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6snjgy
|
how do headphones create sound by connecting a metal post into a metal housing and sending information through a wire into speakers?
|
[
{
"answer": "They don't send \"information\", they send an analog electrical signal. That signal is run through a coil to produce a magnetic field. A small permanent magnet reacts to the field, moving a small speaker cone back and forth to produce sound waves that your ear can detect.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sound, what our ears \"hear\" is actually vibrations in the air around us. The air moves in waves, compressing and decompressing radiating outward from the source of the noise. So remember, the sound is just another word for compression waves in the air. \n\nTo make sound from a speaker, magnets move a bladder back and forth. Basically, the magnets turn on and off causing the \"cone\" in the speaker to move inward and outward. This movement compresses air and creates sound. It's the same principle in headphones as it is on the biggest speakers at the loudest concerts, it's just a matter of scale. \n\nSo speakers don't really get \"information\" they take an electrical signal and use it to turn the magnet on or off, that's it. The signal tells the speakers to VERY quickly turn the magnet on and off. It does this by supplying power over that tiny wire. So there's really no \"information\" transmitted as much as power is supplied or not, and the speakers turn that into sound. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44731820",
"title": "AudioQuest",
"section": "Section::::Effects of cable quality on analog audio quality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "Electrostatic and piezoelectric noise can also become an issue in exotic headphone systems, if the headphones have a relatively high input impedance compared to traditional speakers which have a nominal impedance of 8 Ohms. This is where a careful choice of insulating materials can make a difference. This type of noise is often perceived as snap, crackle and pop when mechanically manipulating or handling the headphone cord. It is often hard to tell, without actual measurements if the source of this noise is electronic or mechanical in nature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7452926",
"title": "Potential applications of carbon nanotubes",
"section": "Section::::Mechanical.:Loudspeaker.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 129,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 129,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "Carbon nanotubes have also been applied in the acoustics (such as loudspeaker and earphone). In 2008 it was shown that a sheet of nanotubes can operate as a loudspeaker if an alternating current is applied. The sound is not produced through vibration but thermoacoustically. In 2013, a carbon nanotube (CNT) thin yarn thermoacoustic earphone together with CNT thin yarn thermoacoustic chip was demonstrated by a research group of Tsinghua-Foxconn Nanotechnology Research Center in Tsinghua University, using a Si-based semi-conducting technology compatible fabrication process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2615047",
"title": "Speaker wire",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "Speaker wire is used to make the electrical connection between loudspeakers and audio amplifiers. Modern speaker wire consists of two or more electrical conductors individually insulated by plastic (such as PVC, PE or Teflon) or, less commonly, rubber. The two wires are electrically identical, but are marked to identify the correct audio signal polarity. Most commonly, speaker wire comes in the form of zip cord.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2288590",
"title": "Crystal earpiece",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "A crystal earpiece is a type of piezoelectric earphone, producing sound by using a piezoelectric crystal, a material that changes its shape when electricity is applied to it. It is usually designed to plug into the ear canal of the user.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2288590",
"title": "Crystal earpiece",
"section": "Section::::Operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 890,
"text": "A crystal earpiece typically consists of a piezoelectric crystal with metal electrodes attached to either side, glued to a conical plastic or metal foil diaphragm, enclosed in a plastic case. The piezoelectric material used in early crystal earphones was Rochelle salt, but modern earphones use barium titanate, or less often quartz. When the audio signal is applied to the electrodes, the crystal bends back and forth a little with the signal, vibrating the diaphragm. The diaphragm pushes on the air, creating sound waves. The plastic earpiece casing confines the sound waves and conducts them efficiently into the ear canal, to the eardrum. The diaphragm is generally fixed at its outer edge, relying on bending to operate. The air path in the earpiece is generally a horn shape, with a narrowing column of air which increases the air displacement at the eardrum, increasing the volume.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5238485",
"title": "Carbon microphone",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1139,
"text": "The carbon microphone, also known as carbon button microphone, button microphone, or carbon transmitter, is a type of microphone, a transducer that converts sound to an electrical audio signal. It consists of two metal plates separated by granules of carbon. One plate is very thin and faces toward the speaking person, acting as a diaphragm. Sound waves striking the diaphragm cause it to vibrate, exerting a varying pressure on the granules, which in turn changes the electrical resistance between the plates. Higher pressure lowers the resistance as the granules are pushed closer together. A steady direct current is passed between the plates through the granules. The varying resistance results in a modulation of the current, creating a varying electric current that reproduces the varying pressure of the sound wave. In telephony, this undulating current is directly passed through the telephone wires to the central office. In public address systems it is amplified by an audio amplifier. The frequency response of the carbon microphone, however, is limited to a narrow range, and the device produces significant electrical noise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27944981",
"title": "Timeline of United States inventions (before 1890)",
"section": "Section::::Gilded Age (1878–1899).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 301,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 301,
"end_character": 870,
"text": "BULLET::::- The carbon microphone is a sound-to-electrical signal transducer consisting of two metal plates separated by granules of carbon. When sound waves strike this plate, the pressure on the granules changes, which in turn changes the electrical resistance between the plates. A direct current is passed from one plate to the other, and the changing resistance results in a changing current, which can be passed through a telephone system, or used in other ways in electronics systems to change the sound into an electrical signal. After a lengthy court battle over patent rights filed in 1877, a United States federal court as well as a British court in 1878 ruled in favor of Thomas Alva Edison over a claim held by Emile Berliner since Edison indisputably preceded Berliner in inventing the transmission of speech as well as the use of carbon in a transmitter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5qlea5
|
why do so many people equate abortion with murder when an unwanted baby is often subject to a lifetime of pain and depression due to their parent's inability to care for the child?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because apparently a life full of suffering and pain that likely ends tragically, is better than not being alive at all.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "354076",
"title": "Maternal death",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Unsafe abortion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "Unsafe abortion is another major cause of maternal death. According to the World Health Organization in 2009, every eight minutes a woman died from complications arising from unsafe abortions. Complications include hemorrhage, infection, sepsis and genital trauma.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2063748",
"title": "Unsafe abortion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "Unsafe abortions results in complications for about 7 million women a year. Unsafe abortions are also one of the leading causes of deaths during pregnancy and childbirth (about 5-13% of all deaths during this period). Most unsafe abortions occur where abortion is illegal, or in developing countries where affordable and well-trained medical practitioners are not readily available, or where modern birth control is unavailable. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21071926",
"title": "Unintended pregnancy",
"section": "Section::::Facts.:Induced abortions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "While decisions about abortion may cause some individuals psychological distress, some find a reduction in distress after abortion. There is no evidence of widespread psychological harm from abortion. Unwanted pregnancy and births resulting from these pregnancies are also psychologically distressing, so considerations of psychological impact of abortion should be in comparison to potential harm from these stressors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32485929",
"title": "Abortion and mental health",
"section": "Section::::Current scientific evidence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1348,
"text": "Major medical and psychiatric expert groups have consistently found that abortion does not cause mental-health problems. In 2008, the American Psychological Association reviewed the literature on abortion and mental health and concluded that the risk of mental health problems following a single, first-trimester induced abortion of an adult women is no greater than carrying an unwanted pregnancy to term. While observing that abortion may both relieve stress and \"engender additional stress,\" they explicitly rejected the idea that abortion is \"inherently traumatic.\" Among those women who do experience mental health issues, the APA concluded that these issues are most likely related to pre-existing risk factors. Since these and other risk factors may also predispose some women to more negative reactions following a birth, the higher rates of mental illness observed among women with a prior history of abortion are more likely to be caused by these other factors than by abortion itself. The panel noted severe inconsistency between the outcomes reported by studies on the effect of multiple abortions. Additionally, the same factors which predispose a woman to multiple unwanted pregnancies may also predispose her to mental health difficulties. Therefore, they declined to draw a firm conclusion on studies concerning multiple abortions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27995494",
"title": "Heihaizi",
"section": "Section::::Background and History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "In cases where contraception fails resulting in an unapproved pregnancy, some women choose not to have an abortion. These women tend to avoid seeking medical care throughout the pregnancy and during delivery due to the chance they will be forced to have an abortion or the financial penalties they would face. This has resulted in a high rate of maternal and infant deaths.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39844457",
"title": "Planned Parenthood v. Rounds",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 573,
"text": "The district court, in setting the initial injunction against enforcing this law, relied on studies that showed some correlation between abortion and suicide, but showed no evidence that an abortion causes a woman to be at greater risk for suicide. Rather, the studies indicated that the same factors that cause a woman to seek an abortion, like emotional distress, domestic violence and socioeconomic disadvantage, also make them more likely to be depressed and suicidal. The scientific consensus is that abortion does not increase the risk of any mental health problems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41723709",
"title": "How to Be a Woman",
"section": "Section::::Chapter summaries.:Chapter 15: Abortion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 970,
"text": "In a society that demonizes abortion, reasons for terminating a pregnancy exist on a \"spectrum of wrongness\" (How To Be A Woman 174), in that some reasons are deemed \"good\" (i.e. a teenaged rape victim aborting) and others \"bad\" (i.e. a mother who does not want to deal with supporting another child on top of the ones she already has by having an abortion). Oftentimes, even when the woman can expect to lose her own life, she is encouraged to carry through with her pregnancy. Moran is \"vexed with...the idea that, by having an abortion, a woman is somehow being unfemale and, indeed, unmotherly\" (175). In her experience in having and raising two girls, she knows firsthand the amount of work put into raising a child and feels she should not be obligated to have another when she has a choice in the matter. She brings up a point that, \"...ending a pregnancy 12 weeks into gestation is incalculably more moral than bringing an unwanted child into this world\" (176).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9av5ku
|
if dust in houses is mostly caused by dead human skin cells then why are old abandoned houses always so dusty?
|
[
{
"answer": "There's no-one there to clean them. Dust, which comes from many sources of which dead skin cells are only one, builds up over time. Most people do at least a little cleaning of their homes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You've been misinformed. Dust is not made up of mainly human skin. It's just that every sample of dust you take inside a home will always contain some human skin.\n\n \n\n\nDust isade of various small particles. Like fibers from clothing or plants, pollen aggregates, etc. And there's always some dust in the air as can be seen when a ray of light shining through a room is observed from the side.\n\nSince dust particles are very light they can ride on air currents but since their density is greater than air they will always settle on surfaces given enough time. Since abandoned houses usually have large undisturbed volumes of air all that dust will slowly settle on surfaces. (As long as it's not wet or there are huge drafts inside, this will cause more general \"dirt\" to accumulate).\n\n \n\n\n \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Dust is always in the air moving around and it settles when undisturbed. The difference between an abandoned house and an occupied one is that, there's no disturbance and dust settles on surfaces so that they're more visible.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The majority of dust is actually tiny particles of dirt which tend to find their way inside a house because houses are not airtight. The particles are small enough to become airbourn when there is any amount of wind outside but they are still heavier than the air and will later fall once inside a house.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "162714",
"title": "Dust",
"section": "Section::::Dust Mites.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "House dust mites are present indoors wherever humans live. Positive tests for dust mite allergies are extremely common among people with asthma. Dust mites are microscopic arachnids whose primary food is dead human skin cells, but they do not live on living people. They and their feces and other allergens which they produce are major constituents of house dust, but because they are so heavy they are not suspended for long in the air. They are generally found on the floor and other surfaces until disturbed (by walking, for example). It could take somewhere between twenty minutes and two hours for dust mites to settle back down out of the air.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "162714",
"title": "Dust",
"section": "Section::::Dust Mites.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Dust mites are a nesting species that prefers a dark, warm, and humid climate. They flourish in mattresses, bedding, upholstered furniture, and carpets. Their feces include enzymes that are released upon contact with a moist surface, which can happen when a person inhales, and these enzymes can kill cells within the human body. House dust mites did not become a problem until humans began to use textiles, such as western style blankets and clothing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1390765",
"title": "Housekeeping",
"section": "Section::::Housecleaning.:Dusting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "Over time dust accumulates on household surfaces. As well as making the surfaces dirty, when dust is disturbed it can become suspended in the air, causing sneezing and breathing trouble. It can also transfer from furniture to clothing, making it unclean. Various tools have been invented for dust removal: Feather and lamb's wool dusters, cotton and polyester dust cloths, furniture spray, disposable paper \"dust cloths\", dust mops for smooth floors and vacuum cleaners. Vacuum cleaners often have a variety of tools to enable them to remove dirt not just from carpets and rugs, but also from hard surfaces and upholstery. Dusting is very important in hospital environments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "477033",
"title": "Hoarding",
"section": "Section::::Human hoarding.:Anxiety disorder and hoarding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 667,
"text": "In severe cases, houses may become a fire hazard (due to blocked exits and stacked papers) or a health hazard (due to vermin infestation, excreta and detritus from excessive pets, hoarded food and garbage or the risk of stacks of items collapsing on the occupants and blocking exit routes).. Hoarding affects more than just the person who has the strong attachment to possessions, as other people living in the home and neighbours can be affected by the clutter. Individuals with hoarding disorder have a quality of life as poor as those diagnosed with schizophrenia. The disorder increases family strain, work impairment, and the risk of serious medical conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9898682",
"title": "Cellulose insulation",
"section": "Section::::Products.:Low-dust cellulose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "The last major type of cellulose insulation on the market is low-dust variety. Nuisance levels of dust are created during application of most types of dry insulation causing the need for simple dust masks to be worn during installation. This kind of cellulose has a small percentage of oil or similar dust dampener added. This may also be appropriate to homes where people are sensitive to newsprint or paper dust (though new dust will not be created after installation).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26937787",
"title": "Pyroglyphidae",
"section": "Section::::House dust mites.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "Three species of house dust mite are commonly found in human dwellings; \"Dermatophagoides farinae\", \"Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus\" and \"Euroglyphus maynei\". They feed on flakes of skin found in dust and typically occur on carpets, around sofas and chairs, and on mattresses. They may be very plentiful in the humid tropics, but in temperate climates are more numerous in humid summers than in winters, when the relative humidity is usually lower in homes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9396111",
"title": "Preservation (library and archival science)",
"section": "Section::::Practices.:Storage environment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "Particulate and gaseous pollutants, such as soot, ozone, sulfur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, can cause dust, soiling, and irreversible molecular damage to materials. Pollutants are exceedingly small and not easily detectable or removable. A special filtration system in the building's HVAC is a helpful defense.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
xp6sy
|
I wonder what historians think of Niall Ferguson.
|
[
{
"answer": "I can only speak about his work on empire - which most historians dismiss as too one-sided and just bad. To put it bluntly, he gives a very distorted view of the British Empire, implying that, on the whole, it was an example of a \"benevolent\" imperial power who brought progress and modernity to the colonies in contrast to those big, bad, icky empires of France, Germany, and Japan. That, faced with the alternative, the British Empire was a positive historical phenomenon for the colonial world. Of course, specialists on the British empire (well, new generation) have the opposite view. They point to the harrowing violence the British colonial police inflicted in Kenya during the 1950s (concentration camps, systematic torture), suppression of Irish nationalism in the 1920s via the vicious Black and Tans, civil war and mass killings triggered by the sudden partition of British India, using air raids to terrorize villagers into submission in post-WWI Iraq, etc. etc. Empire was (is?) much more complicated than just constant victimization, of course. But at the root of all the real \"progress\" or change introduced into the colonies was exploitation and violence.\n\nOn the other hand, he's very charming and persuasive in person (I've heard him speak in public). I think his early work on finance is respected more but I haven't read it. He's published a lot, good at generating public interest in otherwise boring topics, which is probably why he's at Harvard. But, no, I don't expect him being elected president of the American Historical Association anytime soon.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Never placed much faith in his argument that a post world war one German dominated Europe would have been best. I had the opportunity to talk to him once after he gave a speech that US troops levels in Iraq needed to be drastically increased based on the number of British soldiers needed in Iraq in the early 20th century and didn't place much faith in that argument either ( for the record I was right). \n\nI think he is a talented historian regardless of his views, and his works have led to new discussions on historical topics.\n\nedit- I enjoyed his arguments in Colossus well worth reading",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Nice try, Niall Furguson.\n\nBut seriously I've only read *The pity of War* and to be honest, its criticised for good reasons.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "175401",
"title": "Adam Ferguson",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "Ferguson was sympathetic to traditional societies, such as the Highlands, for producing courage and loyalty. He criticized commercial society as making men weak, dishonourable and unconcerned for their community. Ferguson has been called \"the father of modern sociology\" for his contributions to the early development of the discipline. His best-known work is his \"Essay on the History of Civil Society\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "697242",
"title": "Niall Ferguson",
"section": "Section::::Early life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "Ferguson cites his father as instilling in him a strong sense of self-discipline and of the moral value of work, while his mother encouraged his creative side. His journalist maternal grandfather encouraged him to write. Ferguson ascribes his decision to read History at University instead of English Literature to two main factors: Leo Tolstoy's reflections on History at the end of War and Peace (which he read at the age of fifteen), and his great admiration of historian A. J. P. Taylor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "697242",
"title": "Niall Ferguson",
"section": "Section::::Opinions and research.:British Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "Ferguson has defended the British Empire, many historians and commentators have considered his views both \"audacious\" and \"wrong\", \"informative\", \"ambitious\" and \"troubling\". Ferguson is critical of what he calls the \"self-flagellation\" that he says characterises modern European thought.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "697242",
"title": "Niall Ferguson",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "Ferguson writes and speaks about international history, economic and financial history and British and American imperialism. He is known for his contrarian views and his defence of the British empire. He once called himself \"a fully paid-up member of the neo-imperialist gang\" following the invasion of Iraq.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "175401",
"title": "Adam Ferguson",
"section": "Section::::Social thought.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 632,
"text": "Ferguson was influenced by classical humanism and such writers as Tacitus, Niccolò Machiavelli, and Thomas Hobbes. The fellow members of Edinburgh's Select Society, which included David Hume and Adam Smith, were also major influences. Ferguson believed that civilization is largely about laws that restrict our independence as individuals but provide liberty in the sense of security and justice. He warned that social chaos usually leads to despotism. The members of civil society give up their liberty-as-autonomy, which savages possess, in exchange for liberty-as-security, or civil liberty. Montesquieu used a similar argument.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43223",
"title": "Alex Ferguson",
"section": "Section::::Controversies.:The BBC.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 116,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 116,
"end_character": 845,
"text": "Ferguson refused to give interviews to the BBC after a documentary called \"Fergie and Son\" was shown on BBC Three on 27 May 2004. According to an article in \"The Independent\" newspaper, the documentary had \"portrayed his agent son, Jason, as somebody who exploited his father's influence and position to his own ends in the transfer market\". The same newspaper article made it clear that \"Ferguson Jnr\" was never found guilty of any wrongdoing, and it quoted Ferguson Senior as follows: \"They [the BBC] did a story about my son that was whole lot of nonsense. It all made-up stuff and 'brown paper bags' and all that kind of carry-on. It was a horrible attack on my son's honour and he should never have been accused of that.\" Subsequent interviews on BBC programmes such as \"Match of the Day\" were done by his assistants, latterly Mike Phelan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5562461",
"title": "Marilyn Ferguson",
"section": "Section::::Death and reaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "Ferguson died unexpectedly of an apparent heart attack on October 19, 2008. Her death was widely noted in the national and international media. The \"Los Angeles Times\" described her as a \"galvanizing influence,\" and quoted her U.S. publisher, Jeremy Tarcher, who described his own personal epiphany when he first met with Ferguson and recognized the potential of the information she had collected. The \"New York Times\" called \"The Aquarian Conspiracy\" \"the Bible of the New Age,\" and mused that the once-radical ideas of her \"benign conspiracy\" may now seem commonplace.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
12zccz
|
why can't i become the president of the united states (i was born in canada)?
|
[
{
"answer": "Its the rules\n\n**US Constitution, Article II, Section 1**\n\nNo person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United States, at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The founders were nervous that a foreign power would attempt to control the country by getting one of their own elected president. Hamilton wrote in the Federalist Papers:\n\n > Nothing was more to be desired than that every practicable obstacle should be opposed to cabal, intrigue, and corruption. These most deadly adversaries of republican government might naturally have been expected to make their approaches from more than one querter, but chiefly from the desire in foreign powers to gain an improper ascendant in our councils. How could they better gratify this, than by raising a creature of their own to the chief magistracy of the Union?\n\nAlso, if we let, say, Arnold Schwarzenegger become president, and some Austrian rose to become a belligerent European dictator (unrealistic, I know), there'd be concern that he wouldn't necessarily act in the best interests of the United States.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5596597",
"title": "Natural-born-citizen clause",
"section": "Section::::Eligibility challenges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 117,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 117,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "Every president to date was either a citizen at the adoption of the Constitution in 1789 or born in the United States; of the former group, all except one had two parents with citizenship in what would become the U.S. (Andrew Jackson). Of those in the latter group, every president except two (Chester A. Arthur and Barack Obama) had two U.S.-citizen parents. Further, four additional U.S. Presidents had one or both of his U.S.-citizen parents not born on U.S. soil (James Buchanan, Woodrow Wilson, Herbert Hoover and Donald Trump).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5596597",
"title": "Natural-born-citizen clause",
"section": "Section::::Eligibility challenges.:2000s.:Barack Obama.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 148,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 148,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "The eligibility requirements to be President of the United States are such that the individual must be a \"natural born citizen\" of the United States ... It is well settled that those born in the United States are considered natural born citizens. See, e.g. \"United States v. Ark\" [sic] ...\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "515969",
"title": "List of presidents of the General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "Traditionally, the post has been held by an American. Of the 17 presidents, 13 were born in the United States, 1 born in Puerto Rico to North American missionaries, 1 born in Australia and 2 born in Norway, of whom one emigrated to the U.S. at age 5.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5596597",
"title": "Natural-born-citizen clause",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "The first nine Presidents were all citizens at the adoption of the Constitution in 1789, with all being born within the territory assigned to the United States by the Treaty of Paris. All Presidents who have served since were born in the United States. Of the 44 men who have become President, there have been seven that had at least one parent who was not born on U.S. soil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21196950",
"title": "List of foreign-born United States Cabinet Secretaries",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "Since most foreign born Cabinet members are not natural-born citizens—meaning that they were not born in the United States or born abroad to American parents—they are ineligible to exercise the powers of the President of the United States in the event that \"neither a President nor Vice President\" is able to \"discharge the powers and duties\" of the presidency as specified in the Presidential Succession Act of 1947.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3338344",
"title": "History of New England",
"section": "Section::::Famous leaders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "Eight presidents of the United States have been born in New England, however only five are usually affiliated with the area. They are, in chronological order: John Adams (Massachusetts), John Quincy Adams (Massachusetts), Franklin Pierce (New Hampshire), Chester A. Arthur (born in Vermont, affiliated with New York), Calvin Coolidge (born in Vermont, affiliated with Massachusetts), John F. Kennedy (Massachusetts), George H. W. Bush (born in Massachusetts, affiliated with Texas) and George W. Bush (born in Connecticut, affiliated with Texas).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5596597",
"title": "Natural-born-citizen clause",
"section": "Section::::Interpretations of the clause.:Government officials' interpretations.:1800s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 906,
"text": "U.S. Attorney General Edwards Pierrepont, however, shared Edward Bates' opinion that those born in the country of alien parents and who reside elsewhere are still considered citizens, and he added that they should be entitled to be president of the United States, if elected. In 1875 Pierrepont was presented with a query from the Secretary of State, Hamilton Fish. A young man, named Arthur Steinkauler, had been born in Missouri in 1855, a year after his father was naturalized a U.S. citizen. When he was four years old, his father returned to Germany with him and both had stayed there ever since. The father had relinquished his U.S. citizenship and the young man was now 20 years old and about to be drafted into the Imperial German army. The question was asked \"What was this young man's situation as a native-born American citizen?\" After studying the relevant legal authorities, Pierrepont wrote:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
xtlnz
|
what does curiosity do besides taking pictures of mars?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's got a chemical sniffer, a laser, and a drill. All for looking for chemistry of one form or another that might indicate prior life, or the possibility of future life. And when it meets Spirit and Opportunity they can join to become MegaRover™!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some instruments check for chemistry in rocks and sand. Some of it drilled, scooped and analysed, some of it at a distance with the laser.\n\nAnd there's some environmental sensors, like radiation, pressure, wind and particle detectors to see what's Mars' 'air' is really like. Also there's a device that tries to find traces of water.\n\nThis is to check for possible life on Mars, both previously as well as possible humans in later missions. And just to find out about how other planets work, this gives insight in our own planet Earth.\n\nHere's a nice [info](_URL_0_) on all the instruments (a bit techy though)\n\n*Science instruments are state-of-the-art tools for acquiring information about the geology, atmosphere, environmental conditions, and potential biosignatures on Mars.*\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "36645032",
"title": "Curiosity (rover)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 722,
"text": "Curiosity is a car-sized rover designed to explore the crater Gale on Mars as part of NASA's Mars Science Laboratory mission (MSL). \"Curiosity\" was launched from Cape Canaveral on November 26, 2011, at 15:02 UTC and landed on Aeolis Palus inside Gale on Mars on August 6, 2012, 05:17 UTC. The Bradbury Landing site was less than from the center of the rover's touchdown target after a journey. The rover's goals include an investigation of the Martian climate and geology; assessment of whether the selected field site inside Gale has ever offered environmental conditions favorable for microbial life, including investigation of the role of water; and planetary habitability studies in preparation for human exploration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35282817",
"title": "Mount Sharp",
"section": "Section::::Spacecraft exploration.:\"Curiosity\" mission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "As of 08, 2020, \"Curiosity\" has been on the planet Mars for sols ( total days; ) since landing on August 6, 2012. Since September 11, 2014, \"Curiosity\" has been exploring the slopes of Mount Sharp, where more information about the history of Mars is expected to be found. As of late January 2019, the rover has traveled over and climbed over in elevation to, and around, the mountain base since landing at \"Bradbury Landing\" in August 2012.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36665815",
"title": "Timeline of Mars Science Laboratory",
"section": "Section::::Current status.:Location and travel statistics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "As of 08, 2020, \"Curiosity\" has been on the planet Mars for sols ( total days; ) since landing on August 6, 2012. Since September 11, 2014, \"Curiosity\" has been exploring the slopes of Mount Sharp, where more information about the history of Mars is expected to be found. As of late January 2019, the rover has traveled over and climbed over in elevation to, and around, the mountain base since landing at \"Bradbury Landing\" in August 2012.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1072857",
"title": "Biosignature",
"section": "Section::::Inside our solar system.:Mars Science Laboratory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 760,
"text": "The \"Curiosity\" rover from the Mars Science Laboratory mission, with its \"Curiosity\" rover is currently assessing the potential past and present habitability of the Martian environment and is attempting to detect biosignatures on the surface of Mars. Considering the MSL instrument payload package, the following classes of biosignatures are within the MSL detection window: organism morphologies (cells, body fossils, casts), biofabrics (including microbial mats), diagnostic organic molecules, isotopic signatures, evidence of biomineralization and bioalteration, spatial patterns in chemistry, and biogenic gases. The \"Curiosity\" rover targets outcrops to maximize the probability of detecting 'fossilized' organic matter preserved in sedimentary deposits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22360913",
"title": "NASA robots",
"section": "Section::::Curiosity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 883,
"text": "The Mars rover \"Curiosity\" is a mobile laboratory that was launched from Cape Canaveral in 2011. The Curiosity landed on Mars surface August 6, 2012. This was the largest rover NASA has put on Mars, being twice as long and five times as heavy as its processors. Despite the extra size the Curiosity took many design elements from the previous generation of Mars rovers such as six wheel drive, rocker-bogie suspension, and cameras mounted to the mast of the rover to help the mission's team direct the rover. However unlike the previous generation the Curiosity contains an entire inboard laboratory for analyzing the soil and rocks on Mars. NASA engineered the Curiosity to be capable of rolling over obstacles up to 65 centimeters high and traverse up to about 200 meters per day on Martian terrain. Curiosity got its electrical power from a Radioisotope thermoelectric generator.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36645032",
"title": "Curiosity (rover)",
"section": "Section::::Coverage, cultural impact and legacy.:Awards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "The NASA/JPL Mars Science Laboratory/\"Curiosity\" Project Team was awarded the 2012 Robert J. Collier Trophy by the National Aeronautic Association \"In recognition of the extraordinary achievements of successfully landing \"Curiosity\" on Mars, advancing the nation's technological and engineering capabilities, and significantly improving humanity's understanding of ancient Martian habitable environments.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36645032",
"title": "Curiosity (rover)",
"section": "Section::::Coverage, cultural impact and legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "On June 24, 2014, \"Curiosity\" completed a Martian year—687 Earth days—after finding that Mars once had environmental conditions favorable for microbial life. \"Curiosity\" serves as the basis for the design of the Mars 2020 rover mission that is planned to be launched to Mars in 2020. Some spare parts from the build and ground test of \"Curiosity\" are being used in the new vehicle, but it will carry a different instrument payload.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3maaew
|
When did a majority of Texans begin speaking English instead of Spanish?
|
[
{
"answer": "Stephen Austin founded his colony in 1821. At that time, there were fewer than 8,000 Spanish-speaking *tejanos* and perhaps 15,000 Native Americans in Texas. These numbers should be taken with a grain of salt. Many of the Native Americans in Texas were nomadic and lived in Texas for only part of the year (or simply passed through from time to time while still considering it home). There were also a number of small isolated Spanish and American families and settlements who were in Texas specifically to avoid being counted or taxed (or arrested). \n\nWithin five years, Austin's colony numbered closed to 2,000 (including about 500 slaves), and was therefore already a very significant part of the population. \n\nAmerican colonists began flooding in during the 1820s - by 1831, Austin's colony had a recorded population of 20,000, so by this point the Americans (again, including their slaves) had overtaken Native Americans as the largest population in Texas. When Juan Almonte inspected the American colony on behalf of the Mexican government in 1834, he reported its population as nearly 25,000 - and this is the point where we can say a majority of Texans spoke English. \n\nEDIT: Source, [the Texas State Historical Association](_URL_0_). More info on Texas' population history there.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "28706833",
"title": "Texan English",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "After Mexico gained independence in 1821, Mexican Texas legally permitted an influx of English-speaking Anglo settlers from the United States (mainly the Southern United States), who within a decade outnumbered Hispanics in Texas, making English as common as Spanish in central and north Texas. After Texas became an independent republic in 1836, English, with its distinct Southern influences, became the predominant language. After the Mexican Revolution of 1910-1920, a great number of Mexicans immigrated to Texas, slowing down in the mid-20th century only to increase massively since 1990, driving the development of a young Tejano English.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5056238",
"title": "Languages of Texas",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "As Spaniards settled Texas, they brought their native language, supplanting earlier Native American languages such as Caddo, the language from which Texas derives its name, and Comanche from the end of 17th century. Early immigrants that arrived directly from Europe such as Germans, Poles, Czechs, and Sorbs (also called Wends) even established their own separate towns where their native tongues became the dominant language. Texas German and Texas Silesian are varieties of German and Silesian (closely related to Polish) that are indigenous to Texas. Today the dominant language in Texas, as in most areas of the United States, is English.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "626817",
"title": "Languages of the Philippines",
"section": "Section::::Major immigrant languages.:Spanish.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 710,
"text": "Under U.S. rule, the English language began to be promoted instead of Spanish. The use of Spanish began to decline as a result of the introduction of English into the public schools as a language of instruction. The 1935 constitution establishing the Philippine Commonwelath designated both English and Spanish as official languages. The 1950 census stated that Filipinos who spoke Spanish as a first or second language made up only 6% of the population. In 1990, the census reported that the number had dwindled to just 2,500. A 2012 survey estimates that while around 1 million people can speak Spanish with varying degrees of competency, only around 439,000 people can speak the language at a native level.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "878752",
"title": "Spanish language in the Philippines",
"section": "Section::::History.:American colonial period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "While the census of 1903 and of 1905 officially reported that the number of Spanish-speakers have never exceeded 10% of the total population during the final decade of the 19th century, it only considered Spanish speakers as their first and only language. It disregarded the Catholic Chinese Filipinos, many of whom spoke Spanish, and the creole-speaking communities. Furthermore, those who were academically instructed in the public school system also used Spanish as their second or third language. These together would have placed the numbers at more than 60% of the 9,000,000 Filipinos of that era as Spanish-speakers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3330331",
"title": "New Mexican Spanish",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "The late-19th-century development of a culture of print media allowed New Mexican Spanish to resist assimilation toward either American English or Mexican Spanish for many decades. The 1911 \"Encyclopædia Britannica\", for instance, noted, \"About one-tenth of the Spanish-American and Indian population [of New Mexico] habitually use the English language.\" Until the 1930s or the 1940s, many speakers never learnd English, and even afterward, most of their descendants were bilingual with English until the 1960s or the 1970s. The advance of English-language broadcast media accelerated the decline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "167744",
"title": "Cowboy",
"section": "Section::::History.:Rise of the cowboy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 938,
"text": "The arrival of English-speaking settlers in Texas began in 1821. Rip Ford described the country between Laredo and Corpus Christi as inhabited by \"... countless droves of mustangs and ... wild cattle ... abandoned by Mexicans when they were ordered to evacuate the country between the Nueces and the Rio Grande by General Valentin Canalizo ... the horses and cattle abandoned invited the raids the Texians made upon this territory. California, on the other hand, did not see a large influx of settlers from the United States until after the Mexican–American War. However, in slightly different ways, both areas contributed to the evolution of the iconic American cowboy. Particularly with the arrival of railroads and an increased demand for beef in the wake of the American Civil War, older traditions combined with the need to drive cattle from the ranches where they were raised to the nearest railheads, often hundreds of miles away.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1311264",
"title": "Chicano English",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "Communities of Spanish-speaking Tejanos, Nuevomexicanos, Californios, and Mission Indians have existed in the American Southwest since the area was part of New Spain's \"Provincias Internas\". Most of the historically Hispanophone populations eventually adopted English as their first language, as part of their overall Americanization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1x6b0u
|
What source(s) (primary if possie) could be used as evidence for a paper on the Nazi regieme's efforts to conceal the Holocaust from the public eye?
|
[
{
"answer": "Nazi-Germany did not try to conceal the holocaust in the east at all. Public mass shootings were common practice. Please read Mark Mazower's Dark Continent for background. \nThey did try to conceal the holocaust in the west however. Primary evidence could be the administrations of the different Jewish Councils and e.g. the Mauthausen death books. \n\nThe first shows you the administration of Jewish populations of European countries and the treacherous methods and terminology the Nazis used to push the Jewish populations voluntarily towards transit, work and death camps. The second example (available online) shows you the disguised terminology of the causes of death in KZ Mauthausen. It is very curious that nobody in Mauthausen is beaten to death and death penalties are described as: \"auf der Flücht erschossen\". But to have a solid case there you must match the official Nazi statement to eyewitness accounts. That is possible, but it takes time to go to the right archives and do proper research. \n\nAnother example: In the beginning the KZ administrations still used to send certificates of deaths back towards the city the prisoner once lived. After receiving repeated requests for the remains and personal belongings, the Nazi authorities stopped sending those certificates. Of course those poor individuals ended up in the crematoria and mass graves, so there was nothing to claim left. This is also provable, but again it will take time to investigate and visit the archives. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The book entitled \"documents of the holocaust\" is sure to have a document that will help. It is a fat book with hundreds of primary source documents, set chronologically, so you can actually read through the slow grasp of the German state around the throats of the Jews and others. It's an incredible book I highly recomend.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My dad was born in 1929 in East Prussia. \n\nHe understood Concentration Camps to be like overflows for prisons where they put all the \"bad offenders\" like murderers, and spies. \n\nHe wrote a book on his childhood, [Farewell Marienburg] (_URL_0_). If you're interested, when I get home I can dig up the full excerpt.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2149708",
"title": "Did Six Million Really Die?",
"section": "Section::::Supreme Court of Canada case.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "The pamphlet alleges that no documentary evidence exists of the Nazi plan to exterminate the Jews. The Crown adduced speeches by Heinrich Himmler, head of the SS, made on October 4, 1943, to his troops in Posen in which he refers to the program of extermination of the Jews. Himmler stated: \"I also want to talk to you, quite frankly, on a very grave matter. Among ourselves it should be mentioned quite frankly, and yet we will never speak of it publicly. ... I mean the clearing out of the Jews, the extermination of the Jewish race ...\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "91171",
"title": "Hitler Diaries",
"section": "Section::::Production and sale of the diaries.:Acquisition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 750,
"text": "In mid-December 1982 the author and future Holocaust denier David Irving was also involved in tracking the existence of diaries written by Hitler. Priesack had previously told Irving of the existence of one of the diaries with a collector in Stuttgart. In a visit to Priesack to assess his collection of Nazi documents, Irving found out Stiefel's phone number, from which he worked out the address; he also obtained photocopies of some of the diary pages from Priesack. Irving visited Stiefel unannounced and tried to find out the name of the source, but the collector misled him as to the origin. Irving examined Priesack's photocopies and saw a number of problems, including spelling mistakes and the change in writing style between certain words.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2333615",
"title": "Federal Department for Media Harmful to Young Persons",
"section": "Section::::Role and responsibilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "However, as often it may not be immediately apparent whether a particular work has content as described in § 15, 2 JSchG, the \"Bundesprüfstelle\" is able to index such media for the purpose of clarification. The \"Bundesprüfstelle\" has consequently indexed works which deny the Holocaust, which would be indictable as \"Volksverhetzung\" or as bringing the memory of the deceased into disrepute, when the public prosecutor's office was not able to proceed further at that point.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1064228",
"title": "Bad Arolsen",
"section": "Section::::Economy and infrastructure.:Public institutions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 796,
"text": "A venue for millions of documents related to the Nazi-attempted extermination of the Jewish people and others, the ITS holds vast archives of Nazi-related documents. In April 2006, German justice minister Brigitte Zypries announced that Germany would cooperate with the United States and allow survivors and historians of the Holocaust access to 47 million pages of documents, although an eleven-nation accord had to decide unanimously that this was to be done. More than 12 million of the documents have now being digitally scanned and shared with research institutions around the world. The archive fully opened when France, Italy and Greece ratified changes to the access protocol. Information kept hidden from the public since its inception was finally opened to the public in November 2007.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7094867",
"title": "My Opposition",
"section": "Section::::The diary.:Record of atrocities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "Perhaps the single most important entry in the diary is dated October 28, 1941. After the war many Germans would insist they knew nothing at all about the Holocaust. More recently, Holocaust deniers have questioned the extent, and even the existence of the Holocaust. Friedrich Kellner's diary counters such suggestions:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12309927",
"title": "Criticism of United States foreign policy",
"section": "Section::::Historical foreign policy.:The Holocaust.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "During the era, the American press did not always publicize reports of Nazi atrocities in full or with prominent placement. By 1942, after newspapers began to report details of the Holocaust, articles were extremely short and were buried deep in the newspaper. These reports were either denied or unconfirmed by the United States government. When it did receive irrefutable evidence that the reports were true (and photographs of mass graves and murder in Birkenau camp in 1943, with victims moving into the gas chambers), U.S. officials suppressed the information and classified it as secret. It is possible lives of European Jews could have been saved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2678126",
"title": "Eberhard Jäckel",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 1554,
"text": "In response to Jäckel's first article, Irving announced that he had seen a document from 1942 proving that Hitler had ordered the Holocaust not to occur, but that the document was now lost. Jäckel wrote that he had \"easily\" discovered the \"lost\" document, which the head of the Reich Chancellery, Hans Lammers wrote to the Justice Minister Franz Schlegelberger that Hitler ordered him to put the \"Jewish Question\" on the \"back-burner\" until after the war. Jäckel noted the document concerned was the result of a meeting between Lammers and Schlegelberger on 10 April 1942 concerning amendments to the divorce law concerning German Jews and \"Mischlinge\". Jäckel noted that in 1942, there was a division of labour between the representatives of the \"Rechtsstaat\" (Law State) and the \"Polizeistaat\" (Police State) in Nazi Germany. Jäckel argued that for the representatives of the \"Rechtsstaat\" like the Ministry of Justice, the \"Final Solution\" was a bureaucratic process to deprive Jews of their civil rights and to isolate them, whereas for representatives of \"Polizeistaat\" like the SS, the \"Final Solution\" was genocide. Jäckel argued that Hitler's order to Lammers to tell Schlegelberger that to wait until after the war before concerning him about the \"impracticable\" details of the divorce laws between German Jews and \"Aryans\" was simply Hitler's way of putting Schlegelberger off. Jäckel ended his essay that the \"lost\" document in no way proved that Hitler was unaware of the Holocaust, and accused Irving of deceitfulness in claiming otherwise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
34hu1p
|
What is the role of a neutral wire in an A/C? Does the return current in an A/C pass through the live or the neutral wire?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's the same as the role of neutral wire in DC: in order for the current to move, it has to have a conductor to move through.\n\nIn a closed circuit, there is no difference between the live and the neutral wire; the only real difference is that if the circuit is open, touching one will electrocute you (because that's the one that's connected to the power source), and touching the other will do nothing. (Assuming your feet are grounded.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The neutral wire is like a ground. In North America, where most household appliances and electronics are 120 volts, the cable coming into the house has three conductors and a bare ground wire. The red and black wires are live and and 180 degrees out of phase. The white wire is neutral. \n\nFor the wall outlets and fixtures in the house, either the red or black wire is attach to the live side and the white neutral wire to the return side, providing a potential of 120 V. For clothes driers, electric ranges, and any other high voltage appliances, the red is attached to one side and the black to the other, providing 240 V.\n\nFor 120 V fixtures, the live wire is the one that is interrupted by the switch. When the switch of off, no current can reach the socket because the white wire only carries current it receives from the live wire.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "521776",
"title": "Electrical wiring in North America",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "BULLET::::- Neutral wire is the return conductor of a circuit; in building wiring systems, the neutral wire is connected to earth ground at only one point. North American standards state that the neutral is neither switched nor fused except in very narrowly defined circumstances. The neutral is connected to the center tap of the power company transformer of a split-phase system, or the center of the wye connection of a polyphase power system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "369526",
"title": "Single-wire earth return",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "Single-wire earth return (SWER) or single-wire ground return is a single-wire transmission line which supplies single-phase electric power from an electrical grid to remote areas at low cost. Its distinguishing feature is that the earth (or sometimes a body of water) is used as the return path for the current, to avoid the need for a second wire (or \"neutral wire\") to act as a return path.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1065627",
"title": "Ground and neutral",
"section": "Section::::Circuitry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 679,
"text": "Neutral wires are usually connected at a neutral bus within panelboards or switchboards, and are \"bonded\" to earth ground at either the electrical service entrance, or at transformers within the system. For electrical installations with split-phase (three-wire single-phase service), the neutral point of the system is at the center-tap on the secondary side of the service transformer. For larger electrical installations, such as those with polyphase service, the neutral point is usually at the common connection on the secondary side of delta/wye connected transformers. Other arrangements of polyphase transformers may result in no neutral point, and no neutral conductors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "176752",
"title": "Overhead line",
"section": "Section::::Breaks.:Neutral section (phase break).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 764,
"text": "A neutral section or phase break consists of two insulated breaks back-to-back with a short section of line that belongs to neither grid. Some systems increase the level of safety by the mid point of the neutral section being earthed. The presence of the earthed section in the middle is to ensure that should the transducer controlled apparatus fail, and the driver also fail to shut off power, the energy in the arc struck by the pantograph as it passes to the neutral section is conducted to earth, operating substation circuit breakers, rather than the arc either bridging the insulators into a section made dead for maintenance, a section fed from a different phase, or setting up a Backdoor connection between different parts of the country's national grid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "175959",
"title": "Mains electricity",
"section": "Section::::Building wiring.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "BULLET::::- The neutral wire (IEC: neutral conductor ) completes the electrical circuit—remaining at a voltage in proximity to 0 V—by also carrying alternating current between the power grid and the household. The neutral is connected to the ground (Earth), and therefore has nearly the same electrical potential as the earth. This prevents the power circuits from increasing beyond earth voltage, such as when they are struck by lightning or become otherwise charged.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1179248",
"title": "RS-485",
"section": "Section::::Signals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 1135,
"text": "With Modbus, BACnet and Profibus, A/B labeling refers A as the \"negative green\" wire and B as the \"positive red\" wire, in the definition of the D-sub connector and M12 circular connector, as can be seen in Profibus guides. As long as standard excludes logic function of the generator or receiver, it would make sense A (green, negative) is higher than B (red, positive). However this contradicts the facts that an idle mark state is a logical one \"and\" the termination polarization puts B at a higher voltage in Profibus guidelines. That so-called 'Pesky Polarity' problem raised confusion which made authors think A is inverting within the TIA-485-A standard itself and advise to swap what is A and B in drivers and line labeling as can be read in a section of an application bulletin: \"Design Consideration #3: Sometimes Bus Node A Isn’t Really Bus Node A\". It is now a common design decision to make this inversion which involves the following polarity chain: UART/MCU idle ⇒ TTL/CMOS = +5V ⇒ Line B voltage Line A voltage, implying A, the green wire, is indeed connected to the driver \"inverting\" signal, as seen in a whitepaper.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38824",
"title": "Electric power transmission",
"section": "Section::::Special transmission.:Single wire earth return.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 151,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 151,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "Single-wire earth return (SWER) or single wire ground return is a single-wire transmission line for supplying single-phase electrical power for an electrical grid to remote areas at low cost. It is principally used for rural electrification, but also finds use for larger isolated loads such as water pumps. Single wire earth return is also used for HVDC over submarine power cables.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9f2v7g
|
how does glass work to help plants grow?
|
[
{
"answer": "What do you mean?\n\nLike greenhouses? They let in light and trap heat, allowing plants to grow in colder climates than they could otherwise.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Greenhouse design and construction is a fairly detailed science on its own. It varies based on your altitude, your agroclimatic conditions etc.\n\nGlass is almost exclusively used in temperate countries which get frost or snow during winter which is harmful to plants that are not tolerant of such conditions (flowers, fruits etc).\n\nIn warmer climates, plastic is used instead of glass, with features like side screens and top vents designed to maximise air flow and reduce ambient temperature.\n\nThe objectives of using glass (or any other material) in protected cultivation are:\n\n1) provide more suitable growing temperature, humidity to the plants\n\n2) absorb UV radiation from the atmosphere and filter the light entering the greenhouse\n\n3) prevent entry of pests and airborne pathogens into the plants",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "57023764",
"title": "Mammillaria surculosa",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "In cultivation this plant needs to be grown in a sharply-drained medium with a low nutrient content, at a minimum temperature of . In the United Kingdom, where it is best grown under glass due to high precipitation, it has gained the Royal Horticultural Society’s Award of Garden Merit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "86996",
"title": "Greenhouse",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "Many commercial glass greenhouses or hothouses are high tech production facilities for vegetables or flowers. The glass greenhouses are filled with equipment including screening installations, heating, cooling, lighting, and may be controlled by a computer to optimize conditions for plant growth. Different techniques are then used to evaluate optimality-degrees and comfort ratio of greenhouse micro-climate (i.e., air temperature, relative humidity and vapor pressure deficit) in order to reduce production risk prior to cultivation of a specific crop.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "86996",
"title": "Greenhouse",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "Commercial glass greenhouses are often high-tech production facilities for vegetables or flowers. The glass greenhouses are filled with equipment such as screening installations, heating, cooling and lighting, and may be automatically controlled by a computer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2051423",
"title": "Cannabis cultivation",
"section": "Section::::Indoor cannabis cultivation.:Control of the atmosphere.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "Assuming adequate light and nutrients are available to plants, the limiting factor in plant growth is the level of carbon dioxide (CO). Ways of increasing carbon dioxide levels in the grow-room include: bottled carbon dioxide, carbon dioxide generators, a milk jug and yeast solution (in which yeast grows in a container thereby emitting CO), a baking soda and vinegar mixture in a container, or dry ice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37973155",
"title": "Glass in green buildings",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "Glass can play a role in accomplishing greater indoor environmental quality and when used carefully can improve energy efficiency, however a measured approach needs to be taken to ensure the building loads are not excessively increased due to solar gain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4051830",
"title": "Sugar glass",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "Sugar glass is made by dissolving sugar in water and heating it to at least the \"hard crack\" stage (approx. 150 °C / 300 °F) in the candy making process. Glucose or corn syrup is used to prevent the sugar from recrystallizing, by getting in the way of the sugar molecules forming crystals. Cream of tartar also helps by turning the sugar into glucose and fructose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29897149",
"title": "History of glass in sub-Saharan Africa",
"section": "Section::::Bead Manufacture.:Glass Manufacture: Primary and Secondary Glass Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1445,
"text": "Primary glass production involves the combination of the raw materials Soda, Lime and Silica, heated at specific temperatures in order to produce a basic glass compound (see Glass and Anglo-Saxon Glass). Traditionally, glass has been made from either the mixture of ground quartz stones (providing the silica) and plant ash (supplying the soda and lime elements); or, by utilizing sand as a silica and lime source and then adding a chemical natron for the remaining soda needed. The production of primary glass has seen much variation throughout its history, each region slightly altering the chemical composition to better suit its particularly environmental and cultural needs (i.e. adding various fluxes/chemical additives in order to lower the required melting temperature). The addition of mineral deposits to alter the colour of glass can be carried out in the primary stage or can be added in later stages of production. The secondary production of glass typically involves processes of colouring, remelting, shaping and decorating of the glass object. While some archaeological evidence suggests the concurrence of both primary and secondary glass production at the same site, in the case of glass beads these processes often occurred separately. As access to premade glass and foreign colorants increased, beadmaking from imported goods developed into a technology which could be conducted in virtually any location across the globe.10\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
22qlvb
|
why do red and blonde hair tend to run in the same families if there both recessive genes?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm not entirely sure of the allele frequencies of red/blonde hair but I'll continue regardless. By allele frequency I mean the number of people in the population who carry the particular gene variant/allele e.g. blonde/red hair\n\nThey must be at sufficiently high frequency that homozygotes (people with two copies of the blonde/red allele who therefore have blonde/red hair) and heterozygotes (Individuals who have the recessive allele for red/blonde hair and another dominant allele for e.g. brown hair) interbreed. \n\nFrom this homozygote heterozygote pairing 50% of their children will be blonde/red head.\n\nThere is another factor which comes into play called Penetrance. This is kind of a difficult concept to grasp. We're used to thinking of a trait (e.g. hair colour) being coded for a single gene, of which there are multiple alleles (brown, red, blonde etc.). However, in reality most traits are encoded for by multiple genes which work together to produce the trait. Therefore genes which encode for specific traits (e.g. hair colour) can be highly penetrant i.e. if you have gene X you will get trait X, or have low penetrance i.e. if you have gene X, there is a lower chance you will exhibit train X due to the influence of multiple genes.\n\nSorry if this is a sucky, explanation, I'm tired. What i'm trying to say is that blonde/red hair alleles must be in the population in a sufficient frequency for people carrying these genes to mate often, and it must be highly penetrant.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "270445",
"title": "Human hair color",
"section": "Section::::Genetics and biochemistry of hair color.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "One phenotype (brown/blonde) has a dominant brown allele and a recessive blond allele. A person with a brown allele will have brown hair; a person with no brown alleles will be blond. This explains why two brown-haired parents can produce a blond-haired child. However, this can only be possible if both parent are heterozygous in hair color- meaning that both of them have one dominant brown hair allele and one recessive allele for blond hair, but as dominant traits mask recessive ones the parents both have brown hair. The possibility of which trait may appear in an offspring can be determined with a Punnett square.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "270381",
"title": "Red hair",
"section": "Section::::Biochemistry and genetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "Red hair can originate from several changes on the MC1R-gene. If one of these changes is present on both chromosomes then the respective individual is likely to have red hair. This type of inheritance is described as an autosomal recessive. Even if both parents do not have red hair themselves, both can be carriers for the gene and have a redheaded child.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "270445",
"title": "Human hair color",
"section": "Section::::Genetics and biochemistry of hair color.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "The two-gene model does not account for all possible shades of brown, blond, or red (for example, platinum blond versus dark blond/light brown), nor does it explain why hair color sometimes darkens as a person ages. Several gene pairs control the light versus dark hair color in a cumulative effect. A person's genotype for a multifactorial trait can interact with the environment to produce varying phenotypes (see quantitative trait locus).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4269684",
"title": "Disappearing blonde gene",
"section": "Section::::In the media.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 850,
"text": "In 2002 BBC News reported that unnamed German experts had concluded that the natural distribution of blond hair would cease within the span of 200 years owing to the genes associated with blond hair being recessive. The article reported the scientists had said that there is a reportedly low number of people carrying the recessive blond allele, especially in nations of mixed heritage (for example, the United States, Canada, Argentina, Brazil, New Zealand and Australia). The dominant alleles (brown hair, black hair, brown eyes) \"overthrow\" the recessive genes or metaphorically, endanger them. Subsequently the study was attributed to the World Health Organization. In the BBC article Prof. Jonathan Rees of the University of Edinburgh cast doubt on the story—he was quoted as saying \"The frequency of blondes may drop but they won't disappear.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25893385",
"title": "Sarará",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 612,
"text": "It is known that the genes responsible for blondism i.e. blonde hair (that probably firstly appeared around the Baltic Sea) and rutilism i.e. red hair (that probably firstly appeared in Africa and then spread to other continents, but is only present in significant numbers in Western Eurasian populations and their descendants) are recessive, so that a person with full Amerindian or sub-Saharan African ancestry, or a mixing between the two, is by far very unlikely to have red-haired or blond-haired offspring, no matter how fair the complexion of her or his Caucasian or multiracial sexual partner or spouse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "270445",
"title": "Human hair color",
"section": "Section::::Genetics and biochemistry of hair color.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "The other gene pair is a non-red/red pair, where the non-red allele (which suppresses production of pheomelanin) is dominant and the allele for red hair is recessive. A person with two copies of the red-haired allele will have red hair.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8406655",
"title": "Introduction to genetics",
"section": "Section::::Genes and inheritance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "The effects of this mixing depend on the types (the alleles) of the gene. If the father has two copies of an allele for red hair, and the mother has two copies for brown hair, all their children get the two alleles that give different instructions, one for red hair and one for brown. The hair color of these children depends on how these alleles work together. If one allele dominates the instructions from another, it is called the \"dominant\" allele, and the allele that is overridden is called the \"recessive\" allele. In the case of a daughter with alleles for both red and brown hair, brown is dominant and she ends up with brown hair.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1nkyiq
|
how does turning on a lightbulb use more electricity than keeping it running?
|
[
{
"answer": "There must be an initial surge of energy to get the filament to the proper temperature to produce the light. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It all depends on how long you would be leaving it on for as opposed to possibly simply walking out and walking back in. MythBusters took this on!\n\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "862340",
"title": "Light switch",
"section": "Section::::Variations on design.:Illuminated switch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 1011,
"text": "Single-pole illuminated switches derive the power to energize their in-built illuminating source (usually, a \"neon\" lamp) from the current passing through the lamp(s) which they control. Such switches work satisfactorily with incandescent lamps, halogen lighting, and non-electronic fluorescent fixtures, because the small current required for the switch's illuminating source is too small to produce any visible light from such devices controlled by the illuminated switch. However, if they control only compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) and/or LED lamps, the small amount of current required to energize the lighting source within switch also slowly charges the internal input capacitor in the electronic ballast of the CFL or LED until the voltage across it rises to the point where it produces a brief discharge through the CFL. This cycle may repeat indefinitely, resulting in repetitive brief flashing of the lamp(s) (and the light inside the switch) while the illuminated switch is in the \"off\" position.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3391379",
"title": "Lighting control system",
"section": "Section::::Automated control.:Daylight availability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "Electric lighting energy use can be adjusted by automatically dimming and/or switching electric lights in response to the level of available daylight. Reducing the amount of electric lighting used when daylight is available is known as daylight harvesting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2061045",
"title": "Counter-electromotive force",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "To observe the effect of back-EMF of a motor, one can perform this simple exercise. With an incandescent light on, cause a large motor such as a drill press, saw, air conditioner compressor, or vacuum cleaner to start. The light may dim briefly as the motor starts. When the armature is not turning (called locked rotor) there is no back-EMF and the motor's current draw is quite high. If the motor's starting current is high enough it will pull the line voltage down enough to notice the dimming of the light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4739163",
"title": "Standby power",
"section": "Section::::Magnitude.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "\"Many appliances continue to draw a small amount of power when they are switched off. These \"phantom\" loads occur in most appliances that use electricity, such as VCRs, televisions, stereos, computers, and kitchen appliances. This can be avoided by unplugging the appliance or using a power strip and using the switch on the power strip to cut all power to the appliance.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59503751",
"title": "Twinkle bulb",
"section": "Section::::LEDs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "The use of blinking LEDs requires a supply of direct current (DC) such as an electrical battery, as the unaltered alternating current (AC) causes the oscillator to constantly reset. To prevent this issue, mains-powered lights usually have a small rectifier or capacitor (or both) in the plugs to smooth the electricity, which also prevents the light set from flickering with the frequency of the electricity. Some twinkling LED bulbs are able to operate without this, instead doing the conversion internally. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "317905",
"title": "Centrifugal switch",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "Centrifugal switches are found in many clothes dryers, supplying power to the motor in parallel with the start switch. As long as the motor continues turning, the centrifugal switch supplies power, but if something jams in the dryer and slows it down too much, the switch will cut power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2174251",
"title": "Mechanically powered flashlight",
"section": "Section::::Crank-powered design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "In an alternative \"Clockwork Torch\" design, produced by Freeplay Energy, the energy is mechanically stored in a flat spiral wound mainspring, rather than a battery. The owner winds the spring up by turning the crank. Then when the light is turned on, the spring unwinds, turning a generator to provide power to run the light. The purpose of this design, originally invented for use in the developing world, was to improve its reliability and useful lifetime, by avoiding or reducing reliance on a battery. , the original design is no longer made, but updated smaller hand-cranked models using LEDs are available.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3bw7rl
|
What led to the development of marine infantry units?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is a bit of a throughout history question, so it would be best to narrow it down. In broad strokes though there are advantages in having troops who are specialized in certain aspects of warfare, ready to deploy abroad, and under control of your branch of service. \n\nFor a lot of history in many places naval warfare consisted of mainly trying to ram an enemy ship, or board it and take it over. When it was time for boarding it helped to have people on board whose main job was exactly that. Also the distinction between a combat ship and a transport or merchant ship wasn't always very well defined. You can look at the battle of Dover for a good example of this. \n \nAt first the fighters on the ships wouldn't have been marine specialists, but as time moves on and more professionalism and specialization entered the military specific marine units emerged. The tactics and equipment used in boarding an enemy ship would be different from fighting in the field. \n\nAdditionally, from an organizational stand point it's much easier if everyone is in the same organization and chain of command. Joint Operations have issues with inter service rivalry/misunderstanding even today, and a ship would always need a contingent of marines for security, so why should they belong to some wholly separate organization?\n\nAs time went on the concept of amphibious warfare became a natural fit for marine units, and the ability to have an expeditionary force trained and equipped for such means that your country has the ability to apply land force anywhere it's navy can get to. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "2909541",
"title": "Infantry tactics",
"section": "Section::::Mobile infantry tactics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
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"text": "Marines became prominent during the Pacific War. These soldiers were capable of amphibious warfare on a scale not previously known. As Naval Infantry, both Japanese and American Marines enjoyed the support of naval craft such as battleships, cruisers, and the newly developed aircraft carriers. As with conventional infantry, the Marines used radios to communicate with their supporting elements. They could call in sea and air bombardment very quickly.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "2144744",
"title": "United States Marine Drum and Bugle Corps",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
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"text": "The history of the unit can be traced to the early days of the Marine Corps. In the 18th and 19th centuries, military musicians (\"field musics\") provided a means of passing commands to Marines in battle. The sound of various drum beats and bugle calls that could be heard over the noise of the battlefield signaled Marines to attack the enemy or retreat. Through the 1930s, Marine Corps posts still authorized a number of buglers and drummers to play the traditional calls and to ring a ship's bell to signal the time. Until the 1960s, Marine Corps units sported unit drum and bugle corps within their respective rosters.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "1456273",
"title": "Troupes de la marine",
"section": "Section::::Organization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
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"text": "The development of the European war marines in the 17th century trained the formation of soldiers assigned to the ships. The creation of regular () infantry units for service at sea was relatively late ( compared to the service at sea of the French Army) : prior, soldiers who served at sea were seconded from the French Army. The first regular specific troope for maritime service appeared in Spain since 1537 (\"compañías viejas del mar de Nápoles\") assigned to the Galley, then in Portugal in 1610 and in France in 1622; the British Royal Marines were founded in 1664 ( under the designation of \"Foot Maritime Regiment\").\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "2933920",
"title": "Marines",
"section": "Section::::By country.:Colombia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
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"text": "The modern Marine Corps dates from the establishment of two rifle companies in 1936. While remaining a small force the corps saw service during the civil war between Conservatives and Liberals of 1946-58; and provided volunteers for service in the Korean War. By the 1960s it had been expanded to a battalion of marine infantry plus five independent companies.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "17349325",
"title": "United States Marine Corps",
"section": "Section::::History.:World War I.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Between the World Wars, the Marine Corps was headed by Commandant John A. Lejeune, and under his leadership, the Corps studied and developed amphibious techniques that would be of great use in World War II. Many officers, including Lieutenant Colonel Earl Hancock \"Pete\" Ellis, foresaw a war in the Pacific with Japan and undertook preparations for such a conflict. Through 1941, as the prospect of war grew, the Corps pushed urgently for joint amphibious exercises with the Army and acquired amphibious equipment that would prove of great use in the upcoming conflict.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "17349325",
"title": "United States Marine Corps",
"section": "Section::::Mission.:Historical mission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 940,
"text": "Throughout the late 19th and 20th centuries, Marine detachments served aboard Navy cruisers, battleships and aircraft carriers. Marine detachments served in their traditional duties as a ship's landing force, manning the ship's weapons and providing shipboard security. Marine detachments were augmented by members of the ship's company for landing parties, such as in the First Sumatran Expedition of 1832, and continuing in the Caribbean and Mexican campaigns of the early 20th centuries. Marines would develop tactics and techniques of amphibious assault on defended coastlines in time for use in World War II. During World War II, Marines continued to serve on capital ships. They often were assigned to man anti-aircraft batteries. When gun cruisers were retired by the 1960s, the remaining Marine detachments were only seen on battleships and carriers. Its original mission of providing shipboard security finally ended in the 1990s.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "6151146",
"title": "History of the United States Marine Corps",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
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"text": "In World War I, battle-tested, veteran Marines served a central role in the United States' entry into the conflict. Between the world wars, the Marine Corps was headed by Major General John A. Lejeune, another popular commandant. In World War II, the Marines played a central role, under Admiral Nimitz, in the Pacific War, participating in nearly every significant battle. The Corps also saw its peak growth as it expanded from two brigades to two corps with six divisions, and five air wings with 132 squadrons. During the Battle of Iwo Jima, photographer Joe Rosenthal took the famous photo \"Raising of the Flag on Iwo Jima\" of five Marines and one naval corpsman raising a U.S. flag on Mount Suribachi. The Korean War (1950–1953) saw the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade holding the line at the Battle of Pusan Perimeter, where Marine helicopters (VMO-6 flying the HO3S1 helicopter) made their combat debut. The Marines also played an important role in the Vietnam War at battles such as Da Nang, Huế, and Khe Sanh. The Marines operated in the northern I Corps regions of South Vietnam and fought both a constant guerilla war against the Viet Cong and an off and on conventional war against North Vietnamese Army regulars. Marines went to Beirut during the 1982 Lebanon War on 24 August. On 23 October 1983, the Marine barracks in Beirut was bombed, causing the highest peacetime losses to the Corps in its history. Marines were also responsible for liberating Kuwait during the Gulf War (1990–1991), as the Army made an attack to the west directly into Iraq. The I Marine Expeditionary Force had a strength of 92,990 making Operation Desert Storm the largest Marine Corps operation in history.\n",
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1sgk3v
|
What tactics did viking raid victims come up with to counter the invasions?
