently.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23476",
"title": "Plea bargain",
"section": "Section::::Usage in common law countries.:Canada.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "Judges are not bound to impose a sentence within the range of a joint submission, and a judge's disregard for a joint submission is not in itself grounds for the sentence to be altered on appeal. However, if a judge routinely disregards joint submissions, that judge would compromise the ability of the Crown to offer meaningful incentives for defendants to plead guilty. Defence lawyers would become reluctant to enter into joint submissions if they were thought to be of little value with a particular judge, which would thus result in otherwise avoidable trials. For these reasons, Canadian judges will normally impose a sentence within the range of any joint submission.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28924172",
"title": "United States v. Jackson",
"section": "Section::::Opinion of the Court.:Dissent.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "Justice White dissented, with Justice Black joining. While he agreed that some defendants would be coerced by the law, Justice White argued that because not every defendant would be coerced by the law it should not be ruled unconstitutional. He argues that pleas of guilt should be carefully examined before being accepted to make sure that they have been not coerced by the threat of capital punishment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2010174",
"title": "Race and crime in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Imprisonment, arrest and homicides.:Prison data.:Arrests and sentencing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 1194,
"text": "A 2014 study revealed that judges subconsciously utilize the assumption that minorities are more likely to recidivate to issue a longer sentencing that will prevent the defendants from reengaging in criminal offenses. Additionally, theorists advocate that minorities are stereotypically identified as more violent and guilty than whites. This perception encourages judges to believe that they are preventing the onset of future crimes by imprisoning the defendants for a longer duration. This preconception that minorities are unable to economically support themselves warns the judicial system that they are more likely to resort to criminal activity in order to gain access to money or other objectives. Because these characteristics are less associated with white offenders, judges unintentionally treat the two differently. The short amount of time that judges share with defendants in court is insufficient in establishing an objective understanding. As a result, judges may unconsciously utilize the factors that they are given, such as the color of the skin, to construct an impression. Prejudgments on the basis of race influence perception of responsibility and threat to the society.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3nh72n
|
why don't tv shows/movies show real websites like google and facebook? why use fake websites that look like them?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because you gotta call them, ask for permission, sometimes they ask for a certain fee, have their PR people see if their product is being used in good faith, all that paperwork and time just isn't worth the trouble. You can literally have a mock up site with basic functions working in one or two days and pay the guy 200 bucks for it.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "56666704",
"title": "Legal fake",
"section": "Section::::Influencers, strategy and cybersquatting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "Legal fakes are possible because they take advantage of the ‘uninformed’ consumer who can be easily deceived and influenced by the latest trends promoted through celebrities endorsement and social networks or digital platforms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52548243",
"title": "Fake news websites in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Clickbait.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "Fake news websites often have article titles that are incredible, prompting the user to click on it and read more. This method of enticing readers to view content on their website often leads to exaggerated or even fake titles. When linked to from other sites, usually social media, having an extraordinary story title played a large part in tricking users who cannot tell if the article is real or not. This became especially relevant in the 2016 election. Additionally, out-of-context or manipulated images can cause readers to incorrectly assume an article's legitimacy, often due to their inflammatory image choice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52310847",
"title": "List of fake news websites",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 897,
"text": "Fake news websites deliberately publish hoaxes and disinformation to drive web traffic inflamed by social media. These sites are distinguished from news satire (which is humorous) as they mislead and sometimes profit from readers' gullibility. While most fake news sites are portrayed to be spinoffs of other news sites, some of these websites are examples of website spoofing, structured to make visitors believe they are visiting trusted sources like ABC News or MSNBC. \"The New York Times\" pointed out that within a strict definition, \"fake news\" on the Internet referred to a fictitious article which was fabricated with the deliberate motivation to defraud readers, generally with the goal of profiting through clickbait. PolitiFact described fake news as fabricated content designed to fool readers and subsequently made viral through the Internet to crowds that increase its dissemination.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52548243",
"title": "Fake news websites in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Obscurity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "Since the authors of these websites are not actual reporters, many fake news sites either pretend to have the identity of a reporter or simply do not include an 'About Us' page. These websites almost never have any other publications that reference them or information about themselves on tertiary sources like Wikipedia. When these sites get publicized by actual organizations, it gives them a bit of legitimacy, which helps them get viewers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52288758",
"title": "Fake news website",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "Fake news websites (also referred to as hoax news websites) are Internet websites that deliberately publish fake news—hoaxes, propaganda, and disinformation purporting to be real news—often using social media to drive web traffic and amplify their effect. Unlike news satire, fake news websites deliberately seek to be perceived as legitimate and taken at face value, often for financial or political gain. Such sites have promoted political falsehoods in Germany, Indonesia and the Philippines, Sweden, Myanmar, and the United States. Many sites originate in, or are promoted by, Russia, North Macedonia, Romania, and some individuals in the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52548243",
"title": "Fake news websites in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 612,
"text": "Fake news websites deliberately publish hoaxes, propaganda, and disinformation to drive web traffic inflamed by social media. These sites are distinguished from news satire as fake news articles are usually fabricated to deliberately mislead readers, either for profit or more ambiguous reasons, such as disinformation campaigns. Many sites originate in or are promoted by Russia, North Macedonia, Romania, and the United States. Many sites directly targeted the United States both because the U.S. is a high-value ad consumer and extraordinary claims to be more likely to be believed during a political crisis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52239",
"title": "Hoax",
"section": "Section::::Fake news.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "Fake news websites (also referred to as hoax news) deliberately publish hoaxes which may serve the goal of propaganda or disinformation — using social media to drive web traffic and amplify their effect. Unlike news satire, fake news websites seek to mislead, rather than entertain, readers for financial or political gain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5lcm18
|
why do old games running on new hardware still have technical issues?
|
[
{
"answer": "The XBox is emulating NES hardware and running the emulation at a set speed. If it ran it at as fast as possible, then it would be several times faster than the original NES game and would be unplayable. I can't speak for Mega Man exactly, but older games tended to run on a cycle locked to the screen refresh which was a fixed 60Hz or 50Hz. There was only one piece of hardware they ran on, so there was no need to adjust for different hardware speeds.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In that case, it's probably on purpose - they want to emulate the experience as closely as possible, even including the slowdown and sprite flickering. Some emulators let you turn it off, but it's usually turned on by default.\n\nIn other cases, like if you're trying to emulate PS2 games on your PC, the game might just run really slow in general. Even though your PC is way more powerful than a PS2, it has to \"translate\" from PS2 language to PC language in realtime, which is much more difficult than running PS2 code on the PS2 itself.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The emulator is designed to match the actual behavior of NES hardware under real conditions as closely as possible. It is actually very important that an emulator be designed to do this, otherwise it can cause problems. In rare cases, a game will be designed to work around or even make use of a specific hardware fault or issue, and will crash or fail to work entirely when the emulator doesn't replicate this. \n\nA good example of this is Speedy Gonzales on the SNES. Only Higan , which has cycle-accurate emulation, will successfully run the entire game. All other emulators will freeze at a very specific point. Another would be the YM2612 FM synthesis chip from the Genesis/Mega Drive. All current Genesis emulators only emulate the very similar but not identical YM3438, and earlier games that used the unique distortion present in the YM2612 will not have proper music emulation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This sounds similar to a situation I experienced years ago with varying graphics computers in my art department. Back in 1990, my Mac computer was older than the newer more powerful Macs my staff had. Yet my computer which did not have the power of the others displayed faster than the newer computers because as we would discover my monitor port was faster. So even though the newer computers could process the math faster, they could not render it faster so the visual perception was slower. \n\nAs for having so many enemies on the screen, this sounds like a problem unrelated to the power difference. I still love to play Dune on my PlayStation II, and I love to reach the point where I have big battles with lots of tanks, men, quads, gun towers and buildings and the game will crawl. But I notice that the enemy action the computer generates isn't as slow to act as the commends sent by me via the controller. My men move slowly while the enemy moves faster. Thus there is a timing difference in processing between those commands sent via the controller port vs. those sent by the cpu. Both the cpu commands and the controller commands are sent equally to through the TV port. There is a time delay between what I see on the screen, my reaction and commands, processing those commands and sending the result to the monitor. The enemy does not have as long a time delay because there is no controller involved. When there is less action on the screen we probably don't notice the time difference, but when the action is heavy and the processing overwhelms the cpu external commands get second priority. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "392690",
"title": "Console game",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Comparison between arcade, PC and handheld games.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 872,
"text": "In comparison to PC and mobile games, console game developers must consider the limitations of the hardware their game is being developed as it is unlikely to have any major changes. PC and mobile technology progresses quickly and there are many different configurations of their hardware and software. This is beneficial at the start of a console's life cycle as the technology will be relatively current but as the console ages, developers are forced to work with ageing hardware until the next generation of consoles comes out. Earlier consoles games could be developed to take advantage of the fixed limitations they were be on (E.g., the Megadrive's capability of fast scrolling influenced design decisions in Sonic the Hedgehog) Due to these hardware limitations the requirement of development kits and licenses required for development on a console is commonplace.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2782",
"title": "Atari Jaguar",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "The multi-chip architecture, hardware bugs, and lacking developer support tools made game development difficult. Underwhelming sales further contributed to the console's lack of third-party support. This, in addition to the lack of internal development at Atari, led to a games library comprising only 50 licensed titles, plus another 13 games on the Jaguar CD.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "700265",
"title": "Video game development",
"section": "Section::::Development process.:Post-production.:Maintenance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 148,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 148,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "Games developed for video game consoles have had almost no maintenance period in the past. The shipped game would forever house as many bugs and features as when released. This was common for consoles since all consoles had identical or nearly identical hardware; making incompatibility, the cause of many bugs, a non-issue. In this case, maintenance would only occur in the case of a port, sequel, or enhanced remake that reuses a large portion of the engine and assets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "700265",
"title": "Video game development",
"section": "Section::::Development process.:Post-production.:Maintenance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 150,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 150,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "PC development is different. Game developers try to account for majority of configurations and hardware. However, the number of possible configurations of hardware and software inevitably leads to discovery of game-breaking circumstances that the programmers and testers didn't account for.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6842798",
"title": "Programmer art",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "Not all programmers decide to replace the assets in their software prior to release, though. This is especially common in indie games, since indie developers generally lack the resources to commission large amounts of assets for their games. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3851595",
"title": "Video game conversion",
"section": "Section::::Types of conversions.:Remakes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "Developers have remade older video games with modern technology. This was a particular phenomenon during the late 1990s with numerous 3D updates of games such as \"Frogger\", \"Missile Command\", \"Asteroids\" and \"Space Invaders\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "392690",
"title": "Console game",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Remakes and re-releases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "Some consoles lack the ability to play games from previous generations which allow a developer to release older games again but on the new consoles. The re-released game may be unchanged and simply be the same game but run on the new technology or it can be changed by the developer to have improved graphics, sound or gameplay. Some re-releases can have added features such as Final Fantasy VII which added functions to speed the game up and turn off random enemy encounters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ws0oi
|
Does an eagle see things that are say, 2 feet away in microscopic detail, blurry (like looking through binoculars) or simply as we would see them?
|
[
{
"answer": "They can actually change the focal length of their eyes by deforming them with muscles. That said, the optics of a microscope and a telescope are very different. If they had their eyes in \"far away mode\", everything would be blurry, like looking at a bug through binoculars.\n\nIf they were in \"normal mode\", their vision would be... Well... Normal.\n\nI have no idea if they can deform their eye to zoom in on tiny things close up, though I can't imagine why they would be able to do this. It doesn't seem like what they evolved for.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12035702",
"title": "Supersense",
"section": "Section::::Episodes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Seeing Sense\": A vulture can spot a carcass from a great distance, the four-eyed fish can see above and below water simultaneously, a fly’s multi-faceted eye sees a very different world than a human eye, while other insects can see into ultra-violet light. And lions have an area on the retina which actually empathises with their prey.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37506742",
"title": "Eagle eye",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "The eagle eye is among the strongest in the animal kingdom, with an eyesight estimated at 4 to 8 times stronger than that of the average human. An eagle is said to be able to spot a rabbit 3.2 km away. Although an eagle may only weigh , its eyes are roughly the same size as those of a human. As the eagle descends from the sky to attack its prey, the muscles in the eyes continuously adjust the curvature of the eyeballs to maintain sharp focus and accurate perception throughout the approach and attack.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37506742",
"title": "Eagle eye",
"section": "Section::::Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1189,
"text": "An eagle in flight can reputedly sight a rabbit two miles away. Talon–eye coordination is a hunting imperative. From its perch at the top of trees, the eagle can dive at speeds of to catch its prey by its talons. Eagles, in their young age, cannot locate fish below water as a result of refraction error of the eye, so they compensate by grabbing dead fish floating on the surface. As they grow older, the refraction error naturally rectifies itself and they are able to spot fish below the surface. The fierce look of the eagle is due to the placement of a bony ridge above its eyes, the small amount of bare skin between its eyes, and its sharp beak. The feathers on its body generally do not grow over the eyes. The ridge protects the eyes from protruding tree branches when it perches on trees, and also from prey which struggles to escape. Each eagle eyeball moves separately. The eyeball is so large and so tightly fit that the eagle can barely turn it within the socket. That the eyes are located in front of its head with face forward and looking slightly askew is an advantage. Though its hearing does not match its eye power, mating calls are said to be heard for several miles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37506742",
"title": "Eagle eye",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "In addition to eagles, birds such as hawks, falcons, and robins have extraordinary vision which enable them to gather their prey easily. Their eyes are stated to be larger in size than their brain, by weight. Color vision with resolution and clarity are the most prominent features of eagles' eyes, hence sharp-sighted people are sometimes referred to as \"eagle-eyed\". Eagles can identify five distinctly-colored squirrels and locate their prey even if hidden.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18416476",
"title": "Bird vision",
"section": "Section::::Extraocular anatomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Most birds cannot move their eyes, although there are exceptions, such as the great cormorant. Birds with eyes on the sides of their heads have a wide visual field, useful for detecting predators, while those with eyes on the front of their heads, such as owls, have binocular vision and can estimate distances when hunting. The American woodcock probably has the largest visual field of any bird, 360° in the horizontal plane, and 180° in the vertical plane.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7483379",
"title": "Gigelorum",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "Speculation exists that it may be based upon the tiniest insect that can be discerned by people possessing excellent eyesight, the \"giolcam-daobhram\", which is described as \"an animalcule, the smallest supposable living thing\". Ronald Black, a one time Celtic studies lecturer, author and journalist, suggests that the creature could be a figment of the imagination of folklorist and Tiree minister John Gregorson Campbell as he could trace no authoritative sources for it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "577706",
"title": "Wahlberg's eagle",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "While the large brown eagles are generally a tricky group to identify, Wahlberg's eagle have some distinctive features. A small, pointed crest is usually visible. The gape only extends at maximum to the middle of the eye, whereas in lesser spotted eagle, it extends to the back of the eye. Round nostrils are not present in either tawny or steppe eagles, but the two spotted eagles also have round nostrils. In flight, this species is very cross-shaped, with long, evenly wide wings, a slim body, and a narrow, square-ended tail. The wings are held very flat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
esbsy7
|
when a court tries to discover whether someone is guilty or innocent, does their lawyer know the truth?
|
[
{
"answer": "Sometimes they know sometimes they don't. \n\nAttorney client privledge is a common law understanding in the US that your lawyer cannot divulge or be forced to divulge what you've told them. \n\nThis way you are encouraged to tell them the truth so they may best come up with a plan for your defense. There are of course some accused who will not admit guilt to their attorneys. Realistically we would never know if attorney knew or not.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's not guilty or innocent, it's guilty or non-guilty. You may think that it's not a small detail, but that's important. The court never know if the guy is innocent, they only know if there is enough good evidence to declare him guilty or not. The defender doesn't need to prove that he is innocent, only that he is not guilty.\n\nAs for the defender's lawyer, he could know or not know. It depend if the accused decided to tell his lawyer or not. The lawyer could also not know, but be pretty sure that his client did it. \n\nAnyway, at this point the lawyer only have 2 options. Either he decide to retract himself from the case, or he need to defend his client at the best of his capability.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "All parties involved have access to all the evidence available. It's not like \"the truth\" suddenly manifests itself in the courtroom to the surprise of everyone present. Nor does it matter.\n\nThe defending lawyer isn't there to prove innocence. He's there to ensure that his client receives a fair trial, that the prosecution is doing their job, that the evidence brought forth is valid, and trying to cast reasonable doubt on every single statement brought to question in discovery. If that's impossible he still has the job of making sure that his client receives a fair treatment and sentencing even when guilty beyond doubt. \n\nHowever in most cases lying to your lawyer is a stupid move, because it hinders his ability to actually help you.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A lawyer is legally required to turn over all their evidence to their opponents before the court. The exception is his conversations with his client which are confidential. However statements in general is untrustworthy and there are plenty of cases where clients have admited their guilt to their attorney even though there are solid evidence they are innocent. So the lawyer generally does not know much more about the case then the rest of the court. However their job is not to hide the evidence but make sure their clients are getting the justice they deserve and are not getting punished too harshly. In a lot of cases there is no question of guilt but rather how hard the punishment should be. A lot of lawyers will even instruct their clients to not tell them more about the case then they already told police as that is unnecesary information to them. The lawyers job is to present the evidence to the court in a way which is most advantagious to their client. The question of guilt is not really part of the equation for them. That being said the lawyers have a lot of experience with liers and can often uncover their clients lies quite fast. So even if there is little evidence they can often make a pretty good guess about their clients guilt. But even criminals have the right to a proper representation in court and a fair punishment for their crimes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In most cases the defendant's lawyer knows the truth.\n\nCourt is less about finding the truth, and more about proving something based on a given set of rules.\n\nWhich is why defense teams are not always as concerned about whether their client is innocent or guilty, it's based on the rules of evidence, can it be proven (beyond doubt).\n\nThere is no discovering of truth, the prosecution and defense share everything they have before hand.. it's aptly named discovery. So everything presented, both sides have had a chance to review (few exceptions apply) The only \"surprise\" is what a witness might say on the stand when cross examined. As in If one side calls a witness to the stand, the other side gets to ask questions. Normally the witness is prepared for the questions but maybe a curveball is thrown and the stress/question makes the witness answer in a way that was not predicted... Or a lawyer uses the emotions of the case (like anger, jealousy, etc) to get the witness to blurt something out.\n\nFinally, If there is a jury, then the judge is not there to decide if it's innocent or guilty, he is actually a referee designed to make sure both lawyers are following the rules. Since the jury (and most regular people) don't know all the rules of court and evidence. The judge will allow or not allow pieces of evidence, testimony, etc as a way to make sure all the rules are being followed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They know what they've been told and been instructed to find out.\n\nBeyond that, it's as much hearsay as anyone else saying they \"know\" he did it.\n\nIt's also generally frowned upon to \\*admit guilt\\* to your lawyer and then expect them to plead your innocence. They will likely advise you not to say things like that, or to change your plea to guilty.\n\nThat would likely be via a roundabout \"I'm sorry, are you admitting guilt to me, thus putting me into a position where I couldn't ever represent to the court that you're innocent?\" kind of way that most people would take the hint and say \"Oh, no, I mis-spoke, I didn't do it, honest\" even though everyone involved knows exactly what's going on.\n\nA lawyer can't knowingly lie to the court. But given that attorney-client privileges means all such discussions are private even from the courts themselves, there's no (easy) way to prove that they are doing so. If, however, you said you were guilty and stabbed him with a knife you buried < here > and your lawyer then tries to act as if he weren't aware of that evidence when it comes up later, there is a massive legal problem. He can't just ignore that fact, necessarily.\n\nTip: Don't put your lawyer in that position. If you want them to prove your innocence, don't tell them you're guilty (and vice-versa!). They won't appreciate it.\n\nIf they think you're guilty, they're supposed to still represent your interests (e.g. a lenient sentence) but to do that they'll expect you to plead guilty.\n\nWhat they'll do is claim ignorance, even though they are more than smart enough to know what's going on, and advise you to plead guilty if you say you are. Anyone with half a brain will follow what they advise, which will basically be to never suggest you're actually guilty to anyone, including themselves.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44760178",
"title": "United States v. Williams (1992)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "The ruling protects prosecutors who withhold \"substantial exculpatory evidence\" in order to obtain an indictment, as the role of the grand jury is not to determine guilt, but rather to decide whether there is enough evidence of a crime; exculpatory evidence can be presented at trial. Justice Stevens' dissent focused on the argument that a prosecutor's failure to present substantially exculpatory evidence is a form of prosecutorial misconduct, but that nevertheless, the prosecutor need not \"ferret out and present all evidence that could be used at trial to create a reasonable doubt as to defendant's guilt.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8260439",
"title": "Subic rape case",
"section": "Section::::Acquittal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "\"In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall be presumed innocent until the contrary is proved, and shall enjoy the right to be heard by himself and counsel, to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation against him, to have a speedy, impartial, and public trial, to meet the witnesses face to face, and to have compulsory process to secure the attendance of witnesses and the production of evidence in his behalf,\" the law says.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1625925",
"title": "People's Court (Germany)",
"section": "Section::::Manner of proceedings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 836,
"text": "With almost no exceptions, cases in the People's Court had predetermined guilty verdicts. There was no presumption of innocence nor could the defendants adequately represent themselves or consult counsel. A proceeding at the People's Court would follow an initial indictment in which a state or city prosecutor would forward the names of the accused to the \"Volksgerichtshof\" for charges of a political nature. Defendants were hardly ever allowed to speak to their attorneys beforehand and when they did the defense lawyer would usually simply answer questions about how the trial would proceed and refrain from any legal advice. In at least one documented case (the trial of the \"White Rose\" conspirators), the defense lawyer assigned to Sophie Scholl chastised her the day before the trial, stating that she would pay for her crimes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50148",
"title": "Prosecutor's fallacy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "The following demonstrates the fallacy in the context of a prosecutor questioning an expert witness: “the odds of finding this evidence on an innocent man are so small that the jury can safely disregard the possibility that this defendant is innocent”. The fallacy obscures that the odds of a defendant being innocent given said evidence in fact depends on the likely higher prior odds of the defendant being innocent, the explicitly lesser odds of the evidence in the case that he was innocent as mentioned, as well as the underlying cumulative odds of the evidence being on the defendant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35755406",
"title": "Criminal procedure in South Africa",
"section": "Section::::Prosecution of crime.:Structure of State prosecuting authority.:Ethics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 525,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 525,
"end_character": 741,
"text": "The court held that all statements obtained from persons who have provided relevant information to the authorities, even if they are not proposed as Crown witnesses, should be produced. The court accordingly found that Crown counsel was not justified in refusing disclosure on the ground that the witness was not worthy of credit: Whether the witness is credible is for the trial judge to determine after hearing the evidence. The trial judge ought to have examined the statements. Since the information withheld might have affected the outcome of the trial, the failure to disclose impaired the right to make full answer and defence. The court held, therefore, that there should be a new trial, at which the statements were to be produced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2598",
"title": "Adversarial system",
"section": "Section::::Basic features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 754,
"text": "As an accused is not compelled to give evidence in a criminal adversarial proceeding, they may not be questioned by a prosecutor or judge unless they choose to do so. However, should they decide to testify, they are subject to cross-examination and could be found guilty of perjury. As the election to maintain an accused person's right to silence prevents any examination or cross-examination of that person's position, it follows that the decision of counsel as to what evidence will be called is a crucial tactic in any case in the adversarial system and hence it might be said that it is a lawyer's manipulation of the truth. Certainly, it requires the skills of counsel on both sides to be fairly equally pitted and subjected to an impartial judge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49915232",
"title": "Cannabis trafficking penalties for juveniles",
"section": "Section::::Judicial systems.:Americas.:United States of America.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "During a criminal trial it is the government's duty to provide the trial with evidence proving the defendant's guilt, the defendant does not need provide evidence to prove innocence. If at the end of the trial the defendant is not found guilty, he is released and the prosecution may not appeal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8yiwo3
|
is a fat muffin top at your belly caused because humans wear clothes around their waistline?
|
[
{
"answer": "Really good question! I am by no means an expert but it is my understanding that every person stores fat on their bod differently, however fat naturally collects around the waistline, modern clothes or not. Wearing tight jeans or yoga pants accentuates the “over hang” or “muffin top” on some people.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, but not by much. Your fat stores are all located in/around your hips/pelvic region, they swell and become distended due to an increase in volume of fat storage. Squeezing into tighter clothing does cause certain shapes (i.e. muffin top) to form, but it has no impact on the overall volume. \n\nSo if you are carrying weight in your belly it's not like that weight is going to suddenly shift to your thights, it'll still be there but just in a different shape. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30863645",
"title": "Muffin top",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "A muffin-top (or \"muffin top\") is a slang term typically used to describe a man or woman's skin or body fat that is visible above the waistline of pants or skirts because of tight clothing. The term is a reference to the way a muffin appears when it has been baked in a muffin tin, so that the top of the muffin is wider than its bottom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30863645",
"title": "Muffin top",
"section": "Section::::Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "According to William Safire, writing in \"The New York Times Magazine\", \"Muffin-top fills a lexical void\" and \"describes the roll of excess flesh spilling out primarily in front but possibly all around.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2377843",
"title": "Sleeveless shirt",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Dudou.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "A dudou (\"belly cover\"), known as a yem in Vietnamese contexts, is an item of East Asian clothing resembling a silk apron or bib but traditionally used as an undershirt or bodice to flatten the figure and, medicinally, to preserve stomach \"qi\". Beginning around the year 2000, Western and Chinese fashion has also begun incorporating them as a sleeveless and backless shirt for women.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "571630",
"title": "Venus figurines",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "The high amount of fat around the buttocks of some of the figurines has led to numerous interpretations. The issue was first raised by Édouard Piette, excavator of the Brassempouy figure and of several other examples from the Pyrenees. Some authors saw this feature as the depiction of an actual physical property, resembling (but \"not\" depicting) the Khoisan tribe of southern Africa, while others interpreted it as a symbol of fertility and abundance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2234728",
"title": "Wrinkles (toy)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Wrinkles is a line of plush toys manufactured by Canadian toy company Ganz in the 1980s. The toys are identified by their characteristic wrinkled faces and clothing. They were based on the hound breed of dog. The original design was created by Senitt Puppets, based in Carnarvon, Ontario. Catherine Senitt designed and sold handmade puppets for over twenty years throughout the United States and Canada.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24197209",
"title": "Chang kben",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "Sampot chang kben (; , , ; , \"pha hang\") is a lower-body, wrap-around cloth worn in the countries of Cambodia, Laos, and Thailand. It was the preferred choice of clothing for women of upper and middle classes for daily wear. The practice of daily wear died out at the beginning of the 20th century. Unlike the typical sampot, it is more of a pant than a skirt. It is a rectangular piece of cloth measuring three meters long and one meter wide. It is worn by wrapping it around the waist, stretching it away from the body, twisting the ends together then pulling the twisted fabric between the legs and tucking it in the back of the waist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16819687",
"title": "Maternity clothing",
"section": "Section::::Cultural trends in maternity wear.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "Culturally in the US today, a few popular clothing brands have made everyday wear for pregnant women both fashionable and accessible. As the body is changing shape and therefore levels of comfort, most maternity clothing is made with Lycra and elastic for stretch and growth. For pants, the waistband is usually a thick layer of stretchy material that can be hidden by a shirt to give the pants a normal look. Depending on style and activity, tops often billow out to leave room for the belly and are made of varying cottons and elastic materials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
h4ws4
|
Why aren't archaea human pathogens?
|
[
{
"answer": "That is an EXCELLENT question, and unfortunately there is not a very good answer yet. It's not fully known, but there are some ideas.\n\nIt has been proposed that because Archaea use different cofactors in their metabolism, eukaryotes don't provide a good \"food source.\" But this isn't completely satisfactory, as they do use some factors. To make this even less likely, some Archaea do act as commensals in humans, and \"host as a food source\" is not the only advantage to pathogenesis. So that's kind of out. It may be *a* factor, but it's not *the* factor.\n\nOne recent idea has to do with the genetics of pathogenogenesis (not a typo...refers to how pathogens are generated). One of the big ways a nonpathogen becomes a pathogen is via horizontal gene transfer of pathogenic genetic material. A friendly bug picks up a T3S or a Type II pilus gene (biochemical systems used by pathogens to injure host cells). That gene infers some kind of advantage to the friendly bug, and it starts to use it...BANG, pathogen.\n\nA big source of these is mobile genetic elements, like phages. This is Dawkin's selfish gene; eukaryotic viruses (like the common cold) infect eukaryotic cells and thereby increase their number. Prokaryotic pathogenogenic phages *transduce* bacteria, which are in turn induced to invade and colonize eukaryotic hosts and thereby increase the range of the phage genes. From the gene (phage) perspective, this not only gives benefit via direct replication, but also through more opportunities for further transduction. The commensals in the eukaryote are fertile ground, with unsullied genomes.\n\nAnd therein lies the reason (maybe): It is known that bacterial phages, on the whole, don't infect Archaea and Archaean phages don't infect Bacteria. This largely has to do with specific molecular differences between the two Domains. The result is that there isn't a good way to get those genes to jump from pathogenic bacteria into Archaea. The Arachaens don't have access to the pathogenogenic genetic information accumulated by Bacteria. Or, more accurately, the genetic information in the bacteria doesn't have access to the Archaean genomes.\n\nOK, so why haven't the Archaens developed their own pathogenic mechanisms? Where's the Archaean version of T3S? That's even less known. Maybe it's because Archaens did a lot of early evolutionary development in the absence of eukaryotes, more so than Bacteria. Whatever paths they took are somehow inhibitory or exclusive to pathogenic development. Due to early evolutionary commitments, they are forever excluded from independently developing the pathogenic lifestyle. \n\nMaybe it's just because the development of this complex system of mobile gene elements takes a lot of evolutionary steps, and Archaea just never have done the correct combination. (Implying that they could, but they've been around eukaryotes just as long as bacteria have. If they can, have had enough time to, yet haven't, why haven't they?)\n\nMaybe it's because there aren't as many Archaean commensals as there are Bacterial, and any putative Archaean pathogenogenic phage that gets in has a hard time finding the Archaean needle in the Bacterial haystack to carry it's genes.\n\nOr, maybe it's a combination of those things (this is where I'd put my money).\n\nEXCELLENT question, though.\n\n(edited for some typos...got a little excited while typing and accidently a fw lttrs words)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In addition to what klenow said, many archaea live in extreme environments - high temperatures, below-freezing temperatures, extremely acidic or basic temperatures, etc. They can't survive in our body - so they can't really be pathogenic. Hyperthermophiles would literally freeze to death at our body temperature. Their enzymes and proteins just don't function in the human environment. \n\nAnd, some Archaeans are considered to be pretty important. Some enzymes from thermophilic archaeans are used in laundry detergents, and some methanogens are used in bioremediation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Archaea linked to human periodontal disease](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is sort of an off the top of my head reason/question. But evolutionarily speaking, and due to them being incredibly old organisms, is it not possible that their pathogenic capability was rendered mute after a few million years of organisms evolving to cope with them. The \"include and transcend\" standpoint?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I found three interesting articles you might like:\n\n1. Gill EE, Brinkman FSL. The proportional lack of archaeal pathogens: Do viruses/phages hold the key? BioEssays. 2011;33(4):248-54.\n\n2. Cavicchioli R, Curmi PMG, Saunders N, Thomas T. Pathogenic archaea: do they exist? BioEssays. 2003;25(11):1119-28.\n\n3. Faguy DM. Lateral Gene Transfer between Archea and E coli is a contributor to the emergence of novel infectious disease. BMC Infectious Diseases. 2003;3(13):16-19.\n\nEdit: I've only skimmed these, they're on my list to read, ya know, after finals.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19179592",
"title": "Archaea",
"section": "Section::::Ecology.:Interactions with other organisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 904,
"text": "The well-characterized interactions between archaea and other organisms are either mutual or commensal. There are no clear examples of known archaeal pathogens or parasites, but some species of methanogens have been suggested to be involved in infections in the mouth, and \"Nanoarchaeum equitans\" may be a parasite of another species of archaea, since it only survives and reproduces within the cells of the Crenarchaeon \"Ignicoccus hospitalis\", and appears to offer no benefit to its host. Connections between archaeal cells can also be found between the Archaeal Richmond Mine Acidophilic Nanoorganisms (ARMAN) and another species of archaea called Thermoplasmatales, within acid mine drainage biofilms. Although the nature of this relationship is unknown, it is distinct from that of \"Nanarchaeaum–Ignicoccus\" in that the ultrasmall ARMAN cells are usually independent of the Thermoplasmatales cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "205464",
"title": "Human microbiome",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Archaea.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "Archaea are present in the human gut, but, in contrast to the enormous variety of bacteria in this organ, the numbers of archaeal species are much more limited. The dominant group are the methanogens, particularly \"Methanobrevibacter smithii\" and \"Methanosphaera stadtmanae\". However, colonization by methanogens is variable, and only about 50% of humans have easily detectable populations of these organisms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19179592",
"title": "Archaea",
"section": "Section::::Ecology.:Interactions with other organisms.:Commensalism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "Archaea can also be commensals, benefiting from an association without helping or harming the other organism. For example, the methanogen \"Methanobrevibacter smithii\" is by far the most common archaean in the human flora, making up about one in ten of all the prokaryotes in the human gut. In termites and in humans, these methanogens may in fact be mutualists, interacting with other microbes in the gut to aid digestion. Archaean communities also associate with a range of other organisms, such as on the surface of corals, and in the region of soil that surrounds plant roots (the rhizosphere).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44430316",
"title": "Host adaptation",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1583,
"text": "Another intestinal pathogen in the genus Cryptosporidium, which was not always a human pathogen, \"recently\" adapted to the human host environment. Numerous phylogenetic analyses in a paper by Xiao et al 2002 indicated that the Cryptosporidium parvum bovine genotype and Cryptosporidium meleagridis were originally parasites of rodents and mammals, respectively. However, this parasite 'recently' expanded into humans. As was previously mentioned, the ability to survive in different host species is an adaptation that is highly advantageous to pathogens because it increases their chances for survival and circulation. Some pathogens can evolve to become resistant to the body's natural immune defenses and/or to outside intervention like drugs. For instance, Clostridium difficile is the most frequent cause of nosocomial diarrhea worldwide, and reports in the early 2000s indicated the advent of a hypervirulent strain in North America and Europe. In study by Stabler et al 2006, comparative phylogenomics (whole-genome comparisons using DNA microarrays combined with Bayesian phylogenies) were used to model the phylogeny of C. difficile. Phylogenetic analysis identified four distinct statistically significant 'clusters' making a hypervirulent clade, a toxin A− B+ clade, and two clades with human and animal isolates. Genetic differences between the four groups revealed significant findings related to virulence. The authors saw that hypervirulent strains had undergone various types of niche adaptation like antibiotic resistance, motility, adhesion, and enteric metabolism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19179592",
"title": "Archaea",
"section": "Section::::Genetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 859,
"text": "Archaea can be infected by double-stranded DNA viruses that are unrelated to any other form of virus and have a variety of unusual shapes, including bottles, hooked rods, or teardrops. These viruses have been studied in most detail in thermophilics, particularly the orders Sulfolobales and Thermoproteales. Two groups of single-stranded DNA viruses that infect archaea have been recently isolated. One group is exemplified by the \"Halorubrum pleomorphic virus 1\" (\"Pleolipoviridae\") infecting halophilic archaea and the other one by the Aeropyrum coil-shaped virus (\"Spiraviridae\") infecting a hyperthermophilic (optimal growth at 90–95 °C) host. Notably, the latter virus has the largest currently reported ssDNA genome. Defenses against these viruses may involve RNA interference from repetitive DNA sequences that are related to the genes of the viruses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5672419",
"title": "Archamoebae",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "The Archamoebae are a group of protists originally thought to have evolved before the acquisition of mitochondria by eukaryotes. They include genera that are internal parasites or commensals of animals (\"Entamoeba\" and \"Endolimax\"). A few species are human pathogens, causing diseases such as amoebic dysentery. The other genera of archamoebae live in freshwater habitats and are unusual among amoebae in possessing flagella. Most have a single nucleus and flagellum, but the giant amoeba \"Pelomyxa\" has many of each.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42251979",
"title": "Root microbiome",
"section": "Section::::Composition.:Archaea.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "Archaea are traditionally thought of as microbes belonging to extreme environments. Though they are found in plant roots, little is known about their effect on plant health or their role in the root microbiome.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1demj6
|
How long does a lobster live?