|
[
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"answer": "In the Kingdom Wessex under Alfred the Great, the Burghal system was implemented in response to the Viking raids from Danelaw and overseas. The Burghal system in Wessex founded by Alfred in the 9th century, shown in the *Burghal Hidage* document, has 33 fortified towns, known as Burhs, in which local rural populations could take refuge during a raid and where local produce could be stored without risk of being lost to raids. The burhs also acted as market centres and a basis for which recruitment and taxes could be calculated. \n\n[Source](_URL_0_)",
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"answer": "I can't speak for other Countries and rulers, but Alfred the Great of England built a series of fortified towns called burhs. Built nineteen miles apart all around the country they allowed for a garrison of Fyrd (Miltia comprising trained freemen).\n\n The burhs also served as a way to protect civilians from raids this turned Burhs into centers of market and trade which was important for raising Tax to support the Anglo military. \n\nBurhs were effective and ultimately allowed the Anglo-saxons to retake England since they allowed and quick local responce to the Hit and run viking raids and Since the Viking lacked siege weapons they were unable to successfully assault the Burhs. \n\nAlfred is also credited with strengthening the Anglo-saxon navy. The Anglo-saxon ships where considered larger and there carried more troops which allowed them to defeat the smaller viking vessels, that were built for speed and navigation. However Viking ships could easily outmaneuver the English ships in rivers, shallow water and low tides. \n\nUltimately these tactics were effective but failed to wipe out the viking threat all together. ",
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"answer": "Best not forget the non-military means by which victims dealt with Invasion.\n\nIn the *Chronicon Aquitanicum et Francicum* (1028) more succinctly known as the *Historia Francorum* written by Adémar de Chabannes, it is noted how people, in the French Aquitaine at least, simply moved inland. Why bother building a fort and risk getting raided again when moving inland may prove a simpler solution?",
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"answer": "Didn't Charles the Bald order the construction of bridges on the Seine to keep longships from going up the river into the interior? I thought I knew for a fact that we had a law about it, but don't have anything useful to hand. Idea being that by restricting the easy movement of the Vikings to the coast by shutting down the rivers, their impact and the cost of countering them could be minimized.\n\nEdit: [Edict of Pistres.](_URL_0_)",
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"answer": "First of all this is my first post in r/askhistorians. Apologies if the formatting is incorrect, if I'm honest I'm procrastinating from doing reading on my thesis. I hope it's useful. The answer below focuses primarily on Ireland.\n \nSources: \nPrimary:\nAnnals of Ulster \nLife of Blathmacc \n \nSecondary:\nClarke, Howard B. 'The Vikings in Ireland: A Historians Perspective'. Archaeology Ireland vol. 9, no. 3 (1995), pp. 7-9. \n \nCróinín, Daibhí Ó. Early Medieval Ireland 400-1200. Essex, 1995. \n \nDoherty, Charles. 'The Vikings in Ireland: A Review' in Howard B. Clarke, Máire Ní Mhaonaigh and Raghnall Ó Floinn (eds.), 'Ireland and Scaninavia in the Early Viking Age'. Dublin, 1998, pp 292-311. \n \nDoherty, Charles. 'The Viking Impact upon Ireland' in Anne-Christine Larsen (ed.), 'The Vikings in Ireland'. Roskilde, 2001, pp 29-37. \n \n \n \n\nIn regards to how the Irish responded you have to understand how the Irish kingship system was structured at the time. There were tiers of kingship, though a king of a townland could act independently of an \"over\" king. Before initial Viking appearances in Ireland these kings raided monasteries in each others territories as a display of dominance. However, one important thing to note is that they did not attack the sanctuary in the middle of monastery, as it was sacred. This is important as it acted a place for monks to hide when such raids occurred. The Irish kings were also well aware on the limits in terms of destruction which they could incur.\n \nWhen the Vikings arrived, they were met with a non-unified resistance. If they defeated one local Irish king they gained very little in terms of land, and had to move onto the next local king, to fight again, for a small tract of land. In fact, the Vikings lost about as many battles as they won in Ireland. This style of warfare worked effectively against the Vikings versus the English system where a more unified form of kingship had grown. Once one king in England fell, the Vikings gained control of large tracts of land. \n \nThere is evidence that the Vikings were aware of the placement of Irish monasteries prior to their arrival, perhaps due to information gained in the Hebrides. They also became aware of what days to raid, as monasteries at this time served as proto-towns (Ireland had yet to develop what we would consider a town), but people gathered on feast days, and these were the days on which raids occurred. \n \nThe Viking response to the Irish system was to establish longforts on the boundaries between the Irish kingdoms, so they became a problem for both kings, but also neither as neither king wanted to deal with them. It was clear a raiding force was not going to be enough to gain a foothold in Ireland, as while in England there was infrastructure which could be taken and used, this did not exist in Ireland.\n \nThe Vikings then raided out from these longforts, attacking monasteries. This became an issue as initial raiders (pre-Christian Vikings) were unaware of the sacred nature of areas of these monasteries and burnt them in their entirety to the ground. This is demonstrated well in Walahfrid Strabo's 'Life of Blathmacc' in which the Abbott of Iona is murdered by the Vikings for refusing to show them to the burial site of Columba's remains. Round towers were not used as means of escape for monks, despite popular theory. Climbing into one is akin to climbing into a chimney with a fire lit in it. \n \nIt is clear that the Vikings became involved in the Irish political scene early on, as by AD 882 the Dublin Vikings had formed an alliance with the Southern Uí Néill and raided Armagh, but within seven years had made an alliance with the Northern Uí Néill to raid against the Southern Uí Néill.\n \nAs said above, the Irish response was disjointed, but violent and worked to the advantage of the Irish kings. Eventually the Vikings became naturalised (evidence at the Cherrywood site outside Dublin shows Viking farmers working land that had been used as farms from the Stone Age, meaning there was probably some form of intermingling). \n \nThe Dublin Vikings (as opposed to those in other longforts, who appear to have been separate groups) were expelled in 902 after Dublin was sacked. However, they returned in 917 and retook the city. The concept of expelling the Vikings is one which is subject to debate, as it appears the leadership was expelled as archaeological evidence shows the city continued to function. The assimilation of the Vikings can be seen further from this point on, as there are signs of intermarriage (through preserved records of names, which are hybrids), and intermarriage between kings, as can be seen with the three Gormlaiths, one of whom married high kings of Ireland. \n \nRaids by this point were also not focused on taking monetary tolls, or slaves, as the Annals of Ulster tell us in 853 the Dublin Vikings exacting tributes of cattle and grain from the native population. \n \nTo be specific in military terms, there's little available in Ireland to my knowledge. Armour piercing arrowheads have been found in Dublin having been manufactured by the Dublin Vikings, though these are unlikely to have been used in Ireland, as the Irish wore no real armour at the time of their arrival and there's no evidence to suggest that this changed much until much later. These arrowheads were likely being exported to England, or further afield as part of the Viking economic hub.\n \nOn a tangential note, the Battle of Clontarf was not all that significant in real political terms. It was used as a piece of propaganda by Brian Boru's descendants as they were losing power in Munster and labelled as the battle in which he drove the Vikings from Ireland. Vikings in fact fought on both sides of the battle, and were mercenaries. The battle was not about removing Vikings from Ireland in any manner. They were an accepted part of Irish society at this point. Yes, the battle resulted in the death of Brian Boru, the then-high king of Ireland, but it simply saw Máel Sechnaill restored as high king of Ireland (having been high king before Brian). \n \nIn summary, the Irish initial resistance appears to have turned into acceptance with the Vikings. The Viking raids and initial attempted land grabs failed due to the disjointed nature of Irish kingship, and thus became involved on a political and economic level with the Irish. The Irish response to this was to accept it. ",
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"answer": "In ninth-century Frankia, one of the primary 'tactics' was paying off the Vikings to leave, as in this passage from the [Annals of St. Bertin](_URL_0_): \"852: The Northmen went to Frisia with 252 ships, but after receiving payment as large as they asked for, they headed off elsewhere\". Charles the Bald, king of West Frankia (most of present-day France) did this pretty frequently to buy off the invaders. The Northmen tended to strike at times of political division among the Franks, such as during the succession war between the sons of Louis the Pious that followed his death in 840-3, and again a few years after the death of Charles the Bald in 877. As noted below, Charles also promoted the construction of fortified bridges on Frankia's major river basins, since they were primarily getting in and plundering through the Seine and Loire river valleys. \n\nIt should be noted, however, that until the death of Charles the Bald, the Northmen on the continent seem to have been more of an annoyance than a serious threat. If you read the Annals of St. Bertin, a contemporary source that I cited above, you'll find a great many mentions of the dealings between Charles and his stepbrothers/rival kings, and not very many of the Vikings. Unlike in England, the Vikings do not appear to have settled and stayed on the Continent, with the exception of a few islands in present-day Netherlands (such as Walcheren, today not an island anymore) and Normandy, which they were granted after cutting a deal with Charles the Simple. \n\nOne other thing: Monasteries were one of the primary targets of Northmen's raids, since they were often located on the river valleys and generally had plenty of silver and few capable warriors. To get away from this, some monasteries moved upriver or away from the rivers entirely. \n\nEdit: Wallachia -- > Walcheren",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "44563788",
"title": "Viking raid warfare and tactics",
"section": "Section::::Seafaring military strategies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
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"text": "Viking raids often lacked formation. They have been described as \"bees swarming.\" However, what they lacked in formation they made up with brutality. This naturalistic sense of unconventional warfare is rooted in their lack of organized leadership. These small fleets brutally but effectively scared locals and made it difficult for English and Frankish territories to counter these foreign tactics. Sprague compares these tactics to those of contemporary western Special Forces soldiers, who \"attack in small units with specific objectives.\" Later in the 860s, the formation of the Great Heathen Army brought about a more organized type of warfare for the Vikings. Large squads of raiders banded together to attack towns and cities, with fleets comprising hundreds of ships. \n",
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"wikipedia_id": "8316659",
"title": "Strandhögg",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "Strandhogg in old Norse was a Viking tactic consisting of a coastal raid with the intention of capturing livestock and indigenous peoples for the slave trade. This tactic was enhanced by Viking longships' shallow draft.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "44563788",
"title": "Viking raid warfare and tactics",
"section": "Section::::Battle tactics on land.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
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"text": "Viking military tactics succeeded mainly because they disregarded the conventional battlefield tactics, methods, and customs of the time. They ignored the unspoken rules of leaving holy sites untouched, and they never arranged battle times. Deceit, stealth, and ruthlessness were not seen as cowardly. During raids the Vikings targeted religious sites because of their vulnerability, often butchering the clergy at these sites in honor of a Pagan god. These religious sites also contained vast amounts of wealth, which the Vikings saw as opportunities to loot and plunder. This fulfilled their goal during raids to amass great amounts of wealth. Norsemen who sailed back to Scandinavia after raiding brought back their loot as a symbol of pride and power. \"The Viking chieftans Sigfrid and Gorm 'sent ships loaded with treasure and captives back to their country' in 882\". \n",
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"wikipedia_id": "532476",
"title": "Early Middle Ages",
"section": "Section::::History.:Viking Age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
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"text": "Viking raiding expeditions were separate from, though coexisted with, regular trading expeditions. Apart from exploring Europe via its oceans and rivers, with the aid of their advanced navigational skills, they extended their trading routes across vast parts of the continent. They also engaged in warfare, looting and enslaving numerous Christian communities of Medieval Europe for centuries, contributing to the development of feudal systems in Europe.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "20503",
"title": "Medieval warfare",
"section": "Section::::Medieval conquerors.:Vikings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 117,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 117,
"end_character": 864,
"text": "Almost by definition, opponents of the Vikings were ill-prepared to fight a force that struck at will, with no warning. European countries with a weak system of government would be unable to organize a suitable response and would naturally suffer the most to Viking raiders. Viking raiders always had the option to fall back in the face of a superior force or stubborn defence and then reappear to attack other locations or retreat to their bases in what is now Sweden, Denmark, Norway and their Atlantic colonies. As time went on, Viking raids became more sophisticated, with coordinated strikes involving multiple forces and large armies, as the \"Great Heathen Army\" that ravaged Anglo-Saxon England in the 9th century. In time, the Vikings began to hold on to the areas they raided, first wintering and then consolidating footholds for further expansion later.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "6873191",
"title": "Raid (military)",
"section": "Section::::Seaborne.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 1191,
"text": "In the early Middle Ages, Viking raiders from Scandinavia attacked the British Isles, France and Spain, attacking coastal and riverside targets. Much Viking raiding was carried out as a private initiative with a few ships, usually to gain loot, but much larger fleets were also involved, often as intent on extorting protection money (English: \"Danegeld\") as looting and pillaging. Raiding did not cease with the decline of the Viking threat in the 11th century. It remained a common element of the medieval naval warfare. Extensive naval raiding was carried out by all sides during the Hundred Years War, often involving privateers such as John Hawley of Dartmouth or the Castilian Pero Niño. In the Mediterranean, raiding using oared galleys was common throughout the Middle Ages and into the Renaissance and was particularly a feature of the wars between the Christian powers and the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century. Raiding formed a major component of English naval strategy in the Elizabethan era, with attacks on the Spanish possessions in the New World. A major raid on Cadiz to destroy shipping being assembled for the Spanish Armada was carried out by Sir Francis Drake in 1587.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "648959",
"title": "History of Somerset",
"section": "Section::::Early Medieval.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Viking raids took place for instance in 987 and 997 at Watchet and the Battle of Cynwit. King Alfred was driven to seek refuge from the Danes at Athelney before defeating them at the Battle of Ethandun in 878, usually considered to be near Edington, Wiltshire, but possibly the village of Edington in Somerset. Alfred established a series of forts and lookout posts linked by a military road, or Herepath, so his army could cover Viking movements at sea. The Herepath has a characteristic form which is familiar on the Quantocks: a regulation 20 m wide track between avenues of trees growing from hedge laying embankments. The Herepath ran from the ford on the River Parrett at Combwich, past Cannington hill fort to Over Stowey, where it climbed the Quantocks along the line of the current Stowey road, to Crowcombe Park Gate. Then it went south along the ridge, to Triscombe Stone. One branch may have led past Lydeard Hill and Buncombe Hill, back to Alfred's base at Athelney. The main branch descended the hills at Triscombe, then along the avenue to Red Post Cross, and west to the Brendon Hills and Exmoor. A peace treaty with the Danes was signed at Wedmore and the Danish king Guthrum the Old was baptised at Aller. \"Burhs\" (fortified places) had been set up by 919, such as Lyng. The Alfred Jewel, an object about 2.5 inch long, made of filigree gold, cloisonné-enamelled and with a rock crystal covering, was found in 1693 at Petherton Park, North Petherton. Believed to have been owned by Alfred the Great it is thought to have been the handle for a pointer that would have fit into the hole at its base and been used while reading a book.\n",
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1mw4ch
|
If water conservation is so vital to mammals, why do we pee? Why not transfer toxins into stool and recycle the water? Are there any animals that have evolved to do this?
|
[
{
"answer": "Safely excreting waste tends to be a balancing act between water and energy. Land animals in non-desert climates tend to urinate in the sense you are familiar with. However, animals in climates in which water is very precious or those which can't carry a lot of water due to weight (birds) use a different method of getting rid of waste. \n\nA large part of what we're getting rid of in urine is nitrogen waste so that we don't build up ammonia. We get rid of nitrogen by making a compound called urea in a cycle called the urea cycle. It uses some energy to make, and takes a lot of water to get rid of. In contrast, birds, reptiles, and some desert mammals get rid of nitrogen by making a different compound called uric acid. This takes more energy, but can be excreted as a paste with only a little water in it (this is the white part of bird poop). It's a balancing act as to whether the water or the energy is generally more important, and so different species have gone different ways.",
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"answer": "Urine production and stool production are two completely separate processes. As blood flows through your body, it is constantly passing through the glomerulus in the kidneys. The glomerulus is a network of capillaries that is extremely high in pressure. In simple terms, what this does is push water and ions (sodium, potassium, etc) into the next region of the kidneys - the nephron. \n(I am describing the following processes in an extremely simplified way.)\nThe nephron is basically a tube that allows the water/solutes to pass nearby capillaries and diffuse back into the blood if the concentration in the blood is low. If it's high, these solutes are not necessary and so they remain in the nephron. This also attracts other charged ions to pass into the nephron if need be, which will then all flow into the bladder to be excreted. \n\nNow, stool production happens in a completely different area of the body. As food is digested, it moves from the stomach into the small intestines where all the nutrients are absorbed in the bloodstream. After the small intestine, the food passes into the large intestine, which is responsible for water removal from the food. The large intestine removes most of the water and what's left is basically feces. As you can see it would be quite difficult to combine these two processes. \n\nIn order for the ions to be excreted, they need to be dissolved in something that will flow out of the body. It would not be possible to eliminate dissolved substances without staying in solution. As far as I know, the closest animal able to do such a thing are birds. They excrete a urine/fecal matter mixture all at once, rather than two separate processes. But I don't know much about the workings of a bird's waste removal system so my knowledge is limited there.",
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"answer": "Some desert reptiles excrete semi-solid uric acid to conserve water. I remember reading long ago that there was a small South American deer or antelope that did this too, but a google search turns up nothing but reptiles and birds. ",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "25409",
"title": "Reptile",
"section": "Section::::Morphology and physiology.:Excretion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
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"text": "Excretion is performed mainly by two small kidneys. In diapsids, uric acid is the main nitrogenous waste product; turtles, like mammals, excrete mainly urea. Unlike the kidneys of mammals and birds, reptile kidneys are unable to produce liquid urine more concentrated than their body fluid. This is because they lack a specialized structure called a loop of Henle, which is present in the nephrons of birds and mammals. Because of this, many reptiles use the colon to aid in the reabsorption of water. Some are also able to take up water stored in the bladder. Excess salts are also excreted by nasal and lingual salt glands in some reptiles.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "1476495",
"title": "Crawford's gray shrew",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
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"text": "Because of its diet, the Crawford's gray shrew must expel a large amount of nitrogenous waste from its body, which has a potential for a large loss of water when urinating. However, it is able to reduce water loss from urine, as well, by concentrating urea in the urine. The urine is four times more concentrated than that of a human, thus saving a huge amount of water.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "18588842",
"title": "Xerocole",
"section": "Section::::Water conservation.:Excretion.:Urine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1145,
"text": "To excrete nitrogenous waste products, mammals (and most amphibians) excrete urea diluted in water. Such xerocoles have adapted to make their urine as concentrated as possible (i.e. use the least amount of water) to dissolve urea. Desert mammals have longer and more deeply inset nephrons, as well as smaller and fewer cortical and juxtamedullary glomeruli (glomeruli being capillary networks where both fluid and waste are extracted from blood). This in turn leads to a smaller glomerular filtration rate, and on the whole, less water is transferred from the blood to the kidney. The kidneys of desert mammals are also better adapted at reabsorbing water from the tubular fluid: though there are fewer glomeruli, the xerocole has larger juxtamedullary glomeruli than cortical glomeruli (the former playing an important role in concentrating urine), whereas the opposite is true for non-xerocoles. Desert mammals also have longer loops of Henle, structures whose efficiency in concentrating urine is directly proportional to their length. The efficiency of their loops of Henle is augmented by the increased antidiuretic hormone in their blood.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "255468",
"title": "Excretion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "Aquatic animals usually excrete ammonia directly into the external environment, as this compound has high solubility and there is ample water available for dilution. In terrestrial animals ammonia-like compounds are converted into other nitrogenous materials as there is less water in the environment and ammonia itself is toxic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18952443",
"title": "Osmoregulation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "Organisms in aquatic and terrestrial environments must maintain the right concentration of solutes and amount of water in their body fluids; this involves excretion (getting rid of metabolic nitrogen wastes and other substances such as hormones that would be toxic if allowed to accumulate in the blood) through organs such as the skin and the kidneys.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1708619",
"title": "Fecal coliform",
"section": "Section::::Fecal bacteria as indicator of water quality.:Problems resulting from fecal contamination of water.:Effects on the environment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 739,
"text": "Untreated organic matter that contains fecal coliform can be harmful to the environment. Aerobic decomposition of this material can reduce dissolved oxygen levels if discharged into rivers or waterways. This may reduce the oxygen level enough to kill fish and other aquatic life. Reduction of fecal coliform in wastewater may require the use of chlorine and other disinfectant chemicals, or UV disinfection treatment. Such materials may kill the fecal coliform and disease bacteria. They also kill bacteria essential to the proper balance of the aquatic environment, endangering the survival of species dependent on those bacteria. So higher levels of fecal coliform require higher levels of chlorine, threatening those aquatic organisms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1365",
"title": "Ammonia",
"section": "Section::::Safety precautions.:Toxicity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "The toxicity of ammonia solutions does not usually cause problems for humans and other mammals, as a specific mechanism exists to prevent its build-up in the bloodstream. Ammonia is converted to carbamoyl phosphate by the enzyme carbamoyl phosphate synthetase, and then enters the urea cycle to be either incorporated into amino acids or excreted in the urine. Fish and amphibians lack this mechanism, as they can usually eliminate ammonia from their bodies by direct excretion. Ammonia even at dilute concentrations is highly toxic to aquatic animals, and for this reason it is classified as \"dangerous for the environment\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
uorc1
|
Why do dogs walk in a circle before they lay down?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are a couple of theories ranging from circling behaviour intended to pad down grass to be more comfortable, to circling in order to judge wind direction and lay nose facing the breeze. There's little conclusive agreement on the true reason however.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't see any scientific papers but here is a link to a video of wolves going to sleep. As you can see they do not all circle but rather make beds for themselves.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Had a quick search, this is the best I could find.\n\n\n > Wisconsin State Journal (Madison, Wisconsin)\n > \n > February 7, 2008 Thursday\n > ALL EDITION\n > \n > DOGS CIRCLE AND CATS KNEAD BEFORE NAPPING\n > \n > SECTION: LOCAL; CURIOSITIES; Pg. B1\n > \n > LENGTH: 176 words\n > \n > Q. Why do cats walk in a circle before they lie down?\n > \n > - Submitted by Larry Haynes, grade 6, Whitehorse Middle School\n > \n > A. Circling behavior seems to be more ingrained in dogs than cats. Cats tend to knead with their claws when they are happy and settling down on a favorite person's lap or to nap.\n > \n > The kneading behavior may be a throwback to baby behavior, as kittens knead when nursing to speed the flow of milk.\n > \n > Dogs, on the other hand, may walk in circles as part of a \"nesting\" behavior, sort of like \"fluffing our pillow and adjusting the blankets to make the area comfortable,\" said Sandi Sawchuk, UW-Madison School of Veterinary Medicine clinical instructor.\n > \n > This circling may be an artifact, an ingrained behavior, from the time when the wild ancestors of domesticated dogs slept in the open. Circling would serve to tamp down tall grasses and other obstructions.\n > \n > Sawchuk noted, however, that not all dogs do this. Some are simply \"ploppers,\" and some, like dachshunds, are burrowers and \"like to slip under the covers and curl up next to the owner's feet.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Straight Dope seems to know](_URL_0_)\n\n > \"The trick to understanding any domestic animal 'stereotypical' behavior is to imagine its value in the wild. A wild dog will often sleep in the open, and walking in a circle before you lay down is a good way to tramp down the vegetation a bit to make a more comfortable \"bed.\" It's also possible that dogs, being social, sleep together and circling is a way of marking out territory and making more room--one of those obviously 'hard-wired' things that haven't yet been bred out. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "48614086",
"title": "Calming signals",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Play bow.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "Going down with front legs in a bowing position can be an invitation to play if the dog is moving legs from side to side in a playful manner. Just as often, the dog is standing still while bowing and is using the signal to calm someone down. These signals often have double meanings and may be used in many different ways – often the invitation to play is a calming signal by itself because the dog is making a potentially dangerous situation less tense and diverts with something safe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11917414",
"title": "Bucovina Shepherd Dog",
"section": "Section::::Appearance.:Conformation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "The tail is bushy, covered with longer and thicker hair. When the dog is relaxed it tends to hold the tail low, reaching the point of the hock or even lower. When the dog is alert and is paying attention or is in action, the tail is elevated. In this case it may rise above the level of the back, sickle shaped. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18512314",
"title": "Skateboarding dog",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "Dogs are able to push while standing on a skateboard, or they can run towards the board and leap on. Most skateboarding dogs have difficulty carving because they cannot easily shift their weight on the board. Dogs cannot grind. Dogs are agile on the board and are able to turn around or perform other walking moves on the board, similar to what longboarders know as \"dancing\". Many skateboarding dogs appear to enjoy the cooling effect of the wind on their tongues. The dog may chew on the board or wheels, especially if they are using their mouth to carry the board.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48614086",
"title": "Calming signals",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Sitting down.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "To sit down, or an even stronger signal, to sit down with the back turned towards someone – for instance the owner – has a very calming effect. It is often seen when one dog wants to calm another dog who is approaching too quickly. Dogs may sit down with their backs turned against the owner when he or she sounds too strict or angry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12489103",
"title": "Dog walking",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "Dogs are walked restrained by a collar around their neck or by a harness, or by simply following their guardian by familiarity and verbal control. Commonly, the dog is walked by the guardian, or by another family member, but there are also professional dog walkers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60894807",
"title": "Behaviour and Personality Assessment in Dogs (BPH)",
"section": "Section::::Assessment.:Steps.:7. Surface material.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "The dog and handler walk across a length of a new, unknown surface. The standard surface is a 3 metre long by 1 metre wide plastic roof sheet. It is set up between two fences so that the dog cannot avoid walking on the roof sheet, and so that it moves noisily when stepped on. The dog's anxiety of walking on a new surface is measured.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60894807",
"title": "Behaviour and Personality Assessment in Dogs (BPH)",
"section": "Section::::Assessment.:Steps.:4. Surprise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "While the dog is walking with its owner, a half-silhouette of a person is quickly raised 3 metres from the dog. The dog should totally overcome its fear and return to a calm state, indicated by 'contact' with the cut-out (judged by the observer). If the dog is still uncertain, the step progresses to other phases, such as the handler and test leader squatting down next to the cut-out and encouraging the dog. Once the dog has made 'contact', the handler is instructed to pat and praise the dog. Fear, aggression, and how quickly the dog overcomes the negative emotional experience are observed and noted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
574jsf
|
In US Presidential election history, has there been cases where the losing candidate completely refused to recognize the results of the election?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hi there, I'm going to approve this question because it asks about the historical record, but for potential respondents: Please remember that our subreddit rules explicitly forbid both [discussion of current events](_URL_1_) as well as [political discussion/soapboxing](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "579504",
"title": "Timeline of the 2004 United States presidential election",
"section": "Section::::In depth analysis of week of 2004 election.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 271,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 271,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "The U.S. presidential election occurred on November 2, 2004. However, as in the 2000 U.S. election, the election was too close for a winner to be declared that night. By the next morning, the Republican campaign was declaring a victory while the results in several states remained too close for the media to declare winners. Soon afterward the Kerry campaign decided that there were not enough uncounted votes in Ohio for them to win that state and Kerry telephoned Bush to concede. At 2 p.m. EST, Kerry held a news conference announcing the same. An hour later, Bush held his own to accept his victory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25704",
"title": "Politics of Russia",
"section": "Section::::Executive branch.:Presidential elections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "Although there was speculation that losing parties in the December 1995 election might choose not to nominate presidential candidates, in fact dozens of citizens both prominent and obscure announced their candidacies. After the gathering and review of signature lists, the CEC validated eleven candidates, one of whom later dropped out.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39412",
"title": "Spoiler effect",
"section": "Section::::Spoiler effect in American elections.:Presidential elections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "These are third-party candidates who have been accused of denying victory to a major nominee in U.S. Presidential Elections; a notable case among these is the 1912 election, where Progressive Party candidate Theodore Roosevelt won almost 700,000 votes more than did the Republican incumbent, William Howard Taft, and thus it could be said that Taft was the spoiler for Roosevelt in that election. This argument worried Republicans, who, after Woodrow Wilson won the 1912 election, became concerned that Roosevelt might return to split the Republican vote again.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40400",
"title": "James A. Garfield",
"section": "Section::::Congressional career.:Minority leader; Hayes administration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 1567,
"text": "When Hayes appeared to have lost the presidential election the following month to Democrat Samuel Tilden, the Republicans launched efforts to reverse the result in Southern states where they held the governorship: South Carolina, Louisiana, and Florida. If Hayes won all three states, he would take the election by a single electoral vote. Grant asked Garfield to serve as a \"neutral observer\" in the recount in Louisiana. The observers soon recommended to the state electoral commissions that Hayes be declared the winner—Garfield recommended that the entire vote of West Feliciana Parish, which had given Tilden a sizable majority, be thrown out. The Republican governors of the three states certified that Hayes had won their states, to the outrage of Democrats, who had the state legislatures submit rival returns, and threatened to prevent the counting of the electoral vote—under the Constitution, Congress is the final arbiter of the election. Congress then passed a bill establishing the Electoral Commission, to determine the winner. Although he opposed the Commission, feeling that Congress should count the vote and proclaim Hayes victorious, Garfield was appointed to it over the objections of Democrats that he was too partisan. Hayes emerged the victor by a Commission vote of 8 to 7, with all eight votes being cast by Republican politicians or appointees of that party to the Supreme Court. As part of the deal whereby they recognized Hayes as president, Southern Democrats secured the removal of federal troops from the South, ending Reconstruction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44139794",
"title": "1920 Belfast Corporation election",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "The result in the Falls was controversial; over twenty candidates stood, creating the most complex election by single-transferable vote to date; and 764 votes for disallowed due to spoiled ballot papers. 300 of these lacked an official mark; this was because the printing press marking them had ceased adding it near the end of the run, but this error was not noticed until the election count took place.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60048",
"title": "Samuel J. Tilden",
"section": "Section::::Presidential election of 1876.:Electoral Commission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 1339,
"text": "Even after the Electoral Commission delivered its rulings, the House of Representatives could have blocked the inauguration of Hayes by refusing to certify the election results. Though some House Democrats hoped to do just that, they were unable to prevent the House of Representatives from blocking certification, as many House Democrats joined with their Republican colleagues in accepting the results. During the proceedings of the Electoral Commission, high-ranking members of both parties had discussed the possibility of declaring Hayes the winner in exchange for the removal of all federal troops from the South. The Compromise of 1877, as it became known, may have played a role in preventing the House from challenging the Electoral Commission's rulings, although author Roy Morris, Jr. argues that the compromise \"was more a mutual concession of the obvious than a device for controlling larger events.\" Some other historians, including C. Vann Woodward, have argued that the Compromise of 1877 played the decisive role in determining the outcome of the election. On March 2, two days before the end of Grant's term, Congress declared Hayes the victor of the 1876 presidential election. Hayes took office on March 4, and withdrew the last federal soldiers from the South in April 1877, bringing an end to the Reconstruction Era.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48406859",
"title": "2010 Unity State gubernatorial election",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "Following the election the defeated candidates issued a joint statement denouncing the results, alleging the election had involved severe vote-rigging, and called for a review by the National Elections Commission. Angelina Teny said she would not accept or recognize the results.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bwz9km
|
how did columbus communicated with the aztecs if they didn’t speak their language and vise versa?
|
[
{
"answer": "Columbus didn't communicate with the Aztecs. He never met them. \n\nHernan Cortes was the man responsible for destroying the Aztec empire. \n\nWhen Cortes first landed in the Yucatan he met Geronimo de Aguilar, a Spanish Franciscan priest who had survived a shipwreck followed by a period in captivity with the Maya. This priest had learned the Mayan language. \n\nLater, Cortes fought and beat the Tabasco natives. They gave him 20 women. One of which was called La Malinche and would become Cortes' mistress. She knew the Aztec language and the Mayan language, so Cortes was then able to communicate to Montezuma of the Aztecs through these translators.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29888040",
"title": "History of chocolate in Spain",
"section": "Section::::The age of discovery.:Naming the new product.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "The Aztec language, Nahuatl, was difficult for the Spanish troops stationed in Mexico to pronounce. The common ending \"tl\" sounded like \"te.\" Hernán Cortés' difficulties with the language was evident in the letters he sent, where he writes \"Temistitan\" instead of Tenochtitlan and the tribal god Huitzilopochtli as \"Huichilobos.\" Coexistence between the two cultures led to the Spanish language borrowing certain Mesoamerican phrases or words such as coyote or maiz.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4804623",
"title": "Mythical origins of language",
"section": "Section::::Americas.:Mesoamerica.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "The Aztecs' story maintains that only a man, Coxcox, and a woman, Xochiquetzal, survive, having floated on a piece of bark. They found themselves on land and begot many children who were at first born unable to speak, but subsequently, upon the arrival of a dove were endowed with language, although each one was given a different speech such that they could not understand one another.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18079465",
"title": "Columbus's letter on the first voyage",
"section": "Section::::Content of the letter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "Columbus makes particular note that the natives lack organized religion, not even idolatry (\"no conocian ninguna seta nin idolatria\"). He claims the natives believed the Spaniards and their ships had \"come down from heaven\" (\"que yo...venia del cielo\"). Columbus notes that the natives of different islands seem to all speak the same language (the Arawaks of the region all spoke Taíno), which he conjectures will facilitate \"conversion to the holy religion of Christ, to which in truth, as far as I can perceive, they are very ready and favorably inclined\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "363176",
"title": "History of Mexico City",
"section": "Section::::Spanish conquest and reconstruction of city.:Conquest of Tenochtitlan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "Moctezuma, then-chief of the Aztecs, had been receiving accounts of the Europeans' arrival since their ships (reported as towers or small mountains on the eastern sea) arrived in the Yucatán then Veracruz. First-hand accounts indicate that the Aztec were under some impression that Cortés was the god Quetzalcoatl. According to these reports, the direction of the ships’ arrival and because of the Spaniards light skin, long beards and short hair fit a prophecy about this god's return. This motivated Moctezuma to send gifts to the Spaniards when they arrived in Veracruz.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3966054",
"title": "Mexico",
"section": "Section::::History.:Conquest of the Aztec Triple Alliance (1519–1521).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "The Spanish first learned of Mexico during the Juan de Grijalva expedition of 1518. The natives kept \"repeating: \"Colua, Colua\", and \"Mexico, Mexico\", but we [explorers] did not know what \"Colua\" or \"Mexico\" meant\", until encountering Montezuma's governor at the mouth of the Rio de las Banderas. The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire began in February 1519 when Hernán Cortés arrived at the port in Veracruz with ca. 500 conquistadores. After taking control of that city, he moved on to the Aztec capital. In his search for gold and other riches, Cortés decided to invade and conquer the Aztec empire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5865939",
"title": "Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire",
"section": "Section::::Spanish expeditions.:Cortés's expedition.:Cortés gains two translators.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 116,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 116,
"end_character": 854,
"text": "Cortés had stumbled upon one of the keys to realizing his ambitions. He would speak to Gerónimo de Aguilar in Spanish who would then translate into Mayan for Marina. She would then translate from Mayan to Nahuatl. With this pair of translators, Cortés could now communicate to the Aztecs. How effectively is still a matter of speculation, since Marina did not speak the dialect of the Aztecs, nor was she familiar with the protocols of the Aztec nobility, who were renowned for their flowery, flattering talk. Doña Marina quickly learned Spanish, and became Cortés's primary interpreter, confidant, consort, cultural translator, and the mother of his first son, Martin. Until Cortes's marriage to his second wife, a union which produced a legitimate son whom he also named Martin, Cortés's natural son with Marina was the heir of his envisaged fortunes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7375831",
"title": "Voyages of Christopher Columbus",
"section": "Section::::Voyages and events.:Second voyage.:Slavery, settlers, and tribute.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 716,
"text": "During the second voyage, Columbus sent a letter to the monarchs proposing to enslave some of the Americas' people, specifically from the Carib tribe, on the grounds of their independence-minded aggressiveness and their status as enemies of the Taíno tribe. Although his petition was refused by the Crown, in February 1495, Columbus disobeyed the Queen and took 1,600 people from the Arawak tribe who were then taken by the Carib as captives and slaves. No room was available for about 400 of the kidnapped Arawak leading to their release. The long-term consequence for the Arawaks of contact with Europeans was that thousands of people were almost entirely exterminated by disease, infighting and economic despair.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ttkq4
|
Are new planets and stars currently being formed?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are new planets and stars being formed all the time. And old ones being destroyed. We cannot directly or even indirectly observe most of this due to the distance between our solar system and these other systems and galaxies, but it is happening. In fact everything we are composed of, all of our atoms and those comprising our planet and sun, are from a now dead and Super-nova'd star. \nCheck out this video for some cool insight into the idea.\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "827792",
"title": "Rare Earth hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.:Exoplanets around main sequence stars are being discovered in large numbers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "An increasing number of extrasolar planet discoveries are being made with planets in planetary systems known as of . Rare Earth proponents argue life cannot arise outside Sun-like systems. However, some exobiologists have suggested that stars outside this range may give rise to life under the right circumstances; this possibility is a central point of contention to the theory because these late-K and M category stars make up about 82% of all hydrogen-burning stars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19345823",
"title": "1RXS J160929.1−210524",
"section": "Section::::Planetary system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 656,
"text": "The discoverers note that the object's location far from its star presents serious challenges to current models of planetary formation: the timescale to form a planet by core accretion at this distance from the star would be longer than the age of the system itself. One possibility is that the planet may have formed closer to the star and migrated outwards as a result of interactions with the disk or with other planets in the system. An alternative is that the planet formed \"in situ\" via the disk instability mechanism, where the disk fragments because of gravitational instability, though this would require an unusually massive protoplanetary disk.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34516306",
"title": "List of exoplanets discovered using the Kepler space telescope",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "On May 10, 2016, NASA announced that the Kepler mission has verified 1,284 new planets. Based on some of the planet's sizes, about 550 could potentially be rocky planets. Nine of these orbit in their stars' habitable zone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20732772",
"title": "Circumbinary planet",
"section": "Section::::Observations and discoveries.:Confirmed planets.:Kepler-1647.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "A new planet, called Kepler-1647b, was announced on June 13, 2016. It was discovered using the Kepler telescope. The planet is a gas giant, similar in size to Jupiter which makes it the second largest circumbinary planet ever discovered, next to PSR B1620-26. It is located in the stars' habitable zone, and it orbits the star system in 1107 days, which makes it the longest period of any confirmed transiting exoplanet so far.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21245707",
"title": "Red giant",
"section": "Section::::Planets.:Prospects for habitability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1052,
"text": "Although traditionally it has been suggested the evolution of a star into a red giant will render its planetary system, if present, uninhabitable, some research suggests that, during the evolution of a star along the red-giant branch, it could harbor a habitable zone for several billion years at 2 AU out to around 100 million years at 9 AU out, giving perhaps enough time for life to develop on a suitable world. After the red-giant stage, there would for such a star be a habitable zone between 7 and 22 AU for an additional 10 years. Later studies have refined this scenario, showing how for a star the habitable zone lasts from 10 years for a planet with an orbit similar to that of Mars to for one that orbits at Saturn's distance to the Sun, the maximum time () corresponding for planets orbiting at the distance of Jupiter. However, for planets orbiting a star in equivalent orbits to those of Jupiter and Saturn they would be in the habitable zone for and respectively; for stars more massive than the Sun, the times are considerably shorter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "212374",
"title": "Nebular hypothesis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 740,
"text": "According to the nebular hypothesis, stars form in massive and dense clouds of molecular hydrogen—giant molecular clouds (GMC). These clouds are gravitationally unstable, and matter coalesces within them to smaller denser clumps, which then rotate, collapse, and form stars. Star formation is a complex process, which always produces a gaseous protoplanetary disk, proplyd, around the young star. This may give birth to planets in certain circumstances, which are not well known. Thus the formation of planetary systems is thought to be a natural result of star formation. A Sun-like star usually takes approximately 1 million years to form, with the protoplanetary disk evolving into a planetary system over the next 10–100 million years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "183593",
"title": "Timeline of epochs in cosmology",
"section": "Section::::Matter era.:Galaxy epoch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "BULLET::::- 8.2 billion years (5.6 Gya): Tau Ceti, nearby yellow star forms: five planets eventually evolve from its planetary nebula, orbiting the star – Tau Ceti e considered planet to have potential life since it orbits the hot inner edge of the star's habitable zone\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
b9x26m
|
how integrals can calculate areas?
|
[
{
"answer": "There is a 2d area underneath the curve of a function, or in between functions. There are also 3D volumes under and between curves, the x, y, and imaginary z axis. \n\nNow, when you want to find these curves you have to use a tool, which is the integral function. \n\nIntegrals can approximate area and volume, among other things. \n\nThe way that works is by creating infinite shapes of the same area, and including those under the curve in the final calculation and discarding the others using the FTC. \n\n\nAnd I can’t give you a better explanation because this is all I truly understand. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How could anything less than ~~infinity~~ the limit as infinity is approached be accurate?\n\nOr, rather, to find the area under line f(x)=1 between 0 and 1, you could use as few subdivisions as you wanted and still find the accurate answer. But the magic of going to that limit is that it always becomes accurate unless it's a bullshit function without a describable area at all. Consider f(x)=x and your left-handed Riemann sums will always underestimate, and your right-hand sums always overestimate, unless you proceed to that limit and it becomes the accurate answer either way.\n\nIt sounds like you're still on the early chapters of integration, though. Just like with derivatives, you will first learn the ugly-if-truthful way the integration rules are found, after which you will simply memorize the already-ugly-derived rules which are much easier to make use of! So don't worry even if you kinda flunk this section, the next ones will be easier.\n\nThe integral of f(x)=x is\n\nThe integral of f(x) = x^(1) which is a power, so use the power rule: int(x^(n)) =(1/ (n+1))×x^(n+1) + *c*\n\nIt is F(x)=(1/2) × x^(2) + *c*",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > how could it ever be accurate?\n\nAs you add more rectangles the closer you get to the true answer (because each rectangle will better approximate the curve). The more rectangles you add the closer the \"error\" is to zero. \n\nOnce you have an infinite number of them the error *is* zero. If you know what limits are it's quite literally the same thing. If every step has you get closer to reality, and you take an infinite number of steps, you'll get infinitely close to reality, which means you've arrived at the correct answer. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4365",
"title": "Bilinear map",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "In mathematics, a bilinear map is a function combining elements of two vector spaces to yield an element of a third vector space, and is linear in each of its arguments. Matrix multiplication is an example.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26064288",
"title": "Lebesgue integration",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.:Towards a formal definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "To define the Lebesgue integral requires the formal notion of a measure that, roughly, associates to each set of real numbers a nonnegative number representing the \"size\" of . This notion of \"size\" should agree with the usual length of an interval or disjoint union of intervals. Suppose that is a non-negative real-valued function. Using the \"partitioning the range of \" philosophy, the integral of should be the sum over of the elementary area contained in the thin horizontal strip between . This elementary area is just\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25120",
"title": "Polar coordinate system",
"section": "Section::::Calculus.:Integral calculus (area).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "A mechanical device that computes area integrals is the planimeter, which measures the area of plane figures by tracing them out: this replicates integration in polar coordinates by adding a joint so that the 2-element linkage effects Green's theorem, converting the quadratic polar integral to a linear integral.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1209",
"title": "Area",
"section": "Section::::Formal definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "An approach to defining what is meant by \"area\" is through axioms. \"Area\" can be defined as a function from a collection M of special kind of plane figures (termed measurable sets) to the set of real numbers which satisfies the following properties:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2202",
"title": "Analytic geometry",
"section": "Section::::Distance and angle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "In analytic geometry, geometric notions such as distance and angle measure are defined using formulas. These definitions are designed to be consistent with the underlying Euclidean geometry. For example, using Cartesian coordinates on the plane, the distance between two points (\"x\", \"y\") and (\"x\", \"y\") is defined by the formula\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1229416",
"title": "Hyperbolic motion",
"section": "Section::::Introduction of metric in the Poincaré half-plane model.:Use of semi-circle Z.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "Then by means of hyperbolic motions one can measure distances between points on semicircles too: first move the points to \"Z\" with appropriate shift and dilation, then place them by inversion on the tangent ray where the logarithmic distance is known.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38267",
"title": "Dimension (vector space)",
"section": "Section::::Generalizations.:Trace.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 689,
"text": "Firstly, it allows one to define a notion of dimension when one has a trace but no natural sense of basis. For example, one may have an algebra \"A\" with maps formula_3 (the inclusion of scalars, called the \"unit\") and a map formula_4 (corresponding to trace, called the \"counit\"). The composition formula_5 is a scalar (being a linear operator on a 1-dimensional space) corresponds to \"trace of identity\", and gives a notion of dimension for an abstract algebra. In practice, in bialgebras one requires that this map be the identity, which can be obtained by normalizing the counit by dividing by dimension (formula_6), so in these cases the normalizing constant corresponds to dimension.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9cbbms
|
Seeking for the translation of what Diogene said to Alexander the Great.
|
[
{
"answer": "If I understand you right, you're asking for the Greek text? That's in Plutarch's Life of Alexander, 14.3. It looks like this:\n > ‘μικρὸν’ εἶπεν, ‘ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου μετάστηθι’\n\nεἶπεν is \"he said.\" So actual quote would be ‘μικρὸν ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου μετάστηθι’\n\nWriting Greek on an American keyboard is a pain in the ass. There are a couple of fonts available for it (TAPA uses GreekKeys, for instance). Honestly the easiest way I've found is to find the text online and copy and paste. I got this text from the [Perseus Project](_URL_0_). You may like to see that this site has the Greek text and the English translation, if you open the panel on the right.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5097211",
"title": "Henry Aristippus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "Aristippus was an envoy to Constantinople (1158-1160) when he received from the emperor Manuel I Comnenus a Greek copy of Ptolemy's \"Almagest\". A student of the Schola Medica Salernitana tracked down Aristippus and his copy on Mount Etna (observing an eruption) and proceeded to give a Latin translation. Though this was the first translation of the \"Almagest\" into Latin, it was not as influential as a later translation into Latin made by Gerard of Cremona from the Arabic. The original manuscript is probably in the Biblioteca Marciana in Venice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1188632",
"title": "Alexander the Great in the Quran",
"section": "Section::::Orientalist and western views.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 806,
"text": "As can be seen in the following quotation from Edwards, secular philologists studying ancient Syriac Christian legends about Alexander the Great also came to the conclusion that Dhul-Qarnayn is an ancient epithet for Alexander the Great. Edwards says, Alexander's association with two horns and with the building of the gate against Gog and Magog occurs much earlier than the Quran and persists in the beliefs of all three of these religions [Judaism, Christianity and Islam]. The denial of Alexander's identity as Dhul-Qarnain is the denial of a common heritage shared by the cultures which shape the modern world—both in the east and the west. The popularity of the legend of Alexander the Great proves that these cultures share a history which suggests that perhaps they are not so different after all.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27326278",
"title": "Julius Valerius Alexander Polemius",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "Julius Valerius Alexander Polemius (third to fourth century AD) of the Valerius \"gens\" was a translator of the Greek Pseudo-Callisthenes, the romantic history of Alexander the Great, to the Latin \"Res gestae Alexandri Macedonis\", in three books: birth; acts; death. The work is important in connection with the transmission of the Alexander story in the Middle Ages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25929",
"title": "Regiomontanus",
"section": "Section::::Life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1080,
"text": "In 1460 the papal legate Basilios Bessarion came to Vienna on a diplomatic mission. Being a humanist scholar and great fan of the mathematical sciences, Bessarion sought out Peuerbach's company. George of Trebizond who was Bessarion's philosophical rival had recently produced a new Latin translation of Ptolemy's \"Almagest\" from the Greek, which Bessarion, correctly, regarded as inaccurate and badly translated, so he asked Peuerbach to produce a new one. Peuerbach's Greek was not good enough to do a translation but he knew the \"Almagest\" intimately so instead he started work on a modernised, improved abridgement of the work. Bessarion also invited Peuerbach to become part of his household and to accompany him back to Italy when his work in Vienna was finished. Peuerbach accepted the invitation on the condition that Regiomontanus could also accompany them. However Peuerbach fell ill in 1461 and died only having completed the first six books of his abridgement of the \"Almagest\". On his death bed Peuerbach made Regiomontanus promise to finish the book and publish it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13770042",
"title": "Jacopo d'Angelo",
"section": "Section::::Translated works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 943,
"text": "His most famous translation, from its original Latin into Greek, is the \"Geographie de Ptolemee\", which is criticized for being inaccurately translated by D’Angelo as well as being largely invalid as a critical text due to its numerous scientific inaccuracies as well as being subject to Ptolemy's exotification of global geography. D’Angelo's translation allowed Ptolemy's work to become a best-seller and although the information in hindsight was in parts inaccurate, its popularity mitigates the historical importance of D’Angelo's translations on society during the Renaissance movement. D’Angelo as well as his teachers were considered influential in the world of geography due to the translations of Ptolemy's work. This text became a key feature of the period and was a popular read among various circles. However, D’Angelo received derision and a lack of respect from many of his contemporaries because of his inaccurate translations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "172394",
"title": "Georg von Peuerbach",
"section": "Section::::Works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "In 1460, Cardinal Johannes Bessarion, while visiting Frederick's court seeking assistance in a crusade to reclaim Constantinople from the Turks, proposed that Peuerbach and Regiomontanus create a new translation of Ptolemy's Almagest from the original Greek. Bessarion thought that a shorter and more clearly written version of the work would make a suitable teaching text. Peuerbach accepted the task and worked on it with Regiomontanus until his death in 1461, at which time 6 volumes had been completed. Regiomontanus completed the project, the final version containing 13 volumes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "160197",
"title": "Alexander Numenius",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 741,
"text": "The second work traditionally attributed to Alexander Numenius, titled \"On Show-Speeches\" (), is acknowledged by virtually all critics to not be the work of this Alexander, but of a later grammarian also named Alexander; it is, to speak more correctly, made up very clumsily from two distinct works, one of which was written by one Alexander, and the other by Menander Rhetor. The first edition of these two works is the Aldine edition (\"Rhetores Graeci\", Venice, 1508, fol., vol. i. p. 574, &c.). They are also contained in Walz's \"Rhetores Graeci\", vol. viii. The genuine work of Alexander Numenius has also been edited, together with Minucianus and Phoebammon, by L. Normann, with a Latin translation and useful notes, Upsala, 1690, 8vo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
e1gesn
|
Is there number to acceleration of Universe expansion?
|
[
{
"answer": "The expansion rate has units of inverse time (for practical reasons it is given as km/(s\\*Megaparsec) but that is a length in numerator and denominator). How the expansion changes over time has units of inverse time squared: 1/s^(2).\n\nIt can be calculated with the second [Friedmann equation](_URL_0_). In the distant future the density (and pressure) of matter should become negligible and we are left with the cosmological constant only (assuming it is actually constant). Its value is about 1.1\\*10^(-52)/m^(2), multiplied by c^(2)/3 we get 3.3\\*10^(-36)/s^(2). That is still a weird number, but its inverse square root is about 17 billion years, and in the distant future (when distances increase as exponential function) that will be the time in which distances increase by a factor e.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39136",
"title": "Accelerating expansion of the universe",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Technical definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "The definition of \"accelerating expansion\" is that the second time derivative of the cosmic scale factor, formula_2, is positive, which is equivalent to the deceleration parameter, formula_3, being negative. However, note this does not imply that the Hubble parameter is increasing with time. Since the Hubble parameter is defined as formula_4, it follows from the definitions that the derivative of the Hubble parameter is given by\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "921168",
"title": "Scale factor (cosmology)",
"section": "Section::::Detail.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "Current evidence suggests that the expansion rate of the universe is accelerating, which means that the second derivative of the scale factor formula_23 is positive, or equivalently that the first derivative formula_24 is increasing over time. This also implies that any given galaxy recedes from us with increasing speed over time, i.e. for that galaxy formula_25 is increasing with time. In contrast, the Hubble parameter seems to be decreasing with time, meaning that if we were to look at some fixed distance d and watch a series of different galaxies pass that distance, later galaxies would pass that distance at a smaller velocity than earlier ones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39136",
"title": "Accelerating expansion of the universe",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "The accelerating expansion of the universe is the observation that the expansion of the universe is such that the velocity at which a distant galaxy is receding from the observer is continuously increasing with time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42975",
"title": "Hubble's law",
"section": "Section::::Interpretation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 754,
"text": "Since the Hubble \"constant\" is a constant only in space, not in time, the radius of the Hubble sphere may increase or decrease over various time intervals. The subscript '0' indicates the value of the Hubble constant today. Current evidence suggests that the expansion of the universe is accelerating (\"see\" Accelerating universe), meaning that, for any given galaxy, the recession velocity dD/dt is increasing over time as the galaxy moves to greater and greater distances; however, the Hubble parameter is actually thought to be decreasing with time, meaning that if we were to look at some \"fixed\" distance D and watch a series of different galaxies pass that distance, later galaxies would pass that distance at a smaller velocity than earlier ones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9075104",
"title": "Dark Energy Survey",
"section": "Section::::Supernovae.:Applications in cosmology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1019,
"text": "To determine if the expansion rate of the universe is speeding up or slowing down over time, cosmologists make use of the finite velocity of light. It takes billions of years for light from a distant galaxy to reach the Earth. Since the universe is expanding, the universe was smaller (galaxies were closer together) when light from distant galaxies was emitted. If the expansion rate of the universe is speeding up due to dark energy, then the size of the universe increases more rapidly with time than if the expansion were slowing down. Using supernovae, we cannot quite measure the size of the universe versus time. Instead we can measure the size of the universe (at the time the star exploded) and the distance to the supernova. With the distance to the exploding supernova in hand, astronomers can use the value of the speed of light along with the theory of General Relativity to determine how long it took the light to reach the Earth. This then tells them the age of the universe when the supernova exploded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4116",
"title": "Big Bang",
"section": "Section::::Problems and related issues in physics.:Dark energy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "Measurements of the redshift–magnitude relation for type Ia supernovae indicate that the expansion of the universe has been accelerating since the universe was about half its present age. To explain this acceleration, general relativity requires that much of the energy in the universe consists of a component with large negative pressure, dubbed \"dark energy\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42975",
"title": "Hubble's law",
"section": "Section::::Interpretation.:Time-dependence of Hubble parameter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "Another common source of confusion is that the accelerating universe does \"not\" imply that the Hubble parameter is actually increasing with time; since formula_21, in most accelerating models formula_22 increases relatively faster than formula_23, so H decreases with time. (The recession velocity of one chosen galaxy does increase, but different galaxies passing a sphere of fixed radius cross the sphere more slowly at later times.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3u9lci
|
how does the same model of device get software updates at different times during a rollout?
|
[
{
"answer": "Every device had a unique serial number. The device sends its serial number to the update server which uses it to decide whether the device gets an update. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "50606558",
"title": "Rolling release",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "A rolling release is typically implemented using small and frequent updates. However, simply having updates does not automatically mean that a piece of software is using a rolling release cycle; for this, the philosophy of developers must be to work with one code branch, versus discrete versions. When the rolling release is employed as the development model, software updates are typically delivered to users by a package manager on the user's personal computer, accessing through the internet a remote software repository (often via a download mirror) stored on an internet file server.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20858620",
"title": "Windows Setup",
"section": "Section::::Windows NT.:Before Windows Vista.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "BULLET::::- After the text-based phase of Setup is finished, the computer reboots and starts a graphical phase of setup from the hard disk, prompting the user to reinsert the installation media, to enter the product key, and then it continues copying files and drivers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50606558",
"title": "Rolling release",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "Rolling release, rolling update, or continuous delivery, in software development, is the concept of frequently delivering updates to applications. This is in contrast to a \"standard\" or \"point release\" development model which uses software versions that must be reinstalled over the previous version. An example of this difference would be the multiple versions of Ubuntu Linux versus the single, constantly updated version of Arch Linux.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27125334",
"title": "NixOS",
"section": "Section::::Features.:Rollbacks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "If after a system update the new configuration is undesirable, it can be rolled back using a special command (codice_2). Every system configuration version automatically shows up at the system boot menu. If the new configuration crashes or does not boot properly, an older version can be selected. Rollbacks are a lightweight operation that does not involve files being restored from copies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4039380",
"title": "Media processor",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "processing done on them could be updated with new software releases. This allowed new generations of systems to be created without hardware redesign. For set-top boxes this even allows for the possibility of in-the-field upgrade by downloading of new software through cable or satellite networks. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "619009",
"title": "PlayStation Portable",
"section": "Section::::Software.:System Software.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "While System Software updates can be used with consoles from any region, Sony recommends only downloading updates released for the model's region. System Software updates have added many features, including a web browser, Adobe Flash support, additional codecs for various media, PlayStation 3 (PS3) connectivity, and patches against security exploits (and the execution of homebrew programs). The most recent version, numbered 6.61, was released on January 15, 2015.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5416311",
"title": "List of macOS components",
"section": "Section::::Older applications.:Software Update.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 117,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 117,
"end_character": 957,
"text": "In Mac OS 9 and earlier versions of Mac OS X, Software Update was a standalone tool. The program was part of the CoreServices in OS X. It could automatically inform users of new updates (with new features and bug and security fixes) to the operating system, applications, device drivers, and firmware. All updates required the user to enter their administrative password and some required a system restart. It could be set to check for updates daily, weekly, monthly, or not at all; in addition, it could download and store the associated .pkg file (the same type used by Installer) to be installed at a later date, and it maintained a history of installed updates. Starting with Mac OS X 10.5 Leopard, updates that required a reboot logged out the user prior to installation and automatically restarted the computer when complete. In earlier versions of OS X, the updates were installed, but critical files were not replaced until the next system startup.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3oc4ms
|
do "not for individual sale" warnings on products have any legal binding?
|
[
{
"answer": "The point of the label is that required legal statements (like nutrition and ingredients) aren't on the individually wrapped servings but rather on the box they came in. These warnings protect the manufacturer from charges that they made items without the required labeling.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you look on each individual item they're usually missing a sell by date too therefore making them illegal to sell (that's how it works in France at least) ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Usually this means \"*not labelled* for individual sale,\" for example if nutrition facts are not disclosed. Private resale is usually still legal, because most laws about food sales only apply to commercial operations of a certain size.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I used to go to a little greasy spoon cafe for lunch, all of their drinks cans and crisps were multipack \"not for individual resale\". Noone cared, though they were closed down as they encroached on the business park canteen catchment area.\n\nI thought it was more to do with cost, a 50 pack box of crisps is £12 at a wholesaler, yet you can often get 6 packs for £1 at the supermarket, 8x6 is 48 packs for £8. Yes they're smaller (and 2 packs short), but its 50% difference.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1757480",
"title": "Cosmeceutical",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "To avoid inquiry and punitive action by the United States Federal Trade Commission, cosmeceuticals which do not intend to be regulated as drugs by the FDA are carefully labeled to avoid making statements which would indicate that the product has drug properties. Any such claims made regarding the product must be substantiated by scientific evidence as being truthful.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9057820",
"title": "Fine print",
"section": "Section::::Controversial aspects.:Legal prohibitions in the United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "BULLET::::- Infomercial products: These come in many forms. Often, companies either load their sales with a lot of fine print, or simply do not abide by their promises (the latter is technically illegal, but many are not worried because the amount they make from ripping people off usually makes up for the amount of fines they pay to the government).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2829003",
"title": "Pharmaceutical Society of GB v Boots Cash Chemists (Southern) Ltd",
"section": "Section::::Subsequent legal developments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "The concept continues to apply in many situations, for example for things outside a goods' seller's control (such as a customer switching price tags or product recall) and where it would be illegal to carry out the transaction without supervision such as potentially dangerous goods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "245529",
"title": "Mandatory labelling",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "Voluntary labelling and co-marketing of products deemed desirable is another matter usually carried out by entirely different means, \"e.g.\" Slow Food. There has been increased regulatory interest in substantiating these claims, and in some jurisdictions, food labels require regulatory approval before use. An interesting halfway is those labels that are considered mandatory by one buying population and effectively preclude purchase if they are not there, e.g. kosher, vegan, and the aforementioned GMO-free label now seen on many organic products.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "210476",
"title": "SIM lock",
"section": "Section::::Laws and practices.:Honduras.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Article 20 of this law states the prohibitions that sellers are obliged to abide when selling a good or providing a service to people. Paragraph 7 of this article states that it is prohibited to a provider to \"place seals, adhesives, duct tapes or analogous mechanisms, which prevent the consumer to make free use of the product, except those mechanisms used by the manufacturer for warranty purposes;\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4292926",
"title": "Law label",
"section": "Section::::Popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "The wording of the warnings printed on some law labels has caused a common misconception in the USA that removing such a label under any circumstance is a crime, prohibiting consumers from removing labels from items they have purchased. Especially contributing to this confusion was that originally the wording on such labels did \"not\" contain the phrase \"\"except by consumer\"\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1550394",
"title": "Off-label use",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "Off-label use is generally legal unless it violates ethical guidelines or safety regulations. The ability to prescribe drugs for uses beyond the officially approved indications is commonly used to good effect by healthcare providers. For example, methotrexate is commonly used off-label because its immunomodulatory effects relieve various disorders. However, off-label use can entail health risks and differences in legal liability. Marketing of pharmaceuticals for off-label use is usually prohibited.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
449bxo
|
why couldn't martin shkreli call the committee of congressmen imbeciles right at the hearing ? can he invoke his 5th amendment and still them to go take a hike?
|
[
{
"answer": "Just like contempt of court, you can be fined or jailed for contempt of congress.\n\nYou have to respect the proceedings even if you do not respect the people.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "57487479",
"title": "Timeline of investigations into Trump and Russia (2018)",
"section": "Section::::2018.:February.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 114,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 114,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "BULLET::::- Bannon appears at the House Intelligence Committee under subpoena. According to committee members, he answers only 25 questions that were pre-approved by the White House, answering “no” to each, and invokes presidential executive privilege to decline answering further questions. Republican and Democratic members of the committee say they are considering seeking contempt of Congress charges.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42107536",
"title": "House v. Napolitano",
"section": "Section::::Arguments.:First Amendment Challenge to the Search and Seizure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 921,
"text": "The First Amendment to the United States Constitution provides that \"Congress shall make no law...abridging the freedom of speech...or the right of the people peaceably to assemble.\" House claimed that the search, seizure, retention, and dissemination of information regarding the Manning Support Network on his devices violated his right of association under the First Amendment. Although searches are generally covered by the Fourth Amendment, House argued that the search was based on, and specifically targeted his association with the Manning Support Network and WikiLeaks. He alleged that the government agents stopped him at the border because of his association with Manning, as they only questioned him after seizing his devices, and the questions revolved around House's relationship with Manning, the Manning Support Network, and WikiLeaks, rather than border control, customs, terrorism, or illegal activity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36888036",
"title": "Mark Meadows (North Carolina politician)",
"section": "Section::::U.S. House of Representatives.:Resolution to remove Speaker Boehner.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 625,
"text": "Meadows said he filed the resolution because Boehner had \"endeavored to consolidate power, bypassing the majority\" of Congress; \"through inaction, caused the power of Congress to atrophy,\" \"uses the power of the office to punish Members who vote according to their conscience\"; \"has intentionally provided for voice votes on consequential and controversial legislation to be taken without notice and with few Members present\"; \"uses the legislative calendar to create crises for the American People\"; allowed members less than three days to review legislation before voting; and limited meaningful debate on the House floor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5275398",
"title": "Bill Sali",
"section": "Section::::U.S. House of Representatives.:Other legislative action.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "Sali told the Spokane, WA based Spokesman Review newspaper that there are other areas in Congress that need to be reformed. He said congressional committees hold hearings on topics, not on legislation, and often it's not clear why a hearing was called in the first place. \"For a member of Congress to try and discern what is the takeaway message from these people who actually do have to testify in front of us can be very difficult,\" Sali said. \"Too often the hearings end up being nothing more than a photo opportunity for people,\" he said. \"If that sounds goofy to you, it's only because it is.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31824676",
"title": "2011 British privacy injunctions controversy",
"section": "Section::::Parliamentary privilege.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "Hemming was called to order mid-question by the speaker John Bercow who reminded the MP that 'occasions such as this are for raising the issues and principles involved, not seeking to flout for whatever purpose' – however, the speaker permitted the MP to complete the question and took no disciplinary action against him.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39380632",
"title": "IRS targeting controversy",
"section": "Section::::Investigations.:Congressional investigations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "On May 7, 2014, on a near party-line vote (with six Democrats joining all Republicans) the House of Representatives voted to hold Lerner in contempt of Congress for refusing to cooperate with the Congressional investigation. House Republicans dismissed Lerner's invocation of the Fifth Amendment as ineffective, with Issa stating: \"You don’t get to use a public hearing to tell the public and press your side of the story and then invoke the Fifth.\" Democrats characterized the contempt proceeding as a \"witch hunt\" geared toward the 2014 midterm elections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11134730",
"title": "Gravel v. United States",
"section": "Section::::Majority holding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 780,
"text": "In a 5–4 ruling, the Supreme Court held that the privileges of the Constitution's Speech or Debate Clause enjoyed by members of Congress also extend to Congressional aides. Rejecting the reasoning of the court of appeals and substituting its own, \"...the privilege available to the aide is confined to those services that would be immune legislative conduct if performed by the Senator himself,\" the Court declared. However, the Court refused to protect congressional aides from prosecution for criminal conduct, or from testifying at trials or grand jury proceedings involving third-party crimes. The Supreme Court also threw out the lower courts' order permitting some questions and barring others, concluding that if the testimony is privileged then the privilege is absolute.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4su7xl
|
why does a knife need to be moved to be sharp? if you touch a knife it's ok, but if you drag your finger down the edge it hurts.
|
[
{
"answer": "Knives are still sharp straight-on and can cut that way. However, at a microscopic level, even straight-edged knives have tiny teeth. So when you move the edge against the item to be cut, you are actually running a tiny ultra-sharp saw across it.\n\n[Micro photo of a razor's edge can be seen here.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "On the microscopic level, the edge of the blade is jagged. Same with your skin or just about any other surface. So when you pull on the blade, all those molecules rub up against each other, causing the hard metal molecules of the knife tear at the softer surface.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I have a follow-up question to tag along with this:\n\nLet's assume I have a blade that we've been able to sharpen away all the jagged edges all the way down to the atomic level. Will this knife cut the same way? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Assuming you have a properly sharpened knife, the ability to cut anything is based on pressure - the same reason you can drag a utility knife through cardboard and it will cut instead of having to use a sawing motion. The ease of cutting depends on edge sharpness (defined by molecular structure and sharpening methods) and blade geometry - but that is for another day.\n\nOn a properly sharpened knife, you can cut quite a bit with relatively little to no pressure - you can drop a human a hair on the edge and the weight of the hair is enough for it to be severed in two. So technically, touching a knife (depending on how much pressure you put and how sharp the edge is), could cut you. In reality, most cuts from truly sharp knives are realized after the fact - they cut cleanly and blood doesn't appear for a split second or two.\n\nTL;DR Dull knives need sawing motions to cut things; properly sharpened knives can push cut.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A lot of wrong or incomplete answers here. Let me clear this up by explaining normal and shear stresses. \n\nA knife is sharp regardless, the issue is the way the stress (force per area) is applied. When you push down on a knife you are only putting normal stresses (that is to say, a force perpendicular to the surface of your skin over the cross sectional area of the knife edge) on your finger. When you drag the knife, in addition to these normal stresses you are also putting your skin under shear stress. Shear stress is the force per unit area that is parallel to the surface of your skin. \n\nWhen I say force per unit area, I mean something conventional like psi (pounds per square inch). However, you can imagine that at the very tip of the blade the surface area is extremely small. When the surface area is very small you exceed the strength per unit area (think of this as the force that can be applied over a region before it breaks) of your skin and you get cut. This is why a bullet can kill someone but something about 10x the size with the same energy might knock you out - the force per unit area is reduced even though the force is the same. \n\nNow you can visualize a needle, which has a very small surface area parallel to the surface of your skin - it looks like a tiny circle. It can poke you but you probably cant cut anyone like a knife with it because the cross sectional area (the view you would see if you were looking at the needle in 2D) perpendicular to the surface of your skin is much larger and rectangular. The normal stresses are very high but the shear stresses are not very large.\n\nIn short:\nA knife when slid across your skin applies forces both parallel and perpendicular to your skin AND the cross sectional area of the knife tip parallel to the surface of your skin is very small, increasing the shear stresses and cutting you.\n\nEDIT:\nhere is a picture of various cross sectional areas so you know what I mean. Without taking pictures or access to a cad program I cant make a good one. \n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_0_\n\nThe second picture is the cross sectional area you would see in shear.\nThe top picture is what you would see in normal stresses.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For the record if you have a sharp enough knife you can cut yourself on it by touching it, ie. without a sawing motion.\n\nHigh end carbon steel chef's knives do that pretty often. I'd assume things like obsidian scalpels would as well.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It depends on the knife. A very sharp knife can actually cut a handkerchief dropped on it. \n\nThe reason that slicing with a knife cuts better is because of the very small teeth of metal along it's very edge. Because of the structure of the metal, and the way it's sharpened, it doesn't create a smooth edge. There are tiny little burs and teeth that stick out from the edge unevenly and these are what do the cutting.\n\nWhen a knife starts to get dull and you see somebody use a chef's steel or a leather strop, it's not sharpening the knife by removing any material, instead it's taking the bent teeth on the very edge and standing them back up in the same direction. Then as you use the knife they will start to get bent again, dulling it. Eventually many will snap off, or become so bent they can't be bent back with stropping and this is when you need to actually sharpen the knife by removing material like with a stone or tool. \n\nNow the rougher and larger these little teeth or whiskers of metal on the edge are, the harder it is to begin the cutting motion. If you use a coarse stone you get coarse teeth. If you use a very smooth stone, and then you strop the blade with some rubbing compound, it creates a very smooth, polished edge with very small teeth that are more uniform in size and it makes it easier to cut. This is what puts a razor edge on a knife allowing it to shave hair off easily. \n\nThe very smoothest edges are so sharp that you do not need to slice or saw; simply touching the blade to something will begin to cut. \n\nThere are also different shapes of knife edges that give them different properties. A katana for instance has a rounded shape kind of like the pope's hat. This shape causes it to spread something as it cuts into it, reducing resistance and allowing the cutting edge to cut with less friction. This allows a katana to cut through very tough or thick material without slowing down much in a swing. \n\nContrast this with the edge of a scalpel which looks more like a V and allows for very fine cuts and a lot of control for very precise work like surgery. \n\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As my mum explained to me when I was a kid, slicing is all about speed. \n\n\n\n\nRun fast enough, and you can get sliced by blades of grass. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "An expert knife maker can make a knife so sharp that it will cut you at the slightest touch.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "863980",
"title": "Butterfly knife",
"section": "Section::::Parts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "BULLET::::- Blade: The blade is the piece of steel that runs down the center of the knife that is secured by both handles when closed. One edge of the blade is sharp and will cut the user if they are not careful, especially when flipping the knife. The other edge, called the swedge, is blunt and won't cut the user. The swedge commonly impacts the user's hand when flipping.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4957682",
"title": "Knifehand strike",
"section": "Section::::Japanese martial arts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "The knife hand strike can be used with both sides of the hand. Having the thumb tucked in, leaving the fore finger side of the hand free, allows that side of the hand to be used as a striking surface. This is called an \"inside knife hand\" where as the pinkie finger side is called an \"outside knife hand\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5587478",
"title": "Knife sharpening",
"section": "Section::::Method.:Inspection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "By touch, a blade can be checked by running a thumb \"across\" the blade (perpendicular to the edge – not \"along\", which will cut it). A sharp blade will have a distinct edge, like a corner, and may sing slightly from vibration, while a dull blade will have a round edge and the thumb will slip over it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1289332",
"title": "Glossary of BDSM",
"section": "Section::::BDSM glossary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "BULLET::::- Knife play: Slow, methodical sensation of the bottom with the edges and points of knives, usually without cutting the skin. Fear of the weapon plays a large part in the stimulus of the bottom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33933664",
"title": "Batoning",
"section": "Section::::Technique.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "The basic method involves repeatedly striking the spine of the knife to force the middle of the blade into the wood. The tip is then struck, to continue forcing the blade deeper, until a split is achieved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5587478",
"title": "Knife sharpening",
"section": "Section::::Method.:Inspection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "Visually, a very sharp knife has an edge that is too small to see with the eye; it may even be hard or impossible to focus in a microscope. The shape near the edge can be highlighted by rotating the knife and watching changes in reflection. Nicks and rolled edges can also be seen, as the rolled edge provides a reflective surface, while a properly straightened edge will be invisible when viewed head-on.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2620787",
"title": "Assisted-opening knife",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "When the knife is in the closed position, the blade is held in place by means of torsion springs and an additional blade lock (optional). As the user applies manual pressure to the thumbstud to open the knife, a mechanism such as a torsion spring moves along a track in the liner and rapidly rotates the blade into the open and locked position.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1facnp
|
If one of an entangled pair of particles is entangled again, what happens to the entangled values in the system?
|
[
{
"answer": "Three electrons can be maximally entangled as \n\nuuu + ddd\n\nuuu + ddu + dud + udd\n\nuuu + udd + duu + ddd\n\nThese are all [GHZ](_URL_0_) states. They're triply entangled, so there are no 'individual states'. Any single measurement of any electron has a 50/50 chance of being up or down. Some measurements of one of the three will pin down the values of the other two along the same axis, other measurements won't.\n\nIf you're starting with (ud - du), which I assume is the state you're talking about, and intent on keeping it, then all you'll get is a product state of the entangled pair and the third electron.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25336",
"title": "Quantum entanglement",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Methods of creating entanglement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 149,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 149,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "It is also possible to create entanglement between quantum systems that never directly interacted, through the use of entanglement swapping. Two independently-prepared, identical particles may also be entangled if their wave functions merely spatially overlap, at least partially.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51910",
"title": "Quantum key distribution",
"section": "Section::::Quantum key exchange.:E91 protocol: Artur Ekert (1991).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 750,
"text": "The scheme relies on two properties of entanglement. First, the entangled states are perfectly correlated in the sense that if Alice and Bob both measure whether their particles have vertical or horizontal polarizations, they always get the same answer with 100% probability. The same is true if they both measure any other pair of complementary (orthogonal) polarizations. This necessitates that the two distant parties have exact directionality synchronization. However, the particular results are completely random; it is impossible for Alice to predict if she (and thus Bob) will get vertical polarization or horizontal polarization. Second, any attempt at eavesdropping by Eve destroys these correlations in a way that Alice and Bob can detect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25336",
"title": "Quantum entanglement",
"section": "Section::::Concept.:Meaning of entanglement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "An entangled system is defined to be one whose quantum state cannot be factored as a product of states of its local constituents; that is to say, they are not individual particles but are an inseparable whole. In entanglement, one constituent cannot be fully described without considering the other(s). Note that the state of a composite system is always expressible as a sum, or superposition, of products of states of local constituents; it is entangled if this sum necessarily has more than one term.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25336",
"title": "Quantum entanglement",
"section": "Section::::Concept.:Meaning of entanglement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Quantum systems can become entangled through various types of interactions. For some ways in which entanglement may be achieved for experimental purposes, see the section below on methods. Entanglement is broken when the entangled particles decohere through interaction with the environment; for example, when a measurement is made.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10296",
"title": "EPR paradox",
"section": "Section::::History of EPR developments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "The EPR paper, written in 1935, was intended to illustrate that this explanation is inadequate. It considered two entangled particles, referred to as A and B, and pointed out that measuring a quantity of a particle A will cause the conjugated quantity of particle B to become undetermined, even if there was no contact, no classical disturbance. The basic idea was that the quantum states of two particles in a system cannot always be decomposed from the joint state of the two, as is the case for the Bell state, formula_1\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "893337",
"title": "Local hidden-variable theory",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "The theory of quantum entanglement predicts that separated particles can briefly share common properties and respond to certain types of measurement as if they were a single particle. In particular, a measurement on one particle in one place can alter the probability distribution for the outcomes of a measurement on the other particle at a different location. If a measurement setting in one location instantaneously modifies the probability distribution that applies at a distant location, then local hidden variables are ruled out. For an expanded description, see Bell's theorem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "888587",
"title": "Quantum logic gate",
"section": "Section::::Measurement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 772,
"text": "If two different quantum registers are entangled (they cannot be expressed as a tensor product), measurement of one register affects or reveals the state of the other register by partially or entirely collapsing its state too. An example of such a linearly inseparable state is the EPR pair, which can be constructed with the CNOT and the Hadamard gates (described above). This effect is used in many algorithms: if two variables A and B are maximally entangled (the bell state is the simplest example of this), a function F is applied to A such that A is updated to the value of F(A), followed by measurement of A, then B will, when measured, be a value such that F(B) = A . This way, measurement of one register can be used to assign properties to some other registers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
eo7a0t
|
as alcohol sterilizes stuff, when we drink booze it kills the good bacteria inside us?
|
[
{
"answer": "Alcohol is absorbed in your small intestines and subsequently processed and broken down enzymatically by your liver long before it reaches your colon. The colon aka large intestines is where your gut bacteria live predominantly",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Rubbing alcohol is like 60-80% in order to be effective. Drinking alcohol of 10% or less will have virtually no effect. Any amount you drink would be immediately diluted to no effect.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No, but it does prevent the drink from getting most bacteria, thats why on times when the waters could get dirty or poisoned often it was 'healthier' to drink wine.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Alcohol we drink is not concentrated enough to have a significant effect on mouth, gut, or blood bacteria. Even if you drink really strong spirits, by the time it gets through your stomach it has mixed with a lot of other fluid (and solid food) which heavily dilutes it. The only exception is mouthwash, which works on your mouth and throat, but that's not suitable for drinking.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1014",
"title": "Alcohol",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Biological routes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "Several species of the benign bacteria in the intestine use fermentation as a form of anaerobic metabolism. This metabolic reaction produces ethanol as a waste product. Thus, human bodies contain some quantity of alcohol endogenously produced by these bacteria. In rare cases, this can be sufficient to cause \"auto-brewery syndrome\" in which intoxicating quantities of alcohol are produced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3829190",
"title": "Hand sanitizer",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Health care.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "Alcohol rub sanitizers kill most bacteria, and fungi, and stop some viruses. Alcohol rub sanitizers containing at least 70% alcohol (mainly ethyl alcohol) kill 99.9% of the bacteria on hands 30 seconds after application and 99.99% to 99.999% in one minute.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18665",
"title": "Listerine",
"section": "Section::::Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "There has been concern that the use of alcohol-containing mouthwash such as Listerine may increase the risk of developing oral cancer. As of 2010, 7 meta-analyses have found no connection between alcohol-containing mouthwashes and oral cancer, and 3 have found increased risk.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "782",
"title": "Mouthwash",
"section": "Section::::Ingredients.:Alcohol.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 768,
"text": "Alcohol is added to mouthwash not to destroy bacteria but to act as a carrier agent for essential active ingredients such as menthol, eucalyptol and thymol which help to penetrate plaque. Sometimes a significant amount of alcohol (up to 27% vol) is added, as a carrier for the flavor, to provide \"bite\". Because of the alcohol content, it is possible to fail a breathalyzer test after rinsing although breath alcohol levels return to normal after 10 minutes. In addition, alcohol is a drying agent, which encourages bacterial activity in the mouth, releasing more malodorous volatile sulfur compounds. Therefore, alcohol-containing mouthwash may temporarily worsen halitosis in those who already have it, or indeed be the sole cause of halitosis in other individuals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "874812",
"title": "Benzyl alcohol",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Use in health care.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "The use of benzyl alcohol as a 5% solution has been approved by the U.S. FDA for the treatment of head lice in children older than six months and in adults. It affects the louse's spiracles, preventing them from closing. These then become clogged with water or mineral oil or other matter and cause the insect to die from asphyxiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "352184",
"title": "Tincture",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "A downside of using alcohol as a solvent is that ethanol has a tendency to denature some organic compounds, reducing or destroying their effectiveness. This tendency can also have undesirable effects when extracting botanical constituents, such as polysaccharides. Certain other constituents, common among them proteins, can become irreversibly denatured, or \"pickled\" by the alcohol. Alcohol can also have damaging effects on some aromatic compounds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3829190",
"title": "Hand sanitizer",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Health care.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "For health care settings like hospitals and clinics, optimum alcohol concentration to kill bacteria is 70% to 95%. Products with alcohol concentrations as low as 40% are available in American stores, according to researchers at East Tennessee State University.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ph2rw
|
Does capillary action take salt water with it? Why or why not?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes, the water drawn up by capillary action would take the soluble salt with it, but you are right that the slightly larger mass of the sodium and chloride ions, compared to water, will make them \"climb\" slower, and therefore less high.\n\nThis is the basis of some types of molecular separation mechanisms/experiments, such as [paper chromatography](_URL_0_) or [thin-layer chromotography](_URL_1_). You take a solvent solution with some dissolved molecules you want to separate (called the \"mobile phase\"), and allow the liquid to climb through a thin layer of some absorbent material (called the \"stationary phase\") by capillary action. The larger a molecule is, the less it will move up through the stationary phase in a given amount of time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "83877",
"title": "Enema",
"section": "Section::::Medical usage.:Bowel cleansing.:Acute treatments.:Large volume enemas.:Water-based solutions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Normal saline is least irritating to the colon, at the opposite end of the spectrum. Like plain water, it simply functions mechanically to expand the colon, but having a neutral concentration gradient, it neither draws electrolytes from the body, as happens with plain water, nor draws water into the colon, as occurs with phosphates. Thus, a salt water solution can be used when a longer period of retention is desired, such as to soften an impaction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44295790",
"title": "Cantonese salted fish",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "The presence of common salt, sodium chloride, helps to preserve salted fish, through inhibition of bacterial growth. When the solution of salt, or brine, is more concentrated—specifically, has a lower water potential—than the fluid of the fish tissue, osmosis will occur. Water molecules will pass from the fish tissue (higher water potential) into the brine (lower water potential) until the water molecules in these two solutions are evenly distributed. This is known as a hypertonic environment. Most bacteria cannot survive in such an environment, as their cells shrink and normal biological function cannot continue, eventually terminating in lysis. This lends the antiseptic properties, and hence preservational power, of salt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3737422",
"title": "Ethanol precipitation",
"section": "Section::::DNA precipitation.:Theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "At an atomic level, the reduction in the force acting on a charge results from water molecules forming a hydration shell around it. This fact makes water a very good solvent for charged compounds like salts. Electric force which normally holds salt crystals together by way of ionic bonds is weakened in the presence of water allowing ions to separate from the crystal and spread through solution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37738",
"title": "Soil",
"section": "Section::::Formation.:Factors.:Parent material.:Weathering.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "BULLET::::1. The \"solution\" of salts in water results from the action of bipolar water molecules on ionic salt compounds producing a solution of ions and water, removing those minerals and reducing the rock's integrity, at a rate depending on water flow and pore channels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "171317",
"title": "Countercurrent exchange",
"section": "Section::::Countercurrent exchange in biological systems.:Countercurrent exchange in sea and desert birds to conserve water.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "a. A salt extraction system with a countercurrent multiplication mechanism, where salt is actively pumped from the blood 'venules' (small veins) into the gland tubules. Although the fluid in the tubules is with a higher concentration of salt than the blood, the flow is arranged in a countercurrent exchange, so that the blood with a high concentration of salt enters the system close to where the gland tubules exit and connect to the main canal. Thus, all along the gland, there is only a small gradient to climb, in order to push the salt from the blood to the salty fluid with active transport powered by ATP.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "966653",
"title": "Salting out",
"section": "Section::::Principle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "Salt compounds dissociate in aqueous solutions. This property is exploited in the process of salting out. When the salt concentration is increased, some of the water molecules are attracted by the salt ions, which decreases the number of water molecules available to interact with the charged part of the protein.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8253098",
"title": "Protein precipitation",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Salting out.:Energetics involved in salting out.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "Salting out is a spontaneous process when the right concentration of the salt is reached in solution. The hydrophobic patches on the protein surface generate highly ordered water shells. This results in a small decrease in enthalpy, Δ\"H\", and a larger decrease in entropy, Δ\"S,\" of the ordered water molecules relative to the molecules in the bulk solution. The overall free energy change, Δ\"G\", of the process is given by the Gibbs free energy equation:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2x9dnc
|
how is it possible for something moving the speed of light to experience no time.
|
[
{
"answer": "The concept at play here is called Special Relativity; it's one of Einstein's greatest achievements.\n\nThe ELI5 is that time slows down for *all* moving objects. You don't notice this on a day to day basis because you're moving *really* slowly; you need to be moving at a nontrivial fraction of the speed of light for the effects to become noticeable.\n\nBut, for example, if you were to get in a spaceship and go at .99 times the speed of light and take a 1 lightyear trip that ended up back at Earth, we on Earth would have to wait a year for you to return, but it would only seem like about two months to you on the ship.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yep, it's wrong. We like to think of velocity as being a simple thing. If you are going to a place X miles away, and you go x miles per hour, you get there in an hour. if you go x2, you get there in half an hour and so on.\n\nAt every day speeds, this works, because the difference is so small, you'd never notice it, even adding it up through an entire lifetime.\n\nBut at relativistic speeds, when you are moving a sizable fraction of the speed of light, this is no longer true.\n\n\n > shouldn't change how much time you feel like that takes.\n\nMore confusingly, it doesn't change how much time you *feel* it takes. To you, time is always 1 second, per 1 second. It *literally changes how fast your time moves* in comparison to that of some other frame of reference. \n\nTo you, one second per second will have passed for the entire trip. But to someone moving at a vastly different velocity, you will see their time as moving more slowly than your own. They, in return, will see your time as having moved more slowly than their own. \n\nA way I have tried in the past to visualize this:\n\nWe can observe that the speed of light in a vacuum is a constant, it moves at c for all observers. For simplicity, let's say c is 10 miles per hour.\n\nIf you shine a flash light beam so that one photon shoots out, you'll see it travel away from you at 10 miles per hour.\n\nIf bob is driving by in his car at 5 miles per hour, he also sees the photon traveling away from him at 10 miles per hour.\n\nSo after an hour, both you and bob see the photon as 10 miles ahead. but bob was moving past you at 5 miles per hour, so he's 5 miles ahead of you. So his photon, 10 miles ahead of him, is 15 miles ahead of you. \n\nHow can one photon be in two places at once? It can't.\n\nWhen your wristwatch says an hour has passed, you can see Bob's dashboard clock has only registered half an hour, so to you the photon is 10 miles down the road, and to him that makes sense, because it hasn't had enough time to get to 15 miles down the road, because an hour hasn't passed for him.\n\n If you are watching the clock on bob's dashboard, it is running slow. When his clock shows an hour has passed, from your perspective it has taken 1.5 hours. So you'd expect to see the photon be 15 miles down the road, and again that matches up with Bob, since he has experienced 1 hour and it is 10 miles ahead of him, 5 miles down the road. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The best way I've heard it explained is to imagine a flat, 2d spacetime with 1 space & 1 time dimension each.\n\nIt's a flat field where \"time\" is north, and \"space\" is east. Your speed in each direction adds up to c, which is the speed limit. N+E=c\n\nSo when you are not moving through space, your speed is N+0=c.\n\nAs your speed through space increases, your speed through time must decrease. Just as when you turn towards the east while driving north through a field. Your speed in the north direction is reduced from the pov of an outside observer, even if you feel like you're always going the same speed.\n\nWe just have three more spacelike dimensions. To a photon, since its speed in the space dimension is always c, it's internal time dimension is 0. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The newest Vsause video has a pretty good ELI5 description.\n\n _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Watch this, Vsauce explains it really well ! - _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "570922",
"title": "Action at a distance",
"section": "Section::::Gravity.:Einstein.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "According to Albert Einstein's theory of special relativity, \"instantaneous action at a distance\" violates the relativistic upper limit on speed of propagation of information. If one of the interacting objects were to suddenly be displaced from its position, the other object would feel its influence instantaneously, meaning information had been transmitted faster than the speed of light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11647860",
"title": "Minkowski diagram",
"section": "Section::::The speed of light as a limit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "Therefore, an object moving faster than light, say from O to A in the adjoining diagram, would imply that, for any observer watching the object moving from O to A, another observer can be found (moving at less than the speed of light with respect to the first) for whom the object moves from A to O. The question of which observer is right has no unique answer, and therefore makes no physical sense. Any such moving object or signal would violate the principle of causality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31296",
"title": "Tachyon",
"section": "Section::::Tachyons in relativity theory.:Causality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1434,
"text": "If one of the two events represents the sending of a signal from one location and the second event represents the reception of the same signal at another location, then as long as the signal is moving at the speed of light or slower, the mathematics of simultaneity ensures that all reference frames agree that the transmission-event happened before the reception-event. However, in the case of a hypothetical signal moving faster than light, there would always be some frames in which the signal was received before it was sent so that the signal could be said to have moved backward in time. Because one of the two fundamental postulates of special relativity says that the laws of physics should work the same way in every inertial frame, if it is possible for signals to move backward in time in any one frame, it must be possible in all frames. This means that if observer A sends a signal to observer B which moves faster than light in A's frame but backwards in time in B's frame, and then B sends a reply which moves faster than light in B's frame but backwards in time in A's frame, it could work out that A receives the reply before sending the original signal, challenging causality in \"every\" frame and opening the door to severe logical paradoxes. Mathematical details can be found in the tachyonic antitelephone article, and an illustration of such a scenario using spacetime diagrams can be found in \"Baker, R. (2003)\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "297839",
"title": "Time dilation",
"section": "Section::::Velocity time dilation.:Reciprocity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "Common sense would dictate that, if the passage of time has slowed for a moving object, said object would observe the external world's time to be correspondingly sped up. Counterintuitively, special relativity predicts the opposite. When two observers are in motion relative to each other, each will measure the other's clock slowing down, in concordance with them being moving relative to the observer's frame of reference.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24503102",
"title": "Propagation of light in non-inertial reference frames",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "In an inertial frame an observer cannot detect their motion via light signals as the speed of light in a vacuum is constant. This means an observer can detect when their motion is accelerated by studying light signals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "422481",
"title": "Mass–energy equivalence",
"section": "Section::::Conservation of mass and energy.:Fast-moving objects and systems of objects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "When an object is pushed in the direction of motion, it gains momentum and energy, but when the object is already traveling near the speed of light, it cannot move much faster, no matter how much energy it absorbs. Its momentum and energy continue to increase without bounds, whereas its speed approaches (but never reaches) a constant value—the speed of light. This implies that in relativity the momentum of an object cannot be a constant times the velocity, nor can the kinetic energy be a constant times the square of the velocity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "427118",
"title": "Principle of locality",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "The special theory of relativity limits the speed at which all such influences can travel to the speed of light, formula_1. Therefore, the principle of locality implies that an event at one point cannot cause a simultaneous result at another point. An event at point formula_2 cannot cause a result at point formula_3 in a time less than formula_4, where formula_5 is the distance between the points.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
hah51
|
Do new scientific discoveries have the same relative significance over time?
|
[
{
"answer": "It would be *incredibly* less significant to us than Newton's laws of gravity or the invention of the wheel.\r\n\r\nWhat many people don't realize is that we've basically mapped out all the physics that will ever be relevant to humans. There are still holes on the edges of our theories, but filling them in won't *do* anything at scales humans will ever reach outside of some physics lab. Whether or not the Higgs boson is discovered will not affect the daily life of anyone who is not a physicist.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Its hard to say really. Especially in a few thousand years. As technology becomes more complex, so does the physics needed. While I am not sure what role our understanding of the weak and strong forces will play in our technological advancement, I feel quite confident that Quantum Electrodynamics will become important, maybe very soon. These 3 things comprise our fundamental understanding of how the universe works on a Quantum level, and right now we need the Higgs to complete that understanding. And as I have said before the Higgs mechanism plays a huge role in many many other areas of physics, which are well understood. It isn't a trivial concept and has wide sweeping consequences that range from how the ice you put in your drink forms, to how the universe as we know it began. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's important that we not mix up science and engineering. There's a lot of cross-pollination, obviously, but they're different things with different goals and means.\n\nBroadly speaking, things can happen in one of two ways. Either we learn something new, then seek (and maybe find, maybe not) ways to apply that knowledge for something other than more knowledge, or we discover that we can do something and then seek ways to explain that something abstractly.\n\nThe wheel wasn't a *discovery.* Nobody sat down five thousand years ago and worked out the differential geometry of the circle. It was a pure invention: hey, round things roll. Neat.\n\nLikewise, the Higgs isn't an invention. It has *zero* practical applications. It's pure discovery. Oh look, here's why weak bosons have mass while the electromagnetic boson doesn't. Neat.\n\nSometimes inventions lead to knowledge, but not always, and not right away. The Minoans had flush toilets three thousand years before anyone wrote down the Hagen-Whasisname equation for laminar fluid flow through a pipe. You don't always need to be able to understand something completely to make use of it in ways that change the world.\n\nSimilarly, not all knowledge is applicable. For instance, how would the world be different if we had never discovered that other galaxies exist? It wouldn't. Not in the slightest. Well, okay, maybe in the slightest. Some of our fiction would be different, and theoretical cosmologists would have to find proper jobs, and awkward teenagers the world over would have different posters tacked up in their rooms. But in terms of actual day-to-day life? Zero change. But at the same time, discovering that the universe is filled with galaxies opened up the door to *tremendous* understanding of the universe and how it all works, trickling down to all sorts of things like current work on extending the Standard Model of particle physics.\n\nSo how do you quantify \"significance?\" Will the Higgs change lives? Almost certainly not, at least not in any direct way. Is it important anyway? Absolutely. It's a piece of the puzzle that we're slotting into place, advancing the goal of someday being able to say we have a complete understanding of the laws of physics. That's something.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17875510",
"title": "Multiple discovery",
"section": "Section::::Multiples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 753,
"text": "Commonly cited examples of multiple independent discovery are the 17th-century independent formulation of calculus by Isaac Newton, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and others, described by A. Rupert Hall; the 18th-century discovery of oxygen by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Joseph Priestley, Antoine Lavoisier and others; and the theory of evolution of species, independently advanced in the 19th century by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace. What holds for discoveries, also goes for inventions. Examples are the blast furnace (invented independently in China, Europe and Africa), the crossbow (invented independently in China, Greece, Africa, northern Canada, and the Baltic countries), and magnetism (discovered independently in Greece, China, and India).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14400",
"title": "History of science",
"section": "Section::::Impact of science in Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "Other significant scientific advances were made during this time by Galileo Galilei, Edmond Halley, Robert Hooke, Christiaan Huygens, Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, Gottfried Leibniz, and Blaise Pascal. In philosophy, major contributions were made by Francis Bacon, Sir Thomas Browne, René Descartes, and Thomas Hobbes. The scientific method was also better developed as the modern way of thinking emphasized experimentation and reason over traditional considerations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3884961",
"title": "The Value of Science",
"section": "Section::::Mathematical physics.:Second crisis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "Throughout the 19th century, important discoveries were being made in laboratories and elsewhere. Many of these discoveries gave substance to important theories. Other discoveries could not be explained satisfactorily - either they had only been occasionally observed, or they were inconsistent with the new and emerging theories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1455630",
"title": "Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental",
"section": "Section::::Activities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "Historically, the main discoveries were in the fields of endocrinology and physiology. The current research areas are wider and include Neurosciences, Biology of Reproduction, Experimental Oncology and Immunology. Results are published in journals of international recognition, thus demonstrating the level of excellence reached by the different research groups.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "849508",
"title": "Peak oil",
"section": "Section::::Supply.:Discoveries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 662,
"text": "A report by the UK Energy Research Centre noted that \"discovery\" is often used ambiguously, and explained the seeming contradiction between falling discovery rates since the 1960s and increasing reserves by the phenomenon of reserve growth. The report noted that increased reserves within a field may be discovered or developed by new technology years or decades after the original discovery. But because of the practice of \"backdating\", any new reserves within a field, even those to be discovered decades after the field discovery, are attributed to the year of initial field discovery, creating an illusion that discovery is not keeping pace with production.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43427",
"title": "Nature (journal)",
"section": "Section::::Publication in Nature.:Landmark papers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "Many of the most significant scientific breakthroughs in modern history have been first published in \"Nature\". The following is a selection of scientific breakthroughs published in \"Nature\", all of which had far-reaching consequences, and the citation for the article in which they were published.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2118843",
"title": "Progress",
"section": "Section::::Scientific progress.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "Scientific progress is the idea that the scientific community learns more over time, which causes a body of scientific knowledge to accumulate. The chemists in the 19th century knew less about chemistry than the chemists in the 20th century, and they in turn knew less than the chemists in the 21st century. Looking forward, today's chemists reasonably expect that chemists in future centuries will know more than they do. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3sv8u1
|
the metal thing they press on fighters faces between rounds.
|
[
{
"answer": "I believe it's cold like ice to decrease the swelling. Probably made of steel so it can be sterilized between fights.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's an eye iron. It's a piece of steel that can be super-cooled to reduce swelling on a fighter's face, so they can continue to see throughout the match.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hits to bony areas usually cause large swelling very quickly. There is no fat/muscle to blunt the force. \n\nThe piece you see is actually an \"eye iron.\" It is simply a cold piece of metal. That piece is applied and pressed into the swelling to minimize/reduce it. \n\nIt literally \"pushes\" the swelling down. \n\nThe cold helps, but the force is what really does the trick. \n\nYes, it hurts like hell. \n\nSide note: the method of pushing in swelling isn't just for fighters. A doctor once did it for my niece, in the ER, after she fell and hit her head on the corner of a table. We rushed her to the ER because it swelled up to the size of a softball in under 5 minutes. It was intense to watch. \n\n\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37682487",
"title": "Historical medieval battles",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "Fighters are covered in full modern produced protective armor, made from steel (or other metal alloy if permitted) made to aesthetically be as close to their historical counterparts as possible. Hits and blows may be aimed at any parts of the body (with the limitations set in the regulations); both wrestling and percussive techniques are permitted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1033826",
"title": "Professional wrestling attacks",
"section": "Section::::Elbow.:Elbow smash.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "The wrestler makes a punching motion, but tucks their hand towards the chest so the elbow and forearm make contact. These can be used in place of punches, for striking with a clenched fist is illegal in most wrestling matches. A high impact version is used by Wade Barrett as his finishing move, \"The Bull hammer\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39292719",
"title": "Fist",
"section": "Section::::Boxing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "Improper formation of the fist whilst punching or striking an object can cause bruising and broken small bones in the hand known as \"Boxer's fracture.\" Boxer's Fracture occurs when metacarpals or small bones in the hand break on the side of the pinky and ring finger. The name derives from the fact that such injuries are most common in boxers and practitioners of other fighting arts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4243",
"title": "Boxing",
"section": "Section::::Technique.:Punches.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "A large, swinging circular punch starting from a cocked-back position with the arm at a longer extension than the hook and all of the fighter's weight behind it is sometimes referred to as a \"roundhouse,\" \"haymaker,\" \"overhand,\" or sucker-punch. Relying on body weight and centripetal force within a wide arc, the roundhouse can be a powerful blow, but it is often a wild and uncontrolled punch that leaves the fighter delivering it off balance and with an open guard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17810998",
"title": "Lutte Traditionnelle",
"section": "Section::::Goal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "Two fighters compete in a circular ring, in more formal events bound by sand bags. Each fighter attempts to eject the other from the ring, though they can win by knocking the other off their feet or onto all fours.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3464778",
"title": "Dead or Alive (video game)",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "The outer edges of the fighting arena are set with explosives which deal a high amount of damage to any fighter who comes in contact with them. They can also send an affected character in the air so the opposing player can execute a juggling air combo. However, this can be avoided with a defensive roll.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1033826",
"title": "Professional wrestling attacks",
"section": "Section::::Punch.:Wind-up punch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 253,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 253,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "A theatrical variation in which the wrestler rotates the attacking arm in a \"winding-up\" motion before striking the opponent, making the punch appear more effective in the same way of a bolo punch in boxing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6yjzd1
|
what's the deal with all those scammy looking "we buy houses" signs i see at so many intersections?
|
[
{
"answer": "They buy houses. Why do you think them scammy?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Opportunists. Lowball offers. If seller is motivated they get an easy and profitable flip.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They are looking for people in danger of foreclosure. It costs $5 for the sign. If they get one deal out of it, it was worth it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15201672",
"title": "Freelandville, Indiana",
"section": "Section::::Happy Street.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "In the early 1980s, the Freelandville Improvement Club decided to put street signs up in town, as they had not had them before then. Oddly enough, there is no current street sign for Happy Street, as anytime one was put up, it was stolen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32725334",
"title": "International Street",
"section": "Section::::Buildings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "Apart from the front gate structure, all buildings on International Street are based, with varying degrees of accuracy, on international building styles. Theming was extended to all details of the buildings. \"The Toronto Star\" suggested that \"there are no cheap facades. Everything is well-built to last a long time.\" It recounted a \"forlorn looking person\" stopping a security guard outside a set of Latin themed washrooms, asking \"Am I a Damas or Caballeros?\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2551704",
"title": "Street or road name",
"section": "Section::::Street type designations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 138,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 138,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "In some cities in the United States (San Francisco, Houston, Detroit, Cleveland, Memphis), streets have official suffixes, but they are not generally given on street signs or used in postal addresses. In Chicago, suffixes are given on street signs but often ignored in popular speech and in postal addresses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2586560",
"title": "Street name sign",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "A street name sign may optionally indicate the range of house numbers found nearby. Some street name signs also indicate an alternative name for the street, such as \"Fashion Avenue\" for Seventh Avenue in New York City, or \"Avenue of the Arts\" for Huntington Avenue in Boston, Massachusetts. Multilingual signs are common and may be required by law in some areas, such as French-speaking regions of Canada.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5531030",
"title": "Charles Bowden",
"section": "Section::::Selected works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Street Signs Chicago: Neighborhood and Other Illusions of Big City Life\" / by Charles Bowden and Lew Kreinberg; photographs by Richard Younker; foreword by William Appleman Williams (Chicago, IL: Chicago Review Press, 1981)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21421579",
"title": "Kabir Nagar, New Delhi",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "The area is divided into several Blocks from A through D. The area is well organized and however become cluttered over years due to rampant unauthorized construction by its residents. For a visitor sometimes finding his way may be a daunting task even if he has correct address. Streets across blocks A, B and D have become totally commercial with almost all road facing plots turned into shops. The most well known blocks are A, B and C Block.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7244002",
"title": "Million Pound Property Experiment",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "Their advice is sensible rather than original or inspired – find areas on the up, buy the worst house in the best street, research what sort of people buy in the area and aim your development squarely at them. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3vbo9y
|
why do skilled nfl athletes still commit penalties?
|
[
{
"answer": "Sometimes it is on accident and sometimes it is not. If I go to grab someone and they move at the last second, I may not grab them where I was trying to. Everything is happening so fast, and other times they just want to grab the face mask. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Facemasks normally are inadvertent. Holding happens almost every play. I would have gone so much further if I learned how to hold and not get caught. \n\nNow though, there are so many new rules it makes the game flag football...\nSometimes the penalties are intentional if tempers are flaring.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For a penalty on the body like a facemask it can just be trying to grab their shoulder and missing. So in that instance it is just a case of things happening too fast. Remember, you may be one of the top linebackers in the sport but you're also playing against the best running backs and receivers in the sport. \n\nFor something like holding you can see players trying to get away with it sometimes and it can depend on what the ref is letting them get away with. \n\nFor timing penalties (i.e. false start) there are a lot of mind games that happen when both sides line up. Quarter backs will use fake counts to try to get defenders to move early and defenders will fidget to try and get the offensive line to move early. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's tough to speak to each individual occurrence. But for every penalty that does get noticed, there's many more that go unnoticed.\n\nFace masking isn't the best example of this, more often than not, if you're going to face mask someone, you're going to get caught.\n\nHolding, however, is a much easier point to prove. The risk of getting caught holding is quite low, and the reward is quite high. If every hold got called in football, there would probably be a penalty on every play. It doesn't however, so players are generally willing to risk it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You've gotten some good answers but I'll add a twist to them. If you're an offensive lineman and you get blitzed. You can see the middle linebacker coming at you at full speed while you're engaged with a defensive lineman. You try and block him but he's also strong and skilled - and he has speed on his side.\n\nYour choices are:\n\n1) Put up a token resistance you know he'll blow through where he will likely sack the ever loving fuck out of your QB.\n\n2) Throw your arm out and grab what you can.\n\nIn the first scenario you are risking a turnover and injury to your QB. As we've seen with Dallas this year, injuries to QB's are a bad thing.\n\nIn the second scenario there is a small chance the hold won't get seen. The refs are good but there is a lot going on so sometimes shit goes unnoticed. Assuming you are flagged though you have at least protected the QB and the ball. Coaches in general will take a 10 yard penalty over risking injury to the most important player.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "* stopping someone with a penalty is often better than not stopping them at all\n* not all penalties are caught, and athletes often try to get away with as much as they can\n* intimidating an opponent might make them second guess the next play\n* keeping your balance, avoiding blockers, and tackling someone trying to escape, there is a lot going on there, and sometimes you are not aware of everything you are doing until it is too late",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6299440",
"title": "Roger Goodell",
"section": "Section::::Professional career.:Actions as commissioner.:Player conduct.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 807,
"text": "In addition to suspensions, Goodell has also fined players for on-field misconduct. For example, on October 19, 2010, the NFL handed out fines to Pittsburgh Steelers linebacker James Harrison, Falcons cornerback Dunta Robinson, and New England Patriots safety Brandon Meriweather after they were involved in controversial hits the previous Sunday. Goodell released a memo to every team in the league stating that \"It is clear to me that further action is required to emphasize the importance of teaching safe and controlled techniques, and of playing within the rules.\" The NFL's reaction to the hits was itself controversial and Goodell came under criticism from players like Troy Polamalu, who felt he had assumed too much control and power over punishment towards players and was making wrong decisions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34956958",
"title": "New Orleans Saints bounty scandal",
"section": "Section::::Sanctions.:Players.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "The NFLPA requested that the league should hold off on any punishments for the players until it conducts its own investigation. Goodell told Schefter, however, that he would hand down punishments to the players involved very soon once he gets feedback from the NFLPA.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5919359",
"title": "2010 NFL season",
"section": "Section::::Rule changes.:Crackdown on illegal hits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "After several violent hits throughout the NFL made the news in Week 3, the league announced that it would consider suspending players for illegal hits, such as helmet-to-helmet hits or other blows to the head. (Previously, players could only be fined for such hits.) The league also instructed all officials and referees to have an even higher level of attention toward flagrant hits. Game officials were also instructed to err on the side of safety, and throw flags even when in doubt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "956795",
"title": "Running up the score",
"section": "Section::::In American football.:Professional football.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "During the 2011 season, the three teams with the best offenses (New England, Green Bay and New Orleans) also had the worst defenses, which explains why none of those teams were happy to run out the clock, instead always pressuring for points. The current salary cap rules mean that it is nearly impossible for a team to have an excellent offense and defense over any period of time, particularly as cheaper players who play very well one year will likely cost more in the next year. Such tactics are generally referred to as 'Keeping their foot on the gas', and is generally not frowned upon in the NFL.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2064769",
"title": "False start",
"section": "Section::::In sports.:American and Canadian football.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "At the end of the 2005 NFL season, owners complained regarding false start penalties on players whose flinches have little effect upon the start of the play, such as wide receivers. In response, the NFL competition committee has said that they plan to inflict fewer false start penalties on players who line up behind the line of scrimmage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5844633",
"title": "Joel Klatt",
"section": "Section::::College career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "\"\"If they want to exploit us, as athletes, and sell our jerseys and put us on video games, then perhaps they should protect us on the field better, so that we can, in the future, get that compensation and possibly go to the NFL. It seems like they’re more concerned with what guys do after the play and after they score, which is completely irrelevant to safety, or anything like that. But if a player who goes into the end zone and gets a little too excited, is that as important as someone who gets a head injury? I just think their priorities are a little out of whack.\"\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4040359",
"title": "2007 NFL season",
"section": "Section::::Events.:Player conduct off the field.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 1042,
"text": "The NFLPA, then led by their president Gene Upshaw and NFL commissioner Roger Goodell, worked with player conduct in the form of suspensions for off the field conduct in light of the more than fifty arrests by local law enforcement since the start of the 2006 season. The hardest hit came on April 10 when Adam \"Pacman\" Jones of the Tennessee Titans was suspended for the entire season for his five arrests, the most blatant while in Las Vegas for the NBA All-Star Weekend in February where he was accused of causing a riot/shooting in a strip club. That same day, Chris Henry of the Cincinnati Bengals was suspended for the first eight games of the season for his run-ins with the legal system. The other big name that has been caught in the web of controversy was Falcons' quarterback Michael Vick. Vick was charged on July 24, 2007 with dogfighting and animal abuse, and was suspended following a guilty plea in the case, on which he was sentenced to 23 months in prison (retroactive to November) and three years probation on December 10.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3a810t
|
how bulletproof are dinosaurs?
|
[
{
"answer": "Dinosaurs don't have magic anti-bullet properties, and bullets aren't magical things that do abstract \"damage\" like in movies and video games. Bullets punch holes in things. That's it. Large animals have more blood to lose, more muscle to draw on in emergencies, and more flesh to pierce before irreversible damage is caused. Thus, to take down a large animal, you need to punch a *lot* of holes, or one very big hole. There are special guns and ammunition necessary to take down elephants. [Here is one side-by-side with an AR-15/M4/M16 combat rifle cartrige](_URL_0_). Thrice the width, and probably 30 or 40 times the charge. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, how does a bullet kill a person? It either damages an organ so badly that it can't work anymore, or it hits a big enough blood vessel that the person bleeds out.\n\nSo when you look at the I-Rex, it's basically a huge, scaly mass of muscle. Most bullets probably can't get through all of that dense muscle to actually hit a major organ. Its blood vessels are probably large and there are probably lots of them; a bullet hitting some of the smaller, outer ones isn't going to get him to bleed to death. And it's not like a bullet can hit his aorta or anything, because that's in the center of a heavily muscled, bony, scaled body.\n\nSo it's sort of like shooting toothpicks at a human. Sure, they'll hurt, and if you get hit with enough of them in the leg, it might be tougher to move your leg. But they aren't going through and causing major damage that could really hurt the I-Rex.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Scroll over for TLDR. To see how this answer comes about, I would advise skipping over the spoiler: [Spoiler](/s \"We can't say for sure, but if we scale up based on an elephant, the minigun on the A-10 Warthog is enough to take it down with one bullet. It would likely stand up to a few rounds of something like a helicopter based minigun though.\")\n\nThis is actually a fairly complex question when you get down to it. While we can't be sure exactly all of the properties of dinosaurs, we can make some comparisons to modern animals. For example, many animals have very tough skin to deter predators, skin which can repel small arms fire. \n\nWhile bullet placement is the most important factor in bringing something down, the energy conveyed by a bullet is a good way to see if your gun is adequate to certain game. Squirrels and the like are fine with around 300 ft-lb of energy. Meanwhile, deer need around 1000 ft-lb of energy. Once you start getting to thicker skinned, more dangerous prey, you want at least 4000 ft-lb for something like a buffalo, and 5,000+ for an elephant. \n\nSo, if we apply this to the dinosaur in the movie (judging by the information of the J-park wiki), it looks to be about 50% larger than a t-rex. A principle known as the [square cubed law](_URL_1_). Means that this would put it about about 3.4 times the mass of the t-rex (7.5 short tons (I can't be bothered to convert units)). Scaling up the bullet energy puts a comfortable range of over 140,000 ft-lb of energy! Coincidentally, this is almost exactly the energy of a bullet from the A-10 Warthog, which has the power to punch through an inch+ of steel. And does [this](_URL_0_).\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12498766",
"title": "Stan (dinosaur)",
"section": "Section::::Life and Death.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "In 2005, the BBC program \"The Truth About Killer Dinosaurs\" used Stan's skull as a model for their hydraulic test of the \"T.rex\"'s bite force and estimated that it exceeded 6.8 tonnes. Additional tests, like those published by Karl T. Bates 2009, used Stan's remains to study the weight distribution of \"T.rex,\" as well as how their mass and proportions would have affected their movement. Bates estimated that Stan was larger than previous belief, at around 16,875 pounds; he also concluded that Stan, as well as other \"Tyrannosaurus rex\" specimens, were much more robust than commonly believed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48044280",
"title": "Primal Carnage: Extinction",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Dinosaur gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1023,
"text": "Dinosaurs generally move faster than the human classes, and possess powerful disabling attacks with a number of one-hit-kill abilities. However, their playstyle requires using a higher degree of stealth and agility, meaning stamina management is especially important for dinosaur players. All of the primary dinosaur attacks are melee-based, promoting more close quarters action, with hit and run tactics being favourable. Each dinosaur class has a special Roar Ability that when activated gives a buff to the player or their nearby team mates. Once used, it has a lengthy cooldown before being available again. All dinosaurs must eat to restore their health fully, this is done at various herbivore carcasses placed around the maps, usually a dead \"Iguanodon\" or \"Parasaurolophus\". The large Tyrant classes are the only members of the dinosaur team that can restore health purely through eating enemy players. When a dinosaur is low on health, the game's visuals desaturate and nearby carcasses become highlighted in red.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25907924",
"title": "Primal Carnage",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Dinosaur Team.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "Dinosaur gameplay is primarily based around melee attacks and relies heavily upon speed, stealth, and distraction to be successful. All members of the dinosaur team have a standard bite attack, along with a special ability that is activated upon roaring, and with the exception of \"Tyrannosaurus\", a unique secondary attack. Dinosaurs can regain health by either killing a human with direct damage from their bite attack, or eating from stationary \"Iguanodon\" carcasses scattered throughout the maps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8311",
"title": "Dinosaur",
"section": "Section::::Biology.:Behavior.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "The crests and frills of some dinosaurs, like the marginocephalians, theropods and lambeosaurines, may have been too fragile to be used for active defense, and so they were likely used for sexual or aggressive displays, though little is known about dinosaur mating and territorialism. Head wounds from bites suggest that theropods, at least, engaged in active aggressive confrontations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5768710",
"title": "Armour (anatomy)",
"section": "Section::::Species with armour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "Armour is evident on numerous animal species from both current and prehistoric times. Dinosaurs such as \"Ankylosaurus\", as well as other Thyreophora (armoured dinosaurs such as Ankylosauria and Stegosauria), grew thick plate-like armour on their bodies as well as offensive armour appendages such as the thagomizer or a club. The armour took many forms, including osteoderms, spikes, horns, and plates. Other dinosaurs such as ceratopsian dinosaurs as well as some sauropods such as \"Saltasaurus\", grew armour to defend themselves, although armour in sauropods overall is uncommon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3504000",
"title": "The Truth About Killer Dinosaurs",
"section": "Section::::Episodes and Animals.:1 \"T. rex\" vs. \"Triceratops\".:\"Triceratops\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "BULLET::::- Doing a crash test with an artificial \"Triceratops\" skull, made of resin, scientists learn that contrary to portrayals in the media, \"Triceratops\" probably didn't charge at predators nor other dinosaurs, for its skull would likely break.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "650276",
"title": "Supersaurus",
"section": "Section::::History.:\"Ultrasauros\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "Originally, these \"Supersaurus\" and \"Brachiosaurus\" bones were believed to represent a single dinosaur that was estimated to reach about 25 to 30 meters (80 to 100 ft) long, 8 meters (25 ft) high at the shoulder, 15 meters (50 ft) in total height, and weighing maybe 70 metric tons (75 short tons). At the time, mass estimates ranged up to 180 tons, which placed it in the same category as the blue whale and the equally problematic \"Bruhathkayosaurus\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
jg52o
|
Is there any evidence that over the counter vitamin D supplements enhance mood?
|
[
{
"answer": "In the unlikely chance that reduced sun exposure causes a severe Vitamin D deficiency, [you can experience depression](_URL_0_). However, taking supplements to prevent depression isn't quite established.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the unlikely chance that reduced sun exposure causes a severe Vitamin D deficiency, [you can experience depression](_URL_0_). However, taking supplements to prevent depression isn't quite established.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24998247",
"title": "Vitamin D",
"section": "Section::::Use of supplements.:Cancer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "Vitamin D supplements have been widely marketed for their claimed anticancer properties. Associations have been shown in observational studies between low vitamin D levels and the risk of development of certain cancers. It is unclear, however, if taking additional vitamin D in the diet or as supplements affects the risk of cancer. Reviews have described the evidence as being \"inconsistent, inconclusive as to causality, and insufficient to inform nutritional requirements\" and \"not sufficiently robust to draw conclusions\". One 2014 review found that supplements had no significant effect on cancer risk. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16823924",
"title": "Chronic fatigue syndrome treatment",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Alternative medicine.:Dietary supplements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "A 2006 updated systematic review concluded that the supplements essential fatty acids and magnesium have shown beneficial effects but only in one or two trials and further rigorous trials of these interventions would be helpful. A 2008 review found insufficient evidence to recommend dietary supplements as a treatment in chronic fatigue syndrome. One RCT compared a polynutrient supplement (containing several vitamins, minerals, and coenzymes, taken twice daily) with a placebo for 10 weeks, but found no difference in fatigue scores.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11049501",
"title": "Alliance for Natural Health",
"section": "Section::::Positions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "The ANH believes that negative media publicity about nutrients such as vitamin E are merely a result of misinterpretations over the science. It also criticises the latest research proposing vitamin C supplementation does not protect against the common cold as having a number of fundamental flaws. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "792915",
"title": "Glucosamine",
"section": "Section::::Medical uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "As is common with heavily promoted dietary supplements, the claimed benefits of glucosamine are based principally on clinical and laboratory studies. Clinical studies are divided, with some reporting relief from arthritic pain and stiffness, while higher quality studies report no benefit above placebo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32509",
"title": "Vitamin C",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Cardiovascular disease.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "A 2013 meta-analysis found no evidence that vitamin C supplementation reduces the risk of myocardial infarction, stroke, cardiovascular mortality, or all-cause mortality. However, a second analysis found an inverse relationship between circulating vitamin C levels or dietary vitamin C and the risk of stroke.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21525",
"title": "Nutrition",
"section": "Section::::Phytochemicals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "While initial studies sought to reveal if dietary supplements might promote health, one meta-analysis concluded that supplementation with antioxidant vitamins A and E and beta-carotene did not convey any benefits, and may increase risk of death. Vitamin C and selenium supplements did not impact mortality rate. Health effects of non-nutrient phytochemicals such as polyphenols were not assessed in this review.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "93827",
"title": "Human nutrition",
"section": "Section::::Malnutrition.:Mental disorders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "Nutritional supplement treatment may be appropriate for major depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and obsessive compulsive disorder, the four most common mental disorders in developed countries. Lakhan and Vieira mentioned that the supplements possess amino acids that may change into neurotransmitters and improve mental disorders. Supplements that have been studied most for mood elevation and stabilization include eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid (each of which are an omega-3 fatty acid contained in fish oil, but not in flaxseed oil), vitamin B, folic acid, and inositol.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4u32z6
|
rules about reasonable suspicion vs. probable cause/just cause
|
[
{
"answer": "Cop here:\n\nReasonable Suspicion:\n\nAn officer reasonably belives a crime *may have* occurred.\n\nFor example: An officer is patrolling an area where car break-ins have been a problem. He sees a man in a hoodie (even though it's warm outside) looking into a car window.\n\nHe has reasonable suspicion a crime may be occurring. He can legally stop that man and hold him long enough to determine if a crime occurred or not.\n\nProbable Cause:\n\nA higher standard; an officer has reason to belive a crime probably occurred.\n\nSame example as before, but the officer finds several cars with broken windows, the man has broken glass on his jacket, and a wallet from one of the cars.\n\nReasonable Suspicion is the standard required for a stop or detainment. \n\nProbable cause is the standard for am arrest.\n\nThere is no \"just cause\" in the US legal system. \"Beyond a Reasonable Doubt\" is the standard needed to *convict* a person of a crime.\n\nAs for vehicle searches:\n\nAn officer needs probable cause to search a vehicle without your consent. The exception to this is what's called a \"Terry Frisk\" in which an officer may *frisk* (or pat down- not search) a person or the lungeable (easily-reachable) areas of a car for a weapon if the officer has reason to belive a person may be armed.\n\nThe smell of marijuana is probable cause. It seems to be a common belief that cops will fake smelling marijuana in order search a car. I've personally never seen this happen and I would doubt that it happens often at all.\n\nYou have the right to refuse a search if the search is consensual only.\n\n*Edit: fixed autocorrect error.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'd like to hear about the rules and regulations governing searching someone's cell phone history if you know anything about that too. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1745789",
"title": "Reasonable suspicion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1127,
"text": "Reasonable suspicion is a legal standard of proof in United States law that is less than probable cause, the legal standard for arrests and warrants, but more than an \"inchoate and unparticularized suspicion or 'hunch; it must be based on \"specific and articulable facts\", \"taken together with rational inferences from those facts\", and the suspicion must be associated with the specific individual. If police additionally have reasonable suspicion that a person so detained is armed and dangerous, they may \"frisk\" the person for weapons, but not for contraband like drugs. However, if the police develop probable cause during a weapons frisk (by feeling something that could be a weapon or contraband, for example), they can then search you. Reasonable suspicion is evaluated using the \"reasonable person\" or \"reasonable officer\" standard, in which said person in the same circumstances could reasonably suspect a person has been, is, or is about to be engaged in criminal activity; it depends upon the totality of circumstances, and can result from a combination of particular facts, even if each is individually innocuous.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146751",
"title": "Probable cause",
"section": "Section::::Comparison with other countries.:Sweden.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "In the criminal code of some European countries, notably Sweden, probable cause is a higher level of suspicion than \"justifiable grounds\" in a two level system of formal suspicion. The latter refers only to the suspect being able to and sometimes having a motive to commit the crime and in some cases witness accounts, whereas probable cause generally requires a higher degree of physical evidence and allows for longer periods of detention before trial. See \"häktning\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1745789",
"title": "Reasonable suspicion",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 561,
"text": "U.S. courts have held that a stop on reasonable suspicion may be appropriate in the following cases: when a person possesses unusual items (like a wire hanger) which would be useful in a crime and is looking into car windows at 2 am, when a person matches a description of a suspect given by another officer, or a person is seen fleeing from a home or business with a sounding alarm. However, reasonable suspicion does not apply merely because a person refuses to answer questions, declines to allow a voluntary search, or is of a particular race or ethnicity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61610",
"title": "Burden of proof (law)",
"section": "Section::::Standard of proof in the United States.:Legal standards for burden of proof.:Reasonable suspicion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 656,
"text": "Reasonable suspicion is a low standard of proof to determine whether a \"brief\" investigative stop or search by a police officer or any government agent is warranted. It is important to note that this stop or search must be brief; its thoroughness is proportional to, and limited by, the low standard of evidence. A more definite standard of proof (often probable cause) would be required to justify a more thorough stop/search. In \"Terry v. Ohio\", , the Supreme Court ruled that reasonable suspicion requires specific, articulable, and individualized suspicion that crime is afoot. A mere guess or \"hunch\" is not enough to constitute reasonable suspicion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25851942",
"title": "R v Kang-Brown",
"section": "Section::::Supreme Court ruling.:Reasonable suspicion standard.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 1002,
"text": "\"Suspicion\" is an expectation that the targeted individual is possibly engaged in some criminal activity. A \"reasonable\" suspicion means something more than a mere suspicion and something less than a belief based upon reasonable and probable grounds. Because sniffer dog searches are conducted without prior judicial authorization, the after the fact judicial scrutiny of the grounds for the alleged \"reasonable suspicion\" must be rigorous. Here, the police action was based on speculation. The sniff in this case was an unreasonable search since the RCMP officer did not have grounds for reasonable suspicion at the time the dog was called. However, because of R. v. MacKenzie, [2013] 3 SCR 250, 2013 SCC 50 (CanLII), police can now simply draw on their experience in the field to create broad categories of “suspicious” behaviour into which almost anyone could fall. Such an approach risks transforming the already flexible standard of reasonable suspicion into the “generalized” suspicion standard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "439598",
"title": "Natural justice",
"section": "Section::::Rule against bias.:Forms of bias.:Apparent bias.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "On the other hand, the reasonable suspicion test asks whether a reasonable and fair-minded person sitting in court and knowing all the relevant facts would have a reasonable suspicion that a fair trial for the litigant is not possible. Although not currently adopted in the UK, this test has been endorsed by the Singapore courts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146751",
"title": "Probable cause",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "In United States criminal law, probable cause is the standard by which police authorities have reason to obtain a warrant for the arrest of a suspected criminal or the issuing of a search warrant. It is also the standard by which grand juries issue criminal indictments. The principle behind the standard is to limit the power of authorities to perform random or abusive searches (unlawful search and seizure), and to promote lawful evidence gathering and procedural form during criminal arrest and prosecution. The standard also applies to personal or property searches.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2eh8cc
|
what role does a director actually play in creating a movie and what are the signs of a poorly directed movie?