|
[
{
"answer": "they can, however their normal lifespan is around 15 years\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's hypothesized that they have the biological capacity to live somewhat indefinitely, barring bodily damage, predation, or disease. This is due to something called having a negligible rate of senescence, which is essentially aging. They're placed in the same league as tortoises, rockfish, Quahog clam, and bristlecone pine. The bristlecone pine has been known to live to ~5000 years. They expect this is the case due to growth calculations, aging methods, and because they are large bodied and still fertile at those ages. They can weigh up to 20kg and measure 1m in length from claws to tail.\n\nIn terms of the lobster, it does a very good job of DNA repair because of [telomorase](_URL_1_), by molting to get fresh structures, using stem cells to renew tissues, regenerate appendages, antioxidant usages, they're very good at detoxifying themselves of pollutants, and have pretty good immune systems.\n\nThey've been found at 76 years [New perspectives on the growth and longevity of the European lobster (Homarus gammarus)](_URL_3_)\n\nAnd the oldest known decapod was 176 years.\n\nThere has been no American lobster found to be 100 years old, but they are thought to be capable due to their very slow senescence.\n\nThe first paper, a review paper, is an excellent source if you're interested.\n\n* [Ageing and longevity in the Decapoda (Crustacea): A review](_URL_4_)\n* [History and prospects: symposium on organisms with slow aging]\n(_URL_2_)\n\n* [Emerging area of aging research: long-lived animals with \"negligible senescence](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1239857",
"title": "California spiny lobster",
"section": "Section::::Life cycle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "Female California spiny lobsters reach sexual maturity at a length of , which is typically at an age of 5–9 years; males are sexually mature after 3–6 years. Because all the hard parts are lost at each molt, the life span of mature spiny lobsters is uncertain; they are thought to live for 50 years or more.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46310",
"title": "Lobster",
"section": "Section::::Longevity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "Lobsters, like many other decapod crustaceans, grow throughout life and are able to add new muscle cells at each moult. Lobster longevity allows them to reach impressive sizes. According to \"Guinness World Records\", the largest lobster ever caught was in Nova Scotia, Canada, weighing .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46310",
"title": "Lobster",
"section": "Section::::Longevity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "Lobsters live up to an estimated 45 to 50 years in the wild, although determining age is difficult. In 2012, a report was published describing how growth bands in calcified regions of the eyestalk or gastric mill in shrimps, crabs and lobsters could be used to measure growth and mortality in decapod crustaceans. Without such a technique, a lobster's age is estimated by size and other variables; this new knowledge \"could help scientists better understand the population and assist regulators of the lucrative industry\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "377397",
"title": "American lobster",
"section": "Section::::As food.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "American lobsters are a popular food. They are commonly boiled or steamed. Hard-shells (lobsters that are several months past their last molt) can survive out of water for up to four or five days if kept refrigerated. Soft-shells (lobsters that have only recently molted) do not survive more than a few hours out of water. Lobsters are usually cooked alive, which may be illegal in certain areas and which some people consider inhumane.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4632779",
"title": "Bog turtle",
"section": "Section::::Ecology and behavior.:Life cycle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "The bog turtle spends its life almost exclusively in the wetland where it hatched. In its natural environment, it has a maximum lifespan of perhaps 50 years or more, and the average lifespan is 20–30 years. The Bronx Zoo houses several turtles 35 years old or more, the oldest known bog turtles. The zoo's collection has successfully sustained itself for more than 35 years. The age of a bog turtle is determined by counting the number of rings in a scute, minus the first one (which develops before birth).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "232786",
"title": "Maximum life span",
"section": "Section::::In animals.:Exceptions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "BULLET::::- Lobsters are sometimes said to be biologically immortal because they don't seem to slow down, weaken, or lose fertility with age. However, due to the energy needed for moulting, they cannot live indefinitely.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1883204",
"title": "Eviota sigillata",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "It inhabits reef habitats at depths from . This species has the shortest lifespan for a vertebrate, living for at most 59 days. About three weeks are as pelagic larvae, two weeks settling on the reef and three weeks as adults.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2faazm
|
our defense system in the united states if nuclear missiles were to be launched at us by another country
|
[
{
"answer": "Honestly? Not super great.\n\nWe have some [missile intercept systems](_URL_0_) but mostly the US relies on its ability to say \"If you don't terminate your missile right now... we'll fucking destroy your entire country in one swing\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD)\n\nThe US maintains a triad nuclear defense system meaning it can strike via land, air, and sea. You can not stop it from attacking if it has made the decision to launch. In the event of a nuclear attack on the US, or one of its NATO allies, the US will unleash it's nuclear armada on the aggressor, theoretically destroying them outright. \n\nThe US has experimented with missile interception systems but that have never had success rates that would offer any real defense against a major attack. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Nice try Putin ;)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7670881",
"title": "Rumsfeld Commission",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "The argument for a national missile defense system in the United States was traditionally to protect the country from a Soviet missile attack. With the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, proponents of a missile defense shield began instead to focus on the risk posed by rogue states developing ballistic missiles capable of eventually reaching the US.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45876",
"title": "Pre-emptive nuclear strike",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "Large-scale missile defense systems are not first-strike weapons, but certain critics view them as first-strike enabling weapons. U.S. President Ronald Reagan's proposed Strategic Defense Initiative, if it had ever been deployed (and proven successful), would have undermined the fundamental premise of mutual assured destruction (the inevitable outcome of equal and unacceptable destruction for both sides in the event of nuclear war), removing the incentive for the US not to strike first.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24502415",
"title": "Command missile",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "The United States operated a command missile system known as the Emergency Rocket Communications System (ERCS). In the event of a nuclear first strike against the continental United States, centrally located LGM-30 Minuteman missiles would be launched, each of which carried a payload that would electronically trigger a nuclear retaliation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36647151",
"title": "Missile defense systems by country",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "Missile defense systems are a type of missile defense intended to shield a country against incoming missiles, such as intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBMs) or other ballistic missiles. The United States, Russia, India, France, Israel and China have all developed missile defense systems. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7564",
"title": "Foreign policy of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Military.:Missile defense.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "If the United States launched a nuclear attack against Russia (or China), the targeted country would be left with only a tiny surviving arsenal, if any at all. At that point, even a relatively modest or inefficient missile defense system might well be enough to protect against any retaliatory strikes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45876",
"title": "Pre-emptive nuclear strike",
"section": "Section::::First-strike enabling weapons systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "BULLET::::- Any missile defense system capable of wide-area (e.g. continental) coverage, and especially those enabling destruction of missiles in the boost phase, are first-strike-enabling weapons because they allow for a nuclear strike to be launched with reduced fear of mutual assured destruction. Such a system has never been deployed, although a limited continental missile defense capability has been deployed by the U.S., but is capable of defending against only a handful of missiles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18331617",
"title": "High-alert nuclear weapon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "Virtually all \"high-alert nuclear weapons\" are possessed by the U.S. and Russia. Both nations use automated command and control systems in conjunction with their early warning radar and/or satellites to facilitate the rapid launch of their land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and some submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs). Fear of a \"disarming\" nuclear first-strike that would destroy their command and control systems and nuclear forces led both nations to develop \"launch-on-warning\" capability, which requires high-alert nuclear weapons able to launch on a 30-minute (or less) tactical warning, the nominal flight time of ICBMs traveling between the U.S. and Russia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ba4nl
|
Is there an upper limit of rotation for a pulsar? Also, is that upper limit uniform across all objects?
|
[
{
"answer": " > Is there a limit to how fast something can spin, or does it just work on the same priciple as movement through space?\n\nIf you are talking about the relativistic limit, this is [Ehrenfest's paradox](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sure. At some point, the matter near the equator will start to rip apart, when the centrifugal forces become stronger than the gravity. You can see that pretty much everywhere on fluids or fluid like materials: When you rotate a pizza dough, it will flatten out. At some point, the outer parts will rip off. \n\nSame thing for planets and stars. Fast rotating objects like Jupiter or Wega have higher equator diameters than pole diameters, because the centrifugal force let the matter wander to the equator. You can even see this effect on earth's diameter. \n\nAnd this also counts for neutron stars too. However, since they are very small and dense, the effect is minuscule when rotating very slowly. Amazingly, a neutron star becomes smaller when being more massive. So a neutron star with higher mass couldn't just rotate faster because of the higher mass, but also because of the higher density before it rips apart. \n\nMassive neutron star have gravitational acceleration of about 100 000 km/s at their surface. So the equator regoin would have to be faster than about 1/3 the speed of light to rip apart. We haven't found any such neutron stars because... well the obviously wouldn't exist anymore. But we do have discovered some neutron stars being pretty close to it, as seen in the video. \n\nMeanwhile we have found faster pulsars then PSR B1937+21, which was mentioned in the video. The current record holder as far as i know is [PSR J1748-2446ad](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are several different limits to how fast an object can spin.\n\nThe first is practical: no rigid object can rotate so fast that its outer edge is traveling faster than the speed of sound of the material. The resulting centrifugal pressure would exceed the object's shear strength and tear it apart. This was actually an engineering problem during the development of Uranium enrichment centrifuges, and also fundamentally limits their size. [This](_URL_1_) has a brief synopsis of its history; originally aluminum was used for its ratio of strength to weight, but it was eventually replaced by maraging steel for its higher shear strength, allowing faster rotation.\n\nThat is a fundamental limit on the rotation of any rigid object, but stars are not really rigid! The second limitation, potentially relevant to exotic stars like pulsars, is the relativistic limit. Technically rotation falls under the purview of general relativity, but we can still look at it through the lens of special relativity. From SR, we know that nothing with mass can travel faster than the speed of light in a vacuum, and this applies to the edge of any rotating object as well. Once the instantaneous tangential velocity of the surface of the the star approaches the speed of light, relativistic effects will come into play, and no matter what the surface will never be able to reach the speed of light. The actual rotational limit is only a fraction of c for a neutron star, though; at a certain point, depending on the exact mass of the pulsar (which only tends to vary [between 1.4 - 3.2 solar masses](_URL_0_)), the centrifugal force would overcome gravity and the outer layers would be flung into space.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29237460",
"title": "Shapley–Folkman lemma",
"section": "Section::::Statements.:Shapley–Folkman theorem and Starr's corollary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "The shapes of a subcollection of only \"D\" summand-sets determine the bound on the distance between the \"average set\" and its convex hull; thus, as the number of summands increases to infinity, the bound decreases to zero (for summand-sets of uniformly bounded size). In fact, Starr's bound on the non-convexity of this average set decreases to zero as the number of summands \"N\" increases to infinity (when the inner radii of all the summands are bounded by the same number).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7290730",
"title": "Rotation formalisms in three dimensions",
"section": "Section::::Formalism alternatives.:Rodrigues parameters and Gibbs representation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "The Gibbs vector has the advantage (or disadvantage, depending on context) that 180° rotations cannot be represented in it. (Even using floating point numbers that include infinity, rotation direction cannot be well-defined; for example, naively, a 180° rotation about the axis (1, 1, 0) would be (∞, ∞, 0), which is the same representation as 180° rotation about (1, 0.0001, 0).)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29237460",
"title": "Shapley–Folkman lemma",
"section": "Section::::Statements.:Shapley–Folkman theorem and Starr's corollary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "The Shapley–Folkman theorem states a bound on the distance between the Minkowski sum and its convex hull; this distance is zero if and only if the sum is convex. Their bound on the distance depends on the dimension \"D\" and on the shapes of the summand-sets, but \"not\" on the number of summand-sets \"N\", \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20468824",
"title": "De Sitter invariant special relativity",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 749,
"text": "The rotations around the horizontal axes would tilt objects by an infinitesimal amount. The tilt in the x–z plane (the \"x-tilt\") would be one parameter, and the tilt in the y–z plane (the \"y-tilt\") another. The symmetry group of this pancake world is then SO(2) semidirect product with R, meaning that a two-dimensional rotation plus two extra parameters, the x-tilt and the y-tilt. The reason it is a semidirect product is that, when you rotate, the x-tilt and the y-tilt rotate into each other, since they form a vector and not two scalars. In this world, the difference in height between two objects at the same x, y would be a rotationally invariant quantity unrelated to length and width. The z-coordinate is effectively separate from x and y.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "81560",
"title": "Zeros and poles",
"section": "Section::::Definitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "A meromorphic function may have infinitely many zeros and poles. This is the case for the gamma function (see the image in the infobox), which is meromorphic in the whole complex plane, and has a simple pole at every non-positive integer. The Riemann zeta function is also meromorphic in the whole complex plane, with a single pole of order 1 at . Its zeros in the left halfplane are all the negative even integers, and the Riemann hypothesis is the conjecture that all other zeros are along .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2307854",
"title": "Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space",
"section": "Section::::Geometry of 4D rotations.:Double rotations.:Isoclinic rotations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "If the rotation angles of a double rotation are equal then there are infinitely many invariant planes instead of just two, and all half-lines from are displaced through the same angle. Such rotations are called isoclinic or equiangular rotations, or Clifford displacements. Beware: not all planes through are invariant under isoclinic rotations; only planes that are spanned by a half-line and the corresponding displaced half-line are invariant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4576951",
"title": "Convergence tests",
"section": "Section::::List of tests.:Limit of the summand.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "If the limit of the summand is undefined or nonzero, that is formula_2, then the series must diverge. In this sense, the partial sums are Cauchy only if this limit exists and is equal to zero. The test is inconclusive if the limit of the summand is zero.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3wewk9
|
why do storm troopers wear armor if it doesn't actually protect them from anything? it also apparently interferes with their ability to shoot accurately.
|
[
{
"answer": "Psychological edge. A phalanx of faceless, white-clad, cold, armored soldiers advancing will make you shit yourself. It's a powerful image.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are several theories as to their accuracy, they appear to be accurate all the time except for a few instances where vader lets his son and a small group of rebels escape on a few occasions to track them to various rebel bases. The armor, kind of like actual body armor, is no guarantee you wont get killed. Weapons are easier to make effective than armor because generally speaking its easier to wreck stuff that to build stuff. The armor is good against shrapnel, hits to extremeties, and might even keep you alive from an otherwise fatal shot, but a shot to the chest or head is always going to be potentially deadly even with the best armours money can buy (think boba fett) but these guys arent intergalactic bounty hunters, they are rank and file troopers, so they definitely are NOT getting the best stuff on the market, they are getting something that can be made as cheap as possible.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You should check out /r/asksciencefiction they'll give you a much more detailed answer.\n\nShort version is - much like body armor today, Storm Trooper armor is amazing at stopping non-military grade weapons. Someone in the full kit is basically immune to slug throwers (re: normal guns) unless they take a very unlucky hit to a joint/eye socket or if the round is specifically armor piercing or very large.\n\nBlasters are military grade tech and (naturally) can over match the armor. That being said, the armor has a great deal of ablative power and can often minimize the damage to the core body from a blaster. It'll hurt like hell and multiple hits are still likely to be lethal... but you have a better chance than you would unarmored.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "934247",
"title": "Renegade Legion",
"section": "Section::::Technology.:Shields.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 826,
"text": "Most military vehicles, ships, and fighters are equipped with invisible energy shields. They deflect incoming attacks, though their protection is based on their flicker rate. Shields cannot run continuously, so instead they cycle on and off many times a second. A fixed percentage of attacks are rendered harmless due to their flicker rates, and higher quality shields have a better ratio of on-cycles to off-cycles when compared to low quality shields. However, shields have limitations beyond this. In grav tank battles the solid metal rounds fired by main gun/Gauss cannon are not affected by shields, as well as Thor satellite attacks and nuclear detonations. Lasers, missiles, and infantry weapons are potentially stopped by shields, or hit with full impact depending if the shield was on or off at the moment of impact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8524251",
"title": "Ballistic shield",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "Shields small enough to be carried by a single person may be termed \"personal shields\", and may be carried in police cars in the US as standard equipment. Whether or not a shield is used will depend on both policy and the individual situation. It may be the policy of a police force to only use shields in defensive situations, such as establishing a perimeter and waiting for reinforcements, while others may permit their usage in offensive situations, such as vehicle stops that are considered high risk or approaching a suspect deemed to be dangerous.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31627160",
"title": "Tornado preparedness",
"section": "Section::::Actions taken during tornadoes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "A 2012 study of tornado injuries found that wearing a helmet such as those used for American football or bicycling, is an effective way to reduce injuries and deaths from head trauma. As of 2012, the CDC endorsed only general head protection, but recommended that if helmets are to be used, they be kept close by to avoid wasting time searching for them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12156711",
"title": "AIL Storm",
"section": "Section::::Storm III.:Armored version.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "The armored version of the Storm 3, designed for protection against light weapon threats, incorporates a heavy duty transfer case and a specially designed suspension system which includes heavy duty springs (front - coil, rear - leaf) and shock absorbers, together with rigid heavy duty axles allowing for a smooth and safe ride on both rough terrain as well as regular highways.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2100866",
"title": "Chainsaw safety clothing",
"section": "Section::::Clothing.:Helmet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "Helmet protection can only be successful if the chain brake has been operated to stop the saw chain, since a chain running at full speed can easily cut into the helmet. The helmet, and its eye protection guard, also protect against impacts from small falling or flying objects, such as dead twigs and branches from a tree being felled.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41698",
"title": "Shield",
"section": "Section::::Development of shields.:Modern history.:Law enforcement shields.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "Tactical shields often have a firing port so that the officer holding the shield can fire a weapon while being protected by the shield, and they often have a bulletproof glass viewing port. They are typically employed by specialist police, such as SWAT teams in high risk entry and siege scenarios, such as hostage rescue and breaching gang compounds, as well as in antiterrorism operations. Tactical shields often have a large signs stating \"POLICE\" (or the name of a force, such as \"US MARSHALS\") to indicate that the user is a law enforcement officer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "714400",
"title": "Gangsters: Organized Crime",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "The hoods have many different attributes such as intelligence, fists, knives, etc. which make them suitable for different missions. A hood with high knife skill and low fists skill may inadvertently kill someone he was merely sent to beat up, for instance. Hoods can be promoted to lieutenant, which gives them the ability to lead teams of hoods. It is also possible to hire a lawyer and an accountant. There are different automobiles and weapons that can be purchased to aid in carrying out missions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
jdjul
|
Is the water ice present in the solar system the same as ice on earth, just much colder, or is it in a different phase?
|
[
{
"answer": " > I've read a few times about \"ice as hard as rock\" \n\nJust to get you started:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nIce can have many different crystal structures depending on T / P. Not sure how mechanical properties change w/ crystal structure.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "The short answer is that they aren't quite sure. Depending on the formation mechanism they have different predictions for which of the ice phases it might be in, not all of which are kinetically accessible. It turns out that theres a good chance that depending on how the water got there, rather than being crystalline it might be amorphous based on some spectroscopy they've done.\n\nFrom what I've heard, their goal is to experimentally do some of the formation methods in the lab and compare to spectroscopic data to see if they can do some mix and matching.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > I've read a few times about \"ice as hard as rock\" \n\nJust to get you started:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nIce can have many different crystal structures depending on T / P. Not sure how mechanical properties change w/ crystal structure.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The short answer is that they aren't quite sure. Depending on the formation mechanism they have different predictions for which of the ice phases it might be in, not all of which are kinetically accessible. It turns out that theres a good chance that depending on how the water got there, rather than being crystalline it might be amorphous based on some spectroscopy they've done.\n\nFrom what I've heard, their goal is to experimentally do some of the formation methods in the lab and compare to spectroscopic data to see if they can do some mix and matching.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4224324",
"title": "Origin of water on Earth",
"section": "Section::::Hypotheses for the origins of Earth's water.:Extraplanetary sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 919,
"text": "Water has a much lower condensation temperature than other materials that compose the terrestrial planets in the Solar System, such as iron and silicates. The region of the protoplanetary disk closest to the Sun was very hot early in the history of the Solar System, and it is not feasible that oceans of water condensed with the Earth as it formed. Further from the young Sun where temperatures were cooler, water could condense and form icy planetesimals. The boundary of the region where ice could form in the early Solar System is known as the frost line (or snow line), and is located in the modern asteroid belt, between about 2.7 and 3.1 astronomical units (AU) from the Sun. It is therefore necessary that objects forming beyond the frost line–such as comets, trans-Neptunian objects, and water-rich meteoroids (protoplanets)–delivered water to Earth. However, the timing of this delivery is still in question.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "14946",
"title": "Ice",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "In the Solar System, ice is abundant and occurs naturally from as close to the Sun as Mercury to as far away as the Oort cloud objects. Beyond the Solar System, it occurs as interstellar ice. It is abundant on Earth's surfaceparticularly in the polar regions and above the snow lineand, as a common form of precipitation and deposition, plays a key role in Earth's water cycle and climate. It falls as snowflakes and hail or occurs as frost, icicles or ice spikes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34661457",
"title": "Planetary surface",
"section": "Section::::Surface materials.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "The most common planetary surface material in the Solar System appears to be water ice. Surface ice is found as close to the Sun as Mercury but is more abundant beyond Mars. Other surfaces include solid matter in combinations of rock, regolith and frozen chemical elements and chemical compounds. In general, ice predominates planetary surfaces beyond the frost line, while closer to the sun, rock and regolith predominate. Minerals and hydrates may also be present in smaller quantities on many planetary surfaces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2825598",
"title": "Amorphous ice",
"section": "Section::::Amorphous ice in the Solar System.:Molecular clouds, circumstellar disks, and the primordial solar nebula.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "For the primordial solar nebula, there is much uncertainty as to the crystallinity of water ice during the circumstellar disk and planet formation phases. If the original amorphous ice survived the molecular cloud collapse, then it should have been preserved at heliocentric distances beyond Saturn's orbit (~12 AU).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2535858",
"title": "Ice giant",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 801,
"text": "In astrophysics and planetary science the term \"ices\" refers to volatile chemical compounds with freezing points above about 100 K, such as water, ammonia, or methane, with freezing points of 273 K, 195 K, and 91 K, respectively (see Volatiles). In the 1990s, it was realized that Uranus and Neptune are a distinct class of giant planet, separate from the other giant planets, Jupiter and Saturn. They have become known as \"ice giants\". Their constituent compounds were solids when they were primarily incorporated into the planets during their formation, either directly in the form of ices or trapped in water ice. Today, very little of the water in Uranus and Neptune remains in the form of ice. Instead, water primarily exists as supercritical fluid at the temperatures and pressures within them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9284004",
"title": "Ocean planet",
"section": "Section::::Exoplanets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 1054,
"text": "Although 70.8% of all Earth's surface is covered in water, water accounts for only 0.05% of Earth's mass. An extraterrestrial ocean's depth would be so deep and dense that even at high temperatures the pressure would turn the water into ice. The immense pressures in the lower regions of these oceans could lead to the formation of a mantle of exotic forms of ice such as ice V. This ice would not necessarily be as cold as conventional ice. If the planet is close enough to its star that the water reaches its boiling point, the water will become supercritical and lack a well-defined surface. Even on cooler water-dominated planets, the atmosphere can be much thicker than that of Earth, and composed largely of water vapor, producing a very strong greenhouse effect. Such planets would have to be small enough not to be able to retain a thick envelope of hydrogen and helium, or be close enough to their primary star to be stripped of these light elements. Otherwise, they would form a warmer version of an ice giant instead, like Uranus and Neptune.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19694",
"title": "Mercury (planet)",
"section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Surface conditions and exosphere.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "The icy regions are estimated to contain about 10–10 kg of ice, and may be covered by a layer of regolith that inhibits sublimation. By comparison, the Antarctic ice sheet on Earth has a mass of about 4 kg, and Mars's south polar cap contains about 10 kg of water. The origin of the ice on Mercury is not yet known, but the two most likely sources are from outgassing of water from the planet's interior or deposition by impacts of comets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
21op7j
|
Why is the DNA replication process imperfect?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because of the complexity of the protein engines at work. All told, there are a considerable number of steps necessary to correctly replicate DNA, and the process is different for the leading and lagging strands. However, I think on average there's only one error for every 10,000 replications. Most of these \"mutations\" are harmless. Some are bad and apoptosis signals cell death by suicide. Some are bad and don't initiate apoptosis and could possible lead to cancer. However, some are beneficial. And therein lies the rub.\n\nBut be glad, because without that error, evolution wouldn't occur.\n\nThis video gives you a sense of how complicated it all is.\n_URL_0_\n\n/biochemist",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5955888",
"title": "Non-small-cell lung carcinoma",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "DNA replication past an un-repaired damage can give rise to a mutation because of inaccurate translesion synthesis. In addition, during repair of DNA double-strand breaks, or repair of other DNA damages, incompletely cleared sites of repair can lead to epigenetic gene silencing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1748144",
"title": "Gene amplification",
"section": "Section::::Natural DNA amplification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "DNA replication is a natural form of copying DNA with the amount of genes remaining constant. However, the amount of DNA or the number of genes can also increase within an organism through gene duplication, a major mechanism through which new genetic material is generated during molecular evolution. Common sources of gene duplications include ectopic recombination, retrotransposition event, aneuploidy, polyploidy, and replication slippage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32706791",
"title": "Genome instability",
"section": "Section::::Causes of genome instability.:DNA Replication Defects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 2140,
"text": "In the cell cycle, DNA is usually most vulnerable during replication. The replisome must be able to navigate obstacles such as tightly wound chromatin with bound proteins, single and double stranded breaks which can lead to the stalling of the replication fork. Each protein or enzyme in the replisome must perform its function well to result in a perfect copy of DNA. Mutations of proteins such as DNA polymerase, ligase, can lead to impairment of replication and lead to spontaneous chromosomal exchanges. Proteins such as Tel1, Mec1 (ATR, ATM in humans) can detect single and double-stranded breaks and recruit factors such as Rmr3 helicase to stabilize the replication fork in order to prevent its collapse. Mutations in Tel1, Mec1, and Rmr3 helicase result in a significant increase of chromosomal recombination. ATR responds specifically to stalled replication forks and single-stranded breaks resulting from UV damage while ATM responds directly to double-stranded breaks. These proteins also prevent progression into mitosis by inhibiting the firing of late replication origins until the DNA breaks are fixed by phosphorylating CHK1, CHK2 which results in a signaling cascade arresting the cell in S-phase. For single stranded breaks, replication occurs until the location of the break, then the other strand is nicked to form a double stranded break, which can then be repaired by Break Induced Replication or homologous recombination using the sister chromatid as an error-free template. In addition to S-phase checkpoints, G1 and G2 checkpoints exist to check for transient DNA damage which could be caused by mutagens such as UV damage. An example is the Saccharomyces pombe gene rad9 which arrests the cells in late S/G2 phase in the presence of DNA damage caused by radiation. The yeast cells with defective rad9 failed to arrest following radiation, continued cell division and died rapidly while the cells with wild-type rad9 successfully arrested in late S/G2 phase and remained viable. The cells that arrested were able to survive due to the increased time in S/G2 phase allowing for DNA repair enzymes to function fully.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30517442",
"title": "Chromothripsis",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.:Micronuclei model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 957,
"text": "These micronuclei undergo defective DNA replication, which is slower than DNA replication in the main nucleus and causes a proximal DNA damage response (DDR) to be initiated. However, DNA repair and cell cycle checkpoint activation fail to follow. Consequently, chromosomes that are not correctly replicated in micronuclei become fragmented. The method by which the pulverization of these chromosomes occur is not fully understood, but it is thought to be caused either by aberrant DNA replication or by premature chromosome condensation, which entails semi-replicated chromosomes being compacted by cyclin-dependent kinase activity. The resulting fragmented chromosome segments can be joined together to give rise to a rearranged chromosome, which can subsequently be reincorporated into the main nucleus of a daughter cell. The new chromosome can persist for several generations of cell cycle divisions and contribute to the development of a cancer cell.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2764033",
"title": "DNA polymerase II",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "During DNA replication, base pairs are subject to damage in the sequence. A damaged sequence of DNA can cause replication to be stalled. In order to fix an error in the sequence, DNA Pol II catalyzes the repair of nucleotide base pairs. The N-terminal domain of DNA Pol II is responsible for the association and dissociation of the DNA strand to the catalytic subunit. There are most likely two sites in the N-terminal domain of DNA Pol II that recognize single-stranded DNA. One site(s) is responsible for recruiting single-stranded DNA to DNA Pol II and another site(s) is responsible for the dissociation of single-stranded DNA from DNA Pol II.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32706791",
"title": "Genome instability",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "The sources of genome instability have only recently begun to be elucidated. A high frequency of externally caused DNA damage can be one source of genome instability since DNA damages can cause inaccurate translesion synthesis past the damages or errors in repair, leading to mutation. Another source of genome instability may be epigenetic or mutational reductions in expression of DNA repair genes. Because endogenous (metabolically-caused) DNA damage is very frequent, occurring on average more than 60,000 times a day in the genomes of human cells, any reduced DNA repair is likely an important source of genome instability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2488614",
"title": "DNA mismatch repair",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "Any mutational event that disrupts the superhelical structure of DNA carries with it the potential to compromise the genetic stability of a cell. The fact that the damage detection and repair systems are as complex as the replication machinery itself highlights the importance evolution has attached to DNA fidelity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
abs03p
|
how did we find out that there are 365.25 days in a year?
|
[
{
"answer": "Observation, and knowing when the sun should be where through relative position.\n\nWhen you chart the sun’s course every day of the year a pattern emerges (Note the position and degree of the light at the exact same time every day). That pattern is slightly off by a few degrees the following year, on a four your cyclical. This ellipsis is the foundation of time as we know it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "With a [sundial](_URL_0_)\n\nA sundial tells you the time of day with the shadow of a stick: Noon is the point where the shadow casts the shortest shadow because it's highest in the sky at that time. It's also the easiest way to tell the cardinal directions without a compass, since the shadow is going to point exactly north at noon.\n\nNow if you start recording the distance between the stick and the shadow at noon each day of the year, you're going to figure out the dates of the summer solstice (where the sun is the highest in the year) and the winter solstice (where it is the lowest). The number of days between either of the solstices is the time it takes for the earth to revolve around the sun, and this will tell you that the year is 365 days long, a quarter day short of the more precise 365.25 days.\n\nHowever, after four years, the difference will add up to a full day, and the solstice will be recorded one day later than expected. This might have flown under the radar for a while since nailing the solstice to a day with nothing but a sundial is hard, but at some point they must have noticed that their calendar was wrong and corrected it. The Romans divided the difference between recorded and actual solstice by the number of years that passed, and got to 1/4 of a day per year.\n\nOther cultures came to different solutions to the problem, for example the Chinese lunar calendar occasionally jumps an entire month. I'm not quite sure how it works exactly though.\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2639335",
"title": "Timeline of astronomy",
"section": "Section::::400.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "The Hindu cosmological time cycles explained in the \"Surya Siddhanta\", give the average length of the sidereal year (the length of the Earth's revolution around the Sun) as 365.2563627 days, which is only 1.4 seconds longer than the modern value of 365.256363004 days. This remains the most accurate estimate for the length of the sidereal year anywhere in the world for over a thousand years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10936",
"title": "February 29",
"section": "Section::::Leap years.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1183,
"text": "Solar years are actually slightly shorter than 365 days and 6 hours (365.25 days), which had been known since the 2nd century BC when Hipparchus stated that it lasted 365 + − days, but this was ignored by Julius Caesar and his astronomical adviser Sosigenes. The Gregorian calendar corrected this by adopting the length of the tropical year stated in three medieval sources, the Alfonsine tables, De Revolutionibus, and the Prutenic Tables, truncated to two sexagesimal places, 365 days or 365 + − days or 365.2425 days. The length of the tropical year in 2000 was 365.24217 mean solar days, Adding a calendar day every four years, therefore, results in an excess of around 44 minutes every four years, or about 3 days every 400 years. To compensate for this, three days are removed every 400 years. The Gregorian calendar reform implements this adjustment by making an exception to the general rule that there is a leap year every four years. Instead, a year divisible by 100 is not a leap year unless that year is also divisible by 400. This means that the years 1600, 2000, and 2400 are leap years, while the years 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200, 2300, and 2500 are not leap years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "652165",
"title": "Mesoamerican calendars",
"section": "Section::::Long Count.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 636,
"text": "The 365-day and the 260-day calendars identified and named the days, but not the years. The combination of a solar year date and a 260-year date was enough to identify a specific date to most people's satisfaction, as such a combination did not occur again for another 52 years, above general life expectancy. To measure dates over periods longer than 52 years, the Mesoamericans devised the Long Count calendar. This calendar system was probably developed by the Olmecs and later adopted by the Maya. The use of the long count is best attested among the classic Maya, it is not known to have been used by the central Mexican cultures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22804673",
"title": "Palmoni",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "The astrologer Walter Gorn Old, writing under the nom de plume Sepharial, added from his own early 20th-century research, \"I have made a calculation and find that with a solar year equal to 365.242264 days, we get in 1040 such years exactly 12,863 lunations, each of 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, 2.8 seconds, which does not differ from the most recent astronomical estimate by a single second.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11572324",
"title": "List of Indian inventions and discoveries",
"section": "Section::::Discoveries.:Space.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 116,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 116,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "BULLET::::- Earth's orbit (Sidereal year): The Hindu cosmological time cycles explained in the \"Surya Siddhanta\"(c.600 CE), give the average length of the sidereal year (the length of the Earth's revolution around the Sun) as 365.2563627 days, which is only a negligible 1.4 seconds longer than the modern value of 365.256363004 days. This remains the most accurate estimate for the length of the sidereal year anywhere in the world for over a thousand years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17895",
"title": "Leap year",
"section": "Section::::Julian, Coptic and Ethiopian calendars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "This rule gives an average year length of 365.25 days. However, it is 11 minutes longer than a tropical year. This means that the vernal equinox moves a day earlier in the calendar about every 131 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44328",
"title": "Ulugh Beg",
"section": "Section::::Science.:Astronomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 762,
"text": "In 1437, Ulugh Beg determined the length of the sidereal year as 365.2570370... = 365 6 10 8 (an error of +58 seconds). In his measurements over the course of many years he used a 50 m high gnomon. This value was improved by 28 seconds in 1525 by Nicolaus Copernicus, who appealed to the estimation of Thabit ibn Qurra (826–901), which had an error of +2 seconds. However, Ulugh Beg later measured another more precise value of tropical year as 365 5 49 15, which has an error of +25 seconds, making it more accurate than Copernicus's estimate which had an error of +30 seconds. Ulugh Beg also determined the Earth's axial tilt as 23°30'17\" in the sexagesimal system of degrees, minutes and seconds of arc, which in decimal notation converts to 23.5047 degrees.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
49howb
|
3 days underwater.
|
[
{
"answer": "In short, they haven't come up with a good answer yet.\n\nThe key problem more than anything is hypothermia. He was trapped in freezing water, and found naked and alert. After three days in freezing water you'd expect someone to have drowned, let alone be naked and able to determine that someone was rescuing them.\n\nThe other problem is oxygen. While bubbles can trap oxygen under water, the oxygen will eventually dissipate into the water around it and be replaced with Nitrogen. Diving Bell spiders have been able to keep oxygen bubbles going for 37 at most. 72 hours has never been observed before, and this is from an insect that uses a tiny fraction of the oxygen of a human and wasn't experiencing hypothermia, which in respiratory terms is as intense as a heavy workout for how much oxygen you use.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The belief is that the air pocket was big enough and in combination with the pressurization of the air provided him enough oxygen, which was a very close thing he was almost out when found. The carbon dioxide was supposedly absorbed into the water at a rate that kept it from being deadly, he apparently splashed the water increasing its surface area and thereby increasing the absorption of carbon dioxide. He escaped hypothermia by making some type of platform which allowed him to not spend the entire 60 hours in the water. \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37398063",
"title": "Diversnight",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "Diversnight is a gathering of Scuba divers and those interested in diving, and is made possible thanks to voluntary work and helpful sponsors. As the name implies, this event occurs after dark. The festival attempts to get as many divers as possible in the water at the same time, all over the world. The record from 2009 is 2749 divers on 218 dive sites in 20 countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43201530",
"title": "Mission 31",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "Fabien Cousteau also hoped to break his grandfather's record for longest time spent underwater by a film crew, and draw the public's attention to environmental issues. According to Guinness World Records, the longest time anyone has spent underwater is 69 days.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4619262",
"title": "Aquanaut's Holiday",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "Gameplay in \"Aquanaut's Holiday\" takes place in a first-person perspective and consists primarily of the player exploring vast stretches of ocean, occasionally discovering underwater ruins or treasure, or communicating with underwater creatures. The game has no time limits, enemies, or other obstacles. The game's objective, aside from exploring, is to build a large coral reef to attract a wide variety of fish and other marine wildlife.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51508356",
"title": "Mouro Island",
"section": "Section::::World Oceans Day.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "An annual swim and scuba diving event is held around Mouro Island to mark World Oceans Day each June. It features an island \"hugging\" event, in which surfers and kayakers completely encircle the island. The event is held to raise awareness of the importance of conserving the seas and oceans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14312079",
"title": "Matthew Moseley",
"section": "Section::::Hobbies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "In 2015, Moseley was the first person to swim from the Island of Culebra to Fajardo, Puerto Rico of 24 miles in 12 hours and 55 minutes to raise awareness for the Scuba Dogs Society and the work they do for the coral reefs in Puerto Rico. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40598028",
"title": "Nejib Belhedi",
"section": "Section::::Achievements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "BULLET::::12. On 15, 16, 17, 18 September 2018 Nejib Belhedi accomplished successfully 120 km Swim No Stop (Tunisia- Gulf of Gabes) from the Southern Salin Basin in Thyna-Sfax, through the middle of Boughrara Gulf to Jilj Island in 76 hours 30 minutes at the age of 66.This is included as the longest solo swim in sea by the World Open Water Swimming Association\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1479362",
"title": "Aquarius Reef Base",
"section": "Section::::Purpose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 867,
"text": "The habitat accommodates four scientists and two technicians for missions averaging ten days. Scientists on the Aquarius are often called \"Aquanauts\" (as they live underwater at depth pressure for a period equal to or greater than 24 continuous hours without returning to the surface). A technique known as saturation diving allows the aquanauts to live and work underwater for days or weeks at a time. After twenty four hours underwater at any depth, the human body becomes saturated with dissolved gas. With saturation diving, divers can accurately predict exactly how much time they need to decompress before returning to the surface. This information limits the risk of decompression sickness. By living in the Aquarius habitat and working at the same depth on the ocean floor, Aquarius aquanauts are able to remain underwater for the duration of their mission. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
567vf3
|
Why are there bubbles in prince Rupert's drops?
|
[
{
"answer": "First off, you really don't need a turkey fryer oil quench make PRD. The whole point of the drops is that they are skin stress resistant, and should hold up to a fast quench. Most people make them in a tub of lukewarm water.\n\nThe bubbles are most likely trapped atmospheric gasses during the melting proceedure. This is commonly encountered when the frit is too coarse, leaving air bubbles between the particles. Finer grinding will reduce this, or leaving the melt to let the bubbles rise to the top (and adding viscosity lowering elements like Cao or other alkaline oxides) will help get rid of these. You may not originally notice the bubbles as they start off very small and then coalesce.\n\nA more specific composition or procedure can help narrow down where you are going wrong. \n\nThanks to Shelby (the classic text) and my super awesome glass engineer SO.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1574904",
"title": "Prince Rupert's drop",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "Prince Rupert's drops (also known as Dutch or Batavian tears) are toughened glass beads created by dripping molten glass into cold water, which causes it to solidify into a tadpole-shaped droplet with a long, thin tail. These droplets are characterized internally by very high residual stresses, which give rise to counter-intuitive properties, such as the ability to withstand a blow from a hammer or a bullet on the bulbous end without breaking, while exhibiting explosive disintegration if the tail end is even slightly damaged. In nature, similar structures are produced under certain conditions in volcanic lava and are known as Pele's tears.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1574904",
"title": "Prince Rupert's drop",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "Prince Rupert's drops are produced by dropping molten glass drops into cold water. The water rapidly cools and solidifies the glass from the outside inward. This thermal quenching may be described using a simplified model of a rapidly cooled sphere. Prince Rupert's drops have remained a scientific curiosity for nearly 400 years due to two unusual mechanical properties: when the tail is snipped, the drop disintegrates explosively into powder, whereas the bulbous head can withstand compressive forces of up to .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7017539",
"title": "Bubbles (The Wire)",
"section": "Section::::Depiction.:Season one.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "Bubbles is first seen as a homeless addict and best friend and mentor to Johnny Weeks. The two run a scam creating counterfeit money using a photocopier and coffee staining. Bubbles successfully uses the money to purchase drugs from a crew of dealers working for the Barksdale organization. However, when the money is passed on to D'Angelo Barksdale, it is recognized as fake. The next time they try the scam, a nervous Johnny is unsuccessful. He is stopped and severely beaten by the Barksdale drug dealers, after which he ends up in hospital.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21286323",
"title": "Velvet assembler",
"section": "Section::::Algorithm.:Error removal.:Bubbles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "Bubbles are generated when two distinct paths start and end at the same nodes. Normally bubbles are caused by errors or biological variants. These errors are removed using the Tour Bus algorithm, which is similar to a Dijkstra's algorithm, a breadth-first search that detects the best path to follow and determines which ones should be erased. A simple example is shown in figure 4.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2792986",
"title": "Bubbles (chimpanzee)",
"section": "Section::::Media mockery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "Another story, reported in \"The National Enquirer\", claimed that the musician Prince, Jackson's longtime rival, had used extrasensory perception to turn Bubbles crazy. According to the story, Jackson said: \"What kind of sicko would mess with a monkey? This is the final straw. Poor, poor Bubbles.\" Jackson found the story hilarious; his staff reported that they had never seen him laugh so much.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16086066",
"title": "The Adventures of Little Carp",
"section": "Section::::Main characters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 895,
"text": "BULLET::::- Bubbles(泡泡) - Bubbles is a curious young carp with the ability to blow bubbles. He has been living with his grandmother, to whom he is very loyal. Bubbles meets Mei-Mei and Aku at a circus run by Mr. Octavio the octopus, who invites him perform in his circus. Bubbles is golden coloured and has red fins, and he grows wings when he activates the golden scale which is part of the five dragon scales that have the power of the dragon. He is loyal, brave and always stands up for what's right, but because he is so kind, he is sometimes duped by villains. Bubbles is the first to gain a scale which is the golden scale, which is loosely based on the Chinese Element Gold. The golden scale is activated when the phrase \"My heart is like iron, and it is indestructable!\" Bubbles also blows bubbles to confuse his enemies, to send messages, to create protective spheres, or just for fun.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61172246",
"title": "Ang Probinsyano (season 7)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "Bubbles, constantly tormented of her experiences at the hands of Homer (Jhong Hilario) and impregnating her made her reject Jerome's confession. But with the help of Lola Flora & the others, she coped with the issue, and tried to tell the truth to Jerome, which made the latter left confused. She later helps Lola Flora and Alyana's opening of the eatery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1jln5o
|
why does fruit taste different after its dried?
|
[
{
"answer": "the flavor is concentrated since there is less water, it would be like making a cup of coffee with just a little bit of water so you had a thick mud... it would taste different.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "158573",
"title": "Food drying",
"section": "Section::::Food types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "Dried fruits have been consumed historically due to their high sugar content and sweet taste, and a longer shelf-life from drying. Fruits may be used differently when dried. The plum becomes a prune, the grape a raisin. Figs and dates may be transformed into different products that can either be eaten as they are, used in recipes, or rehydrated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28985511",
"title": "Traditional dried fruit",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "Traditional or conventional dried fruits are types of dried fruits that are either sun-dried such as raisins and dried figs or dehydrated in wind tunnels and other dryers such as dried plums (prunes), apricots (kuraga), peaches, and persimmons (gotgam). It also includes dates, which are considered to be dried fruit because they have naturally low moisture contents. Traditional dried fruit do not include dried fruits infused with a sweetener (e.g. sucrose solution) such as cranberries and dried blueberries, candied dried fruit or dehydrated fruits with very low moisture content such as banana chips.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "716481",
"title": "Monstera deliciosa",
"section": "Section::::Fruit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "It takes longer than a year for fruits to reach maturity. The fruit first shows signs of ripening by its bottommost scales becoming yellowed. As it ripens, the starch that was stored in the green fruit is converted to sugar, giving it its sweet flavor. This mechanism is comparable to how banana fruits ripen. The strong odor the fruit produces becomes noticeable when it is half-ripe. As time passes and the fruit continues to ripen, the odor becomes stronger. After it becomes fully ripe, however, the scent deteriorates quickly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41003681",
"title": "List of dried foods",
"section": "Section::::Plant foods.:Dried fruit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "Dried fruit is fruit from which the majority of the original water content has been removed, either naturally, through sun drying, or through the use of specialized dryers or dehydrators. Dried fruit has a long tradition of use dating back to the fourth millennium BC in Mesopotamia, and is prized because of its sweet taste, nutritive value, and long shelf life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "546099",
"title": "Dried fruit",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "Dried fruit is fruit from which the majority of the original water content has been removed either naturally, through sun drying, or through the use of specialized dryers or dehydrators. Dried fruit has a long tradition of use dating back to the fourth millennium BC in Mesopotamia, and is prized because of its sweet taste, nutritive value, and long shelf life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "361993",
"title": "Ripening",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "Ripening is a process in fruits that causes them to become more palatable. In general, fruit becomes sweeter, less green (typically \"redder\"), and softer as it ripens. Even though the acidity of fruit increases as it ripens, the higher acidity level does not make the fruit seem tarter. This is attributed to the Brix-Acid Ratio.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "546099",
"title": "Dried fruit",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "Today, dried fruit consumption is widespread. Nearly half of the dried fruits sold are raisins, followed by dates, prunes, figs, apricots, peaches, apples and pears. These are referred to as \"conventional\" or \"traditional\" dried fruits: fruits that have been dried in the sun or in heated wind tunnel dryers. Many fruits such as cranberries, blueberries, cherries, strawberries and mango are infused with a sweetener (e.g. sucrose syrup) prior to drying. Some products sold as dried fruit, like papaya, kiwi fruit and pineapple are most often candied fruit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
d3ivv2
|
exactly how are manual eye exams conducted (without modern digital equipment) and how can a doctor measure your eyesight through looking at your eye?
|
[
{
"answer": "What do you mean measure your eyesight? As in determine your visual acuity?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Before the fancy digital eye scanner... They had you look through lens and ask if it was better or worse....",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37642",
"title": "Tremor",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "The doctor will perform a neurological examination to assess nerve function and motor and sensory skills. The tests are designed to determine any functional limitations, such as difficulty with handwriting or the ability to hold a utensil or cup. The patient may be asked to place a finger on the tip of her or his nose, draw a spiral, or perform other tasks or exercises.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41066666",
"title": "The Eye Tribe",
"section": "Section::::Technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "Before using the eye tracking device, a calibration is needed in order for the device to find a user's pupils and identify unique eye characteristics needed to help enhance the accuracy of tracking one's gaze. The tracker has an average accuracy of about 0.5 degree of visual angle and can identify and follow the movement of an eye with sub millimeter precision, which is around the size of a fingertip.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1543423",
"title": "Eye tracking",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "There are a number of methods for measuring eye movement. The most popular variant uses video images from which the eye position is extracted. Other methods use search coils or are based on the electrooculogram.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21715447",
"title": "National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale",
"section": "Section::::Performing the scale.:3. Visual field test.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "Assess the patient's vision in each visual fields. Each eye is tested individually, by covering one eye and then the other. Each upper and lower quadrant is tested by asking the patient to indicate how many fingers the investigator is presenting in each quadrant. The investigator should instruct the patient to maintain eye contact throughout this test, and not allow the patient to realign focus towards each stimulus. With the first eye covered, place a random number of fingers in each quadrant and ask the patient how many fingers are being presented. Repeat this testing for the opposite eye.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1099280",
"title": "Eye examination",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "An eye examination is a series of tests performed by an ophthalmologist (medical doctor), optometrist, or orthoptist, optician (UK), assessing vision and ability to focus on and discern objects, as well as other tests and examinations pertaining to the eyes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3736545",
"title": "Pupillary distance",
"section": "Section::::Measuring pupillary distance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "Different methods for measuring exist but accurate measurement can usually be determined by an ECP during an eye examination. This is normally done with a small millimeter ruler referred to as a \"PD stick\" or with a corneal reflex pupillometer, which is a machine calibrated to help the optical professional more accurately measure the pupillary distance. There are also mobile phone and web apps that can measure one's pupillary distance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15447219",
"title": "Driving licence in the Netherlands",
"section": "Section::::Obtaining a driver's licence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "The practical exam covers everything that should have been learned: looking in the inside mirror, then the wing mirror and then over one's shoulder at every turn (twice per turn), driving onto and on the motorway, knowing what is under the bonnet, what all the lights on the dashboard mean, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3b9rxy
|
Why was the USSR so interested in space flight? What started the USSR space program? Was NASA created only as an answer to Sputnik, or was it already in the works before hand?
|
[
{
"answer": "The sputnik programme was introduced by Koroliov (previously doing rocketry) due to fears his team would \"lose the priority\" if the USA launched an artificial sattelite first (as they were planning to do for the international geophysical year).\n\nsource: [S.P.Korolëv quoted on _URL_1_](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23644325",
"title": "Rocketdyne E-1",
"section": "Section::::History.:Saturn.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "After the launch of Sputnik on 4 October 1957, the U.S. was in a panic over how to quickly catch up with the Soviets in what appeared to be a \"Space Race\". One idea quickly gained currency – the formation of a civilian space agency that would evolve into NASA. The Army had already lost interest in the development of the Saturn due to a lack of mission requirements, and had agreed to turn over the ABMA team to NASA on 1 July 1960.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "977522",
"title": "Rocket-powered aircraft",
"section": "Section::::History.:Cold War era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "The development of Soviet rockets and satellites was the driving force behind the development of NASA's space program. In the early 1960s, American research into the Boeing X-20 Dyna-Soar spaceplane was cancelled due to lack of purpose; later the studies contributed to the Space Shuttle, which in turn motivated the Russian Buran. Another similar program was ISINGLASS which was to be a rocket plane launched from a Boeing B-52 Stratofortress carrier, which was intended to achieve Mach 22, but this was never funded. ISINGLASS was intended to overfly the USSR. No images of the vehicle configuration have been released.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "723059",
"title": "Soviet space program",
"section": "Section::::Program secrecy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 962,
"text": "The Soviet space program had withheld information on its projects predating the success of Sputnik, the world's first artificial satellite. In fact, when the Sputnik project was first approved, one of the most immediate courses of action the Politburo took was to consider what to announce to the world regarding their event. The Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union (TASS) established precedents for all official announcements on the Soviet space program. The information eventually released did not offer details on who built and launched the satellite or why it was launched. However, the public release is illuminating in what it does reveal : \"there is an abundance of arcane scientific and technical data ... as if to overwhelm the reader with mathematics in the absence of even a picture of the object\". What remains of the release is the pride for Soviet cosmonautics and the vague hinting of future possibilities then available after Sputnik's success.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "723059",
"title": "Soviet space program",
"section": "Section::::Sputnik and Vostok.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 773,
"text": "The Soviet space program was tied to the USSR's Five-Year Plans and from the start was reliant on support from the Soviet military. Although he was \"single-mindedly driven by the dream of space travel\", Korolev generally kept this a secret while working on military projects—especially, after the Soviet Union's first atomic bomb test in 1949, a missile capable of carrying a nuclear warhead to the United States—as many mocked the idea of launching satellites and manned spacecraft. Nonetheless, the first Soviet rocket with animals aboard launched in July 1951; the two dogs were recovered alive after reaching 101 km in altitude. Two months ahead of America's first such achievement, this and subsequent flights gave the Soviets valuable experience with space medicine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "723059",
"title": "Soviet space program",
"section": "Section::::Sputnik and Vostok.:Funding and support.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "The Soviet space program was secondary in military funding to the Strategic Rocket Forces' ICBMs. While the West believed that Khrushchev personally ordered each new space mission for propaganda purposes, and the Soviet leader did have an unusually close relationship with Korolev and other chief designers, Khruschev emphasized missiles rather than space exploration and was not very interested in competing with Apollo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "589287",
"title": "Cold War (1953–1962)",
"section": "Section::::Origins of the Space Race.:The Soviet Union in the Space Race.:Sputnik 1 and Sputnik 2.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 1360,
"text": "In October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union successfully launched the first Earth satellite into space. Sputnik 1's official mission was to send back data from space, however the effects of this launch were monumental for both the USSR and the United States. For both countries, the launch of Sputnik 1 sparked the start of the Timeline of the Space Race. It created a curiosity for space flight and a relatively peaceful competition to the moon. However the initial effects of Sputnik 1 for the United States was not a matter of exploration, but a matter of national security. What the USSR proved to the world, and mainly the United States, was that they were capable of launching a missile into space and potentially an ICBM carrying nuclear cargo at the United States. The fear of the unknown capability of Sputnik sparked fear in the Americans and many government officials went on record giving their thoughts on the matter. Senator Jackson of Seatle said the launch of Sputnik \"was a devastating blow\", and that \"[President] Eisenhower should declare a week of shame and danger\". For the Russians' the launch of Sputnik 1 proved to be a major advantage in the Cold War, because it secured their current leading position in the war, created a retaliation force in the event of a U.S. nuclear strike, and allowed for a competitive advantage in ICBM technology. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18465983",
"title": "National Federation of Advanced Information Services",
"section": "Section::::Formation and growth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1198,
"text": "In 1957, the former Soviet Union launched the world’s first spacecraft, Sputnik. This event generated a wave of intense competition in science and technology in the industrialized nations, but one of the rationales offered publicly to Western politicians at the time was that the Soviets had leapt ahead in the space race because they had a more unified and orderly approach to the organization and dissemination of scientific knowledge. Even more importantly, it was believed that science and technology had won World War II and that science and technology would maintain the peace. Therefore, one specific area of attention was enhanced dissemination of the scientific literature to maximize awareness of research and investigation already undertaken. At this time, such activities were documented through the scientific journal and through abstracting and indexing services. In 1958, U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower directed the National Science Foundation to ensure the provision of indexing, abstracting, translation, and other information retrieval services as a way of ensuring a constant flow of consistently high-quality information to those working in scientific research facilities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3x0k6h
|
when and why did we switch from saying liberal/conservative to progressive/regressive in us politics?
|
[
{
"answer": "Political terms change over time, and often have many different meanings.\n\nHistorically, a \"liberal\" was someone who believed strongly in republicanism and democracy. The \"conservatives\" in England opposed the revolutionary change seen in France, seeing it as dangerous, and wanted to preserve the existing social order with moderate reforms.\n\n\"Progressives\" came later in the 19th century, and wanted wealth re-distribution and more social spending. It's really a better term for most Democrats than \"liberal,\" since the use of that term is not that applicable in American politics. On the other hand, \"conservative\" does match most Republicans.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Progressive is a nonsense word when it comes to politics. Is it progressive to support gay marriage? To expand government for social welfare programs? To prematurely strike disagreeable nations? Subjectively anything may be, but it may be regressive to others. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A lot of politics comes down to terminology. Communists were difficult to argue with because they came up with they own bourgeois/proletariat jargon, giving them a home field advantage in any discussion.\n\nIn the 1980s, Republicans were successful in making liberal into a bad word, making Democrats shy away from it and becoming more moderate. Much of the sentiment remains, so liberal Democrats have reinvented them themselves as progressives.\n\nAs for the use of regressive, that is just childish name calling and word games. It is no different than pro-lifers calling their opponents pro-death. If you can't address your opponents with neutral terms or the terms they choose for themselves, you lack the maturity to carry on serious political discussion.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4257236",
"title": "Clinton Rossiter",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "Although much has changed in American politics since 1970, especially the meanings of important (but constantly changing) terms like \"conservative\" and \"liberal\", his book on that ideologically-charged subject remains a classic articulation (along with Louis Hartz's \"The Liberal Tradition in America\") of the integrity that words like liberalism and conservatism still have.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6675",
"title": "Conservatism",
"section": "Section::::Forms.:Liberal conservatism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 754,
"text": "Over time, the general conservative ideology in many countries adopted economic liberal arguments and the term liberal conservatism was replaced with conservatism. This is also the case in countries where liberal economic ideas have been the tradition such as the United States and are thus considered conservative. In other countries where liberal conservative movements have entered the political mainstream, such as Italy and Spain, the terms liberal and conservative may be synonymous. The liberal conservative tradition in the United States combines the economic individualism of the classical liberals with a Burkean form of conservatism (which has also become part of the American conservative tradition, such as in the writings of Russell Kirk).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4482",
"title": "Liberal Party (UK)",
"section": "Section::::Ideology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "The political terms of \"modern\", \"progressive\" or \"new\" Liberalism began to appear in the mid to late 1880s and became increasingly common to denote the tendency in the Liberal Party to favour an increased role for the state as more important than the classical liberal stress on self-help and freedom of choice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2298740",
"title": "Conservatism in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "In the United States today, the word \"conservative\" is often used very differently from the way it is used in Europe and Asia. Following the American Revolution, Americans rejected the core ideals of European conservatism; those ideals were based on the landed aristocracy, established churches, and powerful armies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26441648",
"title": "History of liberalism",
"section": "Section::::Worldwide spread.:Americas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 671,
"text": "In the late 20th century, a conservative backlash against the kind of liberalism championed by Roosevelt and Kennedy developed in the Republican Party. This brand of conservatism primarily reacted against the cultural and political upheavals of the 1960s. It helped launch into power such presidents as Ronald Reagan, George H. W. Bush, George W. Bush, and Donald Trump. Economic woes in the early 21st century led to a resurgence of social liberalism with the election of Barack Obama in the 2008 presidential election, along with countervailing and partly reactive conservative populism and nativism embodied in the Tea Party movement and the election of Donald Trump.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2840300",
"title": "Conservatism in North America",
"section": "Section::::United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "Since the 1970s, the two major American political parties, the Democrats and the Republicans, have become increasingly polarized, with the Democrats described as \"liberal\" and \"left wing\" and the Republicans as \"conservative\" and \"right wing\". The alt-right has pushed the Overton window to the right, making conservative positions seem more centrist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "450616",
"title": "Young Americans for Freedom",
"section": "Section::::Philosophy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 121,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 121,
"end_character": 773,
"text": "Since its founding, YAF continuously identified itself as \"conservative\". However, the term \"conservative\" has changed in meaning over several generations. Before World War II, most American conservatives were non-interventionist. But as the Cold War began to dominate American foreign policy, the old conservatism disintegrated. After Robert A. Taft was defeated for the Republican nomination in 1952, non-interventionist conservatism mostly vanished. In the 1950s, a new kind of conservatism arose. This new ideology was formulated in large part by the newspaper \"Human Events\", the magazine \"National Review\", and its editor William F. Buckley Jr. This new conservatism combined free-market economics, respect for traditional values, orderly society and anti-communism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1whqv4
|
Epigenetics, Methyl Groups, and Expression
|
[
{
"answer": "I watched some of the video, but it was too long to finish, so please ask more questions if I've missed anything. \n\nI wouldn't say that a \"nature/nurture debate\" really exists anymore. It's now more like a \"nature-nurture interaction exploration\", because (as you've seen) both the fluctuating environment and the static properties of genetic units affect expression. Epigenetics, however, is not just the study of how the environment affects expression; it describes how *all* expression occurs.\n\nLet's do a quick overview of what epigenetics is and does. First of all, you have your traditional genetics encoded in the DNA. The As, Ts, Cs, and Gs form intricate patterns that can directly influence proteins (like transcription factors or RNA polymerases) or that can be transcribed into RNA and then sometimes translated into protein. Though the DNA is chock-full of this information, it alone cannot *use* that information to effect expression. This is where the myriad of proteins, enzymes, chemical groups like methyls, RNAs, and more come in: these extra players coat the DNA, interacting with precisely the correct DNA sequences in precise the correct ways. Certain proteins attach to the DNA and help wind and compact it so that RNA polymerases could never access the actual code (shutting off a gene), or other proteins attach and unwind the DNA, exposing a portion of the code to expression-inducing proteins (turning on a gene). The conglomeration of all these non-DNA bits *is* epigenetics. \n\nDoes the environment influence those non-DNA bits, causing differences in expression based on differences in environment? Absolutely. Does the DNA itself also interact with the non-DNA bits to cause differences in expression? You betcha. Can a person pass on some of their epigenetic code to their children? It is possible in some circumstances and for some genes, but not in as strong a way as Lamarck suggested. Was Mendel wrong? Not about how single diallelic genes are inherited, which (in my opinion) is all he was *really* gunning for. \n\nedit: Said Darwin, meant Mendel*...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2332422",
"title": "Carcinogenesis",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms.:Epigenetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 741,
"text": "Epigenetics is the study of the regulation of gene expression through chemical, non-mutational changes in DNA structure. The theory of epigenetics in cancer pathogenesis is that non-mutational changes to DNA can lead to alterations in gene expression. Normally, oncogenes are silent, for example, because of DNA methylation. Loss of that methylation can induce the aberrant expression of oncogenes, leading to cancer pathogenesis. Known mechanisms of epigenetic change include DNA methylation, and methylation or acetylation of histone proteins bound to chromosomal DNA at specific locations. Classes of medications, known as HDAC inhibitors and DNA methyltransferase inhibitors, can re-regulate the epigenetic signaling in the cancer cell.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57404410",
"title": "Epigenetics in forensic science",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "Epigenetics involves any changes to the DNA that does not affect the sequence, but instead affects the activity of the DNA, such as the level of transcription of a particular gene. These changes can be passed down transgenerationally through the germline or arise after birth from environmental factors. In humans and other mammals, CpG dinucleotides are the main sequence that develops methylation, and because of this most studies on try and find unique methylation sites. There are a few methylation sites that have been determined as a cause of environmental influences from age, lifestyle, or certain diseases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4183",
"title": "Botany",
"section": "Section::::Genetics.:Epigenetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 1008,
"text": "Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in gene function that cannot be explained by changes in the underlying DNA sequence but cause the organism's genes to behave (or \"express themselves\") differently. One example of epigenetic change is the marking of the genes by DNA methylation which determines whether they will be expressed or not. Gene expression can also be controlled by repressor proteins that attach to silencer regions of the DNA and prevent that region of the DNA code from being expressed. Epigenetic marks may be added or removed from the DNA during programmed stages of development of the plant, and are responsible, for example, for the differences between anthers, petals and normal leaves, despite the fact that they all have the same underlying genetic code. Epigenetic changes may be temporary or may remain through successive cell divisions for the remainder of the cell's life. Some epigenetic changes have been shown to be heritable, while others are reset in the germ cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42684750",
"title": "Contribution of epigenetic modifications to evolution",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Epigenetics is the study of changes in gene expression that occur via mechanisms such as DNA methylation, histone acetylation, and microRNA modification. When these epigenetics changes are heritable, they can influence evolution. Current research indicates that epigenetics has influenced evolution in a number of organisms, including plants and animals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42888",
"title": "Human genome",
"section": "Section::::Epigenome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 840,
"text": "Epigenetics describes a variety of features of the human genome that transcend its primary DNA sequence, such as chromatin packaging, histone modifications and DNA methylation, and which are important in regulating gene expression, genome replication and other cellular processes. Epigenetic markers strengthen and weaken transcription of certain genes but do not affect the actual sequence of DNA nucleotides. DNA methylation is a major form of epigenetic control over gene expression and one of the most highly studied topics in epigenetics. During development, the human DNA methylation profile experiences dramatic changes. In early germ line cells, the genome has very low methylation levels. These low levels generally describe active genes. As development progresses, parental imprinting tags lead to increased methylation activity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29406238",
"title": "YPEL3",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Epigenetic modification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "Epigenetics is the study of changes in gene activity that do not involve alterations to genetic code, or DNA. Instead, just above the genome sits various epigenetic markers which serve to provide instructions to activate or inactivate genes to varying degrees. This silencing or activation of genes has been recognized to play an important role in the differentiation of nascent cells and several human disease states including cancer. Unlike genetic mutations, epigenetic changes are considered reversible, although further study is needed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56825",
"title": "Eating disorder",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Genetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "Epigenetics mechanisms are means by which environmental effects alter gene expression via methods such as DNA methylation; these are independent of and do not alter the underlying DNA sequence. They are heritable, but also may occur throughout the lifespan, and are potentially reversible. Dysregulation of dopaminergic neurotransmission due to epigenetic mechanisms has been implicated in various eating disorders. Other candidate genes for epigenetic studies in eating disorders include leptin, pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2fjpa2
|
sunk costs
|
[
{
"answer": "A sunk cost is a past cost that is not recoverable and specifically should not influence future decisions. For example if a company spends money on a consultant then that money would be sunk. Also money spent on employee training is a sunk cost. In contrast to money spent on a truck or a computer of which some money would be recoverable. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Imagine that you are starting a business. Some of the costs you will experience may be:\n\nA) Pay a consultant to help you set up your business\n\nB) Rent a building to work out of\n\nC) Pay for electricity to run your machines\n\nD) Buy 1000 business cards\n\nJust about all costs can be put into 1 of 3 categories: (1) Fixed, (2) Variable, (3) Sunk. We categorize them to help us streamline processes, keep track of money and margins, and help make our companies stronger and financially healthy.\n\nA **Fixed** cost is just like it sounds. It is \"fixed\". The rent you pay on your building, for example, is likely the same amount each and every month. Let's say your rent is $1,000 per month. This means that I can correctly predict that after 1 year, it will cost me $12,000 (12 * $1,000) to rent my building. After 2 years, it should be about $24,000. A fixed cost will be nearly the same across a defined period of time with little to no change.\n\nA **Variable** cost, similarly, is what it sounds like, too. It varies. Your electricity bill, for example, will be higher when you use more electricity and lower when you use less. If, for example, your electricity bill is $1,000 one month to run your equipment, it may be $2,000 the next month if you double the amount of work/output. Likewise, if your electricity bill is pretty constantly $1,000, there is an **opportunity** to possibly reduce it by investing in more efficient machines which may then reduce the amount of electricity used (and then lower your bill). Overall, though, they fluctuate depending on the amount of work being done. This is *unlike* **fixed** costs, because your rent of $1,000 per month will be $1,000 regardless of how much work you do in your building. \n\nA **Sunk** cost is an expense that you no longer have control over. You have to just accept it. Let's say, for example, you pre-pay rent for a whole year and your contract prevents you from subleasing/renting it out to others. Suddenly, you find a better location and move. The $12,000 you paid in rent for your old building is a \"sunk cost\" because there is nothing you can do to recover it or a portion of it. Likewise, the 1000 business cards you ordered with the old address are a sunk cost, as there is nothing you can do to recover the money you spent on them. The consultant you already paid to help you is also a sunk cost.\n\nLet's say that you plan on reselling someone else's products through your company. You sign a contract with ACME Corp to provide you with 1,000 widgets at a cost of $1 per widget that you plan on selling for $2 per widget. It takes time for those 1,000 widgets to be made, but you form the agreement now.\n\nSuddenly, something happens in the market. No one really wants widgets anymore. In fact, the best you can do is sell them for $0.50 each when you end up getting them. So you've paid an expense of $1,000 expecting to make a profit of $1,000, but now you will make no more than $500 total, which means you paid $1,000 to lose $500. That $500 is a sunk cost. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Just to add a simple example, let's say you paid $100 dollars for a concert ticket, Then, on the day of the concert, you decided that you no longer wanted to go, and you find that other people will only buy the same ticket from you for $60. Then the $40 dollars that you can't get back constitute the sunk cost.\n\nOoh, and here's a neat thought: almost all people find themselves subject to sunk cost fallacy, where they believe that making economically inefficient choices will somehow allow them to recoup sunk costs. For the above example, that would be the same as thinking to oneself, \"I don't want to go to the concert, but I have to or I lose those forty dollars,\" when the forty dollars have already been lost, and the real trade-off is between $60 and the opportunity to attend the concert.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "102913",
"title": "Sunk cost",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1139,
"text": "Sunk costs may cause cost overrun. In business, an example of sunk costs may be investment into a factory or research that now has a lower value or no value whatsoever. For example, $20 million has been spent on building a power plant; the value at present is zero because it is incomplete (and no sale or recovery is feasible). The plant can be completed for an additional $10 million, or abandoned and a different but equally valuable facility built for $5 million. It should be obvious that abandonment and construction of the alternative facility is the more rational decision, even though it represents a total loss of the original expenditure—the original sum invested is a sunk cost. If decision-makers are irrational or have the wrong incentives, the completion of the project may be chosen. For example, politicians or managers may have more incentive to avoid the appearance of a total loss. In practice, there is considerable ambiguity and uncertainty in such cases, and decisions may in retrospect appear irrational that were, at the time, reasonable to the economic actors involved and in the context of their own incentives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "102913",
"title": "Sunk cost",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 938,
"text": "The sunk cost is distinct from economic loss. For example, when a new car is purchased, it can subsequently be resold; however, it will probably not be resold for the original purchase price. The economic loss is the difference (including transaction costs). The sum originally paid should not affect any rational future decision-making about the car, regardless of the resale value: if the owner can derive more value from selling the car than not selling it, then it should be sold, regardless of the price paid. In this sense, the sunk cost is not a precise quantity, but an economic term for a sum paid, in the past, which is no longer relevant to decisions about the future; it may be used inconsistently in quantitative terms as the original cost or the expected economic loss. It may also be used as shorthand for an error in analysis due to the \"sunk cost fallacy\", irrational decision-making or, most simply, as irrelevant data.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "102913",
"title": "Sunk cost",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1016,
"text": "Sunk costs are sometimes contrasted with \"prospective costs\", which are future costs that may be incurred or changed if an action is taken. In that regard, both retrospective and prospective costs could be either fixed costs (continuous for as long as the business is in operation and unaffected by output volume) or variable costs (dependent on volume). However, many economists consider it a mistake to classify sunk costs as \"fixed\" or \"variable.\" For example, if a firm sinks $400 million on an enterprise software installation, that cost is \"sunk\" because it was a one-time expense and cannot be recovered once spent. A \"fixed\" cost would be monthly payments made as part of a service contract or licensing deal with the company that set up the software. The upfront irretrievable payment for the installation should \"not\" be deemed a \"fixed\" cost, with its cost spread out over time. Sunk costs should be kept separate. The \"variable costs\" for this project might include data centre power usage, for example.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1048185",
"title": "Contestable market",
"section": "Section::::Theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "Sunk costs are those costs that cannot be recovered after a firm shuts down. For example, if a new firm enters the steel industry, the entrant needs to buy new machinery. If, for any reason, the new firm cannot cope with the competition of the incumbent firm, it will plan to move out of the market. However, if the new firm cannot use or transfer the new machines that it bought for the production of steel to other uses in another industry, the fixed costs on machinery become sunk costs so if there are sunk costs in the market, they impede the first assumption of no exit barriers. That market will not be contestable, and no firms would enter the steel industry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "291268",
"title": "Depreciation",
"section": "Section::::Accounting concept.:Depreciable basis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "Cost generally is the amount paid for the asset, including all costs related to acquisition. In some countries or for some purposes, salvage value may be ignored. The rules of some countries specify lives and methods to be used for particular types of assets. However, in most countries the life is based on business experience, and the method may be chosen from one of several acceptable methods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1704142",
"title": "Escalation of commitment",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "Economists and behavioral scientists use a related term, \"sunk-cost fallacy\", to describe the justification of increased investment of money, time, lives, etc. in a decision, based on the cumulative prior investment (\"sunk cost\") despite new evidence suggesting that the cost, beginning immediately, of continuing the decision outweighs the expected benefit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53171968",
"title": "SS Charles S. Price",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "The salvage rights to the \"Price\" were sold to the Great Lakes Towing and Wrecking company. In the summer of 1916, salvage of the \"Price\" was attempted. Divers cut a hole in the side of the aft hull. The hole allowed divers to enter the wreck. They attempted to seal breaks in the hull and built bulkheads so that the wreck could be floated. However, salvaging the wreck was eventually considered too costly to be worth the expense and the Great Lakes Towing and Wrecking company abandoned attempts to raise her.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5kx7l3
|
why do some people silently mouth the words you're speaking along with you as you talk to them?
|
[
{
"answer": "Probably improves understanding. At least you know they're paying attention to what you're saying.\n\nSome people have a hard time focusing, their minds wander.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Its a form of face mirroring. As social creatures people will mirror face expressions, to \"fit in\" with the social group. This is why people often will have the same face expressions as someone they are listening to them. Mouthing words is just another form of this.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've actually caught myself doing this to waiters/waitresses. I have a hard time hearing sometimes when they go over the specials for the day and I tend to mirror what they are saying as I read their lips. I've found that it helps me better understand what they are saying. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1490105",
"title": "How to Win Friends and Influence People",
"section": "Section::::Major sections and points.:Twelve Ways to Win People to Your Way of Thinking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "BULLET::::6. Let the other person do a great deal of the talking. People do not like listening to us boast, they enjoy doing the talking themselves. Let them rationalize and talk about the idea, because it will taste much sweeter to them in their own mouth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6654137",
"title": "ArrayComm",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "In a crowded room, people find it easy to focus on the person they are speaking to and effectively ignore other conversations. Conversely, a person can try to get the attention of someone down the street by cupping their hands around their mouth, which directs their voice to improve the odds of being heard and understood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2917649",
"title": "Speech",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 894,
"text": "Although people ordinarily use speech in dealing with other persons (or animals), when people swear they do not always mean to communicate anything to anyone, and sometimes in expressing urgent emotions or desires they use speech as a quasi-magical cause, as when they encourage a player in a game to do or warn them not to do something. There are also many situations in which people engage in solitary speech. People talk to themselves sometimes in acts that are a development of what some psychologists (e.g., Lev Vygotsky) have maintained is the use in thinking of silent speech in an interior monologue to vivify and organize cognition, sometimes in the momentary adoption of a dual persona as self addressing self as though addressing another person. Solo speech can be used to memorize or to test one's memorization of things, and in prayer or in meditation (e.g., the use of a mantra).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "364338",
"title": "Respect",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1025,
"text": "Some people may earn the respect of individuals by assisting others or by playing important social roles. In many cultures, individuals are considered to be worthy of respect until they prove otherwise. Being silent is another misinterpreted sign of respect. Often, people think that if someone doesn't talk to them, it means they are giving them attitude, but in reality, the silent one doesn't want to make anyone feel uncomfortable by saying something. Occasionally, people think it is rude to be ignored, but the person being ignored has such an impression, that people don't want to say or do the wrong thing. It is one of the greater acts of respect, because people want to mind their own business and not malevolent a wrong impression. Especially if that person being ignored is a close family member or the household. Courtesies that show respect include simple words and phrases like \"thank you\" in The West, simple physical signs like a slight bow in the East a smile, or direct eye contact, or a simple handshake.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37974207",
"title": "Il Galateo",
"section": "Section::::Summary of Galateo.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "Della Casa returns to illustrate the customs of conversation and public speaking. Language should, as much as possible, be \"orderly and well-expressed\" so that the listener is able to understand what the speaker intends. In addition to the clarity of the words used, it is also important that they sound pleasant. Before talking about any topic, it is good to have it formed in your mind. It is not polite to interrupt someone while talking, nor to help him find his words.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "863241",
"title": "Baby talk",
"section": "Section::::Purpose and implications.:Use with non-infants.:Foreigner talk.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 1049,
"text": "When addressing a listener not skilled in the speaker's language, people may simplify their spoken language in an attempt to improve understanding. Some use sign language to communicate with others, especially if they have a hearing problem, although this is not always understood by people, as some signs in sign language may be difficult to interpret by some people, especially if gestures have different meanings from place to place, so they may use a baby talk-like language to communicate, skipping out small words and possibly using demonstratives instead of pronouns, for example \"Do not cross the road\" becoming \"No cross road\". While this kind of simplifications could be helpful for, say, foreign tourists, this type of communication is perceived as rude or offensive in some societies, because it may cause the foreigner to feel infantilized. It can also be considered insulting if the foreigner is skilled in the speaker's language. While not considered to be actual parentese, it has aspects which make the two language styles similar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16918952",
"title": "Egalitarian dialogue",
"section": "Section::::Creation of meaning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 908,
"text": "Any person can engage in such meaning making dialogue because humans have \"epistemological curiosity\", which when expressed in egalitarian dialogue can criticize and end with what Freire (2001) called the \"bureaucratizing of the mind\", an invisible power of alienating domestication. Such debureaucratization process can be seen in Dialogic Musical Gatherings (CONFAPEA, 2005), where people develop their epistemological curiosity listening to classical music and later engaging in a dialogue about the instruments that were playing, about the composer, his life and his position in a historical context, the style of the music listened to and its relationship with the cultural claims of each participant belonging to the Music Gathering, etc. In this process, meaning is created and recovered because music escapes the system and goes back to people's lifeworld tearing down the walls of cultural elitism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1pxoww
|
What is the latest known instance of serfdom in Western Europe?
|
[
{
"answer": "Define Western Europe.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "134258",
"title": "Serfdom",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "In Eastern Europe the institution persisted until the mid-19th century. In the Austrian Empire serfdom was abolished by the 1781 Serfdom Patent; corvée continued to exist until 1848. Serfdom was abolished in Russia in the 1860s. In Finland, Norway and Sweden, feudalism was never fully established, and serfdom did not exist; however, serfdom-like institutions did exist in both Denmark (the stavnsbånd, from 1733 to 1788) and its vassal Iceland (the more restrictive vistarband, from 1490 until 1894).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1503040",
"title": "Serfdom in Russia",
"section": "Section::::History.:Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "The origins of serfdom in Russia (, ) may be traced to the 12th century, when the exploitation of the so-called zakups on arable lands (, ) and corvée smerds (Russian term for corvée is , ) was the closest to what is now known as serfdom. According to the \"Russkaya Pravda\", a princely smerd had limited property and personal rights. His escheat was given to the prince and his life was equated with that of the kholop, meaning his murder was punishable by a fine of five grivnas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1503040",
"title": "Serfdom in Russia",
"section": "Section::::History.:Transition to full serfdom.:Slaves and serfs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "One particular source of indignation in Europe was \"Kolokol\" published in London, England (1857–65) and Geneva (1865–67). It collected many cases of horrendous physical, emotional and sexual abuse of the serfs by the landowners.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1977868",
"title": "Slavery in medieval Europe",
"section": "Section::::Serfdom versus slavery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 138,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 138,
"end_character": 726,
"text": "The end of serfdom is also debated, with Georges Duby pointing to the early 12th century as a rough end point for \"serfdom in the strict sense of the term\". Other historians dispute this assertion, citing discussions and the mention of serfdom as an institution during later dates (such as in 13th century England, or in Central Europe, where the rise of serfdom coincided with its decline in Western Europe). There are several approaches to get a time span for the transition, and lexicography is one such method. There is supposedly a clear shift in diction when referencing those who were either slaves or serfs at approximately 1000, though there is not a consensus on how significant this shift is, or if it even exists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "134258",
"title": "Serfdom",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "Serfdom is the status of many peasants under feudalism, specifically relating to manorialism, and similar systems. It was a condition of debt bondage, which developed during the Late Antiquity and Early Middle Ages in Europe and lasted in some countries until the mid-19th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2144715",
"title": "Aristocracy of Norway",
"section": "Section::::Modern aristocracy.:Introduction of the \"stavnsbånd\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 152,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 152,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "In 1733 King Christian VI introduced the system of \"stavnsbånd\"—a serfdom-like institution—in Denmark. This was introduced following an agricultural crisis that lead people to leave the countryside and move into towns. The system would last until after 1788.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39047424",
"title": "History of serfdom",
"section": "Section::::Heyday.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Many of these countries abolished serfdom during the Napoleonic invasions of the early 19th century. Serfdom remained in force in most of Russia until the Emancipation reform of 1861, enacted on February 19, 1861, though in the Russian-controlled Baltic provinces it had been abolished at the beginning of the 19th century. According to the Russian census of 1857, Russia had 23.1 million private serfs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8u7qc3
|
why does everything computerised need regular software updates now opposed to older models? e.g. my xbox one needs to update monthly(ish) while my xbox original never did (or could).
|
[
{
"answer": "Security is taken more seriously than it used to, particularly on consoles that are now much more online than they used to be (online multiplayer was a much newer thing for consoles during the xbox classic generation of consoles), and that are much closer to the computers we use every day. It was unlikely that your xbox would be an infection vector for viruses onto your home network, since it was a pretty shitty computer to run anything but games on; but your xbox one is more than capable, and it's probably connected to your network constantly as well.\n\nThreats are also constantly evolving; as more of the world becomes more computerized, there's more money to be made in cybercrime, and so organized crime and even some street-level gangs are making a move into digital theft and ransomware coding to get money. And no Microsoft or Sony or Nintendo-level company wants headlines about the latest ransomware that's exclusive to their console, so they keep a stream of updates that keep everything running.\n\nThe new and improved hardware also demands more complex software; more complex software means more bugs just by the very nature of coding, so bugfixes are near constant now.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Actually, the original Xbox DID have updates, but most people just received them via the disc, as opposed to downloading them. There weren't a whole lot of versions, though, and none provided major functionality changes. Mostly stability/anti piracy measures.\n\nIf you boot up your original Xbox and look at \"About this Xbox\" on the dashboard, it'll list the dashboard/system software version. Most recent is 1.00.5960.01.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The biggest reason is the rollout of 24x7 access to the internet. Before this was available internet access was limited to the times that you called in to your ISP modembank. These days your devices can access anything they want whenever they want, which means that the software providers are able to distribute updates whenever they want.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "619009",
"title": "PlayStation Portable",
"section": "Section::::Software.:System Software.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "While System Software updates can be used with consoles from any region, Sony recommends only downloading updates released for the model's region. System Software updates have added many features, including a web browser, Adobe Flash support, additional codecs for various media, PlayStation 3 (PS3) connectivity, and patches against security exploits (and the execution of homebrew programs). The most recent version, numbered 6.61, was released on January 15, 2015.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18797966",
"title": "UpdateStar",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "UpdateStar 4, released in March 2009 introduced an enhanced recognition algorithm and a registry cleaner, which removes remnants of uninstalled software. Updates appear almost on a daily basis for a software setup with 60 to 80 programs on a typical PC making it nearly impossible for a PC user to keep up. The program is available as freeware as well as the commercial Premium Edition with additional security advice for program, a cleaner for system maintenance and more.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24755801",
"title": "Barnes & Noble Nook 1st Edition",
"section": "Section::::Hacking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "A new hardware revision introduced in August 2010, identifiable by a serial number starting with 1003, running firmware 1.4.1, requires different software than the older models. Attempting to gain root access using software designed for older models renders the unit unusable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41181813",
"title": "Xbox One system software",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "Since launch, Microsoft has been updating the OS monthly, with updates downloaded from the Xbox Live service directly to the Xbox One and subsequently installed, or by using offline recovery images downloaded via a PC. In November 2015, a major system update known as the New Xbox One Experience was released, which brought very significant changes to the design and functionality of the system. The Windows 10-based Core had replaced the Windows 8-based one in this update, and the new system is sometimes referred to as \"Windows 10 on Xbox One\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "357347",
"title": "Tamper resistance",
"section": "Section::::Software.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "A side effect of this is that software maintenance gets more complex, because software updates need to be validated and errors in the upgrade process may lead to a false-positive triggering of the protection mechanism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11732933",
"title": "PlayStation 3 system software",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "The process of updating is almost identical to that of the PlayStation Portable, PlayStation Vita, and PlayStation 4. The software may be updated by downloading the update directly on the PlayStation 3, downloading it from the user's local Official PlayStation website to a PC and using a USB storage device to transfer it to the PlayStation 3, or installing the update from game discs containing update data.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "507143",
"title": "Upgrade",
"section": "Section::::Risks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "Upgrades of hardware involve a risk that new hardware will not be compatible with other pieces of hardware in a system. For example, an upgrade of RAM may not be compatible with existing RAM in a computer. Other hardware components may not be compatible after either an upgrade or downgrade, due to the non-availability of compatible drivers for the hardware with a specific operating system. Conversely, there is the same risk of non-compatibility when software is upgraded or downgraded for previously functioning hardware to no longer function.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
18na44
|
What will happen when Pope Benedict when he dies, since he will not be Pope at the time?