|
[
{
"answer": "The director is the head honcho of the movie set. What ever you see on the screen is because of what the direct wants you to see.\n\nThe director has the power the take the saddest script and redirect it to be the happiest thing you've seen.\n\n\nThe director is the conductor on the emotional train we call cinema.\n\nWithout the direct there is no vision and with no vision there is no movie. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Director of a film (or a play, or a television show episode) is the person responsible for the creative vision of the piece. They create a concept from the script (which may or may not be something concretely found in the script, it may be metaphorical or tangential) and from the concept lead the design and production team towards a collaborative vision. Once rehearsals/filming have begin, the director blocks the piece (i.e. tells actors where to move), provides objective and subtextual support to the actors (i.e. tells them why they are saying the things the writer wrote) and ensures that the visual style and setting are within the original vision or concept parameters.\n\nIn film, they also work closely with the DP, first story-boarding the script, and then, once on set, making sure that each shoot is framed, blocked and shot per their vision. Including ALL design aspects, from the color of the walls to the type of purse a character might wear.\n\nIn essence they are the Captain of the ship. A lot of my notes below can also be laid at the feet of bad writing, but in film (less so TV and theatre) directors have a great deal of oversight on the writing, so they are typically held accountable if the writing is terrible.\n\nA film which has been directed badly will usually (but not always, the problem with a collaborative art form, which is what film is, is that there are many, many chefs in the kitchen. However, since the director tends to get the credit when everything works, they also tend to get the blame when it doesn't)--usually show the following flaws:\n\n1. Incoherent story telling. You don't know what is happening. Or why it is happening. Or who it is happening to. Sometimes things are just blatantly implausible.\n\n2. Cliche or trope ridden dialogue/shots/events. You feel like you've seen all of these things before. All the characters are stereotypes, all the plot points unfailingly predictable. Note: cliches, tropes and stereotypes can all be used well. But bad directors tend not to.\n\n3. Bad dialogue. Dialogue that is forced and unnatural. Dialogue that is too on-the-nose. People telling other people things instead of doing things. People explaining how they feel ad nauseam. Dialogue spoken only to allow for the plot to push forward, leading us to:\n\n4. Coincidental plotting, or plots hole you could drive a freight train through (not the small inconsistencies that almost every movie has, but HUGE giant massive oh-my-god-this-movie-is-broken plot holes). Coincidental plotting is when everything that has to happen for the plot to move forward does, without any effort on the part of the hero (or the bad guy).\n\n5. Bad acting. Directors are responsible for getting a performance out of their actors, so even if the actor can't act (one reason why casting is important) the director is still the one people are going to hold responsible for any painful moments on screen (this is less true in TV and theatre). \n\n6. Over or under designed. Over designed is when the concept/vision of the piece becomes more important then any other element. Think 300: Rise of an Empire or Sin City: A Dame to Kill For (not-at-all-oddly, both Frank Miller graphic novel adaptations, where the look was where the design team started with). Tim Burton is also a well-known director who can go to far with his vision/design to the point of over balancing the movie. Under designing is when there is a lack of design and the production feels (usually) cheap or not-thought-through. Good design elevates the narrative, supports the characters and provides visual clues to the audience about what is happening--excellent design can comment on and complement the action, enhancing the entire experience.\n\n7. Movies/TV only: bad editing. Either because there were technical difficulties during filming and the needed shots weren't gotten (or a director wasn't prepared and didn't get the shots they needed), and therefore the editor is attempting to make up for missing and/or bad shots; or because the editing itself is just bad. Odd cuts, odd shots going back to back, odd audio issues. Various other things. While most early directors at a studio on a movie won't have any say over the final cut, most editing issues are from a lack of footage (which is the director's issue), not bad editing. OR a director who does have final cut approval and shouldn't, which is where you got a three-hour movie that should have been 2 hours and 10 minutes max.\n\n8. Poor production value. An overall feel that the movie wasn't cared for (this isn't about money, this is about time and support). Usually shows in bad lighting, bad audio, bad set dressing, bad costumes--just an overall sense that these things weren't considered important or there wasn't time to pay attention to them.\n\nA film, tv show or theatrical play is an immense, multi-part beast, and the Director is the one that tries to tame it. To varying degrees of success. Every director probably has one (or many) bad movies to their name, as its how we all learn. The more telling test is not if they directed a bad movie, but if people wanted to work with them again. And, sometimes, the love of the thing they are creating can shine through the worst movie and make it, somehow, good (think Sam Raimi's original Evil Dead).\n\nHope that helped!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The actors portray characters in the story. The costumers and set decorators are illustrators to the story. The director is the storyteller.\n\nA character has a motivation or goal, the director advises the actor how to show the goal as part of the story.\n\nEvery good story relies on drama. Drama comes from conflict. Conflict in a traditional sense is \"the hero wants to do something and the villain wants to stop him\". Better conflict makes better drama, the best way is to make the villain stronger than the hero. So, the hero is trying to win something, but the villain is stronger than the hero and is trying to stop the hero. \n\nA really good storyteller is good with \"power inversion\", turning the power structure upside-down. How does the hero change himself, so he can overcome the more powerful villain?\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The director also sets the tone on set -- the entire cast and crew follow his/her lead. The really great directors I've worked with [14 years in film/tv] came in prepared (knowing what they need to get) confident (by trusting the individual department heads but unafraid to kick a little ass if specific departments need the prodding) and decisive (each department hangs on the director's answers so the best directors have answers quickly and definitively).\n\nThe director should have the entire finished product in his/her head so the rest of the crew doesn't have to wait on his/her process.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "/u/daijobu16 provided a very good answer, but I think I can simplify it a bit.\n\nOf the people involved in the creation of a movie, you have two job titles that can be said to be \"in charge\". First, the producers. A \"producer\" is often the money-man, and the person running the whole thing, including hiring the director, marketing the movie, getting it into theaters, etc.\n\nHowever, the role of a \"producer\" can be a little vague. People can get \"producer\" credits for all kinds of things related to the creation of the movie. For example, if it's a small movie, and you allow them to shoot some scenes in your house, they may give you a \"co-producer\" credit as a form of payment.\n\nSo speaking vaguely, the producer is the business-man in charge, but the director is the creative person in charge. He actually makes the movie. He oversees script re-writing, casts the movie, oversees shooting, oversees editing.\n\nWhat he does exactly can vary from movie to movie, and different directors have different preferences. Some directors exercise more control over every individual shot, while others give their cinematographer and camera man more leeway. Some directors tell the actors exactly what they want the actor to do, while others make it more of a collaborative process. Some directors edit their own movies, while others will work with editors and allow those editors some freedom. However, it's the director's job to oversee the whole process.\n\nSo the role isn't set in stone, and each director finds what fits for them, but most of the time, directors will cast all the major roles, tell actors what kind of performance they want, choose a lot of the shots and decide how things should be lit, and provide a lot of guidance to the editors.\n\nSo if anything in the movie sucks, it's the director's fault to some degree. The script might be lacking. The actors might have sucked. The editor might have butchered the edit. The camera man might have shot something with poor focus. But the director was supposed to be overseeing it all, so the director is still at fault, at least to some degree. The only thing that's kind of outside of his control is meddling from the producer (or studio or whatever).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17225987",
"title": "Shubho Mahurat",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "The out-of-work director has a shady past. A witness to his shady past is an aspiring actor, who was subsequently thrown out of the acting circuit. This actor started a catering service for the film unit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21554680",
"title": "Film director",
"section": "Section::::Responsibility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 682,
"text": "Since the film director depends on the successful cooperation of many different creative individuals with possibly strongly contradicting artistic ideals and visions, he or she also needs to possess conflict resolution skills in order to mediate whenever necessary. Thus the director ensures that all individuals involved in the film production are working towards an identical vision for the completed film. The set of varying challenges he or she has to tackle has been described as \"a multi-dimensional jigsaw puzzle with egos and weather thrown in for good measure\". It adds to the pressure that the success of a film can influence when and how they will work again, if at all.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21554680",
"title": "Film director",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "The film director gives direction to the cast and crew and creates an overall vision through which a film eventually becomes realized, or noticed. Directors need to be able to mediate differences in creative visions and stay within the budget.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21554680",
"title": "Film director",
"section": "Section::::Responsibility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "Generally, the sole superiors of the director are the producer(s) and the studio that is financing the film, although sometimes the director can also be a producer of the same film. The role of a director differs from producers in that producers typically manage the logistics and business operations of the production, whereas the director is tasked with making creative decisions. The director must work within the restrictions of the film's budget and the demands of the producer and studio (such as the need to get a particular age rating).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10827",
"title": "Film crew",
"section": "Section::::Director.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 874,
"text": "The film director gives direction to the cast and crew and creates an overall vision through which a film eventually becomes realized, or noticed. Directors need to be able to mediate differences in creative visions and stay within the boundaries of the film's budget. There are many pathways to becoming a film director. Some film directors started as screenwriters, cinematographers, film editors or actors. Other film directors have attended a film school. Directors use different approaches. Some outline a general plotline and let the actors improvise dialogue, while others control every aspect, and demand that the actors and crew follow instructions precisely. Some directors also write their own screenplays or collaborate on screenplays with long-standing writing partners. Some directors edit or appear in their films, or compose the music score for their films.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1994850",
"title": "Three... Extremes",
"section": "Section::::Films.:\"Cut\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "A successful film director has to face a night of misery when a man who appeared in five of his films as an extra, captures both him and his wife to play a deadly game. The wife, a pianist, is gagged and trapped in a system of sharp wires at her piano. The director is instructed to strangle a young girl the extra met while on the way, or else the extra will chop off the wife's fingers one by one every five minutes. The extra reveals that he kidnapped the couple because he is jealous that the director is able to be a rich and good man, while he is poor and abusive to his wife and son, the former of whom he murdered before the incident. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8351",
"title": "David Mamet",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Film.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "In \"On Directing Film,\" Mamet asserts that directors should focus on getting the point of a scene across, rather than simply following a protagonist, or adding visually beautiful or intriguing shots. Films should create order from disorder in search of the objective.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
adgdc8
|
What sources are there to suggest that Nero blamed the fire in Rome in 64 CE on Christians? Do we know how he became aware of the movement? Would these suggestions be the earliest independent recognition of Christians as a distinct group in the historical record?
|
[
{
"answer": "The only source that mentions Nero's blaming of the Christians is Tacitus ([Annals 15.44](_URL_2_)):\n\n > Therefore, to scotch the rumour, Nero substituted as culprits, and punished with the utmost refinements of cruelty, a class of men, loathed for their vices, whom the crowd styled Christians. Christus, the founder of the name, had undergone the death penalty in the reign of Tiberius, by sentence of the procurator Pontius Pilatus, and the pernicious superstition was checked for a moment, only to break out once more, not merely in Judaea, the home of the disease, but in the capital itself, where all things horrible or shameful in the world collect and find a vogue. First, then, the confessed members of the sect were arrested; next, on their disclosures, vast numbers were convicted, not so much on the count of arson as for hatred of the human race. And derision accompanied their end: they were covered with wild beasts' skins and torn to death by dogs; or they were fastened on crosses, and, when daylight failed were burned to serve as lamps by night. Nero had offered his Gardens for the spectacle, and gave an exhibition in his Circus, mixing with the crowd in the habit of a charioteer, or mounted on his car. Hence, in spite of a guilt which had earned the most exemplary punishment, there arose a sentiment of pity, due to the impression that they were being sacrificed not for the welfare of the state but to the ferocity of a single man. \n\nThe passage has caused a great deal of scholarly discussion over the years, including some doubts over its authenticity. However, the general consensus is that this is a genuine bit of Tacitus, and yes, that makes this pretty much the earliest mention of Christians as a distinct group by a non-Christian author. Suetonius and Pliny the Younger also mention the Christians, and both were writing in the early 2nd century, so the same time as Tacitus. In both of these writers, the Christians are also coming in for rough treatment by the Roman authorities - in [Suetonius](_URL_3_) it's Nero again (and maybe [Claudius](_URL_1_) a decade earlier), and in Pliny it's actually [himself](_URL_0_). He was the governor of the province of Bithynia, and oversaw the trials of some Christians. His letter describing his actions to the Emperor Trajan is a fascinating window into the interactions between the Roman state and the new religious group, which is less than a century old at this point, and probably only numbers a few thousand adherents across the whole empire. The crucial difference between the writers here is that Tacitus and Suetonius are describing events around 50 years before their time, whereas Pliny is talking about his own experience. How much does the contemporary situation colour the accounts of Tacitus and Suetonius, in terms of their awareness of Christianity as a distinct group? There's also genre and authorial intent to consider here, especially with Tacitus. It's always important to remember that throughout his *Annals,* Tacitus is intentionally presenting a gloomy, degenerate picture of Rome, fallen from its glorious past. His portrayal of Neronian Rome is a centrepiece to this, and we can't take the tiny passage about the Christians out of this context. Tacitus lumps Christianity in with the other horrible and shameful things that have collected in Rome under the emperors, but makes it pale in comparison with the cruel debauchery of Nero, who allegedly burned the Eternal City to satisfy his own desires and then tortured innocent people to cover his tracks.\n\nAs to how Nero became aware of Christianity, we can only speculate. Tacitus implies they were notorious in the city, and the evidence from the New Testament suggests a fairly strong community. Paul wrote his letter to the Christians in the city before he visited, and preached there for two years while awaiting trial. Perhaps someone in the imperial household (or even Nero himself) picked up gossip or rumour of these new beliefs, or maybe heard someone preaching on the streets. Pliny's letter suggests that perhaps the emperors might have also been getting news about the religion from other provinces, especially when Christians were caught up in (or the cause of) civil unrest. ",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "30632",
"title": "Tacitus on Christ",
"section": "Section::::The passage and its context.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "The exact cause of the fire remains uncertain, but much of the population of Rome suspected that Emperor Nero had started the fire himself. To divert attention from himself, Nero accused the Christians of starting the fire and persecuted them, making this the first documented confrontation between Christians and the authorities in Rome. Tacitus never accused Nero of playing the lyre while Rome burned – that statement came from Cassius Dio, who died in the 3rd century. But Tacitus did suggest that Nero used the Christians as scapegoats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11157819",
"title": "Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire",
"section": "Section::::History.:Nero.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 1069,
"text": "There are no references to the persecution of Christians by the Roman state prior to Nero, who according to Tacitus and later Christian tradition, blamed Christians for the Great Fire of Rome in 64, which destroyed portions of the city and economically devastated the Roman population. In the \"Annals\" of Tacitus, we read: This passage in Tacitus constitutes the only independent attestation that Nero blamed Christians for the Great Fire of Rome, and while it is generally believed to be authentic and reliable, some modern scholars have cast doubt on this view, largely because there is no further reference to Nero's blaming of Christians for the fire until the late 4th century. Suetonius, later to the period, does not mention any persecution after the fire, but in a previous paragraph unrelated to the fire, mentions punishments inflicted on Christians, who are described as \"men following a new and malefic superstition.\" Suetonius, however, does not specify the reasons for the punishment; he simply lists the fact together with other abuses put down by Nero.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "291729",
"title": "Great Fire of Rome",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "According to Tacitus and later Christian tradition, Emperor Nero blamed the devastation on the Christian community in the city, initiating the empire's first persecution against the Christians. Some modern historians, including the Princeton classicist Brent Shaw, have cast doubt on the traditional view that Nero blamed the Christians for the fire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25074",
"title": "Persecution of Christians",
"section": "Section::::Antiquity.:In the Roman Empire.:Under Nero, 64–68 AD.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1180,
"text": "The first documented case of imperially supervised persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire begins with Nero (54–68). In 64 AD, a great fire broke out in Rome, destroying portions of the city and economically devastating the Roman population. Some people suspected that Nero himself was the arsonist, as Suetonius reported, claiming that he played the lyre and sang the 'Sack of Ilium' during the fires. In the \"Annals\" of Tacitus, we read: This passage in Tacitus constitutes the only independent attestation that Nero blamed Christians for the Great Fire of Rome, and while it is generally believed to be authentic and reliable, some modern scholars have cast doubt on this view, largely because there is no further reference to Nero's blaming of Christians for the fire until the late 4th century. Suetonius, later to the period, does not mention any persecution after the fire, but in a previous paragraph unrelated to the fire, mentions punishments inflicted on Christians, defined as men following a new and malefic superstition. Suetonius, however, does not specify the reasons for the punishment; he simply lists the fact together with other abuses put down by Nero.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10599238",
"title": "Christianity and Paganism",
"section": "Section::::Origins.:Persecution of early Christians.:Persecution under Nero, 64–68 AD.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1014,
"text": "The first documented case of imperially-supervised persecution of the Christians in the Roman Empire begins with Nero (37–68). In 64 AD, a great fire broke out in Rome, destroying portions of the city and economically devastating the Roman population. Nero himself was suspected as the arsonist by Suetonius. In his \"Annals\", Tacitus (who claimed Nero was in Antium at the time of the fire's outbreak), stated that \"to get rid of the report, Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called Christians [or Chrestians by the populace\" (Tacit. \"Annals\" XV, see Tacitus on Jesus). Suetonius, later to the period, does not mention any persecution after the fire, but in a previous paragraph unrelated to the fire, mentions punishments inflicted on Christians, defined as men following a new and malefic superstition. Suetonius however does not specify the reasons for the punishment, he just listed the fact together with other abuses put down by Nero.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36435268",
"title": "New Testament household code",
"section": "Section::::Historical setting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 883,
"text": "BULLET::::- In 64 AD, the Great Fire of Rome destroyed over seventy percent of Rome. A rumor had gone forth which accused Nero of starting the fire himself, and that he had even sung a song from his Palace tower as he watched the flames engulf the city. At that time Christians were a rather obscure religious sect with a small following in the city. To \"suppress this rumor\" according to Tacitus, Nero blamed the Christians and killed a “vast multitude” of them as scapegoats. Nero supported widespread persecution of Christians, including having his victims fed to the lions during giant spectacles held in the city's remaining amphitheater. He took pleasure in the Christian persecutions and even offered many of them upon stakes to be burned to death as torches for his parties. Many others of them were sewn into skins of animals and fed to starving dogs while the mob cheered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "318348",
"title": "Quo Vadis (novel)",
"section": "Section::::Historical events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 690,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, which in the novel is started by orders of Nero. There is no hard evidence to support this, and fires were very common in Rome at the time. In Chapter 50, senior Jewish community leaders advise Nero to blame the fires on Christians; there is no historical record of this either. The fire opens space in the city for Nero's palatial complex, a massive villa with lush artificial landscapes and a 30-meter-tall sculpture of the emperor, as well as an ambitious urban planning program involving the creation of buildings decorated with ornate porticos and the widening of the streets (a redesign which is not implemented until after Nero's death).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3y4ilm
|
why do so many great mma fighters have multiple losses on their record compared to boxers?
|
[
{
"answer": "There's more ways to lose in mma. Boxing is more technical and skill makes a bigger difference than blind luck. Also, politics. Most boxers with only a few losses compared to wins have some very questionable decisions in their favor",
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},
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"answer": "Part of it is the infrastructure of the sport. UFC is now head and shoulders above any other MMA promoter, so they got most of the best fighters and make them fight each other. In boxing, there are 4 organizations giving out belts, and each fighter has his own promoter. Boxing matchups become business decisions instead of \"what's best for the sport\" decisions, because so many people want a piece of the pie. The UFC has control over it's own pie because the fighters need to come to them to compete against the best",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "A couple of reasons:\n\n1) MMA is more physically tolling on the body. Even in training, you get hit, get slammed and get submissions put on you. More parts of the body are involved so there are more places to get injured. You are pretty much safe below the belt in boxing and don't have to worry about falling unless you get knocked out. You have to worry about both of these things in MMA.\n\n2) It depends on who you consider \"a great\" and when you consider them one. Anderson Silva didn't lose between 2007-2012. Fedor didn't truly lose from 2000-2009. GSP only lost twice from 2002-2013. Fedor's now lost multiple times, but it doesn't make his original run any less.\n\n3) With UFC being the only real show in town right now and MMA matchups being booked by a company, and not individual promoters, it's hard to duck and dodge the best competition like boxers do. Boxers don't really have to face anyone they don't want as it's more on individual drawing power, while UFC is a full company. UFC will be around if say Rhonda Rousey leaves. Random boxing promoter may not be if his man leaves.\n\n4) UFC and MMA have a lot less weight classes than boxing. There are 17 boxing weight classes right now. UFC has 8. That means the better talent is less spread out and you have a lesser chance of getting by on favorable matchups than skill.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Adding to other answers, MMA is also a relatively new sport and is constantly evolving. It is difficult to stay at the top for a long time when new fighters come along with different skills, and training built on the experience of others.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Short and indirect answer: There are far more boxers, historically but also today, than MMA fighters. \n\nDetailed answer: More competitors means more chances to pile up easy wins. Almost every famous boxer has not just a good record, but a lopsided record. *Ring* magazine's [top 10 pound-for-pound boxers](_URL_1_) are a combined 333-9-7. \n\nThat's because they all spent their early years fighting grossly outclassed boxers who probably ended up quitting shortly thereafter. \n\nTake the top boxer in the world, 44-0 [Roman Gonzalez.](_URL_0_) Here are the career records of the first few guys he faced, in chronological order: \n\n* 0-6-1\n* 1-7\n* 0-3\n* 14-12-2\n* 3-13\n* 9-17\n* 5-23-3\n* 5-23-3 (same guy)\n\nYou get the idea. If there were fewer boxers - i.e., if the bottom level of boxers didn't exist - the great ones' records wouldn't be so lopsided.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Can't duck talented fighters when you're the champ. Also there's many ways to win a fight and no one fighter is the best at wrestling, judo, jiu jutsu, kickboxing, boxing, sambo etc etc. Anyone can get caught by a superman punch or armbar, no one stays on top forever. It's understood that you don't have to be undefeated to be an excellent fighter. \n\nAlso no high level MMA organization gets away with putting tomato cans against top fighters. Top ranked fighters generally fight top ranked fighters, it's rare to see top 10 fighters against loosing record nobodies. A popular up & coming fighter may rack up several easy wins on the amatuer or C list shows but A list organizations have little reason to prop up a fighter. The best fights are battles, not one fighter outclassing another all fight. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "8747663",
"title": "Riddick Bowe Boxing",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Career mode.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
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"text": "During career mode, all of the attributes are increased by allotted training bonuses. As the boxer progresses from match to match, his statistics start to fade. After 35 fights, his hair turns from normal to grey. Finally after 40 fights, the player is forced to retire even if he or she has never beaten the champion. Losing two fights in a row will also cause the player to retire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "3919149",
"title": "Ladder tournament",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 952,
"text": "The Ultimate Fighting Championship considers its official rankings (decided by a media pool, based on match results) when matchmaking, though not strictly. Due to the high incidence of training injuries, unranked or low-ranked replacement fighters often compete higher up the ladder than they otherwise would. This is also (more rarely, usually on pay-per-view) done for promotional reasons, when a big name or rivalry makes a low-ranked fighter the more marketable option. Sometimes no similarly-ranked opponents are available, and a fighter may risk losing their spot to a low-ranked one just to stay busy. Winners are interviewed after fights, and all fighters are required to use Twitter. Challenges through these avenues (and others) are encouraged. Though not binding, a publicly agreed fight usually occurs as soon as practical. Rematches are generally disallowed, excepting some championship bouts and others ending in controversial decisions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4283645",
"title": "Professional boxing",
"section": "Section::::History.:Modern history.:2000 to present.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "Interest in the lower weight divisions further increased with the possibility of a superfight between two of the current best fighters in the world, Manny Pacquiao and Floyd Mayweather, Jr. Experts predicted this would break current pay-per-view records, due to the tremendous public demand for the fight. Long negotiations finally culminated in the Mayweather-Pacquiao fight on May 2, 2015, six years after negotiation first began and resulted in estimated revenues of $450,000,000.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "228344",
"title": "Mixed martial arts",
"section": "Section::::Safety.:Mental health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 233,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 233,
"end_character": 741,
"text": "In preliminary results reported in April 2012 as part of an ongoing study of a 109 professional boxers and MMA fighters being conducted by Dr. Charles Bernick and his colleagues at Cleveland Clinic's Lou Ruvo Center for Brain Health, fighters with more than six years of ring experience were observed to have reductions in size in their hippocampus and thalamus, while fighters with more than twelve years of ring experience were observed to have both reductions in size and symptoms such as memory loss (the hippocampus and thalamus deal with memory and alertness). Dr. Bernick speculates that the cumulative damage over time from lesser blows may eventually prove an even more important topic of study than that of infrequent concussions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "11376465",
"title": "Foes of Ali",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "The boxers in the game reflect characteristics of the real-life fighters who they are based upon. For example, Henry Cooper, who had a tendency to get cut easily in real life, receives cuts after taking fewer punches than other fighters. Similarly, reflecting the fact that George Chuvalo was renowned for his ability to take punches (he was not once knocked down in his career), it is physically impossible to knock him down in the game (even if the player continuously punches him in the stomach for 15 rounds).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "19525",
"title": "Muay Thai",
"section": "Section::::Child boxers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "The Advanced Diagnostic Imaging Centre (AIMC) at Ramathibodi Hospital studied 300 child boxers aged under 15 with two to more than five years of experience, as well as 200 children who do not box. The findings show that child boxers not only sustain brain injuries, they also have a lower IQ, about 10 points lower than average levels. Moreover, IQ levels correlate with the length of their training. Beyond brain damage, the death of young fighters in the ring sometimes occurs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "7493548",
"title": "Travis Fulton",
"section": "Section::::Mixed martial arts career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "While posting a winning record, the next few years were dogged by losses to up-and-coming fighters that went on to become top-level UFC fighters, such as Renato Sobral, Ricco Rodriguez, Evan Tanner, Dan Severn, Rich Franklin, Forrest Griffin, Ian Freeman, Jeremy Horn, Branden Lee Hinkle, and Ben Rothwell.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
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] | null |
3l6371
|
How come soldiers in Mesoamerica and Japan didn't make widespread use of larger shields like in Eurasia?
|
[
{
"answer": "Define large.\n\nIn Mesoamerica, different shield designs were used at various points in time. Ross Hassig talks about changes in Mesoamerican shield design in his book *War and Society in Ancient Mesoamerica*. \n\nThe Central Mexican city of Teotihuacan, which fell some 500 years before the Aztec empire arose, appears to have used rectangular shields. The most famous depiction of these can be found on the Teotihuacano soldiers depicted in [Tikal Stela 31](_URL_1_). Given the way this shield is carried, it appears to have been made out of a flexible material and was likely more useful for deflecting glancing blows from projectiles rather than for melee combat. Because the material was likely flexible, it wouldn't have been practical to make them very large. Maya warriors during the Classic period were rarely depicted with shields. Those depictions that do exist typically show small rounded bucklers that are even smaller than these. A comparison of these two types of shields can be seen [in this image](_URL_0_). (With a caveat, the labels in that image are inaccurate, the different shield types correspond to regional differences not class distinctions). In contrast to the rectangular shields, the rounded shields appear to be rigid (likely made of wood), and were likely designed to deflect blows from clubs.\n\nThe rounded shield that you see in [most depictions of Aztec soldiers](_URL_2_) was largely prominent during the Postclassic period (c. 900 AD to conquest). This shield design appears to gain prominence in Mesoamerican armies about the same time as the macuahuitl, a sword-like weapon made of wood and obsidian. The rigid portion of this shield was as large, if not larger, than the metal shields carried by the conquistadors. However, as you can see in the image, it also had a feather fringe on the outside that, like the flexible shields used by Classic Period Central Mexican soldiers, was likely designed to deflect glancing blows from projectiles. If the fringe is considered part of the shield, they were actually quite large.\n\nWhat you're probably asking though is why they didn't develop the large tower shields like the kinds you frequently see in movies depicting Roman legions. I can only speculate, but it's likely that those kinds of shields were designed for a different kind of combat. As Hassig explains (and as I've tried to explain above), Mesoamerican shields were typically designed to either deflect indirect hits from projectiles and/or for hand-to-hand combat between individual combatants. Tight formations of spearmen (like a *phalanx*) were not frequently employed in most Mesoamerican armies (with the possible exception of some Central Mexican armies during the Classic Period). If the old adage that \"form follows function\" holds true, it could be that such a design simply wasn't necessary given the tactics used by Mesoamerican armies. It's also possible that such a shield design would not be as effective with materials other than iron, which the Mesoamericans did not have.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I've written a brief outline as to why the Japanese didn't use shields in [this comment](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "41698",
"title": "Shield",
"section": "Section::::Development of shields.:Post-classical history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
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"text": "During the 19th century, non-industrial cultures with little access to guns were still using war shields. Zulu warriors carried large lightweight shields called Ishlangu made from a single ox hide supported by a wooden spine. This was used in combination with a short spear (assegai) and/or club.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "41698",
"title": "Shield",
"section": "Section::::Development of shields.:Post-classical history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "In Italy, the targa, parma and rotella were used by common people, fencers and even knights. The development of plate armour made shields less and less common as it eliminated the need for a shield. Lightly armoured troops continued to use shields after men-at-arms and knights ceased to use them. Shields continued in use even after gunpowder powered weapons made them essentially obsolete on the battlefield. In the 18th century, the Scottish clans used a small, round targe that was partially effective against the firearms of the time, although it was arguably more often used against British infantry bayonets and cavalry swords in close-in fighting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "41698",
"title": "Shield",
"section": "Section::::Development of shields.:Ancient history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 1516,
"text": "Size and weight varied greatly. Lightly armored warriors relying on speed and surprise would generally carry light shields (\"pelte\") that were either small or thin. Heavy troops might be equipped with robust shields that could cover most of the body. Many had a strap called a guige that allowed them to be slung over the user's back when not in use or on horseback. During the 14th–13th century BC, the Sards or Shardana, working as mercenaries for the Egyptian pharaoh Ramses II, utilized either large or small round shields against the Hittites. The Mycenaean Greeks used two types of shields: the \"figure-of-eight\" shield and a rectangular \"tower\" shield. These shields were made primarily from a wicker frame and then reinforced with leather. Covering the body from head to foot, the figure-of-eight and tower shield offered most of the warrior's body a good deal of protection in head-to-head combat. The Ancient Greek hoplites used a round, bowl-shaped wooden shield that was reinforced with bronze and called an \"aspis\". Another name for this type of shield is a \"hoplon\". The hoplon shield inspired the name for hoplite soldiers. The hoplon was also the longest-lasting and most famous and influential of all of the ancient Greek shields. The Spartans used the aspis to create the Greek phalanx formation. Their shields offered protection not only for themselves but for their comrades to their left. Examples of Germanic wooden shields circa 350 BC – 500 AD survive from weapons sacrifices in Danish bogs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "48407885",
"title": "Military of Mycenaean Greece",
"section": "Section::::Weaponry.:Shields.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
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"text": "Early Mycenaean armies used \"tower shields\", large shields that covered almost the entire body. However, with the introduction of bronze armor, this type was less utilized, even if it didn't completely go into disuse, as attested in iconography. \"Figure-of-eight\" shields became the most common type of Mycenaean shields. These shields were made of several layers of bull-hide and in some cases they were reinforced with bronze plates. During the later Mycenaean period, smaller types of shields were adopted. They were either of completely circular shape, or almost circular with a cut-out part from their lower edge. These were made of several layers of leather with a bronze boss and reinforcements. They occasionally appear to have been made entirely of bronze.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1717625",
"title": "Oyo Empire",
"section": "Section::::History.:Military.:Infantry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
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"text": "Infantry in the region around the Oyo Empire was uniform in both armour and armament. All infantry in the region carried shields, swords and lances of one type or another. Shields were four feet tall and two feet wide and made of elephant or ox hide. A heavy sword was the main armament for close combat. The Yoruba and their neighbours used triple barbed javelins which could be thrown accurately from about 30 paces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "41698",
"title": "Shield",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
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"text": "Often shields were decorated with a painted pattern or an animal representation to show their army or clan. These designs developed into systematized heraldic devices during the High Middle Ages for purposes of battlefield identification. Even after the introduction of gunpowder and firearms to the battlefield, shields continued to be used by certain groups. In the 18th century, for example, Scottish Highland fighters liked to wield small shields known as targes, and as late as the 19th century, some non-industrialized peoples (such as Zulu warriors) employed them when waging war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "41698",
"title": "Shield",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
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"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 760,
"text": "Shields vary greatly in size and shape, ranging from large panels that protect the user's whole body to small models (such as the buckler) that were intended for hand-to-hand-combat use. Shields also vary a great deal in thickness; whereas some shields were made of relatively deep, absorbent, wooden planking to protect soldiers from the impact of spears and crossbow bolts, others were thinner and lighter and designed mainly for deflecting blade strikes. Finally, shields vary greatly in shape, ranging in roundness to angularity, proportional length and width, symmetry and edge pattern; different shapes provide more optimal protection for infantry or cavalry, enhance portability, provide secondary uses such as ship protection or as a weapon and so on.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1q3khx
|
why, as an adult, i take the same amount of cough syrup or other medicines as a 12 year old when i am heavier and more physically mature?
|
[
{
"answer": "The dosage is just what they know is safe but still effective generally. If you feel like the recommended dosage is insufficient you can go above. Of course if something goes wrong you can't sue the company because you went against recommendations, and you didn't hear it from me that it should be safe, but for the very reason of lawsuits the recommended dosage is already a bit conservative. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Coating-action aside, some medication dosage is tied to metabolic activity rather than body weight. When a kid's body is mature enough to fully metabolize medication, they're ready for the adult dose. In between age 12 or so and geriatric age, and barring some factor like liver disease, one's ability to metabolize meds doesn't change much even though your weight might. Caveat & disclaimer: I'm not a health professional-- this is just paraphrasing what my kid's pediatrician told us. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As an adult you could always, you know, just take more than instructed. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "613640",
"title": "Upper respiratory tract infection",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Over-the-counter cough medicine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "No good evidence exists for or against the effectiveness of over-the-counter cough medications for reducing coughing in adults or children. Children under 2 years old should not be given any type of cough or cold medicine due to the potential for life-threatening side effects. In addition, according to the American Academy of Pediatrics, the use of cough medicine to relieve cough symptoms should be avoided in children under 4 years old, and the safety is questioned for children under 6 years old.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4572582",
"title": "Childhood obesity",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.:Dietary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "Calorie-rich drinks and foods are readily available to children. Consumption of sugar-laden soft drinks may contribute to childhood obesity. In a study of 548 children over a 19-month period the likelihood of obesity increased 1.6 times for every additional soft drink consumed per day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22848611",
"title": "Elevated alkaline phosphatase",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "Normally, children and adolescents have higher Alkaline Phosphatase levels than adults due to an increase in bone growth. ALP is especially high during a period of growth spurt which occurs are different ages in boys and girls.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9339120",
"title": "Magnesium citrate",
"section": "Section::::Use and dosage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 627,
"text": "As a laxative syrup with a concentration of 1.745 g of magnesium citrate per fluid ounce, a typical dose for adults and children twelve years or older is between , followed immediately with a full glass of water. Consuming an adult dose of 10 oz of laxative syrup (@ 1.745 g/oz) implies a consumption of 17.45 g of magnesium citrate in a single 10 oz dose resulting in a consumption of approximately 2.0 g of elemental magnesium per single dose. This laxative dose contains five times the recommended nutritional dose for children. Magnesium citrate is not recommended for use in children and infants two years of age or less.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1140141",
"title": "Water intoxication",
"section": "Section::::Risk factors.:Low body mass (infants).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "It can be very easy for children under one year old to absorb too much water, especially if the child is under nine months old. Because of their small body mass, it is easy for them to take in a large amount of water relative to body mass and total body sodium stores.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39164260",
"title": "Sweetened beverage",
"section": "Section::::Health implications of sugar sweetened beverages.:Milk vs sweetened beverage consumption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1310,
"text": "Research has demonstrated when school aged children (3–7 yrs. Of age) are given the choice of choosing milk or sweetened beverages at lunch time, they tend to choose the sweetened beverages. This has major health implications for children, as nutrition is essential for proper development. Studies have shown sugar sweetened beverages displace important nutrients such as iron and calcium which result in deficiency-related conditions. For example, iron deficiency can result in nerve impulse delay. Children who do not consume the appropriate amount of calcium into their daily diets have lower calcium consumption as they get older. In contrast, as they get older, their intake of sugary beverages increases. Many children grow to have a level of intolerance to milk and another significant percentage grow to not like the taste of milk.[6] Insufficient levels of calcium throughout adolescence is a precursor for osteoporosis and even obesity in some cases. Maternal consumption of milk can influence children's consumption. A study of 9 year old girls and calcium consumption reported those who met the average recommended intake (AI) for calcium consumed almost twice as much milk and less sweetened beverages (18%) had mothers who drank milk more frequently than those who were under the AI for calcium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53951",
"title": "Diarrhea",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Fluids.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "Drinks especially high in simple sugars, such as soft drinks and fruit juices, are not recommended in children under 5 years of age as they may \"increase\" dehydration. A too rich solution in the gut draws water from the rest of the body, just as if the person were to drink sea water. Plain water may be used if more specific and effective ORT preparations are unavailable or are not palatable. Additionally, a mix of both plain water and drinks perhaps too rich in sugar and salt can alternatively be given to the same person, with the goal of providing a medium amount of sodium overall. A nasogastric tube can be used in young children to administer fluids if warranted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1aq961
|
Did WW2 had any cultural impact on arts or music in Europe?
|
[
{
"answer": "Huge, post modernism was in part a reaction to the world wars and the changes they brought. \n\nIn Europe the grief was palpable, imagine if 20% of your population died. It made many artists think that any attempt at meaning or beauty was hopeless and futile in the face of such horror. \n\nIt was really shattering to many Europeans that their great and respectable culture, where people where supposed to be civilized and intellectual had produced such immense hatred, death and destruction. \n\nI think Theodor Adorno summed up the feeling best, \n\n > To write poetry after Auschwitz is barbaric.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8774155",
"title": "Society for Ethnomusicology",
"section": "Section::::History of SEM.:Before 1953.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "These works are a few of the examples of some of the musical thought taking place at the turn of the century. However, many European thinkers found fewer resources and more censorship with the incoming Second World War. In response, Charles Seeger helped found the American Society for Comparative Musicology to house the number of musicologists fleeing the rise of Nazi Germany.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3980112",
"title": "Role of music in World War II",
"section": "Section::::German songs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "Therefore, the best that can be understood about German Music during the war is the official Nazi government policy, the level of enforcement, and some notion of the diversity of other music listened to, but as the losers in the war German Music and Nazi songs from World War II has not been assigned the high heroic status of American and British popular music. As the music itself goes, however, it is considered by many as being above the level of the latter, which is also true of Fascist Italian music of the time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "411039",
"title": "Music history of the United States in the 1950s",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "Many musical styles flourished and combined in the 1940s and 1950s, most likely because of the influence of radio had in creating a mass market for music. World War II caused great social upheaval, and the music of this period shows the effects of that upheaval.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3980112",
"title": "Role of music in World War II",
"section": "Section::::German songs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "Also a subtle factor of history makes gaining a reliable picture of the music of Germany more difficult than among the Allies. World War II in the English speaking world is usually remembered as a great triumph and the music is often performed with a sense of pride. Therefore, over time the collective consciousness of this period's music has become stronger. In Germany, World War II is generally seen as a shameful period; it would be difficult to imagine a band playing 'all the old favorites' of World War II in a public place.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25808822",
"title": "Hans Baluschek",
"section": "Section::::Life.:Development during World War I (1914–1918).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "The First World War had a profound influence on the arts scene in Berlin and on individual artists. Germany's declaration of war on Russia and France led to a release of pent-up tensions that had been building for decades due to strained international relations and repeated crises.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "244795",
"title": "Music of Germany",
"section": "Section::::Classical music.:20th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 730,
"text": "In West Germany in the second half of the 20th century, German and Austrian music was largely dominated by the avant-garde. In the 60s and 70s, the Darmstadt New Music Summer School was a major center of European modernism; German composers such as Karlheinz Stockhausen and Hans Werner Henze and non-German ones such as Pierre Boulez and Luciano Berio all studied there. In contrast, composers in East Germany were advised to avoid the avant-garde and to compose music in keeping with the tenets of Socialist Realism. Music written in this style was supposed to advance party politics as well as be more accessible to all. Hanns Eisler and Ernst Hermann Meyer were among the most famous of the first generation of GDR composers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "330217",
"title": "Contemporary classical music",
"section": "Section::::History.:1945–75.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 818,
"text": "To some extent, European and the US traditions diverged after World War II. Among the most influential composers in Europe were Pierre Boulez, Luigi Nono, and Karlheinz Stockhausen. The first and last were both pupils of Olivier Messiaen. An important aesthetic philosophy as well as a group of compositional techniques at this time was serialism (also called \"through-ordered music\", \"'total' music\" or \"total tone ordering\"), which took as its starting point the compositions of Arnold Schoenberg and Anton Webern (but was opposed to traditional twelve-tone music), and was also closely related to Le Corbusier's idea of the \"modulor\". However, some more traditionally based composers such as Dmitri Shostakovich and Benjamin Britten maintained a tonal style of composition despite the prominent serialist movement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
21vj3f
|
When and why did golf become the default "upper-class hangout/dealmaking" activity? What filled that role before?
|
[
{
"answer": "In ancient Persia, there was quite an exciting sport that we've been able to reconstruct from artistic depictions, and also the preserved fragments from the ancient Persian *On the art of entertaining officials*, an important handbook for satraps and other royal officials. Whenever a group of royal officials were seriously bored, they would first locate a cliff, or a mountain. They would also bring with them a large herd of camels, and then send down observers to the bottom of the mountain (this being pretty important for what followed). Each noble would then choose a camel. The camel would be strapped into a harness, and then attached to a large brightly coloured canvas. And when I say large, I mean several metres wingspan. Then the camels would, one by one, be forced to run off the edge of the mountain or cliff. They would quite literally hang-glide from there to the bottom, and the competition was won by noble whose camel travelled the greatest distance. Camel harnesses breaking was a big problem, which is why there were so many brought up the hill. It seems to have been a pretty obscure sport in the rest of Persia, all told, but nobles seem to have loved sending camels hang-gliding off cliffs.\n\nA reconstruction of the hang-gliders for camels can be found in Samuel P Langley's papers, currently stored in the Smithsonian Institution Archives; the man simply insisted on attempting to recreate one. A more recent and direct look at the subject can be found in Louis Nockton-Draffer's *The Persian Funeral Glider: Reconstruction and experiential perspectives*, presented at the 7th Experimental Archeology Conference in Cardiff\n\n[WARNING THIS IS TOTALLY A JOKE NONE OF THIS IS REAL. READ MOD NOTE HERE](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm under the impression that hunting and fishing were the go-to outdoors activities for upper-class men prior to the 18th century or so. I'm not historian of sport, so I can't comment on this in any great detail, but the sheer number of hunting scenes that one sees in early modern art suggests something about the role that organized hunting played in the social and cultural lives of the aristocrats who were the patrons of the arts. \n\nAlso, it's my understanding that until the later 19th century, golf was not widely-known or widely-played outside it's land of origin, Scotland. I would speculate that the rise in popularity of golf might be somehow related to the well-documented \"Celtic Revival\" cultural movements of 19th-century Britain, that saw a romantiscation of the lives and histories of previously-marginal peoples of the peripheries of the Britain -- it is this period that gives us the modern conceptions of King Arthur, Welsh bards, and Scottish Highlanders (complete with kilts and claymores).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some people seem to misunderstand the question, so I'll clarify. I mean that today, if some executives want to talk about a deal in an informal setting, get to know other executives, or network while doing something, that \"something\" will often be golf.\n\nI am not asking why poor people don't also golf, because the land requirements obviously make it hard for non-rich to have a golf course.\n\nI am asking why the rich use THIS as a hangout activity, instead of, say, tennis or poker.\n\nI mean they can do that too, but golf seems to have become the main hangout activity to the point where it's nearly required to have golf skills to be an executive.\n\nAlso seems to have permeated military officer's culture, [if this recent news article on military golf courses](_URL_0_) is any indication.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the UK Golf is not an upper class thin but rather a lower middle class pastime. Quite often local business life was organised around the golf club, which was normally quite a modest affair. That is not to say that rich people do not play Golf, the Duke of Devon is a fanatical golfer but the amount of people that play in the established middle classes is nearly nil. How it became an exclusively hoighty-toighty affair in the USA I have no idea. \n\nAs for what powerful people did before, hunting was the thing. Nothing like blasting grouse or pheasant all over the place with a blunderbuss and then going back to a country house and getting plastered and then going out and doing it again the next day. Boar as well, before the aristocracy hunted them to extinction, and hawking which was a more ladylike pastime which women could take part in. \n\nThere were of course other things like the Reform club, literary salons, and just informal gatherings at peoples houses.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "478756",
"title": "Salaryman",
"section": "Section::::Social image.:Entertainment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "Golf became widely popular during the economic bubble, when golf club passes became useful tools for currying favor with corporate executives. Many mid-level salarymen were pressured into taking up golf to participate in golfing events with their superiors. The collapse of the economic bubble led to the closing of many golf courses, and the ritual of playing golf with executives has become increasingly rare. However, some current salarymen may have golfing experience from their student days, and golf is still acknowledged as an expensive hobby for salarymen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5265384",
"title": "Rules of golf",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "Before the rules of golf were standardised golf clubs commonly had their own set of rules, which while broadly the same had subtle differences, such as allowing for the removal of loose impediments, e.g. leaves and small stones. In the late 19th century, most clubs began to align themselves with either the Society of St. Andrews Golfers, later the R&A, or the Gentlemen Golfers of Leith, later the Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1524010",
"title": "Professional Golfers' Association (Great Britain and Ireland)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "During the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s, the advent of the Ryder Cup, new golf heroes such as Walter Hagen, Gene Sarazen and Henry Cotton, all helped golf's popularity and reinforced the PGA's position as a leading golf organisation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19356318",
"title": "MacGregor Golf",
"section": "Section::::History.:Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "Golf shafts of the early 20th century being made of wood rather than the metal, fiberglass, and other materials of today, in 1897 the company made the transition from footwear lasts to clubmaking, becoming one of the first American manufacturers of golf clubs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4144156",
"title": "History of golf",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "The origins of golf are unclear and much debated. However, it is generally accepted that modern golf developed in Scotland from the Middle Ages onwards. The game did not find international popularity until the late 19th century, when it spread into the rest of the United Kingdom and then to the British Empire and the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4991705",
"title": "Par (score)",
"section": "Section::::Hole scores.:Bogey.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "As golf became more standardised in the United States, par scores were tightened and recreational golfers found themselves scoring over par, with bogey changing meaning to one-over-par. Bogeys are relatively common, even in professional play, and very common for many casual and club players.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12668665",
"title": "Obsolete golf clubs",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "Early golf clubs were all made of wood. They were hand-crafted, often by the players themselves, and had no standard shape or form. As the sport of golf developed, a standard set of clubs began to take shape, with different clubs being fashioned to perform different tasks and hit various types of shot. Later, as more malleable iron became widely used for shorter-range clubs, an even wider variety of clubs became available.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
204kws
|
When Canada changed its flag, what did they do with all the old ones?
|
[
{
"answer": "There's never been any legislation covering flag disposal in Canada. The rules of Flag Etiquette are laid out in a [publication by the Department of Canadian Heritage](_URL_0_) and the rule for disposal is pretty vague. It just says that old flags \"should be destroyed in a dignified way.\" But of course that's just the rule as it stands today. The [Flags of the World website](_URL_1_) suggests that this regulation didn't exist until the 1970s or 1980s, well after the 1965 switchover. In the Navy, for example, old ensigns were often turned into polishing rags. Not quite the respectful disposal one might expect.\n\nOn top of there being no general rule for flag disposal at the time, there were no specific instructions for the flags that got lowered in 15 Feb 1965 (at least none that were made public that I'm aware of). Given all that, I don't think we can really say what happened to all the old Red Ensigns. I do know that the last Red Ensign flown over Parliament is currently in the collection of the Canadain Musuem of History though. You can see a picture of it if you [scroll down this page here](_URL_2_).\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "97066",
"title": "Flag of Canada",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early flags.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1243,
"text": "Shortly after Canadian Confederation in 1867, the need for distinctive Canadian flags emerged. The first Canadian flag was that then used as the flag of the Governor General of Canada, a Union Flag with a shield in the centre bearing the quartered arms of Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick surrounded by a wreath of maple leaves. In 1870 the Red Ensign, with the addition of the Canadian composite shield in the fly, began to be used unofficially on land and sea and was known as the \"Canadian Red Ensign\". As new provinces joined the Confederation, their arms were added to the shield. In 1892, the British admiralty approved the use of the Red Ensign for Canadian use at sea. The composite shield was replaced with the coat of arms of Canada upon its grant in 1921 and, in 1924, an Order in Council approved its use for Canadian government buildings abroad. In 1925, Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King established a committee to design a flag to be used at home, but it was dissolved before the final report could be delivered. Despite the failure of the committee to solve the issue, public sentiment in the 1920s was in favour of fixing the flag problem for Canada. New designs were proposed in 1927, 1931, and 1939.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "97066",
"title": "Flag of Canada",
"section": "Section::::Origins and design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "By proclaiming the Royal Arms of Canada, King George V in 1921 made red and white the official colours of Canada; the former came from Saint George's Cross and the latter from the French royal emblem since King Charles VII. These colours became \"entrenched\" as the national colours of Canada upon the proclamation of the Royal Standard of Canada (the Canadian monarch's personal flag) in 1962. The Department of Canadian Heritage has listed the various colour shades for printing ink that should be used when reproducing the Canadian flag; these include:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1625931",
"title": "National Flag of Canada Day",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "Amid much controversy, the Maple Leaf flag replaced the Canadian Red Ensign, which had been, with various successive alterations, in conventional use as a Canadian national flag since 1868. Under the leadership of Prime Minister Lester Pearson, resolutions recommending the new flag were passed by the House of Commons on December 15, 1964, and by the Senate two days later. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1275514",
"title": "Canadian Red Ensign",
"section": "Section::::Provincial red ensigns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1197,
"text": "Today, two Canadian provincial flags are Red Ensigns, the flag of Ontario and the flag of Manitoba, both of which were introduced in 1965–66 after the Canadian Red Ensign was replaced by the Maple Leaf flag. The Liberal government of Lester Pearson promised to introduce a new flag to replace the Red Ensign, as a means of promoting national unity and a new Canadian identity, by replacing what was seen as a symbol of the British Empire and colonialism, with one that would be more inclusive of Canadians who are not of British descent, particularly French-Canadians. In 1965, after the Great Flag Debate in Parliament and throughout the country as a whole, the Maple Leaf flag was adopted. Groups such as the Royal Canadian Legion and others who had sympathies with maintaining Canada's links to the UK opposed the new flag as they saw it as a means of loosening that connection. The leader of the Progressive Conservative Party, John Diefenbaker, was especially passionate in his defence of the Red Ensign. In protest of the federal government's decision, Progressive Conservative governments in Ontario and Manitoba adopted red ensigns as their provincial flags in 1965 and 1966 respectively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "244053",
"title": "British ensign",
"section": "Section::::Canadian ensigns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "From about 1870, Canada unofficially used a Red Ensign with the arms of its provinces on one shield as its national flag (the Canadian Red Ensign). In 1924, an order-in-council made the flag official (for certain purposes) and replaced the provincial arms with the royal arms of Canada. The red ensign was replaced by the current red and white maple-leaf flag in 1965. In that same year, the provinces of Ontario and Manitoba adopted red ensigns defaced by their provincial arms as their provincial flags. (see Flag of Ontario and Flag of Manitoba)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2281420",
"title": "Great Canadian Flag Debate",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Lester B. Pearson.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "The Progressive Conservative government of the time, headed by Prime Minister John Diefenbaker, did not accept the invitation to establish a new Canadian flag, so Pearson made it Liberal Party policy in 1961, and part of the party's election platform in the 1962 and 1963 federal elections. During the election campaign of 1963, Pearson promised that Canada would have a new flag within two years of his election. No previous party leader had ever gone as far as Pearson did, by putting a time limit on finding a new national flag for Canada. The 1963 election brought the Liberals back to power, but with a minority government. In February 1964, a three-leaf design was leaked to the press.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1275514",
"title": "Canadian Red Ensign",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1477,
"text": "The original Canadian Red Ensign had the arms of the four founding provinces on its shield. However, in the late 19th and early 20th century, flag manufacturers would often supplement this design with wreaths of laurel and oak leaves and crowns. The design was frequently placed on a white background square, circle or roughly following the outline of the arms in the flag's fly (right hand side assuming the flagpole to be on the left). There was no standard design for the Red Ensign until the early 1920s. In 1921, the Government of Canada asked King George V to order a new coat of arms for Canada. The College of Arms thus designed a suitable coat of arms of Canada. The new shield was displayed on the Red Ensign, thus producing a new version of the Canadian Red Ensign in 1922. In 1924, the Red Ensign was approved for use on Canadian government buildings outside Canada. The Canadian Red Ensign, through history, tradition and custom was finally formalized on 5 September 1945, when the Governor General of Canada signed an Order-in-Council (P.C. 5888) which stated that \"The Red Ensign with the Shield of the Coat of arms in the fly (to be referred to as \"The Canadian Red Ensign\") may be flown from buildings owned or occupied by the Canadian federal Government within or without Canada shall be appropriate to fly as a distinctive Canadian flag.\" The flag was thus approved for use by government buildings inside Canada as well, and once again flew over Parliament.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4g0vkh
|
if gravity is actually the earth accelerating upwards and the earth is spherical, how can it accelerate upwards in all its surface?
|
[
{
"answer": "Did you get the bit where it mentioned frames of reference? Because that's what this is all about.\n\nNow, ignore the planet. Ignore all the big stuff around here. Ignore me, ignore you. We're going to talk about two tennis balls in deep space. They're just there, in space - they're not sitting on a table, they're not sitting on the ground. They're just there.\n\nNow, they're getting closer to each other. So, is it correct to say that:\n\n1. Ball A is moving towards B? \n1. Ball B is moving towards A? \n1. Both balls are moving towards each other?\n\nWell, it could be any of them. It depends on what you define as your frame of reference.\n\nIf you **decide** that B is stationary, then case 1 applies. If you decide that A is stationary, case 2 applies. If you decide that an invisible point in the middle of the two is stationary, 3 applies.\n\nThe thing is, we tend to think of the Earth as the be-all and end-all. It's big, it's kinda constant for most of us - it just sits there under our feet, not seeming to move.\n\nBut... what about the tennis ball example? We can decide which thing moves. If I hold a tennis ball above the Earth and let go, the same thing applies. I can **decide** whether the ball moves, the Earth moves, or both.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4387132",
"title": "Gravity of Earth",
"section": "Section::::Variation in direction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "Gravity acceleration is a vector quantity. In a spherically symmetric Earth, gravity would point directly towards the sphere's centre. As the Earth is slightly flatter, there are consequently slight deviations in the direction of gravity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "233636",
"title": "Spherical Earth",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "The Earth is massive enough that the pull of gravity created and maintains its roughly spherical shape. Most of its deviation from spherical stems from the centrifugal force caused by rotation around its north-south axis. This force deforms the sphere into an oblate ellipsoid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39789",
"title": "Rotation",
"section": "Section::::Astronomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "This rotation induces a centrifugal acceleration in the reference frame of the Earth which slightly counteracts the effect of gravity the closer one is to the equator. One effect is that an object weighs slightly less at the equator. Another is that the Earth is slightly deformed into an oblate spheroid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4387132",
"title": "Gravity of Earth",
"section": "Section::::Variation in magnitude.:Latitude.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "The surface of the Earth is rotating, so it is not an inertial frame of reference. At latitudes nearer the Equator, the outward centrifugal force produced by Earth's rotation is larger than at polar latitudes. This counteracts the Earth's gravity to a small degree – up to a maximum of 0.3% at the Equator – and reduces the apparent downward acceleration of falling objects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3690682",
"title": "Eötvös effect",
"section": "Section::::Physical explanation.:Explanation of the cosine in the first term.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "Because of its rotation, the Earth is not spherical in shape, there is an Equatorial bulge. The force of gravity is directed towards the center of the Earth. The normal force is perpendicular to the local surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51897037",
"title": "Normal gravity formula",
"section": "Section::::Normal gravity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "The acceleration due to gravity depends on the gravity of the mass, which rests inside of the object. The gravity decreases at longer distance between centers of mass. The acceleration due to gravity furthermore is influenced by the rotation of the earth. As centrifugal force increases at longer earth's axis distance, thus centrifugal force is highest at the equator and lowest the poles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "143023",
"title": "Equatorial bulge",
"section": "Section::::Differences in gravitational acceleration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "In summary, there are two contributions to the fact that the effective gravitational acceleration is less strong at the equator than at the poles. About 70 percent of the difference is contributed by the fact that objects circumnavigate the Earth's axis, and about 30 percent is due to the non-spherical shape of the Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dwmt46
|
what the hell did people think sports concussions were before?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well the expression for a concussion was usually something like \"he got his bell rung\" to explain the immediate symptoms of concussion. CTE is different that a concussion though. It is caused by many concussions over time, slowly building, as we understand it now, but is often seen later in life.\n\nSo a normal guy racks up a few concussions and recovers. Then 20 years later he has real mental health problems. There was no way for them to link it to the bell ringings he got in high school football. \n\nBasically they didnt realize these impacts and symptoms which would subside fairly quickly were having permenant impact on the brain.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It was hard to see the long term effects at first. You get \"your bell rung\" or concussion and you're fine a few days later and everything seems to have healed and you get back to it. It's only decades later that people start getting more aggressive and impulsive as a result of CTE. Might've been hard to connect the dots at first. I'm sure the NFL did their part to not release any information they had about the dangers of repeated concussions as well",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2122602",
"title": "Pop Warner Little Scholars",
"section": "Section::::Safety and brain health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "In the 2010s, there has been much controversy about football and brain health, with a number of studies focusing not just on the occasional concussion, but also on the large number of sub-concussive hits. One game in particular in 2012 resulted in five concussions. In 2015, a family sued Pop Warner over the suicide of a former player who was later found to have chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), claiming that the organization knew or should have known about the risk of head injuries. Several other lawsuits have been filed against Pop Warner for related cases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36082813",
"title": "Concussions in American football",
"section": "Section::::Concussions in other leagues.:Arena Football League.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 1248,
"text": "In the Arena Football League, despite the league's intense play, very few lawsuits have been filed for concussions. The most notable lawsuit against the league was a lawsuit filed by former Colorado Crush kicker Clay Rush in 2010, who claimed that he suffered from permanent brain damage due to repeated blows to the head during games. Like the NFL, the AFL prohibits players who suffered from concussions from practicing. In 2008, during the original league's final season, the \"Shockometer\" made its debut at two season-opening games (Dallas Desperados vs. Georgia Force/San Jose SaberCats vs. Chicago Rush) on 40 player helmets. The device is projected to sell for $30 if it is to become available on the market. The players that were given the device play positions that are suspectible to hard hits, such as wide receivers, defensive backs, running backs, and linebackers. AFL Players Association regional director James Guidry stated that the red light doesn't mean that the player has a concussion, but as a warning for team examiners to inspect the player. Guidry also said that the device could be used to prevent players who do not want to show any signs of weakness after sustaining any concussion-like symptoms from continuing to play.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36306767",
"title": "Concussions in sport",
"section": "Section::::Concussions in other sports.:Association football.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "Association football— also known as soccer— is a major source of sports-related concussions around the world. Even though 50-80% of injuries in football are directed to the legs, head injuries have been shown to account for between 4 and 22% of football injuries. There is the possibility that heading the ball could damage the head, as the ball can travel at 100 km/hour; although most professional footballers have reported that they experienced head injuries from colliding with other players and the ground. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "509648",
"title": "Perception management",
"section": "Section::::Athletics.:Training.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 125,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 125,
"end_character": 2709,
"text": "In the profession of athletic training there are many controversies, but none greater than the treatment and management of concussions. For many years people viewed concussions and big tackles in football games as athletes just \"getting their bell rung\" and coaches implored them to \"shake it off and get back in the game\". However, substantial research has shown that a concussion is a traumatic brain injury that may temporarily interfere with the way the brain works and can affect memory, judgment, reflexes, speech, balance, coordination and sleep patterns. A study from the National Center for Injury Prevention found that 47% of high school football players say they suffer a concussion each season, with 37% of those reporting multiple concussions in a season. Such serious injuries deserve appropriate attention to treatment and to prevention. With a concussion, function may be interrupted but there is no structural damage to the brain, so the physical examination often appears normal. The American College of Sports Medicine estimates that 85% of sports-related concussions go undiagnosed because athletes deny or fail to report symptoms and because subtle changes in brain function may not be obvious on a single examination. This May new standards for concussion management that were realized, and stated that if an athlete was involved in a play where a concussion was possible (a direct blow to the head), the athlete is supposed to be evaluated by a certified athletic trainer or a qualified physician if available. The new standards go on to say that if the athlete has any signs of a concussion, they are not able to return to play for the rest of the game or practice. According to the \"New York Times\", this seems like a good policy in theory, but with football season being over for a large majority of high schools (football having the highest risk of concussion), experts are finding that athletes have found ways to get around the standards, such as denying any concussion symptoms they are having, learning how to answer questions to hide any signs of concussion, or not saying anything about the possible concussion to the athletic trainer or physician working at the game. With these strategies, athletes put themselves at risk for the \"second concussion\", which can leave permanent brain damage and can even lead to death. Although in theory these new standards for concussions are great for significantly reducing the risk of missing symptoms that appear after 24 hours and preventing any further brain damage, but with athletes now hiding possible concussions from athletic trainers and physicians, these standards may actually have a negative effect on concussion management.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2909374",
"title": "Health issues in American football",
"section": "Section::::Injuries.:Catastrophic injuries and fatalities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 830,
"text": "Catastrophic injuries have been on a steady decline since the 1960s, due in part to rules banning dangerous forms of contact such as spearing, face tackling and butt blocking. However, catastrophic injuries are still caused by helmet-to-helmet collisions, as well when players hit their heads against an opposing player's knee or the ground. Returning to play after sustaining a head injury earlier in the game also places players at risk for an even more severe injury. Many states are requiring teams to prevent players who have shown any signs of a concussion from returning to a game, while other steps such as more aggressive enforcement of safety rules and better condition of the neck muscles have been suggested. Additionally, coaches are being urged to train players to block with their shoulders instead of their heads.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36306767",
"title": "Concussions in sport",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "The dangers of repeated concussions have long been known for boxers and wrestlers; a form of CTE common in these two sports, dementia pugilistica (DP), was first described in 1928. An awareness of the risks of concussions in other sports began to grow in the 1990s, and especially in the mid-2000s, in both the medical and the professional sports communities, as a result of studies of the brains of prematurely deceased American football players, who showed extremely high incidences of CTE (see concussions in American football).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36082813",
"title": "Concussions in American football",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "Concussions and other types of repetitive play-related head blows in American football have been shown to be the cause of chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), which has led to player deaths and other debilitating symptoms after retirement, including memory loss, depression, anxiety, headaches, and sleep disturbances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
afayf9
|
the brain is very important, and very complex and exists in a confined space; given that why is it that tumors in the brain are able to get so large before being noticed?