|
[
{
"answer": "The way you've phrased the question, it's about current events/the future, which isn't appropriate for this subreddit. I'll have to delete this one, but you could resubmit with something like \"What happened to Popes who didn't die in office?\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37377124",
"title": "Lateran Council (964)",
"section": "Section::::Acts of the council.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "Benedict responded by asking: “If I have sinned, have mercy on me”. The council then proceeded to confirm Leo as the true canonically appointed pope, and announced that Benedict was deposed as pope. On this sentence, Leo cut Benedict’s pallium into two pieces and broke his pastoral staff, before tearing off his pontifical robes. It was only through Otto’s intervention that Benedict was allowed to retain the rank of deacon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1714063",
"title": "Hierarchy of the Catholic Church",
"section": "Section::::Bishop.:Pope (Bishop of Rome).:Election.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "Like all bishops, the pope has the option of resigning, though unlike other bishops, it is not required. The best known cases are those of Pope Celestine V in 1294, Pope Gregory XII in 1415 and Pope Benedict XVI in 2013. Approximately 10% of all popes left or were removed from office before death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "300240",
"title": "Legends surrounding the papacy",
"section": "Section::::Prophecy of the Popes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "According to the Prophecy of the Popes, some interpretations hold that after Pope Benedict XVI, who resigned on 28 February 2013, there will be one pope left before the destruction of Rome. This individual is labelled by the prophecy as Petrus Romanus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38486704",
"title": "Resignation of Pope Benedict XVI",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "The resignation of Pope Benedict XVI occurred on 28 February 2013 at 20:00 CET, after having been announced on the morning of 11 February 2013 directly by himself. Benedict XVI's decision to step down as leader of the Catholic Church made him the first pope to relinquish the office since Gregory XII in 1415 (who did so in order to end the Western Schism), the first to do so on his own initiative since Celestine V in 1294, and the first after the Vatican ll. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38486458",
"title": "2013 papal conclave",
"section": "Section::::Resignation of Pope Benedict XVI.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "On 11 February 2013, Benedict XVI announced his resignation from the papacy effective 28 February 2013 at 20:00 local time (19:00 UTC). He was the first pope to resign since Gregory XII in 1415, and the first to do so on his own initiative since Celestine V in 1294.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1690503",
"title": "List of people excommunicated by the Catholic Church",
"section": "Section::::13th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "BULLET::::- Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, was excommunicated three times. The first time by Pope Gregory IX in 1227 for delaying his promise to begin the 5th Crusade; the excommunication was lifted in 1229. The same pope excommunicated him again in 1239 for making war against the Papal States, a censure rescinded by the new pope, Celestine IV, who died soon after. Frederick was again excommunicated by Pope Innocent IV at the First Council of Lyons in 1245. Frederick repented just before his death and was absolved of the censure in 1250.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1034008",
"title": "The Last Word (Greene short story)",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "When the Pope was toppled, there was an attempt to assassinate him, but this failed, and it was since decided not to make him a martyr to the few surviving Christians. Since then, Christianity has been eradicated, and the pope is now the last surviving Christian.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
34gcky
|
how can bernie sanders an independent be the democrats presidential nominee?
|
[
{
"answer": "He's not. He's seeking to be democratic presidential nominee. ELyou're5: he's hoping democrats will let him be leader of their club. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44582614",
"title": "Bernie Sanders 2016 presidential campaign",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 866,
"text": "In the 2016 presidential campaign, Bernie Sanders sought the Democratic Party's nomination in a field of six major candidates and was the runner up with 46% of the pledged delegates behind Hillary Clinton, who won the contest with 54%. Sanders, the junior United States Senator and former Representative from Vermont, began with an informal announcement on April 30, 2015, and a formal announcement that he planned to seek the Democratic Party's nomination for President of the United States on May 26, 2015, in Burlington, Vermont. Sanders had been considered a potential candidate for president since at least September 2014. Though he had previously run as an independent, he routinely caucused with the Democratic Party, as many of his views align with Democrats. Running as a Democrat made it easier to participate in debates and get his name on state ballots.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "361176",
"title": "Bernie Sanders",
"section": "Section::::Political positions.:Democratic Party.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 167,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 167,
"end_character": 685,
"text": "Starting in November 2015, in connection with his presidential campaign, Sanders's announcements suggested that not only was he running as a Democrat, but that he would run as a Democrat in future elections. When challenged by Clinton about his party commitment, he said, \"Of course I am a Democrat and running for the Democratic nomination.\" Since he remained a senator, elected as an independent, the United States Senate website continued to refer to Sanders as an independent during the campaign and upon his return to the Senate. He confirmed at the end of the campaign that he remained an independent in the senate for the balance of his term, since that was how he was elected.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3260258",
"title": "List of Jewish American politicians",
"section": "Section::::Presidential candidates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 167,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 167,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "BULLET::::- Bernie Sanders ran for president in 2016 as a Democrat. He became the first Jewish candidate to win a Democratic party primary with a victory in New Hampshire. He lost the nomination to Hillary Clinton.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47106217",
"title": "John Kasich 2016 presidential campaign",
"section": "Section::::Campaign.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "During the sixth debate, Kasich responded to a question pertaining to Democratic presidential candidate Bernie Sanders, stating that the Republican nominee would \"win every state\" if he was the Democratic Party nominee and that based on him knowing Sanders, he could promise he \"won't be president of the United States.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38680975",
"title": "2018 United States Senate elections",
"section": "Section::::Vermont.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 163,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 163,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "Two-term Independent Senator Bernie Sanders was re-elected with 71% of the vote in 2012. Sanders, one of two independent members of Congress, has caucused with the Democratic Party since taking office in 2007. In November 2015, Sanders announced his plans to run as a Democrat, rather than an Independent, in all future elections. He won the nomination easily.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "480905",
"title": "Write-in candidate",
"section": "Section::::Protest.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 1123,
"text": "BULLET::::- In 2016, several grassroots campaigns to elect Bernie Sanders President as a write-in candidate were established on social media in the run-up to the United States presidential election. Though Sanders continued to campaign for Democrat nominee Hillary Clinton, supporters pointed to alleged DNC bias in the Democratic Party's presidential primaries against Sanders, and Clinton's email scandal, and continued to support him. Both Clinton and Donald Trump would have had to win less than the required 270 electoral college votes for Sanders to have denied either candidate the presidency, and for the election to be passed to the House of Representatives – thus the initial write-in campaign around Vermont, offering only three college votes, was not successful, but Sanders did receive almost six percent of the vote there. The campaign expanded to include all 12 eligible states (one of which listed Sanders as an official write-in candidate), and relied on states such as California, with a high electoral college vote count and large support for Sanders, to be successful in denying both Trump and Clinton.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18030657",
"title": "FiveThirtyEight",
"section": "Section::::ESPN ownership.:2016 U.S. elections.:Presidential primary elections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "On the Democratic side, \"FiveThirtyEight\" argued that Sen. Bernie Sanders could \"lose everywhere else after Iowa and New Hampshire\" and that the \"Democratic establishment would rush in to squash\" him if he does not. Sanders went on to win 23 states in the primaries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4x2gir
|
how do screenshots work from a software perspective?
|
[
{
"answer": "The software just saves the state of all the pixels that the hardware is sending to the display and puts it into a standard image format that other programs can then open. How the software actually gets the pixel data is platform dependent.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The graphics card has the current frame saved in memory as part of the standard process. It's called double buffering - one finished frame on display, one being drawn. So, when you take a screenshot the CPU just asks the GPU for the current frame and then places the data in the clipboard. \n\nWorth noting that requesting data from the GPU is much, much slower than sending data to it. For the most part there is very little need to get data back. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First we need to accept the fact that computers don't really show us streams of moving objects. They show frame by frame, each stored in memory of the video card.\n\nWhen you play a game or watch a movie, the central processor of the computer is sending data and commands to the graphics processor inside your video card. The data might be a video stream, pictures or textures. Commands might be to tell to draw the video stream in a certain area or full screen; they can also be to construct 3D objects and use some pictures as textures, to put some lights in a distance, all kinds of transformations with those objects, commands to add fog and reflections, and so on. The video card will render that data into still frames, and send those frames one by one to the monitor. One of the commands the central processor can send to the video card is to send the latest rendered frame back. That will be the screenshot available in the computer memory. The rest depends on what software you used to take the screenshot. Built in functionality of video games usually saves the screenshot into a file on the local disk. Windows will put that screenshot into the clipboard and you can paste it into another program.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44963071",
"title": "Haiku Applications",
"section": "Section::::Core Applications.:Screenshot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "Screenshot is an application for capturing screenshots of the screen. Although this can be done manually by pressing (the Print Screen key), by using the screenshot application the user can take advantage of other features that are unavailable when only using the key method. With the application the user may choose to capture only the active window or windows, to exclude the yellow tab bar and border or to choose to include the mouse pointer as well. With the application the user can also rename the files, can set up a delay or interval, can change the save destination etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18938075",
"title": "Screenshot",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "A screenshot, also called screen capture or screen grab, is a digital image of what should be visible on a computer monitor, television, or other visual output device. A common screenshot is created by the operating system or software running on the device. A screenshot or screen capture may also be created by taking a photo of the screen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14272047",
"title": "Screencam",
"section": "Section::::Modern version.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 652,
"text": "The current version of ScreenCam builds and edits interactive software demonstrations, simulations, podcasts, screencasts, and program demos. For software demos, it records in real time using a proprietary capture algorithm that captures a sequence of still images and then builds mouse movement simulations to create the appearance of a running program. By using Adobe Flash Tweening technology, ScreenCam is able to create screencasts in a smaller filesize than by using typical video compression technology. In particular, the system can use tweening to simulate cursor movement without needing to use delta-frame CODECs on the entire video frame. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1932701",
"title": "Clipping (computer graphics)",
"section": "Section::::Clipping in 2D graphics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 733,
"text": "In one example application, consider an image editing program. A user application may render the image into a viewport. As the user zooms and scrolls to view a smaller portion of the image, the application can set a clip boundary so that pixels outside the viewport are not rendered. In addition, GUI widgets, overlays, and other windows or frames may obscure some pixels from the original image. In this sense, the clip region is the composite of the application-defined \"user clip\" and the \"device clip\" enforced by the system's software and hardware implementation. Application software can take advantage of this clip information to save computation time, energy, and memory, avoiding work related to pixels that aren't visible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28085475",
"title": "Greenshot",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "It is used to create full or partial screenshots. The captured screenshot can be annotated and edited using the built-in image editor before exporting it either to an image file, email attachment, printer or clipboard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46265478",
"title": "Project Naptha",
"section": "Section::::Application.:Screenshots.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "For Screenshots, Project Naptha transforms static screenshots into something more similar to an interactive snapshot of the computer as it was when the screen was captured. The cursor changes when hovering over different parts, and blocks of text become selectable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "818378",
"title": "Cave automatic virtual environment",
"section": "Section::::Technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 754,
"text": "A lifelike visual display is created by projectors positioned outside the CAVE and controlled by physical movements from a user inside the CAVE. A motion capture system records the real time position of the user. Stereoscopic LCD shutter glasses convey a 3D image. The computers rapidly generate a pair of images, one for each of the user's eyes, based on the motion capture data. The glasses are synchronized with the projectors so that each eye only sees the correct image. Since the projectors are positioned outside the cube, mirrors are often used to reduce the distance required from the projectors to the screens. One or more computers drive the projectors. Clusters of desktop PCs are popular to run CAVEs, because they cost less and run faster.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1mzw5s
|
Why do boats often leave paths of calm water (wakes) behind them?
|
[
{
"answer": "Waves on water surface are dependent on both wind speed and the amount of exposure the water has had to the wind (IIRC this is called 'fetch'). Essentially, even a fairly strong wind needs a pretty good amount of distance acting on the water to kick up waves on the surface. This is one reason why waves are bigger in the ocean and in big lakes vs. in ponds or smaller bodies of water. When a ship or boat passes by, directly behind it is a highly turbulent zone, which you correctly identified as a turbulent regime. Turbulent flows are full of chaotic motion like eddies and vortices, but somewhat contradictorily are really stable, i.e. it takes a lot of energy to change the water's tendency to stay in those wonky vortices. They also are peculiar in that they turn the surface very flat.\n\nLet's look at what we have. We have a boat going through the water that kicks it around into a really stable pattern that takes a lot of energy to change direction or motion, and leaves the surface flat. The wind is the only other external force that can remove that turbulence and impart those choppy waves on the surface again. But as we said, it takes a good amount of distance for the wind to act to gain enough strength to get the waves back.\n\nTL;DR boat swirls up the water, and wind needs time to get it back to wavy",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "223993",
"title": "Wake",
"section": "Section::::Waves by density differences, like a water surface.:Kelvin wake pattern.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "Parts of the pattern may be obscured by the effects of propeller wash, and tail eddies behind the boat's stern, and by the boat being a large object and not a point source. The water need not be stationary, but may be moving as in a large river, and the important consideration then is the velocity of the water relative to a boat or other object causing a wake.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5784346",
"title": "Heaving to",
"section": "Section::::Heaving to.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "When hove to, the boat will heel, there will be some drift to leeward and some tendency to forereach, so adequate seaway must be allowed for. In rough weather, this leeway can actually leave a 'slick' effect to windward, in which the waves are smaller than elsewhere. This can make a rest or meal break a little more comfortable at times.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4141269",
"title": "Sassafras River",
"section": "Section::::Boating.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "Most of the piers along the river are fixed, as opposed to floating, with the exception of some of the marinas. This is because of the wakes, which can reach on a busy day. The marinas are protected to a certain degree because of the \"no wake\" zone (where boats may not exceed 5 mph), with the exception of Gregg Neck Boat Yard which extends from buoy 12 to just east of the 213 drawbridge. Also, some of the boat owners along the river who have private piers have decided to install boat lifts to lift their boats out of the water and away from the wakes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18190727",
"title": "Zlatni Rat",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "The surrounding waters are usually cool and clear, due to the current in the Hvar Channel. The current is mildly hazardous for swimmers who venture far southwards from the tip towards the open sea, as it could be difficult to swim back west towards the beach (the swimmer being well over from the coast); the danger is not severe, however, as the standard current would carry the swimmer back east towards the harbor of Bol (and the beaches on the promontory of land that lies between Zlatni Rat and the town). A reliable afternoon westerly wind known as a Maestral has made the beach a destination for windsurfers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "223993",
"title": "Wake",
"section": "Section::::Other effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "The above describes an ideal wake, where the body's means of propulsion has no other effect on the water. In practice the wave pattern between the V-shaped wavefronts is usually mixed with the effects of propeller backwash and eddying behind the boat's (usually square-ended) stern.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "172078",
"title": "Whitewater",
"section": "Section::::Features found in whitewater.:Waves.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "Because of the rough and random pattern of a riverbed, waves are often not perpendicular to the river's current. This makes them challenging for boaters since a strong sideways or diagonal (also called a \"lateral\") wave can throw the craft off if the craft hits sideways or at an angle. The safest move for a whitewater boater approaching a lateral is to \"square up\" or turn the boat such that it hits the wave along the boats longest axis, reducing the chance of the boat flipping or capsizing. This is often counter-intuitive because it requires turning the boat such that it is no longer parallel to the current.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2606086",
"title": "Open water swimming",
"section": "Section::::Racing techniques.:Beach starting/exiting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "When entering the water, swimmers can use techniques to take advantage of the shallow water. One such technique is walking along the bottom. Another technique is \"dolphining\", which involves diving down to the bottom and launching oneself upwards and forwards. This technique can also help to avoid incoming waves. When exiting the water, swimmers can body surf to take advantage of waves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3zze1u
|
How come when you and a friend get out of a loud venue such as a concert and you can't hear as well your friend and you yell at each other when talking, instead of talking in your normal voice. ?
|
[
{
"answer": "Your ears have a mechanism to [temporarily lower their sensitivity](_URL_0_) in response to loud sounds. In that paper, they showed that if you knock out the gene responsible for this in mice, they exhibit less temporary hearing loss but more long term hearing loss. So it seems to be a mechanism to protect your hearing in the long term.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's because we are constantly self-monitoring when we speak, i.e. listening to our own speech and using that as feedback to correct any perceived errors. [Here's a review article](_URL_0_) from a while back if you can get access. When you leave the concert, your hearing is temporally desensitized, meaning everything sounds softer and/or muffled, including your own voice. Therefore, you automatically attempt to compensate by speaking louder.\n\nThis is also the reason \"speech jammers\" work. Just search your phone's app store to find one. These are apps that add a small delay to an audio feedback, which is enough to trip you up and cause stuttering. \n\nLastly, this is unrelated, but wearing hearing protection at very loud concerts is always a good idea. There's a [growing body of evidence](_URL_1_) that the \"temporary\" hearing loss you get from loud concerts isn't so temporary.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1257591",
"title": "Near–far problem",
"section": "Section::::Analogies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 977,
"text": "To place this problem in more common terms, imagine you are talking to someone 6 meters away. If the two of you are in a quiet, empty room then a conversation is quite easy to hold at normal voice levels. In a loud, crowded bar, it would be impossible to hear the same voice level, and the only solution (for that distance) is for both you and your friend to speak louder. Of course, this increases the overall noise level in the bar, and every other patron has to talk louder too (this is equivalent to power control runaway). Eventually, everyone has to shout to make themselves heard by a person standing right beside them, and it is impossible to communicate with anyone more than half a meter away. In general, however, a human is very capable of filtering out loud sounds; similar techniques can be deployed in signal processing where suitable criteria for distinguishing between signals can be established (see signal processing and notably adaptive signal processing.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6654137",
"title": "ArrayComm",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "In a crowded room, people find it easy to focus on the person they are speaking to and effectively ignore other conversations. Conversely, a person can try to get the attention of someone down the street by cupping their hands around their mouth, which directs their voice to improve the odds of being heard and understood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65954",
"title": "John Cage",
"section": "Section::::Life.:1950s: Discovering chance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "When I hear what we call music, it seems to me that someone is talking. And talking about his feelings, or about his ideas of relationships. But when I hear traffic, the sound of traffic—here on Sixth Avenue, for instance—I don't have the feeling that anyone is talking. I have the feeling that sound is acting. And I love the activity of sound ... I don't need sound to talk to me.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10685",
"title": "Filk music",
"section": "Section::::Filk circles.:Etiquette.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "Disruptions and distractions are discouraged during a song. This includes walking through the circle, general noise, and conversations. If between-song conversations and noise get out of hand, it is common to hear someone shout \"Filker up!\" as a signal to end the conversations so that the next person can have their turn.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60458410",
"title": "Jessica Kairé",
"section": "Section::::Works.:Can You Hear Me?\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "Can You Hear Me? is a performance piece in which the audience has a video call with someone in a different location through Skype. During the call, participants share the same meal that the people on the other side of the screen are eating.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7486416",
"title": "FIU–Miami football brawl",
"section": "Section::::The brawl.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "“Now, that’s what I’m talking about. You come into our house, you should get your behind kicked. You don’t come into the OB [Orange Bowl] playing that stuff. You’re across the ocean over there. You’re across the city. You can’t come over to our place talking noise like that. You’ll get your butt beat. I was about to go down the elevator to get in that thing...I say, why don't we meet outside in the tunnel after the ball game and get it on some more? You don't come into the OB, baby. We've had a down couple of years but you don't come in here talking smack. Not in our house.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "156635",
"title": "Glossophobia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "The aspect of speaking publicly whether it be in front of a group of unknown people, or a close group of friends, is what triggers the anxiety for the speaker. The speaker may be comfortable if they speak in front of a group of complete strangers, but when it comes to speaking in front of family/friends, their anxiety skyrockets, and vice versa. Some speakers are more comfortable in larger groups, and some are more comfortable speaking to smaller groups. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3d2en0
|
Do we know anything about a planet past Pluto?
|
[
{
"answer": "Better calculations have removed the disparity. But that's a boring answer. There certainly are more dwarf planets past Pluto in the Kuiper belt. Makemake is of significant size, about 2/3 as big as Pluto. Eris, even farther out, is roughly the same size as Pluto. Here's a great diagram of their crazy orbits. \n\n_URL_1_\n\nAre there any more large planets out there? The WISE telescope rules that out. There are no planets on the scale of Neptune in the Kuiper belt. And there are no stars, not even brown dwarves, in the Oort cloud. To the best of my knowledge, we can't rule out Neptune sized objects in the Oort Cloud, but the odds are incredibly slim.\n\nHere's an article from NASA about the results of WISE's survey.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "56516812",
"title": "20th century in science",
"section": "Section::::Astronomy and space exploration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "BULLET::::- The planets of the solar system and their moons were closely observed via numerous space probes. Pluto was discovered in 1930 on the edge of the solar system, although in the early 21st century, it was reclassified as a plutoid instead of a planet proper, leaving eight planets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34558",
"title": "20th century",
"section": "Section::::Science.:Astronomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "BULLET::::- The planets of the solar system and their moons were closely observed via numerous space probes. Pluto was discovered in 1930 on the edge of the solar system, although in the early 21st century, it was reclassified as a plutoid instead of a planet proper, leaving eight planets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44469",
"title": "Pluto",
"section": "Section::::Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 1124,
"text": "Pluto's true place in the Solar System began to reveal itself only in 1992, when astronomers began to find small icy objects beyond Neptune that were similar to Pluto not only in orbit but also in size and composition. This trans-Neptunian population is thought to be the source of many short-period comets. Pluto is now known to be the largest member of the Kuiper belt, a stable belt of objects located between 30 and 50 AU from the Sun. As of 2011, surveys of the Kuiper belt to magnitude 21 were nearly complete and any remaining Pluto-sized objects are expected to be beyond 100 AU from the Sun. Like other Kuiper-belt objects (KBOs), Pluto shares features with comets; for example, the solar wind is gradually blowing Pluto's surface into space. It has been claimed that if Pluto were placed as near to the Sun as Earth, it would develop a tail, as comets do. This claim has been disputed with the argument that Pluto's escape velocity is too high for this to happen. Nonetheless, it has also been claimed that Pluto may have formed as a result of the agglomeration of numerous comets and related Kuiper belt objects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30290563",
"title": "How I Killed Pluto and Why It Had It Coming",
"section": "Section::::Summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "The memoir is an account of the events surrounding the redefinition of the term \"planet\" that eventually changed the status of Pluto. It chronicles the discovery of Eris, a dwarf planet then mistakenly thought to be larger than Pluto, located within the scattered disc, beyond Neptune's orbit. The replaying of events includes the adversarial challenging of long-held scientific beliefs between some of the world's leading astronomers, and the eventual 2006 International Astronomical Union's vote that removed Pluto from the list of Solar System planets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32782",
"title": "Voyager 2",
"section": "Section::::Launch and trajectory.:Encounter with Neptune.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "With the decision of the International Astronomical Union to reclassify Pluto as a dwarf planet in 2006, the flyby of Neptune by \"Voyager 2\" in 1989 became the point when every known planet in the Solar System had been visited at least once by a space probe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "899973",
"title": "Definition of planet",
"section": "Section::::History.:Pluto.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "In the immediate aftermath of the object's discovery, there was much discussion as to whether it could be termed a \"tenth planet\". NASA even put out a press release describing it as such. However, acceptance of Eris as the tenth planet implicitly demanded a definition of planet that set Pluto as an arbitrary minimum size. Many astronomers, claiming that the definition of planet was of little scientific importance, preferred to recognise Pluto's historical identity as a planet by \"grandfathering\" it into the planet list.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5694269",
"title": "The Borderland of Sol",
"section": "Section::::Trivia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "BULLET::::- Pluto is dismissed as an escaped moon of Neptune, while the solar system's outer planets are listed as \"Neptune, Persephone, Caïna, Antenora,\" and \"Ptolemea\", with \"Judecca\" reserved for the next discovery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
20kh8e
|
How was Italy governed by the Roman Empire? Was it treated like a province with its own proconsul?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm working on this right now, so this won't be a complete answer because I haven't finished my research yet, but I can get things started (and maybe learn something from other contributors!).\n\nFirst thing to ask is what the hell is \"Italy\"? In early Greek sources Italy seems to mean the Greek-inhabited southern coast. Herodotus I think has 8 references to \"Italy\" and all of them refer to Greek colonies. Over time the term \"Italy\" expanded to encompass the peninsula up to the Arno-Rubicon line, and finally in 42 BC Augustus extended it to the Alps.\n\nThe second thing to ask is what time period are you curious about? Rome had an empire from the 3rd century BC down to the collapse whenever you want to place that, and there were different governing arrangements in different times.\n\nFor the period I'm most familiar with, the Late Republic, management of \"Italy\" was left for the most part to magistrates in the municipia (Bispham, *From Asculum to Actium*, is the text I'm using most for this, though looking at Sherwin-White's *Roman Citizenship* can never hurt anyone), but proconsuls could be appointed to Italy, as Caesar was.\n\nAugustus revised the administration of Italy by dividing it into 11 regions. This seems to be part of a program to suppress banditry in the countryside, and troops were stationed at various points for making travel safe (This is the interpretation of Laurence, *The Roads of Roman Italy*. The sources for this are late and ambiguous). Cassius Dio (54.8) says the roads were administered by former praetors and accompanied by lictors. We also hear of *iuridici* for specific regions in inscriptions; obviously these have some judicial function. A third kind of officer were *curatores* who seem to be involved in specifically dealing with bandits (again, this is from Laurence - he's not clear on his sources here).\n\nI'm not too familiar with the later empire, but my understanding is Italy does lose its special status and I bet this had to do with the Emperor's court becoming more important that Rome the city (forgive me, mods!).\n\nAs I said, I'm currently researching this, so please if anyone has corrections or additions, let me know!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Awesome question. I have no answer. But I do have an extension to your question.\n\nAs a commoner, what was it like to be governed by the Roman Empire? I'm curious about the Italic tribes, but mainly wondering about Greece. Since Romans adopted Greek culture so affectionately, does it stand to reason that Grecian life under Roman governance was comfortable? Mainly interested in the period after the Macedonian Wars when Greece/Achaea became a Roman province.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1873263",
"title": "Roman Italy",
"section": "Section::::History.:Augustan organization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "At the beginning of the Roman imperial era, Italy was a collection of territories with different political statuses. Some cities, called \"municipia\", had some independence from Rome, while others, the \"coloniae\", were founded by the Romans themselves. Around 7 BC, Augustus divided Italy into eleven \"regiones\", as reported by Pliny the Elder in his \"Naturalis Historia\":\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "505432",
"title": "Gallia Narbonensis",
"section": "Section::::Later history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Control of the province, which bordered directly on Italia, gave the Roman state several advantages: control of the land route between Italy and the Iberian peninsula; a territorial buffer against Gallic attacks on Italy; and control of the lucrative trade routes of the Rhône valley between Gaul and the markets of Massalia. It was from the capital of Narbonne that Julius Caesar began his Gallic Wars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21461091",
"title": "Bithynia and Pontus",
"section": "Section::::History.:Roman province.:Principate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "As part of the Constitutional Reforms of Augustus which transformed the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire all Roman provinces where divided into imperial provinces and senatorial provinces. Imperial provinces were those border provinces which required a permanent military presence to protect the Empire from invasion. As such, only the Emperor (as supreme commander of the army) had the right to appoint the governors of those provinces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1183269",
"title": "History of Rome (Mommsen)",
"section": "Section::::Review of contents.:The Republic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 1249,
"text": "Regarding the Roman provinces, former misrule and financial plundering is described, committed by Roman government agents and Roman merchants; Caesar's reforms replaced the quasi-independent Roman governors with those selected by the Imperator and closely supervised, with reduction in taxes; provincial oppression by private concerns was found more difficult to arrest. Abatement of the prior popular notion of the provinces as \"country estates\" to be worked or exploited for Rome's benefit. Favors granted Jews; Latin colonies continue. Cultural joining of Latins and Hellenes; \"Italy was converted from the mistress of subject peoples into the mother of the renovated Italo-Hellenic nation.\" Census of the Mediterranean population under Rome taken; popular religion left free of additional state norms. Continuing development of the Praetor's Edict, and plans for a codification of law. Roman coinage, weights and measures reformed; creation of the Julian Calendar. \"The rapidity and self-precision with which the plan was executed prove that it had been long meditated thoroughly and all its parts settled in detail\", Mommsen comments. \"[T]his was probably the meaning of the words which were heard to fall from him—that he had 'lived enough'.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "309737",
"title": "Romagna",
"section": "Section::::History.:Roman Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "By the beginning of the 3rd Century, Diocletian re-divided the Empire into four prefectures, each divided into dioceses, and into provinces. Under the new system, Italy was demoted to a mere Imperial province. Modern Romagna was organized into the Roman province of \"Flaminia et Picenum\" in the diocese of Italia Annonaria.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59642",
"title": "Italian unification",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 726,
"text": "After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Italy remained united under the Ostrogothic Kingdom and later disputed between the Kingdom of the Lombards and the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire. Following conquest by the Frankish Empire, the title of King of Italy merged with the office of Holy Roman Emperor. However, the emperor was an absentee German-speaking foreigner who had little concern for the governance of Italy as a state; as a result, Italy gradually developed into a system of city-states. Southern Italy however was governed by the long-lasting Kingdom of Sicily or Kingdom of Naples, initially established by the Normans. Central Italy was governed by the Pope as a temporal kingdom known as the Papal States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "314732",
"title": "Roman province",
"section": "Section::::Republican provinces.:List of republican provinces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "Gallia Cisalpina (in northern Italy) was a province in the sense of an area of military command, but was never a province in the sense of an administrative unit. During Rome's expansion in the Italian peninsula, the Romans assigned some areas as provinces in the sense of areas of military command assigned to consuls and \"praetors\" (not proconsuls or \"propraetors\" as in the case of administrative provinces) due to risks of rebellions or invasions. This was applied to Liguria because there was a series of rebellions, Bruttium and to (Calabria) because of perceived risks of rebellion. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1jhmmf
|
why are black holes invisible.
|
[
{
"answer": " > If a black hole \"swallows\" light, shouldn't they be visible by exactly that fact?\n\nNo.\n\nThe reason you see objects is because light reflects off them and hits your eyes. If nothing reflects off an object (ie, if it were to perfectly absorb all incoming EM radiation, or have an escape velocity above the speed of light, like blackholes), you can't see it, because no photons are coming from it. All you \"see\" in its place is a black spot, which, as you've figured out, isn't all that different from the rest of the sky.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We can't see black holes for a number of reasons.\n\nThey each by definition have an event horizon around them, trapping all light inside from ever escaping and making them black in appearance. But as you pointed out, space isn't black.\n\nOne problem with seeing black holes is their distance. The nearest black hole is the centre of the Milky Way galaxy. Whilst it is a supermassive black hole (basically just a really, really big one) it is still many billions upon billions of miles away, and there are billions upon billions of stars between us and the black hole, which are obstructing our view of it. Even if we did have a clear line of sight to it and no light pollution, it is so far away it would be like trying to spot an individual grain of sand with your bare eyes from an airplane at cruising altitude. Even with the planet's best space telescopes they are very hard to see.\n\nAnother problem is gravitational lensing, which you mentioned. Becuase of this effect, all you would see when looking at the black hole is the image from directly behind the black hole. So instead of a pitch black spot on a close-to-black background, you would just see the star or galaxy that is behind the blackhole.\n\nSo visibly spotting a black hole is not very practical using technology available today. But how do we 'see' them?\n\nWhilst gravitational lensing means we can't spot a black hole directly, it does let us spot them indirectly. If a star of constant brightness suddenly appears to get brighter and stretch or change shape, before quickly returning back to its orignal form, we can conclude a massive object passed in front of it and caused gravitational lensing. Using various calculations we can work out just how massive that object was in each case, and if the mass is great enough we can assume it was a black hole that passed by.\n\nAnother method for detecting black holes is by looking at objects in space that seem to be orbiting around nothing. A star cannot be in orbit around empty space, there must be some form of gravitational source the star is orbiting around. Again, through certain calculations we can work out the mass of the gravitational source the star is orbiting around and see if it is heavy enough to class as a black hole.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "67227",
"title": "A Brief History of Time",
"section": "Section::::Summary.:Chapter 6: Black Holes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "Black holes are talked about in this chapter. Black holes are stars that have collapsed into one very small point. This small point is called a \"singularity\". Black holes suck things into their center because they have very strong gravity. Some of the things it can suck in are light and stars. Only very large stars, called \"super-giants\", are big enough to become a black hole. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2081387",
"title": "Eight Worlds",
"section": "Section::::Technologies.:Black holes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 1106,
"text": "As recounted in \"Lollipop and the Tar Baby\", there is an additional complicating factor which humans are unaware of - i.e. the black holes (or at least some of them) are sentient beings, highly intelligent, with enormous knowledge gathered during millions of years of life, and who don't at all like the idea of being trapped inside a human power station. From intercepted radio signals they can and do study humans and gain detailed knowledge of their society, law and technology. The holes can communicate with humans at will and are able to manipulate them. At the same time, such intelligent black holes in no way share human values and human morality; to them, human beings and human ships, like any other kind of matter, are simply food. The black holes have no interest in humans knowing any of that, and some of the \"accidents\" afflicting hole hunters are due to them rather than to human rivals. The protagonist of \"Tar Baby\", who discovers it and survives, has very good reasons to keep the knowledge to herself and avoid drawing attention to what she had been doing in the far reaches of space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67227",
"title": "A Brief History of Time",
"section": "Section::::Summary.:Chapter 6: Black Holes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "Black holes are difficult to find because they do not let out any light. They can be found when black holes suck in other stars. When black holes suck in other stars, the black hole lets out X-rays, which can be seen by telescopes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44364",
"title": "Black body",
"section": "Section::::Realizations.:Black holes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 939,
"text": "A black hole is a region of spacetime from which nothing escapes. Around a black hole there is a mathematically defined surface called an event horizon that marks the point of no return. It is called \"black\" because it absorbs all the light that hits the horizon, reflecting nothing, making it almost an ideal black body (radiation with a wavelength equal to or larger than the radius of the hole may not be absorbed, so black holes are not perfect black bodies). Physicists believe that to an outside observer, black holes have a non-zero temperature and emit radiation with a nearly perfect black-body spectrum, ultimately evaporating. The mechanism for this emission is related to vacuum fluctuations in which a virtual pair of particles is separated by the gravity of the hole, one member being sucked into the hole, and the other being emitted. The energy distribution of emission is described by Planck's law with a temperature \"T\":\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14056613",
"title": "Nonsingular black hole models",
"section": "Section::::Alternative black hole models.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "Such research has attracted much media attention, as black holes have long captured the imagination of both scientists and the public for both their innate simplicity and mysteriousness. The recent theoretical results have therefore undergone much scrutiny and most of them are now ruled out by theoretical studies. For example, several alternative black hole models were shown to be unstable in extremely fast rotation, which, by conservation of angular momentum, would be a not unusual physical scenario for a collapsed star (see pulsar). Nevertheless, the existence of a stable model of a nonsingular black hole is still an open question.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "240972",
"title": "White hole",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 849,
"text": "In general relativity, a white hole is a hypothetical region of spacetime which cannot be entered from the outside, although matter and light can escape from it. In this sense, it is the reverse of a black hole which can only be entered from the outside and from which matter and light cannot escape. White holes appear in the theory of eternal black holes. In addition to a black hole region in the future, such a solution of the Einstein field equations has a white hole region in its past. However, this region does not exist for black holes that have formed through gravitational collapse, nor are there any known physical processes through which a white hole could be formed. Although information and evidence regarding white holes remains inconclusive, the 2006 GRB 060614 has been proposed as the first documented occurrence of a white hole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28305",
"title": "String theory",
"section": "Section::::Black holes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 738,
"text": "In general relativity, a black hole is defined as a region of spacetime in which the gravitational field is so strong that no particle or radiation can escape. In the currently accepted models of stellar evolution, black holes are thought to arise when massive stars undergo gravitational collapse, and many galaxies are thought to contain supermassive black holes at their centers. Black holes are also important for theoretical reasons, as they present profound challenges for theorists attempting to understand the quantum aspects of gravity. String theory has proved to be an important tool for investigating the theoretical properties of black holes because it provides a framework in which theorists can study their thermodynamics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
448pmy
|
In warfare through history, why isn't there a severity of causalities compared to the unit size deployed?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is a big question, so I can only really answer in generalities. Still, I'll do what I can.\n\n > Or is the \"fight to the death\" mentality not really true.\n\nArmies are big, expensive things, to say nothing of the human cost of combat. To fully commit to attacking or defending a place means that the outcome of that battle must be absolutely decisive - something that will win the war. Such instances are pretty rare. What one battle could an army win to conquer the Frankish Empire? Or subdue the thirteen rebelling American colonies? Without the ability to win a clear decision, it's often better to keep the army together and wait for a better opportunity. In instances where one side does commit to a position - Thermopylae, the Alamo, Verdun- casualties can be extreme.\n\nAlso, remember that, in Western history at least, a lot of the more famous conventional military campaigns have been pretty symmetrical; both sides have similar weapons and capabilities. In most melee battles, the winner will take almost as many casualties as the loser (barring something weird, like Cannae) until the losing side breaks, runs, and is cut down in pursuit. During the age of muzzleloaders, professional military units engaging in an open-field shootout would both send about three rounds per minute into the enemy formation, resulting in similar casualties no matter how many people were involved. \n\nFor a discussion on the difficulties of achieving a decisive battle, check out Russ Wiegley, *The Age of Battles*.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37715351",
"title": "Open-source warfare",
"section": "Section::::Scientific studies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1226,
"text": "\"Many collective human activities, including violence, have been shown to exhibit universal patterns. The size distributions of casualties both in whole wars from 1816 to 1980 and terrorist attacks have separately been shown to follow approximate power-law distributions. However, the possibility of universal patterns ranging across wars in the size distribution or timing of within-conflict events has barely been explored. Here we show that the sizes and timing of violent events within different insurgent conflicts exhibit remarkable similarities. We propose a unified model of human insurgency that reproduces these commonalities, and explains conflict-specific variations quantitatively in terms of underlying rules of engagement. Our model treats each insurgent population as an ecology of dynamically evolving, self-organized groups following common decision-making processes. Our model is consistent with several recent hypotheses about modern insurgency, is robust to many generalizations, and establishes a quantitative connection between human insurgency, global terrorism and ecology. Its similarity to financial market models provides a surprising link between violent and non-violent forms of human behavior.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "430456",
"title": "Lewis Fry Richardson",
"section": "Section::::Mathematical analysis of war.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 792,
"text": "In \"Statistics of Deadly Quarrels\" Richardson presented data on virtually every war from 1815 to 1945. As a result, he hypothesized a base 10 logarithmic scale for conflicts. In other words, there are many more small fights, in which only a few people die, than large ones that kill many. While no conflict's size can be predicted beforehand—indeed, it is impossible to give an upper limit to the series—overall they do form a Poisson distribution. On a smaller scale he showed the same pattern for gang murders in Chicago and Shanghai. Others have noted that similar statistical patterns occur frequently, whether planned (lotteries, with many more small payoffs than large wins), or by natural organisation (there are more small towns with grocery stores than big cities with superstores).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46863",
"title": "Asymmetric warfare",
"section": "Section::::Strategic basis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 849,
"text": "In most conventional warfare, the belligerents deploy forces of a similar type and the outcome can be predicted by the quantity of the opposing forces or by their quality, for example better command and control of their forces (c2). There are times where this is not true because the composition or strategy of the forces makes it impossible for either side to close in battle with the other. An example of this is the standoff between the continental land forces of the French Army and the maritime forces of the United Kingdom's Royal Navy during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. In the words of Admiral Jervis during the campaigns of 1801, \"I do not say, my Lords, that the French will not come. I say only they will not come by sea\", and a confrontation that Napoleon Bonaparte described as that between the elephant and the whale.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6729973",
"title": "Force concentration",
"section": "Section::::Mathematical model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "There is no battlefield where battle tactics can be reduced to a pure race of delivering damage while ignoring all other circumstances. However, in some types of warfare, such as a battle for air superiority, confrontation of armoured forces in World War II or battleship-based naval battles, the ratio of armed forces could become the dominant factor. In that case, equations stated in Lanchester's laws model the potential outcome of the conflict fairly well. Balance between the two opponent forces incline to the side of superior force by the factor of formula_1. For example, two tanks against one tank are superior by a factor of four.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32204428",
"title": "Political violence",
"section": "Section::::Trends.:Long-run trends.:Critique.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 1219,
"text": "Bear F. Braumoeller argues that looking at data on per-capita death is a \"misleading and irrelevant statistic\" because it does not tell us how wars actually happen. A decrease in battle-related deaths can mean that population growth is outpacing war deaths or that \"fewer people are exposed to risk of death from war\". Instead, we should examine the willingness of a state to go to war. Braumoeller creates a new metric for conflicted called the \"use of force\", which is the number of militarized dispute that reaches at least a level 4 on the 5-point Correlates of War Militarized Interstate Dispute scale. He finds that use of force has held steady from the 1800s through the First World War, but after World War I the use of force has steadily increased. Braumoeller creates another metric called \"uses of force per relevant dyad\", which is the use of force between neighboring states or states with one major power. Using this metric he finds that there is no downward trend in the rates of conflict initiation since the post-World War II period. Additionally, he finds that the rates of conflict have remain steady over the past two hundred years and the slight increases and decreases in use of force are random.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4599275",
"title": "Human overpopulation",
"section": "Section::::Dangers and effects.:Warfare and conflict over dwindling resources.:Criticism of this hypothesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 132,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 132,
"end_character": 838,
"text": "Population and warfare are dynamical variables, and if their interaction causes sustained oscillations, then we do not in general expect to find strong correlation between the two variables measured at the same time (that is, unlagged). Korotayev and Turchin have explored mathematically what the dynamical patterns of interaction between population and warfare (focusing on internal warfare) might be in both stateless and state societies. Next, they have tested the model predictions in several empirical case studies: early modern England, Han and Tang China, and the Roman Empire. Their empirical results have supported the population-warfare theory: that there is a tendency for population numbers and internal warfare intensity to oscillate with the same period but shifted in phase (with warfare peaks following population peaks).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10062947",
"title": "Robert E. Lee: Civil War General",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "The number of casualties a unit inflicts in battle (as well as the likelihood of a leader being killed/wounded) is calculated based on the unit's firepower, weapon type, the unit leader's Influence rating, the unit's Experience and Quality ratings, and the terrain cover the defending unit has.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3mzzwp
|
what causes people to hallucinate when they get a very high fever, and is it the body trying to protect itself in some way?