|
[
{
"answer": "The common symptoms of brain tumors are just that, common. Headaches, nausea, dizziness, and so on can be caused by a lot of other things and the symptoms themselves can come and go. It's usually once more serious symptoms appear or a pattern of symptoms is recognized that a patient undergo MRI.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37284",
"title": "Brain tumor",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "The signs and symptoms of brain tumors are broad. People may experience symptoms regardless of whether the tumor is benign (not cancerous) or cancerous. Primary and secondary brain tumors present with similar symptoms, depending on the location, size, and rate of growth of the tumor. For example, larger tumors in the frontal lobe can cause changes in the ability to think. However, a smaller tumor in an area such as Wernicke's area (small area responsible for language comprehension) can result in a greater loss of function.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37284",
"title": "Brain tumor",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Classification.:Secondary.:By behavior.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "BULLET::::- Primary brain tumors generally are invasive (i.e. they will expand spatially and intrude into the space occupied by other brain tissue and compress those brain tissues); however, some of the more malignant primary brain tumors will infiltrate the surrounding tissue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37284",
"title": "Brain tumor",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 740,
"text": "The cause of most brain tumors is unknown. Uncommon risk factors include exposure to vinyl chloride, Epstein–Barr virus, ionizing radiation, and inherited syndromes such as neurofibromatosis, tuberous sclerosis, and von Hippel-Lindau Disease. Studies on mobile phone exposure have not shown a clear risk. The most common types of primary tumors in adults are meningiomas (usually benign) and astrocytomas such as glioblastomas. In children, the most common type is a malignant medulloblastoma. Diagnosis is usually by medical examination along with computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The result is then often confirmed by a biopsy. Based on the findings, the tumors are divided into different grades of severity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2503722",
"title": "Cerebellar tentorium",
"section": "Section::::Clinical significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "Brain tumors are often characterized as supratentorial (above the tentorium) and infratentorial (below the tentorium). The location of the tumor can help in determining the type of tumor, as different tumors occur with different frequencies at each location. Additionally, most childhood primary brain tumors are infratentorial, while most adult primary brain tumors are supratentorial. The location of the tumor may have prognostic significance as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51606",
"title": "Causes of mental disorders",
"section": "Section::::Biological factors.:Injury and brain defects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 610,
"text": "Brain tumors are classified as either malignant and benign, and as intrinsic (directly infiltrate the parenchyma of the brain) or extrinsic (grows on the external surface of the brain and produces symptoms as a result of pressure on the brain tissue). Progressive cognitive changes associated with brain tumors may include confusion, poor comprehension, and even dementia. Symptoms tend to depend on the location of the tumor on the brain. For example, tumors on the frontal lobe tend to be associated with the symptoms of impairment of judgment, apathy, and loss of the ability to regulate/modulate behavior.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37284",
"title": "Brain tumor",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Location-specific symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "BULLET::::- Frontal lobe: Tumors may contribute to poor reasoning, inappropriate social behavior, personality changes, poor planning, lower inhibition, and decreased production of speech (Broca's area).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23955074",
"title": "Grading of the tumors of the central nervous system",
"section": "Section::::ICD-O scale.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "A brain tumor composed of benign cells, but located in a vital area (as the brain is), can be considered to be life-threatening — although the tumor and its cells would not be classified as malignant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2bjpmg
|
Can anyone tell me about a specific American flag?
|
[
{
"answer": "hi! it might be worth x-posting this question to the flag aficionados in /r/Vexillology",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11447",
"title": "Flag of the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 815,
"text": "The flag of the United States of America, often referred to as the American flag or U.S. flag, is the national flag of the United States. It consists of thirteen equal horizontal stripes of red (top and bottom) alternating with white, with a blue rectangle in the canton (referred to specifically as the \"union\") bearing fifty small, white, five-pointed stars arranged in nine offset horizontal rows, where rows of six stars (top and bottom) alternate with rows of five stars. The 50 stars on the flag represent the 50 states of the United States of America, and the 13 stripes represent the thirteen British colonies that declared independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain, and became the first states in the U.S. Nicknames for the flag include the Stars and Stripes, Old Glory, and the Star-Spangled Banner.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12461819",
"title": "Betsy Ross flag",
"section": "Section::::\"First Flag\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1051,
"text": "Canby's account and similar versions of the Betsy Ross tale often refer to this design as the \"first American flag,\" but there is no consensus on what the first U.S. flag looked like, nor who produced it. There were at least 17 flag makers and upholsterers who worked in Philadelphia during the time these early American flags were made. Margaret Manny is thought to have made the first Continental Colors (or Grand Union Flag), but there is no evidence to prove she also made the Stars and Stripes. Other flag makers of that period include Rebecca Young, Anne King, Cornelia Bridges, and flag painter William Barrett. Hugh Stewart sold a \"flag of the United Colonies\" to the Committee of Safety, and William Alliborne was one of the first to manufacture United States ensigns. Any flag maker in Philadelphia could have sewn the first American flag. Even according to Canby, there were other variations of the flag being made at the same time Ross was sewing the design that would carry her name. If true, there may not be one \"first\" flag, but many.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30859221",
"title": "History of the United States Congress",
"section": "Section::::The formative era (1780s–1820s).:Articles of Confederation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "For the 1783 Congress, the Governor of Maryland commissioned, John Shaw, a local cabinet maker, to create an American flag. The flag is slightly different from other designs of the time. The blue field extends over the entire height of the hoist. Shaw created two versions of the flag: one which started with a red stripe and another that started with a white one.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5112388",
"title": "History of the flags of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Maritime flags.:Ensigns.:National.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "Since 1777, the national ensign of the United States has also simultaneously served as its national flag. The current version is shown below; for previous versions, please see the section \"Historical progression of designs\" above.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "974923",
"title": "British Americans",
"section": "Section::::Cultural roots.:Continental Colours, 1775-1777.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "The Grand Union Flag is considered to be the first national flag of the United States. The design consisted of 13 stripes, red and white, representing the original Thirteen Colonies, the canton on the upper left-hand corner bearing the British Union Flag, the red cross of St. George of England with the white cross of St. Andrew of Scotland. The flag was first flown on December 2, 1775 by John Paul Jones (then a Continental Navy lieutenant) on the ship \"Alfred\" in Philadelphia).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "246996",
"title": "Flag of the Philippines",
"section": "Section::::History.:Current flag.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 651,
"text": "The original design of the flag adopted a mythical sun with a face influenced by The Republics of the Rio de la Plata Argentina, and Uruguay; a triangle, representing the Katipunan which inspired by the Eye of Providence in the Great Seal of the United States and the Masonic Triangle and which enshrined Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité; the stripes and colors derived from the American flag. The particular shade of blue of the original flag has been a source of controversy. Based on anecdotal evidence and the few surviving flags from the era, historians argue that the colors of the original flag was influenced by the flags of Cuba and Puerto Rico.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23493489",
"title": "Flag of the President of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Early presidential flags.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 901,
"text": "An 1848 British flag book by John William Norie, and also the 1853 \"The Illustrated London Geography\" by Joseph Guy, have similar illustrations of a flag labeled as being the U.S. president's flag. Neither book reveals any further information about this flag, and such a flag is not mentioned in the Army Institute of Heraldry's detailed page on presidential flags nor other books on the flag's history. The design is simply a version of the national coat of arms (i.e. the obverse of the Great Seal), which was a common motif for flags representing heads of state and also the same basic concept used in the later presidential flag of the Navy. Both depictions also use an arc of clouds for the crest, a style which was later (and still is) used on the presidential seal. The 1848 book shows a 26-star U.S. flag, which was in use from 1837 to 1845 (the depicted presidential flag also has 26 stars).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
11oyyv
|
openoffice vs. libreoffice (vs. microsoft office)
|
[
{
"answer": "I haven't used OpenOffice since the split, nor MS Office since before then, so I can't comment on the differences between them today. But I can give a little background on the split itself. \n \nOpenOffice used to be run by Sun. [In 2009 Oracle bought Sun](_URL_0_) and maintenance of OpenOffice became less of a priority - basically Oracle put it on the back burner. LibreOffice was created by the community in response to that, and a number of old OpenOffice contributors now work on LibreOffice instead, and many of the financial backers of the project also followed. \n \nOracle later donated OpenOffice to Apache, so now both software suites exist, and the short version is that LibreOffice is the spiritual successor to OpenOffice, and the new OpenOffice is essentially a completely new entity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "OO vs LO:\n\nOO was made by Sun with a huge community to develop it. When Oracle bought Sun in 2009, a large segment of the sevelopers weren't fana of Oracles plans for OO. So they \"forked\" the project (copied the code, changed the name, and ran it as a seperate project; this is very common in the realm of open-source software) into LO. Oracle eventually donated OO to Apache, so at this point its really just personal preference.\n\nOO/LO vs. MSO\n\nWell, the main difference is MSO is closed-source, commercial software, while OO/LO are open-source. They both do the same thing but in different ways. OO/LO is also free while MSO costs money to buy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "28981081",
"title": "LibreOffice",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "LibreOffice is available for a variety of computing platforms, including Microsoft Windows, macOS, and Linux (including a LibreOffice Viewer for Android), as well as in the form of an online office suite LibreOffice Online. It is the default office suite of most popular Linux distributions. It is the most actively developed free and open-source office suite, with approximately 50 times the development activity of Apache OpenOffice, the other major descendant of OpenOffice.org.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "954189",
"title": "NeoOffice",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "NeoOffice was the first OpenOffice.org fork to offer a native Mac OS X experience, with easier installation, better integration into the Mac OS X interface (pull-down menus at the top of the screen and familiar keyboard shortcuts, for example), use of Mac OS X's fonts and printing services without additional configuration, and integration with the Mac OS X clipboard and drag-and-drop functions. Subsequently, both LibreOffice and Apache OpenOffice followed NeoOffice's lead and implemented similarly native Mac OS X versions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28981081",
"title": "LibreOffice",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "LibreOffice uses the international ISO/IEC standard OpenDocument file format (ODF) as its native format to save documents for all of its applications. LibreOffice also supports the file formats of most other major office suites, including Microsoft Office, through a variety of import/export filters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "68227",
"title": "OpenOffice.org",
"section": "Section::::Forks and derivative software.:Active.:LibreOffice.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "Most Linux distributions promptly replaced OpenOffice.org with LibreOffice; Oracle Linux 6 also features LibreOffice rather than OpenOffice.org or Apache OpenOffice. The project rapidly accumulated developers, development effort and added features, the majority of outside OpenOffice.org developers having moved to LibreOffice. In March 2015, an LWN.net development comparison of LibreOffice with Apache OpenOffice concluded that \"LibreOffice has won the battle for developer participation\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28981081",
"title": "LibreOffice",
"section": "Section::::Features.:LibreOffice Basic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "LibreOffice Basic is a programming language similar to Microsoft Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) but based on StarOffice Basic. It is available in Writer, Calc and Base. It is used to write small programs known as \"macros\", with each macro performing a different task, such as counting the words in a paragraph.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32039577",
"title": "LibreOffice Writer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "LibreOffice Writer is the free and open-source word processor component of the LibreOffice software package and is a fork of OpenOffice.org Writer. Writer is a word processor similar to Microsoft Word and Corel's WordPerfect with many similar features, and file format compatibility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28981081",
"title": "LibreOffice",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "LibreOffice is a free and open-source office suite, a project of The Document Foundation. It was forked from OpenOffice.org in 2010, which was an open-sourced version of the earlier StarOffice. The LibreOffice suite comprises programs for word processing, the creation and editing of spreadsheets, slideshows, diagrams and drawings, working with databases, and composing mathematical formulae. It is available in 115 languages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
enpxss
|
- when you dent your car and the auto body shop uses filler to fill the dent, what are they using?
|
[
{
"answer": "Polyester resin/putty, sometimes mixed with fiberglass for extra strength. Bondo is a fairly common brand, and other brands are often referred to as \"bondo\" as a result.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "308765",
"title": "Case modding",
"section": "Section::::Less common modifications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "BULLET::::- Body filler: Body filler (or Bondo) is a two-part putty often used to fix dents in automobiles. Case modders use it to fill and sculpt their own creations. When mixed with a paste catalyst the filler hardens in a short period of time and can be sanded, ground or cut to a desired shape. An alternative system uses fiberglass resin (catalyzed with liquid hardener) and either fiberglass cloth or mat to fill holes and form shapes. Lacquer based Spot Putty is often used to fill smaller imperfections before the application of primer. Typically, a case modder uses a combination of these materials to obtain the desired result. This method is usually used on the front plastic bezel of a computer case to give it a new look.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53931174",
"title": "Wiped joint",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Car bodywork.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "An older technique for body filler on car bodywork, before the plastic age, was the use of body solder. This was a lead-based wiping technique to fill gaps and low spots in steel bodywork, by applying solder with a similar wiping technique and a wooden paddle. The solder used was of even lower tin content, around 10%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "216189",
"title": "Motor oil",
"section": "Section::::Packaging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "Motor oils were sold at retail in glass bottles, metal cans and metal/cardboard cans, before the advent of the current polyethylene plastic bottle, which began to appear in the early 1980s. Reusable spouts were made separately from the cans; with a piercing point like that of a can opener, these spouts could be used to puncture the top of the can and to provide an easy way to pour the oil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13069083",
"title": "Paintless dent repair",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "Paintless dent repair(PDR), also known as paintless dent removal, describes a method of removing minor dents from the body of a motor vehicle. A wide range of damage can be repaired using Paintless Dent Repair as long as the paint surface is intact. Paintless Dent Repair (PDR) may be used on both aluminum and steel panels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "383115",
"title": "Drink can",
"section": "Section::::Filling cans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 741,
"text": "Cans are filled before the top is crimped on. The filling and sealing operations need to be extremely fast and precise. The filling head centers the can using gas pressure, purges the air, and lets the drink flow down the sides of the can. The lid is placed on the can, and then crimped in two operations. A seaming head engages the lid from above while a seaming roller to the side curls the edge of the lid around the edge of the can body. The head and roller spin the can in a complete circle to seal all the way around. Then a pressure roller with a different profile drives the two edges together under pressure to make a gas-tight seal. Filled cans usually have pressurized gas inside, which makes them stiff enough for easy handling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "885375",
"title": "Lost-wax casting",
"section": "Section::::Casting jewellery and small parts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "The lost-wax process can be used with any material that can burn, melt, or evaporate to leave a mould cavity. Some automobile manufacturers use a lost-foam technique to make engine blocks. The model is made of polystyrene foam, which is placed into a casting flask, consisting of a cope and drag, which is then filled with casting sand. The foam supports the sand, allowing shapes that would be impossible if the process had to rely on the sand alone. The metal is poured in, vaporizing the foam with its heat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21442889",
"title": "Parts washer",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "Parts washers were originally developed for use in automotive transmission and engine repair shops as a way to improve the function of simple soak tanks. Soak tanks are vats filled with a mixture of water and detergent, which take hours to \"soften\" the built-up road grime, fluids, tars and oils enough to be manually rinsed off prior to disassembly and repair.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
716qta
|
is it pitch black in space or is there enough ambient light to see something held in front of you?
|
[
{
"answer": "Somewhere on the Internet NASA has a page describing how much light there is and what you can see. If I were there I would be sure I had a flashlight. Maybe I would sprinkle powder and shine the light on the powder to get a diffuse illumination. Or I could shine the light on a nearby surface to use the surface as an illumination source.\n\nIt really is pretty dark. I mean, think of a moonless night on Earth. It would be no brighter.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Light would be very dim.You would probably be able to make out objects at close range, but not read or see fine details.\n\n[Here's a good r/askscience post on the subject](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In space, there's nothing. The only source of ambient light comes from stars. That means if you are inside the solar system and there isn't a planet in the way, you're gonna see very well. Things will be very bright on the side facing the sun, but shadowed on the other side.\n\nIf the sun is blocked, you will still receive light from other celestial bodies and the milky way, which will give you extremely dim vision. You will be able to see a little bit in front of you, but not enough to distinguish complex things.\n\nIf you leave the solar system, same thing, but even darker because celestial bodies like the moon or saturn will reflect a little bit of light, depending on where you are. So without those, it'll be pretty dark. Very difficult to recognize objects probably, but if someone waves something in your face you could see it (Especially since it'll block stars behind it from your vision). If you leave the milky way and hang out in between galaxies, it'll be even dimmer, so much that it's gonna be almost impossible to see anything.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ask yourself, how dark is it on a new moon on earth in a place without artificial light? Like on a field in the middle of nowhere.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2376660",
"title": "Olafur Eliasson",
"section": "Section::::Selected works and projects.:Light installations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1210,
"text": "Olafur has been developing various experiments with atmospheric density in exhibition spaces. In \"Room For One Colour\" (1998), a corridor lit by yellow monofrequency tubes, the participants find themselves in a room filled with light that affects the perception of all other colours. Another installation, \"360 degrees Room For All Colours\" (2002), is a round light-sculpture where participants lose their sense of space and perspective, and experience being subsumed by an intense light. Olafur's later installation \"Din blinde passager (Your blind passenger)\" (2010), commissioned by the Arken Museum of Modern Art, is a 90-metre-long tunnel. Entering the tunnel, the visitor is surrounded by dense fog. With visibility at just 1.5 metres, museumgoers have to use senses other than sight to orient themselves in relation to their surroundings. For \"Feelings are facts\", the first time Olafur has worked with Chinese architect Yansong Ma as well as his first exhibition in China, Olafur introduces condensed banks of artificially produced fog into the gallery of Ullens Center for Contemporary Art, Beijing. Hundreds of fluorescent lights are installed in the ceiling as a grid of red, green, and blue zones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30747901",
"title": "Skyspace",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "A skyspace is an architectural design in which a room, which is painted in a neutral color has a large hole in its ceiling which opens directly to the sky. The room, whose perimeter has benches, allows observers to look at the sky in such a way as though it were framed. LED lights which surround the hole can change colors to affect the viewer's perception of the sky.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3526639",
"title": "Sensory illusions in aviation",
"section": "Section::::Visual.:Other.:Black-hole approach.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 985,
"text": "A black-hole approach illusion can happen during a final approach at night (with no stars or moonlight) over water or unlit terrain to a lighted runway, in which the horizon is not visible. As the name suggests, it involves an approach to landing during the night where there is nothing to see between the aircraft and the intended runway, there is just a visual, “black-hole”. Pilots too often confidently proceed with a visual approach instead of relying on instruments during nighttime landings. As a result, this can lead to the pilot experiencing glide path overestimation (GPO) because of the lack of peripheral visual cues, especially, below the aircraft. In addition, with no peripheral visual cues allowing for an orientation relative to the earth there can be an illusion of the pilot being upright and the runway being tilted and sloping. As a result, they initiate an aggressive descent and wrongly adjust to an unsafe glide path below the desired three-degree glide path.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1548113",
"title": "Ambient occlusion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 932,
"text": "In computer graphics, ambient occlusion is a shading and rendering technique used to calculate how exposed each point in a scene is to ambient lighting. For example, the interior of a tube is typically more occluded (and hence darker) than the exposed outer surfaces, and the deeper you go inside the tube, the more occluded (and darker) the lighting becomes. Ambient occlusion can be seen as an accessibility value that is calculated for each surface point. In scenes with open sky this is done by estimating the amount of visible sky for each point, while in indoor environments only objects within a certain radius are taken into account and the walls are assumed to be the origin of the ambient light. The result is a diffuse, non-directional shading effect that casts no clear shadows but that darkens enclosed and sheltered areas and can affect the rendered image's overall tone. It is often used as a post-processing effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19723982",
"title": "Parachuting",
"section": "Section::::Other Skydiving disciplines.:Night jumps.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 867,
"text": "Night jumpers should be made aware of the dark zone, when landing at night. Above 30 meters (100 feet) jumpers flying their canopy have a good view of the landing zone normally because of reflected ambient light/moon light. Once they get close to the ground, this ambient light source is lost, because of the low angle of reflection. The lower they get, the darker the ground looks. At about 100 feet and below it may seem that they are landing in a black hole. Suddenly it becomes very dark, and the jumper hits the ground soon after. This ground rush should be explained to, and anticipated by, the first time night jumper. Recommendations should be made to the jumper to utilize a canopy that is larger than they typically use on a day jump and to attempt to schedule their first night jump as close to a full moon as possible to make it easier to see the ground.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16598780",
"title": "EXPOSE",
"section": "Section::::EXPOSE-R.:EXPOSE-R results.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 761,
"text": "Pictures acquired during the spacewalk #27 on the final day of exposure indicated that many of the 75 small windows had turned brown. The brown film was clearly a deposit which had precipitated inside the windows during the spaceflight. The appearance of the brown film turned out to depend on two prerequisites: solar irradiation and vacuum. As the brown film should have impacted the quantity and quality of solar light that reached the test samples, affecting the core of the scientific goals, an investigation was started to identify the properties and the root cause of the colour change. The brown film contained hydrocarbons, so an inventory was made of materials contained inside Expose-R that could possibly have delivered the contaminating volatiles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1979078",
"title": "Color model",
"section": "Section::::Tristimulus color space.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 889,
"text": "One can picture this space as a region in three-dimensional Euclidean space if one identifies the \"x\", \"y\", and \"z\" axes with the stimuli for the long-wavelength (\"L\"), medium-wavelength (\"M\"), and short-wavelength (\"S\") light receptors. The origin, (\"S\",\"M\",\"L\") = (0,0,0), corresponds to black. White has no definite position in this diagram; rather it is defined according to the color temperature or white balance as desired or as available from ambient lighting. The human color space is a horse-shoe-shaped cone such as shown here (see also CIE chromaticity diagram below), extending from the origin to, in principle, infinity. In practice, the human color receptors will be saturated or even be damaged at extremely high light intensities, but such behavior is not part of the CIE color space and neither is the changing color perception at low light levels (see: Kruithof curve). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9s31si
|
how do cinema projectors have such high quality compared to personal home projectors?
|
[
{
"answer": "They got a light source (think: a bulb) that is consuming so much energy it's crazy compared to the tiny box you got in your own living room.\n\nAnd bulbs always create excess heat that needs to be cooled away with active cooling. i.e, fans. Fans are noisy.\n\nBut no-one in the cinema cares, because that projector is in it's own room, with a glass window. No-one in the audience hears the fan.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A big difference is that they use three display devices (DMD or LCOS) to make red/green/blue, so they don't need a rotating filter wheel. Better screens and lenses help too. It's like the difference between a cheap digital camera and a good DSLR and lens. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's the same like in every industry doing essentially the same like consumers do themselves.\n\nYou can buy a nice little light effect and it would be enough for you but a company which is earning their money by using lights has the money and the knowledge to buy a more professional product.\n\nThe projector you are using at home may cost around a thousand dollars, the projectors used by professionals cost much more that that. For that much money they get a better lamp, better optics and the ability to play movies that are stored in a way that is too expensive for the end consumer. Also they will use a much better screen, which makes a lot of difference.\n\nThey spend hours in calibrating the projector what wouldn't be worth for anyone showing some content for less that a couple thousand people.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Home projector pricing makes no sense. Projectors come down to 4 things:\n\nBrightness, typically measured in ANSI lumens. More is better, because it means the picture light is stronger than the ambiant light. Typical home projectors will be between 1500 - 3500 ANSI lumens. The outside advertising projector at my local cinema was 8000 ANSI... \n\nContrast, same as a TV. Best noticed displaying a black image. More is better.\n\nKeystone, vertical and horizontal are key for placing a projector. It let's you bend the image so you can offset the projector. As projectors can be 4m away a small offset causes a big picture tilt, keystone let's you fix that. \n\nDisplay technology. Optima like a lot of projector brands fire a white beam and encode a colour signal onto it. As the ambiant light increases this causes the much weaker colour signal to fade. Sony, Epson, etc.. have a multi beam technology. While named various things, it boils down to firing red, green and blue beams at the wall. Since there are coloured beams the image doesn't white out.\n\nNow why are home projectors poor? Because adoption is less so places sell projectors as a home theatre experience (thousands of pounds). Projectors aren't sold on their specifications but audiophile gimmicks. I have friends who spent £2k on an optima from richer sounds that was half the lumens, lower contrast and the same resolution as my £400 Epson projector.\n\nMy favourite gimmick 5 years ago was dlp (traditional bulb) vs led. Led had such a price premium that 5 years of daily use later I'm still financially better off by going dlp. \n\nBecause there isn't a clear specification war going on the market stagnated. It took Epson 5 years to make a projector better than my current one (eh tw 490 vs eh tw 650).\n\nAlthough something happened this year, market seems much saner, as I was going to post examples and failed to quickly find one.\n\nEdit - typos/clarity",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Like everyone else has said, money. It's literally like the difference between a used Honda and a brand new Rolls Royce. A movie theater projector costs around $75k-$100k and 20,000-30,000 lumen,. Everything about it is precision made, calibrated, and maintained. You can get home theater projectors with DLP 3chip technology, 4k video, 5000 - 8000 lumens, and interchangeable lensing, but it still won't come close to the one at the theater.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some have multiple lamps...some have extremely powerful lamps. Some have multiple extremely powerful lamps...that are maintained by professionals. Lenses are excellent, and the projectors have great ventilation keeping them dust free and cool. They also have specialized software optimally running them. They are also mounted at optimum distances/angles...and the screens are designed to be used with them, so they are very bright/clear. Also the files they play are high resolution, using specialized players/processors...that are connected to the projectors with digital cable (fiber/dual link dvi).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Cinema projectors have lamps that can output 20,000+ brightness measuring units (lumens). Home projectors do like 2,000.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "731779",
"title": "Movie projector",
"section": "Section::::History.:Decline of film projectors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "Although usually more expensive than film projectors, high-resolution digital projectors offer many advantages over traditional film units. For example, digital projectors contain no moving parts except fans, can be operated remotely, are relatively compact and have no film to break, scratch or change reels of. They also allow for much easier, less expensive, and more reliable storage and distribution of content. All-electronic distribution eliminates all physical media shipments. There is also the ability to display live broadcasts in theaters so equipped.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35103671",
"title": "Microcinema",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "As of late, a large growing subculture of film makers has risen in the wake of technological advancements that have made low-budget film making more affordable and pleasing to the eye. One camera in particular, that has made a large impact, is the Panasonic DVX100 followed recently by the Panasonic HVX200 High Definition camcorder (many other cameras are used as well but DVX and HVX are arguably the favorites).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "183370",
"title": "Home cinema",
"section": "Section::::Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "In the 2010s, many home cinema enthusiasts aim to replicate, to the degree that is possible, the \"movie theatre experience\". To do so, many home cinema buffs purchase higher quality components than used for everyday television viewing on a relatively small TV with only built-in speakers. A typical home theater includes the following components:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "183370",
"title": "Home cinema",
"section": "Section::::Dedicated rooms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 859,
"text": "Some home cinema enthusiasts build a dedicated room in their home for the theater. These more advanced installations often include sophisticated acoustic design elements, including \"room-in-a-room\" construction that isolates sound and provides an improved listening environment and a large screen, often using a high definition projector. These installations are often designated as \"screening rooms\" to differentiate them from simpler, less-expensive installations. In some movie enthusiast's home cinemas, this idea can go as far as completely recreating an actual small-scale cinema, with a projector enclosed in its own projection booth, specialized furniture, curtains in front of the projection screen, movie posters, or a popcorn or vending machine with snack food and candy. More commonly, real dedicated home theaters pursue this to a lesser degree.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "816290",
"title": "Horn loudspeaker",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Audiophiles and home use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "Film soundtracks have great dynamic range where peak levels are 20 dB greater than average levels. The higher sensitivity aids in achieving movie theater sound levels at the listening position with typical ~100 watts-per-channel receiver/amplifiers used in home cinema.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10515524",
"title": "Anamorphic format",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "In the years since digital cinema cameras and projectors have become commonplace, anamorphic has experienced a considerable resurgence of popularity, due in large part to the higher base ISO sensitivity of digital sensors, which facilitates shooting at smaller apertures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9385828",
"title": "B movies since the 1980s",
"section": "Section::::The B movie in the digital age: 2000s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1068,
"text": "In a development hinted at by the \"Variety\" quotation above, technological advances are greatly facilitating the production of truly low-budget motion pictures. Although there have always been economical means with which to shoot movies, including Super 8 and 16 mm film, as well as video cameras recording onto analog videotape, these mediums could hardly rival the image quality of 35 mm film. The development and widespread usage of digital cameras and postproduction methods allow even low-budget filmmakers to produce films with excellent (and not necessarily \"grittier\") image quality and precise editing effects—though technical excellence is no guarantee of aesthetic value or even cinematographic competence. As Marone observes, \"the equipment budget (camera, support) required for shooting digital is approximately 1/10 that for film, significantly lowering the production budget for independent features.\" Comparing circumstances in 2006 to those just a couple of years earlier, he argues that the \"quality of digital filmmaking has improved dramatically.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2alzkt
|
why do chiggers and/or mosquitos seem to bite around a person's joints (e.g. ankle)
|
[
{
"answer": "In short, evolution or The Fall, depending on your religious flavor or lack thereof.\n\nThe most prominent reason is the fact that the blood vessels are very close to the surface of the skin over these areas. Mosquitos have the capacity to sense heat as well as (some speculate) the capacity to sense the blood pumping through blood vessels.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26755401",
"title": "Trombiculosis",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "Chiggers seem to affect warm covered areas of the body more than drier areas. Thus, the bites are often clustered behind the knees, or beneath tight undergarments such as socks, underwear, or brassieres. Areas higher in the body (chest, back, waist-band, and under-arms) are affected more easily in small children than in adults, since children are shorter and are more likely than adults to come in contact with low-lying vegetation and dry grass where chiggers thrive. An exceptional case has been described in the eye, producing conjunctivitis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5357893",
"title": "Camelpox",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "Camelpox infections in humans result in mild skin lesions on the hands and fingers. Reports have been made that the lesions can be found on the mouth and lips if the patient drank milk from an infected camel, but these symptoms have not been confirmed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "217387",
"title": "Mite",
"section": "Section::::Relationship with humans.:Medical significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "Chiggers are known primarily for their itchy bite, but they can also spread disease in some limited circumstances, such as scrub typhus. The house-mouse mite is the only known vector of the disease rickettsialpox. House dust mites, found in warm and humid places such as beds, cause several forms of allergic diseases, including hay fever, asthma and eczema, and are known to aggravate atopic dermatitis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31822612",
"title": "Scratch Ankle, Alabama",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "Scratch Ankle got its name from the fact locals, who were often seen by railroad workers scratching their ankles due to excessive mosquito bites. It has been frequently noted on lists of unusual place names.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21784348",
"title": "Trombiculidae",
"section": "Section::::Impact on humans.:Handling chigger bite.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "Because chigger wounds are a complex combination of enzymatic and the resulting mechanical damage, plus allergy and immune responses, plus possible secondary bacterial infection subject to local influences, no one remedy works equally well for most people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "952459",
"title": "Bed bug",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Other.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "A number of other symptoms may occur from either the bite of the bed bugs or from their exposure. Anaphylaxis from the injection of serum and other nonspecific proteins has been rarely documented. Due to each bite taking a tiny amount of blood, chronic or severe infestation may lead to anemia. Bacterial skin infection may occur due to skin break down from scratching.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56453906",
"title": "Monkey bite",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "Serious infections can result after a monkey bite. Simian herpes B virus is endemic in some species of Asian monkeys. It was first identified by an investigator was bitten by what appeared to be a healthy monkey. The investigator died shortly thereafter from brain inflammation (encephalitis). Subsequent simian-acquired infections with this virus have occurred with mortality rate as high as 80%. Currently, transmission of the virus through a monkey bite almost always is the result of an occupational exposure by biomedical research workers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3c7poz
|
How exactly was Jefferson Davis elected President of the Confederacy?
|
[
{
"answer": "While a perfectly fine question, more of our Civil War experts are sticking around in [this AMA thread today, so I would suggest you repost it here!](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4800105",
"title": "Military leadership in the American Civil War",
"section": "Section::::The Confederacy.:Civilian military leaders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 707,
"text": "Jefferson Davis was named provisional president on February 9, 1861, and assumed similar commander-in-chief responsibilities as would Lincoln; on November 6, 1861 Davis was elected President of the Confederate States of America under the Confederate Constitution. Alexander H. Stephens was appointed as Vice President of the Confederate States of America on February 18, 1861, and later assumed identical vice presidential responsibilities as Hannibal Hamlin did. Several men served the Confederacy as Secretary of War, including Leroy Pope Walker, Judah P. Benjamin, George W. Randolph, James Seddon, and John C. Breckinridge. Stephen Mallory was Confederate Secretary of the Navy throughout the conflict.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "636208",
"title": "President of the Confederate States of America",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "The president was indirectly elected by the people through the Electoral College to a six-year term, and was one of only two nationally elected Confederate officers, the other being the Vice President. On February 18, 1861, Jefferson Davis became president of the provisional government. On February 22, 1862, he became president of the permanent government and served in that capacity until being captured by elements of the United States Cavalry in 1865.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "358896",
"title": "Varina Davis",
"section": "Section::::Confederate First Lady.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "Jefferson Davis resigned from the U.S. Senate in 1861 when Mississippi seceded. Varina Davis returned with their children to Brierfield, expecting him to be commissioned as a general in the Confederate army. He was elected as President of the Confederate States of America by the new Confederate Congress. She did not accompany him when he traveled to Montgomery, Alabama (then capital of the new nation) to be inaugurated. A few weeks later, she followed and assumed official duties as the First Lady of the Confederacy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16134",
"title": "Jefferson Davis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "Jefferson Finis Davis (June 3, 1808 – December 6, 1889) was an American politician who served as the only President of the Confederate States of America from 1861 to 1865. As a member of the Democratic Party, he represented Mississippi in the United States Senate and the House of Representatives prior to switching allegiance to the Confederacy. He was appointed as the United States Secretary of War, serving from 1853 to 1857, under President Franklin Pierce.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8332568",
"title": "Confederate States Secretary of War",
"section": "Section::::The Secretaries of War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "Confederate President Jefferson Davis was twenty-third Secretary of War of the United States, serving under U.S. President Franklin Pierce from March 7, 1853 until March 4, 1857. However, he never served in this capacity in the Confederate States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21546927",
"title": "Conclusion of the American Civil War",
"section": "Section::::Confederacy dissolves itself (May 5, 1865).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "President Davis met with his Confederate Cabinet for the last time on May 5, 1865, in Washington, Georgia, and officially dissolved the Confederate government. The meeting took place at the Heard house, the Georgia Branch Bank Building, with 14 officials present. (From Wiki page on Jefferson Davis.) \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1422036",
"title": "American Civil War Museum",
"section": "Section::::The Museum of the Confederacy.:White House of the Confederacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "President of the Confederate States of America Jefferson Davis, his wife Varina, and their children moved into the house in August 1861, and lived there for the remainder of the war. President Davis maintained an at-home office on the second floor of the White House due to his poor health.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ef2hf
|
What factors contribute to resting metabolic rate?
|
[
{
"answer": "First question; not my area\n\n\nSecond question, relating to the first:\n[Not much](_URL_0_)\n\n\n > One study noted that one standard deviation of variance for resting metabolic rate (how many calories are burnt by living) was 5-8%; meaning 1 standard deviation of the population (68%) was within 6-8% of the average metabolic rate. Extending this, 2 standard deviations of the population (96%) was within 10-16% of the population average.\n\nsources within top link\n\nIt's perhaps better to use Metabolic equivalent, using it to compare the instant valuation with the type of physical activity being done given that RMR within a given population doesn't vary greatly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "467048",
"title": "Triiodothyronine",
"section": "Section::::Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "T increases the basal metabolic rate and, thus, increases the body's oxygen and energy consumption. The basal metabolic rate is the minimal caloric requirement needed to sustain life in a resting individual. T acts on the majority of tissues within the body, with a few exceptions including the spleen. It increases the production of the Na/K -ATPase (which normally constitutes a substantial fraction of total cellular ATP expenditure) without disrupting transmembrane ion balance and, in general, increases the turnover of different endogenous macromolecules by increasing their synthesis and degradation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31193532",
"title": "Metabolic age",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 723,
"text": "Metabolic age is calculated by comparing one's basal metabolic rate to the average of one's chronological age group. Basal metabolic rate is the amount of energy consumed per unit of time when all environmental factors are considered neutral, the digestive system is in a post-absorptive state (meaning that the digestive system is inactive, which requires about twelve hours of fasting in humans), and the energy expenditure is only sufficient to support normal functioning of the vital organs, the heart, lungs, nervous system, kidneys, liver, intestine, sex organs, muscles, and skin. Formulas for estimating basal metabolic rate take into account age, weight, height, activity level, body fat mass, and lean body mass.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1660393",
"title": "Resting metabolic rate",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 662,
"text": "Resting metabolic rate (RMR) is whole-body mammal (and other vertebrate) metabolism during a time period of strict and steady \"resting conditions\" that are defined by a combination of assumptions of physiological homeostasis and biological equilibrium. RMR differs from basal metabolic rate (BMR) because BMR measurements must meet total physiological equilibrium whereas RMR conditions of measurement can be altered and defined by the contextual limitations. Therefore, BMR is measured in the elusive \"perfect\" steady state, whereas RMR measurement is more accessible and thus, represents most, if not all measurements or estimates of daily energy expenditure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "377245",
"title": "Red imported fire ant",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Physiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "Metabolic rate, which indirectly affects respiration, is also influenced by environmental temperature. Peak metabolism occurs at about 32 °C. Metabolism, and therefore respiration rate, increases consistently as temperature increases. DGE stops above 25 °C, although the reason for this is currently unknown.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "562788",
"title": "Basal metabolic rate",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 774,
"text": "Metabolism comprises the processes that the body needs to function. Basal metabolic rate is the amount of energy per unit time that a person needs to keep the body functioning at rest. Some of those processes are breathing, blood circulation, controlling body temperature, cell growth, brain and nerve function, and contraction of muscles. Basal metabolic rate (BMR) affects the rate that a person burns calories and ultimately whether that individual maintains, gains, or loses weight. The basal metabolic rate accounts for about 60 to 75% of the daily calorie expenditure by individuals. It is influenced by several factors. BMR typically declines by 1–2% per decade after age 20, mostly due to loss of fat-free mass, although the variability between individuals is high.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12176781",
"title": "Italian crested newt",
"section": "Section::::Thermoregulation and metabolism.:Interaction of metabolism and thermoregulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 142,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 142,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "With regards to metabolism, a higher rate of thermoregulation means an increase in metabolic rate, and therefore a higher consumption of oxygen. Standard metabolic rate will alter as the ambient temperature alters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "286870",
"title": "Autocatalysis",
"section": "Section::::Biological example.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "It is known that an important metabolic cycle, glycolysis, displays temporal order. Glycolysis consists of the degradation of one molecule of glucose and the overall production of two molecules of ATP. The process is therefore of great importance to the energetics of living cells. The global glycolysis reaction involves glucose, ADP, NAD, pyruvate, ATP, and NADH.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
kptcj
|
how is facebook exploiting me?
|
[
{
"answer": "Basically anything you submit to Facebook becomes their property; Pictures, personal information, everything.\n\nPeople complain about privacy and then go and spill every single detail of their life to Facebook, thus Facebook is \"exploiting\" idiots.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The whole premise of facebook is in the interests of exploiting the public.\n\nPeople who haven't stopped to think about it think that facebook is a service provided to the general public allowing us to connect electronically with the people in our lives. They think that this service is financed by the tiny ads on the margins.\n\nIn fact, facebook is a service for companies and corporations. Facebook is the most accurate, sophisticated demographic generator in the world. When a company wants to advertise to 23 year old, catholic, single, Arab linguists, from America, who like anime, they can go to facebook and buy ads that specifically target those people. Making it exponentially more likely that the people seeing those ads will click on them. Thus facebook only needs to be good enough to the users (us) that we don't abandon it wholesale, while at the same time prompting us to upload as much information about ourselves as possible.\n\nI saw a political cartoon on here earlier. It shows two pigs in a slaugherhouse called \"facebook pork\" (or some other such label that indicated beyond doubt that it was a slaugerhouse). And the pigs are inside marvelling, \"and there's free food too?! A safe place to sleep?! This is awesome!!\" Of course, they don't know that their whole purpose of being in there is so that they can be fed to people.\n\nThe only real question is whether Zuckerberg said \"I think this would be a great way for people to connect with each other\" and then realized the best way to monetize it. **Or** if he said \"you know what would sell like hotcakes? Really specific demographic information. I think I know how to get it.\" (a la chicken/egg)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Basically anything you submit to Facebook becomes their property; Pictures, personal information, everything.\n\nPeople complain about privacy and then go and spill every single detail of their life to Facebook, thus Facebook is \"exploiting\" idiots.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The whole premise of facebook is in the interests of exploiting the public.\n\nPeople who haven't stopped to think about it think that facebook is a service provided to the general public allowing us to connect electronically with the people in our lives. They think that this service is financed by the tiny ads on the margins.\n\nIn fact, facebook is a service for companies and corporations. Facebook is the most accurate, sophisticated demographic generator in the world. When a company wants to advertise to 23 year old, catholic, single, Arab linguists, from America, who like anime, they can go to facebook and buy ads that specifically target those people. Making it exponentially more likely that the people seeing those ads will click on them. Thus facebook only needs to be good enough to the users (us) that we don't abandon it wholesale, while at the same time prompting us to upload as much information about ourselves as possible.\n\nI saw a political cartoon on here earlier. It shows two pigs in a slaugherhouse called \"facebook pork\" (or some other such label that indicated beyond doubt that it was a slaugerhouse). And the pigs are inside marvelling, \"and there's free food too?! A safe place to sleep?! This is awesome!!\" Of course, they don't know that their whole purpose of being in there is so that they can be fed to people.\n\nThe only real question is whether Zuckerberg said \"I think this would be a great way for people to connect with each other\" and then realized the best way to monetize it. **Or** if he said \"you know what would sell like hotcakes? Really specific demographic information. I think I know how to get it.\" (a la chicken/egg)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31602166",
"title": "Privacy concerns with social networking services",
"section": "Section::::Social networks.:Facebook.:Facebook Emotion Study.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 159,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 159,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "Recently, Facebook, knowingly agreed and facilitated a controversial experiment; the experiment blatantly bypassed user privacy and demonstrates the dangers and complex ethical nature of the current networking management system. The \"one week study in January of 2012\" where over 600,000 users were randomly selected to unknowingly partake in a study to determine the effect of \"emotional alteration\" by Facebook posts. Apart from the ethical issue of conducting such a study with human emotion in the first place, this is just one of the means in which data outsourcing has been used as a breach of privacy without user disclosure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11135417",
"title": "Corporate censorship",
"section": "Section::::Notable Cases.:Facebook.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 1003,
"text": "Facebook is a site in which people frequently publish information on their political stances or engage in political and social debates. Since 2009, Facebook has been supporting the rights of Holocaust deniers on posting on its website. In 2018, however, Facebook announced a new policy that it will remove \"misinformation that contributes to violence,\" while not enforcing a complete censor on those speeches. Mark Zuckerberg, Facebook's CEO, said that there are certain information people post because they took it wrong, but perhaps not because they intentionally took it wrong. Even if they did it on purpose, Facebook couldn't have found out their intentions and wouldn't try to do so. Thus, they are reviewing information on Facebook and taking down misrepresented, misleading, or offensive information, but not outright censoring information in certain categories, such as Holocaust denial. As a result of this policy, posts that falsely report on Muslims and Buddhists in Sri Lanka were removed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2232897",
"title": "Sean Parker",
"section": "Section::::Ventures.:Facebook.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "In 2017 during an interview with Axios, Parker expressed concerns about the role of Facebook in society, saying that it \"exploit[s] a vulnerability in human psychology\" as it creates a \"social-validation feedback loop\". Parker stated that he was \"something of a conscientious objector\" to using social media.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1651190",
"title": "Child grooming",
"section": "Section::::Over the Internet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1065,
"text": "Facebook has been involved in controversy as to whether it takes enough precautions against the sexual grooming of children. Jim Gamble, leader of the Child Exploitation and Online Protection Centre (CEOP) in the UK, said in 2010 that his office had received 292 complaints about Facebook users in 2009 but that none of the complaints had come directly from Facebook. A spokesman for Facebook responded to complaints by meeting CEOP directly in person, and said that they take safety issues \"very seriously\". In 2003, MSN implemented chat room restrictions to help protect children from adults seeking sexual conversations with them. In 2005, Yahoo! chat rooms were investigated by the New York State attorney general's office for allowing users to create rooms whose names suggested they were being used for this purpose; that October, Yahoo! agreed to \"implement policies and procedures designed to ensure\" that such rooms would not be allowed. Computer programs have been developed to analyse chat rooms and other instant messaging logs for suspicious activity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31602166",
"title": "Privacy concerns with social networking services",
"section": "Section::::Social networks.:Facebook.:Internet privacy and Facebook advertisements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 152,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 152,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "The illegal activities on Facebook are very widespread, in particular, phishing attacks, allowing attackers to steal other people's passwords. The Facebook users are led to land on a page where they are asked for their login information, and their personal information is stolen in that way.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19005719",
"title": "Cyberstalking",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Of intimate partners.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 643,
"text": "Cyberstalking of intimate partners is the online harassment of a current or former romantic partner. It is a form of domestic violence, and experts say its purpose is to control the victim in order to encourage social isolation and create dependency. Harassers may send repeated insulting or threatening e-mails to their victims, monitor or disrupt their victims' e-mail use, and use the victim's account to send e-mails to others posing as the victim or to purchase goods or services the victim does not want. They may also use the Internet to research and compile personal information about the victim, to use in order to harass him or her.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59037220",
"title": "Use of social media in education",
"section": "Section::::Facebook.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1208,
"text": "Using Facebook in class allows for both an asynchronous and synchronous, open speech via a familiar and regularly accessed medium, and supports the integration of multimodal content such as student-created photographs and video and URLs to other texts, in a platform that many students are already familiar with. Further, it allows students to ask more minor questions that they might not otherwise feel motivated to visit a professor in person during office hours to ask. It also allows students to manage their own privacy settings, and often work with the privacy settings they have already established as registered users. Facebook is one alternative means for shyer students to be able to voice their thoughts in and outside of the classroom. It allows students to collect their thoughts and articulate them in writing before committing to their expression. Further, the level of informality typical to Facebook can also aid students in self-expression and encourage more frequent student-and-instructor and student-and-student communication. At the same time, Towner and Munoz note that this informality may actually drive many educators and students away from using Facebook for educational purposes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
52ocer
|
where does the sound from the car's blinker actually come from?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's a relay with a reed switch. Makes noise when activated. They're usually under the dash on the driver's side.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It comes from a relay switch that is turning off and on. The relay is a small electro-mechanical switch that uses a small voltage, to switch on or off a higher voltage. In the case of a car blinker it is a type of switch that turns off and on when the contact is closed. This can be a purely mechanical timing, or in response to a circuit timer. In mechanical designs, the switch closes, and heats up as current flows, causing it to pull away and break contact, and the light goes off, then as the switch cools it bends back and makes contact again, and will keep going back and forth like this until the control circuit is broken. \n\nThis is also why blinkers may go faster or slower depending on the temperature outside, and why sometimes when you replace the blinker, the car flashes much faster or slower than it used to. \n\nMost of the high voltage or high current devices in your car are switched off and on using relay switches that don't cycle. IE they stay on until you turn them off. The relay allows you to safely use a small voltage, to control a much stronger voltage/current without risk of fire or electrocution.\n\nIn its simplest form, imagine you had a little magnet on a light switch on your wall and you put an electro magnet next to the switch. You can trigger the electro magnet using a 9v battery and this will flip the switch turning your lights off. Reverse the polarity and now it's thrown the other way and the lights come on. Since your 9v battery isn't in direct contact with the high voltage wiring inside your wall, you can safely handle it without fear of electrocution. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are some cars which use speakers to either make or augment the sound. A coworkers f150 does it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "35961197",
"title": "Daimler Double-Six sleeve-valve V12",
"section": "Section::::Double-Six 50.:Engine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "The result was an engine which idled at 150 rpm and ran with uncanny silence \"the only audible sound made by a Double-Six (if you opened the bonnet and went right up to it) was the almost imperceptible tick as the ignition points opened and the faint breathing of the carburettor\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42544174",
"title": "Sonic Movement",
"section": "Section::::Project features.:3D sound.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "While the car is idling, it emits a \"bassy rumble\" using speakers mounted in each of the car's four corners, and the sound adapts to the ambient noise it detects so it can always be heard. The group calls the idle noise the project's \"core\" sound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1649792",
"title": "Lancia Montecarlo",
"section": "Section::::Issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "The engine noise in the interior of the car was sometimes criticized; \"Road & Track\" listing noise as one of their biggest complaints about the car, with \"little joy listening to the wheeze of an emission equipment-stifled 4-banger\", and \"Motor\" calling the engine noise a \"raucous cacophony\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3230649",
"title": "Emergency vehicle equipment",
"section": "Section::::Visual warning devices.:Active visual warnings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "BULLET::::- Alternating Vehicle Lights or Wig-wags - This causes the Full beam headlights, or Fog lights to flash in a pattern (usually alternating left-right-left, although it can be together, or in a random pattern), and can also be used at the rear of the vehicle on Brake, Fog or reversing lights to warn vehicles approaching from the rear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3785450",
"title": "Getrag F23 transmission",
"section": "Section::::Mechanical Faults.:Rattling / Grinding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "BULLET::::- Noise 1: This is a very distinct noise that is usually much louder than the second noise that can be associated with this transmission. If the vehicle is not making any noise when trying to verify the condition, it can be induced by making several tight left hand circles with the vehicle at normal operating temperature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44187",
"title": "Sound effect",
"section": "Section::::Aesthetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 710,
"text": "The \"Conjectural Sound\" principle applies even to happenstance sounds, such as tires squealing, doorknobs turning or people walking. If the sound editor wants to communicate that a driver is in a hurry to leave, he will cut the sound of tires squealing when the car accelerates from a stop; even if the car is on a dirt road, the effect will work if the audience is dramatically engaged. If a character is afraid of someone on the other side of a door, the turning of the doorknob can take a second or more, and the mechanism of the knob can possess dozens of clicking parts. A skillful Foley artist can make someone walking calmly across the screen seem terrified simply by giving the actor a different gait.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45465422",
"title": "DBAG Class 481",
"section": "Section::::Technical details.:Vehicles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "Due to their characteristic howling start-up noise, which is typical for three-phase AC motors with pulsed voltage control, these vehicles are occasionally also called \"circular saws\", \"hoe buoys\" or \"flying alarms\". The loud start-up and brake noise has led to many complaints.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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] | null |
ub719
|
Why are there distinct lines between the states of matter, instead of just a gradual scale of change?
|
[
{
"answer": "So, addressing a few misconceptions:\n\nIt really isn't a terribly meaningful statement to describe a single molecule as having a temperature. That said, I assume your idea here is that the entire material is in the same \"condition\" (pressure, temperature, etc).\n\nNext, while it is still \"just water\", it is incorrect to suggest that water at 1C is identical in behavior and structure to water at 50C or 99C. If we consider only \"gelatinous-ness\", which might be more rigorously quantified by density and viscosity, you can see [here](_URL_1_), that there is appreciable variation throughout the temperature range where liquid water is stable.\n\nThat said, you are correct that many materials appear to exhibit a transition temperature across which there is an almost black-and-white difference in behavior and structure: the melting temperature. However, there are many materials that do not exhibit this, or at least not in a terribly accessible or meaningful way. \n\nMany amorphous materials are characterized by what is called a glass transition temperature (which despite its name, is quite different from a melting temperature). Specifically, the glass transition temperature is not a well-defined temperature in many cases, but rather a range over which the transition from a more rigid material (like window glass) to a more viscous material (like melted plastic) occurs. Also, as you may know, the melting temperature of a material is characteristic of that material and for the most part will not change depending on the sample or cooling rate. The glass transition however is very sensitive to many factors including thermal history and cooling rate. \n\nThe glass transition is seen in many everyday materials, including most plastics and glasses (although the temperature range is so high for most glass that you wouldn't ever notice it unless you happened to have access to a high temperature furnace). In fact, the whole glass transition issue makes even categorizing glass as a solid or a liquid a very complex matter. The topic also [came up](_URL_0_) in the last \"misconception\" thread, courtesy of the resident expert on glass physics, EagleFalconn.\n\nEdit: even this is a simplification but the general idea is that it turns out that whole idea of \"solid, liquid, or gas\" is far from comprehensive and often becomes less and less meaningful the more, and deeper, questions you ask.",
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"answer": " There is a common misconception about melting points (solid to liquid; ice to water) or boiling points (liquid to gas; water to vapor). The melting point means it's the first temperature any liquid will form, not that the substance is now a liquid. Likewise with a boiling point, at t=0s, and T=100C, the first bubble appears, and it's only after some elapsed time at 100C (or greater) that all the liquid turns to gas. (All of which is assuming standard pressure blah blah blah)\n\nIf you have a liquid at 20C, and a gas at 100C, the reason you don't have some half liquid half gas monstrosity at 60C is because of the discrete nature of phase transitions i was alluding to before. At 60C, the water just doesn't have enough energy to turn into a gas (regular evaporation excluded since that's just water molecules getting knocked around by air), it's not until it goes over the energy \"hump\" at 100C that it finally can make the switch to a gas.\n\nOf course however, many substances are not as straight forward as water, but the same principles apply. It's all QM really. In the same way energy levels are discrete (IE you can't have electrons half way in between orbitals), phases are discrete as well and are not a continuous spectrum.",
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"answer": "The behavior of individual molecules are what give us states of matter. \n\n\nKnowing that temperature is simply a product of the velocity of the molecules (the root mean square of the velocity of the particles anyway), you can start to understand that temperature and pressure will tell us a lot about the way the molecules are moving.\n\n\nWith different molecules, we'll find all kinds of different forces acting between them, such as hydrogen bonds, but all kinds of chemical forces.\n\nSo imagine that there is a sea of molecules, not moving very fast (i.e. cold). Since each molecule moves rather slowly, they don't have the kinetic energy to overcome any bonds and break away. Thus they don't mix freely, but instead stay connected or bonded to nearby molecules, which are in turn attracted to and held together with other molecules. This is a solid. These molecules still have velocities, it's just that they are bouncing around against the invisible walls of their prison made up by the bonds holding them in place. So we think of them as vibrating, rather than moving around. On a human scale, such an object appears as a solid.\n\n\nNow lets add some more vibration to the mix, in the form of heat. As some molecules vibrate faster and faster, they spread these vibrations to their neighbors, and so on and so forth. How efficiently these vibrations are spread will produce what we call conduction of heat. Some materials, because of the nature of the bonds, don't let the vibrations transfer very effectively, and the other side of the structure is unchanged. In other materials, these vibrations will very quickly spread. Once a certain point is reached, a combination of temperature and pressure, which really just means a certain energy given to each molecule, the molecules will suddenly be hitting levels of kinetic energy that are high enough to break out of their bonds and move around freely.\n\nThis is what happens when a solid becomes a liquid. The individual particles are overcoming the amount of force they are held in check with by gaining kinetic energy. In a sample that's at melting point, some particles will be moving freely, some will still be bonded in the structure, as not all particles will reach the energy level at the exact same time.\n\nRemember that the velocity of the molecules are distributed on a bell curve. Some will be around the average, but others will be much higher or lower. Think of it like a swimming pool filled with bouncy balls, in a world without friction, they bounce around, and for fleeting moments, some balls might take on a lot of speed while others might collide and suddenly find themselves completely stopped. \n\nWhen you have a liquid, you have molecules that have enough energy to break free from the strong bonds that made the solid, but they don't have enough energy to break free totally from each other and become a gas. Again, with different elements and molecules, what force this is exactly can vary greatly, and it doesn't really matter for this discussion what force that is exactly, just that there will be an energy level required to be met to overcome those forces to allow a molecule to completely break free and \"fly away\" becoming a gas. \n\nThose bonds that held the particles in a crystal structure are still there and maybe are just strong enough to hold the liquid together. The nature of these bonds can inform the way the liquid performs, such as how much surface tension it has. \n\nAs the liquid warms, the bell curve of energies of the particles shifts to the right, and some of the particles on the extreme side, those much more energetic, that is to say moving faster, than average, will begin to break through that barrier for becoming a gas. Just think about that swimming pool of bouncy balls. If we introduce more vibration into the balls, say by vibrating the walls of the pool, making them bounce more and more, some balls will get enough energy, thanks to some unbalanced collision, that they'll pop up into the air. Remember, a ball getting a lot of energy at the bottom of the pool is just going to collide with nearby particles. But a particle very near the surface just might take that energy and head skyward with enough speed to break through the bonds that hold the particles together. In this example, it would be a ball flying totally out of the pool. Remember that gravity isn't all that influential on the scale of molecules, so imagine this pool is on the moon or some place with even less gravity. \n\nSince the energy is distributed along a bell curve, you see that some particles will reach that point and become a gas before the liquid reaches its boiling point. This is why a glass of water will slowly evaporate even though it is nowhere near boiling. \n\nSweating is a process that cools us. Why? Sweating simply released liquid to the surface of our skin when we're extra warm. So this warm liquid sits on the skin and some of those molecules will get to that energy level needed to break free, and they'll evaporate. When that particle leaves, it takes with it more than the average kinetic energy of one particle, but rather a figure much higher than average. So every time a particle is in an unbalanced collision and takes off with higher than the average kinetic energy, then the liquid that's left behind will be left with a slightly lower kinetic energy. Thus evaporation causes cooling. It's a systematic method for siphoning off particles of very high kinetic energy and thus lowering average kinetic energy. So that's why sweating cools us off, or why putting water on your skin will make you feel cool.\n\nHave you ever gotten alcohol on your skin? It feels even colder than water, not because it *is* colder, but because it evaporates much more easily than water.\n\nAs you heat a liquid closer to its boiling point, you'll see that the more of that bell curve distribution will pass the energy barrier needed to escape. That's why warm water will have vapor visibily rising from it. As water reaches a boil, it's just a matter of a higher percentage of the molecules reaching the needed energy to escape and become a gas.\n\n\nIf you can picture this, then you'll realize that chemicals can have all kinds of different bonds of varying strengths. For instance, you can have a chemical that has a kind of bond that forms a crystal structure (a solid), but when the molecules are given enough energy to break free from this structure, there isn't a force strong enough to constrain them into a sea of particles, and they go straight into being a gas. This is a result of the molecules not having enough bond strength to contain particles once they break out of the crystal structure. We call this sublimation (going directly from solid to gas), and many materials do this. \n\nIf you look closely, you'll find that many materials don't have a liquid state, or do only under intense pressure (because there is a pressure outside, a constant force pressing inward from all directions that combines with the weak bonds to create a situation in which a liquid state is possible. So think of pressure as a friend to bond energy). \n\nPressure isn't always a friend to bond energy though. Consider water. Water is unique in that freezing it actually causes it to expand. Remember that the volume of any thing depends on how much force it exerts on its surroundings. So a balloon with gas particles that are moving very fast will be constantly colliding with the walls of the balloon at high speed, creating a higher pressure, which causes the balloon to expand until it reaches an equilibrium. If you reduce the kinetic energy of those gas particles, they hit the walls of the balloon with less force, and the equilibrium shifts, shrinking the balloon until equilibrium is again reached. So knowing this, it's quite unusual to realize that liquid water, when it loses kinetic energy, will actually expand as it becomes a solid. Why? \n\n\nWell when water is a solid, held in by those strong bonds that don't allow the molecules to move around, only to vibrate within their crystal structure, those molecules are spaced apart in a specific pattern at a certain distance from each other. When water is a liquid, these molecules are moving quickly enough to not be held together by those bonds, but they actually will move fairly close by each other. The crystal strucuture actually increases the amount of space between these bonds. It's just a by-product of the kinds of bonds due to the make-up of the water molecule. So now, imagine Ice right near its melting point. Apply some pressure to that ice. In a balloon, extra pressure shrinks the volume. In most solids, added pressure helps the bonds that are holding the molecules together, giving them a little extra push to constrain the particles. But since ice is spread apart, less dense than water, adding pressure actually hurts the bonds holding the crystal structure. Thus when you look at the phase diagram of water, you'll see the line between solid and liquid has a negative slope. In other words, ice wants to melt under pressure. Understanding this makes ice skating make sense (though the exact science of this isn't really that simple). ",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1314474",
"title": "List of states of matter",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Classically, states of matter are distinguished by changes in the properties of matter related to external factors such as pressure and temperature. States are usually distinguished by a discontinuity in one of those properties: for example, raising the temperature of ice produces a clear discontinuity at 0 °C as energy goes into phase transition, instead of temperature increase. The classical states of matter are usually summarised as: solid, liquid, gas, and plasma. In the 20th century, increased understanding of the more exotic properties of matter resulted in the identification of many additional states of matter, none of which are observed in normal conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "37461",
"title": "State of matter",
"section": "Section::::Phase transitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "A state of matter is also characterized by phase transitions. A phase transition indicates a change in structure and can be recognized by an abrupt change in properties. A distinct state of matter can be defined as any set of states distinguished from any other set of states by a phase transition. Water can be said to have several distinct solid states. The appearance of superconductivity is associated with a phase transition, so there are superconductive states. Likewise, ferromagnetic states are demarcated by phase transitions and have distinctive properties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3087602",
"title": "Topological order",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "Although all matter is formed by atoms, matter can have different properties and appear in different forms, such as solid, liquid, superfluid, magnet, etc. These various forms of matter are often called states of matter or phases. According to condensed matter physics and the principle of emergence, the different properties of materials originate from the different ways in which the atoms are organized in the materials. Those different organizations of the atoms (or other particles) are formally called the orders in the materials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "22056752",
"title": "Quantum phases",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 686,
"text": "The difference between these states and classical states of matter is that classically, materials exhibit different phases which ultimately depends on the change in temperature and/or density or some other macroscopic property of the material whereas quantum phases can change in response to a change in a different type of order parameter (which is instead a parameter in the Hamiltonian of the system much unlike the classical case) of the system at zero temperature – temperature does not have to change. The order parameter plays a role in quantum phases analogous to its role in classical phases. Some quantum phases are the result of a superposition of many other quantum phases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "37461",
"title": "State of matter",
"section": "Section::::Phase transitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "Forms of matter that are not composed of molecules and are organized by different forces can also be considered different states of matter. Superfluids (like Fermionic condensate) and the quark–gluon plasma are examples.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "37461",
"title": "State of matter",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "In physics, a state of matter is one of the distinct forms in which matter can exist. Four states of matter are observable in everyday life: solid, liquid, gas, and plasma. Many intermediate states are known to exist, such as liquid crystal, and some states only exist under extreme conditions, such as Bose–Einstein condensates, neutron-degenerate matter, and quark–gluon plasma, which only occur, respectively, in situations of extreme cold, extreme density, and extremely high energy. For a complete list of all exotic states of matter, see the list of states of matter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "21490957",
"title": "Thomas Aquinas",
"section": "Section::::Philosophy.:Psychology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 1001,
"text": "These distinctions can be better understood in the light of Thomas's understanding of matter and form, a hylomorphic (\"matter/form\") theory derived from Aristotle. In any given substance, matter and form are necessarily united, and each is a necessary aspect of that substance. However, they are conceptually separable. Matter represents what is changeable about the substance—what is potentially something else. For example, bronze matter is potentially a statue, or also potentially a cymbal. Matter must be understood as the matter \"of\" something. In contrast, form is what determines some particular chunk of matter to be a specific substance and no other. When Thomas says that the human body is only partly composed of matter, he means the material body is only potentially a human being. The soul is what actualizes that potential into an existing human being. Consequently, the fact that a human body is live human tissue entails that a human soul is wholly present in each part of the human.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
1lwpv4
|
How and when were all the clocks (time) around the world synced?
|
[
{
"answer": "As the UK became a maritime nation, boats kept one [chronometer](_URL_0_) on-board so they knew how far away they were from the Greenwich meridian (which is considered to have longitude zero degrees). The chronometer wasn't treated as the actual time, because that was calculated by solar time, depending on where they were. But this, boats travelling back and forth around the world from Britain, meant that people used GMT worldwide as a reference time no matter where they were (there were other reasons, including [this](_URL_3_), but I'm trying to keep it simple). Most time zones were either an hour or a half-hour ahead or behind of GMT.\n\nBasically, trains were responsible for the adoption of GMT as full British time. Railway companies had to adopt a singular time in order to work in unison, otherwise making things very difficult. It didn't happen quickly and there were court battles regarding the case, but eventually they did decide that it was best for the local mean time to be considered as full British time. \n\nAs for other countries, it was never truly set out. There are a bunch of countries (Ireland, Canada, Australia) that have time set out in legislation, but most know it simply by convention. The time simply exists, not set out. \n\nThere were a lot of changes from the deciding of GMT - it was redefined later as [Coordinated Universal Time](_URL_1_), which was maintained by atomic clocks because they were pretty reliable. It was changed again as UT0 and UT1 and UT2 later to make up for small discrepancies such as seasonal variations, earth's rotation, leap seconds and the like. \n\nIt's unfortunately not a particularly interesting topic. The adoption of time was very, very slow, but came about largely as a result of boats and trains needing ways to keep things going smoothly, or \"like clockwork\". In fact, it's taken so long to do that it wasn't until the advent of the internet and GPS and things that clocks all around the world could be properly synchronised (and even then, some people still take issue). \n\nWikipedia has a really good summation of the subject, to be honest. You can read it [here](_URL_2_), but I think what I explained is pretty much the same, and maybe easier to understand. \n\nEdit: adding some extra resources in as links",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "True clock synchronization is a difficult problem, since any communication channel that could be used to synchronize a clock has a nonzero latency that would introduce error into the process. There exist several [algorithms for generating a very good guess](_URL_2_), though.\n\nClocks all over the world aren't truly synchronized at all. Each clock will appeal to some authoritative clock to set itself by, but there is no one single authoritative clock at the top of the chain, although there are a handful that are extremely widely used because they are the most accurate in the world. For instance, in the United States, there is a [single prescribed authoritative clock](_URL_1_) that is considered the absolute standard.\n\nSo, to answer your question more directly, how and how often each clock chooses to appeal to an authority is up to the owners of the clock, so this synchronization is done in a distributed, ad hoc manner.\n\nEDIT: For the more historically-oriented answer to this question, see [/u/ryanbtw's answer](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Stationary observatories could tell the local time accurate to a minute as long as the could measure the stars.\n\nThe challenge is to know the time of a different place to tell your distance from it by comparing it with the time from the stars positions. It also helps to tell time on a cloudy day.\n\nEarly clock tower clocks where easily off 15 minutes per day. Early clocks had the challenge to be accurate independently from moisture, temperature and being shaken, rewound and repaired. They also had to be small enough to be portable. This created and won the _URL_1_ by knowing how different materials contract and expand and by using round springs to create a relatively stable frequency. These where sill relatively inaccurate but at least they could be used on boats across the oceans to know the longitude accurate enough.\n\nMore accurate clocks use more accurate methods to create and utilize a stable frequency of pendulums, springs, quartz or filtered (!) radioactive decay.\nA quartz is more immune from being rotated around the same axis of one of its springs, changing its angular momentum.\n\n---\n\n[Atomic Clocks](_URL_0_) are accurate because they contain a feedback loop that only allows for a certain frequency to become a stable output and it auto-tunes itself to that frequency.\n\nThis feedback loop is much more accurate than a quartz crystal, that only can vibrate in a thin frequency range, but they can get out out tune over time.\n\nThere are multiple very secure atomic clocks at at least 3 places on earth that are far away from each other, to average out relativistic effects.\n\nThey send a very simple long range radio signal that every basic radio-clock, can receive cheaply and with low energy costs to get an accurate global time.\n\nWe now can mass produce an integrated chip less than 1cm³ with an atomic clock inside of it to be independent from the ability to receive that radio signal, and more accurate to higher frequencies than the radio signal can deliver.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Ryanbtw answered the concept, but for modern synchro, WWV started broadcasting time signals in 1944 to sync everyone up in North America. _URL_0_\nGPS has probably been the most effective source for syncing up large numbers of clocks such as cell phone towers and etcetera. It is far more accurate than internet based synchronization of desktop computers.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "A little more about how the railway system shaped the time in the United States:\n\nUp until the second half of the 1800s, (sometime in the 1870s or 1880s), the railways all kept their own times based on the sun's location; it was set in each town with a railway station at noon. This meant that every town in the same time zone set their time based on the sun's location. Time zones, however, are only change by the hour. This meant that, say, Philadelphia would set their clock to noon when the sun was overhead just the same as, say Detroit. But because of the distance between them, their 12:00 times would actually be off by minutes, because the sun is not visible at the highest point in the sky above both cities at the exact same moment. This non-standard time caused a LOT of railway accidents to occur. While this is all going on, Samuel Pierpont Langley (yes, that Langley), has recently been put in charge of Allegheny Observatory in Pittsburgh, PA. He's basically been put in charge of running it and has a telescope but no money for upkeep or expansion. He notices what's going on with the railways and knows that he can tell the time by tracking the positions of stars in the sky. By keeping detailed logs of stars, he was actually able to begin SELLING the time to railway stations. He would sync up his clock based on the stars then send a signal out at exactly 12 noon (according to the stars) that all the other clocks would sync up to. Eventually almost all railway stations bought his time, the observatory began making money, and the number of train crashes that occurred because two trains were on the same track at what they thought were different times dramatically decreased. Langley also invented the bolometer, later became the third director of the Smithsonian, and almost beat the Wright brothers in the race for manned flight--he had a machine flying first, but was unable to fly one with a person inside, despite some famous crashes into the Potomac.\n\nIf you're ever in Pittsburgh on a Thursday-Saturday in the summer (I believe it's April-October), go visit the Allegheny observatory. They can tell the story in more detail and actually have the instruments that he used there.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "There are crazier story about synchronizing the calendar. My favorite is when the Catholic Church jumped forward 10 days in 1582. Thursday Octorber 4 was followed by Friday October 15. This was to realign the calendar with the celestial motion and started the adoption of the Gregorian Calendar with all of the leap year rules to keep the calendar aligned with celestial motion.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Coordinated Universal Time is set by the [BIPM](_URL_1_). Over 200 laboratories in the world with Atomic clocks send their time to the BIPM and this institution creates something like \"the best time possible\". In fact several time scales are set, each one with their own properties, for example, UTC is set in such a way that the sun is always over the Greenwich meridian at noon within one second. In order to achieve this, one second, called leap second, might be arbitrarily added from time to time, if you are calculating time differences this is not good and you should use another scale, such as Terrestrial Time. \n\nThis time scales are published, using the times from the laboratories mentioned before as references, you can find the last publication [here](ftp://_URL_2_). Other institutions might use this information and set their own time scales accordingly.\n\nOnce the UTC (or other time scale) is set there's one more problem: how to disseminate this time around the world? The labs that collaborate with the BIPM are usually responsible of setting the time in their countries and use several methods in order to do this, for example, Spanish observatory of San Fernando is the military institution which sets the time (by law) in Spain, they use radio broadcasting, the [NTP](_URL_0_) protocol, and the telephone as the ways of informing others of the time. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "[Radiolab did a podcast about this.]( _URL_0_ )\n\nIt had to do with people missing their trains all the time because nobody had the same time on their clock, often different by 30min or so. So eventually people started adopting the railroad time. ",
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"answer": "As most of the comments have given a good explanation, I won't. But I would suggest the book \"Einstein's clocks, Poincare's maps\" if you want a very thorough explanation of how clocks become synchronized throughout the world. Also, how time zones came to be, and other ideas that were brought up in place of time zones. ",
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"answer": "how did the first ever watch maker know that the clock was 'correct'?",
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},
{
"answer": "There was an episode (or at least an article) of [\"Connections\"](_URL_0_) with James Burke in which he lays out how the increasing accuracy of timekeeping enabled greater achievements in travel. \n\nSeafaring required fairly accurate clocks, whereas space travel and satellites require much more accurate synchronization to stay on course.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "While a lot of people in the thread so far have talked about GMT and railroad time, no one has really mentioned [worldwide time zones](_URL_0_), which I think lies at the heart of your question. You can look at other peoples posts for the lead up but in 1879, Sir Sandford Fleming, proposed the 15° time zones used worldwide today. He was the one that proposed that 180° should be where the new started (international date line now). By 1900, most of the world was using time zones, but not always offset by GMT, using their own local time to offset their time zones. By 1929, most of the world was an offset from GMT. The last country to do so was Napel, in 1986. So the answer to the 'when were ALL' part of your question is 27 years ago, in 1986.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Synchronizing the clocks in a large number of train stations was a problem in the late 19th century. And it was one of the issues that started Einstein thinking about time and space and their relationship. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This video by CGPGrey should really help \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Radio signals, GPS satellites, and the Internet broadcast signals that indicate the current time. In the United States, NIST (a federal agency under DOC) maintains very accurate atomic clocks in Colorado, and then broadcasts the current time over a variety of mediums, alllowing clocks to set themselves to the correct time. See these links for more: _URL_1_, _URL_0_\n\nClocks are synced all the time.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, it's a bit of a vague question, and it has several answers, but the main things to mention are:\n\n1. The use of astronomical phenomena as Earth-independent time references;\n2. The adoption of prime meridians (as Greenwich) as a navigational reference;\n3. The adoption of standard timezones to facilitate railway schedules;\n4. The invention of the telegraph, followed by break-circuit master clocks that transmit their time over telegraph lines;\n5. The invention of radio, followed by standard time reference signals;\n6. The invention of the atomic clock.\n\nWhile the sun rises and sets at different points in time in different locations on Earth, Renaissance astronomers (if not earlier ones) realized that many astronomical events are seen simultaneously by all observers on Earth. For example, [the eclipses of the Galilean moons of Jupiter](_URL_0_):\n\n > The timing of the Jovian satellite eclipses was also used to calculate an observer's longitude upon the Earth. By knowing the expected time when an eclipse would be observed at a standard longitude (such as Greenwich), the time difference could be computed by accurately observing the local time of the eclipse. The time difference gives the longitude of the observer because every hour of difference corresponded to 15° around the Earth's equator. This technique was used, for example, by Giovanni D. Cassini in 1679 to re-map France.\n\nThis works because if you have an accurate prediction of the time when the eclipse will be seen at one location, you can use it to set your clock to the time for that location. Then you can compare the clock to the local time as observed by, for example, the solar noon. This technique was made feasible by the invention of accurate pendulum clocks between 1657 and 1715. (But note that pendulum clocks are useless at sea.)\n\nStandard meridians (like Greenwich) came into vogue as progress was made on the problem of telling longitude at sea. Two main methods were invented in the 18th century for this: [lunar distances](_URL_3_) and the [marine chronometer](_URL_2_). Lunar distances relies, again, on observing astronomical events that happen simultaneously to all observers on Earth; the chronometer method relies on keeping accurate time at a reference meridian.\n\nStandard timezones were gradually adopted by countries from 1850 until the 1920s, with some late stragglers as late as the 1950s. See [this table from the 1871 Elgin Almanac](_URL_1_) as an example of how things were before standard timezones; for example, the local time in NYC and Philly was 5 minutes apart.\n\nThe invention of the telegraph allowed for near-instant transmission of information across long distances. Since railroads require tight coordination of trains across long distances, they used the telegraph to try and make the time agree on the clocks at all their stations and the watches of all their critical personnel. To this effect *break-circuit* mechanisms were invented, that allowed the \"ticks\" of a *master clock* to be sent over telegraph lines. *Slave clocks* were invented as well that picked up the signal and synchronized automatically to it. \n\nLater when radio was invented, stations were set up to transmit standard time signals for ships at sea to use.\n\nFinally, the atomic clock was invented around 1950. These clocks are more precise than the motions of the Earth or of most astronomical bodies, so the first principle I described (astronomical events observed simultaneously everywhere on Earth) is no longer critical. Now what we have is a collection of atomic clocks in several institutions on Earth, which communicate their time through signals to each other, and their timings are averaged to infer the universal standard time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I work in a watch store and although I can't give you an exact history of when GMT time existed and all the technical knowledge, I know a little bit about how clocks around the world are synced.\n\n\nThere's this cool thing called Atomic Time, or [International Atomic Time](_URL_0_), that a lot of watches nowadays can sync up to that will give you a precise world-time.\n\n\nHow is works: There are radio towers all across the world (for the most part), in North America, United Kingdom, Europe, Japan and China. These radio towers emit in real-time, a signal that essentially any electronic device can pick-up, and will listen to at 4am in the morning when there is the least amount of radio traffic.\n\n\nThis signal is what world clocks and [websites like this that show world times](_URL_1_) are set to and is what your watch will listen for. If it can hear it then it will sync and if it can't then it'll try again later in the day. Pretty cool stuff.\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "241342",
"title": "24-hour clock",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "The 24-hour time system has its origins in the Egyptian astronomical system of decans, and has been used for centuries by scientists, astronomers, navigators, and horologists. In East Asia, time notation was 24-hour before westernization in modern times. Western-made clocks were changed into 12 dual-hours style when they were shipped to China in the Qing dynasty. There are many surviving examples of clocks built using the 24-hour system, including the famous Orloj in Prague, and the Shepherd Gate Clock at Greenwich.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41835",
"title": "Universal Time",
"section": "Section::::Universal Time and standard time.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 818,
"text": "Standard time, as originally proposed by Scottish-Canadian Sir Sandford Fleming in 1879, divided the world into twenty-four time zones, each one covering 15 degrees of longitude. All clocks within each zone would be set to the same time as the others, but differed by one hour from those in the neighboring zones. The local time at the Royal Observatory in Greenwich was announced as the recommended base reference for world time on 22 October 1884 at the end of the International Meridian Conference. This location was chosen because by 1884 two-thirds of all nautical charts and maps already used it as their prime meridian. The conference did not adopt Fleming's time zones because they were outside the purpose for which it was called, which was to choose a basis for universal time (as well as a prime meridian).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "89734",
"title": "Clockwork",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "By the 11th century, clockwork was used for both timepieces and to track astronomical events, in Europe. The clocks did not keep time very accurately by modern standards, but the astronomical devices were carefully used to predict the positions of planets and other movement. The same timeline seems to apply in Europe, where mechanical escapements were used in clocks by that time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1827303",
"title": "Striking clock",
"section": "Section::::Counting the hours.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "During the great wave of tower clock building in 14th-century Europe, around the time of the invention of the mechanical clock itself, striking clocks were built that struck the bell multiple times, to count out the hours. The clock of the Beata Vergine (later San Gottardo) in Milan, built around 1330, was one of the earliest recorded that struck the hours. In 1335, Galvano Fiamma wrote: \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10537149",
"title": "Time in India",
"section": "Section::::Recorded history.:Time under British rule in India.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "In 1925, time synchronisation began to be relayed through omnibus telephone systems and control circuits to organisations that needed to know the precise time. This continued until the 1940s, when time signals began to be broadcast using the radio by the government. Briefly during World War II, clocks under Indian Standard Time were advanced by one hour, referred to as War Time. This provision lasted from September 1, 1942 to October 15, 1945.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41835",
"title": "Universal Time",
"section": "Section::::Universal Time and standard time.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "Prior to the introduction of standard time, each municipality throughout the clock-using world set its official clock, if it had one, according to the local position of the Sun (see solar time). This served adequately until the introduction of rail travel in Britain, which made it possible to travel fast enough over long distances to require continuous re-setting of timepieces as a train progressed in its daily run through several towns. Greenwich Mean Time, where all clocks in Britain were set to the same time, was established to solve this problem. Chronometers or telegraphy were used to synchronize these clocks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1822111",
"title": "Time discipline",
"section": "Section::::Isochronous time.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "But the clocks were still aligned with the local noonday sun. Following the invention of the locomotive in 1830, time had to be synchronized across vast distances in order to organize the train schedules. This eventually led to the development of time zones, and, thus, global isochronous time. These time changes were not accepted everywhere right away, because many people's lives were still tied closely to the length of the daytime. With the invention in 1879 of the light bulb, that changed too.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2q71q4
|
Can anyone name an example of a country that fared poorly as a result of having a really open immigration policy?
|
[
{
"answer": "Our [subreddit rules](_URL_0_) don't allow \"throughout history\" questions, so I'm afraid I've had to remove your post. We've found that questions like this end up attracting low effort trivia rather than the in-depth responses people like to see here. If you're interested, I'd encourage you to post a question about immigration policy in a specific time and place.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6491626",
"title": "Opposition to immigration",
"section": "Section::::Anti-immigration arguments.:No solution to underlying problems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "Immigration may be the outcome of problems in the migrants' countries of origin. Open immigration policies and efforts do not address these problems. However, just keeping borders closed does not address them either.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1784700",
"title": "Saskia Sassen",
"section": "Section::::Works.:Articles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Migration policy: from control to governance : In the United States and Europe alike, immigration policy isn't working -- and the failure is most evident at the crossing-points of the rich and poor worlds, from the Mexican border to the Canary Islands.\", \"openDemocracy\" (July 13, 2006).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4830974",
"title": "Social issues of the 1920s in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Isolationism, immigration, and communism.:Immigration and the National Origins Act.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "Support for immigration restrictions, which began at the turn of the century and had built steadily for twenty years, led to congressional passage of the National Origins Act. This legislation severely restricted the total number of foreigners who would be allowed to enter the United States legally in any given year. It also instituted a quota system intentionally designed to hit Asia and eastern and southern Europe the hardest. The impact was to shut the doors of the country to Asians altogether and slow the flood of Italians, Poles, and Russians to a bare trickle of what it had been.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57144333",
"title": "Home Office hostile environment policy",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "The immigration lawyer and campaigner Colin Yeo described the effect of the policy as: \"the creation of an illegal underclass of foreign, mainly ethnic minority workers and families who are highly vulnerable to exploitation and who have no access to the social and welfare safety net.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25235806",
"title": "Continuous journey regulation",
"section": "Section::::History.:Continuous Journey Regulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 612,
"text": "The government's first attempt to restrict immigration from India was to pass an order-in-council on January 8, 1908, that prohibited immigration of persons who \"in the opinion of the Minister of the Interior\" did not \"come from the country of their birth or citizenship by a continuous journey and or through tickets purchased before leaving their country of their birth or nationality.\" In practice this applied only to ships that began their voyage in India, as the great distance usually necessitated a stopover in Japan or Hawaii. This was discriminatory to Indians who could not travel directly to Canada.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52992418",
"title": "Deng Adut",
"section": "Section::::In Australia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "In 2017 Adut condemned the ban on immigration to the United States ordered by US President Donald Trump. He said, \"The culture of punishing the innocent and weak countries has got to stop. It's not stopping wars; it's creating them. It's creating economic deprivation for the local people; the victims are the poor, the ones that have no skills, the refugees.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26713474",
"title": "Rick Santorum",
"section": "Section::::Political positions.:Immigration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "In 2015, Santorum called for more restrictions on family-based immigration after warning of a \"flood of legal—not illegal—immigrants to our country\", which he blamed for depressing the median income of American workers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1osc17
|
paralysis, specifically if you are paralyzed below the waist, is your genitalia also paralyzed? can a man never have an erection for the rest of his life?
|
[
{
"answer": "Most people who are paralyzed from the waist down do not lose the ability to have and enjoy sex.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It depends.\n\nSome people are (effectively) paralyzed because of a muscle issue. So, the nerve connection between brain and muscle is still there, but the muscles can't contract when the signal reaches them, or they're too weak to truly move. So, if it's just an issue of \"the muscles in the leg no longer function properly,\" the genitalia will still mostly function. This would be the case for someone who's effectively paralyzed because of muscular dystrophy, for example.\n\nSomeone with muscle issues may have problems with ferility, though, especially childbirth. A mother whose muscles are too weak to force a child out would have to have surgery to give birth, for example. Men also may have issues ejaculating, because the muscles that actually force the semen out can be too weak. Incontinence can also be an issue.\n\nWith nerve issues, it's more complicated. There are injuries or diseases which affect the brain's ability to actually send signals to the muscles. If the nerves that go down your leg through the hip are cut off or damaged, the genitalia aren't affected. If there's a spinal problem where the cutoff is towards the base of the spine or whatever, that can affect genital functioning. No nerve impulse, no genital functioning. Not only can you not feel anything when the nerves are cut off, but the \"automatic\" reflexes that occur without you doing anything conscious (like your leg kicking when the doctor taps your knee) also fail, since they're also routed through the central nervous system.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Since others have hit on non-spinal cord injuries, I'll just focus on those. Your body has a main pathway that moves information from the ends of your body to the brain. This is called the spinal cord. Some of that information never makes it fully to the brain. Instead, there is a path of nerves that moves from one part of the body, then to the spinal cord, then return back to the origin. This is called a reflex arc. So, you have two ways information moves: From finger to brain, and from finger to spinal cord to finger. Let's use a simple example. You are using a hot stove and touch one of the burners. Two things happen: First, and quickest there is a signal sent through the reflex arc causing (Finger, nerve to spinal cord, back to finger) your finger to pulls back very quickly. At the same time, but taking a millisecond or two longer is the sensation of HOT!!! being sent to your brain for interpretation. The purpose of the reflex is to be quicker than the interpretation so you are out of danger without necessarily knowing why immediately.\n\nIn the case of spinal cord injuries, a lot of this depends on where the injury is. If it's too low on the spinal cord, then the nerves needed for both erection (some terminating in the spinal cord as a reflex arc, others continuing to the brain for full interpretation) and the reflex arc nerves for ejaculation will be cut off. If the break is higher, then you might get someone who can have an erection, and have an ejaculation (a function of the reflex arc), but they may not feel it. So, they get hard, ejaculate, but get no sensation out of it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9759026",
"title": "Konzo",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "The onset of paralysis (spastic paraparesis) is sudden and symmetrical and affects the legs more than the arms. The resulting disability is permanent but does not progress. Typically, a patient is standing and walking on the balls of the feet with rigid legs and often with ankle clonus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23254",
"title": "Paralysis",
"section": "Section::::Variations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "Paralysis can occur in localised or generalised forms, or it may follow a certain pattern. Most paralyses caused by nervous-system damage (e.g., spinal cord injuries) are constant in nature; however, some forms of periodic paralysis, including sleep paralysis, are caused by other factors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23254",
"title": "Paralysis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "Paralysis is a loss of muscle function for one or more muscles. Paralysis can be accompanied by a loss of feeling (sensory loss) in the affected area if there is sensory damage as well as motor. In the United States, roughly 1 in 50 people have been diagnosed with some form of permanent or transient paralysis. The word comes from the Greek παράλυσις, \"disabling of the nerves\", itself from παρά (\"para\"), \"beside, by\" and λύσις (\"lysis\"), \"making loose\". A paralysis accompanied by involuntary tremors is usually called \"palsy\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44201347",
"title": "Acute flaccid myelitis",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "In 2014, the CDC Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report and a CDC Clinician Outreach and Communication Activity (COCA) conference call, noted that many cases had neck, back, or extremity pain, but otherwise those affected generally had normal sensation in their limbs. A few participants in the conference call discussed whether pain, later abating, might precede the onset of paralysis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "653348",
"title": "Human musculoskeletal system",
"section": "Section::::Clinical significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "Disorders of muscles from another body system can bring about irregularities such as: impairment of ocular motion and control, respiratory dysfunction, and bladder malfunction. Complete paralysis, paresis, or ataxia may be caused by primary muscular dysfunctions of infectious or toxic origin; however, the primary disorder is usually related to the nervous system, with the muscular system acting as the effector organ, an organ capable of responding to a stimulus, especially a nerve impulse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23254",
"title": "Paralysis",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "Paralysis is most often caused by damage in the nervous system, especially the spinal cord. Other major causes are stroke, trauma with nerve injury, poliomyelitis, cerebral palsy, peripheral neuropathy, Parkinson's disease, ALS, botulism, spina bifida, multiple sclerosis, and Guillain–Barré syndrome. Temporary paralysis occurs during REM sleep, and dysregulation of this system can lead to episodes of waking paralysis. Drugs that interfere with nerve function, such as curare, can also cause paralysis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23254",
"title": "Paralysis",
"section": "Section::::Variations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 683,
"text": "Paralysis can occur in newborns due to a congenital defect known as spina bifida. Spina bifida causes one or more of the vertebrae to fail to form vertebral arches within the infant, which allows the spinal cord to protrude from the rest of the spine. In extreme cases, this can cause spinal cord function inferior to the missing vertebral arches to cease. This cessation of spinal cord function can result in paralysis of lower extremities. Documented cases of paralysis of the anal sphincter in newborns have been observed when spina bifida has gone untreated. While life-threatening, many cases of spina bifida can be corrected surgically if operated on within 72 hours of birth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6623yk
|
theresa may's announcement of the snap election
|
[
{
"answer": "May's Blue party think they're currently doing a lot better than Jeremy's Red party. Because the Blue party are in charge of the tree house just now, they've decided to hold the next election earlier than they need to, which is called a 'snap' election.\n\nAll the members of the tree house get to vote in whether or not the snap election will take place, but if Jeremy and his friends say no then everyone will think they're scared to stand up to May. Everyone who's not a Red or a Blue thinks that they can maybe steal a few of the better chairs in the tree house from the Reds during the confusion. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39353017",
"title": "History of the socialist movement in the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Leadership of Jeremy Corbyn: 2015-present.:United Kingdom general election, 2017.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 117,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 117,
"end_character": 1288,
"text": "On 18 April 2017, Prime Minister Theresa May announced she would seek an unexpected snap election on Thursday 8 June 2017. Corbyn said he welcomed May's proposal and said his party would support the government's move in the parliamentary vote announced for 19 April. The necessary super-majority of two-thirds was achieved when 522 of the 650 members of parliament voted in favour of an early election. Some of the opinion polls had shown a 20-point Conservative lead over Labour before the election was called, but this lead had narrowed by the day of the 2017 general election; which resulted in a hung parliament. Despite remaining in opposition for the third general election in a row, Labour won 40% of the popular vote, its greatest share of the vote since 2001. It was also the first time the Labour Party had made a net gain of seats since their 1997 landslide victory. Thirty new seats were gained to reach 262 total MPs, and, with a swing of 9.6%, achieved the biggest percentage-point increase in its vote share at a single general election since 1945. Immediately following the election, party membership rose by 35,000. In July 2017, opinion polling suggested Labour leads the Conservatives, 45% to 39% while a YouGov poll gave Labour an 8-point lead over the Conservatives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57562818",
"title": "Parliamentary votes on Brexit",
"section": "Section::::History.:Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "On 18 April 2017 Theresa May announced a snap general election for 8 June 2017, with the aim of strengthening her hand in Brexit negotiations. This resulted in a hung parliament, in which the number of Conservative seats fell from 330 to 317, despite the party winning its highest vote share since 1983, prompting her to broker a confidence and supply deal with the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) to support a minority government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54299574",
"title": "2019 Conservative Party (UK) leadership election",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Snap general election and aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "May began the process of Brexit, the UK's withdrawal from the European Union, by triggering Article 50 on 29 March 2017. In April 2017, May announced a snap general election in June in order to \"strengthen her hand\" when she negotiated with the European Union. May aimed to substantially increase the Conservative Party's slim majority, with opinion polls originally predicting a landslide victory for her party. However, the result was a hung parliament, with the number of Conservative seats falling from 330 to 318. This prompted her to broker a confidence and supply deal with Northern Ireland's Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) to support her minority government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61343841",
"title": "Premiership of Boris Johnson",
"section": "Section::::Bid for Conservative leadership.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Theresa May, after failing to pass her Brexit withdrawal agreement through parliament three times, announced her resignation as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom on 24 May 2019 amidst calls for her to be ousted. Boris Johnson had already confirmed at a business event in Manchester days earlier that he would run for Conservative Party leader if May were to resign.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50913004",
"title": "Proposed second Scottish independence referendum",
"section": "Section::::History.:United Kingdom general election, 2015.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "The 2015 UK general election was held on 7 May almost eight months after the independence referendum was held. In their manifesto, the SNP said in response to the Conservatives manifesto pledge promising a referendum on EU membership by the end of 2017 if elected.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16970510",
"title": "History of the Labour Party (UK)",
"section": "Section::::In opposition.:Jeremy Corbyn.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 250,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 250,
"end_character": 950,
"text": "On 18 April 2017, the Prime Minister Theresa May announced she would seek an unexpected snap election on 8 June 2017. Corbyn said he welcomed May's proposal and said his party would support the government's move in the parliamentary vote announced for 19 April. The necessary super-majority of two-thirds was achieved when 522 of the 650 Members of Parliament voted in support. Some of the opinion polls had shown a 20-point Conservative lead over Labour before the election was called, but this lead had narrowed by the day of the 2017 general election, which resulted in a hung parliament. Despite remaining in opposition for its third election in a row, Labour at 40.0% won its greatest share of the vote since 2001, made a net gain of 30 seats to reach 262 total MPs, and achieved the biggest percentage-point increase in its vote share in a single general election since 1945. Immediately following the election party membership rose by 35,000.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21775959",
"title": "List of resignations from government",
"section": "Section::::21st century.:2019.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 268,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 268,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "BULLET::::- Theresa May announced her resignation as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom on the 24th May after her party (the Conservative Party) called for her to step down because of her inability to secure a Brexit deal. This is the second-consecutive Conservative resignation under the reign of Queen Elizabeth II last seen when Anthony Eden resigned in 1957. May will resign officially as Prime Minister on the week beginning the 22nd July.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
185jiv
|
How serious was the Madagascar plan?
|
[
{
"answer": "Transcript from the Eichmann trial.\n\nThe plan took its final shape during the War. Eichmann admitted that it had been devised and passed on by his Section after consultations and discussions with other authorities. Under this plan all the local inhabitants of Madagascar, about four million persons were to be uprooted, to be removed and deported from there, and in their stead the Jews were to be settled on that island, the main advantage of which was, according to what was specifically stated, that its occupants would be prohibited from coming into any contact - even business contacts - with other nations. There they would be living under the control of the Gestapo and would never achieve any independence. They planned to dump a million Jews there each year. Whoever studies this atrocious plan which originated with him, will come to the conclusion that its principal objective was to take control of the Jews, to throw them out of Europe, and to transport them to a country of exile, a country in which they would be isolated from the world. Whether the Jews succeeded in surviving there, or not - that did not matter, that Eichmann did not take into consideration. \n\nHe was questioned about the plan. The Court will find his replies on the subject. From the point of view of its cruelty and lack of consideration for human life, its being pervaded with hatred of Jews, its being drawn up in total disregard for the inhabitants of the island of Madagascar themselves and for the Jews destined to be deported there - it was not much better than a plan for actual extermination. Whoever was capable of preparing such a plan, recommending it and striving for its implementation - would not find it too difficult to move to the next stage of the criminal plot. But it was impertinent and insolent to mention this plot in the same breath as Herzl and the Zionist movement. \n\nPossibly Eichmann was incensed that his schemes were not adopted. Possibly he expected that his name would be linked, as it had been linked at the ministerial meeting of 12 November 1938, with the practical solution of getting rid of the Jews - the aim which a veteran National Socialist should obviously have aspired to achieve. Possibly he toyed with the idea that if his programme were to be implemented, he - and not Heydrich - would be the Supreme Commissioner for Jewish Affairs. \n\nAt any rate,instead of Madagascar, there came the extermination plan. Eichmann admits that he knew about it already from its early stages, in the summer of 1941, and that he had an active role in its realization. As I have said, he tried to persuade the Court with all his might, that it was only through lack of an alternative and because he could not free himself, that he had to become engaged in this activity. Although, as I have said, it makes no difference, as regards his being found guilty, whether a murderer acts out of an eager lust for blood or out of \"pessimism,\" as Eichmann portrayed his mental condition regarding the Final Solution. But for the purpose of assessing the man, of considering his testimony and evaluating the personality which he tried to present for himself, for understanding the group of his collaborators and their assistants who carried out the numerous works, there is some importance also in this enquiry. The truth came out as it emerged from a particular passage from his conversation with Sassen, about which he was questioned twice.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For a great summary of varying opinions, I recommend Christopher Browning's paper on Nazi Resettlement Policy. In it, he discusses both sides to the argument, was it serious or not summed up as a part of the old internationalist vs. functionalist debate. Here's parts of the essay: [Google Books](_URL_0_) \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "812799",
"title": "Glossary of Nazi Germany",
"section": "Section::::M.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 411,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 411,
"end_character": 915,
"text": "BULLET::::- Madagascar Plan – a scheme devised by the Nazis in 1940 to globally alleviate the perceived Jewish problem by shipping them en-masse to the French colony known as the island of Madagascar. Instead of sending the Jews to Palestine, which the Nazis believed belonged to the Christians and Muslims, the idea was to hold them \"hostage\" so to speak, on Madagascar as a bargaining chip with the Americans. Financing this operation was to be conducted using funds forcibly appropriated from Jewish businesses, homes, and any other available capital assets in Jewish control. Since the plan rested on a peace treaty between France and by proxy, Britain, it was never implemented. This plan is sometimes cited by Nazi scholars of the \"functionalist\" school as proof that the original intention of the Nazis was not to systematically exterminate the Jews but merely to relocate them away from continental Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1376379",
"title": "Madagascar Plan",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "The Madagascar Plan was a proposal by the Nazi German government to forcibly relocate the Jewish population of Europe to the island of Madagascar. Franz Rademacher, head of the Jewish Department of the German Foreign Office, proposed the idea in June 1940, shortly before the Fall of France. The proposal called for the handing over of control of Madagascar, then a French colony, to Germany as part of the French surrender terms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "393536",
"title": "Marc Ravalomanana",
"section": "Section::::Presidency.:Second term.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "During his second term, Ravalomanana oversaw revisions to the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. Renamed the Madagascar Action Plan (MAP), this new strategy was intended to build on the successes of his first term to accelerate and expand national development. The plan focused on \"the eight commitments\": accountable governance, more extensive and interconnected infrastructure, agriculture based rural development, family planning and health (particularly fighting HIV/AIDS), strong economic growth, environmental protection, and the traditional principle of \"fihavanana\" (solidarity). The plan's targets were aligned with the United Nations' Millennium Development Goals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56279196",
"title": "Madagascar in World War II",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 711,
"text": "In 1942, the British and several other Allied forces launched an invasion of Madagascar, seeking to protect its position as an important juncture in Allied shipping and deny its use to the Axis. In addition to its role as a key link in the Allied supply lines and major provider of troops, Madagascar was also briefly considered as the solution to the Jewish Question by the government of Nazi Germany who openly floated deporting Europe's Jewish population to the island in 1940. This scheme known as the Madagascar Plan never came to fruition for a variety of reasons. The island was officially handed over from the British to Free France in 1943 under whose control it remained for the remainder of the war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50878",
"title": "Economy of Madagascar",
"section": "Section::::Poverty reduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 903,
"text": "In 2000, Madagascar embarked on the preparation of a Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative. The boards of the IMF and of the World Bank concurred in December 2000 that the country was eligible under the HIPC Initiative, and Madagascar reached the decision point for debt relief. On March 1, 2001, the IMF Board granted the country $103 million for 2001–03 under the Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGR). Resources were intended for improving access to health, education, rural roads, water, and direct support to communities. In addition, on March 7, 2001, the Paris Club approved a debt cancellation of $161 million. On February 28, 2001, the African Development Bank (ADB) approved under the HIPC a debt cancellation of $71.46 million and granted in June 2001 an additional credit of $20 million to fight against AIDS and poverty.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50881",
"title": "Madagascar People’s Armed Forces",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1636,
"text": "Madagascar regained political independence and sovereignty over its military in 1960. Since this time Madagascar has never engaged in an armed conflict, whether against another state or within its own borders. As such the armed forces of Madagascar have primarily served a peace-keeping role. However, the military has occasionally intervened to restore order during periods of political unrest. When President Philibert Tsiranana was forced to step down in 1972, a military directorate ensured an interim government before appointing one of its own, Admiral Didier Ratsiraka, to lead the country into its socialist Second Republic. He launched a strategy of obligatory national armed or civil service for all young citizens regardless of gender. The majority were channeled into civil service, including agriculture and education programs for rural development based on the socialist Soviet model. Ratsiraka would also mobilize elements of the military to pacify unarmed protesters, occasionally using violent means. His order to fire upon unarmed protesters in 1989 was the catalyst for transition to the democratic Third Republic in 1992. The military remained largely neutral during the protracted standoff between incumbent Ratsiraka and challenger Marc Ravalomanana in the disputed 2001 presidential elections. By contrast, in 2009 a segment of the army defected to the side of Andry Rajoelina, then-mayor of Antananarivo, in support of his attempt to force President Ravalomanana from power. It is widely believed that payoffs were involved in persuading these military personnel to change camps in support of the \"coup d'etat\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36512491",
"title": "Child labour in Africa",
"section": "Section::::Contemporary child labour.:Madagascar.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Several internationally funded efforts were involved in Madagascar to help reduce and prevent child labour. However these stopped, after the government change following 2009 coup, because much of the funding from international donors, including the African Union, European Union, World Bank and the United States, was suspended.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
js20b
|
how military units get their numbers? like where does 25th id come from? wheres 24th id?
|
[
{
"answer": "this is probably better off in /askreddit than eli5",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I always wondered why we only hear about the 82ond and 101st Airborne-the 83rd must be pissed!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's largely random. In WWII we had the first, second, and third armies, but then you get reasons like:\n\n-SEAL Team 6: Actually the second SEAL Team, but we wanted the Russians to think we had more.\n\n-112th Airborne: Made up of 2 different units, something like the 50th and 62nd, couldn't decide whose number to take when they got combined, so they just added them.\n\nOther units were just split up and given \"the next number\" that wasn't being used and then became autonomous by circumstance, so they were reinforced and became their own unit. Really there's no single rhyme or reason to it.\n\nCharlie 3-07 sounds more like a callsign. Like the 7th crewman in the 3rd vehicle of Charlie platoon.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some of these units were wiped out and others absorbed by other units that had not lost as many men. You don't have the resources to constantly change the numbers (repainting vehicles, new patches on everything, record-keeping continuity, etc) so the surviving units retain their old numbers. The rest were either killed off or had their numbers slowly reduced through attrition until the remaining members were dispersed to similar units.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's actually quite simple. The military numbers divisions (10,000 - 15,000 people) as they're created. When they are deactivated, that number is simply dropped, but they keep naming new divisions counting up from the last number used.\n\nThe military used to use the same method for numbering regiments (3000 - 5000 people), but they stopped doing that during the Civil War when some states made their own numbers for regiments. Now I think the regimens simply decide on a number, I'm not sure.\n\nThe military will also combine regimens as needed into each division. So it makes the regimen numbers in the division seem random, because they don't renumber the regiment when it's placed in a division.\n\nEDIT: Not regimen, regiment.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It gets even more confusing when you start considering Aviation Units. The 2nd Marine Aircraft Wing hosts VMA-231, VMA-223, VMA-542 under MALS-14... VMA as it was explained to me stands for Fixed Wing Marine Attack Squadron and I have no clue where our numbers came from. MALS is Marine Aviation Logistics Squadron which kinda feeds us our intel and some of our 2nd level engineering. I never really questioned our numbering systems all that much but since you mention it... they make no fucking sense.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For the second part of the questions the 24th ID (like the 25th ID) started life as the 'Hawaiian Division' in the 1920s (consisting of troops from, or stationed in, Hawaii) - That division was split into two new divisions under the new 'Triangular' structure in 1941, and they were present when the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor.\n\nThey fought right through WWII in the Pacific Theatre, ending up as a part of the army of occupation in Japan. They were the first US unit committed during the Korean War, served in Germany during the Cold Ware and Desert Storm in 1991. After that they became a training unit in the US, and were deactivated in 2006.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "this is probably better off in /askreddit than eli5",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I always wondered why we only hear about the 82ond and 101st Airborne-the 83rd must be pissed!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's largely random. In WWII we had the first, second, and third armies, but then you get reasons like:\n\n-SEAL Team 6: Actually the second SEAL Team, but we wanted the Russians to think we had more.\n\n-112th Airborne: Made up of 2 different units, something like the 50th and 62nd, couldn't decide whose number to take when they got combined, so they just added them.\n\nOther units were just split up and given \"the next number\" that wasn't being used and then became autonomous by circumstance, so they were reinforced and became their own unit. Really there's no single rhyme or reason to it.\n\nCharlie 3-07 sounds more like a callsign. Like the 7th crewman in the 3rd vehicle of Charlie platoon.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some of these units were wiped out and others absorbed by other units that had not lost as many men. You don't have the resources to constantly change the numbers (repainting vehicles, new patches on everything, record-keeping continuity, etc) so the surviving units retain their old numbers. The rest were either killed off or had their numbers slowly reduced through attrition until the remaining members were dispersed to similar units.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's actually quite simple. The military numbers divisions (10,000 - 15,000 people) as they're created. When they are deactivated, that number is simply dropped, but they keep naming new divisions counting up from the last number used.\n\nThe military used to use the same method for numbering regiments (3000 - 5000 people), but they stopped doing that during the Civil War when some states made their own numbers for regiments. Now I think the regimens simply decide on a number, I'm not sure.\n\nThe military will also combine regimens as needed into each division. So it makes the regimen numbers in the division seem random, because they don't renumber the regiment when it's placed in a division.\n\nEDIT: Not regimen, regiment.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It gets even more confusing when you start considering Aviation Units. The 2nd Marine Aircraft Wing hosts VMA-231, VMA-223, VMA-542 under MALS-14... VMA as it was explained to me stands for Fixed Wing Marine Attack Squadron and I have no clue where our numbers came from. MALS is Marine Aviation Logistics Squadron which kinda feeds us our intel and some of our 2nd level engineering. I never really questioned our numbering systems all that much but since you mention it... they make no fucking sense.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For the second part of the questions the 24th ID (like the 25th ID) started life as the 'Hawaiian Division' in the 1920s (consisting of troops from, or stationed in, Hawaii) - That division was split into two new divisions under the new 'Triangular' structure in 1941, and they were present when the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor.\n\nThey fought right through WWII in the Pacific Theatre, ending up as a part of the army of occupation in Japan. They were the first US unit committed during the Korean War, served in Germany during the Cold Ware and Desert Storm in 1991. After that they became a training unit in the US, and were deactivated in 2006.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23812886",
"title": "Service number (United States Army)",
"section": "Section::::World War II.:Enlisted men.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 708,
"text": "Wartime service numbers of the Regular Army and the Army of the United States began at 10 000 000 and extended to 19 999 999. A subset of this series was reserved solely for those who had enlisted from recruiting stations outside of the 48 contiguous states of the United States. The first number after the \"ten\" would indicate the geographical region from which a person had enlisted with the remaining numbers an identification number for the soldier. The geographical codes were 10 1 (for Hawaii), 10 2 (for Panama), 10 3 (for the Philippines) and 10 4 (for Puerto Rico). The remaining number codes (5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 0) were unassigned and used by various recruiting stations outside the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2237748",
"title": "Service number",
"section": "Section::::United Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Until 1960, National Servicemen who voluntarily remained in the Armed Forces continued to use their National Service numbers. Until 2007 and the introduction of the Joint Personnel Administration (JPA) system, Army Officers were issued with a six-digit service number. Newly commissioned officers now receive an eight-digit service number, but six-digit Officers' numbers issued prior to the introduction of JPA remained unchanged.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23530592",
"title": "Service number (United States Armed Forces)",
"section": "Section::::Format.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "The Army is the only branch of service to begin both officer and enlisted service numbers at No. 1. Marine Corps officer numbers also begin at No. 1 but Marine Corps enlisted numbers start much later at #20,001. There is also no service No. 1 in the Navy, Coast Guard, or Air Force although the earliest recorded Air Force officer number was No. 4.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58626467",
"title": "July 1969",
"section": "Section::::July 1, 1969 (Tuesday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1087,
"text": "BULLET::::- Assignment of a \"service number\" for United States Army and United States Air Force personnel was discontinued more than 50 years after the first Army service number had been issued on February 28, 1918, though the U.S. Marines would continue to use numbers until the end of 1970 and the U.S. Navy until the end of 1971. The identifier, more commonly referred to as part of the \"name, rank and serial number\" was replaced instead with the service member's Social Security number for all people sworn in after midnight of June 1. Besides eliminating the 8-digit service number, the Army and Air Force also retired the prefixes (such as \"RA\" for \"regular Army\" for volunteers, \"US\" for draftees, \"ER\" for enlisted reservists, \"O\" for officer and \"WA\" for \"women's Army\"). In at least one location, the Richards-Gebaur Air Reserve Station in Missouri, induction was delayed so that one recruit could be sworn in before midnight on Monday and given the last service number, and another a few minutes later on Tuesday to be \"given a Social Security number as his service number\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23812886",
"title": "Service number (United States Army)",
"section": "Section::::Korean War service numbers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "In 1948, the Army opened up the 50 million service number series. These numbers would range from 50 000 000 to 59 999 999 and would be assigned to personnel who were either drafted into the Army of the United States or who enlisted into the Army Reserve. As with the older 30 million numbers, the first two numbers were determined by the geographical region from which a soldier was drafted or had enlisted. Numbers beginning with \"50\" specified an entry location outside the United States with 50 0 reserved for Hawaii, 50 1 reserved for Panama and Puerto Rico, and 50 2 reserved for Alaska. Within the United States, the geographical codes were:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23812886",
"title": "Service number (United States Army)",
"section": "Section::::World War I.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "The Army officer number system was determined simply by seniority and entry date into the Army officer corps; between 1921 and 1935, officer numbers ranged from 1 to 19 999. Enlisted service numbers continued in a similar fashion with enlisted numbers picking up where the World War I numbers had left off; between 1919 and 1940 the numbers ranged from 6 000 000 to 7 099 999. Enlisted personnel who were World War I veterans continued to hold their pre-6 million series service numbers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2237748",
"title": "Service number",
"section": "Section::::United Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "Soldiers in the British Army are given an eight-digit number, e.g. 25232301. Prior to 1920, each regiment issued their own service numbers which were unique only within that regiment, so the same number could be issued many times in different regiments. When a serviceman moved, he would be given a new service number by his new regiment. Commissioned officers did not have service numbers until 1920. The modern system was introduced by Army Order 338 in August 1920. Numbers were then a maximum of seven digits, later groups of numbers up to eight digits were added.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
40sqo7
|
why should one's beliefs impede another's rights, especially if the other doesn't subscribe to their belief system?
|
[
{
"answer": "Christians believe being around gay people or being forced to serve them food in their restaurant is the same as \"being forced to accept homosexuality\". In Christianity, homosexuality is a sin punishable by death, no different from murder. \n\nAlso, they believe gay marriage or gay rights are special rights. They believe it is equal because no one should have the right to marry someone of their same sex.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is unavoidable that if your \"rights\"... lets just say freedoms... are to be impeded in any way that this is done according to someones (presumably most peoples) beliefs. In other words, if you are forbidden from doing something, it's because of some belief that you should be.\n\nClearly, you and I should be forbidden from doing some things. Clearly high on the list are things that harm others directly, like murder. But this is forbidden because we believe it should be so.\n\nLower on the list are things that are forbidden because they are 'wrong'. We forbid cruelty to animals, even though they have no legal rights. I think we all believe this is as it should be, but that is only a belief, and has not always been so, certainly not in certain societies.\n\nI could go on, but the point is that belief of some kind is at the root of all restrictions or exhortations - including the desire to limit the influence of some beliefs, else you'd likely still be ruled by a king or other absolute ruler.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7372803",
"title": "United Kingdom employment equality law",
"section": "Section::::Equality protection.:Religion or belief.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 971,
"text": "While direct discrimination on grounds of religion or belief is automatically unlawful, the nature of religions or beliefs leads to the conclusion that objective justification for disparate impact is easier. Beliefs often lead adherents to the need to manifest their closely held views, in a way which may conflict with ordinary requirements of the work place. There is not the same degree of privilege granted to beliefs as is to a disability, requiring \"reasonable adjustments\" for the wishes of the believer. So in cases where an adherent to a religion wishes to take time off to pray, or wear a particular article of clothing or jewellery, it will usually be within the right of the employer to insist that the contract of employment is performed as was initially agreed. This refusal of the law to grant privileged status to beliefs may reflect the element of choice in belief or the need of a secular society to treat all people, whether believers or not, equally.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1465001",
"title": "McCreary County v. American Civil Liberties Union",
"section": "Section::::Dissenting opinion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1151,
"text": "Besides appealing to the demonstrably false principle that the government cannot favor religion over irreligion, today's opinion suggests that the posting of the Ten Commandments violates the principle that the government cannot favor one religion over another . . .. That is indeed a valid principle where public aid or assistance to religion is concerned, ... or where the free exercise of religion is at issue, ... but it necessarily applies in a more limited sense to public acknowledgment of the Creator. If religion in the public forum had to be entirely nondenominational, there could be no religion in the public forum at all. One cannot say the word \"God,\" or \"the Almighty,\" one cannot offer public supplication or thanksgiving, without contradicting the beliefs of some people that there are many gods, or that God or the gods pay no attention to human affairs. With respect to public acknowledgment of religious belief, it is entirely clear from our Nation's historical practices that the Establishment Clause permits this disregard of polytheists and believers in unconcerned deities, just as it permits the disregard of devout atheists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31582262",
"title": "Morality and religion",
"section": "Section::::Religious frameworks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "According to Thomas Dixon, \"Many today ... argue that religious beliefs are necessary to provide moral guidance and standards of virtuous conduct in an otherwise corrupt, materialistic, and degenerate world.\" In the same vein, Christian theologian Ron Rhodes has remarked that \"it is impossible to distinguish evil from good unless one has an infinite reference point which is absolutely good.\" Thomas Dixon states, \"Religions certainly do provide a framework within which people can learn the difference between right and wrong.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18410383",
"title": "Secular morality",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "Others eschew the idea that religion is required to provide a guide to right and wrong behavior. The \"Westminster Dictionary of Christian Ethics\" however states that religion and morality \"are to be defined differently and have no definitional connections with each other\". Some believe that religions provide poor guides to moral behavior. Various commentators, such as Richard Dawkins (\"The God Delusion\"), Sam Harris (\"The End of Faith\") and Christopher Hitchens (\"God Is Not Great\") are among those who have asserted this view.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4159728",
"title": "Criticism of atheism",
"section": "Section::::Atheism and science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 998,
"text": "Francis Collins, the American physician and geneticist who lead the Human Genome Project, argues that theism is more rational than atheism. Collins also found Lewis persuasive and after reading \"Mere Christianity\" came to believe that a rational person would be more likely to believe in a god. Collins argues: \"How is it that we, and all other members of our species, unique in the animal kingdom, know what's right and what's wrong... I reject the idea that that is an evolutionary consequence, because that moral law sometimes tells us that the right thing to do is very self-destructive. If I'm walking down the riverbank, and a man is drowning, even if I don't know how to swim very well, I feel this urge that the right thing to do is to try to save that person. Evolution would tell me exactly the opposite: preserve your DNA. Who cares about the guy who's drowning? He's one of the weaker ones, let him go. It's your DNA that needs to survive. And yet that's not what's written within me\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23003",
"title": "Philosophy of religion",
"section": "Section::::Basic themes and problems.:Religion and ethics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "BULLET::::- Morality and religion are opposed to each other. In this view, belief in a God would mean one would do whatever that God commands, even if it goes against morality. The view that religion and morality are often opposed has been espoused by atheists like Lucretius and Bertrand Russell as well as by theologians like Kierkegaard who argued for a 'teleological suspension of the ethical'.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1392096",
"title": "Bad faith",
"section": "Section::::In social sciences.:Negotiation theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "Bad faith is a concept in negotiation theory whereby parties pretend to reason to reach settlement, but have no intention to do so, for example, one political party may pretend to negotiate, with no intention to compromise, for political effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9bjjzh
|
plato's theory of forms and aristotle's criticism to it
|
[
{
"answer": "Basically there's a place where there's a perfect form of everything that exists. Like a perfect chair or perfect cat or perfect pencil. According to him when we are born we are born with the knowledge of all these perfect forms but we forget as we get older so we live in an imperfect version of the perfect form world. In other words there are no new inventions we are just remembering. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Both were wrestling with the human experience of the abstraction of ideas and terms for things in the world. E.G. we think lots of things are beautiful, so what is \"beauty\"?\n\nPlato argued that things like \"beauty\" were abstract concepts (and universal concepts) that exist independent of the things we'd describe as beautiful. E.G. \"beauty\" is a form, and \"a beautiful flower\" is a flower that invokes that abstraction.\n\nAristotle rejects this abstraction and says that beauty is an inherent attribute of the object and we can't talk about them independent of the objects themselves in any real sense. E.G. the idea that beauty somehow exists without us having any objects we'd describe as beautiful is non-sensical.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Little Kid: \"Dad, what's a dog?\"\n\nDad: \"Well, we have Buster at home. Buster is a dog.\"\n\nLittle Kid: \"Yeah, but what *makes* Buster a dog?\"\n\nDad: \"Well, he walks on four legs and is covered in fur.\"\n\nLittle Kid: \"Yeah, but so does our cat Oscar.\"\n\nDad: \"Yeah... well, Buster barks.\"\n\nLittle Kid: \"But bears walk on four legs, are covered in fur, and kind of bark. Are bears a type of dog?\"\n\nDad: \"No dingbat, bears aren't a type of dog. When I tell you to think of a dog you don't think of a bear do you?\"\n\nLittle Kid: \"No . . . but what if you shave Buster? Is he still a dog with no fur? Cause that's not what I think of when I think of a dog.\"\n\nDad: \"No, he's still a dog. He's just . . . different. Dogs just sort of have that dog-like quality to them. I guess dogs are just something where you know it when you see it.\"\n\nThis sort of illustrates Plato's Theory of Forms and Aristotle's critique. Plato was basically saying that when you're trying to define something, you ultimately will need to invoke a kind of knowing that isn't a matter of grasping a definition of one term by means of another terms, but of grasping the thing itself. In other words, the concept of a \"dog\" is an abstract universal entity that exists independent of dogs themselves.\n\nAristotle said yeah, but there must be some knowledge of the substance which is *in* the thing. There must be something *in* Buster, some type of dog-like quality, which makes Buster a dog.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "175456",
"title": "Mind–body dualism",
"section": "Section::::Historical overview.:Plato and Aristotle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 707,
"text": "Aristotle argued at length against many aspects of Plato's forms, creating his own doctrine of hylomorphism wherein form and matter coexist. Ultimately however, Aristotle's aim was to perfect a theory of forms, rather than to reject it. Although Aristotle strongly rejected the independent existence Plato attributed to forms, his metaphysics do agree with Plato's \"a priori\" considerations quite often. For example, Aristotle argues that changeless, eternal substantial form is necessarily immaterial. Because matter provides a stable substratum for a change in form, matter always has the potential to change. Thus, if given an eternity in which to do so, it \"will\", necessarily, exercise that potential.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34021381",
"title": "On Ideas",
"section": "Section::::Summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "\"On Ideas\" gives greater detail to many of the arguments which Aristotle recounts in \"Metaphysics\" A.9. There and here objections to arguments for Plato's theory of Forms are given. A point made in multiple places is that the Platonist arguments establish only that there are universals in a general and metaphysically slim sense, and not there are full-blown Forms of the Platonic kind. A version of the third man argument is also given.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25754129",
"title": "Theory of forms",
"section": "Section::::Criticisms of Platonic Forms.:Aristotelian criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "The topic of Aristotle's criticism of Plato's Theory of Forms is a large one and continues to expand. Rather than quote Plato, Aristotle often summarized. Classical commentaries thus recommended Aristotle as an introduction to Plato. As a historian of prior thought, Aristotle was invaluable, however this was secondary to his own dialectic and in some cases he treats purported implications as if Plato had actually mentioned them, or even defended them. In examining Aristotle's criticism of The Forms, it is helpful to understand Aristotle's own hylomorphic forms, by which he intends to salvage much of Plato's theory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59945",
"title": "History of logic",
"section": "Section::::Logic in the West.:Ancient Greece before Aristotle.:Plato.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 1204,
"text": "The first question arises in the dialogue \"Theaetetus\", where Plato identifies thought or opinion with talk or discourse (\"logos\"). The second question is a result of Plato's theory of Forms. Forms are not things in the ordinary sense, nor strictly ideas in the mind, but they correspond to what philosophers later called universals, namely an abstract entity common to each set of things that have the same name. In both the \"Republic\" and the \"Sophist\", Plato suggests that the necessary connection between the assumptions of a valid argument and its conclusion corresponds to a necessary connection between \"forms\". The third question is about definition. Many of Plato's dialogues concern the search for a definition of some important concept (justice, truth, the Good), and it is likely that Plato was impressed by the importance of definition in mathematics. What underlies every definition is a Platonic Form, the common nature present in different particular things. Thus, a definition reflects the ultimate object of understanding, and is the foundation of all valid inference. This had a great influence on Plato's student Aristotle, in particular Aristotle's notion of the essence of a thing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "314412",
"title": "Form of the Good",
"section": "Section::::Scholarly analysis.:Other criticisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "Plato's Forms are also critiqued for being treated as the reason for all things, as opposed to being an essence in itself. Some scholars also believe that Plato intended the Form to be the essence of which things come into existence. These different interpretations of Plato's intention for the Form may be attributed to the idea that Plato did not have a systematic definition of the Form itself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25754129",
"title": "Theory of forms",
"section": "Section::::Forms.:Ideal state.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 1449,
"text": "Plato's conception of Forms actually differs from dialogue to dialogue, and in certain respects it is never fully explained, so many aspects of the theory are open to interpretation. Forms are first introduced in the Phaedo, but in that dialogue the concept is simply referred to as something the participants are already familiar with, and the theory itself is not developed. Similarly, in the Republic, Plato relies on the concept of Forms as the basis of many of his arguments but feels no need to argue for the validity of the theory itself or to explain precisely what Forms are. Commentators have been left with the task of explaining what Forms are and how visible objects participate in them, and there has been no shortage of disagreement. Some scholars advance the view that Forms are paradigms, perfect examples on which the imperfect world is modeled. Others interpret Forms as universals, so that the Form of Beauty, for example, is that quality that all beautiful things share. Yet others interpret Forms as \"stuffs,\" the conglomeration of all instances of a quality in the visible world. Under this interpretation, we could say there is a little beauty in one person, a little beauty in another—all the beauty in the world put together is the Form of Beauty. Plato himself was aware of the ambiguities and inconsistencies in his Theory of Forms, as is evident from the incisive criticism he makes of his own theory in the Parmenides.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22954",
"title": "Plato",
"section": "Section::::Philosophy.:Metaphysics.:The Forms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "\"Platonism\" and its theory of Forms (or theory of Ideas) denies the reality of the material world, considering it only an image or copy of the real world. The theory of Forms is first introduced in the \"Phaedo\" dialogue (also known as \"On the Soul\"), wherein Socrates refutes the pluralism of the likes of Anaxagoras, then the most popular response to Heraclitus and Parmenides, while giving the \"Opposites argument\" in support of the Forms \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6a8tyt
|
why are videogame consoles and other electronics arranged in rectangular prisms rather than cubes?
|
[
{
"answer": "They're based around circuit boards which tend to be flat and not square. Making a cube would either result in a *giant* cube, forcing you to make your circuit board really tiny or splitting the electronics into multiple square boards & adding some sort of interconnect between them, none of which are ideal solutions.\n\nFor one example, [here's the inside of an XBox 360](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "28762",
"title": "SameGame",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Gallery.:Variations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "In three-dimensional variants, the playing field is a cube (containing smaller cubes) instead of a rectangle, and the player has the ability to rotate the cube. \"Cubes\" for iPhone OS uses this approach.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23070656",
"title": "Isometric video game graphics",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Advantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 688,
"text": "In the fields of computer and video games and pixel art, the technique has become popular because of the ease with which 2D sprite- and tile-based graphics can be made to represent a 3D gaming environment. Because parallelly projected objects do not change size as they move about the game field, there is no need for the computer to scale sprites or do the complex calculations necessary to simulate visual perspective. This allowed 8-bit and 16-bit game systems (and, more recently, handheld and mobile systems) to portray large 3D areas quickly and easily. And, while the depth confusion problems of parallel projection can sometimes be a problem, good game design can alleviate this.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "576646",
"title": "2.5D",
"section": "Section::::Computer graphics.:Scaling along the Z axis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "In some games, sprites are scaled larger or smaller depending on its distance to the player, producing the illusion of motion along the Z (forward) axis. Sega's 1986 video game \"Out Run\", which runs on the Sega OutRun arcade system board, is a good example of this technique.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25255027",
"title": "Video game graphics",
"section": "Section::::2D.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Games utilizing parallel projection typically make use of two-dimensional bitmap graphics as opposed to 3D-rendered triangle-based geometry, allowing developers to create large, complex gameworlds efficiently and with relatively few art assets by dividing the art into sprites or tiles and reusing them repeatedly (though some games use a mix of different techniques).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5381963",
"title": "Resolution independence",
"section": "Section::::Implementation.:Other.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "Video games are often resolution-independent; an early example is \"Another World\" for DOS, which used polygons to draw its 2D content and was later remade using the same polygons at a much higher resolution. 3D games are resolution-independent since the perspective is calculated every frame and so it can vary its resolution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "665532",
"title": "Gamepad",
"section": "Section::::History.:Three-dimensional control.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 961,
"text": "Though three-dimensional games rose to prominence in the mid-1990s, controllers continued to mostly operate on two-dimensional principles; in order to move with six degrees of freedom, players would have to hold down a button to toggle the axis on which the directional pad operates, rather than being able to control movement along all three axes at once. One of the first gaming consoles, the Fairchild Channel F, did have a controller which allowed six degrees of freedom, but the processing limitations of the console itself prevented there from being any software to take advantage of this ability. In 1994 Logitech introduced the CyberMan, the first practical six degrees of freedom controller, but due to its high price, poor build quality, and limited software support it sold poorly. Industry insiders blame the CyberMan's high profile and costly failure for the gaming industry's lack of interest in developing 3D control over the next several years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21970",
"title": "Virtual Boy",
"section": "Section::::Hardware.:Control.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "In more traditional 2-dimensional games, the two directional pads are interchangeable. For others with a more 3D environment, like \"Red Alarm\", \"3D Tetris\", or \"Teleroboxer\", each pad controls a different feature. The symmetry of the controller also allows left-handed gamers to reverse the controls (similar to the Atari Lynx).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1p5u2v
|
Serious: Is the increase in detection and diagnosis of all Cancers in any way related to the increased levels of radioactive materials in circulation globally?