|
[
{
"answer": "when you have a high fever, enzymatic action all over your body begins to slow and in the brain, this causes an unbalanced level of certain neurotransmitters and other psychoactive compounds. when this occurs, hallucinations, stroke, and other odd feelings begin to surface",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First time I ever hallucinated during a fever (that I can remember) was this past winter with a flu that lasted 13 days (I'm 35 and in great shape/health). \nGot it from my cousins kids....I swear all kids need to be quarantined during the months of October-April..... \nBut I digress...so the hallucination was crazy...I was babbling about something, but only one word would come out....and I would know this but I would keep babbling while knowing that to my wife I am making absolutely no sense, and I kept at it for a good while, just having a convo with myself.... \nI've tripped a lot before but this was completely different to any psychedelics i've tried. I knew I was in bad shape and needed to cool down and even wondered to myself how my wife could not be realizing that i'm burning up and need to be cooled down, but I never said anything to her or did anything about it myself and I was totally ok with that....come to think of it, the closest way to describe it would be a trip that is a mix of mushrooms and heroin/opium. \nOver all great experience, 10/10, would do again....but seriously, no, I do not want that to happen again...with a kid on the way i'm going to make sure I have buckets of ice on hand and a thermometer rammed up her rectum 24/7 in case this shit happens to her.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Is there any rhyme or reason to what I hallucinate? Because I thought I was a general in the Irish army. I dropped from 143 lbs to 134 that fever. Crazy time I had tossing and turning in bed commanding my troops.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When I was a child I had a fever. My hand felt just like two balloons. Now I got that feeling once again. I can't explain you would not understand. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "High temperatures, esp. over 101 F. and 39 C. cause the brain to malfunction. It's called encephalopathy, technically. This is what creates the hallucinations.\n\nWe get fevers to fight infectious diseases for one big reason. Living systems have enzymes and metabolic rates which are VERY sensitive to temps. Get cooled off too much the immune system stops working very well. The flu season often starts when average daily temps are below 50 deg. F. \n\nBut when body temps rise, the metabolic rates, esp. of the immune system can nearly double or more in speed of operation. This allows the body to mount a very much faster metabolic immune attack on diseases. thus doing in a few days what might take a week or longer.\n\nConsider that in fighting a new disease in the body, the body must create a series of antibodies to attack the newly recognized infectious agent, like a bacteria, or as below, a flu virus. It takes the body about 3 days to really get a good antibody series created which can detect, attach to, and direct killer cells to wipe out the infection over time. If it had to wait a week or longer to get that going, then the person could die. So it ups the metabolic speed by creating a fever which then shortcuts the normal rate substantially.\n\nalso there is a sort of a complex system computer in the immune system which can sort through something like 1 trillions potential antibodies to find the 1/ones which can attack the infection. No human computer can do that immense task of creating antibodies of that great number and simultaneously testing them for effectiveness. PLUS manufacturing the infection killers in high enough quantities to do the job. It's an amazing system, our immune system is, and we are lucky to have those. But then again, those who didn't, likely died quite some time ago.....",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "188521",
"title": "Alice in Wonderland syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "In addition, some people may, in conjunction with a high fever, experience more intense and overt hallucinations, seeing things that are not there and misinterpreting events and situations. Less frequent symptoms sometimes described in Alice in Wonderland syndrome patients include loss of limb control and dis-coordination, memory loss, lingering touch and sound sensations, and emotional instability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "227167",
"title": "Dementia with Lewy bodies",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Core features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "These hallucinations can sometimes provoke fear, although their content is more typically neutral. In some cases, the person with DLB may have insight that the hallucinations are not real. Individuals with visual hallucinations and one of the Lewy body dementias generally have more severe cognitive impairment. Among those with more disrupted cognition, the hallucinations can become more complex, and they may be less aware that their hallucinations are not real.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54201759",
"title": "Visual hallucinations in psychosis",
"section": "Section::::Prevalence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "Hallucinations in those with psychoses are often experienced in color, and most often are multi-modal, consisting of visual and auditory components. They frequently accompany paranoia or other thought disorders, and tend to occur during the daytime and are associated with episodes of excess excitability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49159",
"title": "Hallucination",
"section": "Section::::Cause.:Sensory deprivation hallucination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "Hallucinations can be caused by sense deprivation when it occurs for prolonged periods of time, and almost always occur in the modality being deprived (visual for blindfolded/darkness, auditory for muffled conditions, etc.) \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1192780",
"title": "Peduncular hallucinosis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "Peduncular hallucinosis (PH) is a rare neurological disorder that causes vivid visual hallucinations that typically occur in dark environments and last for several minutes. Unlike some other kinds of hallucinations, the hallucinations that patients with PH experience are very realistic, and often involve people and environments that are familiar to the affected individuals. Because the content of the hallucinations is never exceptionally bizarre, patients can rarely distinguish between the hallucinations and reality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53949270",
"title": "Die transitorischen Störungen des Selbstbewusstseins",
"section": "Section::::Content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "BULLET::::- III. Acute Delirium in States of Fever: An increased body temperature can alter brain functioning that may lead to temporary ASCs expressing themselves in a delirium or hallucinations. Affected individuals experience a state of emotionally frightening illusions that lead to acute states of anxiety and restlessness. Such a delirium is not insignificant in a forensic context, since there have been several cases reported in which feverish and delusional individuals committed a crime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23454872",
"title": "Signs and symptoms of Parkinson's disease",
"section": "Section::::Neuropsychiatric.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 862,
"text": "Hallucinations can occur in parkinsonian syndromes for a variety of reasons. An overlap exists between PD and dementia with Lewy bodies, so that where Lewy bodies are present in the visual cortex, hallucinations may result. Hallucinations can also be brought about by excessive dopaminergic stimulation. Most hallucinations are visual in nature, often formed as familiar people or animals, and are generally not threatening in nature. Some patients find them comforting; however, their caregivers often find this part of the disease most disturbing, and the occurrence of hallucinations is a major risk factor for hospitalisation. Treatment options consist of modifying the dosage of dopaminergic drugs taken each day, adding an antipsychotic drug such as quetiapine, or offering caregivers a psychosocial intervention to help them cope with the hallucinations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bd7ucf
|
after suffering an injury, why are we told to elevate that part of our body over our heart? doesn't blood help heal the injured area and bring cells that heal it?
|
[
{
"answer": "Depends on how much blood we are talking about. Elevating the injury basically uses gravity to help overcome the blood pressure of that area, decreasing blood loss. I recall the story of a woman who cut her big toe - not a really horrible cut, but enough to produce a good amount of bleeding. Fearing the staining on her kitchen floor, she proceeded to wipe up the blood. As she moved backwards, wiping up the blood from her toe, she continued to bleed, so she continued to wipe. Being bent over and constantly moving, she eventually bled to death cleaning up her own blood. Had she just applied pressure and elevated her foot, she would have been fine.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Once you start swelling your blood vessels are squeezed. Arteries have the pressure of the heart to keep them open and flowing. \n\nYour veins are collapsed, and blood flow is restricted, because they don't have high blood pressure. By raising the damaged part you raise the pressure in the veins, which have an easier time draining toward the heart. Your lymphatic system, which is working hard as part of the healing process, also needs help with draining. \n\nIn addition, if you are bleeding elevation does help reduce blood pressure at the wound, and makes compression easier.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "788093",
"title": "Major trauma",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 662,
"text": "Various organ systems respond to injury to restore homeostasis by maintaining perfusion to the heart and brain. Inflammation after injury occurs to protect against further damage and starts the healing process. Prolonged inflammation may cause multiple organ dysfunction syndrome or systemic inflammatory response syndrome. Immediately after injury, the body increases production of glucose through gluconeogenesis and its consumption of fat via lipolysis. Next, the body tries to replenish its energy stores of glucose and protein via anabolism. In this state the body will temporarily increase its maximum expenditure for the purpose of healing injured cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51773044",
"title": "Acute cardiac unloading",
"section": "Section::::Myocardial infarction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 785,
"text": "When the heart is damaged by a myocardial infarction a portion of muscle is permanently lost. The heart has a limited innate ability to replace dead muscle with new, functional muscle. The dead heart muscle is replaced by non-contractile fibrotic tissue, forming the myocardial scar. Scar tissue does not contract, and it does not help the heart pump blood. This persistently stresses the heart and increases the workload of the lasting myocardium as measured by MVO2. Clinical research indicates that as the size of the myocardial scar increases, so does the likelihood of the patient to develop heart failure. Acute cardiac unloading decreases cardiac MVO2 and has been demonstrated to limit the amount of scar tissue that forms, thus preserving heart function after a heart attack.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6150557",
"title": "Myofibroblast",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Wound healing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "After healing is complete, these cells are lost through apoptosis and it has been suggested that in several fibrotic diseases (for example liver cirrhosis, kidney fibrosis, retroperitoneal fibrosis) that this mechanism fails to work, leading to persistence of the myofibroblasts, and consequently expansion of the extracellular matrix (fibrosis) with contraction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4199116",
"title": "Bone hemostasis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "Bone is a living vascular organ containing channels for blood and bone marrow. When a bone is cut during surgery bleeding can be a difficult problem to control, especially in the highly vascular bones of the spine and sternum. Bleeding from soft tissue is normally stopped using a cautery that creates heat, causing blood vessels to collapse and become sealed. Since the blood in living bone flows through channels in the bone that do not collapse, a cautery is not effective in preventing bone bleeding. Blocking the holes in the bone typically stops bone bleeding. This can be done by mechanically blocking the holes (tamponade effect), or by inducing a blood clot to form.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "490305",
"title": "Ischemia",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "Restoration of blood supply to ischemic tissues can cause additional damage known as reperfusion injury that can be more damaging than the initial ischemia. Reintroduction of blood flow brings oxygen back to the tissues, causing a greater production of free radicals and reactive oxygen species that damage cells. It also brings more calcium ions to the tissues causing further calcium overloading and can result in potentially fatal cardiac arrhythmias and also accelerates cellular self-destruction. The restored blood flow also exaggerates the inflammation response of damaged tissues, causing white blood cells to destroy damaged cells that may otherwise still be viable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18427821",
"title": "Facial trauma",
"section": "Section::::Prognosis and complications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "Nerves and muscles may be trapped by broken bones; in these cases the bones need to be put back into their proper places quickly. For example, fractures of the orbital floor or medial orbital wall of the eye can entrap the medial rectus or inferior rectus muscles. In facial wounds, tear ducts and nerves of the face may be damaged. Fractures of the frontal bone can interfere with the drainage of the frontal sinus and can cause sinusitis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15690613",
"title": "Autoimmune heart disease",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "BULLET::::- Myocarditis: Here the muscle bulk of the heart gets inflamed. Inflamed muscles have reduced functional capacity. This may be fatal, if left untreated as is in a case of pancarditis. On healing, there will be fibrosis and reduced functional capacity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7x6x9s
|
Alexander the Great founded dozens of cities and towns over his life. How was a town just "founded?"
|
[
{
"answer": "Hi, not discouraging other contributors, but meanwhile, check these out\n\n* /u/ikahjalmr in [In ancient times I've heard that historical figures \"built cities\" like Alexander did at Bucephala in honor of his horse. How did a ruler in Greco times go about establishing a city? What did that at a minimum constitute?](_URL_1_)\n\n* /u/Daeres in [Who populated the cities founded by Alexander the Great?](_URL_2_)\n\n* /u/theskyisnotthelimit in [How were cities founded by traveling armies in antiquity?](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "With regard to the practicalities, there's little I could add to [this](_URL_1_) old post by u/Daeres (already linked in this thread by the stalwart u/searocksandtrees), which answers the questions in your body post. I'd just like to address something that isn't really covered in any of the answers already given. You asked specifically about Alexander the Great founding cities, and this is a question that gets asked a lot. Because of the later prominence of Alexandria in Egypt, we strongly associate the practice of founding cities with this particular king, and it can seem as though this was a unique feature of his larger-than-life ruling style. But, of course, he did not come up with the idea. So instead of talking about *how* a city was founded, I'd like to talk about *why* this was something that Alexander (and his successors) kept doing.\n\nThe Greeks in general had been founding political communities for centuries, typically by establishing their urban centre and then outlining the territory associated with it. This has traditionally been referred to as \"colonization\", though the term is not really accurate, as I've recently explained [here](_URL_0_). What we're really talking about is migration, and the foundation of new independent communities abroad.\n\nWhen they were created, these communities were badly in need of some basic elements that hold groups of humans together. Brand-new settlements could not rely on established traditions or a common past; with the intermingling of newcomers from various parts of the Greek world and native populations, all claims to shared ancestry and culture rang mostly hollow. Instead, new communities worked hard to establish the common laws, institutions and cults that would shape and unite them. \n\nOne of the standard elements of this process of community formation was the establishment of a heroic cult for the Founder. This founder figure (*oikistes* or *archegetes* in Greek) was typically the man in charge of the initial wave of settlers; sometimes he would end up the ancestor of a ruling dynasty in the new settlement (as Battos did in Kyrene), but other times his role was complete once the new community was up and running. Either way, upon his death the Founder was generally honoured with religious cult in a centrally located sanctuary. This served the dual purpose of reminding citizens of the great venture in which they shared and giving them a festival in which to partake as a community. Before Hellenistic kings started to claim divine descent while alive, heroic cults were more or less the only way for Greek humans to become the subject of religious worship. \n\nThis is where founder cults start to get interesting for ambitious rulers. Cities were not bound to worship their original Founder forever; a decision of the government or assembly could overturn the custom and assign the heroic cult to anyone they chose. When the Spartan general Brasidas died in battle to help the Athenian colony at Amphipolis throw off the yoke of the Athenian Empire in 422/1 BC, the city voted to cast out the cult of the Athenian founder Hagnon, and to worship Brasidas as founder instead. This was the ultimate honour that a state could bestow on an individual; the hero was effectively declared to be like a god, and the city's true history was said to begin with him. There was no more prestigious way to be remembered.\n\nIt should come as no surprise that Greek commanders who had achieved important things for other states began to regard the practice of assigning founder cult to new heroes as a practice to be encouraged - even while they were still alive. In 405/4 BC, when the Spartan admiral Lysander went around \"liberating\" the cities of the Athenian Empire, he may not have suggested but certainly did not object to several states making him the subject of heroic cult. Many of these states transferred their founder cult to the Athenian Konon when he liberated them from Lysander's oligarchies in turn. By the fourth century BC, it had become established practice for Greek states to lavish ever more extravagant honours on their (military) benefactors - sometimes to the extent of worshipping them as divine founder figures.\n\nPhilip II of Macedon, Alexander's father, had a habit of doing everything that great Greek generals did, but more so. His attitude to founder cult was no different. He not only demanded to be made the subject of heroic cult; he also made sure to found several cities, with the intention of being legitimately worshipped as their actual founder. Most prominently, he re-founded the town of Krenides as Philippoi in 356 BC - making the first city named directly in celebration of its royal founder. The result was that already during his lifetime Philip was regarded as a near-divine figure; he may have been deified after his death.\n\nThis is the practice that Alexander and his successors took up and extended across his vast new empire. It was an easy, legitimate, time-honed way to gain glory and worship, and to bring oneself closer to the gods in the eyes of one's subjects. No doubt it was his pursuit of a name greater than any other that drove Alexander to found city after city on his way east.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5126123",
"title": "Charax Spasinu",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "The city was established by Alexander the Great in 324, replacing a small Persian settlement, Durine. This was one of Alexander's last cities before his death in 323 BC. Here he established a quarter (dēmē) of the port called Pella, named after Alexander’s own town of birth, where he settled Macedonian veterans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10195631",
"title": "Heptastadion",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 759,
"text": "Alexander the Great founded of the city of Alexandria in April 331 BC on the site of the small fishing village of Rhacotis as the marine base for his fleet. The city was built on a narrow limestone ridge opposite to Pharos Island where the Pharos lighthouse would later stand. Forces under Alexander's command cleared the sand and silt deposits which made the port unnavigable, and Alexander's engineer Dinocrat linked the port of Alexandria and the island of Pharos with a bridge 1200 meters long and 200 meters wide, creating two harbour basins for commercial and military shipping. The northeast basin (currently the Eastern harbour) was designed for military vessels and the southwest basin (currently the main port of Alexandria) was for commercial use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15130265",
"title": "Colonisation of Africa",
"section": "Section::::Ancient and Medieval colonization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "Alexander the Great (356–323 BC) founded Alexandria during his conquest of Egypt. This became one of the major cities of Hellenistic and Roman times, a trading and cultural centre as well as a military headquarters and communications hub.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "168548",
"title": "Guardians of the Lost Library",
"section": "Section::::Historical accuracy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "The exact quote found in \"Guardians of the Lost Library\", \"The city was founded by Alexander the Great in the fourth century B. C. to be the capital of his empire!\" is a bit ambiguous, meaning either that it was Alexander's direct personal intention or that it was about to happen independently of whatever Alexander had intended.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23663744",
"title": "Alexandria Prophthasia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "The town was founded by Alexander the Great during an intermediate stop between Herat, the location of another of Alexander's fortresses, and Kandahar. and is mentioned by Strabo, Pliny, Ammianus Marcellinus, Isidore of Charax and Pseudo-Plutarch\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "580279",
"title": "İzmir",
"section": "Section::::History.:Ancient times.:Alexander the Great.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "Alexander the Great re-founded the city at a new location beyond the Meles River around 340 BC. Alexander had defeated the Persians in several battles and finally the Emperor Darius III himself at Issus in 333 BC. Old Smyrna on a small hill by the sea was large enough only for a few thousand people. Therefore, the slopes of Mount Pagos (Kadifekale) was chosen for the foundation of the new city, for which Alexander is credited, and this act lay the ground for a resurgence in the city's population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "334903",
"title": "Fergana Valley",
"section": "Section::::History.:Hellenistic settlement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "In 329 BC, Alexander the Great founded a Greek settlement with the city of Alexandria Eschate \"The Furthest\", in the southwestern part of the Fergana Valley, on the southern bank of the river Syr Darya (ancient Jaxartes), at the location of the modern city of Khujand, in the state of Tajikistan. It was later ruled by Seleucids before secession of Bactria.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
gyuzv
|
Are we made more of microbes than our own cells, or does the smaller size of bacteria mean that by mass, we're larger?
|
[
{
"answer": "By both mass and volume, we are more people than bacteria.\n\nBacteria are much much smaller. The numbers you give there suggest that human cells are about 50x bigger than bacteria. Cells are three-dimensional, so this means a human cell is going to be about 50^3, or 125,000x more voluminous, and roughly that much more massive.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here's some images that can give you a comparison between the size of human / animal cells vs. bacteria.\n\n* [The yellow rods are bacteria](_URL_0_) and the green blob is a whole cell\n* [The smaller spheres are bacteria](_URL_1_) compared to a red and white blood cell\n* [Here's a chart showing the relative sizes of things](_URL_4_). The [average size](_URL_2_) of bacteria is around 1 - 3 μm (micrometers), where as the average size of a [human cell](_URL_3_) is 10 μm. That's 10 times larger for most bacteria.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Volume wise, we are more human than microbe. Pure numbers wise, we are more microbe than human. Gene function/transcript? Well, I'd postulate we are still more microbe than human, but I don't know that work nearly as well.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "183691",
"title": "Allan Hills 84001",
"section": "Section::::Hypothetical biogenic features.:RNA world hypothesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "A workshop on the limitations of size of microbes in 1999 found that though modern nanobacteria can't be smaller in volume than the interior of a sphere of diameter 250 ± 50 nm, primitive microorganisms based on a single-polymer system could be. They cite the example of RNA based life, with ribozymes (catalytic RNA) taking the place of the much larger ribosomes as enzymes for cell replication. The cells also wouldn't have proteins and would have no need to translate DNA to mRNA. The result could be cells as small as a sphere 50 nm in diameter. These RNA World cells are one of the suggestions made to bridge the gap between abiotic chemistry and modern cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23634",
"title": "Protein",
"section": "Section::::Biochemistry.:Abundance in cells.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1057,
"text": "It has been estimated that average-sized bacteria contain about 2 million proteins per cell (e.g. \"E. coli\" and \"Staphylococcus aureus\"). Smaller bacteria, such as \"Mycoplasma\" or \"spirochetes\" contain fewer molecules, on the order of 50,000 to 1 million. By contrast, eukaryotic cells are larger and thus contain much more protein. For instance, yeast cells have been estimated to contain about 50 million proteins and human cells on the order of 1 to 3 billion. The concentration of individual protein copies ranges from a few molecules per cell up to 20 million. Not all genes coding proteins are expressed in most cells and their number depends on, for example, cell type and external stimuli. For instance, of the 20,000 or so proteins encoded by the human genome, only 6,000 are detected in lymphoblastoid cells. Moreover, the number of proteins the genome encodes correlates well with the organism complexity. Eukaryotes have 15,000, bacteria have 3,200, archaea have 2,400, and viruses have 42 proteins on average coded in their respective genomes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "564779",
"title": "Cell growth",
"section": "Section::::Cell size.:Other experimental systems for the study of cell size regulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "In the rod-shaped bacteria \"E. coli\", \"Caulobacter crescentus\" and \"B. subtilis\" cell size is controlled by a simple mechanisms in which cell division occurs after a constant volume has been added since the previous division. By always growing by the same amount, cells born smaller or larger than average naturally converge to an average size equivalent to the amount added during each generation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34463932",
"title": "Peto's paradox",
"section": "Section::::Metabolic and cell size considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 867,
"text": "Maciak and Michalak argue that cell size is not uniform across mammalian species, making body size an imperfect proxy for the number of cells in an organism. (For example, the volume of an individual red blood cell of an elephant is roughly four times that of one from a common shrew). Furthermore, larger cells divide more slowly than smaller ones, a difference which compounds exponentially over the life-span of the organism. Fewer cell divisions means fewer opportunities for cancer mutations, and mathematical models of cancer incidence are highly sensitive to cell-division rates. Additionally, larger animals generally have lower basal metabolic rates, following a well-defined inverse logarithmic relationship. Consequently, their cells will incur less damage over time per unit of body mass. Combined, these factors may explain much of the apparent paradox.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "564779",
"title": "Cell growth",
"section": "Section::::Cell size.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "Cell size is highly variable among organisms, with some algae such as \"Caulerpa taxifolia\" being a single cell several meters in length. Plant cells are much larger than animal cells, and protists such as \"Paramecium\" can be 330 μm long, while a typical human cell might be 10 μm. How these cells \"decide\" how big they should be before dividing is an open question. Chemical gradients are known to be partly responsible, and it is hypothesized that mechanical stress detection by cytoskeletal structures is involved. Work on the topic generally requires an organism whose cell cycle is well-characterized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4209093",
"title": "Bacterial cell structure",
"section": "Section::::Cell morphology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1329,
"text": "Perhaps the most obvious structural characteristic of bacteria is (with some exceptions) their small size. For example, \"Escherichia coli\" cells, an \"average\" sized bacterium, are about 2 µm (micrometres) long and 0.5 µm in diameter, with a cell volume of 0.6–0.7 μm. This corresponds to a wet mass of about 1 picogram (pg), assuming that the cell consists mostly of water. The dry mass of a single cell can be estimated as 23% of the wet mass, amounting to 0.2 pg. About half of the dry mass of a bacterial cell consists of carbon, and also about half of it can be attributed to proteins. Therefore, a typical fully grown 1-liter culture of \"Escherichia coli\" (at an optical density of 1.0, corresponding to c. 10 cells/ml) yields about 1 g wet cell mass. Small size is extremely important because it allows for a large surface area-to-volume ratio which allows for rapid uptake and intracellular distribution of nutrients and excretion of wastes. At low surface area-to-volume ratios the diffusion of nutrients and waste products across the bacterial cell membrane limits the rate at which microbial metabolism can occur, making the cell less evolutionarily fit. The reason for the existence of large cells is unknown, although it is speculated that the increased cell volume is used primarily for storage of excess nutrients.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "183691",
"title": "Allan Hills 84001",
"section": "Section::::Hypothetical biogenic features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "BULLET::::- The structures resemble some modern terrestrial bacteria and their appendages. Though some are smaller than any present day Earth microbes, others are of the order of 100 - 200 nm in size, within the size limits of nanobacteria and some are up to 1 to 2 microns in diameter. The smallest ones are too small to contain all the systems of modern life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3mw9f8
|
If we upgraded Hubble with modern tech/optics, how much better would it get?
|
[
{
"answer": "That is the plan, the James Webb Space Telescope is about six times the size of Hubble and should go up in about three years.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This may help answer your question:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nMost of the answer(s) you need are in the last few paragraphs but it is very interesting to read the maintenance history on this magnificent piece of machinery...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5853545",
"title": "STS-125",
"section": "Section::::Mission timeline.:18 May (Flight day 8).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 1151,
"text": "The completion of all the major objectives, as well as some that were not considered vital, upgraded the telescope to its most technologically advanced state since its launch nineteen years ago, and made it more powerful than ever. The upgrades will also help Hubble to see deeper into the universe, and farther into the past, closer to the time of the Big Bang. Hubble's importance to science is not just seen in the dramatic images it provides, but also in the volume of work it has generated – an average of fourteen scientific articles are published each week based on data gathered from the telescope. Officially, the upgrades should extend Hubble's life through 2014, but Hubble Space Telescope Senior Scientist David Leckrone noted prior to the mission that if all of the mission's objectives were successful, the telescope could easily last longer than that. The next large telescope scheduled to be launched is the James Webb Space Telescope in 2020, which is infrared-only, so to have Hubble, which has ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared capabilities, still operational after 2018 would be of great benefit to the scientific community.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5853545",
"title": "STS-125",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "NASA managers and engineers declared the mission a complete success. The completion of all the major objectives, as well as some that were not considered vital, upgraded the Hubble telescope to its most technologically advanced state since its launch nineteen years before and made it more powerful. The upgrades helped Hubble to see deeper into the universe and farther into the past, closer to the time of the Big Bang.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "884094",
"title": "Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer",
"section": "Section::::Limitations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "The infrared performance of the Hubble has limitations since it was not designed with infrared performance as an objective. For example, the mirror is kept at a stable and relatively high temperature (15 °C) by heaters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22503135",
"title": "Swales Aerospace",
"section": "Section::::Company history.:Big contracts in 2000.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "The company continued to support the Hubble Space Telescope by participating in repair missions. Swales designed more efficient solar arrays for the Hubble and developed a cooling system for the Hubble's Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer (NICMOS).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24188320",
"title": "Ridge A",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "Researchers on the project suggested that photographs taken through a telescope at Ridge A could be nearly as good as those taken by the Hubble Space Telescope. Despite the difficult conditions on Antarctica and the remote location of Ridge A, construction costs for an observatory there that could match the Hubble telescope could be built at a fraction of the cost of sending Hubble into space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "113053",
"title": "Marshall Space Flight Center",
"section": "Section::::History.:1980s and 1990s – early Shuttle era.:Hubble Space Telescope.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "Through the 1990s, the Hubble did provide astronomy images that had never before been seen. During the next decade, two additional repair missions were made (March 2002 and in May 2009), eventually bringing the telescope to even better that its initially intended performance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "113053",
"title": "Marshall Space Flight Center",
"section": "Section::::History.:1980s and 1990s – early Shuttle era.:Hubble Space Telescope.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 107,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 107,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "Based on the success of earlier maintenance missions, NASA decided to have a fifth service mission to Hubble; this was STS-125 flown on May 11, 2009. The maintenance and addition of equipment resulted in Hubble performance considerably better than planned at its origin. It is now expected that the Hubble will remain operational until its successor, the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), is available in 2018. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
iovsj
|
What do wild animals do in inclement weather?
|
[
{
"answer": "Get wet.\n\nFeel miserable.\n\nStart to smell.\n\nPossibly be injured and/or die if they can't find shelter and the storm is really bad, just like you would without your house.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They would try to find natural shelter in which they would already sleep in/under. It does not affect animals as much as humans because they are accustomed to being outdoors all day (they don't know any better anyway).\n\nI work in the Prairies and I will sit in my truck when it is pouring rain and as an example the cows in front of our truck just sit there in the field like it is a nice sunny day out. It doesn't affect them at all, I would assume most animals are like this.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I have seen videos of chimps using large leaves as umbrellas. Cattle (as stated) appear to ignore it completely. cats find shelter, some dogs do. It all depends.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It depends on the animal. I was on a trip with llamas once, and there was a tremendous thunderstorm in the night while they were tied up to bushes and things. It didn't seem to bother them - they just hunkered down with their legs folded underneath them and waited it out. In the morning, they were wet on the outside, but if you stuck your hand into their coats they were actually dry underneath the outer layer.\n\nSome animals have no choice. [Muskoxen](_URL_0_) are my favorite example. They live in the arctic, which means that for several months every year it is not only cold and snowy, but also dark. There are no trees to hide under, either - they're basically out in high winds, in the dark, and have to dig under the snow to find food for more than half the year. They survive due to a number of pretty cool adaptations, like their wooly undercoat. Known as \"qiviut\", it's made into some of the most expensive yarn in the world due to its extreme warmth.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1629030",
"title": "Southern red-backed vole",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "These animals are found in coniferous, deciduous, and mixed forests, often near wetlands. They use runways through the surface growth in warm weather and tunnel through the snow in winter. They are omnivorous feeding on green plants, underground fungi, seeds, nuts, roots, also insects, snails, and berries. They store roots, bulbs, and nuts for later use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6431971",
"title": "Metacomet-Monadnock Trail",
"section": "Section::::Hiking the trail.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 690,
"text": "Biting insects can be bothersome during warm weather. Parasitic deer ticks (which are known to carry Lyme disease) are a hazard. The trail passes through black bear habitat (especially the northern portions), although problems with bears are rare. More likely are problematic encounters with feral and domestic dogs. Skunks, raccoons, and porcupines are common and active after dark. Venomous snakes are considered extinct along most of the route, with the possible exception of the warm, dry microclimates on the Metacomet Ridge. Poison ivy is native to the M&M Trail ecosystems, but it occurs with less frequency north of the Holyoke Range, and does not thrive on Mount Monadnock at all.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3491991",
"title": "El Vizcaíno Biosphere Reserve",
"section": "Section::::Fauna.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 943,
"text": "Animals that have adapted to these extreme conditions include a variety of nocturnals such as coyotes, rodents, and hares; others have adapted to only ingesting water from succulents. Outstanding among the mammals is the Baja California pronghorn (\"Antilocapra americana peninsularis\"), an endemic subspecies of the Pronghorn, which is one of the swiftest mammals on Earth. The last populations of this subspecies can be found in the region. The Vizcaíno is also the habitat of the desert bighorn sheep (\"Ovis canadensis nelsoni\"), Mule deer (\"Odocoileus hemionus peninsulae\"), and dozens of resident and migratory birds. Of special importance: the ospreys, cormorants, herons, and gulls—and four species of sea turtles. On the coastline and islets there are many marine mammals, such as northern elephant seals (\"Mirounga angustirostris\"), California sea lions (\"Zalophus californianus\"), dolphins, and gray whales (\"Eschrichtius robustus\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1560791",
"title": "Sagebrush vole",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "They are active year-round, day and night, but are usually more active near sunrise and sunset. They make trails through the surface vegetation and also dig underground burrows with many entrances. They burrow under the snow in winter. These animals are often found in colonies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8956936",
"title": "Monadnock-Sunapee Greenway",
"section": "Section::::Hiking the trail.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "Biting insects can be bothersome during warm weather. Parasitic deer ticks (which are known to carry Lyme disease) are a potential hazard. The trail passes through black bear habitat, although problems with bears are rare. More likely are problem encounters with domestic dogs. Skunks, raccoons, and porcupines are common and active after dark. Poisonous snakes are considered extinct along the route. Poison ivy is uncommon on the MSGT and it does not thrive on Mount Monadnock at all. Some water sources along the trail flow through inhabited areas or swamps and may be contaminated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "363773",
"title": "Anomalure",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "Most anomalurid species roost during the day in hollow trees, with up to several dozen animals per tree. They are primarily herbivorous, and may travel up to from their roosting tree in search of leaves, flowers, or fruit, although they also eat a small amount of insects. They give birth to litters up to three young, which are born already furred and active.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1593650",
"title": "Ungava collared lemming",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "These animals are found in the tundra of northern Quebec and Labrador. They feed on grasses, sedges and other green vegetation in summer, and twigs of willow, aspen, and birches in winter. Predators include snowy owls, mustelids, and Arctic foxes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5kln6a
|
usa mcdonald's franchise owners, operators or managers: what is the purpose of two drive through ordering points for one drive though window?
|
[
{
"answer": "Data proves you wrong. Typically the slowest part of the average drive-thru is the ordering process. Customers unsure of what they want, large orders, etc. Years worth of data taken has proven this, that's why they have multiple ordering lanes. It's all about the number of cars they can get through, and having a backup lane maximizes that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2480627",
"title": "McDonald's",
"section": "Section::::Restaurants.:Types of restaurants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "Most standalone McDonald's restaurants offer both counter service and drive-through service, with indoor and sometimes outdoor seating. Drive-Thru, Auto-Mac, Pay and Drive, or \"McDrive\" as it is known in many countries, often has separate stations for placing, paying for, and picking up orders, though the latter two steps are frequently combined; it was first introduced in Sierra Vista, Arizona in 1975, following the lead of other fast-food chains. The first such restaurant in Britain opened at Fallowfield, Manchester in 1986.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1512669",
"title": "Drive-through",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 781,
"text": "Orders are generally placed using a microphone and picked up in person at the window. A drive-through is different from a drive-in in several ways - the cars create a line and move in one direction in drive-throughs, and normally do not park, whereas drive-ins allow cars to park next to each other, the food is generally brought to the window by a server, called a carhop, and the customer can remain in the parked car to eat. However, during peak periods, to keep the queue down and avoid traffic flow problems, drive-throughs occasionally switch to an \"order at the window, then park in a designated space\" model where the customer will receive their food from an attendant when it is ready to be served. This results in a perceived relationship between the two service models.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1512669",
"title": "Drive-through",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Restaurants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "BULLET::::- Most restaurants have marked parking spaces just beyond the last window. If there is a significant delay in an individual customer's order (e.g. a special order), an employee may direct that customer to park in this area, clearing the drive-through lane for the next customer and preventing knock-on delays to other customers. When the order is ready, an employee hand-delivers the order to the customer. This service therefore occasionally has some similarities to drive-in service, but only during peak periods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "326234",
"title": "Take-out",
"section": "Section::::Business operation.:Service.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "Drive-through - Many restaurants and take-out establishments offer drive-through or \"drive-thru\" outlets that allow customers to order, pay for, and receive food without leaving their cars. The idea was pioneered in 1931 in a California fast food restaurant, \"Pig Stand Number 21\". By 1988, 51% of McDonald's turnover was being generated by drive-throughs, with 31% of all US take-out turnover being generated by them by 1990.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27945098",
"title": "Timeline of United States inventions (1890–1945)",
"section": "Section::::Roaring Twenties and the Jazz Age (1920–1928).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 294,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 294,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "A drive-through, or drive-thru, allows customers to purchase products without leaving their cars. In 1926, City Center Bank, which became UMB Financial Corporation under R. Crosby Kemper opened what is considered the first drive-up window. In-n-Out Burger claims to have built the first drive-through restaurant in 1948. Harry and Esther Snyder, the chain's founders, built their first restaurant in Baldwin Park, California, with a two-way speaker to enable patrons to order directly from their cars without the intermediation of a carhop.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42841110",
"title": "List of drive-in restaurants",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "This is a list of drive-in restaurants. A drive-in restaurant is one where one can literally drive in with an automobile for service. For example, customers park their vehicles and are usually served by staff who walk out to take orders and return with food, encouraging diners to remain parked while they eat. Often, the restaurant staff attach a serving tray to a window of the vehicle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55125316",
"title": "Canada Drives",
"section": "Section::::Service.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "The interface on the website prompts customers to answer a few questions about the car they want to buy, their recent employment and their payment histories. Customers are then referred to a dealership based on their credit profile.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
396zuz
|
Would taking cooked meat out of the fridge, warming it, and then putting it immediately back in the fridge make it go bad?