|
[
{
"answer": "In short: no. Only a [small fraction of cancers](_URL_0_) is attributable to radiation.\n\nThere are several reasons that cancer is more prevalent (or appears more prevalent) in recent years.\n\n1) Age is the #1 risk factor for cancer. In other words, the older you are, the more likely you are to develop it. This means that as the rest of medicine gets better, and lifespans are extended, cancer is more likely.\n\n2) We are much better at detecting and diagnosing cancer than 200 years ago. The better we are at seeing it, the more people we realize have it.\n\n3) Lifestyle factors (smoking, diet, obesity, exercise) together account for roughly 2/3rds of the cancer we see in the US. In the past 100 years, smoking rates have exploded (although they are on the decline now), and there is an epidemic of obesity. This greatly increases the number of cancer cases each year. Additionally, HPV leads to large numbers of cancers in the cervix, head & neck, and several other sites.\n\n4) Cancer treatment has extended the lifespan of people with cancer by many years. This means that there are more people alive who either have cancer or have had cancer. This is the \"awareness\" factor that can make it appear more prevalent.\n\nRadiation causes cancer, but isn't nearly as strong of a carcinogen as many people think. Here's a question for you: we've done lots of studies on the people exposed to the atomic bombs in Japan during WW2. For those who survived the bombings, what do you think the excess risk of cancer death is?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19216184",
"title": "Nuclear power debate",
"section": "Section::::Whistleblowers.:Health effects on population near nuclear power plants and workers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 751,
"text": "There has been considerable research done on the effect of low-level radiation on humans. Debate on the applicability of Linear no-threshold model versus Radiation hormesis and other competing models continues, however, the predicted low rate of cancer with low dose means that large sample sizes are required in order to make meaningful conclusions. A study conducted by the National Academy of Science found that carcinogenic effects of radiation does increase with dose. The largest study on nuclear industry workers in history involved nearly a half-million individuals and concluded that a 1–2% of cancer deaths were likely due to occupational dose. This was on the high range of what theory predicted by LNT, but was \"statistically compatible\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35993194",
"title": "Radiation-induced cancer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "Exposure to ionizing radiation is known to increase the future incidence of cancer, particularly leukemia. The mechanism by which this occurs is well understood, but quantitative models predicting the level of risk remain controversial. The most widely accepted model posits that the incidence of cancers due to ionizing radiation increases linearly with effective radiation dose at a rate of 5.5% per sievert. If the linear model is correct, then natural background radiation is the most hazardous source of radiation to general public health, followed by medical imaging as a close second. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35993194",
"title": "Radiation-induced cancer",
"section": "Section::::Epidemiology.:Data sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "For low levels of radiation, the biological effects are so small they may not be detected in epidemiological studies. Although radiation may cause cancer at high doses and high dose rates, public health data regarding lower levels of exposure, below about 10 mSv (1,000 mrem), are harder to interpret. To assess the health impacts of lower radiation doses, researchers rely on models of the process by which radiation causes cancer; several models that predict differing levels of risk have emerged.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "949597",
"title": "Semipalatinsk Test Site",
"section": "Section::::Health impacts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "radiation exposure. A longitudinal study conducted over a 40-year span found a correlation between radiation fallout exposure and prevalence of solid tumors. The most frequent sites for solid tumors were the esophagus, stomach, lungs, breasts, and liver. These sites were found to have statistically significant increases in prevalence when compared to a control group. However some bodily sites had no significant difference in number: cervix uteri, kidney, rectum, and pancreas. The study's data suggests that there is a link between exposure length, and amount, to overall and cancer mortality. Nonetheless the relationship between the level of radiation exposure and effect is still up for discussion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35752192",
"title": "Committed dose",
"section": "Section::::Health effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 1041,
"text": "Intake of radioactive materials into the body tends to increase the risk of cancer, and possibly other stochastic effects. The International Commission on Radiological Protection has proposed a model whereby the incidence of cancers increases linearly with effective dose at a rate of 5.5% per sievert. This model is widely accepted for external radiation, but its application to internal contamination has been disputed. This model fails to account for the low rates of cancer in early workers at Los Alamos National Laboratory who were exposed to plutonium dust, and the high rates of thyroid cancer in children following the Chernobyl accident . The informal European Committee on Radiation Risk has questioned the ICRP model used for internal exposure. However a UK National Radiological Protection Board report endorses the ICRP approaches to the estimation of doses and risks from internal emitters and agrees with CERRIE conclusions that these should be best estimates and that associated uncertainties should receive more attention.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1106055",
"title": "Linear no-threshold model",
"section": "Section::::Fieldwork.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "A 2003 review of the various studies published in the authoritative \"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences\" concludes that \"given our current state of knowledge, the most reasonable assumption is that the cancer risks from low doses of x- or gamma-rays decrease linearly with decreasing dose.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59867757",
"title": "Vaccine contamination with SV40",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "Population level studies show no evidence of any increase in cancer incidence as a result of exposure, though SV40 has been extensively studied. A thirty-five year followup found no excess of the cancers commonly associated with SV40.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3vlqtr
|
why do veins swell when you constrict your blood flow?
|
[
{
"answer": "Blood flows out from your heart along arteries, and back to the heart along veins. Blood pressure is very high in the arteries, and low in the veins - it's the drop in pressure that carries it through your circulatory system.\n\nSo, grab your arm above the elbow, and what's happening? You're constricting the whole area, raising the internal pressure. Think of the arteries, running deep down in the tissue, as high pressure hoses. You're squeezing them, but that has little effect. Meanwhile, the veins are made of floppy tissue that carried blood under low pressure, so your grip is enough to collapse them.\n\nThat means that blood is flowing out to the arm, but having trouble coming back.\n\nAs the veins are only used to holding low pressure their walls are weak and flexible. When all that extra blood has to go somewhere, they balloon out and fill with it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6590389",
"title": "Collapsed vein",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "Veins may become temporarily blocked if the internal lining of the vein swells in response to repeated injury or irritation. This may be caused by the needle, the substance injected, or donating plasma. Once the swelling subsides, the circulation will often become re-established.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "479413",
"title": "Vasodilation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "When blood vessels dilate, the flow of blood is increased due to a decrease in vascular resistance and increase in cardiac output. Therefore, dilation of arterial blood vessels (mainly the arterioles) decreases blood pressure. The response may be intrinsic (due to local processes in the surrounding tissue) or extrinsic (due to hormones or the nervous system). In addition, the response may be localized to a specific organ (depending on the metabolic needs of a particular tissue, as during strenuous exercise), or it may be systemic (seen throughout the entire systemic circulation).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2010013",
"title": "Navicular syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Causes and contributing factors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "Because veins are more easily compressed than arteries, blood flow to the bone would be less obstructed than blood flow from the bone. This would cause a buildup of pressure within the navicular bone. The navicular bone, in response to both the increased pressure and overall decreased blood supply, would absorb mineral from its center.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12646543",
"title": "Long-term complications of standing",
"section": "Section::::Complications.:Varicose veins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "The valves of the veins work best in concert with accompanying muscle contractions that force the blood to continue moving up the leg. Standing with some muscles constantly strained weakens these muscles and therefore the strength of the contractions. Varicose veins have also been associated with chronic heart and circulatory disorders and hypertension as well as complications related to pregnancy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30168512",
"title": "Pelvic congestion syndrome",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "The condition can occur as a result of pregnancy or for unknown reasons. The presence of estrogen in the body causes vasodilation, which can result in the accumulation of blood in the veins in the pelvic area. Estrogen can weaken the vein walls, leading to the changes that cause varicosities. Up to 15% of all women have varicose veins in the abdominal area, but not all have symptoms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5796667",
"title": "Compression stockings",
"section": "Section::::Medical uses.:Varicose veins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "Varicose veins are saccular and distended veins which can expand considerably and may cause painful venous inflammation. Once developed, they will not disappear on their own. The formation of varicose veins is an externally visible sign of venous weakness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7571557",
"title": "Myogenic mechanism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "The smooth muscle of the blood vessels reacts to the stretching of the muscle by opening ion channels, which cause the muscle to depolarize, leading to muscle contraction. This significantly reduces the volume of blood able to pass through the lumen, which reduces blood flow through the blood vessel. Alternatively when the smooth muscle in the blood vessel relaxes, the ion channels close, resulting in vasodilation of the blood vessel; this increases the rate of flow through the lumen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
76qkf8
|
what is border adjustment and how will it let trump force mexico to pay for the wall?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm not an expert. But as I understood it, the border adjustment simply means import/export toll (I don't know the English word; I mean the fee you or a company has to pay to be allowed to transport goods to another country) is changed. Less import taxes for US Companies, and more export taxes for Foreign (Mexican) companies. This way, rather than paying the price of the wall directly, Mexico will \"pay\" through their companies paying import tolls to the US. Of course, that could mean Mexican Companies shift their export to other countries than the US, should that be possible. I can't give a guarantee that this is correct.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "49919158",
"title": "Trump wall",
"section": "Section::::Funding plans and actions.:Campaign promise (2016).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "Trump repeatedly said that Mexico will pay for the construction of the border wall, but did not explain how the U.S. government would compel Mexico to do so. Trump stated that \"there will be a payment; it will be in a form, perhaps a complicated form\". The Mexican government has rejected Trump's statements and has rejected the idea of Mexico funding construction of a wall. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53548141",
"title": "Foreign policy of the Donald Trump administration",
"section": "Section::::Americas.:Mexico.:During the campaign.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 702,
"text": "In campaign speeches Trump repeatedly pledged to build a wall along the U.S.'s southern border, saying that Mexico would pay for its construction through increased border-crossing fees and NAFTA tariffs. Trump said his proposed wall would be \"a real wall. Not a toy wall like we have now.\" After a meeting with Mexican President Enrique Peña Nieto on August 31, 2016, Trump said that they \"didn't discuss\" who would pay for the border wall. Nieto contradicted that later that day, saying that he at the start of the meeting \"made it clear that Mexico will not pay for the wall\". Later that day, Trump reiterated his position that Mexico will pay to build an \"impenetrable\" wall on the Southern border.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2817606",
"title": "Mexico–United States border",
"section": "Section::::Security.:In context of Trump administration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 746,
"text": "In 2016, Republican nominee for president Donald Trump insisted he wanted to build a border wall to control immigration. He declared that, as president, he would force Mexico to pay all costs. On January 25, 2017, several days after his inauguration and two days in advance of a planned meeting in Washington, D.C. with Mexican President Enrique Peña Nieto, President Trump signed Executive Order 13767 to enable the building of the wall Peña Nieto denied that Mexico would pay for the wall and declined the meeting. Shortly after, Trump announced that he intended to impose a 20% tariff on Mexican goods. (Since tariffs tax the consumer, this would have been a way of obtaining funds through a sales tax on Americans, not by making Mexico pay.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56728490",
"title": "Trump tariffs",
"section": "Section::::Proposed tariffs.:All Mexican imports.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 1829,
"text": "On the evening of June 7, Trump announced that the planned Mexico tariffs were \"indefinitely suspended\" after Mexico agreed to take stronger measures to curb immigration across the border of the U.S. According to the deal, Mexico agreed to deploy 6,000 of its National Guard troops throughout the country, with a focus on its southern border with Guatemala. Mexico also agreed to house migrants seeking asylum in the U.S. — including housing, offering jobs, health care and education — while the U.S. agreed to accelerate asylum claims. If the deal does not have the \"expected results,\" then the 2 nations will meet again in 90 days. Trump also tweeted that Mexico had agreed to \"immediately\" begin buying agricultural products from U.S. farmers, although the communique between the countries did not mention any such deal and Mexican officials were reportedly not aware of such discussions; American officials declined to comment. \"The New York Times\" reported the following day that Mexico had already agreed to most of the actions months prior. On June 9, as critics continued to downplay the significance of the deal, Trump called the \"The New York Times\" report \"false\", tweeting \"We have been trying to get some of these Border Actions for a long time...but were not able to get them, or get them in full, until our signed agreement with Mexico.\" The \"Times\" stood by its reporting. Trump also threatened that he could return to using tariffs as a tactic if desired. Mexico's ambassador to the U.S., Martha Bárcena Coqui, addressed Trump's defense of the deal on CBS, saying \"There are a lot of details that we discussed during the negotiations...that we didn’t put into the declaration because there are different paths that we have to follow,\" adding that adjustments will be made as the situation on the border evolves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2817606",
"title": "Mexico–United States border",
"section": "Section::::Security.:In context of Trump administration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "On September 20, 2017, California Attorney General Becerra filed a lawsuit alleging that the Trump administration has overstepped its powers in expediting construction of a border wall. As of the end of 2017, Mexico had not agreed to pay any amount toward the wall, no new tariffs on Mexican goods had been considered by the U.S. Congress, the U.S. Congress had not appropriated funding for a wall, and no further wall construction had started beyond what was already planned during the Obama administration. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52979535",
"title": "Immigration policy of Donald Trump",
"section": "Section::::Positions on immigration.:Border security and border wall with Mexico.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 1495,
"text": "Trump has repeatedly pledged to build a wall along the U.S.'s southern border, and has said that Mexico would pay for its construction through increased border-crossing fees and NAFTA tariffs. In his speech announcing his candidacy, Trump pledged to \"build a great, great wall on our southern border. And I will have Mexico pay for that wall. Mark my words.\" Trump also said \"nobody builds walls better than me, believe me, and I'll build them very inexpensively.\" The concept for building a barrier to keep illegal immigrants out of the U.S. is not new; 670 miles of fencing (about one-third of the border) was erected under the Secure Fence Act of 2006, at a cost of $2.4 billion. Trump said later that his proposed wall would be \"a real wall. Not a toy wall like we have now.\" In his 2015 book, Trump cites the Israeli West Bank barrier as a successful example of a border wall. \"Trump has at times suggested building a wall across the nearly 2,000-mile border and at other times indicated more selective placement.\" After a meeting with Mexican President Enrique Peña Nieto on August 31, 2016, Trump said that they \"didn't discuss\" who would pay for the border wall that Trump has made a centerpiece of his presidential campaign. Nieto contradicted that later that day, saying that he at the start of the meeting \"made it clear that Mexico will not pay for the wall\". Later that day, Trump reiterated his position that Mexico will pay to build an \"impenetrable\" wall on the Southern border.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52233943",
"title": "Foreign policy of Donald Trump (2015–16)",
"section": "Section::::Americas.:Mexico.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 1481,
"text": "Trump has repeatedly pledged to build a wall along the U.S.'s southern border, and has said that Mexico would pay for it through increased border-crossing fees and NAFTA tariffs. In his speech announcing his candidacy, Trump pledged to \"build a great, great wall on our southern border. And I will have Mexico pay for that wall. Mark my words.\" Trump also said \"nobody builds walls better than me, believe me, and I'll build them very inexpensively.\" The concept for building a barrier to keep illegal immigrants out of the U.S. is not new; 670 miles of fencing (about one-third of the border) was erected under the Secure Fence Act of 2006, at a cost of $2.4 billion. Trump said later that his proposed wall would be \"a real wall. Not a toy wall like we have now.\" In his 2015 book, Trump cites the Israeli West Bank barrier as a successful example of a border wall. \"Trump has at times suggested building a wall across the nearly 2,000-mile border and at other times indicated more selective placement.\" After a meeting with Mexican President Enrique Peña Nieto on August 31, 2016, Trump said that they \"didn't discuss\" who would pay for the border wall that Trump has made a centerpiece of his presidential campaign. Nieto contradicted that later that day, saying that he at the start of the meeting \"made it clear that Mexico will not pay for the wall\". Later that day, Trump reiterated his position that Mexico will pay to build an \"impenetrable\" wall on the Southern border.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ug1cd
|
Why isn't matter evenly distributed across the universe?
|
[
{
"answer": "It is, just not on small scales. The basic structure of the universe on large scales is galactic superclusters, to clusters, to galaxies, to stars. At supercluster level, the universe is very evenly distributed.\n\n[this](_URL_0_) link gave a good description of how the local distributions came about.\n\nTo paraphrase, matter was completely even after the inflation, but even natural variations break the evenness on small scales (in this case, atoms being slightly to the left, or similar). These small variations eventually led to grouping of matter naturally.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Inflation and gravity, for the most part.\n\nAveraged out over very large scales - larger than about a hundred million light years - the Universe *does* look the same everywhere, with a smooth, uniform distribution of matter.\n\nYou wouldn't expect the Universe necessarily to start off like this. It's believed that a period of accelerated expansion a fraction of a second after the Big Bang, called [inflation](_URL_0_, would help smooth things out and leave the Universe uniform. But inflation has a side effect: it also blows up fluctuations in the density on the smallest scales caused by quantum uncertainty. Inflation is so effective that these tiny fluctuations, which normally die down in a split second, are expanded to cosmic sizes, and are imprinted on the fabric of the Universe.\n\nA long time after inflation ends, these blown-up fluctuations remain as slight but crucial differences in density from one place to the next. Millions of years later, the Universe was mostly uniform still, but in the places which inflation left ever-so-slightly more dense, gravity is ever-so-slightly stronger, and the Universe expands there at an ever-so-slightly slower rate than the surrounding areas. So gravity causes those parts to collapse. That's where galaxies and galaxy clusters form, leaving the Universe much clumpier than it was before.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[This image](_URL_1_) is the Planck telescope's picture of the universe at large scales. The red blob across the middle is our own Milky Way galaxy getting in the way (photobombing, essentially).\n\n[This](_URL_0_) is how it looks when you remove the Milky Way and a few other things (accounting for the motion of the Earth+Sun, for example).\n\nNote: the variations you see in this second image are *very* tiny. The variations you see are, as others have said, echoes of tiny quantum fluctuations that were magnified during the inflationary period of the very early universe.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19673093",
"title": "Matter",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Quarks.:Baryonic matter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "As a matter of fact, the great majority of ordinary matter in the universe is unseen, since visible stars and gas inside galaxies and clusters account for less than 10 per cent of the ordinary matter contribution to the mass–energy density of the universe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31880",
"title": "Universe",
"section": "Section::::Composition.:Ordinary matter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "The remaining 4.9% of the mass–energy of the Universe is ordinary matter, that is, atoms, ions, electrons and the objects they form. This matter includes stars, which produce nearly all of the light we see from galaxies, as well as interstellar gas in the interstellar and intergalactic media, planets, and all the objects from everyday life that we can bump into, touch or squeeze. As a matter of fact, the great majority of ordinary matter in the universe is unseen, since visible stars and gas inside galaxies and clusters account for less than 10 per cent of the ordinary matter contribution to the mass-energy density of the universe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11522684",
"title": "Inhomogeneous cosmology",
"section": "Section::::History.:Inhomogeneous universe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 970,
"text": "While the universe began with homogeneously distributed matter, enormous structures have since coalesced over billions of years: hundreds of billions of stars inside of galaxies, clusters of galaxies, superclusters, and vast filaments of matter. These denser regions and the voids between them must, under general relativity, have some effect, as matter dictates how space-time curves. So the extra mass of galaxies and galaxy clusters (and dark matter, should particles of ever it be directly detected) must cause nearby space-time to curve more positively, and voids should have the opposite effect, causing space-time around them to take on negative curvatures. The question is whether these effects, called backreactions, are negligible or together comprise enough to change the universe's geometry. Most scientists have assumed that they are negligible, but this has partly been because there has been no way to average space-time geometry in Einstein's equations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41490562",
"title": "U1.11",
"section": "Section::::Cosmological principle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 820,
"text": "According to the cosmological principle, the random distribution of matter and energy within the different parts of the universe must be approximately homogeneous and isotropic, and that random overdensities of these objects must be small if projected on a large enough scale. Whilst Yadav \"et al\" projected that the maximum structural sizes was somewhere around 260 h/Mpc, while others gave values of 70-130 h/Mpc. More recent calculations suggest values within 370 Mpc. However, U1.11 was twice as large as the presiding scale, and other structures are found that were larger than the said scale. (Some structures exceed the scale by a factor of 8, such as Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall. Given also its proximity to the Huge-LQG, CCLQG and U1.54, it will be a big contradiction to the modern cosmological model.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31880",
"title": "Universe",
"section": "Section::::Composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 1052,
"text": "Matter, dark matter, and dark energy are distributed homogeneously throughout the Universe over length scales longer than 300 million light-years or so. However, over shorter length-scales, matter tends to clump hierarchically; many atoms are condensed into stars, most stars into galaxies, most galaxies into clusters, superclusters and, finally, large-scale galactic filaments. The observable Universe contains approximately 300 sextillion (3) stars and more than 100 billion (10) galaxies. Typical galaxies range from dwarfs with as few as ten million (10) stars up to giants with one trillion (10) stars. Between the larger structures are voids, which are typically 10–150 Mpc (33 million–490 million ly) in diameter. The Milky Way is in the Local Group of galaxies, which in turn is in the Laniakea Supercluster. This supercluster spans over 500 million light-years, while the Local Group spans over 10 million light-years. The Universe also has vast regions of relative emptiness; the largest known void measures 1.8 billion ly (550 Mpc) across.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "281260",
"title": "Protogalaxy",
"section": "Section::::Formation.:From the early universe....\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1418,
"text": "It is thought that the early universe began with a nearly uniform distribution (each particle an equal distance from the next) of matter and dark matter. The dark matter then began to clump together under gravitational attraction due to the initial density perturbation spectrum caused by quantum fluctuations. This derives from Heisenberg's uncertainty principle which shows that there can be tiny temporary changes in the amount of energy in empty space. Particle/antiparticle pairs can form from this energy through mass–energy equivalence, and gravitational pull causes other nearby particles to move towards it, disturbing the even distribution and creating a centre of gravity, pulling nearby particles closer. When this happens at the universe's present size it is negligible, but the state of these tiny fluctuations as the universe began expanding from a single point left an impression which scaled up as the universe expanded, resulting in large areas of increased density. The gravity of these denser clumps of dark matter then caused nearby matter to start falling into the denser region. This sort of process was reportedly observed and analysed by Nilsson et al. in 2006. This resulted in the formation of clouds of gas, predominantly hydrogen, and the first stars began to form within these clouds. These clouds of gas and early stars, many times smaller than our galaxy, were the first protogalaxies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19167840",
"title": "Chronology of the universe",
"section": "Section::::The Dark Ages and large-scale structure emergence.:Reionization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "However, by this time, matter had become far more spread out due to the ongoing expansion of the universe. Although the neutral hydrogen atoms were again ionized, the plasma was much more thin and diffuse, and photons were much less likely to be scattered. Despite being reionized, the universe remained largely transparent during reionization. As the universe continued to cool and expand, reionization gradually ended.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
akmwea
|
When And Why Did Children's Books Emerge?
|
[
{
"answer": "I did an overview of pretty much the entire history of children's literature in [this answer about the rise of YA lit](_URL_0_), though I skirt around spending a lot of time doing in-depth discussion surrounding the beginnings of children's literature. If you're not satisfied with that answer and would like me to go more in-depth on that front, I'd be happy to do so.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "52847",
"title": "Children's literature",
"section": "Section::::National traditions.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 662,
"text": "Children's literature has been a part of American culture since Europeans first settled in America. The earliest books were used as tools to instill self-control in children and preach a life of morality in Puritan society. Eighteenth-century American youth began to shift away from the social upbringing of its European counterpart, bringing about a change in children's literature. It was in this time that \"A Little Book for Little Children\" was written by T. W. in 1712. It includes what is thought to be the earliest nursery rhyme and one of the earliest examples of a textbook approaching education from the child's point of view, rather than the adult's.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52847",
"title": "Children's literature",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "It was only in the eighteenth century, with the development of the concept of childhood, that a separate genre of children's literature began to emerge, with its own divisions, expectations, and canon. The earliest of these books were educational books, books on conduct, and simple ABCs—often decorated with animals, plants, and anthropomorphic letters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "296550",
"title": "British literature",
"section": "Section::::Victorian literature: 1832–1900.:Victorian fiction.:Children's literature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 149,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 149,
"end_character": 862,
"text": "Literature for children developed as a separate genre during the Victorian era, and some works became internationally known, such as Lewis Carroll, \"Alice's Adventures in Wonderland\" (1865). At the end of nineteenth-century, the author and illustrator Beatrix Potter was known for her children's books, which featured animal characters, including \"The Tale of Peter Rabbit\" (1902). In the latter years of the 19th century, precursors of the modern picture book were illustrated books of poems and short stories produced by illustrators Randolph Caldecott, Walter Crane, and Kate Greenaway. These had a larger proportion of pictures to words than earlier books, and many of their pictures were in colour. \"Vice Versa\" (1882) by F. Anstey, sees a father and son exchange bodies — body swaps have been a popular theme in various media since the book was published.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52847",
"title": "Children's literature",
"section": "Section::::History.:Origins of the modern genre.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 685,
"text": "The modern children's book emerged in mid-18th-century England. A growing polite middle-class and the influence of Lockean theories of childhood innocence combined to create the beginnings of childhood as a concept. \"A Little Pretty Pocket-Book\", written and published by John Newbery, is widely considered the first modern children's book, published in 1744. It was a landmark as the first children's publication aimed at giving enjoyment to children, containing a mixture of rhymes, picture stories and games for pleasure. Newbery believed that play was a better enticement to children's good behavior than physical discipline, and the child was to record his or her behavior daily.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "167331",
"title": "Childhood",
"section": "Section::::History.:Modern concepts of childhood.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "The genre of children's literature took off, with a proliferation of humorous, child-oriented books attuned to the child's imagination. Lewis Carroll's fantasy \"Alice's Adventures in Wonderland\", published in 1865 in England, was a landmark in the genre; regarded as the first \"English masterpiece written for children\", its publication opened the \"First Golden Age\" of children's literature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52847",
"title": "Children's literature",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 689,
"text": "Children's literature can be traced to stories and songs, part of a wider oral tradition, that adults shared with children before publishing existed. The development of early children's literature, before printing was invented, is difficult to trace. Even after printing became widespread, many classic \"children's\" tales were originally created for adults and later adapted for a younger audience. Since the fifteenth century much literature has been aimed specifically at children, often with a moral or religious message. The late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries are known as the \"Golden Age of Children's Literature\" because many classic children's books were published then.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52847",
"title": "Children's literature",
"section": "Section::::National traditions.:United Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 937,
"text": "Literature for children had developed as a separate category of literature especially in the Victorian era, with some works becoming internationally known, such as Lewis Carroll's \"Alice's Adventures in Wonderland\" (1865) and its sequel \"Through the Looking-Glass\". At the end of the Victorian era and leading into the Edwardian era, Beatrix Potter was an author and illustrator best known for her children's books, which featured animal characters. In her thirties, Potter published \"The Tale of Peter Rabbit\" in 1902. Potter eventually went on to produce 23 children's books and become a wealthy woman. Michael O. Tunnell and James S. Jacobs, professors of children's literature at Brigham Young University, write, \"Potter was the first to use pictures as well as words to tell the story, incorporating coloured illustration with text, page for page.\" Another classic of the period is Anna Sewell's animal novel \"Black Beauty\" (1877).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2drcgc
|
the rick perry indictment
|
[
{
"answer": "Lehmberg is an elected district attorney. As such, she cannot be fired directly by Governor Perry. Lehmberg was charged with a DWI back in 2013, did some jail time, and successfully defended her position in a civil suit. Governor Perry does not want Lehmberg to remain in office, so he threatened to veto $7.5 M in funding specifically set aside for a public corruption unit that operates out of Lehmberg's office, unless she stepped down. She did not, so Perry vetoed the funding.\n\nA complaint was filed against Governor Perry for this and presented to a grand jury, who indicted him on charges of abuse of an official capacity, and coercion of a public servant.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "545253",
"title": "Rick Perry",
"section": "Section::::Governor of Texas.:Veto controversy and exoneration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "On August 15, 2014, Perry was indicted by a Travis County grand jury. The first charge of the indictment was abuse of official capacity, which has since been ruled unconstitutional, for threatening to veto $7.5 million in funding for the Public Integrity Unit, a state public corruption prosecutors department. The second charge, which has also since been ruled unconstitutional, was coercion of a public servant, for seeking the resignation of Travis County District Attorney Rosemary Lehmberg, a Democrat, after she was convicted of drunk driving, and incarcerated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33636745",
"title": "Political positions of Rick Perry",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "Rick Perry is an American politician who served as the 47th Governor of Texas from 2000 to 2015. He was a candidate for the nomination of the Republican Party for President of the United States in 2012 and 2016, and currently serves as the United States Secretary of Energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51253990",
"title": "Murder of Janet March",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 796,
"text": "Perry was convicted of all charges in 2006, despite the absence of Janet's body. He unsuccessfully appealed the conviction in state court, alleging some of the evidence had been gathered in violation of his constitutional rights. A federal appellate panel reviewing his later \"habeas\" petition agreed that the case presented some issues but did not feel it had the statutory authority to overturn the conviction on those grounds; and in any event it found the evidence against Perry had been so overwhelming as to make those issues harmless error. In 2015 the United States Supreme Court denied his \"certiorari\" petition, exhausting his appeals. He has maintained his innocence throughout the case, and is currently serving his 56-year sentence at Tennessee's Morgan County Correctional Complex.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20345674",
"title": "Joseph Sam Perry",
"section": "Section::::Federal judicial service.:Notable cases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 724,
"text": "During his tenure, Perry presided over a large number of high-profile trials, including an 18-month-long wrongful-death suit initiated by the survivors and family members of two members of the Black Panther Party who were killed during a 1969 raid on the group's headquarters. At the end of the trial, which at that time was the longest trial before a federal court jury in United States history, Perry dismissed all charges against law enforcement officials who had been sued for $47 million in a wrongful-death suit when jurors could not reach a verdict. The United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit eventually overturned Perry and ordered a new trial, but an out-of-court settlement eventually was reached.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51253990",
"title": "Murder of Janet March",
"section": "Section::::Arrest and jail.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "In late 2004 the two detectives and prosecutors began secretly presenting evidence against Perry to a grand jury. After hearing 59 witnesses, it returned an indictment on charges of second-degree murder, tampering with evidence and abuse of a corpse. The indictment, like the proceedings that produced it, remained secret while prosecutors worked with the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the Mexican government to secure the paperwork for Perry's arrest and extradition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5437748",
"title": "Keith Ellison",
"section": "Section::::Political positions.:Bush administration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "On July 25, 2007, Ellison voted in the House Judiciary Committee to issue citations of Contempt of Congress to White House Chief of Staff Joshua Bolten and former White House Counsel Harriet Miers for \"failure to comply with subpoenas on the firings of several federal prosecutors\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43674075",
"title": "Rick Perry veto controversy",
"section": "Section::::Response.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 842,
"text": "Harvard Law School professor Alan Dershowitz stated that \"The two statutes under which Gov. Perry was indicted are reminiscent of the old Soviet Union — you know, abuse of authority. The idea of indicting him because he threatened to veto spending unless a district attorney who was caught drinking and driving resigned, that's not anything for a criminal indictment. That's a political issue.\" He added, \"it's so important to put a stop to it now, to say the criminal law is reserved for real crimes, not for political differences where a party in power or out of power gets revenge against the other party. That's just not the way to use the criminal justice [system].\" On August 16, 2014, Perry called the indictment a political move and an abuse of power, and vowed to fight the charges. The Texas Democratic Party asked Perry to resign.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
677ouo
|
how do shows like last week tonight identify clips for a clip montage?
|
[
{
"answer": "Studios have library / archive services that will sell you clips to use. For example, [NBCUniversal Archives] (_URL_0_) has clips from their news shows.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11517785",
"title": "Destination Truth",
"section": "Section::::Format.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "Footage from the show is usually edited from an entertainment perspective that relies on \"suspense building mechanisms\" such as brief segments involving team members becoming agitated or startled, asserting they have seen or heard something of interest and then followed by a sudden cut to a commercial break. Conclusion of what happened is then revealed after the break.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3242950",
"title": "Found Footage Festival",
"section": "Section::::Show structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "The found clips are projected onto a theater screen, with the \"host/curators\" hosting the event from a staging area in the front. The clips are presented in succession from a master DVD, with the hosts controlling the timing and order by remote control. In addition to introducing their found footage and presenting a brief history of how it was come across, the hosts offer running jokes and commentary during the clips, like a live version of \"Mystery Science Theater 3000\", and implement live comedic sketches and pre-recorded bits between some of the selections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1511010",
"title": "Recap sequence",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 733,
"text": "These montages are inserted as the first thing into an episode so that viewers who had not seen the previous episodes or who do not remember what happened can understand from where the current episode will begin, also so that the viewers may decide to catch up on missed episodes, usually buying the DVDs. They usually begin with a voiceover or subtitle proclaiming, \"Last week on... [the show's name]\", \"Previously on... [the show's name]\" or \"Last time on... [the show's name]\". Many shows have begun to use a main character's voice for this voiceover rather than a neutral narrator (\"Chuck\"), and some series such as \"Boston Legal\" and \"Stargate Atlantis\" alternate which main character says \"Previously on... [the show's name]\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1460069",
"title": "Clip show",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 665,
"text": "A clip show is an episode of a television series that consists primarily of excerpts from previous episodes. Most clip shows feature the format of a frame story in which cast members recall past events from past installments of the show, depicted with a clip of the event presented as a flashback. Clip shows are also known as cheaters, particularly in the field of animation. Clip shows are often played before series finales, or once syndication becomes highly likely. Other times, however, clip shows are simply produced for budgetary reasons (i.e. to avoid additional costs from shooting in a certain setting, or from casting actors to appear in new material).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2556242",
"title": "Real TV",
"section": "Section::::Segments.:Clip segments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1083,
"text": "Various segments appeared in episodes, usually just as a way to thread featured videos of a similar nature. One feature that appeared often was \"Quick Clips\", which featured a number of quick video highlights of some amazing footage. Each episode of Daly's version had the \"Real TV Quiz\", which generally featured video footage of a celebrity before they became famous, challenging the viewer to guess who they were during the commercial break. Example: Zachary Ty Bryan actor from Home Improvement, was featured in a quick clip in 1998 from his appearance at the premiere of the movie \"Blade\" starring Wesley Snipes. Zachary was videotaped giving a shout out to Real TV on camera at the premiere by known Real TV contributor Michael Nordan a freelance videographer at the time. Viewers had to guess who the quick clip featured talent was. fAnnouncer Beau Weaver announced the quiz at the start of the show's run before the quiz was taken over by Daly. During season 1, the quiz was before the second half of the show. The quiz moved to the end of the show at the start of season 2.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28051777",
"title": "Fact or Faked: Paranormal Files",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "Beginning episode #207 in the first half of season two, the show began to feature a \"You Decide\" segment in the middle of the program where a video is shown of something strange and then asks the viewing audience if they think the footage is fact or faked. After a commercial break the truth behind the video is revealed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18909133",
"title": "The Dish (TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Segments.:Regular segments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Clip Closet\" – Clips are shown recapping different shows of that week. Often signaled by a closet with TV show title cards and the Clip Closet logo appears in one of the cards. This segment runs in a very similar fashion to Reality Show Clip Time on \"The Soup\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
urtt3
|
How did early films get copied and mass-produced?
|
[
{
"answer": "While I can't give a good answer, I can say what I would do if I had their technology. \n\nI would take an unexposed reel and match it up with the film's reel. Laying the two strips over one another, shine a light through the original and then through the new film. The original film will filter the light that will then expose the new filmstrip.\n\nI know very little about the mechanics of old film, but I imagine this might have worked. Can't tell you if it's what they actually did, though. I'll ask some of my friends in film, they might know better.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1583907",
"title": "Selig Polyscope Company",
"section": "Section::::History.:Most films lost.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "The potential of movies as long term sources of revenue was unknown to early movie industry executives. Films were made quickly, sent into distribution channels and mostly forgotten soon after their first runs. Surviving prints were wontedly stored haphazardly, if at all. Early film stock was chemically volatile and many prints were lost in fires or decomposed to goo in storage. Some were recycled for their silver content or simply thrown away to save space. Out of Selig Polyscope's hundreds of films, only a few copies and scattered photographic elements are known to survive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1412140",
"title": "Compilation film",
"section": "Section::::Propaganda.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "Some of the earliest compilation movies were propaganda films. A famous example is the German Nazi propaganda film \"Der ewige Jude\" (1940), where only a small part consisted of new footage, namely the scenes with Jews in a Polish ghetto and the animated maps. The lion's share of the film was filled with old newsreel footage showing Albert Einstein, Anna Stern, Rosa Luxemburg and Adolf Hitler and clips from movies with and by Charlie Chaplin, Ernst Lubitsch and Fritz Lang. Other countries, including the United States and Great Britain, also made propaganda films with archive footage to present themselves in the style of a documentary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10783",
"title": "History of film",
"section": "Section::::Birth of movies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Within eleven years of motion pictures, the films moved from a novelty show to an established large-scale entertainment industry. Films moved from a single shot, completely made by one person with a few assistants, towards films several minutes long consisting of several shots, which were made by large companies in something like industrial conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30797574",
"title": "History of computer animation",
"section": "Section::::CGI in the 1990s.:Motion capture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 125,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 125,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "Another breakthrough where a cinema film used motion capture was creating hundreds of digital characters for the film \"Titanic\" in 1997. The technique was used extensively in 1999 to create Jar-Jar Binks and other digital characters in \"\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1342176",
"title": "Film-out",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "Technicolor also experimented in the early 1970s with using video gear & videotape to make feature-length motion pictures with, by transferring the videotape to film for final release and distribution. Films made with this process were the 1973 film \"Why\", the 1971 film \"The Resurrection of Zachary Wheeler\", and the most famous film using this process, Frank Zappa's 1971 film \"200 Motels\", which was originally shot on 2 inch Quadruplex videotape, and then transferred to film by Technicolor, being the first independent film originally to be shot on videotape and distributed theatrically in 35 mm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17951322",
"title": "The Bat Whispers",
"section": "Section::::Film Techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1425,
"text": "During this time, filmmakers did not have the advanced techniques that they have today. Therefore, they had to improvise when filming and be creative. First and foremost is the incorporation of sound into this film. The first movie with sound was created in 1927, making the inclusion of it into this 1930 film, a huge deal for people in 1930. Other film techniques seen in this film include panning, cut scenes, and close ups. Panning can be seen throughout the film but most notably in the opening scene of the movie. The movie begins with a shot of the face of a clock on a clock tower. It then goes to pan all the way down the building to show a car pulling out of a police station. Cut scenes can be seen throughout this film to show lapses in time. For example, when the police car is driving down the street, the scene (shot from the back of the car over the driver’s shoulder) can be seen fading into another scene to convey a sense of time passing. Another thing to note about this specific scene is that in 1930, movie cameras are now portable enough to be used in the back of cars to follow the action. Close ups shots are also a film industry technique that was incorporated into this movie. The most notable close ups are when the residents of the mansion are frightened and trying to figure out where the mysterious noises are coming from, and when The Bat is creeping up to Dale Van Gorder in the secret room.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1460069",
"title": "Clip show",
"section": "Section::::Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "Movie studios often resorted to old footage to save money. The most famous example is the short comedies of The Three Stooges which, from 1949 until 1957, borrowed lengthy sequences and often entire storylines from old shorts. Only a few new scenes would be filmed as a framework for the old footage. This practice was adopted because the studios could charge more money for \"new\" films than for old ones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4gtwg5
|
how does a thermal explosion cause a human to get knocked back, as often seen in action movies?
|
[
{
"answer": "Movies aren't always representative of real life. Action movies even less so.\n\nOf course, it's possible for an explosion to knock people back. Because of the rapidity with which explosion take place, they almost always create a shock wave. The problem with being knocked back with the shockwave from a thermal explosion, however, is that the shockwave is likely many thousands of degrees. Of course, only being in contact with it for a short time, you wouldn't necessarily be burnt to death (unless it was a *really* hot bomb), but it certainly wouldn't be as clean as movies lead us to believe.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Its called a shock wave; I'll try my best at an ELI5. If you push on a solid object, obviously the other side of the object moves at the same speed. When you push on liquid, like when you're swimming, the little bits of water push on each other and if you were close enough to where it was being pushed, you could feel that too. You don't feel the push as strongly because the little bits of water are able to slide around each other. You can push on air the same way, but the little bits of air move around each other more easily than anything else, so the push fades pretty quickly across distance. \nWhen there is an explosion, the air is pushed so quickly that the other bits of air in front of it are not able to move out of the way, so it's much more like pushing on something solid. If someone is close enough they'd feel that push. \n(My first attempt at one of these, hope I helped)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Bona fides: among a few things in life I wrote a book that was adopted by the FBI National Academy and the US Army Bomb School as a textbook, did two tours Afghanistan, for whatever that's worth to the perceived accuracy of what I'm about to say.\n\nThe question seemed sincere so I'll be sorta specific. Excuse any bomb-geekiness. While there is a term 'thermal explosion' or thermal runaway, in the layman's language the word 'thermal' revers to one of three components of a bomb blast: heat, shock and fragmentation.\n\nHeat is simple to understand. At the heart of a conventional blast a chemical reaction cranks out a helluva lot of heat. To put that in perspective, at the Oklahoma City bombing, streetlights down the block were melted. But heat alone won't throw you; it will burn or ignite stuff.\n\nFrag is easy as well: every solid thing the bomb was made of, and every solid thing the bomb blows apart, goes flying at 'way-past-bullet-speeds.' Frag can be tiny slivers of metal, rock or wood, or in the case of the detonation of the USS Grandcamp, a piece of frag would include the ship's 10,000+ pound anchor that flew about half a mile. There is a technical difference between fragmentation and shrapnel, but that goes into geekiness for another discussion.\n\nShock: so imagine doing a cannonball in the pool. You hit the surface of the water and your body in the blink of an eye moves, or 'displaces' a whole lot of water, shoving it out and away from you in all directions. I will skip comparative compressability of water and air but for simple analogy say that in an 'air cannonball' if you froze time at the moment of impact, the air shoved away is moving faster than the air an inch, or a foot, beyond, so the moving air compresses into the space along with the still-stationary air (remember, this is like mili-second type speeds). What you get is a hollow ball of compressed air. So think about the \"thickness\" of the hollow ball as this expanding shockwave that is racing out. In the case of C4, it is racing out at about 26,000 feet per second. That's where the 'guys get thrown in movies\" effect is supposed to come from, but reality is a bit uglier. Here's the ELI5 on why:\n\nIf you fired a high powered rifle, lets say a 50BMG, the bullet leaves the gun barrel at roughly 3,000 feet per second. If you set off a big explosion 100 yards BEHIND the rifle at the exact same instant, would the explosion eer catch up / pass the rifle bullet? Yep, in just a shade under 0.005 of one second (and /r/physics redditors, I am skipping deceleration factors, exponential degradation, etc....) Point being, since an eye blinks in about one-third of one second, quite literally \"in the blink of an eye\" the explosive shockwave a football field away would blow by you. That is so freakishly fast that a living body, which is not a solid but a bag of solids, semi-solids and liquids, cannot accelerate uniformly to \"surf the wave\". So parts of the body catch the wave and race off while other parts get left behind. People can go from being people to being parts, to being, hm, just mulch, sometimes just being gone.\n\nPlenty of video on the subject, here is a decent one _URL_0_ skip to about 30-40 sec and look for the curved \"haze\" just outside of the obvious orange parts of the explosion. That is the shockwave.\n\nMay be more than you wanted but I hope it fills in some blanks.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "52141",
"title": "Inversion (meteorology)",
"section": "Section::::Consequences.:Shock waves.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "The shock wave from an explosion can be reflected by an inversion layer in much the same way as it bounces off the ground in an air-burst and can cause additional damage as a result. This phenomenon killed three people in the Soviet RDS-37 nuclear test when a building collapsed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47628",
"title": "Bomb",
"section": "Section::::Heat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "A thermal wave is created by the sudden release of heat caused by an explosion. Military bomb tests have documented temperatures of up to 2,480 °C (4,500 °F). While capable of inflicting severe to catastrophic burns and causing secondary fires, thermal wave effects are considered very limited in range compared to shock and fragmentation. This rule has been challenged, however, by military development of thermobaric weapons, which employ a combination of negative shock wave effects and extreme temperature to incinerate objects within the blast radius. This would be fatal to humans, as bomb tests have proven.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "164502",
"title": "The Adventures of Baron Munchausen",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Experience.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "Sarah Polley, who was nine years old at the time of filming, described it as a traumatic experience. \"[I]t definitely left me with a few scars ... It was just so dangerous. There were so many explosions going off so close to me, which is traumatic for a kid whether it's dangerous or not. Being in freezing cold water for long periods of time and working endless hours. It was physically grueling and unsafe.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14488682",
"title": "Quiet Spike",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "Shock waves develop around aircraft as they near Mach 1 (1225.0 km/h). At ground level, these are perceived as a loud double boom or bang. Their intensity varies due to factors such as weather, refraction from different layers of atmospheric density, and size of the aircraft, but in general, from a supersonic aircraft of the size of a civilian airliner, the overpressure created at ground level is enough to rattle windows. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "892612",
"title": "Blast injury",
"section": "Section::::Classification.:Tertiary injuries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "Displacement of air by the explosion creates a blast wind that can throw victims against solid objects. Injuries resulting from this type of traumatic impact are referred to as tertiary blast injuries. Tertiary injuries may present as some combination of blunt and penetrating trauma, including bone fractures and coup contre-coup injuries. Children are at particularly high risk of tertiary injury due to their relatively smaller body weight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15020052",
"title": "Vapor cone",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "In addition to making the shock waves themselves visible, water condensation can also occur in the trough between two crests of the shock waves produced by the passing of the object. However, this effect does not necessarily coincide with the acceleration of an aircraft through the speed of sound or Mach 1.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6416",
"title": "Impact crater",
"section": "Section::::Crater formation.:Contact and compression.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "As the shock wave decays, the shocked region decompresses towards more usual pressures and densities. The damage produced by the shock wave raises the temperature of the material. In all but the smallest impacts this increase in temperature is sufficient to melt the impactor, and in larger impacts to vaporize most of it and to melt large volumes of the target. As well as being heated, the target near the impact is accelerated by the shock wave, and it continues moving away from the impact behind the decaying shock wave.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4fa173
|
how broadcasters get such good sound of professional athletes while they are on the field.
|
[
{
"answer": "The use [parabolic microphones](_URL_0_). They put a directional microphone at the focal point of a big bowl, and it makes it ultrasensitive towards sounds from a particular spot. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One way is with those microphones that have parabolic dishes directing the sound into the microphone at the focus point. You can see them being used in the sidelines. Sorry, I'm not sure what they're called.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1662121",
"title": "Sports commentator",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 848,
"text": "In sports broadcasting, a sports commentator (also known as sports announcer, sportscaster or play-by-play announcer) gives a running commentary of a game or event in real time, usually during a live broadcast, traditionally delivered in the historical present tense. Radio was the first medium for sports broadcasts, and radio commentators must describe all aspects of the action to listeners who cannot see it for themselves. In the case of televised sports coverage, commentators are usually presented as a voiceover, with images of the contest shown on viewers' screens and sounds of the action and spectators heard in the background. Television commentators are rarely shown on screen during an event, though some networks choose to feature their announcers on camera either before or after the contest or briefly during breaks in the action.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1662121",
"title": "Sports commentator",
"section": "Section::::Types of commentators.:Sports presenter/studio host.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "In British sports broadcasting, the \"presenter\" of a sports broadcast is usually distinct from the commentator, and often based in a remote broadcast television studio away from the sports venue. In North America, the on-air personality based in the studio is called the \"studio host\". During their shows, the presenter/studio host may be joined by additional analysts or pundits, especially when showing highlights of various other matches.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2257795",
"title": "Sports in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Sports media in the United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 197,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 197,
"end_character": 721,
"text": "Sports have been a major part of American broadcasting since the early days of radio. Today, television networks and radio networks pay millions (sometimes billions) of dollars for the rights to broadcast sporting events. Contracts between leagues and broadcasters stipulate how often games must be interrupted for commercials. Because of all of the advertisements, broadcasting contracts are very lucrative and account for the biggest chunk of major professional teams' revenues. Broadcasters also covet the television contracts for the major sports leagues (especially in the case of the NFL) in order to amplify their ability to promote their programming to the audience, especially young and middle-aged adult males.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48842531",
"title": "Announcerless game",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 1161,
"text": "No other United States broadcaster has ever purposely replicated the experiment, with football or any of the other major team professional sports; the networks have produced announcerless broadcasts but only as an alternate feed (with the main network always carrying announcers). ESPN has regularly included announcerless broadcasts as part of its Full Circle and Megacast multi-channel broadcasts, usually on ESPN Classic. In select versions of the MLB.tv app, a 'ballpark sound' option is available on most games with only natural ballpark audio. In 2013, Fox Sports Detroit Plus offered its viewers a \"Natural Sounds at Comerica Park\" channel in which they could watch occasional Tigers baseball games with just the ambient sound from games at the team's home stadium, with information about the game coming via increased graphics as it did in the Announcerless Game. It was, however, offered only on a premier channel for those who paid the highest rates; the regular channel included the team's announcing duo of Mario Impemba and Rod Allen. The Alliance of American Football regularly offers live announcerless streams of its games, billed as \"AAF Raw.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61335336",
"title": "NASCAR on television in the 1970s",
"section": "Section::::List of races televised.:1970.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "During the period on \"Wide World of Sports\", the booth announcers typically served as roving pit reporters during the running of the race, as well as interviewing in victory lane. The booth commentary was recorded in post-production.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11691212",
"title": "List of Daytona 500 broadcasters",
"section": "Section::::Early CBS and ABC's \"Wide World of Sports\" era (1959–1978).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "During the period on \"Wide World of Sports\", the booth announcers typically served as roving pit reporters during the running of the race, as well as interviewing in victory lane. The booth commentary was recorded in post-production.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5351328",
"title": "WNBA on ESPN",
"section": "Section::::Wired.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "One unique aspect of WNBA coverage on the ESPN family of networks is that many of the participants wear live microphones. Starting with the 2003 WNBA All Star Game (which aired on ABC), most games televised have involved coaches, players and referees being wired for sound. On some occasions, the sound of players and coaches talking will overlap with commentary; also, on several occasions, ESPN has had to mute the sound because of expletives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
atj1nz
|
How does density affect the speed of seismic waves through the Earth?
|
[
{
"answer": "Waves travel more slowly through denser material. A lot of people have this misconception because, for example, sound travels faster in water than air, and faster in steel than water. But actually the increasing density is impeding the speed of sound. It's the increased stiffness (elastic modulus) of these materials that drives their faster speed of sound. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "61044116",
"title": "Upper mantle (Earth)",
"section": "Section::::Seismic structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "The density profile through Earth is determined by the velocity of seismic waves. Density increases progressively in each layer largely due to compression of the rock at increased depths. Abrupt changes in density occur where the material composition changes. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "89830",
"title": "Seismic wave",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "The propagation velocity of seismic waves depends on density and elasticity of the medium as well as the type of wave. Velocity tends to increase with depth through Earth's crust and mantle, but drops sharply going from the mantle to the outer core.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10151726",
"title": "Atmospheric tide",
"section": "Section::::General characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "The reason for this dramatic growth in amplitude from tiny fluctuations near the ground to oscillations that dominate the motion of the mesosphere lies in the fact that the density of the atmosphere decreases with increasing height. As tides or waves propagate upwards, they move into regions of lower and lower density. If the tide or wave is not dissipating, then its kinetic energy density must be conserved. Since the density is decreasing, the amplitude of the tide or wave increases correspondingly so that energy is conserved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10106",
"title": "Earthquake",
"section": "Section::::Measuring and locating earthquakes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "Propagation velocity of the seismic waves through solid rock ranges from approx. 3 km/s up to 13 km/s, depending on the density and elasticity of the medium. In the Earth's interior the shock- or P waves travel much faster than the S waves (approx. relation 1.7 : 1). The differences in travel time from the epicenter to the observatory are a measure of the distance and can be used to image both sources of quakes and structures within the Earth. Also, the depth of the hypocenter can be computed roughly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37297145",
"title": "Eclogitization",
"section": "Section::::Geologic setting and effect of eclogitization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "This density increase acts as the main driver in the convection of Earth's mantle. It also explains the disconnection of a tectonic unit from the descending lithosphere, subsequent continuation of subduction, and the exhumation following subduction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20756012",
"title": "Rayleigh wave",
"section": "Section::::Rayleigh waves in geophysics.:Rayleigh waves from earthquakes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Due to their higher speed, the P- and S-waves generated by an earthquake arrive before the surface waves. However, the particle motion of surface waves is larger than that of body waves, so the surface waves tend to cause more damage. In the case of Rayleigh waves, the motion is of a rolling nature, similar to an ocean surface wave. The intensity of Rayleigh wave shaking at a particular location is dependent on several factors:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19023136",
"title": "Microseism",
"section": "Section::::Generation of secondary microseisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "As far as seismic and acoustic waves are concerned, the motion of ocean waves in deep water is, to the leading order, equivalent to a pressure applied at the sea surface. This pressure is nearly equal to the water density times the wave orbital velocity squared. Because of this square, it is not the amplitude of the individual wave trains that matter (red and black lines in the figures) but the amplitude of the sum, the wave groups (blue line in figures).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7m9vps
|
Historians, what was Christmas like during the American Revolution?
|
[
{
"answer": "Christmas night 1776 General Washington crossed the Delaware river to mount a surprise attack on Hessian mercenaries in Trenton New Jersey. Not the heart warming story you were looking for but a Christmas story none the less.\nEdit:\n The following year Washington's Army was at winter quarters in Valley Forge where roughly half of his forces were sick/injured/or dying.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20925593",
"title": "Christmas in Puritan New England",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "In the aftermath of the American Civil War, Christmas became the festival highpoint of the American calendar. The day became a Federal holiday in 1870 under President Ulysses S. Grant in an attempt to unite north and south. During the 19th century, the Puritan hostility to Christmas gradually relaxed. In the late 19th century, authors praised the holiday for its liberality, family togetherness, and joyful observance. In 1887, for example, \"St. Nicholas Magazine\" published a story about a sickly Puritan boy of 1635 being restored to health when his mother brings him a bough of Christmas greenery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20925593",
"title": "Christmas in Puritan New England",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "When Christmas became a federal holiday in 1870, late 19th century Americans widely fashioned the day into the Christmas of commercialism, spirituality, and nostalgia that most Americans recognize today.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20763116",
"title": "Christmas in the American Civil War",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "Christmas in the American Civil War (1861–1865) was celebrated in both the United States and the Confederate States of America although the day did not become an official holiday until five years after the war ended. The war continued to rage on Christmas and skirmishes occurred throughout the countryside. Celebrations for both troops and civilians saw significant alteration. Propagandists, such as Thomas Nast, used wartime Christmases to reflect their beliefs. In 1870, Christmas became an official Federal holiday when President Ulysses S. Grant made it so in an attempt to unite north and south.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1973",
"title": "American Revolution",
"section": "Section::::Effects of the Revolution.:Commemorations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 170,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 170,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "The American Revolution has a central place in the American memory as the story of the nation's founding. It is covered in the schools, memorialized by a national holiday, and commemorated in innumerable monuments. George Washington's estate at Mount Vernon was one of the first national pilgrimages for tourists and attracted 10,000 visitors a year by the 1850s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21075880",
"title": "Christmas in the post-war United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "Christmas in the United States during the post-war years (1946–1964) reflected a period of peace, productivity, and prosperity. Americans staged sumptuous Christmases and enjoyed a variety of holiday foods unknown to previous generations. Several films, foods, toys, and television programs of the era have become American Christmas traditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25775809",
"title": "Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant",
"section": "Section::::First term 1869–1873.:Domestic affairs.:Holidays law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 669,
"text": "On June 28, 1870, Grant approved and signed legislation that made Christmas, or December 25, a legal public Holiday within Washington D.C. Historian Ron White said this was done by Grant because of his passion to unify the nation. During the early 19th Century in the United States, Christmas became more of a family-centered activity. Other Holidays, included in the law within Washington D.C., were New Year, Fourth of July, and Thanksgiving. The law affected 5,300 federal employees working in the District of Columbia, the nation's capital. The legislation was meant to adapt to similar laws in states surrounding Washington D.C. and \"in every State of the Union.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3277499",
"title": "Christmas controversies",
"section": "Section::::History.:Puritan era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "Prior to the Victorian era, Christmas in the United States was primarily a religious holiday observed by Christians of the Roman Catholic, Episcopalian, and Lutheran denominations. Its importance was often considered secondary to that of Epiphany and Easter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ql95u
|
What was the result of the location of pangea, and the resulting difference in earth's centermass?
|
[
{
"answer": "Firstly, Pangea was only the [most recent](_URL_0_) of at least 6 supercontinents that have existed in Earth's history. It formed about 300 million years ago, and started breaking up about 175 million years ago.\n\nSecondly, as far as mass of the planet is concerned, the vast, vast majority is contained in the mantle and core, which are 2-6 times more dense. The crust makes up about 0.9% of the earth's volume, and just 0.5% of the earth's mass. Remember, the tectonic plates are up to *maybe* 100 km thick at their absolute maximum (35 km average for continental), whereas the earth is 12,742 kilometers across\n\nThirdly, the crust is lying buoyantly on the mantle, which deforms below it. What that means is that while continental crust is less dense and thicker than oceanic crust, the load on the underlying mantle is around about [the same](_URL_1_). \n\nAll this acts to make the effect on centre of mass negligible. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25706228",
"title": "Paleocontinent",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Pangea.:Demise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "Pangea broke apart after 70 million years. The supercontinent was torn apart through fragmentation, which is where parts of the main landmass would break off in stages. There were two main events that led to the dispersal of Pangea. The first was a passive rifting event that occurred in the Triassic period. This rifting event caused the Atlantic Ocean to form. The other event was an active rifting event. This happened in the Lower Jurassic and caused the opening of the Indian Ocean.This breakup took 17 million years to complete.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40496093",
"title": "East Antarctic Shield",
"section": "Section::::Interaction with supercontinents.:Pangea: 320–160 Ma.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "From 320 Ma onward, Gondwana, Laurussia, and intervening terranes merged to form the supercontinent Pangea. Pangea's main amalgamation occurred during the Carboniferous but continents continued to be added and rifted away in the Late Paleozoic to Early Mesozoic. Pangea ruptured during the Jurassic, preceded by and associated with widespread magmatic activity, including the Karoo flood basalts and related dyke swarms in South Africa and the Ferrar Province in East Antarctica.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4384917",
"title": "Geology of the Dallas–Fort Worth Metroplex",
"section": "Section::::Structural and tectonic history of the DFW Metroplex.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1353,
"text": "Pangea started to break up during the Triassic ≈225Ma. Rifting affected regions which became the central Atlantic (between North America and Africa) and the Gulf of Mexico at about the same time. This rifting created a divergent plate margin that would play an integral role of the future geologic processes to follow. Rifting which involves the stretching of pre-existing crust and mantle lithosphere was initiated by the existence of sufficient horizontal deviatoric tensional stress that broke the lithosphere. Eventually rifting gave way to sea floor spreading in the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico in the mid Jurassic, around ≈165 Ma. Sea floor spreading is where new oceanic lithosphere is being created by upwelling of material, unlike rifting where it only involved the stretching of the crust. Convection currents in the sub-lithospheric mantle are the driving mechanisms that caused sea floor spreading to occur. New lithosphere is made when hot material beneath ocean ridges is brought to the surface by these cells. As the new lithosphere moves horizontally away from the ridges, the new crust added to the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic caused the continents of North America and South America to be moved apart. Seafloor spreading in the Gulf of Mexico ceased by the beginning of the Cretaceous and spreading shifted to the proto-Caribbean.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25706228",
"title": "Paleocontinent",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Pangea.:Formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 809,
"text": "Pangea was created by the continent of Gondwanaland and the continent of Laurussia. During the Carboniferous period the two continents came together to form the supercontinent of Pangea. The mountain building events that happened at this time created the Appalachian Mountains and the Variscan Belt of Central Europe. However, not all landmasses on Earth had attached themselves onto Pangea. It took until the late Permian until the Siberian land mass collided with Pangea. The only land mass to not be a part of Pangea were the former North and South China plates, they created a much smaller land mass in the ocean. There was a massive ocean that encompassed the world called Panthalassa, because most of the continental crust was sutured together into one giant continent there was a giant ocean to match.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45343728",
"title": "Geology of the southern North Sea",
"section": "Section::::Tectonic phases.:Kimmerian phase.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1304,
"text": "The break up of Pangea occurs during the Kimmerian tectonic phase for most of the Mesozoic, until the early-mid Cretaceous, this marks the start of creating the present position of our continents today. During the Jurassic, rifting activity reaches its maximum and North America starts to move apart from Eurasia following that event in the Cretaceous the southern part of North America starts to open up the Atlantic Ocean with the separation of South America and Africa. At the end of the Mesozoic the North Sea reached its final position where it lies in present day. Throughout the Cretaceous rifting eventually slowed down and came to a halt which later created the North Sea failed rift system because the regional stresses had shifted on to North America. The Jurassic is probably the most important geological time for hydrocarbon exploration in the North Sea. Many accumulations are in Jurassic reservoir, the Kimmeridge clay is considered the most important source rock and structures formed during rifting form excellent traps. In the first place rifting was responsible for the deposition of organic rich source rock due to anoxic conditions in the deep isolated rift basins. Possibly the most important phase to create structures and traps for the natural resources we try to collect today.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51888674",
"title": "Tarfaya Basin",
"section": "Section::::Geologic history.:Rifting and early oceanic spreading.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "The initial rifting of Pangea began 260 million years before present during the Late Permian and persisted through the Triassic. Throughout this stage of rifting, the continental crust was thinned and separation of North America from northwestern Africa began. Normal faulting in a northeast-southwest direction created a series of grabens and half-grabens developed as the thinned crust subsided. Subsidence led to the formation of a shallow basin without forming an ocean. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "593915",
"title": "Geology of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Appalachians, Interior Highlands, and Atlantic Plains.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "During the Late Triassic, Pangea began to be torn apart when a three-pronged fissure grew between Africa, South America, and North America. Rifting began as magma welled up through the weakness in the crust, creating a volcanic rift zone. Volcanic eruptions spewed ash and volcanic debris across the landscape as these severed continent-sized fragments of Pangea diverged.. The gash between the spreading continents gradually grew to form a new ocean basin, the Atlantic. The rift zone known as the mid-Atlantic ridge continued to provide the raw volcanic materials for the expanding ocean basin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2oj5d4
|
Does fungus build up a resistance to treatment like bacteria does?