|
[
{
"answer": "Meat in your fridge contains pathogenic microorganisms. They divide very slowly (if at all) in the cold fridge, but much more rapidly at room temperature. Air in your kitchen also contains pathogenic microorganisms, some of which would grow rapidly on nutrients they can extract from meat. \n\nThese pathogenic microorganisms can hard you in two different ways. Some of them, when ingested, will divide in your body and make you sick. These are typically killed by proper cooking. Some of them secrete toxins that make you sick, and those toxins can persist long after the microorganisms stop dividing or die. These toxins may or may not be destroyed by cooking.\n\nSo, every time you warm meat up, you give the pathogens in it — as well as any that might land on it — a bigger opportunity to grow and secrete toxins that might harm you or kill you. \n\nOn the other hand, most of the risk of those pathogens and toxins is mitigated by properly preparing the meat. \n\nSo if you re-heat the meat to a proper meat cooking temperature later, you will probably be OK. But if you just re-thaw it and eat it, you are putting yourself at higher risk of food poisoning. How high that risk depends on a variety of things, including whether the meat was properly prepared to start with, how long it was left out before being initially refrigerated, as well as how long it was out before being subsequently refrigerated. \n\nIn short: you mom isn't wrong, but you might be OK. I definitely wouldn't make a habit of it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "52993",
"title": "Roasting",
"section": "Section::::Methods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "In general, in either case, the meat is removed from the heat before it has finished cooking and left to sit for a few minutes, while the inside cooks further from the residual heat content, known as carry over cooking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6494435",
"title": "Curing (food preservation)",
"section": "Section::::Necessity of curing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "Untreated meat decomposes rapidly if it is not preserved, at a speed that depends on several factors, including ambient humidity, temperature, and the presence of pathogens. Most meats cannot be kept at room temperature in excess of a few days without spoiling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2277679",
"title": "Duck confit",
"section": "Section::::Traditional preparation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "The meat and fat are then removed from the oven and left to cool. When cool, the meat can be transferred to a canning jar or other container and completely submerged in the fat. A sealed jar of duck confit may be kept in the refrigerator for up to six months, or several weeks if kept in a reusable plastic container. To maximize preservation if canning, the fat should top the meat by at least one inch. The cooking fat acts as both a seal and preservative and results in a very rich taste. Skipping the salt curing stage greatly reduces the shelf life of the confit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10834",
"title": "Food preservation",
"section": "Section::::Traditional techniques.:Confit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "Meat can be preserved by salting it, cooking it at or near 100 °C in some kind of fat (such as lard or tallow), and then storing it immersed in the fat. These preparations were popular in Europe before refrigerators became ubiquitous. They are still popular in France, where they are called \"confit\". The preparation will keep longer if stored in a cold cellar or buried in cold ground.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16669964",
"title": "Basting (cooking)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "If not compensated by countermeasures, the opening of the oven door and the resulting loss of temperature and moisture content of the air circulating inside can lead to increased evaporation from the meat surfaces. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "188731",
"title": "Decomposition",
"section": "Section::::Food decomposition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "The decomposition of food, either plant or animal, called \"spoilage\" in this context, is an important field of study within food science. Food decomposition can be slowed down by conservation. The spoilage of meat occurs, if the meat is untreated, in a matter of hours or days and results in the meat becoming unappetizing, poisonous or infectious. Spoilage is caused by the practically unavoidable infection and subsequent decomposition of meat by bacteria and fungi, which are borne by the animal itself, by the people handling the meat, and by their implements. Meat can be kept edible for a much longer time – though not indefinitely – if proper hygiene is observed during production and processing, and if appropriate food safety, food preservation and food storage procedures are applied.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31309377",
"title": "Food spoilage",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "Food like meat, poultry, milk and cream should be kept out of the Danger Zone (between 40°F to 140°F). Anything between that range is considered dangerous and can cause pathogenic toxins to be emitted, resulting in severe illness in the consumer. Another way to keep your food from spoiling is by following a four step system: Clean, Separate, Cook, Chill. This will reduce any risks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
qh6m5
|
By 1571 how secure was Elizabeth I's hold on the throne?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not a historian, but I'll give this my best shot\n\n* Strong hold on government and country, she still commanded respect of her council and country\n\n* One could argue that her moderate religious settlements, \"pacified\" the extreme catholics (many preachers were arrested/executed)\n\n* The pope issued a papal bull much later, demanding the Catholics to overthrow the 'illegitimate' and Protestant Queen, but it came too late and nothing really happens \n\n* Although there was a plot to replace her with a Catholic successor (Ridophi plot), Mary Queen of Scots was dealt with (House Arrest), however she still was a 'rally point' for foreign catholics who wish to overthrow Elizabeth\n\nThis is in contrast to 90s onwards which some Historians call the Late Elizabethan crisis, when her ministers (such as Burghley) start dying off, and replaced with more ambitious ones, expeditions/wars (esp. Irish nine years war), and tax burdens (book of rates not updated resulting in insufficient funds), as well as bad harvests and economy created lots of problems for her. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "47901",
"title": "Elizabeth Woodville",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 814,
"text": "After the death of her husband in 1483, Elizabeth remained politically influential even after her son, briefly proclaimed King Edward V of England, was deposed by her brother-in-law, Richard III. Edward and his younger brother Richard both disappeared soon afterwards and are presumed to have been murdered on Richard's orders. Elizabeth subsequently played an important role in securing the accession of Henry VII in 1485. Henry married her daughter Elizabeth of York, ended the Wars of the Roses, and established the Tudor dynasty. Through her daughter, Elizabeth was the grandmother of the future Henry VIII. Elizabeth was forced to yield pre-eminence to Henry's mother, Lady Margaret Beaufort, and her influence on events in these years, and her eventual departure from court into retirement, remains obscure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47907",
"title": "Elizabeth of York",
"section": "Section::::Niece of the king.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 883,
"text": "Elizabeth's mother made an alliance with Lady Margaret Beaufort, mother of Henry Tudor, later King Henry VII, who had the closest claim to the throne among the Lancastrian party. Although Henry Tudor was descended from King Edward III, his claim to the throne was weak, owing to an Act of Parliament of the reign of Richard II in the 1390s, which barred accession to the throne to any heirs of the legitimised offspring of Henry's great-great-grandparents, John of Gaunt and Katherine Swynford. Whether such an unprecedented act had force of law is disputed. Whatever the merits of Henry's claim, his mother and Elizabeth Woodville agreed he should move to claim the throne and, once he had taken it, marry Elizabeth of York to unite the two rival houses. In December 1483, in the cathedral of Rennes, Henry Tudor swore an oath promising to marry her and began planning an invasion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47907",
"title": "Elizabeth of York",
"section": "Section::::Wife of the king.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 741,
"text": "As the eldest daughter of Edward IV with no surviving brothers, Elizabeth of York had a strong claim to the throne in her own right, but she did not assume the throne as queen regnant. There was no queen regnant until 1553, when her granddaughter, Mary I, acceded to the throne. Though initially slow to keep his promise Henry VII acknowledged the necessity of marrying Elizabeth of York to ensure the stability of his rule and weaken the claims of other surviving members of the House of York, but he ruled in his own right and claimed the throne by right of conquest and not by his marriage to the heir of the House of York. He had no intention of sharing power. He consequently chose to be crowned on 30 October 1485 before his marriage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10128",
"title": "Elizabeth I of England",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 732,
"text": "In 1558 upon Mary's death, Elizabeth succeeded her half-sister to the throne and set out to rule by good counsel. She depended heavily on a group of trusted advisers, led by William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley. One of her first actions as queen was the establishment of an English Protestant church, of which she became the Supreme Governor. This Elizabethan Religious Settlement was to evolve into the Church of England. It was expected that Elizabeth would marry and produce an heir; however, despite numerous courtships, she never did. She was eventually succeeded by her first cousin twice removed, James VI of Scotland. She had earlier been responsible for the imprisonment and execution of James's mother, Mary, Queen of Scots.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2540338",
"title": "Rising of the North",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "When Elizabeth I succeeded her half-sister Mary as Queen of England in 1558, her accession was disputed due to the questioned legitimacy of the marriage of the Queen's parents – Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. Under Henry VIII and his advisor Thomas Cromwell, power was gradually shifted from regional institutions to royal control. This course was encouraged by Elizabeth's counsellors such as William Cecil and a policy of centralization was the approach favoured by Elizabeth herself at least in regards to the northern border region.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31278",
"title": "House of Tudor",
"section": "Section::::Elizabeth I: Age of intrigues and plots.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 867,
"text": "When Elizabeth came to the throne, there was much apprehension among members of the council appointed by Mary, because many of them (as noted by the Spanish ambassador) had participated in several plots against Elizabeth, such as her imprisonment in the Tower, trying to force her to marry a foreign prince and thereby sending her out of the realm, and even pushing for her death. In response to their fear, she chose as her chief minister Sir William Cecil, a Protestant, and former secretary to Lord Protector the Duke of Somerset and then to the Duke of Northumberland. Under Mary, he had been spared, and often visited Elizabeth, ostensibly to review her accounts and expenditure. Elizabeth also appointed her personal favourite, the son of the Duke of Northumberland Lord Robert Dudley, her Master of the Horse, giving him constant personal access to the queen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10128",
"title": "Elizabeth I of England",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603) was Queen of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death on 24 March 1603. Sometimes called The Virgin Queen, Gloriana or Good Queen Bess, Elizabeth was the last of the five monarchs of the House of Tudor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
46179m
|
when you're trying to sleep and you hear something, a flash or some tick in your eye that goes with the sound?
|
[
{
"answer": "Chances are you were transitioning into sleep. During this time, many people are prone to a phenomenon called \"hypnogogia\". This can range anywhere from auditory hallucinations such as hearing voices or phones ringing, to visual hallucinations involving dancing blobs or waves of color to seemingly bright flashes.\n\nIf you'd like to know more, check out [this link](_URL_0_)\n\nPersonally, I hear conversations and see color waves mostly. The conversations don't usually make sense. One time I heard a song I really like while my favorite professor passionately lectured while a bunch of demons flew around the room screaming. It can be quite strange, but if you go along, it can be quite a ride.\n\nEdit: Fixed link.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1105247",
"title": "Alarm clock",
"section": "Section::::Next-generation alarms.:Alarm signals for impaired hearing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "The deaf and hard of hearing are often unable to perceive auditory alarms when asleep. They may use specialized alarms, including alarms with flashing lights instead of or in addition to noise. Alarms which can connect to vibrating devices (small ones inserted into pillows, or larger ones placed under bedposts to shake the bed) also exist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "565896",
"title": "Exploding head syndrome",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Exploding head syndrome (EHS) is a condition in which a person experiences unreal noises that are loud and of short duration when falling asleep or waking up. The noise may be frightening, typically occurs only occasionally, and is not a serious health concern. People may also experience a flash of light. Pain is typically absent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18691282",
"title": "Rolandic epilepsy",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "\"In his sleep, he was making guttural noises, with his mouth pulled to the right, ‘as if he was chewing his tongue’\". \"We heard her making strange noises ‘like roaring’ and found her unresponsive, head raised from the pillow, eyes wide open, rivers of saliva coming out of her mouth, rigid.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7043632",
"title": "Vestigial response",
"section": "Section::::In humans.:Ear perking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "The focus on this part of the human anatomy has finally been followed by a much later observation testifying to our evolutionary past. The subsequent observation concerns an automatic ear-perking response seen, for example, in dogs when startled by a sudden noise. This response, though faint, fleeting and hardly discernible in humans nonetheless clearly manifests itself. This phenomenon is an automatic-response mechanism that activates even before a human becomes consciously aware that a startling, unexpected or unknown sound has been \"heard\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "565896",
"title": "Exploding head syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 744,
"text": "Individuals with exploding head syndrome hear or experience loud imagined noises as they are falling asleep or waking up, have a strong, often frightened emotional reaction to the sound, and do not report significant pain; around 10% of people also experience visual disturbances like perceiving visual static, lightning, or flashes of light. Some people may also experience heat, strange feelings in their torso, or a feeling of electrical tinglings that ascends to the head before the auditory hallucinations occur. With the heightened arousal, people experience distress, confusion, myoclonic jerks, tachycardia, sweating, and the sensation that feels as if they have stopped breathing and have to make a deliberate effort to breathe again.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8105071",
"title": "A Sound Like Someone Trying Not to Make a Sound",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "The story takes place in a house, late at night. A young child, asleep in his bed, awakes to hear a sound he describes as \"a sound like someone trying not to make a sound\". The child wakes his father and describes the sound to him. The child believes that the sound comes from a \"monster with no arms and legs\", which \"slides on its fur\" and \"pulls itself along on its teeth\". The father and child discover that the sound is coming from the mice in the walls, and the child is comforted by his parent. The two return to sleep.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2022036",
"title": "Closed-eye hallucination",
"section": "Section::::Levels of CEV perception.:Level 1: Visual noise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "When seen overlaid onto the physical world, this CEV noise does not obscure physical vision at all, and in fact is hard to notice if the visual field is highly patterned, complex, or in motion. When active observation is stopped, it is not obvious or noticeable, and seemingly disappears from normal physical perception. Individuals suffering from visual snow see similar noise but experience difficulty blocking it from conscious perception.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1u79m5
|
the barn-pole relativity paradox
|
[
{
"answer": "Lorentz contraction is always \"real\", but the point is that it's *relative*. The farmer sees the entire pole in the barn, while the runner doesn't (how could he, since for him it's *the barn* that's contacting).\n\nThe resolution of the \"paradox\" comes from carefully considering what we mean when we say \"the pole fits in the barn\". This is shorthand for saying \"the front of the pole exits the back of the barn *after* the back of the pole enters the front of the barn\". So really, when we talk about fitting the pole in the barn, we're taking about the space-time interval between two events. The paradox is resolved because relativity also dictates that the different observers will not agree on the relative timing of the events. \n\nTLDR; Relativity requires us to rethink simultaneity",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1208210",
"title": "Ladder paradox",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "This apparent paradox results from the mistaken assumption of absolute simultaneity. The ladder is said to fit into the garage if both of its ends can be made to be simultaneously inside the garage. The paradox is resolved when it is considered that in relativity, simultaneity is relative to each observer, making the answer to whether the ladder fits inside the garage also relative to each of them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2439294",
"title": "Aristotle's wheel paradox",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 854,
"text": "Aristotle's wheel paradox is a paradox or problem appearing in the Greek work \"Mechanica\" traditionally attributed to Aristotle. A wheel can be depicted in two dimensions using two circles. The larger circle is tangent to a horizontal surface (e.g. a road) that it can roll on. The smaller circle has the same center and is rigidly affixed to the larger one. The smaller circle could depict the bead of a tire, a rim the tire is mounted on, an axle, etc. Assume the larger circle rolls without slipping (or skidding) for a full revolution. The distances moved by both circles are the same length, as depicted by the blue and red dashed lines and the distance between the two black vertical lines. The distance for the larger circle equals its circumference, but the distance for the smaller circle is longer than its circumference: a paradox or problem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1208210",
"title": "Ladder paradox",
"section": "Section::::Resolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 885,
"text": "The solution to the apparent paradox lies in the relativity of simultaneity: what one observer (e.g. with the garage) considers to be two simultaneous events may not in fact be simultaneous to another observer (e.g. with the ladder). When we say the ladder \"fits\" inside the garage, what we mean precisely is that, at some specific time, the position of the back of the ladder and the position of the front of the ladder were both inside the garage; in other words, the front and back of the ladder were inside the garage simultaneously. As simultaneity is relative, then, two observers disagree on whether the ladder fits. To the observer with the garage, the back end of the ladder was in the garage at the same time that the front end of the ladder was, and so the ladder fit; but to the observer with the ladder, these two events were not simultaneous, and the ladder did not fit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22498",
"title": "Orbit",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1063,
"text": "Albert Einstein (1879-1955) in his 1916 paper \"The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity\" explained that gravity was due to curvature of space-time and removed Newton's assumption that changes propagate instantaneously. This led astronomers to recognize that Newtonian mechanics did not provide the highest accuracy in understanding orbits. In relativity theory, orbits follow geodesic trajectories which are usually approximated very well by the Newtonian predictions (except where there are very strong gravity fields and very high speeds) but the differences are measurable. Essentially all the experimental evidence that can distinguish between the theories agrees with relativity theory to within experimental measurement accuracy. The original vindication of general relativity is that it was able to account for the remaining unexplained amount in precession of Mercury's perihelion first noted by Le Verrier. However, Newton's solution is still used for most short term purposes since it is significantly easier to use and sufficiently accurate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1522373",
"title": "Carroll's paradox",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "In physics, Carroll's paradox arises when considering the motion of a falling rigid rod that is specially constrained. Considered one way, the angular momentum stays constant; considered in a different way, it changes. It is named after Michael M. Carroll who first published it in 1984.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1208210",
"title": "Ladder paradox",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 954,
"text": "The ladder paradox (or barn-pole paradox) is a thought experiment in special relativity. It involves a ladder, parallel to the ground, travelling horizontally at relativistic speed (near the speed of light) and therefore undergoing a Lorentz length contraction. The ladder is imagined passing through the open front and rear doors of a garage or barn which is shorter than its rest length, so if the ladder was not moving it would not be able to fit inside. To a stationary observer, due to the contraction, the moving ladder is able to fit entirely inside the building as it passes through. On the other hand, from the point of view of an observer moving with the ladder, the ladder will not be contracted, and it is the building which will be Lorentz contracted to an even smaller length. Therefore the ladder will not be able to fit inside the building as it passes through. This poses an apparent discrepancy between the realities of both observers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41074215",
"title": "Counterintuitive",
"section": "Section::::Counterintuition in science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "The Michelson-Morley experiment sought to measure the velocity of the Earth through the aether as it revolved around the Sun. The result was that it has no aether velocity at all. Relativity theory later explained the results, replacing the conventional notions of aether and separate space, time, mass, and energy with a counterintuitive four-dimensional non-Euclidean universe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
72za7r
|
Do humans have a vestigial tail wagging response? Is it detectable?
|
[
{
"answer": " > A case of a tail in a 2-week-old infant is reported, and findings from a review of 33 previously reported cases of true tails and pseudotails are summarized. The true, or persistent, vestigial tail of humans arises from the most distal remnant of the embryonic tail. It contains adipose and connective tissue, central bundles of striated muscle, blood vessels, and nerves and is covered by skin. Bone, cartilage, notochord, and spinal cord are lacking. The true tail arises by retention of structures found normally in fetal development. It may be as long as 13 cm, \n**can move and contract**, and occurs twice as often in males as in females. \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not really, no. Animals wag their tails for a variety of reasons, but the happy=tail wagging response in dogs is unique to them. (Interestingly, foxes that were domesticated as part of an experiment also began [wagging their tails in greeting](_URL_0_) after several generations of breeding for tameness. So the potential for tail-wagging in excitement and happiness when bred for juvenile traits is present through a lot of the canine family tree.) A cat wagging its tail is most likely annoyed or agitated, or at least overstimulated. There is no hardwired environmental or behavioral reason for tail wagging that all animals share. (EDIT: And yes, a dog can also wag its tail when it isn't happy; I was specifically referring to the common, stereotypical behavior of the happy tail-wagging doggo.)\n\nApes 'lost' their tails at least 14 million years ago, well before the human branch of the family tree had even begun to split. Human responses that involve butt-wiggling (for lack of a more specific term) like dancing or squirming are coming from a different behavioral source that has nothing to do with tails.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No.\n\nFirst of all, the coccyx does not retain the muscular functionality of a tail, but it does act as an anchor point for tendons, ligaments, etc. Second, while tail-wagging is a trait present in *some* primates, such as lemurs, it is far from ubiquitous, and there is no evidence of tail-wagging in any of our closest primate relatives.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Wouldn't this be similar to laughing or smiling? Yes, you can control this response but it does happen immediately and sometimes uncontrollably especially when greeting someone you have missed. I didn't take your question as is we had internal tails or something but more of a question of an uncontrollable happiness response. \n\nEdit: wait did you mean the people who are actually born with tails? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "By tail-wagging, I assume that you are referring to tail-wagging as it is seen in dogs (to my knowledge, primates do not wag their tails; if anybody has evidence to the contrary please correct me). The thing is, humans didn't evolve from dogs or any dog-like species; rather, humans and dogs have a common ancestor which existed over 100 million years ago, which probably did not have a tail-wagging response. The tail-wagging response likely evolved after the evolutionary \"split\" that occurred at our common ancestor with dogs. Your question makes the false assumption that there was a time in our evolutionary history that humans had a tail-wagging response, but that's probably not the case, and you'd have to provide evidence that there was tail-wagging in our ancestors. So, to answer your question, it may be the case that humans have never had a tail-wagging response to \"lose\" in the first place, and for that reason, we probably don't have a vestigial tail-wagging response. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No, but Humans have other limbic reactions that signify happiness pretty much across the board. Watch someone's feet next time they are very excited or happy; it's where the phrase 'happy feet' comes from. Closest thing I can think of to tail wagging ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "all these answers at the top gave nice scientific responses. but I don't see anybody trying to make the connection between dogs wagging tails and anything humans may do with body language to show happiness/excitement...?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Fun fact : some humans (not everyone) have a muscle attaching their sacrum to their ischium (hip bone). It used to be the muscle that was moving our tail horizontally... When we had one ^^\n\nOfc we don't use it anymore and that's the reason why not everyone has one. \"Inconstant\" organs like this are pretty frequent in human body.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We do have what's called a \"vestigial\" tail, meaning that it's a sort of evolutionary leftover. It's visible in embryos, but by the time we're born, we just have a few small bones that can't be seen from the outside. Most people don't even know they have tailbones unless they break one. Occasionally, a baby will be born with a tail, but it is usually removed surgically.\n\nWhy did the ancestor of the apes and people lose their tails? No one really knows. Things don't disappear just because they are not being used. One gene can cause many different things. It is possible that a gene that was helpful to this species had a few effects, including the loss of the tail. It is also possible that having a tail came with a price. Individuals that had small or no tails would have been able to leave more offspring with the no-tail gene.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31479566",
"title": "Nociception assay",
"section": "Section::::Thermal assays.:Tail flick.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 757,
"text": "The tail flick assay or tail flick test uses a high-intensity beam of light aimed at a rodent's tail to detect nociception. In normal rodents, the noxious heat sensation induced by the beam of light causes a prototypical movement of the tail via the flexor withdrawal reflex. An investigator normally measures the time it takes for the reflex to be induced, a factor influenced by a rodent's sex, age and body weight. The most critical parameter for the tail flick assay is the beam intensity; stimuli producing latencies of larger than 3–4 seconds generally create more variable results. Another important factor to consider is the level of restraint used; rodents held too tightly may exhibit greater tail flick latencies due to heightened stress levels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15601574",
"title": "Posterior auricular muscle",
"section": "Section::::Post-auricular reflex.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "The post-auricular reflex is a vestigial muscle response in humans that acts to pull the ear upward and backward. Research suggests neural circuits for pinna orienting have survived in a vestigial state for over 25 million years. It is often assumed the reflex is a vestigial Preyer reflex.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26471",
"title": "Rat",
"section": "Section::::Rat tails.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1265,
"text": "On the other hand, the tail's ability to function as a proprioceptive sensor and modulator has also been investigated. As aforementioned, the tail demonstrates a high degree of muscularization and subsequent innervation that ostensibly collaborate in orienting the organism. Specifically, this is accomplished by coordinated flexion and extension of tail muscles to produce slight shifts in the organism's center of mass, orientation, etc., which ultimately assists it with achieving a state of proprioceptive balance in its environment. Further mechanobiological investigations of the constituent tendons in the tail of the rat have identified multiple factors that influence how the organism navigates its environment with this structure. A particular example is that of a study in which the morphology of these tendons is explicated in detail. Namely, cell viability tests of tendons of the rat's tail demonstrate a higher proportion of living fibroblasts that produce the collagen for these fibers. As in humans, these tendons contain a high density of golgi tendon organs that help the animal assess stretching of muscle in situ and adjust accordingly by relaying the information to higher cortical areas associated with balance, proprioception, and movement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31479566",
"title": "Nociception assay",
"section": "Section::::Hargreaves.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "The Hargreaves assay uses a high-intensity beam of light directed at the hindpaw rather than the tail to induce pain; an investigator then measures the time it takes for the animal to withdraw its hindpaw. In contrast to the tail flick assay, rodents are often unrestrained while the radiant heat source is focused on the hindpaw. Cut-off latency for the Hargreaves assay is commonly set at 10 seconds. The main advantage of this test over the tail flick assay is that it allows independent assessment of treatment effects on both sides of the body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52478475",
"title": "Tail vibration",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "It is also unknown what the specific function of tail vibration is. Many researchers have posited that it is primarily an auditory aposematic warning signal— like the growling of a wolf or the sound associated with African whistling thorn acacia (Acacia drepanolobium). Others have suggested it could serve as a distraction—particularly for nonvenomous species— meant to draw attention away from a snake’s head and towards its less vulnerable tail.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4370852",
"title": "Cuvier's gazelle",
"section": "Section::::Behavior.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Their main defense is their alertness. When sensing something suspicious, they will set off an alert signal by flicking their tails and performing a strong gait, of jumping into the air and having all four hooves land on the ground at the same time. Along with their alertness, they are also one of the fastest gazelles, reaching and sustaining top speeds over 50 mph.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26573",
"title": "Rabbit",
"section": "Section::::Biology.:Ears.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "The Auricle (anatomy), also known as the pinna is a rabbit's outer ear. The rabbit's body surface is mainly taken up by the pinnae. It is theorized that the ears aid in dispersion of heat at temperatures above 30 °C with rabbits in warmer climates having longer pinnae due to this. Another theory is that the ears function as shock absorbers that could aid and stabilize rabbit's vision when fleeing predators, but this has typically only been seen in hares. The rest of the outer ear has bent canals that lead to the eardrum or tympanic membrane.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
14qsat
|
How, when and why was the label "made in [country]" invented? When was it first used and to what purpose?
|
[
{
"answer": "[Made in Germany](_URL_0_), introduced by the British to mark the inferior quality and plagiarising German goods being imported. Quickly turned out to be a boon to Germany instead of a hindrance as originally intended.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4745344",
"title": "Made in Germany",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "The label was originally introduced in Britain by the \"Merchandise Marks Act 1887\", to mark foreign produce more obviously, as foreign manufactures had been falsely marking inferior goods with the marks of renowned British manufacturing companies and importing them into the United Kingdom. Most of these were found to be originating from Germany, whose government had introduced a protectionist policy to legally prohibit the import of goods in order to build up domestic industry (Merchandise Marks Act - Oxford University Press).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2079605",
"title": "Country of origin",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "Place-based branding has a very ancient history. Archaeological evidence points to packaging specifying the place of manufacture dating back to some 4,000 years ago. Over time, informal labels evolved into formal, often regulated labels providing consumers with information about product quality, manufacturer name and place of origin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18950900",
"title": "Brand",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 739,
"text": "Some brands still in existence date from the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries' period of mass-production. Bass & Company, the British brewery founded in 1777, became a pioneer in international brand marketing. Many years before 1855 Bass applied a red triangle to casks of its Pale Ale. In 1876 its red-triangle brand became the first registered trademark issued by the British government. \"Guinness World Records\" recognizes Tate & Lyle (of Lyle's Golden Syrup) as Britain's, and the world's, oldest branding and packaging, with its green-and-gold packaging having remained almost unchanged since 1885. Twinings Tea has used the same logo — capitalized font beneath a lion crest — since 1787, making it the world's oldest in continuous use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18950900",
"title": "Brand",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "A characteristic feature of 19th-century mass-marketing was the widespread use of branding, originating with the advent of packaged goods. Industrialization moved the production of many household items, such as soap, from local communities to centralized factories. When shipping their items, the factories would literally brand their logo or company insignia on the barrels used, effectively using a corporate trademark as a quasi-brand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36674575",
"title": "Country-of-origin effect",
"section": "Section::::History and origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "Country of origin labelling originated in 1887 when the British government, in an effort to reduce sales of German and other non-English products to English consumers, passed a law requiring products manufactured outside England to be labeled with their country of origin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8939352",
"title": "Union label",
"section": "Section::::Origin and history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 867,
"text": "The invention of the union label concept is attributed to the Carpenter's Eight-Hour League in San Francisco, California which adopted a stamp in 1869 for use on products produced by factories employing men on the eight- (as opposed to ten-) hour day. In 1874, that city's unionized cigar-making workers created a similar \"white labor\" label to differentiate their cigars from those made by poorly paid, non-unionized Chinese workers. The concept of the union label as a tool for harnessing support from fellow working-class consumers for unionization spread rapidly in the next decades, first among the cigarmakers (their union adopted the first national union label in 1880), but among other unions as well, including typographers, garment workers, coopers, bakers and iron molders. By 1909, the American Federation of Labor had created its Union Label Department.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2079605",
"title": "Country of origin",
"section": "Section::::History of country-of-origin labelling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 953,
"text": "The inclusion of place of origin on manufactured goods has an ancient history. In antiquity, informal branding which included details such as the name of manufacturer and place of origin were used by consumers as important clues as to product quality. David Wengrow has found archaeological evidence of brands, which often included origin of manufacture, dating to around 4,000 years ago. Producers began by attaching simple stone seals to products which, over time, were transformed into clay seals bearing impressed images, often associated with the producer's personal identity thus providing information about the product and its quality. For instance, an object found in a royal burial tomb in Abydos (southern Egypt) and dating to around 3,000 B.C.E., carries brand elements that would be very familiar to modern consumers. Inscriptions on the surface denote a specific place of manufacture, \"finest oil of Tjehenu,\" a region in modern-day Libya.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6o3dh6
|
did the musical notes we all know (d,f,g,f-sharp etc.) basically *have* to be or was this just one person's selection that ended up working well?
|
[
{
"answer": "Look at a violin. It has no frets. Violin players play by ear and get it right. So do Bass and viola players. Look at a guitar. It has frets. Guitars have to be tuned. But once tuned they can be played by holding strings down on the frets.\n\nWe need to define what one note is, how many cycles per second. Double that frequency plays the note again an octave up. Halve the frequency and you get the note again an octave lower. \n\nThe other notes are standard ratios away from the first note. Playing the right notes together as a chord is pleasing. They are a certain distance apart by ratios, when played. So they alternately resonate together.\n\nSo once the first standard tone is selected. It is world wide now and easy to tune to, the other notes can be defined.\n\nThat is the simple explanation. When you get more complex you can study [music theory](_URL_0_) and how a piano is a compromise. String instruments are not.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here's the really short explanation: the notes are based in part from ratios between the different notes. For example a note and an octave higher will have a 1:2 ratio, where a note and it's fifth will have a 2:3 ratio.\n\nAgain to summarize, over hundreds of years we figured that having 7 notes made music that sounded very pleasant and we just gave these notes the name A, B, C, D, E, F, G. Other countries have different names for these 7 notes. Think of the white keys on the piano.\n\nHowever transposing these notes up and down and using the circle of fifths, you can sort of cheat and create an arrangement of 12 notes that allows different combinations of 7 notes for many keys. We have to fill in the blanks so we create flats and sharps between the white notes. These are the black keys on the piano.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Sound is vibrations and we attribute the frequency of those vibrations a pitch. When certain combinations of frequencies are combined, they may blend together well or not.\n\nFor example, if you have a note with vibration of 256 Hz, and you play a 2nd note with a frequency of 512 Hz, then you get a 1:2 ratio of vibrations, and the two go together really nicely. In general, people call them the same note, but at a different \"octave\"; in this case, 256 Hz is by convention called \"middle C\", and 512 Hz is C one octave above middle C.\n\nBut what about the other notes? Where did they come from?\n\nIt turns out that 1:2 isn't the only ratio that works nicely. 2:3, or 3:4 or 4:5 or 3:5 something similar give pleasing sounds when played together. \n\nSo, if you combined 256 Hz with 320 Hz, that's a nice combination; or 256 combined with 320 and 384 Hz in a 3 note chord is also a nice combiation.\n\nSo, how could you define lots of different notes which made up all these different ratios? One way, would just be to have a 4:5 ratio (320), a 3:2 (384) and so on - and then repeat everything after doubling or halving (640, 768 - or 160, 192). The problem with this, is that the \"gaps\" between the notes are all different - so you can't just take a piece of music and shift it a little bit lower, or a little bit higher.\n\nEventually people worked out, that if you divided the doubling interval into 12 equal steps (each note is 1.06 * the one before - so 256, 271, 287, 304, 322, 341, 362, 384, 406, 431, 456, 483, 512) - you could get close to lots of nice ratios (you can see the 322 which is very close 4:5, 384 which is exactly 3:2, 287 which is very close to 3:4, 431 which is close to 3:5).\n\nThis gives you 12 equally spaced notes with a ton of really nice ratios which can be combined together in nice chords, while at the same time being easy to use with equal notes.\n\nIf you dig down into the ratios - you'll see that starting from \"C\", the white keys on the piano correspond to the nicest ratios - D is 7:8, E is 4:5, F is 3:4, G is 2:3, A is 3:5, B is 8:15; the black keys are in between ratios for example D# is 16:19.\n\nSo it all comes down to discovering that dividing an octave into 12 equal steps results in a lots of nice combinations that \"just work\". People realised that the nicest ratios weren't equally spaced (for example F is next after E, but D has a note between in and C), and that's why there's no E#.\n\nAs to why 256 Hz might be used - there's no real reason. You can choose any reference you want. In fact, people often tune to concert A (440 Hz) which requires a slightly different tuning.\n\nJust one final point: modern tuning normally tunes instruments so that the spacing between the notes is exactly equal. But, as I pointed out above, this doesn't exactly match the nice round number ratios. Historically, instruments were often tuned to give the exact ratios; the tuner would listen to the two notes together, and they'd be in tune when you got the nicest sounding chord. This type of tuning would give nice pure sounding chords and harmony - but this lead to the gaps between the notes not being quite even, and resulted in certain combinations of notes having completely off ratios and sounding weird and clashing (called a Wolf interval)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Historically the names of the notes change over time.\nThe root choice for the names of the notes of the western 12 note scale are arbitrary. What is important however it is that all instrument manufacturers at least AGREE on the arbitrary names of the notes. \n\nThe IOS (International organization for Standardization) set the tuning of middle \"A\" to 440 vibrations/second in the early 20th century. This standard is called \"A-440\". It has not always been the case however and pitch changes a lot throughout history.\n\nMozart's \"A\" for example was nearly a semi-tone lower than what we would call an A today. It sounded closer to a G-sharp than an A. If you tried to play a flute from the 18th century with a modern orchestra, you would need to transpose in order for it to work. His names of the notes were indeed different.\n\nStandard pitch really does rise over the years. \"A\" was closer to 428hz at the end of the 1800's, while some orchestras around the world today are tuning as high as A-445. That's a HUGE difference.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In addition to what others have said, here are some notes and their corresponding frequencies. The ratio from one frequency to another is always 1.05945....\n\n\n C0\t16.35\t\n C#0\t17.32\t1.0594630944\n D0\t18.35\t1.0594630944\n D#0\t19.45\t1.0594630944\n E0\t20.60\t1.0594630944\n F0\t21.83\t1.0594630944\n F#0\t23.12\t1.0594630944\n G0\t24.50\t1.0594630944\n G#0\t25.96\t1.0594630944\n A0\t27.50\t1.0594630944\n A#0\t29.14\t1.0594630944\n B0\t30.87\t1.0594630944\n C1\t32.70\t1.0594630944\n C#1\t34.65\t1.0594630944\n D1\t36.71\t1.0594630944\n D#1\t38.89\t1.0594630944\n E1\t41.20\t1.0594630944\n F1\t43.65\t1.0594630944\n F#1\t46.25\t1.0594630944\n G1\t49.00\t1.0594630944\n G#1\t51.91\t1.0594630944\n A1\t55.00\t1.0594630944\n A#1\t58.27\t1.0594630944\n B1\t61.74\t1.0594630944\n C2\t65.41\t1.0594630944\n C#2\t69.30\t1.0594630944\n D2\t73.42\t1.0594630944\n D#2\t77.78\t1.0594630944\n E2\t82.41\t1.0594630944\n F2\t87.31\t1.0594630944\n F#2\t92.50\t1.0594630944\n G2\t98.00\t1.0594630944\n G#2\t103.83\t1.0594630944\n A2\t110.00\t1.0594630944\n A#2\t116.54\t1.0594630944\n B2\t123.47\t1.0594630944\n C3\t130.81\t1.0594630944\n C#3\t138.59\t1.0594630944\n D3\t146.83\t1.0594630944\n D#3\t155.56\t1.0594630944\n E3\t164.81\t1.0594630944\n F3\t174.61\t1.0594630944\n F#3\t185.00\t1.0594630944\n G3\t196.00\t1.0594630944\n G#3\t207.65\t1.0594630944\n A3\t220.00\t1.0594630944\n A#3\t233.08\t1.0594630944\n B3\t246.94\t1.0594630944\n C4\t261.63\t1.0594630944\n C#4\t277.18\t1.0594630944\n D4\t293.66\t1.0594630944\n D#4\t311.13\t1.0594630944\n E4\t329.63\t1.0594630944\n F4\t349.23\t1.0594630944\n F#4\t369.99\t1.0594630944\n G4\t392.00\t1.0594630944\n G#4\t415.30\t1.0594630944\n A4\t440.00\t1.0594630944\n A#4\t466.16\t1.0594630944\n B4\t493.88\t1.0594630944\n C5\t523.25\t1.0594630944\n C#5\t554.37\t1.0594630944\n D5\t587.33\t1.0594630944\n D#5\t622.25\t1.0594630944\n E5\t659.26\t1.0594630944\n F5\t698.46\t1.0594630944\n F#5\t739.99\t1.0594630944\n G5\t783.99\t1.0594630944\n G#5\t830.61\t1.0594630944\n A5\t880.00\t1.0594630944\n A#5\t932.33\t1.0594630944\n B5\t987.77\t1.0594630944\n C6\t1046.50\t1.0594630944\n C#6\t1108.73\t1.0594630944\n D6\t1174.66\t1.0594630944\n D#6\t1244.51\t1.0594630944\n E6\t1318.51\t1.0594630944\n F6\t1396.91\t1.0594630944\n F#6\t1479.98\t1.0594630944\n G6\t1567.98\t1.0594630944\n G#6\t1661.22\t1.0594630944\n A6\t1760.00\t1.0594630944\n A#6\t1864.66\t1.0594630944\n B6\t1975.53\t1.0594630944\n C7\t2093.00\t1.0594630944\n C#7\t2217.46\t1.0594630944\n D7\t2349.32\t1.0594630944\n D#7\t2489.02\t1.0594630944\n E7\t2637.02\t1.0594630944\n F7\t2793.83\t1.0594630944\n F#7\t2959.96\t1.0594630944\n G7\t3135.96\t1.0594630944\n G#7\t3322.44\t1.0594630944\n A7\t3520.00\t1.0594630944\n A#7\t3729.31\t1.0594630944\n B7\t3951.07\t1.0594630944\n C8\t4186.01\t1.0594630944\n C#8\t4434.92\t1.0594630944\n D8\t4698.64\t1.0594630944\n D#8\t4978.03\t1.0594630944\n E8\t5274.04\t1.0594630944\n F8\t5587.65\t1.0594630944\n F#8\t5919.91\t1.0594630944\n G8\t6271.93\t1.0594630944\n G#8\t6644.88\t1.0594630944\n A8\t7040.00\t1.0594630944\n A#8\t7458.62\t1.0594630944\n B8\t7902.13\t1.0594630944",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "56059652",
"title": "Semantic System",
"section": "Section::::The Semantic system.:Quarter tones.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "In everyday language, these notes are located between two semitones and they are essentially heard in Arab and Greek music throughout Europe and Eastern countries, in Turkey, Persia, as well as in Africa and in Asia. They were also used in tempered scales by certain European microtonal composers during the 19th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23275",
"title": "Pythagoras",
"section": "Section::::Attributed discoveries.:In music.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "According to legend, Pythagoras discovered that musical notes could be translated into mathematical equations when he passed blacksmiths at work one day and heard the sound of their hammers clanging against the anvils. Thinking that the sounds of the hammers were beautiful and harmonious, except for one, he rushed into the blacksmith shop and began testing the hammers. He then realized that the tune played when the hammer struck was directly proportional to the size of the hammer and therefore concluded that music was mathematical. However, this legend is demonstrably false, as these ratios are only relevant to string length (such as the string of a monochord), and not to hammer weight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1424629",
"title": "Notes inégales",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "In music, notes inégales (; ) refers to a performance practice, mainly from the Baroque and Classical music eras, in which some notes with equal written time values are performed with unequal durations, usually as alternating long and short. The practice was especially prevalent in France in the 17th and 18th centuries, with appearances in other European countries at the same time; and it reappeared as the standard performance practice in the 20th century in jazz.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4116363",
"title": "Music of ancient Greece",
"section": "Section::::Music and philosophy.:Plato.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 875,
"text": "Plato's \"Republic\" notes that Greek musicians sometimes played more than one note at a time, although this was apparently considered an advanced technique. The \"Orestes\" fragment of Euripides seems to clearly call for more than one note to be sounded at once. Research in the field of music from the ancient Mediterranean—decipherings of cuneiform music script—argue for the sounding of different pitches simultaneously and for the theoretical recognition of a \"scale\" many centuries before the Greeks learned to write, which they would have done before they developed their system for notating music and recorded the written evidence for simultaneous tones. All we can say from the available evidence is that, while Greek musicians clearly employed the technique of sounding more than one note at the same time, the most basic, common texture of Greek music was monophonic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58220011",
"title": "History of lute-family instruments",
"section": "Section::::Mathematics and music.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 201,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 201,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "The Sumerians and Akkadians, the Greeks, and the Persians all used math to create notes used on lutes and lyres and other stringed instruments. Using the idea that a plucked or bowed string produces a note, they noticed the difference in tone when a string is stopped. \"The great discovery\" was hearing the double octave, that halving a string produces a note one octave above the string. Written as a ratio 2:1.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "597778",
"title": "Shruti (music)",
"section": "Section::::Relationship to Dhwani, Nada, and Swara.:Natural existence of 22 shrutis on a string.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 879,
"text": "There are 12 universally identifiable musical notes (pitch classes of Chromatic scale or Swara-prakara) in a Saptak (Octave).They indicate 'a musical note or scale degree, but Shruti is a more subtle division of the octave'. The recent research has shown that 10 out of 12 of these notes (Swaraprakaras) have a 'spread' or a 'region' on a string (Swara-kshetra in Sanskrit) in which, 'any' frequency leads to the perception of the 'same' note by the human ear, and the perception 'changes' at both the ends. The remaining 2 notes, namely the Fundamental frequency (Shadja) and the perfect 5th (Panchama) have a 'single point' on which they are placed on the string by nature. Thus, the 10 notes give 20 Shrutis, and along with the 2 points of Fundamental frequency (Shadja) and the Perfect 5th (Panchama), a natural system of 22 Shrutis can be observed and played on any string.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1424629",
"title": "Notes inégales",
"section": "Section::::History.:Imitation of the French style outside France.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "One of the best sources for understanding the situation of \"notes inégales\" in France is the notation of music by composers from other European countries who wrote imitations of it. Music from Italy, Germany and England all borrowed this feature of French music, with the difference that the inequality of note values was often notated, since not all performers could be expected to add the \"notes inégales\" themselves (though evidence from Georg Muffat and Telemann strongly suggests that German performers would certainly be familiar with them).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
i2u3o
|
Is it possible to harvest gravity (or, more correctly, gravitational waves)?
|
[
{
"answer": "Without reading the article I can assure you that hydroelectric power is a much more efficient way of harvesting gravity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The interaction cross section is way, way too low.\n\nActually, let me amend that:\n\nThe interaction cross section is way, way, way, way, way, way, way, way, way, way, way, way, way, way, way, way, way, way, way too low.\n\nWhen an optical photon hits a piece of silicon at terrestrial densities, the path length it travels before being absorbed is very short. This is quantified by the \"optical depth\" of the medium. As long as you make your silicon a few times thicker than this length, you'll be absorbing all the photons.\n\nOne of the first problems we did in the GW seminar I took a few years ago was to try to calculate the density of stuff you'd need in order to have a certain \"optical depth\" (obviously not optical) for gravitational waves. It turns out that if you want to efficiently absorb gravitational waves, you need a black hole. Gravity is just so freakin weak.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The gravitational wave flux we get on Earth is so low that our detectors have to be sensitive to length changes less than the size of an atom. I don't know if we can ever harvest that flux, but I know it would be pointless to do so.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "49396186",
"title": "First observation of gravitational waves",
"section": "Section::::Gravitational waves.:Observation.:Direct observation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "Direct observation of gravitational waves was not possible for the many decades after they were predicted due to the minuscule effect that would need to be detected and separated from the background of vibrations present everywhere on Earth. A technique called interferometry was suggested in the 1960s and eventually technology developed sufficiently for this technique to become feasible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49396186",
"title": "First observation of gravitational waves",
"section": "Section::::Gravitational waves.:Observation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "Gravitational waves can be detected indirectly – by observing celestial phenomena caused by gravitational waves – or more directly by means of instruments such as the Earth-based LIGO or the planned space-based LISA instrument.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11084989",
"title": "Gravitational-wave astronomy",
"section": "Section::::Scientific value.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "Gravitational waves provide complementary information to that provided by other means. By combining observations of a single event made using different means, it is possible to gain a more complete understanding of the source's properties. This is known as multi-messenger astronomy. Gravitational waves can also be used to observe systems that are invisible (or almost impossible to detect) to measure by any other means. For example, they provide a unique method of measuring the properties of black holes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "364369",
"title": "Laser Interferometer Space Antenna",
"section": "Section::::Science goals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Gravitational-wave astronomy seeks to use direct measurements of gravitational waves to study astrophysical systems and to test Einstein's theory of gravity. Indirect evidence of gravitational waves was derived from observations of the decreasing orbital periods of several binary pulsars, such as the Hulse–Taylor binary pulsar. In February 2016, the Advanced LIGO project announced that it had directly detected gravitational waves from a black hole merger.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8111079",
"title": "Gravitational wave",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 809,
"text": "Gravitational waves can penetrate regions of space that electromagnetic waves cannot. They are able to allow the observation of the merger of black holes and possibly other exotic objects in the distant Universe. Such systems cannot be observed with more traditional means such as optical telescopes or radio telescopes, and so gravitational wave astronomy gives new insights into the working of the Universe. In particular, gravitational waves could be of interest to cosmologists as they offer a possible way of observing the very early Universe. This is not possible with conventional astronomy, since before recombination the Universe was opaque to electromagnetic radiation. Precise measurements of gravitational waves will also allow scientists to test more thoroughly the general theory of relativity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30339158",
"title": "North American Nanohertz Observatory for Gravitational Waves",
"section": "Section::::Gravitational wave detection using pulsar timing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "Gravitational waves are an important prediction from Einstein's general theory of relativity and expected to result from the bulk motion of matter, fluctuations during the early universe and the dynamics of space-time itself. Pulsars are rapidly rotating, highly magnetized neutron stars formed during the supernova explosions of massive stars. They act as highly accurate clocks with a wealth of physical applications ranging from celestial mechanics, neutron star seismology, tests of strong-field gravity and Galactic astronomy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50506253",
"title": "Locomotion in space",
"section": "Section::::Technology used to compensate for the negative effects.:Artificial gravity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "Artificial gravity (AG) is the increase or decrease of gravitational force on an object or person by artificial means. Different types of forces, including linear acceleration and centripetal force, can be used to generate this artificial gravitational force.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
53s392
|
Artificial sun by throwing fusion bomb in hydrogen cloud?
|
[
{
"answer": "To sustain a fusion reaction, the combination of temperature and pressure need to be sufficiently high. That's why there is fusion in the sun, but not in Jupiter, which, like the sun, consists of largely hydrogen and helium.\n\nWhen an object like Jupiter doesn't have sufficient density for fusion to sustain itself, a hydrogen cloud won't even come close. Detonating a fusion bomb inside the cloud won't do anything but push the cloud further outward. Just like in the sun, where the fusion reaction exerts an outward pressure. However, in the case of the sun, its gravity is sufficient to counteract the outward force generated by the fusion reaction and the sun doesn't disperse. In a hydrogen cloud, there's no gravity strong enough to keep it from dispersing when sufficient outward pressure is applied (because if there was, the cloud would've collapsed in on itself and potentially formed a star).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Stars are stars because of their mass and density, you can't short-circuit that process.\n\nPartly your question likely arises because of a common misconception about the formation of stars, that they are cold clumps of Hydrogen gas until suddenly fusion kicks on and then they light up like a fire. In fact, stars are born hot and bright, even before fusion starts. Gravitational collapse releases a lot of energy, and that energy becomes heat which results in the surface of proto-stars being very hot, at thousands of degrees, and fairly bright as well (due to their large sizes). They need to be bright in order to radiate away that gravitational collapse energy so they can get denser, and, ironically, hotter at their cores. The transition between collapsing proto-star and actively fusing Hydrogen real-star is not at all a dramatic one in the moment, it takes millenia for the star's surface to heat up. Moreover, the star actually becomes more well behaved and less violent as fusion kicks on because the dominant form of heat transport switches to radiation from convection which settles the star into layers of different temperatures and densities.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8524",
"title": "Deuterium",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Nuclear weapons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "This is discussed below. It is notable that although most stars, including the Sun, generate energy over most of their lives by fusing hydrogen into heavier elements, such fusion of light hydrogen (protium) has never been successful in the conditions attainable on Earth. Thus, all artificial fusion, including the hydrogen fusion that occurs in so-called hydrogen bombs, requires heavy hydrogen (either tritium or deuterium, or both) in order for the process to work.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21784",
"title": "Nova",
"section": "Section::::Stellar evolution of novae.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "Hydrogen fusion may occur in a stable manner on the surface of the white dwarf for a narrow range of accretion rates, giving rise to a super soft X-ray source, but for most binary system parameters, the hydrogen burning is unstable thermally and rapidly converts a large amount of the hydrogen into other, heavier chemical elements in a runaway reaction, liberating an enormous amount of energy. This blows the remaining gases away from the surface of the white dwarf surface and produces an extremely bright outburst of light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34118536",
"title": "Laban Coblentz",
"section": "Section::::Career.:ITER: harnessing fusion energy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 881,
"text": "Fusion, the mass-to-energy conversion created by the high-speed collision of atomic nuclei, is the engine that powers the sun and stars. As Coblentz said to CNN, “What we’re really doing here [at ITER] is trying to build a star on Earth.” The technological approach, known as magnetic confinement fusion, has been demonstrated in hundreds of experimental machines over the past six decades, usually in the form of a tokamak or a stellarator. By constructing and demonstrating a full-scale facility, the ITER Tokamak will, as Coblentz puts it, “make the C.A.S.E. for fusion” as a Clean (carbon-free, minimal waste), Abundant (millions of years of fuel), Safe (inherently safe physics, no possibility of meltdown), and Economic (competitive cost per kilowatt-hour; elimination of the costs of conflict and competition that go with a petroleum-based energy economy) source of energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "254452",
"title": "Planetary differentiation",
"section": "Section::::Heating.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "When the Sun ignited in the solar nebula, hydrogen, helium and other volatile materials were evaporated in the region around it. The solar wind and radiation pressure forced these low-density materials away from the Sun. Rocks, and the elements comprising them, were stripped of their early atmospheres, but themselves remained, to accumulate into protoplanets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1413965",
"title": "Energy transformation",
"section": "Section::::History of energy transformation.:Release of energy from hydrogen fusion potential.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1070,
"text": "In a similar chain of transformations beginning at the dawn of the universe, nuclear fusion of hydrogen in the Sun releases another store of potential energy which was created at the time of the Big Bang. At that time, according to one theory, space expanded and the universe cooled too rapidly for hydrogen to completely fuse into heavier elements. This resulted in hydrogen representing a store of potential energy which can be released by nuclear fusion. Such a fusion process is triggered by heat and pressure generated from the gravitational collapse of hydrogen clouds when they produce stars, and some of the fusion energy is then transformed into starlight. Considering the solar system, starlight, overwhelmingly from the Sun, may again be stored as gravitational potential energy after it strikes the Earth. This occurs in the case of avalanches, or when water evaporates from oceans and is deposited as precipitation high above sea level (where, after being released at a hydroelectric dam, it can be used to drive turbine/generators to produce electricity).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2245682",
"title": "Robert Wilson (astronomer)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 610,
"text": "In 1959 Wilson joined the Plasma Spectroscopy Group at Harwell where he was responsible for measuring the temperature in the Zeta experiment, confirming that it had not been hot enough to have produced thermonuclear fusion. As head of the Plasma Spectroscopy Group at Culham, he led a programme of rocket observations of ultraviolet spectra of the sun and stars. By placing telescopes on rockets and satellites it was possible to avoid the absorption of the ultraviolet light by the Earth's atmosphere and gain a great deal of information about the hot plasmas especially in the Sun's chromosphere and corona.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "673796",
"title": "Prior restraint",
"section": "Section::::Prior restraint in the United States.:H-bomb article cases.:\"Scientific American\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 1016,
"text": "On March 15, 1950 \"Scientific American\" magazine published an article by Hans Bethe about thermonuclear fusion, the mechanism by which stars generate energy and emit electromagnetic radiation (light, etc.). Fusion is also the process which makes the hydrogen bomb (H-bomb) possible. The AEC (Atomic Energy Commission) ordered publication stopped. Several thousand copies of the printed magazine were destroyed, and the article was published with some text removed at the direction of the AEC. At this time there existed in the United States no workable design for a hydrogen bomb (the Teller-Ulam design would not be developed for another year), but the U.S. was engaged in a crash program to develop one. Gerard Piel, the publisher of \"Scientific American\", complained that the AEC was \"suppressing information which the American People need in order to form intelligent judgments.\" Bethe, however, declined to support this complaint, and the suppression of the unedited version of the article was never litigated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2kvcmq
|
why is direct democracy not a viable system as opposed to what we have? would it result in massive indecisiveness, if implemented?
|
[
{
"answer": "Two main problems with direct democracy I can think of off the top of my head:\n\n- stability: the will of the masses tends to change quickly. News report on minor being raped and killed? Let's introduce death penalty. Mass shooting? Let's forbid guns. Note I'm not taking a stand towards either death penalty nor gun control; just pointing out that recent events will have a major influence on policy in a direct democracy, and that's rarely a good thing.\n\n- power distribution: media influence plays an even higher role than it already does, pretty much for the same reason as above - it can easily sway public opinion.\n\nThis is really a question better suited for /r/askreddit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It would result in what's called the tyranny of the masses (or \"mob rule\"), as the popular majority tramples on the wishes and needs of the minorities.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Switzerland, with around 8 million citizens, has a limited but very viable version of direct democracy. It has worked well for a long time, with citizens voting on various issues four times a year. \nOn the federal (country) level, anyone who can gather 50 000 votes within 100 days can force a national vote on whether or not to block specific legislation introduced by parliament. If you can gather 100 000 signatures within 18 months, you can force a national vote on whether or not to introduce changes to the constitution. \nOn the regional (cantonal) and county/city (communal) level, there is even more direct democracy, and citizens can introduce suggestions which will be voted on at the next town meeting.\n\nThe end result of all this is debatable, but what is certain is that Switzerland has become a very succesful country with low taxation, comparatively few bureaucrats, a strong industrial base, and possibly the best health care system in the world.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7959",
"title": "Democracy",
"section": "Section::::Types of governmental democracies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "Democracy has taken a number of forms, both in theory and practice. Some varieties of democracy provide better representation and more freedom for their citizens than others. However, if any democracy is not structured so as to prohibit the government from excluding the people from the legislative process, or any branch of government from altering the separation of powers in its own favour, then a branch of the system can accumulate too much power and destroy the democracy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30874978",
"title": "History of direct democracy in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Criticisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 679,
"text": "Direct democracy can sometimes be used to subvert the normal checks and balances of a government. For instance, a governor of a state may threaten to use an initiative to \"go over the heads\" of an uncooperative legislature. Similarly, a state legislator can collect signatures and place on the ballot a measure that overrules a governor's veto. Because it usually takes a two-thirds majority to overrule a governor's veto, but only a simple majority to pass an initiative, this tactic can sometimes be successful. However, proponents of direct democracy argue that the public acts as an additional check to their elected representatives' power in these cases, not a subversion. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21418432",
"title": "Criticism of democracy",
"section": "Section::::Criticism of democracy's process.:Efficiency of the system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "Such a system could result in a wealth disparity or racial discrimination. Fierlbeck (1998) points out that such a result is not necessarily due to a failing in the democratic process, but rather, \"because democracy is responsive to the desires of a large middle class increasingly willing to disregard the muted voices of economically marginalized groups within its own borders.\" The will of the democratic majority may not always be in the best interest of all citizens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "95816",
"title": "Direct democracy",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "Direct democracy was not what the framers of the United States Constitution envisioned for the nation. They saw a danger in tyranny of the majority. As a result, they advocated a representative democracy in the form of a constitutional republic over a direct democracy. For example, James Madison, in Federalist No. 10, advocates a constitutional republic over direct democracy precisely to protect the individual from the will of the majority. He says,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9282116",
"title": "Liberal democracy",
"section": "Section::::Issues and criticism.:Political stability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "One argument for democracy is that by creating a system where the public can remove administrations, without changing the legal basis for government, democracy aims at reducing political uncertainty and instability and assuring citizens that however much they may disagree with present policies, they will be given a regular chance to change those who are in power, or change policies with which they disagree. This is preferable to a system where political change takes place through violence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "384080",
"title": "Non-partisan democracy",
"section": "Section::::Comparison with other political systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "A direct democracy can be considered nonpartisan since citizens vote on laws themselves rather than electing representatives. Direct democracy can be partisan, however, if factions are given rights or prerogatives that non-members do not have.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "182612",
"title": "World on Fire (book)",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "They also note that several studies support a variant of the democratic peace theory, which argues that more democracy causes a general decrease in systematic violence, at least for the most democratic nations. However, intermediately democratic nations do have a higher tendency for conflicts such as civil war than autocracies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4v5a4o
|
Why does fission happen randomly?
|
[
{
"answer": "Spontaneous fission is a quantum tunneling process. You have two (or more) \"lobes\" of nuclear matter, bound by a mutually attracting potential. In order for fission to occur, they must tunnel out of their attractive wells. Depending on how strongly deformed the nucleus is, this could be very easy (meaning small lifetime) or very hard (long lifetime).\n\nExactly when tunneling will occur is of course probabilistic.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "879282",
"title": "Neutron transport",
"section": "Section::::Types of neutron transport calculations.:Criticality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "Fission is the process through which a nucleus splits into (typically two) smaller atoms. If fission is occurring, it is often of interest to know the asymptotic behavior of the system. A reactor is called “critical” if the chain reaction is self-sustaining and time-independent. If the system is not in equilibrium the asymptotic neutron distribution, or the fundamental mode, will grow or decay exponentially over time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20766780",
"title": "Nuclear fusion–fission hybrid",
"section": "Section::::Hybrid concepts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 796,
"text": "Fission occurs naturally because each event gives off more than one neutron capable of producing additional fission events. Fusion, at least in D-T fuel, gives off only a single neutron, and that neutron is not capable of producing more fusion events. When that neutron strikes fissile material in the blanket, one of two reactions may occur. In many cases, the kinetic energy of the neutron will cause one or two neutrons to be struck out of the nucleus without causing fission. These neutrons still have enough energy to cause other fission events. In other cases the neutron will be captured and cause fission, which will release two or three neutrons. This means that every fusion neutron in the fusion–fission design can result in anywhere between two and four neutrons in the fission fuel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "409529",
"title": "Spontaneous fission",
"section": "Section::::Poisson process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 860,
"text": "Spontaneous fission gives much the same result as induced nuclear fission. However, like other forms of radioactive decay, it occurs due to quantum tunneling, without the atom having been struck by a neutron or other particle as in induced nuclear fission. Spontaneous fissions release neutrons as all fissions do, so if a critical mass is present, a spontaneous fission can initiate a self-sustaining chain reaction. Radioisotopes for which spontaneous fission is not negligible can be used as neutron sources. For example, californium-252 (half-life 2.645 years, SF branch ratio about 3.1 percent) can be used for this purpose. The neutrons released can be used to inspect airline luggage for hidden explosives, to gauge the moisture content of soil in highway and building construction, or to measure the moisture of materials stored in silos, for example.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30064130",
"title": "Fission (biology)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "Fission, in biology, is the division of a single entity into two or more parts and the regeneration of those parts to separate entities resembling the original. The object experiencing fission is usually a cell, but the term may also refer to how organisms, bodies, populations, or species split into discrete parts. The fission may be \"binary fission\", in which a single organism produces two parts, or \"multiple fission\", in which a single entity produces multiple parts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22054",
"title": "Nuclear fission",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "Fission is a form of nuclear transmutation because the resulting fragments are not the same element as the original atom. The two nuclei produced are most often of comparable but slightly different sizes, typically with a mass ratio of products of about 3 to 2, for common fissile isotopes. Most fissions are binary fissions (producing two charged fragments), but occasionally (2 to 4 times per 1000 events), \"three\" positively charged fragments are produced, in a ternary fission. The smallest of these fragments in ternary processes ranges in size from a proton to an argon nucleus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "646181",
"title": "Distributed morphology",
"section": "Section::::Morphological operations.:Fission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "Fission refers to the splitting of one terminal node into two distinct terminal nodes prior to Vocabulary Insertion. Some of the most well-known cases of fission involve the imperfect conjugations of Semitic, in which agreement morphology is split into a prefixal and suffixal part, as investigated in the work of Noyer (1992). Fission may also occur where insertion of a Vocabulary item discharges the intrinsic features of the Vocabulary item from the terminal node, leaving others features available for possible insertion; if fission applies, then other Vocabulary items can be inserted to discharge the remaining features. When Fission occurs, the order of morphemes is influenced by the featural complexity of Vocabulary items.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30064130",
"title": "Fission (biology)",
"section": "Section::::Population fission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "Any splitting of a single population of individuals into discrete parts may be considered fission. A population may undergo fission for a variety of reasons, including migration or geographic isolation. Because the fission leads to genetic variance in the newly isolated, smaller populations, population fission is a precursor to speciation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4hy50v
|
How humans reached islands like Japan during the Paleolithic?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hi! While pre-history questions are fine here, it would be worth also x-posting this one to /r/AskAnthropology ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "161010",
"title": "History of East Timor",
"section": "Section::::Pre-colonial history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 785,
"text": "The island of Timor was populated as part of the human migrations that have shaped Australasia more generally. As of 2019, the oldest traces of human settlement are 43,000 to 44,000 years old, and were found in the Laili cave in Manatuto Municipality. These early settlers had high-level maritime skills, and by implication the technology needed to make ocean crossings to reach Australia and other islands, as they were catching and consuming large numbers of big deep sea fish such as tuna. One of the oldest fish hooks in the world, dated between 16,000 and 23,000 years old, was excavated at the Jerimalai cave. It is believed that survivors from three waves of migration still live in the country. The first is described by anthropologists as people of the Veddo-Australoid type.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4179499",
"title": "Aogashima, Tokyo",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "It is uncertain when human settlement first began on Aogashima, but the island was known to be inhabited in the early Edo period, and is mentioned in historical records kept by the Tokugawa shogunate in Hachijōjima. During a major volcanic eruption in 1785, a large number of islanders perished, and the remainder were evacuated to Hachijōjima. An 1835 census reported 241 inhabitants (133 men, 108 women), mostly engaged in fishing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47870676",
"title": "Jōmon period",
"section": "Section::::Incipient and Initial Jōmon (14,000–4000 BCE).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 788,
"text": "Traces of Paleolithic culture, mainly stone tools, occur in Japan from around 30,000 BCE onwards. The earliest \"Incipient Jōmon\" phase began while Japan was still linked to continental Asia as a narrow peninsula. As the glaciers melted following the end of the last glacial period (approximately 12,000 years ago), sea levels rose, separating the Japanese archipelago from the Asian mainland; the closest point (in Kyushu) about from the Korean Peninsula is near enough to be intermittently influenced by continental developments but far enough removed for the peoples of the Japanese islands to develop their own ways. In addition, a continuous chain of islands encompasses Luzon, Taiwan, Ryukyu and Kyushu, allowing for continuous contact between the Jōmon and maritime Southeast Asia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15575",
"title": "Geography of Japan",
"section": "Section::::Composition, topography and geography.:Remote location.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "The Japanese archipelago was difficult to reach since before ancient history. During the Paleolithic period around 20,000 BCE at the height of the Last Glacial Maximum there was a land bridge between Hokkaido and Sakhalin (Karafuto) which linked Japan with the North East Asian continent. The land bridge disappeared when the sea levels rose in the Jōmon period around 10,000 BCE. The invention of the airplane made Japan more accessible in the 20th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18842323",
"title": "Sea",
"section": "Section::::Humans and the sea.:History of navigation and exploration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 632,
"text": "Humans have travelled the seas since they first built sea-going craft. Mesopotamians were using bitumen to caulk their reed boats and, a little later, masted sails. By c. 3000 BC, Austronesians on Taiwan had begun spreading into maritime Southeast Asia. Subsequently, the Austronesian \"Lapita\" peoples displayed great feats of navigation, reaching out from the Bismarck Archipelago to as far away as Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa. Their descendants continued to travel thousands of miles between tiny islands on outrigger canoes, and in the process they found many new islands, including Hawaii, Easter Island (Rapa Nui), and New Zealand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37699",
"title": "History of East Asia",
"section": "Section::::Ancient East Asia.:Early Japan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 712,
"text": "Japan was inhabited more than 30,000 years ago, when land bridges connected Japan to Korea and China to the south and Siberia to the north. With rising sea levels, the 4 major islands took form around 20,000 years ago, and the lands connecting today's Japan to the continental Asia completely disappeared 15,000 ~ 10,000 years ago. Thereafter, some migrations continued by way of the Korean peninsula, which would serve as Japan's main avenue for cultural exchange with the continental Asia until the medieval period. The mythology of ancient Japan is contained within the Kojiki ('Records of Ancient Matters') which describes the creation myth of Japan and its lineage of Emperors to the Sun Goddess Amaterasu.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "186932",
"title": "Japanese people",
"section": "Section::::History.:Theories of origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "Archaeological evidence indicates that Stone Age people lived in the Japanese archipelago during the Paleolithic period between 39,000 and 21,000 years ago. Japan was then connected to mainland Asia by at least one land bridge, and nomadic hunter-gatherers crossed to Japan. Flint tools and bony implements of this era have been excavated in Japan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
16vy2h
|
Why did Bowing die out in Europe, but persist in East Asia?
|
[
{
"answer": "Just for some clarification do you mean archery? Or just making the bows?\n\nEdit: I may have misread that, did you mean bowing as in the gesture? If so I appoligize.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16390679",
"title": "Malankara Church",
"section": "Section::::Archdeacons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1103,
"text": "Following the collapse of the Church of the East's hierarchy in most of Asia in the 14th century, India was effectively cut off from the church's heartland in Mesopotamia and formal contact was severed. By the late 15th century India had had no metropolitan for several generations, and the authority traditionally associated with him had been vested in the archdeacon. In 1491 the archdeacon sent envoys to the Patriarch of the Church of the East, as well as to the Coptic Pope of Alexandria and to the Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch, requesting a new bishop for India. The Patriarch of the Church of the East Shemʿon IV Basidi responded by consecrating two bishops, Thoma and Yuhanon, and dispatching them to India. These bishops helped rebuild the ecclesiastical infrastructure and reestablish fraternal ties with the patriarchate, but the years of separation had greatly affected the structure of the Indian church. Though receiving utmost respect, the metropolitan was treated as a guest in his own diocese; the Archdeacon was firmly established as the real power in the Malankara community.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23963775",
"title": "Dioceses of the Church of the East, 1318–1552",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Collapse of the exterior provinces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "The collapse of East Syriac Christianity in Asia was probably so complete because it had always been the custom of the Church of the East to send out bishops from Mesopotamia to the dioceses of the ‘exterior provinces’. In the chaos which followed the death of the Ilkhan Abu Said in 1335, it may have been unable to send out fresh bishops to Central Asia, and without leaders of their own, the absorption of these communities by Islam was inevitable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4838188",
"title": "Armenians in Turkey",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "Starting in the late 19th century, political instability, dire economic conditions, and continuing ethnic tensions prompted the emigration of as many as 100,000 Armenians to Europe, the Americas and the Middle East. This massive exodus from the Ottoman Empire is what started the modern Armenian diaspora worldwide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26432168",
"title": "Overbite",
"section": "Section::::Changing human dentition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 757,
"text": "American anthropologist C. Loring Brace has brought forth a theory that the human overbite of Europeans is only about 250 years old and was the result of the widespread adoption of the table knife and fork. Before the use of cutlery, Europeans would often clamp their teeth on a piece of meat and cut off a piece with a knife. When Europeans started using forks and knives, the cutting was done on the plate and the overbite became much more common. Brace also researched the Chinese, who had adopted chopsticks 900 years earlier and found the instances of overbites increased about the same time the new eating method was introduced. Others further speculate labiodental consonant sounds in human speech were predicated on the development of the overbite.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "251667",
"title": "Saint Thomas Christians",
"section": "Section::::History.:Classical period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 677,
"text": "The great distances involved and the geopolitical turmoil of the period caused India to be cut off from the church's heartland in Mesopotamia at several points. In the 11th century the province was suppressed by the church entirely, as it had become impossible to reach, but effective relations were restored by 1301. However, following the collapse of the Church of the East's hierarchy in most of Asia later in the 14th century, India was effectively cut off from the church, and formal contact was severed. By the late 15th century India had had no metropolitan for several generations, and the authority traditionally associated with him had been vested in the archdeacon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57538090",
"title": "Repatriation of Armenians",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Displacements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "Apart from the gradual emigration of Armenians due to persecution under Muslim rule, the first major forced displacement of Armenians from the Armenian Highlands in the modern era was at the turn of 17th century, when the Iranian king Abbas II moved Armenians from Iranian Armenia to the inner regions of his empire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1490915",
"title": "Radhanite",
"section": "Section::::End of the Radhanite age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "The fall of the Tang Dynasty of China in 908 and the destruction of the Khazar Khaganate some sixty years later (circa 968–969 AD) led to widespread chaos in Inner Eurasia, the Caucasus and China. Trade routes became unstable and unsafe, a situation exacerbated by Turkic invasions of Persia and the Middle East, and the Silk Road largely collapsed for centuries. This period saw the rise of the mercantile Italian city-states, especially Genoa, Venice, Pisa, and Amalfi, who viewed the Radhanites as unwanted competitors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1mlky7
|
How was Malta able to withstand the Malta blitz?
|
[
{
"answer": "Largely this was due to bombing being much less accurate than you might think. During WWII the percentage of bombs that hit anywhere near their targets was in the single digits--at least when it came to high level strategic bombing. Tactical bombers, such as the (in)famous Stuka dive bomber, could be much more accurate but were also much more vulnerable to antiaircraft fire and opposing fighters. The result was that while it was not pleasant by any means to be a target of aerial bombardment it was also not as damaging as one might suspect, especially to individual targets.\n\nIn the case of Malta, the sources I have read point to the largest difficulty being resupply rather than aerial bombardment. Sam Moses writes about this in his book, *At All Costs: How a Crippled Ship and Two American Merchant Marines Turned the Tide of World War II.* This book describes Operation Pedestal, which took place in 1942. This was a critical supply convoy, in which only five of the original fourteen ships made it to their destination in Malta due to incessant German attempts to stop it. The threat as described by Moses was that Malta would be kept from being resupplied, not that it would be bombed into submission. Subsequent efforts would keep Malta supplied by sea.\n\nThe aerial campaigns against Malta were no doubt damaging. There is even the legendary (and slightly overhyped) story of Malta being defended by a mere three biplane fighters against the might of the Luftwaffe. While there were three such planes, they were joined by modern British fighters as well. These planes along with antiaircraft guns kept the bombing runs from being unopposed. In addition, the Germans never had a force of heavy four engined bombers that could carry heavy bomb loads to their targets. Instead, lighter two engined bombers had a limited bomb load, which certainly limited the damage they were capable of inflicting. They also had little in the way of defensive armament when compared to Allied heavy bombers. So, while they were able to inflict casualties and destroy some buildings, German bombers were unable to knock out Malta's airfields or port facilities. As such, Malta was able to withstand the German bombardment.",
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2640088",
"title": "Victory Day (Malta)",
"section": "Section::::Events related to 8 September.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "The siege of Malta in the Second World War concluded in November 1942. During this time, Malta experienced a total of 3,000 bombing raids over a period of two years in an effort to destroy Royal Air Force defences and the ports. For enduring this, King George VI of the United Kingdom awarded the George Cross to the entire island and the design of the George Cross was incorporated into the Maltese flag.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38523155",
"title": "Ivan de la Bere",
"section": "Section::::Military career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1121,
"text": "The Siege of Malta began on 11 June 1940 following Italy's entry into the war. The island was dependent on supply convoys fighting their way through from Gibraltar or Alexandria, and meanwhile, the garrison and people were subjected to some of the heaviest bombing of the war for a period of over two years. For its part, the island provided a base for air and sea attacks on supply convoys to the Italian and German forces fighting in North Africa. On 27 July 1941 de la Bere, by now a Colonel (promoted 27 July 1940), was placed in command of a new Central Infantry Brigade, formed by a brigade headquarters that had come out from the United Kingdom and by infantry battalions that had been brought in as reinforcements from Egypt. De la Bere was injured in November 1941, but returned to duty within three weeks, and commanded the brigade until the end of the war, ending as an Acting Major-General. Central Brigade was redesignated 3rd (Malta) Infantry Brigade in 1942 and later became 233rd Infantry Brigade. During the siege de la Bere organised gifts and activities to maintain the morale of the civil population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1636416",
"title": "Great Siege of Malta",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "The Great Siege of Malta () took place in 1565 when the Ottoman Empire tried to invade the island of Malta, then held by the Knights Hospitaller. The Knights, with approximately 2,000 footsoldiers and 400 Maltese men, women and children, withstood the siege and repelled the invaders. This victory became one of the most celebrated events in sixteenth-century Europe. Voltaire said, \"Nothing is better known than the siege of Malta\", and it undoubtedly contributed to the eventual erosion of the European perception of Ottoman invincibility and marked a new phase in Spanish domination of the Mediterranean.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1639874",
"title": "Battle of the Mediterranean",
"section": "Section::::History.:Malta.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 705,
"text": "For a time during the Siege of Malta, it looked as if the island would be starved into submission by the use of Axis aircraft and warships based in Sicily, Sardinia, Crete and North Africa. A number of Allied convoys were decimated. The turning point in the siege came in August 1942, when the British sent a very heavily defended convoy under the codename Operation \"Pedestal\". Malta's air defence was repeatedly reinforced by Hawker Hurricane and Supermarine Spitfire fighters flown to the island from and other Allied aircraft carriers. The situation eased as Axis forces were forced away from their North African bases and eventually Malta could be resupplied and become an offensive base once again.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "201699",
"title": "Regia Aeronautica",
"section": "Section::::History.:World War II.:Malta.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "Malta suffered heavy losses too, and was to the edge of starvation. However the besieged island managed to withstand the attacks from the Italian and German air forces and claimed almost 1,500 Axis planes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "776074",
"title": "Siege of Malta (World War II)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "The Siege of Malta in the Second World War was a military campaign in the Mediterranean Theatre. From 1940–42, the fight for the control of the strategically important island of Malta, then a British colony, pitted the air forces and navies of Italy and Germany against the Royal Air Force (RAF) and the Royal Navy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47404951",
"title": "National Congress Battalions",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 694,
"text": "The Maltese insurgents made a number of successful assaults throughout the course of the siege, including the capture of St. Thomas Tower and St. Julian's Tower. The insurgents did not manage to capture the major fortifications, such as the city of Valletta, the Cottonera Lines, Fort Manoel and Fort Tigné, but they managed to prevent the French from retaking land outside the fortified positions. Throughout the course of the siege, the Maltese constructed a number of camps, batteries, redoubts and entrenchments surrounding the French-occupied harbour area. The most important insurgent fortifications were the Corradino Batteries, Għargħar Battery, Tal-Borg Battery and Tas-Samra Battery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2s5kg3
|
Suppose I visited Oregon in 1000BCE and then again in AD1000. (Without asking someone) How could I tell which was which?
|
[
{
"answer": "People, remember that this is askHISTORIANS, not askpaleoastronomers or askgeologists or askbotanists. If you do not have the proper historical knowledge to answer this question, don't answer.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Note to Moderators: if I've made some mistake in the rules please let me know and I'll make an adjustment. I mostly lurk here, but I understand you're quite strict and I'd hate to have this all deleted.\n\nHey there,\n\nGo ahead and cross post this to /r/askanthropology because they will have the experts you need.\n\nSecond, consider explaining why you've asked this question, because there may be some more interesting factoids if you expand your range of time a little bit. Both 1000BCE and 1000CE fall within the Late Holocene (1500BCE-1775CE). \n\nThe Northern Pacific cultures we are familiar with today (thanks Franz Boas!) were well on track by 6,000 years ago. By 1800BCE there were already simple ranked societies (as a cultural anthropologist I tend to buck the archaeological terminology such as 'simple' but I'll do my best to repeat what the textbooks tell you). Essentially because food resources like salmon were extremely seasonal, society stratified into hierarchy by necessity in order to create effective food storage and dispersion over the year. \n\nFollowing 1800BCE, ranking became continually more elaborate. Households tended to be matrilineal (organized around ties to one's mother, her mother, etc) although social units were headed by men. Farther south (which I believe includes Oregon in the context of my reading) there were some episodes of patrilineal households and ranked polygamy, but generally these systems were more unstable. Boom and bust. Again, I'm no expert, but ~~I'll have to disagree with wildfire's comment below and say that you'll probably see planked cedar houses and possibly totem poles as early as 1000BCE. Their prevalence and elaboration is another matter~~(yeah, nope). On a side note, the issue with this whole area/time period is that sea levels rose dramatically and most likely destroyed the vast majority of available evidence, leaving archaeologists with shell middens and the houses of weirdos that built far away from shore. \n\nTo more directly answer your question: The more evidence you see for ranking and heirarchy, the later you probably are. One smoking gun might be the creation of burial mounds. A few of these were undertaken in the area around 1000CE, but there were none before that as far as we know. Burial mounds are large heaps of earth. It's unlikely you would catch anyone in the act of making them (they're actually quite fast to make) but you might see signs of a large mass of disturbed earth that doesn't match the geological terrain. However, I think you would be lucky to run into one because my impression is that they were quite rare. Better to just make some friends and watch for signs of heightened hierarchy (some people have more free time, specialization, accumulation of wealth, competition between groups).\n\nAgain, try cross posting to askanthrpology because you'll be much more likely to get an expert on those date ranges in that subreddit.\n\nThanks!\n\nEdit: [SOURCE.](_URL_0_)\n\nEdit 2: Putting the moderator note on top...\n\nEdit 3: /u/retarredroof gives a great critique of what I've said here (see below). In particular I want to draw attention to a possibly much more foolproof means of answering the question which they point out. Technology is always the archaeologists go-to, and leave it to a cultural anth guy to totally overlook this in favor of nebulous social relationships which there is less evidence for:\n\n > The main difference I would anticipate between 3000 years ago and 1000 years ago on the Oregon coast would be the increased use of the specialized technologies for salmon and other anadromous species (e.g. salmon dams, fish nets, fish and lamprey traps, composite harpoons) and the onset and/or adoption of the classic NW Coast village with the use of large coastal towns by 1000 years ago. Lyman sees a transition from pit houses, like those that persist in interior Oregon until contact, to plank houses during the period of interest on the coast. Social stratification increases through time and it would not surprise me if slavery was in use by 1000 years ago. Also during this period there is a slow transition from flaked stone technology to ground stone use for harpoon and other points.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You might not care, but I thought I'd mention that you're mixing dating systems.\n\nBCE goes with CE, and refers to *Before the Common Era* and *Common Era*, whereas BC goes with AD, and refers to *Before Christ* and *Anno Domini*.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Since the topic doesn't specify which part of Oregon we're talking about here, I can give some perspective on the Great Basin portion of eastern Oregon (whereas most of the posts have dealt with coastal Oregon).\n\nThe Great Basin is a semi-arid environment where the archaeological record supports a continuous record of hunter-gatherer lifestyles from at least 10,000BP into historic times. This seemingly unchanging record led some of the early researchers to believe that there was no culture change in this region throughout prehistory, but archaeologists now know that this was not the case.\n\nIn the time periods you have designated (3,000BP to 1,000BP) there are actually some quite significant changes in the way that people lived.\n\n1) The shift from atlatl and dart to bow and arrow technology.\nThis is evidenced by the reduced size in projectile points and the cases of preserved bows that have been found in similar contexts. I think the most commonly attributed date to the introduction of the bow is around 1,350BP in the Great Basin. The bow and arrow changed the game of hunting, it made individual hunters more viable whereas the atlatl likely required a group effort. The bow was also more accurate, which made hunting (a costly endeavor compared to seed procurement) more efficient. In some areas, the switch to arrow points reduced the amount of raw material procurement, and thus settlement patterns, as these smaller points required less material to make, but this was primarily in areas where obsidian and other high quality toolstone were rare. The northwestern basin has many obsidian sources, so I doubt this was the case here.\n\n2) Settlement and subsistence.\nI don't know too much about this in Oregon specifically, but I will be talking about the patterns seen just about 50 miles south of the Oregon border. I wouldn't be surprised if the exact same things were happening further north at the same time, or at least something very similar.\nSomewhere between 1,300BP and 1,000BP we begin to see the intensification of upland food resources, primarily roots. Previously, the uplands were mainly hunting grounds, evidenced by older remains being that of hunting material (projectile points). During this period, we see an explosion of ground stone tools (millingstones and handstones). It is absolutely everywhere in late period sites and almost nonexistent in earlier sites. Roots are fairly abundant in these upland areas and it appears that they were incorporated into the diet in a big way. Not to get into optimal foraging or diet breadth too much, but for one reason or another these lower ranked resources presumably had to be added to the diet. Depletion of higher ranked resources, environmental conditions, population pressure are all reasonable explanations.\n\n3) The Numic Spread.\nI'm getting a little ahead of myself with this one, but I think it's worth mentioning. One of the major problems researchers faced in the Great Basin was explaining how the Numic language group had managed to become so widespread (essentially the entire Great Basin and then some at historic times) without significant divergence. Glottochronology would suggest that this language group had not spent all that much time apart from each other. In this case, the Numic hunter-gatherers were a recent inclusion into the Great Basin and spread across it rather quickly. Since we have an archaeological record dating back 10,000 years this means that the Numic speakers must have displaced the previous inhabitants of the Great Basin.\nThe most convincing argument states that the Numic expansion began about 700BP from southeastern California. While some have argued that the expansion began earlier (perhaps 1,500BP), and some MUCH earlier (4,000BP), the aforementioned date of 700BP is the one best supported by glottochronology and the archaeological record. So as I said, I was getting ahead of myself since this doesn't particularly pertain to the dates in this question. Most evidence points to Numic speakers arriving in the northern Great Basin damn near historic times (300-200 years ago). The reason I included this was to illustrate just how variable prehistory could be in the Great Basin, even when discussing the seemingly \"simple\" lives of hunter-gatherers.\n\nSo if you visited eastern Oregon in 3,000BP you would have seen a more sparsely populated area who's inhabitants hunted with the atlatl and focused primarily on lowland seeds and big game animals for subsistence.\nIf you revisited this same area two thousand years later you would likely notice that the population density had increased, higher ranked resources (big game animals) were largely depleted, and encampments in the uplands had become common. Ground stone tools had become much more common and they were used for intensive processing of roots. The atlatl has been replaced with the bow, and while it has made hunters more successful, there is now less to hunt. Smaller game is likely being pursued at much greater rates with the depletion of larger game.\nLater in time, you would see a new ethnic group moving into the area and out competing the previous inhabitants. Some warfare may be present, but it appears that these intruders are simply better adapted to the conditions of the habitat. Using specialized technology for seed processing, the intruders would drive out or assimilate the previous inhabitants with their superior exploitation of the natural resources.\n\n\n\nBettinger, Robert L., and Martin A. Baumhoff\n1982 The Numic Spread: Great Basin Cultures in Competition. American Antiquity 47(3): 485–503.\n\nBettinger, Robert L., and Jelmer Eerkens\n 1999 Point Typologies, Cultural Transmission, and the Spread of Bow-and-Arrow Technology in the Prehistoric Great Basin. American Antiquity 64(2): 231–242.\n\nDelacorte, Michael G.\n2002 Late Prehistoric Resource Intensification in the Northwest Great Basin. In Boundary Lands: Archaeological Investigations Along The California-Great Basin Interface, edited by Kelly R. McGuire, pp 41-48\n\nI apologize if this was a difficult read. Its my first post to AskHistorians and I really rushed it to get it done before bed. There was a lot more I could have covered, so I may revisit this post tomorrow. Hope it was interesting to at least one other person!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11705957",
"title": "Etymology of Oregon",
"section": "Section::::Historical usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "Most scholarship ascribes the earliest known use of the name \"Oregon\" to a 1765 petition by Major Robert Rogers to the Kingdom of Great Britain, seeking money to finance an expedition in search of the Northwest Passage. The petition read \"the rout... is from the Great Lakes towards the Head of the Mississippi, and from thence to the River called by the Indians \"Ouragon\"...\" Thus, the early Oregon Country and now the present day state of Oregon took their names from the river now known as the Columbia River.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3723271",
"title": "Maritime history of California",
"section": "Section::::U.S. California naval activity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "Once across the sand bars and turbulent water at the entrance to the river (later called the Columbia Bar) they sailed up the Columbia River several miles while exploring the river. Gray's find was a significant claim (besides the Lewis and Clark Expedition) put forth by the United States to claim possession of the Oregon Territory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3536484",
"title": "Central Oregon",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "Peter Skene Ogden led a party of Hudson's Bay Company trapping through Central Oregon in 1826, becoming the first Euro-Americans explorers to visit the area. In 1843, Captain John C. Fremont and his Army survey team explored and mapped the western part of Central Oregon. Fremont was charged with mapping the Oregon Territory east of the Cascade Mountains from The Dalles on Columbia River to Sutter's Fort in Sacramento, California. The Fremont party, including Kit Carson and Thomas Fitzpatrick, camped near Bend on 4 December 1843.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26811621",
"title": "Oregon",
"section": "Section::::Etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 940,
"text": "The earliest evidence of the name \"Oregon\" has Spanish origins. The term \"orejón\" comes from the historical chronicle \"Relación de la Alta y Baja California\" (1598) written by the new Spaniard Rodrigo Montezuma and made reference to the Columbia River when the Spanish explorers penetrated into the actual North American territory that became part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. This chronicle is the first topographical and linguistic source with respect to the place name \"Oregon\". There are also two other sources with Spanish origins, such as the name \"Oregano\", which grows in the southern part of the region. It is most probable that the American territory was named by the Spaniards, as there are some populations in Spain such as \"Arroyo del Oregón\" (which is situated in the province of Ciudad Real), also considering that the individualization in Spanish language \"El Orejón\" with the mutation of the letter \"g\" instead of \"j\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11705957",
"title": "Etymology of Oregon",
"section": "Section::::Historical usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 940,
"text": "The earliest evidence of the name \"Oregon\" has Spanish origins. The term \"orejón\" comes from the historical chronicle \"Relación de la Alta y Baja California\" (1598) written by the new Spaniard Rodrigo Montezuma and made reference to the Columbia River when the Spanish explorers penetrated into the actual North American territory that became part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. This chronicle is the first topographical and linguistic source with respect to the place name \"Oregon\". There are also two other sources with Spanish origins, such as the name \"Oregano\", which grows in the southern part of the region. It is most probable that the American territory was named by the Spaniards, as there are some populations in Spain such as \"Arroyo del Oregón\" (which is situated in the province of Ciudad Real), also considering that the individualization in Spanish language \"El Orejón\" with the mutation of the letter \"g\" instead of \"j\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "327342",
"title": "Oregon Country",
"section": "Section::::Name origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 941,
"text": "The earliest evidence of the name \"Oregon\" has Spanish origins. The term \"orejón\" comes from the historical chronicle \"Relación de la Alta y Baja California\" (1598) which was written by the new Spaniard Rodrigo Motezuma and which made reference to the Columbia river when the Spanish explorers penetrated into the North American territory that became part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. This chronicle is the first topographical and linguistic source with respect to the place name \"Oregon\". There are also two other sources with Spanish origins such as the name Oregano which grows in the southern part of the region. It is most probable that the American territory was named by the Spaniards as there are some populations in Spain such as \"Arroyo del Oregón\" which is situated in the province of Ciudad Real, also considering that the individualization in Spanish language \"El Orejón\" with the mutation of the letter \"g\" instead of \"j\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "474389",
"title": "Oregon boundary dispute",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1269,
"text": "The Oregon Question originated in the 18th century during the early European or American exploration of the Pacific Northwest. Various Empires began to consider the area suitable for colonial expansion, including the Americans, Russians, Spanish and British. Naval captains such as the Spanish Juan José Pérez Hernández, British George Vancouver and American Robert Gray gave defining regional water formations like the Columbia River and the Puget Sound their modern names and charted in the 1790s. Overland explorations were commenced by the British Alexander Mackenzie in 1792 and later followed by the American Lewis and Clark expedition, which reached the mouth of the Columbia River in 1805. These explorers often claimed in the name of their respective governments sovereignty over the Northwest Coast. The knowledge of fur-bearing animal populations like the California sea lion, North American beaver and the Northern fur seal were used to create an economic network called the maritime fur trade. The fur trade would remain the main economic interest that drew Euro-Americans to the Pacific Northwest for decades. Merchants exchanged goods for fur pelts along the coast with indigenous nations such as the Chinookan people, the Aleuts and the Nuu-chah-nulth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3fhurf
|
how can the us government tack on extra laws to bills?
|
[
{
"answer": "People in the US don't vote on every bill that is to/might become law. It is a Representstive Democracy so they vote for Senators and Congresmen/women who will they represent them. It is these people who then vote on the bills which are put before them. If the bill passes in both the Senate and the House of Representatives the president will sign that bill and it will become law. Each bill is not limited to one topic. It is quite often that a bill will be mostly about one topic that everyone can get on board with, and then have a line or section which covers something entirely different. Typically the subject of that provision is something one or the other parties does not particularly want. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2573064",
"title": "Presentment Clause",
"section": "Section::::National Archives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 252,
"text": " provides that whenever a bill becomes law or takes effect, it will be received by the Archivist of the United States from the President. This allows the National Archives and Records Administration to maintain records of and publish the enacted laws.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3874731",
"title": "United States federal budget",
"section": "Section::::Budget principles.:Budget authority versus outlays.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 638,
"text": "Congress may both authorize and appropriate in the same bill. Known as \"authorization bills\", such legislation usually provides for a multi-year authorization and appropriation. Authorization bills are particularly useful when funding entitlement programs (benefits which federal law says an individual has a right to, regardless if any money is appropriated), where estimating the amount of funds to be spent is difficult. Authorization bills are also useful when giving a federal agency the right to borrow money, sign contracts, or provide loan guarantees. In 2007, two-thirds of all federal spending came through authorization bills.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17842549",
"title": "Act of Parliament (UK)",
"section": "Section::::Classification of legislation.:Other types of classification.:Housekeeping bills.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "This type of bill is designed to keep the business of government and public affairs up to date. These bills may not be substantial or controversial in party political terms. Two sub-classes of the housekeeping bill are \"consolidation bills\", which set out existing law in a clearer and more up-to-date form without changing its substance; and the tax law rewrite bills, which do the same for tax law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13468303",
"title": "Origination Clause",
"section": "Section::::Developments since 1789.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 694,
"text": "[The clause] has been confined to bills to levy taxes in the strict sense of the words, and has not been understood to extend to bills for other purposes, which may incidentally create revenue. No one supposes, that a bill to sell any of the public lands, or to sell public stock, is a bill to raise revenue, in the sense of the constitution. Much less would a bill be so deemed, which merely regulated the value of foreign or domestic coins, or authorized a discharge of insolvent debtors upon assignments of their estates to the United States, giving a priority of payment to the United States in cases of insolvency, although all of them might incidentally bring, revenue into the treasury.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16398065",
"title": "Authorization bill",
"section": "Section::::Definition and Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "Most authorization bills today are for multiple years, with the exception of defense and intelligence agency authorizations, which happen annually. The defense authorization bills are referred to as the National Defense Authorization Act.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2449826",
"title": "Hellenic Parliament",
"section": "Section::::Legislative process.:Bills, amendments and additions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 1012,
"text": "Both the government and MPs may submit bills, amendments and additions to Parliament. Government bills are called Draft Laws () and must always be accompanied by the General Accounting Office's report estimating its effect on the State Budget. Bills originating from an MP are called Law Proposals () and must not include provisions benefiting a particular person or persons, such as increases in salaries or pensions, that would lead to a decrease in government revenue. It is also mandatory that an explanatory report is attached to all bills, elaborating on the purpose of the proposed legislation and indicating the exact wording of current legislation to be amended or repealed. Draft Laws (but not Law Proposals) must also be accompanied by an Impact Assessment Report and by a report on the results of the public consultation that took place prior to the submission of the bill. Finally, all bills are examined by the Parliament's own Scientific Agency, which submits a review on the proposed provisions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41726343",
"title": "Appropriations bill (United States)",
"section": "Section::::Types of appropriations bills.:Regular appropriations bills.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "Traditionally, regular appropriations bills have provided most of the federal government's annual funding. The text of the bill is divided into \"accounts\" with some larger agencies having several separate accounts (for things like salaries or research/development) and some smaller agencies just having one. The appropriations bill provides a specified amount of money for each individual account, and can also include conditions or restrictions on the use of the money.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
70clmz
|
how does recycling paper work and why does it seem like every recycled paper bag is brown?
|
[
{
"answer": "Paper is recycled by chopping it up and then cooking the bits in warm water, then mashing them back into sheets and drying it again.\n\nUsually they bleach it, so most recycled paper is white. If they don't bleach it, the natural color is gray or brown depending on the materials. (Brown if made of cardboard boxes, gray if made of office paper or newspaper.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "491484",
"title": "Paper machine",
"section": "Section::::Pulp types and their preparations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "Bales of recycled paper (normally old corrugated containers) for unbleached (brown) packaging grades may be simply pulped, screened and cleaned. Recycling to make white papers is usually done in a deinking plant, which employs screening, cleaning, washing, bleaching and flotation. Deinked pulp is used in printing and writing papers and in tissue, napkins and paper towels. It is often blended with virgin pulp.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16861908",
"title": "Paper",
"section": "Section::::Papermaking.:De-inked pulp.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Paper recycling processes can use either chemically or mechanically produced pulp; by mixing it with water and applying mechanical action the hydrogen bonds in the paper can be broken and fibres separated again. Most recycled paper contains a proportion of virgin fibre for the sake of quality; generally speaking, de-inked pulp is of the same quality or lower than the collected paper it was made from.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2086634",
"title": "Paper bag",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "Standard brown paper bags are made from kraft paper. Tote-style paper bags, such as those often used by department stores or as gift bags, can be made from any kind of paper, and come in any color. Paper bags can be made from recycled paper, with some local laws requiring bags to have a minimum percentage of post-consumer recycled content.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1524589",
"title": "Paper recycling",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "The recycling of paper is the process by which waste paper is turned into new paper products. It has a number of important benefits besides saving trees from being cut down. It is less energy and water intensive than paper made from wood pulp. It saves waste paper from occupying landfill and producing methane as it breaks down. Around two thirds of all paper products in the US are now recovered and recycled, although it does not all become new paper. After repeated processing the fibers become too short for the production of new paper.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "423640",
"title": "Paperboard",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Raw materials.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 900,
"text": "BULLET::::- Recycled: Used paper is collected and sorted and usually mixed with virgin fibres in order to make new material. This is necessary as the recycled fibre often loses strength when reused; the added virgin fibres enhance strength. Mixed waste paper is not usually deinked (skipping the deinking stage) for paperboard manufacture and hence the pulp may contain traces of inks, adhesives, and other residues which together give it a grey colour. Products made of recycled board usually have a less predictable composition and poorer functional properties than virgin fibre-based boards. Health risks have been associated with using recycled material in direct food contact. Swiss studies have shown that recycled material can contain significant portions of mineral oil, which may migrate into packed foods. Mineral oil levels of up to 19.4 mg/kg were found in rice packed in recycled board.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1524589",
"title": "Paper recycling",
"section": "Section::::Methods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "The process of waste paper recycling most often involves mixing used/old paper with water and chemicals to break it down. It is then chopped up and heated, which breaks it down further into strands of cellulose, a type of organic plant material; this resulting mixture is called pulp, or slurry. It is strained through screens, which remove any glue or plastic (especially from \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28933560",
"title": "Recycling by product",
"section": "Section::::Paper and newsprint.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "Paper and newsprint can be recycled by reducing it to pulp and combining it with pulp from newly harvested wood. As the recycling process causes the paper fibres to break down, each time paper is recycled its quality decreases. This means that either a higher percentage of new fibres must be added, or the paper down-cycled into lower quality products. Any writing or colouration of the paper must first be removed by deinking, which also removes fillers, clays, and fibre fragments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
10rre5
|
why will a whole flock of birds sit in a tree and caw/chirp/exclaim at seemingly nothing?
|
[
{
"answer": "Birds do four very basic things: Eat, sleep, shit and fuck. If the birds have eaten and got enough rest there is nothing left for them to do but try to get with the lady birds. Birds hang out in trees and chirp and sing to show that they have done all the important things and they would be a good choice for a marathon sex session because they are such efficient hunters and sleepers, they must be better than the other birds. Trouble is, once one bird starts making noise, others join in even if they are a bit hungry. Soon all the birds are cawing and whistling outside your door. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are other reasons to communicate than danger. Social hierarchy, mating selection, etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12472829",
"title": "Red-banded fruiteater",
"section": "Section::::Ecology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "This bird feeds on fruit in the tree canopy, sometimes visiting forest verges (at which times it is easier to observe), but more often remaining elusive in the woodland interior. It is a lethargic bird usually seen singly or in pairs, but sometimes forming part of mixed flocks of fruiteaters. The fruits on which it feeds are mainly consumed while hovering briefly, but sometimes the bird perches while feeding.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4214919",
"title": "Wonga pigeon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "They are very elusive birds, more often being heard but not seen, producing explosive wing claps when disturbed. They tend to occur on the ground foraging and are located in rainforests, wet eucalypt forests, coastal forests, picnic areas, walking tracks, car parks and gardens. Their diet consists of fruit, berries, seeds from native forest trees and the odd insect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12430000",
"title": "Mindanao bleeding-heart",
"section": "Section::::Behaviour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "It is a shy bird which typically runs from danger, spending most of its time on the forest floor, and only flying short distances if flushed. It only perches in trees if frightened or when nesting or roosting. The call is a repeated woo-oo similar to that of most doves and pigeons. It is a rare sight because of its cryptic behaviour.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10979575",
"title": "Waxwings (novel)",
"section": "Section::::The title.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "\" ... the book was actually named for the birds ... They're fascinating to watch. They descend, in a huge flock, on a berry tree and gorge themselves until the tree is stripped bare. Some of them get so drunk on the berries that they fall out of the trees, too heavy to fly. You see them lying on their backs, sozzled out of their tiny minds with their feet waving in the air. Then suddenly the flock recomposes and moves on to pillage the next tree. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5766396",
"title": "Glossy-mantled manucode",
"section": "Section::::Biology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "These birds have diurnal habits. They tend to move alone or in pairs, rarely in small groups: They spend most of their time looking for food among the branches of trees, ready to hide themselves in the thick vegetation when disturbed. They are not particularly timid, but it is easier to hear their calls or flights rather than observe them directly. The diet consists mainly of fruits, figs and arthropods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "210845",
"title": "Woodpecker",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "Members of this family are chiefly known for their characteristic behaviour. They mostly forage for insect prey on the trunks and branches of trees, and often communicate by drumming with their beak, producing a reverberatory sound that can be heard at some distance. Some species vary their diet with fruits, birds' eggs, small animals, and tree sap. They mostly nest and roost in holes that they excavate in tree trunks, and their abandoned holes are of importance to other cavity-nesting birds. They sometimes come into conflict with humans when they make holes in buildings or feed on fruit crops, but perform a useful service by their removal of insect pests on trees.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12424296",
"title": "Papuan king parrot",
"section": "Section::::Behaviour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "Birds are encountered in ones or twos, or in small flocks up to 10 birds. They feed quietly in dense forest generally in small trees or low branches of large trees, and are often unnoticed. They eat berries, fruit, seeds and possibly some insects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8g82yq
|
What are the horizontal bands of clouds that form during a nuclear detonation, and why do they form at those intervals?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's called a condensation cloud, or a Wilson cloud. It only occurs in humid air. With an explosion of significant size, a shock wave develops which leaves a a low-pressure zone behind it. This leads to large-scale adiabatic cooling. This cooling of the air below the dew point allows the moisture to condense into clouds, oftentimes as rings as we see in the video you linked. Once the pressure equalizes, the clouds disappear. How the clouds appear depends on the exact nature of the shock wave as well as the temperature and humidity of the air around the blast.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "263209",
"title": "Mushroom cloud",
"section": "Section::::Physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "Mushroom clouds are formed by many sorts of large explosions under earth's gravity, but they are best known for their appearance after nuclear detonations. Without gravity, the explosive's by-product gases would remain spherical. Nuclear weapons are usually detonated above the ground (not upon impact, because some of the energy would be dissipated by the ground motions), to maximize the effect of their spherically expanding fireball and blast wave. Immediately after the detonation, the fireball begins to rise into the air, acting on the same principle as a hot-air balloon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "244366",
"title": "Mesocyclone",
"section": "Section::::Formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "As the updraft rotates and ingests cooler moister air from the forward flank downdraft (FFD), it may form a wall cloud, a spinning layer of clouds lowered from ambient storm cloud base under the mid-level mesocyclone. The wall cloud tends to form closer to the center of the mesocyclone. As it descends, a funnel cloud may form near its center. This is the first visible stage of tornadogenesis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12253521",
"title": "Convective storm detection",
"section": "Section::::Storm spotting.:Visual evidence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 816,
"text": "Only wall clouds that rotate spawn tornadoes, and usually precede the tornado by five to thirty minutes. Rotating wall clouds are the visual manifestation of a mesocyclone. Barring a low-level boundary, tornadogenesis is highly unlikely unless a rear flank downdraft occurs, which is usually visibly evidenced by evaporation of cloud adjacent to a corner of a wall cloud. A tornado often occurs as this happens or shortly after; first, a funnel cloud dips and in nearly all cases by the time it reaches halfway down, a surface swirl has already developed, signifying a tornado is on the ground before condensation connects the surface circulation to the storm. Tornadoes may also occur without wall clouds, under flanking lines, and on the leading edge. Spotters monitor all areas of a storm and their surroundings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25101402",
"title": "Astrophysical X-ray source",
"section": "Section::::Exotic X-ray sources.:Messier 87.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 131,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 131,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "Observations made by Chandra indicate the presence of loops and rings in the hot X-ray emitting gas that surrounds Messier 87. These loops and rings are generated by variations in the rate at which material is ejected from the supermassive black hole in jets. The distribution of loops suggests that minor eruptions occur every six million years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37530",
"title": "Tornado",
"section": "Section::::Detection.:Visual evidence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 851,
"text": "Only wall clouds that rotate spawn tornadoes, and they usually precede the tornado between five and thirty minutes. Rotating wall clouds may be a visual manifestation of a low-level mesocyclone. Barring a low-level boundary, tornadogenesis is highly unlikely unless a rear flank downdraft occurs, which is usually visibly evidenced by evaporation of cloud adjacent to a corner of a wall cloud. A tornado often occurs as this happens or shortly afterwards; first, a funnel cloud dips and in nearly all cases by the time it reaches halfway down, a surface swirl has already developed, signifying a tornado is on the ground before condensation connects the surface circulation to the storm. Tornadoes may also develop without wall clouds, under flanking lines and on the leading edge. Spotters watch all areas of a storm, and the cloud base and surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22669",
"title": "Open cluster",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "Young open clusters may be contained within the molecular cloud from which they formed, illuminating it to create an H II region. Over time, radiation pressure from the cluster will disperse the molecular cloud. Typically, about 10% of the mass of a gas cloud will coalesce into stars before radiation pressure drives the rest of the gas away.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "263209",
"title": "Mushroom cloud",
"section": "Section::::Nuclear mushroom clouds.:Cloud composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "A low-altitude detonation produces a cloud with a dust loading of 100 tons per megaton of yield. A ground detonation produces clouds with about three times as much dust. For a ground detonation, approximately 200 tons of soil per kiloton of yield is melted and comes in contact with radiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
39vu16
|
When did brothels start using red lights as a sign of their presence? Why red?
|
[
{
"answer": "Ooo!.Ooo! I know! At least, what they claim in *Brass Checks and Red Lights*, a brief study of prostitution in the late West, and some of the background of sportin' houses. They said it originally came from railroad men hanging their red-glassed lanterns outside the one-whore cribs. However, I have long wondered just how many stops those guys were making to provide that many red lights, and just how old the term actually is. This book would make it post-1830s at the earliest and more like post-Civil War.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25825",
"title": "Red",
"section": "Section::::Symbolism.:Seduction, sexuality and sin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 143,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 143,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "Red is still commonly associated with prostitution. Prostitutes in many cities were required to wear red to announce their profession, and houses of prostitution displayed a red light. Beginning in the early 20th century, houses of prostitution were allowed only in certain specified neighborhoods, which became known as red-light districts. Large red-light districts are found today in Bangkok and Amsterdam.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1168808",
"title": "Scarlet (color)",
"section": "Section::::Scarlet in culture.:Prostitution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "The connection of red or scarlet with prostitution was very common in Europe and America. Prostitutes were obliged to wear red in some European cities, and even today areas in European cities where prostitutes can work legally are known as red-light districts. Sex worker advocacy groups like the Scarlet Alliance use the striking colour to associate themselves with prostitution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55805660",
"title": "Prostitution in the German Democratic Republic",
"section": "Section::::Prostitution and International Guests.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "Red-light districts did not exist. However, prostitution was tolerated especially during the Leipzig Trade Fair, in hotels used by foreigners (Interhotel) and the international seaports (in particular Rostock). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1015316",
"title": "New York City Subway stations",
"section": "Section::::Station facilities and amenities.:Entrances.:Lamps.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 876,
"text": "The meaning of the lights is poorly understood by passengers, and was originally more complicated. Green, yellow, and red lights were introduced in the early 1980s to indicate the entrance's availability, mostly to prevent muggings by warning riders away from entrances that were closed at night. Originally, green signified an entrance located at a full-time station booth, which was open 24/7 and had regular waist-high turnstiles; yellow signified a part-time booth, to which access to the platforms could be gained using High Entry-Exit Turnstiles (HEETs); and red signified an exit-only. This proved too complicated and yellow was dropped in the early 1990s. Red globes now indicate both part-time entrance or exit-only; indeed, a joke when the system was introduced was that \"green meant go in, red meant don't. And yellow meant take a [yellow New York City taxi] cab.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12437259",
"title": "Spring Garden Lane",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "In the early 1900s, Spring Garden Lane and Sam Pan Street () became a red-light district with western and eastern prostitutes. To attract attention, brothels were displaying large street number plates, and the area became known as \"Big Number Brothels\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4032739",
"title": "Prostitution in South Korea",
"section": "Section::::Range of services.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "Following the enactment of the Special Law in 2004, there was a crackdown on red-light districts; while many of the brothels in those areas were forced to close, the crackdown went as quickly as it came, with the result that prostitution was driven more underground but also became a more competitive business with lower prices and more services.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5127168",
"title": "Prostitution in the United States",
"section": "Section::::History.:19th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "In the late 19th century, newspapers reported that 65,000 white slaves existed. Around 1890, the term \"red-light district\" was first recorded in the United States. From 1890 to 1982, the Dumas Brothel in Montana was America's longest-running house of prostitution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
13flsq
|
During the middle ages in Europe, how would soldiers treat and transport their weapons and armor from battle to battle?
|
[
{
"answer": "Some shields were equipped with a strap known as a guige used for carrying over the back outside of battle. They're depicted, infrequently, in the Bayeux tapestry, as the Normans travel. More often they're shown holding the shield by the enarmes, the straps that go around the forearm.\n\nEDIT: cleanup",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I only feel qualified to answer one of your questions. It's not much, but I hope it helps somewhat. \n\nKnights would typically not be armored when not expecting battle. As anyone who has walked around in chainmail can attest; that stuff is very heavy. Add plate and it gets even worse. With training, it's well possible to wear it for an extended time, but sleeping in it would be very uncomfortable and any strenuous activity such as marching would be for more exhausting than it otherwise would be. Both hot and wet weather can make wearing armor even less pleasant. \n\nA good historic example of this can be found in the battle of Stamford Bridge. The vikings had left their armor behind in their ships, because of the hot weather and the fact that they were not expecting conflict with the English for a good while yet. They got a nasty surprise after Harold Godwinsson force-marched his army north in record time.\n\nsource: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'd imagine spears were held with one hand and propped against the shoulder. I've never heard of or seen any depiction of spears being strapped to the back. Knights and men-at-arms on horseback would carry their lances vertically with the butt of the lance resting on the foot or stirrup and held in the middle. They would often attach pennants or banners to the lance so it would flutter overhead when held like this.\n\nWhile on campaign knights would pretty much live in their armor, especially when knights wore primarily mail. An attack to come at any moment and to be caught unarmored would be a bad thing. Also, keep in mind knights almost universally traveled on horseback so the weight of the armor wasn't as much of an issue. While at home they wore what the rest of the nobility wore, the style and type of clothing worn varied with fashion and era.\n\nMost siege engines were built on site from materials on hand and they tended to be crude; rams, towers, catapults etc. Some engines were built beforehand and brought with the army disassembled in carts in the baggage train, things like large trebuchets and cannons, then assembled by the engineers once the city or castle had been invested. The largest trebuchet ever built was the Warwolf, built on the orders of Edward I of England for the siege of Stirling Castle, filled 30 wagons when disassembled.\n\nSoldier is pretty generous term for most members of medieval armies. Most of the foot was comprised of levied peasants armed with whatever implements they could fashion into rude weapons. They were completely responsible for their arms and equipment. It wasn't until the very end of the medieval period that professional armies began to emerge. As for maintenance of equipment IIRC armies would either bring their own armorers, fletchers, bowyers, etc. with them or utilize the services of local craftsmen. I don't know about then but now swords and armor when not in use are packed in mineral oil to prevent rusting. I doubt they had access to mineral oil then so they probably used something like an oil cloth to keep moisture out.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Halberds, lances and the like were transported shouldered, with additional equipment wrapped around them. [In this picture from 1513](_URL_0_) you can see some swiss infanterists of the early 16th century on their way to Italy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "321956",
"title": "List of common misconceptions",
"section": "Section::::History.:Middle Ages and Renaissance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "BULLET::::- The plate armor of European soldiers did not stop soldiers from moving around or necessitate a crane to get them into a saddle. They would as a matter of course fight on foot and could mount and dismount without help. In fact, soldiers equipped with plate armor were more mobile than those with mail armor (chain armor), as mail was heavier and required stiff padding beneath due to its pliable nature. It is true that armor used in tournaments in the late Middle Ages was significantly heavier than that used in warfare, which may have contributed to this misconception.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "313007",
"title": "Condottieri",
"section": "Section::::Mercenary captains.:Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1272,
"text": "From the eleventh to the thirteenth century, European soldiers led by professional officers fought against the Muslims in the Crusades (1095–1291). These crusading officers provided large-scale warfare combat experience in the Holy Land. On the Crusades' conclusion, the first (bands of roving soldiers) appeared in Italy. Given the profession, some were less mercenaries than bandits and desperate men. These were not Italian, but (mostly) German, from the Duchy of Brabant (hence, ), and from Aragon. The latter were Spanish soldiers who had followed King Peter III of Aragon in the War of the Sicilian Vespers in Italy in October 1282, and, post-war, remained there, seeking military employment. By 1333 other mercenaries had arrived in Italy to fight with John of Bohemia as the (Company of the Dove) in Perugia's war against Arezzo. The first well organised mercenaries in Italy were the Ventura Companies of Duke Werner von Urslingen and Count Konrad von Landau. Werner's company differed from other mercenary companies because its code of military justice imposed discipline \"and\" an equal division of the contract's income. The Ventura Company increased in number until becoming the fearsome \"Great Company\" of some 3,000 (each comprised a knight and a sergeant).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1334113",
"title": "Body armor",
"section": "Section::::History.:Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "In European history, well-known armor types include the mail hauberk of the early medieval age, and the full steel plate harness worn by later Medieval and Renaissance knights, and a few key components (breast and back plates) by heavy cavalry in several European countries until the first year of World War I (1914–15).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8588509",
"title": "Rashidun Caliphate",
"section": "Section::::Military.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 213,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 213,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "The standard form of body armor was chainmail. There are also references to the practice of wearing two coats of mail (\"dir’ayn\"), the one under the main one being shorter or even made of fabric or leather. Hauberks and large wooden or wickerwork shields were also used as protection in combat. The soldiers were usually equipped with swords hung in a baldric. They also possessed spears and daggers. Umar was the first Muslim ruler to organize the army as a state department, in 637. A beginning was made with the Quraish and the Ansar and the system was gradually extended to the whole of Arabia and to Muslims of conquered lands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2726726",
"title": "Military logistics",
"section": "Section::::History.:5th to 15th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "Through the medieval period (the 5th to 15th century in Europe), soldiers were responsible for supplying themselves, either through foraging, looting, or purchases. Even so, military commanders often provided their troops with food and supplies, but this would be provided in lieu of the soldiers' wages, or soldiers would be expected to pay for it from their wages, either at cost or even with a profit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "653194",
"title": "Man-at-arms",
"section": "Section::::Military function.:Arms and armour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "Throughout the Medieval period and into the Renaissance the armour of the man-at-arms became progressively more effective and expensive. Throughout the 14th century, the armour worn by a man-at-arms was a composite of materials. Over a quilted gambeson, mail armour covered the body, limbs and head. Increasingly during the century, the mail was supplemented by plate armour on the body and limbs. In the 15th century, full plate armour was developed, which reduced the mail component to a few points of flexible reinforcement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1334113",
"title": "Body armor",
"section": "Section::::Protected areas.:Limbs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "Medieval armor often offered protection for all of the limbs, including metal boots for the lower legs, gauntlets for the hands and wrists, and greaves for the legs. Today, protection of limbs from bombs is provided by a bombsuit. Most modern soldiers sacrifice limb protection for mobility, since armor thick enough to stop bullets would greatly inhibit movement of the arms and legs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2jtbtu
|
why are there leaked pictures of almost all new non-released products? how do they get them?
|
[
{
"answer": "1. an insider (employee, someone in the production line / supply-chain line) sells the information to a publisher.\n\n2. the company itself tries to mimic the hype of \"leaks\" by willfully creating the above for the purpose of marketing.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To announce a new product, it generally helps to have promotional materials already made - stock photos, spec sheets, comparison charts. Also a prototype likely needs to already be made, or even thousands of units may have already been produced and ready to hit shelves. \n\n If you're going to announce a new iPad, you should release the size/dimensions to the authorized case and peripherals manufacturers so they have time to create add-on products. If you're releasing a new version of Windows, you should have a beta version that software developers can make sure their products run on.\n\nAt some point in the process, despite being expressly forbidden from leaking the information, someone decides to sneak it out and expose it. I don't believe \"most\" is \"done on purpose.\" Some of it might be. It's more likely that when you have dozens, hundreds, or thousands, of people working to release a hugely anticipated product, someone is going to leak. \"Two can keep a secret if one of them is dead.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5653527",
"title": "Film still",
"section": "Section::::Copyright.:United States.:Public domain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "There is a vast body of photographs, including but not limited to publicity stills, that have no notice as to who may have created them... Without knowing where the photos came from, or what long lost parent may appear and claim the 'orphaned work,' licensing the work becomes risky business. For publishers, museums, and other archives that are risk-averse, this leads to a large body of works that will never be published.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54262404",
"title": "Machine Identification Code",
"section": "Section::::Protection of privacy and circumvention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 728,
"text": "Copies or printouts of documents with confidential personal information, for example health care information, account statements, tax declaration or balance sheets, can be traced to the owner of the printer and the creation date of the documents can be revealed. This traceability is unknown to many users and inaccessible, as manufacturers do not publicize the code that produces these patterns. It is unclear which data may be unintentionally passed on with a copy or printout. In particular, there are no mentions of the technique in the support materials of most affected printers (exceptions see below). In 2005 Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) sought a decoding method and made available a Python script for analysis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50034356",
"title": "Panama Papers",
"section": "Section::::Newsroom logistics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "Reporters sorted the documents into a huge file structure containing a folder for each shell company, which held the associated emails, contracts, transcripts, and scanned documents Mossack Fonseca had generated while doing business with the company or administering it on a client's behalf. Some 4.8 million leaked files were emails, 3 million were database entries, 2.2 million PDFs, 1.2 million images, 320,000 text files, and 2242 files in other formats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41897927",
"title": "The Intercept",
"section": "Section::::Criticism and controversy.:Exposure and arrest of a confidential source.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "Verifying the legitimacy of leaked documents is common journalism practice, as is protecting third parties who may be harmed incidentally by the leak being published. However, professional media outlets who receive documents or recordings from confidential sources do not, as a practice, share the unfiltered primary evidence with a federal agency for review or verification, as it is known that metadata and unique identifiers may be revealed that were not obvious to the journalist, and the source exposed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8667723",
"title": "Dcraw",
"section": "Section::::Motivation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "While most camera manufacturers supply raw image decoding software for their cameras, this software is almost always proprietary, and often becomes unsupported when a camera model is discontinued. The file formats themselves are often undocumented, and several manufacturers have gone so far as to encrypt all or part of the data in their raw image format, in an attempt to prevent third-party software from accessing it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43715069",
"title": "ICloud leaks of celebrity photos",
"section": "Section::::Content and affected celebrities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 840,
"text": "The original release contained photos and videos of more than 100 individuals that were allegedly obtained from file storage on hacked iCloud accounts, including some the leakers claimed were A-list celebrities. Shortly after the photos were leaked, several affected celebrities issued statements to either confirm or deny the photos' authenticity. Celebrities who have confirmed the photos' authenticity include Jennifer Lawrence (confirmed by her publicist), Kate Upton and her husband Justin Verlander (confirmed by Upton's lawyer), Mary Elizabeth Winstead (confirmed on Twitter), Jessica Brown Findlay (confirmed by spokesman), Kaley Cuoco (confirmed via Instagram), and Kirsten Dunst, who also criticized the iCloud service. Jill Scott confirmed on Twitter that one of the leaked photos was of her while stating that another was fake.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "149644",
"title": "Dye-sublimation printer",
"section": "Section::::Comparison with inkjet printers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 816,
"text": "For environments that print confidential or secret documents, a dye-sublimation printer is a potential security risk that must be handled carefully. Due to the mechanism of printing, a perfect color-separated negative image of the printed page is created on the supply roll color panels, and the \"waste roll\" of dye panels can be unrolled to see everything that has been printed with the printer. For such environments, the waste roll should be shredded or incinerated onsite rather than simply being discarded in the trash. Also, for home users, the waste roll from a photo printer can be similarly recovered from the garbage and used to see everything that has been printed. Since the supply roll is plastic, the lifespan of a used roll can be years or decades long, permitting image recovery long after disposal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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