|
[
{
"answer": "What kind of anti-fungal treatment do you mean? Fungi can certainly evolve resistance to [agricultural fungicides](_URL_3_) but it sounds like you're more interested in [antifungal medication](_URL_4_) to which fungi have also evolved resistance: [1](_URL_2_) [2](_URL_0_) [3](_URL_1_). It seems as if whoever said that this doesn't occur was mis-informed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't think there will be a correct answer without the OP providing what fungal disease he is talking about.\n\nFungi develop resistance just like bacteria do, and have been reported quite a few times. Multi-drug resistant fungi do exist as well, and have caused headaches at hospitals for some time.\n\nThe good thing about fungal drug resistance (in general), though, is that it is usually very transient. Developing drug resistance comes at the cost of resources that could have been used elsewhere. Unlike bacteria, this cost is quite substantial for fungi, so drug sensitive strains can much more easily outcompete resistant ones in normal (unsymptomatic) situations. Also, serious fungal infections disproportionately target immunocompromised people. Combine the two factors, and it is easy to see that drug resistance in fungi won't last as long or propagate as easily.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46894283",
"title": "Cyproconazole",
"section": "Section::::Resistance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "Development of fungal resistance can be prevented by not using cyproconazole \"repeatedly alone in the same season\" or by not using it late in the infection, that is, curatively. Fungi can develop resistance if the same fungicide is used repeatedly or when fungicides with the same mode of action are repeatedly.(package insert Alto 100Syngenta)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47826409",
"title": "Penicillium digitatum",
"section": "Section::::Prevention of plant disease.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1229,
"text": "Resistance to common fungicides is currently combated through the use of other chemicals. For example, sodium o-phenylphenate-resistant strains are dealt with via formaldehyde fumigation while imazalil-resistant strains are controlled through the use of pyrimethanil, a fungicide also approved for fighting strains resistant to other fungicides. As fungicide resistance increases globally, other measures of control are being considered including that of biocontrol. Effective biocontrol agents include bacteria such as \"Bacillus subtilis\", \"Pseudomonas cepacia\" and \"Pseudomonas syringae\" as well as fungi such as \"Debaryomyces hansenii\" and \"Candida guilliermondii.\" In Clementines and Valencia oranges, \"Candida oleophila,\" \"Pichia anomala\" and \"Candida famata\" have been shown to reduce disease. Despite the ability of various biocontrol agents to exhibit antagonistic activity, biocontrol has not been shown to provide complete control over \"P.digitatum\" and is therefore commonly used in conjunction with another measure of control. Alternative measures of control include essential oils such as \"Syzygium aromaticum\" and \"Lippia javanica\", ultraviolet light, curing, vapour heat and cell-penetrating anti-fungal peptides.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "515758",
"title": "Fungicide",
"section": "Section::::Resistance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 761,
"text": "Pathogens respond to the use of fungicides by evolving resistance. In the field several mechanisms of resistance have been identified. The evolution of fungicide resistance can be gradual or sudden. In qualitative or discrete resistance, a mutation (normally to a single gene) produces a race of a fungus with a high degree of resistance. Such resistant varieties also tend to show stability, persisting after the fungicide has been removed from the market. For example, sugar beet leaf blotch remains resistant to azoles years after they were no longer used for control of the disease. This is because such mutations have a high selection pressure when the fungicide is used, but there is low selection pressure to remove them in the absence of the fungicide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42085062",
"title": "Fungal isolate",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "Fungal isolates have been researched for decades. Because fungi often exist in thin mycelial monolayers, with no protective shell, immune system, and limited mobility, they have developed the ability to synthesize a variety of unusual compounds for survival. Researchers have discovered fungal isolates with anticancer, antimicrobial, immunomodulatory, and other bio-active properties. The first statins, β-Lactam antibiotics, as well as a few important antifungals, were discovered in fungi.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52271632",
"title": "Sudden Death Syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Management.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "Fungicides are another common product used to control fungal pathogens. In-furrow applications and seed treatments with fungicides have some effect in decreasing disease instance but in most cases, the timing isn't right and the pathogen can still infect the plants. Foliar applications of fungicides have no effect on disease suppression for SDS because the fungi are found in the soil and mainly the roots of the plants. Most foliar fungicides do not move downward through plants, therefore having no effect on the pathogen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "889890",
"title": "Endophyte",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Drug discovery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "Some of the antimicrobial compounds produced by endophytic fungi are of interest in their effectiveness against pathogens which have developed resistances to antibiotics. Several isolates from the ascomycota \"Pestalotiopsis\" sp have been shown to have a broad range of antimicrobial effects, even against methicillin-resistant \"Staphylococcus aureus\". Isolates from the marine fungus \"Nigrospora\" sp. have proved to be more effective in treating multi drug-resistant tuberculosis than current treatments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "515758",
"title": "Fungicide",
"section": "Section::::Resistance.:Fungicide resistance management.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "The fungicide resistance action committee (FRAC) has several recommended practices to try to avoid the development of fungicide resistance, especially in at-risk fungicides including \"Strobilurins\" such as azoxystrobin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7qvas1
|
What is more expensive - mail or plate armour?
|
[
{
"answer": "At least in the Burgundian accounts, the mail armour is cheaper (in general) as the plate armour, but some very high grade mail armour could be a lot more expansive than low quality plates armour. For exemple, a full plate armour could cost between 37£ 3 s and 76£ 10s, a mail shirt, between 5£ 13s and 50£, a higher price than the lowest prince found for a full plate harness. (Those accounts spoke about livres tournoi, tournoi pounds, and not Sterling).\n\nThis variation in price is also found in the inventories of the armory of the tower of london (second part of the 14th), as Thom Richardson prouved in its thesis, where you could find mail shirts (iron) between 16s 1d and 46s 8d, and mail shirt made of steel, at the price of 4£. (Iron and steel are not always related to the use of proper steel or iron, but could aslo be use to note the quality of the armour)\n\nSources: Burgundian account, in AGR (Bruxelles) and ADN (Lille).\n\nROBCIS Dominiques, armes armures et armuriers sous le principat de Jean sans Peur (1404-1419) d'après les documents comptables, Paris, 1998.\n\nRICHARDSON Roland Thomas, The medieval inventories of the Tower armouries 1320-1410, PHD Thesis, Unversity of York, 2012.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6696",
"title": "Chain mail",
"section": "Section::::In Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "By the 14th century, plate armour was commonly used to supplement mail. Eventually mail was supplanted by plate for the most part, as it provided greater protection against windlass crossbows, bludgeoning weapons, and lance charges. However, mail was still widely used by many soldiers as well as brigandines and padded jacks. These three types of armour made up the bulk of the equipment used by soldiers, with mail being the most expensive. It was sometimes more expensive than plate armour. Mail typically persisted longer in less technologically advanced areas such as Eastern Europe but was in use everywhere into the 16th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10958769",
"title": "Mail and plate armour",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "Mail and plate armour (plated mail, plated chainmail, splinted mail/chainmail) is a type of mail with embedded plates. Armour of this type has been used in the Middle East, Ottoman Empire, Japan, China, Korea, Vietnam, Central Asia, Greater Iran, India, Eastern Europe, Philippines and by the Moors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1390149",
"title": "Medieval technology",
"section": "Section::::Military technologies.:Armour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 144,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 144,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "A type of Lamellar armour, was made up entirely of small, overlapping plates. Either sewn together, usually with leather straps, or attached to a backing such as linen, or a quilted armor. Scale armour does not require the labor to produce that chain mail does and therefore is more affordable. It also affords much better protection against thrusting blows and pointed weapons. Though, it is much heavier, more restrictive and impedes free movement. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6696",
"title": "Chain mail",
"section": "Section::::In Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 701,
"text": "After the fall of the Western Empire, much of the infrastructure needed to create plate armour diminished. Eventually the word \"mail\" came to be synonymous with armour. It was typically an extremely prized commodity, as it was expensive and time-consuming to produce and could mean the difference between life and death in a battle. Mail from dead combatants was frequently looted and was used by the new owner or sold for a lucrative price. As time went on and infrastructure improved, it came to be used by more soldiers. Eventually with the rise of the lanced cavalry charge, impact warfare, and high-powered crossbows, mail came to be used as a secondary armour to plate for the mounted nobility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "493913",
"title": "Plate armour",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "Plate armour is a historical type of personal body armour made from iron or steel plates, culminating in the iconic suit of armour entirely encasing the wearer. While there are early predecessors such as the Roman-era lorica segmentata, full plate armour developed in Europe during the Late Middle Ages, especially in the context of the Hundred Years' War, from the coat of plates worn over mail suits during the 13th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6696",
"title": "Chain mail",
"section": "Section::::In Asia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "Mail armour was introduced to the Middle East and Asia through the Romans and was adopted by the Sassanid Persians starting in the 3rd century AD, where it was supplemental to the scale and lamellar armour already used. Mail was commonly also used as horse armour for cataphracts and heavy cavalry as well as armour for the soldiers themselves. Asian mail could be just as heavy as the European variety and sometimes had prayer symbols stamped on the rings as a sign of their craftsmanship as well as for divine protection. Indeed, mail armour is mentioned in the Quran as being a gift revealed by Allah to David:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6696",
"title": "Chain mail",
"section": "Section::::In Asia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "The Ottoman Empire used mail armour as well as mail and plate armour, and it was used in their armies until the 18th century by heavy cavalry and elite units such as the Janissaries. They spread its use into North Africa where it was adopted by Mamluk Egyptians and the Sudanese who produced it until the early 20th century. Ottoman mail was constructed with alternating rows of solid links and round riveted links. The Persians used mail armour as well as mail and plate armour. Persian mail and Ottoman mail were often quite similar in appearance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
32rvfn
|
How long does it take for a cell to travel through your body?
|
[
{
"answer": "[This page](_URL_2_) says that in a 120-day span, it will travel the body about 75,000 times. That gives you a bit over [2 minutes](_URL_0_). However, it will flow at different rates depending on the type of blood vessel it is in (see [here](_URL_3_)) and probably spends some time moving through your heart and also I think a much longer time being stored in the spleen (see [here](_URL_1_)). So, it's probably a bit less than that but of that order. Maybe someone else can provide a better estimate!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "222320",
"title": "Interphase",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "Interphase is the phase of the cell cycle in which a typical cell spends most of its life. If, we consider that the total event (interphase and mitotic cell division) take place about 24 hrs. then the interphase is of 23 hrs. Interphase can also be thought of as lasting for 90% of the cell's life, while Mitosis usually lasts for 10%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "714434",
"title": "Histopathology",
"section": "Section::::In myocardial infarction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1083,
"text": "After a myocardial infarction (heart attack), no histopathology is seen the first ~30 minutes. The only possible sign the first 4 hours is waviness of fibres at border. Later, however, a coagulation necrosis is initiated, with edema and hemorrhage. After 12 hours, there can be seen karyopyknosis and hypereosinophilia of myocytes with contraction band necrosis in margins, as well as beginning of neutrophil infiltration. At 1 – 3 days there is continued coagulation necrosis with loss of nuclei and striations and an increased infiltration of neutrophils to interstitium. Until the end of the first week after infarction there is beginning of disintegration of dead muscle fibres, necrosis of neutrophils and beginning of macrophage removal of dead cells at border, which increases the succeeding days. After a week there is also beginning of granulation tissue formation at margins, which matures during the following month, and gets increased collagen deposition and decreased cellularity until the myocardial scarring is fully mature at approximately 2 months after infarction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "222320",
"title": "Interphase",
"section": "Section::::Stages of interphase.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "The duration of time spent in interphase and in each stage of interphase is variable and depends on both the type of cell and the species of organism it belongs to. Most cells of adult mammals spend about 24 hours in interphase; this accounts for about 90%-96% of the total time involved in cell division.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "233253",
"title": "Umbilical cord",
"section": "Section::::Structure and development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "The blood flow through the umbilical cord is approximately 35 ml / min at 20 weeks, and 240 ml / min at 40 weeks of gestation. Adapted to the weight of the fetus, this corresponds to 115 ml / min / kg at 20 weeks and 64 ml / min / kg at 40 weeks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "610617",
"title": "Diastole",
"section": "Section::::Role in cardiac cycle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "For a healthy human heart the entire cardiac cycle typically runs less than one second. That is, for a typical heart rate of 75 beats per minute (bpm), the cycle requires 0.3 sec in ventricular systole (contraction)—pumping blood to all body systems from the two ventricles; and 0.5 sec in diastole (dilation), re-filling the four chambers of the heart, for a total time of 0.8 sec to complete the entire cycle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "857170",
"title": "Cardiac action potential",
"section": "Section::::Phases of the cardiac action potential.:Phase 4.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "However, pacemaker cells are never at rest. In these cells, phase 4 is also known as the pacemaker potential. During this phase, the membrane potential slowly becomes more positive, until it reaches a set value (around -40mV; known as the threshold potential) or until it is depolarized by another action potential, coming from a neighboring cell.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7252",
"title": "Cell cycle",
"section": "Section::::Role in tumor formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "The fastest cycling mammalian cells in culture, crypt cells in the intestinal epithelium, have a cycle time as short as 9 to 10 hours. Stem cells in resting mouse skin may have a cycle time of more than 200 hours. Most of this difference is due to the varying length of G, the most variable phase of the cycle. M and S do not vary much.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4bxznb
|
How are multiple sounds transmitted through gases simultaneously?
|
[
{
"answer": "One way of thinking of it is that you only hear *one* sound, which is the sum of all the individual sounds. If you look at a sound waveform, it's a single line travelling up and down as air pressure changes. A steady tone has a very simple wave (a sine wave). In fact any sound can be considered to be made up of sine waves of varying frequency and amplitude.\n\nSometimes sounds do cancel each other. If you play two very close notes, for example, you'll be able to hear a \"beat\" which is the result of the two soundwaves shifting in and out of phase, alternately reinforcing and (partially) cancelling each other. Sometimes, if you're in a quiet room with, say, a whiny computer fan, you might find there are places in the room where it sounds a lot quieter than you'd expect (this will probably only happen for one ear at a time). This is where reflections of the original sound meet out-of-phase and cancel each other out.\n\nNoise-cancelling headphones work by playing the inverse of an incoming sound wave in order to (attempt to) cancel it completely.\n\nAs for how multiple sounds travel through the air, try filling a tray with water and letting drips of water fall on to it in different places. You'll see the circular ripple move out from each point. Where the ripples meet, they effectively move right through each other.\n\nHere's a very brief video showing the effect with a slinky. There are two waves, one from either end, which pass right through each other:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nAs to whether there's really a limit, I'm not sure. I suspect if you try to play too high a frequency/amplitude, other effects may take over and cause the usual addition/subtraction of sound waves in air to start breaking down.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The way air moves with sound is approximately linear. The change in flow is proportional to the gradient in pressure, and the change in the gradient in pressure is proportional to minus the divergence of the flow. The thing about linear differential equations is that linear combinations of their solutions are also solutions. In particular, they can be added. So if I have one sound wave that follows the laws of fluid motion and another sound wave that also follows them, then if I add the pressure and flow of both of them at each point I get another solution that's the sum of those two waves.\n\nIt's not perfectly linear, so it is possible for really loud sounds to not act quite like that, but it's pretty close. For all intents and purposes, you can have as many sound waves pass each other as you want.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > is there, statistically speaking, so much more air molecules than sound sources that they can all exist at the same time, miss eachother as they travel and eventually hit my body? Just curious.\n\nNo, the air is definitely dense enough for the molecules to bump into each other quite frequently. In fact, the air molecules only travel about [68 nanometers on average](_URL_0_) before hitting another air molecule. But sounds still pass through each other because the molecules getting packed tighter in one direction does not affect their ability to get packed tighter in another direction at the same time. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "147853",
"title": "Speed of sound",
"section": "Section::::Dependence on the properties of the medium.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "In low molecular weight gases such as helium, sound propagates faster as compared to heavier gases such as xenon. For monatomic gases, the speed of sound is about 75% of the mean speed that the atoms move in that gas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147853",
"title": "Speed of sound",
"section": "Section::::Equations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "In a non-dispersive medium, the speed of sound is independent of sound frequency, so the speeds of energy transport and sound propagation are the same for all frequencies. Air, a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen, constitutes a non-dispersive medium. However, air does contain a small amount of CO which \"is\" a dispersive medium, and causes dispersion to air at ultrasonic frequencies ().\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21298096",
"title": "Homorganic consonant",
"section": "Section::::Consonant clustering.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "Two or more consonant sounds may appear sequentially linked or clustered as either identical consonants or homorganic consonants that differ slightly in the manner of articulation, as when the first consonant is a fricative and the second is a stop.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147853",
"title": "Speed of sound",
"section": "Section::::Effect of frequency and gas composition.:General physical considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 107,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 107,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "The molecular composition of the gas contributes both as the mass (M) of the molecules, and their heat capacities, and so both have an influence on speed of sound. In general, at the same molecular mass, monatomic gases have slightly higher speed of sound (over 9% higher) because they have a higher \"γ\" (...) than diatomics do (). Thus, at the same molecular mass, the speed of sound of a monatomic gas goes up by a factor of\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18994087",
"title": "Sound",
"section": "Section::::Physics of sound.:Longitudinal and transverse waves.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "Sound is transmitted through gases, plasma, and liquids as longitudinal waves, also called compression waves. It requires a medium to propagate. Through solids, however, it can be transmitted as both longitudinal waves and transverse waves. Longitudinal sound waves are waves of alternating pressure deviations from the equilibrium pressure, causing local regions of compression and rarefaction, while transverse waves (in solids) are waves of alternating shear stress at right angle to the direction of propagation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "233211",
"title": "Ernst Chladni",
"section": "Section::::Other work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "Chladni estimated sound velocities in different gases by placing those gases in an organ pipe and measuring the characteristics of the sounds that emerged when the pipe was played. This built on work on measuring the speed of sound in air that Pierre Gassendi began in 1635.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147853",
"title": "Speed of sound",
"section": "Section::::Basic concepts.:Compression and shear waves.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 762,
"text": "In a gas or liquid, sound consists of compression waves. In solids, waves propagate as two different types. A longitudinal wave is associated with compression and decompression in the direction of travel, and is the same process in gases and liquids, with an analogous compression-type wave in solids. Only compression waves are supported in gases and liquids. An additional type of wave, the transverse wave, also called a shear wave, occurs only in solids because only solids support elastic deformations. It is due to elastic deformation of the medium perpendicular to the direction of wave travel; the direction of shear-deformation is called the \"polarization\" of this type of wave. In general, transverse waves occur as a pair of orthogonal polarizations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
u4cq7
|
What is happening on the cellular level when you rub lotion into your skin, and why is it good for you?
|
[
{
"answer": "Searched a bit and found a placebo study that details some of the results of applying lotion - _URL_0_. Hope this helps!\n\n > The epidermis was thicker and papillary dermal changes included increased thickness, increased acid mucopolysaccharides, improved quality of elastic fibers, and increased density of collagen.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's an assumption that it's \"good\" for you. Many people will agree that it makes you feel better when you have dry skin, but is there any other benefit health-wise? Or does it cause your body to become reliant on moisturizers rather than the skin's natural production of oils?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When you say lotion you can mean one of a few different things. Products known as [emollients](_URL_0_) are lipid (fat) heavy solutions that restore barrier function to disrupted skin. Another sub-class of \"lotions\" are humectants, which hydrate the skin by trapping water. Generally speaking, the lotion (vehicle) has little/no activity at the cellular level, however you do see changes in the thickness of some epidermal layers and changes in the relative proportions of components of the extra-cellular matrix. \n\nOther functions of lotions are to deliver various medications into the skin, and they're generally formulated to best serve as vehicles for the medication in a addition to being emollients/humectants. Other than that we can change qualities in the vehicle based on where on the body it will be used. Different vehicles are required for the scalp/hair, as opposed to the face, ect. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "NO MORE HOSE JOKES. Please. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What about oil? \nLike pure coconut oil. Does that have any benefits on a cellular level?\n\nI'm a black woman and my mother has always preached moisturizing (with lotion and/or oils) my skin and that it'll prevent ashiness and prolong wrinkles. Is there any merit to this?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Maybe this is a good place to ask, I clicked on this link because lotion is *really* important to me - can your skin get sort of addicted to cream? I have to have hand cream with me everywhere I go - I have some in every room of the house, and it HAS to be Glysomed brand. Nothing else works, even other creams with gylcerine. If I get my hands wet and let them dry without putting handcream on, at best I feel really skeeved out by touching anything, and at worse they burn. No one else I've ever told about this knows what I mean. So, what's up with this does anyone here know?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A lot of people are mentioning lipid absorption into the body with lotions. One time my mom told me if I use too much lotion it'll make you gain weight. I dismissed it as crazy because she's really *quite* crazy, but now I wish to know if this is possible. Can you absorb calories from lotions? I can't find sources I'd consider meritable. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So far I don't feel like anyone has answered the question satisfactorily.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4642616",
"title": "Lotion",
"section": "Section::::Potential health risks.:Systemic absorption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "Absorption through the skin is increased when lotions are applied and then covered with an occlusive layer, when they are applied to large areas of the body, or when they are applied to damaged or broken skin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4642616",
"title": "Lotion",
"section": "Section::::Potential health risks.:Systemic absorption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "All topical products, including lotions, can result in the percutaneous (through the skin) absorption of their ingredients. Though this has some use as a route of drug administration, it more commonly results in unintended side effects. For example, medicated lotions such as diprolene are often used with the intention of exerting only local effects, but absorption of the drug through the skin can occur to a small degree, resulting in systemic side effects such as hyperglycemia and glycosuria. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4642616",
"title": "Lotion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "A lotion is a low-viscosity topical preparation intended for application to the skin. By contrast, creams and gels have higher viscosity, typically due to lower water content. Lotions are applied to external skin with bare hands, a brush, a clean cloth, or cotton wool. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3202287",
"title": "Darier's sign",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "In general, the skin becomes swollen, itchy and red. This is a result of compression of mast cells, which are hyperactive in these diseases. These mast cells release inflammatory granules which contain histamine. It is the histamine which is responsible for the response seen after rubbing the lesional skin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15523519",
"title": "Type III hypersensitivity",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "Such depositions in tissues often induce an inflammatory response, and can cause damage wherever they precipitate. The cause of damage is as a result of the action of cleaved complement anaphylotoxins C3a and C5a, which, respectively, mediate the induction of granule release from mast cells (from which histamine can cause urticaria), and recruitment of inflammatory cells into the tissue (mainly those with lysosomal action, leading to tissue damage through frustrated phagocytosis by PMNs and macrophages).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1203753",
"title": "Keratosis pilaris",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 726,
"text": "Keratosis pilaris occurs when the human body produces excess amounts of the skin protein keratin, resulting in the formation of small, raised bumps in the skin often with surrounding redness. The excess keratin, which is the same color of the person's natural skin tone, surrounds and entraps the hair follicles in the pore. This causes the formation of hard plugs (process known as hyperkeratinization). Many KP bumps contain an ingrown hair that has coiled. This is a result of the keratinized skin's \"capping off\" the hair follicle, preventing the hair from exiting. The hair grows encapsulated inside the follicle. KP is more common in patients affected by atopic diseases such as allergic rhinitis and atopic dermatitis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3572030",
"title": "Methyl cellulose",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Medical.:Constipation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "Methyl cellulose is used to treat constipation. Effects generally occur within three days. It is taken by mouth and is recommended with sufficient water. Side effects may include abdominal pain. It is classified as a bulk forming laxative. It works by increasing the amount of stool present which improves intestinal contractions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1j72c7
|
why is it so hard to find alcohol that doesn't taste...like alcohol? you'd think someone would make a killing off of 40% koolaid-flavoured alcohol.
|
[
{
"answer": "You can add whatever flavorings you want, but it still has alcohol in it.\n\nThat being said, properly aged alcohols mellow out in flavor. Top shelf, 30-year-old whisky tastes nothing like a $20 bottle from Walmart. If you're really looking for something light, I would personally recommend trying Chopin Vodka or Domaine de Canton.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When alcohol doesn't taste like alcohol and has a more welcoming flavor, like your Kool-Aid example, nothing good would come of that night of drinking. It would possibly cause the drinker to go far beyond their limit b/c of the good flavoring and alcohol poisoning is a real thing. Straight on the rocks keeps me from drinking more than 2.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's an acquired taste. Eventually, you will like the taste it alcohol, with reason. Then you won't want an alcoholic drink that doesn't taste like it. That's why they don't make it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Haven't you ever heard of flavored vodka? Tastes like candy. Especially caramel vodka, thats some good stuff.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you like something sweeter that doesn't taste like alcohol, but can still get you drunk, try a stronger cider! I never used to like alcohol then someone intro'd me to cider and I love the stuff! \n\nAnd if you want something stronger, find a flavoured gin, my personal favourite is sloe gin! Take a pint glass and pour about 2/3 inches of it into it, then take either lemonade or a lemon flavoured alchopop and fill the rest of the glass with it, the result is you taking around 3 shots of fairly high percentage gin whilst only tasting lemon! I used this to get very drunk, very quickly one night and lasted about 2 hours.\n\nSorry for not answering your question, just providing some alternates! :)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "older people like tend to start liking bitter stuff over sweeter",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "666105",
"title": "Fusel alcohol",
"section": "Section::::Classification.:Aroma alcohols.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "Excessive concentrations of some alcohols other than ethanol may cause off-flavors, sometimes described as \"spicy\", \"hot\", or \"solvent-like\". Some beverages, such as rum, whisky (especially Bourbon), incompletely rectified vodka (e.g. Siwucha), and traditional ales and ciders, are expected to have relatively high concentrations of non-hazardous alcohols as part of their flavor profile. However, in other beverages, such as Korn, vodka, and lagers, the presence of alcohols other than ethanol is considered a fault.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2950125",
"title": "Purell",
"section": "Section::::Health risks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 860,
"text": "Purell purposely adds an unpleasant bitter taste to its product to make it undesirable to drink and to discourage ingestion. Media reports suggest that by filtering the alcohol from the hand sanitizer, the bitter taste disappears. However, this is incorrect. Filtering the alcohol does not remove the bitter taste of the hand sanitizer. In the 24 years Purell has been in business, the accidental or intentional ingestion of its products has been rare. The \"Chicago Tribune\" reported that children have become inebriated by ingesting Purell. One child's ingestion of the hand sanitizer caused her blood alcohol level to reach 0.218%; Purell contains 70% ethyl alcohol, while other hand sanitizers contain isopropanol which would likely have been fatal in the same dose. The product packaging recommends that the product be \"kept out of the reach of children\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23581856",
"title": "Ratzeputz",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "Ratzeputz today (2006) only contains 58% alcohol; whereas higher proportions of alcohol used to be common. The ingredients, which are found by most consumers to be sharp, are intended to leave a long aftertaste in the mouth and throat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1591064",
"title": "Breathalyzer",
"section": "Section::::Common sources of error.:Mouth alcohol.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "Mouth alcohol can also be created in other ways. Dentures, some have theorized, will trap alcohol, although experiments have shown no difference if the normal 15 minute observation period is observed. Periodontal disease can also create pockets in the gums which will contain the alcohol for longer periods. Also known to produce false results due to residual alcohol in the mouth is passionate kissing with an intoxicated person. Recent use of mouthwash or breath fresheners can skew results upward as they can contain fairly high levels of alcohol.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39357",
"title": "Tequila",
"section": "Section::::Serving.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "Many of the higher-quality, 100% agave tequilas do not impart significant alcohol burn, and drinking them with salt and lime is likely to remove much of the flavor. These tequilas are usually sipped from a snifter glass rather than a shot glass, and savoured instead of quickly gulped. Doing so allows the taster to detect subtler fragrances and flavors that would otherwise be missed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "193975",
"title": "Edible mushroom",
"section": "Section::::Current culinary use.:Conditionally-edible species.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Coprinopsis atramentaria\" is edible without special preparation, however, consumption with alcohol is toxic due to the presence of coprine. Some other \"Coprinus\" spp. share this property.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "191923",
"title": "Denatured alcohol",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "Denaturing alcohol does not chemically alter the ethanol molecule. Rather, the ethanol is mixed with other chemicals to form a foul-tasting, often toxic, solution. For many of these solutions, there is no practical way to separate the components.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
33a5ua
|
does true randomness exist in the universe? if i replayed the universe exactly the same from the start, would it be exactly the same?
|
[
{
"answer": "We don't know, is the simple answer. Our best current guess appears to be \"yes, it does\", but there are theories that get around it at the cost of losing common assumptions.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Does true randomness exist in the universe?-Yes. At a quantum level randomness happens all the time. Would the universe be exactly the same if we re-ran it? Probably not, if our quantum theories are correct, although not everyone agrees. Whether we could notice the difference is anyone's guess.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19196523",
"title": "Randomness",
"section": "Section::::Randomness and religion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "Randomness can be seen as conflicting with the deterministic ideas of some religions, such as those where the universe is created by an omniscient deity who is aware of all past and future events. If the universe is regarded to have a purpose, then randomness can be seen as impossible. This is one of the rationales for religious opposition to evolution, which states that non-random selection is applied to the results of random genetic variation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19196523",
"title": "Randomness",
"section": "Section::::In science.:In mathematics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "That is, an infinite sequence is random if and only if it withstands all recursively enumerable null sets. The other notions of random sequences include (but not limited to): recursive randomness and Schnorr randomness which are based on recursively computable martingales. It was shown by Yongge Wang that these randomness notions are generally different.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19604228",
"title": "Dark energy",
"section": "Section::::Theories of dark energy.:Quintessence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 758,
"text": "The coincidence problem asks why the acceleration of the Universe began when it did. If acceleration began earlier in the universe, structures such as galaxies would never have had time to form, and life, at least as we know it, would never have had a chance to exist. Proponents of the anthropic principle view this as support for their arguments. However, many models of quintessence have a so-called \"tracker\" behavior, which solves this problem. In these models, the quintessence field has a density which closely tracks (but is less than) the radiation density until matter-radiation equality, which triggers quintessence to start behaving as dark energy, eventually dominating the universe. This naturally sets the low energy scale of the dark energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48256",
"title": "Random sequence",
"section": "Section::::Modern approaches.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "It is important to realize that for each of the definitions given above for infinite sequences, if one adds a billion zeros to the front of the random sequence the new sequence will still be considered random. Hence any application of these concepts to practical problems needs to be performed with care.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4701197",
"title": "Entropy (arrow of time)",
"section": "Section::::Current research.:Cosmology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 1451,
"text": "BULLET::::- A highly controversial view is that in such a case the arrow of time will reverse. The quantum fluctuations—which in the meantime have evolved into galaxies and stars—will be in superposition in such a way that the whole process described above is reversed—i.e., the fluctuations are erased by destructive interference and total uniformity is achieved once again. Thus the universe ends in a Big Crunch, which is similar to its beginning in the Big Bang. Because the two are totally symmetric, and the final state is very highly ordered, entropy must decrease close to the end of the universe, so that the Second Law of Thermodynamics reverses when the universe shrinks. This can be understood as follows: in the very early universe, interactions between fluctuations created entanglement (quantum correlations) between particles spread all over the universe; during the expansion, these particles became so distant that these correlations became negligible (see quantum decoherence). At the time the expansion halts and the universe starts to shrink, such correlated particles arrive once again at contact (after circling around the universe), and the entropy starts to decrease—because highly correlated initial conditions may lead to a decrease in entropy. Another way of putting it, is that as distant particles arrive, more and more order is revealed because these particles are highly correlated with particles that arrived earlier.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "510738",
"title": "Representativeness heuristic",
"section": "Section::::Determinants of representativeness.:Randomness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "Irregularity and local representativeness affect judgments of randomness. Things that do not appear to have any logical sequence are regarded as representative of randomness and thus more likely to occur. For example, THTHTH as a series of coin tosses would not be considered representative of randomly generated coin tosses as it is too well ordered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "199949",
"title": "Many-minds interpretation",
"section": "Section::::History.:The many-worlds interpretation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1009,
"text": "This has some interesting implications. For starters, Everett suggested that the universe is actually indeterminate as a whole. To see this, consider an observer measuring some particle that starts in an undetermined state, as \"both\" spin-up \"and\" spin-down, for example - a superposition of both possibilites. When an observer measures that particle's spin, however, it always registers as \"either\" up \"or\" down. The problem of how to understand this sudden shift from \"both up and down\" to \"either up or down\" is called the Measurement problem. According to the many-worlds interpretation, the act of measurement forced a “splitting” of the universe into two states, one spin-up and the other spin-down, and the two branches that extend from those two subsequently independent states. One branch measures up. The other measures down. Looking at the instrument informs the observer which branch she's on, but the system itself is indeterminate at this and, by logical extension, presumably any higher level.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
21e713
|
How did tribes like the Seminole in the Everglades deal with alligators?
|
[
{
"answer": "To start out with, by the time the Seminoles started settling Florida, they already had guns. So lets turn the clock back a bit more. For thousands of years, alligators were on the menu for people living in Florida. They weren't really a common meal, of course, but their bones do show in trash middens alongside other game animals and fish. At the time of contact with the Old World, northeastern Florida and southeastern Georgia were Timucua territory. The Timucua sought out European alliances during war between the three Timucuan alliances that dominated the area. The French allied with the Saturiwa, which allowed Jacques le Moyne the opportunity to capture various aspect of Timucuan life in his art. This included an image of the Timucua preparing for a feast. [As you can see](_URL_1_), a young alligator is already cooking over the fire and another is about to be put on the rack. But those are small alligators, what about the adults? Luckily, le Moyne has an answer for that too.\n\n[In this illustration](_URL_0_), a Timucua hunting party gets an exaggeratedly large alligator to bite down on a pole (foreground), then uses the pole for leverage to flip the alligator on its back. Once it's turned over, they're able shot its softer underbelly with their bows (background).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not necessarily historic, but hopefully on topic. Alligators are not particularly aggressive and rarely attack people. There were about a dozen alligator attacks in the last decade. Considering the millions of people who have contact with the creatures, this number is remarkably low. If you don't feed the reptiles or swim at dusk or in the dark, or bother them during mating season when the males are especially aggressive, alligators for the most part will leave you alone. I have been up to my armpits in Florida swamp many times in close proximity to gators and still have all my extremities.\n\nSecondly, much of the Everglades where the Seminoles live is quite shallow. In most places it is inches deep. Gators will dig holes and trench through, but it is not like the water in most places is deep enough the dangerous animals can swim up upon you undetected.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27343992",
"title": "Alligator boat",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "Alligator boats were a type of amphibious vehicle used in the forestry industry throughout Ontario, Quebec, the Maritime provinces of Canada and the northern United States from the mid-19th century to the beginning of the 20th century. These boats were so named because of their ability to travel between lakes by pulling themselves with a winch across land. Alligators served as \"warping tug\". They towed log booms across lakes and then portaged themselves using a winch to the next body of water. The rugged, steam-powered tugs were one of the pioneers in the mechanization of the forest industry in North America.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "87003",
"title": "Everglades",
"section": "Section::::History.:Native Americans.:Seminole.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "By 1913, the Seminole in the Everglades numbered no more than 325. They made a living by hunting and trading with white settlers, and raised domesticated animals. The Seminole made their villages in hardwood hammocks or pinelands, had diets of hominy and coontie roots, fish, turtles, venison, and small game. Their villages were not large, due to the limited size of the hammocks. Between the end of the last Seminole War and 1930, the people lived in relative isolation from the majority culture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30935192",
"title": "Alligator wrestling",
"section": "Section::::Native American historical origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Southeastern Native Americans hunted alligators as a food source for thousands of years. At the turn of the 20th century, showing off alligators as roadside attractions helped Native Americans generate revenue. Long before the first Europeans explorers wandered into the Florida Everglades, alligator wrestling existed. For tribes like the Seminole and Miccosukee, learning how to \"handle\" the reptiles was part of their existence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "185004",
"title": "Seminole",
"section": "Section::::Land claims.:Florida Seminole.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "The remaining few hundred Seminoles survived in the Florida swamplands, avoiding removal. They lived in the Everglades, to isolate themselves from European-Americans. Seminoles continued their distinctive life, such as \"clan-based matrilocal residence in scattered thatched-roof chickee camps.\" Today, the Florida Seminole proudly note the fact that their ancestors were never conquered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17194836",
"title": "Indigenous people of the Everglades region",
"section": "Section::::Seminole / Miccosukee.:Modern times.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "As metropolitan areas in South Florida began to grow, the Miccosukee branch of the Seminoles became closely associated with the Everglades, simultaneously seeking privacy and serving as a tourist attraction, wrestling alligators, selling crafts, and giving eco-tours of their land. As of 2008, there were six Seminole and Miccosukee reservations throughout Florida; they feature casino gaming that supports the tribe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16935780",
"title": "Seminole Tribe of Florida",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "The Seminole emerged in a process of ethnogenesis from various Native American groups who settled in Florida in the 18th century, most significantly Creeks from what is now northern Florida, Georgia and Alabama. These settlers distanced themselves increasingly from other Creek groups, and expanded and prospered owing to their thriving trade network during Florida's British and second Spanish periods (c. 1767–1821).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9950728",
"title": "Wildlife trade",
"section": "Section::::Legal wildlife trade.:Examples of successful wildlife trade.:North America.:Alligator.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "Alligators have been traded commercially in Florida and other American states as part of a management program. The use of legal trade and quotas have allowed management of a species as well as economic incentive for sustaining habitat with greater ecological benefits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
eit86m
|
how are wild plants domesticated?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's a very very long process, where farmers basically just breed plants with traits they like, in an effort to make those traits more prevalent over time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Same as animals essentially. We find a plant with desirable qualities and then use selective breeding to essentially modify their genome into a new variety/sub-species, or a new species entirely, over time.\n\nTake your corn/teosinte example. Some time around the agricultural revolution some early human who liked to eat teosinte took some seeds and began cultivating it, propagating the plants that had the best tasting/yielding fruit. Then after a while of this selective breeding it ‘evolved’ into modern or ‘domesticated’ corn. \n\nSame as with dogs and wolves essentially. Separate a small group from the larger population and it will eventually develop distinctive traits and dna. This is the ‘theory’ of evolution.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3992015",
"title": "Eastern Agricultural Complex",
"section": "Section::::Domestication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "The process of domestication of wild plants cannot be described with any precision. However, Bruce D. Smith and other scholars have pointed out that three of the domesticates (chenopods, \"I. annua\", and \"C. pepo\") were plants that thrived in disturbed soils in river valleys. In the aftermath of a flood, in which most of the old vegetation is killed by the high waters and bare patches of new, often very fertile, soil were created, these pioneer plants sprang up like magic, often growing in almost pure stands, but usually disappearing after a single season, as other vegetation pushed them out until the next flood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "304917",
"title": "Feral",
"section": "Section::::Plants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 728,
"text": "Domesticated plants that revert to wild are referred to as escaped, introduced, naturalized, or sometimes as feral crops. Individual plants are known as volunteers. Large numbers of escaped plants may become a noxious weed. The adaptive and ecological variables seen in plants that go wild closely resemble those of animals. Feral populations of crop plants, along with hybridization between crop plants and their wild relatives, brings a risk that genetically engineered characteristics such as pesticide resistance could be transferred to weed plants. The unintended presence of genetically modified crop plants or of the modified traits in other plants as a result of cross-breeding is known as \"adventitious presence (AP)\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "825332",
"title": "Purebred",
"section": "Section::::Wild species, landraces, and purebred species.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 854,
"text": "Many times, domesticated species live in or near areas which also still hold naturally evolved, region-specific wild ancestor species and subspecies. In some cases, a domesticated species of plant or animal may become feral, living wild. Other times, a wild species will come into an area inhabited by a domesticated species. Some of these situations lead to the creation of hybridized plants or animals, a cross between the native species and a domesticated one. This type of crossbreeding, termed genetic pollution by those who are concerned about preserving the genetic base of the wild species, has become a major concern. Hybridization is also a concern to the breeders of purebred species as well, particularly if the gene pool is small and if such crossbreeding or hybridization threatens the genetic base of the domesticated purebred population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19030263",
"title": "Crop wild relative",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "A crop wild relative (CWR) is a wild plant closely related to a domesticated plant, whose geographic origins can be traced to regions known as Vavilov Centers (named for the pioneering botanist Nikolai Vavilov). It may be a wild ancestor of the domesticated plant, or another closely related taxon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3992015",
"title": "Eastern Agricultural Complex",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "The initial four plants known to have been domesticated were goosefoot (\"Chenopodium berlandieri\"), sunflower (\"Helianthus annuus var. macrocarpus\"), marsh elder (\"Iva annua var. macrocarpa\"), and squash (\"Cucurbita pepo ssp. ovifera\"). Several other species of plants were later domesticated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45015207",
"title": "Gallaorol District",
"section": "Section::::Wildlife.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "The wild-growing plants are tulips, lilac, mulberry, sesame, shoreta, wormwood, spruce, bergamot, among others. The fauna consists of wolves, foxes, hogs, alleys, arches, rabbits; rodents, frogs, poisonous snakes, echinaceae, hawthorn, the moth, the mushroom, the field mouse; eagles, birds, quails, shrubs, doves, pigeons, there are various fishes in the water basins. Some kinds of mushroom also exist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "142586",
"title": "Domestication",
"section": "Section::::Plants.:Working with wild plants to improve domestics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 910,
"text": "Wild plants can be hybridized with crop plants to form perennial crops from annuals, increase yield, growth rate, and resistance to outside pressures like disease and drought. It is important to remember that these changes take significant lengths of time to achieve, sometimes even decades. However, the outcome can be extremely successful as is the case with a hybrid grass variant known as \"Kernza.\" Over the course of nearly three decades, work was done on an attempted hybridization between an already domesticated grass strain, and several of its wild relatives. The domesticated strain as was more uniform in its orientation, but the wild strains were larger and propagated faster. The resulting \"Kernza\" crop has traits from both progenitors: uniform orientation and a linearly vertical root system from the domesticated crop, along with increased size and rate of propagation from the wild relatives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1nqm4f
|
why does my heart rate drop when i exhale?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's called sinus arrhythmia, and it's perfectly normal and benign, especially in young people. I have it too.\n \nI'm a little fuzzy on the details, but I believe it's because the expansion of your lungs as you inhale puts pressure on a nerve that controls heart rate.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9889145",
"title": "Vagal tone",
"section": "Section::::Noninvasive vagal tone quantification.:Respiratory sinus arrhythmia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "During exhalation, the diaphragm relaxes, moving upward, and decreases the size of the chest cavity, causing an increase in intrathoracic pressure. This increase in pressure inhibits venous return to the heart resulting in both reduced atrial expansion and reduced activation of baroreceptors. This relieves the suppression of vagal tone and leads to a decreased heart rate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9889145",
"title": "Vagal tone",
"section": "Section::::Noninvasive vagal tone quantification.:Respiratory sinus arrhythmia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "During inhalation, the intra-thoracic pressure lowers due to the contraction and downward movement of the diaphragm and the expansion of the chest cavity. Atrial pressure is also lowered as a result, causing increased blood flow to the heart, which in turn triggers baroreceptors which act to diminish vagal tone. This causes an increase in heart rate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33212689",
"title": "Alveolar pressure",
"section": "Section::::Significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "During expiration, the opposite change occurs. The lung alveoli collapse before air is expelled from them, The alveolar pressure rises to about +1 cm H2O. This forces the 500 ml of inspired air out of the lung during 2–3 seconds of expiration. By the end of expiration, the pressure drops gradually and become atmospheric again.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66723",
"title": "Respiratory system",
"section": "Section::::Mammals.:Mechanics of breathing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "During heavy breathing, exhalation is caused by relaxation of all the muscles of inhalation. But now, the abdominal muscles, instead of remaining relaxed (as they do at rest), contract forcibly pulling the lower edges of the rib cage downwards (front and sides) (Fig. 8). This not only drastically decreases the size of the rib cage, but also pushes the abdominal organs upwards against the diaphragm which consequently bulges deeply into the thorax (Fig. 8). The end-exhalatory lung volume is now well below the resting mid-position and contains far less air than the resting \"functional residual capacity\". However, in a normal mammal, the lungs cannot be emptied completely. In an adult human there is always still at least 1 liter of residual air left in the lungs after maximum exhalation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30206738",
"title": "Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 716,
"text": "Narrowing of the airways occurs due to inflammation and scarring within them. This contributes to the inability to breathe out fully. The greatest reduction in air flow occurs when breathing out, as the pressure in the chest is compressing the airways at this time. This can result in more air from the previous breath remaining within the lungs when the next breath is started, resulting in an increase in the total volume of air in the lungs at any given time, a process called hyperinflation or air trapping. Hyperinflation from exercise is linked to shortness of breath in COPD, as breathing in is less comfortable when the lungs are already partly filled. Hyperinflation may also worsen during an exacerbation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "485578",
"title": "Exhalation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "This happens due to elastic properties of the lungs, as well as the internal intercostal muscles which lower the rib cage and decrease thoracic volume. As the thoracic diaphragm relaxes during exhalation it causes the tissue it has depressed to rise superiorly and put pressure on the lungs to expel the air. During forced exhalation, as when blowing out a candle, expiratory muscles including the abdominal muscles and internal intercostal muscles generate abdominal and thoracic pressure, which forces air out of the lungs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35688715",
"title": "Intrapleural pressure",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "A person breathing at rest inhales and exhales approximately half a litre of air during each respiratory cycle, this is Tidal volume. The respiratory rate is directly affected by concentration of carbondioxide in blood.\"Lungs do not collapse after forceful respiration because of Residual volume.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3lx9ao
|
the difference between unlawful and illegal.
|
[
{
"answer": "They're pretty much interchangeable. You might define \"illegal\" as \"forbidden by the law\" and \"unlawful\" as \"not permitted by the law\", but they boil down to the same thing. \"Illegal\" also tends to be used more for criminal law, while a civil wrong is more likely to be described as unlawful, but that's not a clear cut rule.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2168588",
"title": "Illegal per se",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "In US law, the term illegal \"per se\" means that the act is inherently illegal. Thus, an act is illegal without extrinsic proof of any surrounding circumstances such as lack of \"scienter\" (knowledge) or other defenses. Acts are made illegal \"per se\" by statute, constitution or case law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5785",
"title": "Crime",
"section": "Section::::Natural-law theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Natural-law theory therefore distinguishes between \"criminality\" (which derives from human nature) and \"illegality\" (which originates with the interests of those in power). Lawyers sometimes express the two concepts with the phrases \"malum in se\" and \"malum prohibitum\" respectively. They regard a \"crime \"malum in se\"\" as inherently criminal; whereas a \"crime \"malum prohibitum\"\" (the argument goes) counts as criminal only because the law has decreed it so.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50087083",
"title": "Jurisprudence of Catholic canon law",
"section": "Section::::Principles of law.:Valid but illicit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "The term \"valid but illicit\" (or \"valid but illegal\") refers to an unauthorized celebration of a sacrament or the placement of a juridic act which does not follow non-essential things commanded by the law, but that nevertheless has effect. While validity is presumed whenever an act is placed \"by a qualified person and includes those things which essentially constitute the act itself as well as the formalities and requirements imposed by law for the validity of the act\", Roman Catholic canon law also lays down rules for lawful placing of the act.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21351321",
"title": "Criminal law",
"section": "Section::::Selected criminal laws.:Mala in se v. mala prohibita.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 1013,
"text": "While crimes are typically broken into degrees or classes to punish appropriately, all offenses can be divided into 'mala in se' and 'mala prohibita' laws. Both are Latin legal terms, mala in se meaning crimes that are thought to be inherently evil or morally wrong, and thus will be widely regarded as crimes regardless of jurisdiction. Mala in se offenses are felonies, property crimes, immoral acts and corrupt acts by public officials. Mala prohibita, on the other hand, refers to offenses that do not have wrongfulness associated with them. Parking in a restricted area, driving the wrong way down a one-way street, jaywalking or unlicensed fishing are examples of acts that are prohibited by statute, but without which are not considered wrong. Mala prohibita statutes are usually imposed strictly, as there does not need to be mens rea component for punishment under those offenses, just the act itself. For this reason, it can be argued that offenses that are mala prohibita are not really crimes at all.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14936",
"title": "Individualist anarchism",
"section": "Section::::Developments and expansion.:European individualist anarchism.:Illegalism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "Illegalism is an anarchist philosophy that developed primarily in France, Italy, Belgium and Switzerland during the early 1900s as an outgrowth of Stirner's individualist anarchism. Illegalists usually did not seek moral basis for their actions, recognizing only the reality of \"might\" rather than \"right\"; and for the most part, illegal acts were done simply to satisfy personal desires, not for some greater ideal, although some committed crimes as a form of propaganda of the deed. The illegalists embraced direct action and propaganda of the deed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46399274",
"title": "Anarchist schools of thought",
"section": "Section::::Classical anarchist schools of thought.:Individualist anarchism.:Individualist anarchism in Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "Illegalism is an anarchist philosophy that developed primarily in France, Italy, Belgium and Switzerland during the early 1900s as an outgrowth of Stirner's individualist anarchism. Illegalists usually did not seek moral basis for their actions, recognizing only the reality of \"might\" rather than \"right\" and for the most part illegal acts were done simply to satisfy personal desires, not for some greater ideal, although some committed crimes as a form of propaganda of the deed. The illegalists embraced direct action and propaganda by the deed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5658365",
"title": "Anarchism in France",
"section": "Section::::1895–1914.:Illegalism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "Illegalism is an anarchist philosophy that developed primarily in France, Italy, Belgium, and Switzerland during the early 1900s as an outgrowth of Stirner's individualist anarchism. Illegalists usually did not seek moral basis for their actions, recognizing only the reality of \"might\" rather than \"right\"; for the most part, illegal acts were done simply to satisfy personal desires, not for some greater ideal, although some committed crimes as a form of Propaganda of the deed. The illegalists embraced direct action and propaganda by the deed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2rmss0
|
lasers and mirrors
|
[
{
"answer": "If a mirror reflects 90% if light that means it absorbs 10% of the light. If 10% of a laser is enough to burn a thing then the mirror burns. There is no 100% reflective mirrors. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20545",
"title": "Mirror",
"section": "Section::::Unusual kinds of mirrors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 188,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 188,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "BULLET::::- Active mirrors are mirrors that amplify the light they reflect. They are used to make disk lasers. The amplification is typically over a narrow range of wavelengths, and requires an external source of power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18151",
"title": "Laser construction",
"section": "Section::::Optical resonator.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "Light from the medium, produced by spontaneous emission, is reflected by the mirrors back into the medium, where it may be amplified by stimulated emission. The light may reflect from the mirrors and thus pass through the gain medium many hundreds of times before exiting the cavity. In more complex lasers, configurations with four or more mirrors forming the cavity are used. The design and alignment of the mirrors with respect to the medium is crucial for determining the exact operating wavelength and other attributes of the laser system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4261793",
"title": "Laser scanning",
"section": "Section::::Technology.:Scanning mirrors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "In order to position a laser beam in \"two dimensions\", it is possible either to rotate one mirror along two axes - used mainly for slow scanning systems - or to reflect the laser beam onto two closely spaced mirrors that are mounted on orthogonal axes. Each of the two flat or polygonal mirrors is then driven by a galvanometer or by an electric motor. Two-dimensional systems are essential for most applications in material processing, confocal microscopy, and medical science.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8894706",
"title": "Output coupler",
"section": "Section::::Partially-reflective mirror.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "Lasers operate by reflecting light between two or more mirrors that have an active laser medium between them. The medium amplifies the light by stimulated emission. For lasing to occur, the gain of the active medium must be larger than the total loss, which includes both unwanted effects such as absorption, emission in directions other than the beam path, and the intentional release of energy through the output coupler. In other words, the laser must attain threshold.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28153",
"title": "Search for extraterrestrial intelligence",
"section": "Section::::Optical experiments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "Optical SETI supporters have conducted paper studies of the effectiveness of using contemporary high-energy lasers and a ten-meter diameter mirror as an interstellar beacon. The analysis shows that an infrared pulse from a laser, focused into a narrow beam by such a mirror, would appear thousands of times brighter than the Sun to a distant civilization in the beam's line of fire. The Cyclops study proved incorrect in suggesting a laser beam would be inherently hard to see.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "956982",
"title": "Space warfare",
"section": "Section::::Theoretical space weaponry.:Space-Based Lasers.:Lethality of Space Lasers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 1047,
"text": "Lasers require mirrors in the system to direct their beams to achieve impact, but if not done correctly, major damage can affect the skin. However, if the laser or lasers does make impact,\"a 10 meter mirror with a HF laser beam would yield a 0.32 micro-radian divergence angle and create a laser spot 1.3 meter in diameter at a range of 4,000 meters. The distribution of the 20MW over the laser spot would create an energy flux of 1.5 kilowatts per square centimeter (kW/cm²). The laser spot would need to dwell on the target for 6.6 seconds to create the nominal lethal fluence of 10 kilojoules per square centimeter (kJ/cm²)\" meaning that the laser would essentially blow holes into missiles they are aimed at, as long as the laser mirrors are aimed correctly and the heated molecules exit the beam quickly. Other factors of impact would be the type of laser itself, the amount of exposure, what the laser is attempting to hit (the target), environmental factors, and the ability of the target to either absorb or reflect the laser beam itself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17556",
"title": "Laser",
"section": "Section::::Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "The most common type of laser uses feedback from an optical cavity—a pair of mirrors on either end of the gain medium. Light bounces back and forth between the mirrors, passing through the gain medium and being amplified each time. Typically one of the two mirrors, the output coupler, is partially transparent. Some of the light escapes through this mirror. Depending on the design of the cavity (whether the mirrors are flat or curved), the light coming out of the laser may spread out or form a narrow beam. In analogy to electronic oscillators, this device is sometimes called a \"laser oscillator\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ba1c5l
|
why do home thermostats have a "heat/ cool" switch? why can't you simply set a range and have it automatically determine whether to use the ac or the heater?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are actually thermostats that have an 'auto' mode that does switch from heat to cool and vice versa. Typically, only higher end thermostats have this, though. This is because it takes more advanced temperature sensors to allow an 'auto' function to work. \n\nSay it's summer and you have the thermostat set to 'cool', and 78 degrees. The AC blows cool air into the house, but it might reduce the temperature to 77 degrees. This is typically intentional, to increase the time between the system turning off, then on again as the temperature rises from outside heat. In this case, if you were in an 'auto' mode, the furnace would kick in, which would not be desirable in the summer! \n\nPremium thermostats that do have an 'auto' switch for heat and cool have extra setpoints or criteria before allowing the system to shift modes. For example, some use the date to determine what month it is, to prevent the furnace from being used in the summer. Otherwise, it would be 'turn AC on if temperature hits 80F, and furnace if it hits 70F' or something like that. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Simple reason, it is a cheaper model. My thermostat has an auto setting where I can set a high and low. Depending on the temp it will kick on heat or ac to stay in the proper range.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I have a Honeywell thermostat with an auto function. It allows a range of temps and will automatically switch from heat to cool. However, I find that even with the minimum spread of temperature allowed by it, the temperature swing is too much for me to be comfortable. So I still use it manually.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because most people want different set points. For example you might want to heat (up) to 20°C and cool (down) to 26°C. Between those two points you want neither cooling nor heating.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1579998",
"title": "Temperature control",
"section": "Section::::Control loops.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 969,
"text": "A home thermostat is an example of a closed control loop: It constantly measures the current room temperature and compares this to a desired user-defined set point and controls a heater and/or air conditioner to increase or decrease the temperature to meet the desired set point. A simple (low-cost, cheap) thermostat merely switches the heater or air conditioner either on or off, and temporary overshoot and undershoot of the desired average temperature must be expected. A more expensive thermostat varies the amount of heat or cooling provided by the heater or cooler, depending on the difference between the required temperature (the \"setpoint\") and the actual temperature. This minimizes over/undershoot. This method is called Proportional control. Further enhancements using the accumulated error signal (Integral) and the rate at which the error is changing (Derivative) are used to form more complex PID Controllers which is the form usually seen in industry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "265822",
"title": "Thermostat",
"section": "Section::::Thermostats and HVAC operation.:Combination heating/cooling regulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "A thermostat, when set to \"cool\", will only turn on when the ambient temperature of the surrounding room is above the set temperature. Thus, if the controlled space has a temperature normally above the desired setting when the heating/cooling system is off, it would be wise to keep the thermostat set to \"cool\", despite what the temperature is outside. On the other hand, if the temperature of the controlled area falls below the desired degree, then it is advisable to turn the thermostat to \"heat\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "265822",
"title": "Thermostat",
"section": "Section::::Construction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 708,
"text": "To prevent excessively rapid cycling of the equipment when the temperature is near the setpoint, a thermostat can include some hysteresis. Instead of changing from \"on\" to \"off\" and vice versa instantly at the set temperature, a thermostat with hysteresis will not switch until the temperature has changed a little past the set temperature point. For example, a refrigerator set to 2°C might not start the cooling compressor until its food compartment's temperature reaches 3°C, and will keep it running until the temperature has been lowered to 1 °C. This reduces the risk of equipment wear from too frequent switching, although it introduces a target system temperature oscillation of a certain magnitude.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1649909",
"title": "Deadband",
"section": "Section::::Hysteresis vs. deadband.:Thermostats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "Simple (single mode) thermostats exhibit hysteresis. For example, the furnace in the basement of a house is adjusted automatically by the thermostat to be switched on as soon as the temperature at the thermostat falls to 18 °C and the furnace is switched off by the thermostat as soon as the temperature at the thermostat reaches 22 °C. There is no temperature at which the house is not being heated or allowed to cool (furnace on or off).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6910727",
"title": "Programmable thermostat",
"section": "Section::::Benefits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "For example, during cooling season, a programmable thermostat used in a home may be set to allow the temperature in the house to rise during the workday when no one will be at home. It may then be set to turn on the air conditioning before the arrival of occupants, allowing the house to be cool upon the arrival of the occupants while still having saved air conditioning energy during the peak outdoor temperatures. The reduced cooling required during the day also decreases the demands placed upon the electrical supply grid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29640242",
"title": "Smart thermostat",
"section": "Section::::Learning thermostats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 387,
"text": " Some smart thermostats, such as the Nest thermostat, can learn when the house is likely to be occupied, and when it is likely to be empty. This allows automatic pre-heating or pre-cooling so the temperature is comfortable when a resident arrives. If the residents or lifestyles change, these smart thermostats will gradually adjust the schedule, maintaining energy savings and comfort.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7408536",
"title": "Programmable communicating thermostat",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "Thermostats can also communicate wirelessly through the Internet or via a home automation technology, such as Insteon. These advanced thermostats can be adjusted via computer or Internet capable phone to allow users to adjust the temperature in their home without being present.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2qc1jz
|
why are data caps for mobile phones still so small?
|
[
{
"answer": "Phone companies are greedy so they set data limits low to either a) make you use less of their product than you normally would or b) pay more for using your natural level of usage.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For those using t-mobile and are paying at least 3gb data monthly, u should be able to carry over your unused data for the next month. Not sure if it started now or at a given time, I'll pull the text that they sent me... ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This ELI5 may shed further illumination, especially if you are comparing home plans to mobile. _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Lack of competition in the marketplace. Behemoth corporations have taken over and the incentives for innovation go down.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The reason the data cap on your plan is so small is that you purchased a plan with a low cap.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's an arbitrary number. Similar to the number of letters in an SMS message.\n\nThe concept of a 'data cap' is meant to limit the quantity of data that flows through a network, but that's not really how networks work. Networks send data to a destination, then forget about the data. That destination may be a temporary storage server if your phone is off or something, but it is still a destination. \n\nWhen you're downloading something over your phone (like this reddit thread) your phone requests the data from the server, and the server spits it back at your phone. Done. Boom. You have what you wanted, the network moves onto something else.\n\nNetworks have a data capacity, but this is not a *storage* capacity, this is a *transmission* capacity. A typical sleepy township cell tower will have at least a gigabit [backhaul](_URL_15_) connection to the network provider so that it can provide cell service. When you try to download something you use up a bit of that bandwidth.\n\nRemember, it's not a big truck. [It's a series of tubes.](_URL_11_) As you use the tube, it fills up. Everyone uses the tube? Tube's full, new requests have to wait until there is space in the tube. Instead of getting a message saying \"Tube's full bro, wait a bit\" the network will slow everyone down a bit to cram your request into the pipe.\n\nNow, instead of a sleepy little town let's talk about New York City. If we look[ into the books of not-too-distant history](_URL_10_) we will remember that [AT & T had a bit of a problem when the iPhone](_URL_7_) was [unleashed upon their networks.](_URL_5_) Suddenly, people were sharing *pictures* and *videos*! They were browsing the *internet* and they weren't business customers!! Madness roaming about the streets! And, most importantly, their network **was not prepared for this**.\n\nDemand was unprecedented and their network was rapidly brought to its knees in major cities. As they threw everything they had at the major cities the local towns began to suffer too. Major networks got everything situated for the time being, but they're still playing catch-up in a lot of areas.\n\nSo now that the iPhone is out and about everyone is filling the tubes all the time always. [New York Times chimed in](_URL_14_) with a lovely long article really detailing the issue, and there were other companies suggesting that consumers [do the responsible thing and control their data guzzling.](_URL_0_) Use WiFi when watching YouTube, for instance.\n\n(Side note: I just want to point out a **lovely** quote from that NYT article: \n > The company has also delayed bandwidth-heavy features like multimedia messaging, or text messages containing pictures, audio or video. It is also postponing “tethering,” which allows the iPhone to share its Internet connection with a computer, a standard feature on many rival smartphones. AT & T says it has no intention of capping how much data iPhone owners use. \n\nOf note this was actually one of the first big intentional violations of net neutrality. A system called Quality of Service, or QoS, was used to make raw data, emails, etc. more important to the network than multimedia (music, youtube) on the network. This helped, a bit, somewhat, because important emails could get through when too many people were watching cat videos in wifi-less coffee shops. The line about not capping data actually plays right into what I'm talking about)\n\nNow, what do we do about this? Well, AT & T introduced [QoS](_URL_13_) and data priority, which let important things through when the tubes were full of unimportant traffic. This somewhat helped people get work done, but the root issue was the tubes were full and it was [expensive to put new tubes out there.](_URL_2_)\n\nNow, where did the caps come from?\n\nWhile networks do not store, they do have quantities transferred. You see this as a 2GB cap on the data you can use in a month. AT & T sees this as 1 cent per Terabyte transmitted to Cogent. That's an extremely simplified [peering rule](_URL_6_), but it works for this discussion. In order to talk to someone's server that is on Cogent's network when you're on AT & T's network, at some point along the line your data needs to go from one network to another. That's peering.\n\nSometimes this peering is free (like Cogent). Sometimes this peering is not (like Verizon, I think). When it is not, it costs the company money to transmit data that direction.\n\nSo the network providers already have a concept of paying for data transmission rates. They pay each other for data going back and forth (called transit), this is not a new concept. Originally you could get data modems for the early cell networks, and you paid per *kilobyte* and later megabytes. [Satphones will still do this.](_URL_12_) So the raw idea of \"pay for a block of data\" was something that the telcos were already familiar with. \n\nThat's where the idea *came from*, but *why*? Well, they needed to reduce network load. \n\nIf you want to reduce network load then you throttle network connections. Block multimedia due to \"heavy load\" during peak hours, maybe do some on-the-fly calculations on what the network can handle and modify what people are allowed to connect to on the fly. This makes for *extremely* pissed off users. A slowly loading website is one thing, \"Cannot load: Network capacity reached\" is another thing entirely. So that's out as a solution. Temporary at best.\n\nNext up is tiered access. Pay for Facebook, Twitter, etc. at one rate, and at the next rate get access to YouTube etc. Violates net neutrality and gets the FCC up your butt. That's out.\n\nIncentive wifi use. Your average smartphone user doesn't really care (unless they're watching their data use closely) where their data comes from, so you need to make this an incentive. Generally, plans will let you make \"FREEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE\" calls over wifi and of course free data these days. Most phones have an ability to constantly seek, connect to, verify connection through and then use any available wifi networks with open internet. This can cause problems (\"Why is my call dropping when I walk past this coffee shop all the time?\") but also gets people who don't care and don't watch their phone's wifi connection to get the hell off your wireless network when they want to watch a stupid puppy. This took a few years to implement, but it's what they're doing now.\n\nForce people to care about how much data they use. Thiiiiisss is where the caps originally came in. Some manager somewhere asked the sysops \"Wtf do we do about all of these youtube videos!?!\" and the sysops replied \"Uh, block youtube.\" Management vetoed this because the big selling point was cat-videos-on-the-go right in your pocket.\n\nSo then they said \"[Wait, we could just introduce a data cap.](_URL_8_)\"\n\nHaving something be unlimited makes you not care about it. Having a resource be limited (scarce) makes you preserve it. Having it be an *allowance per month* makes you budget it, and having it be expensive when you go over (or throttle to shit, like T-Mo) makes you want to not go over.\n\nThis means you smear your 5GB (or 2GB, or 4GB, etc) out over the course of a month rather than just watch youtube videos on the bus every day.\n\nNow read this [Bloomberg BusinessWeek article](_URL_1_) about it. Here's a BoingBoing article from a similar time period. Listen to how *happy* they sound about this idea. Data caps were a financial incentive to use significantly less data, and at the time people did use significantly less data. Note how there's no mention of actual data amounts anywhere in those articles? Back in 2009 the average iPhone user[ used 400 Megabytes of data a month,](_URL_3_) compared to other \"[smartphones](_URL_9_)\" of the time period using closer to 80 MB a month.\n\nThese days that's *nothing*. You can eat through 80 MB on a single day with a few youtube videos, some Reddit image browsing and a little bit of MMS images shooting back and forth. I'm on Sprint, and last month I used north of 15 GB of data. It's easy to do in our high resolution always connected world these days. Back then, it was a non-issue.\n\nThe Slate article I posted earlier is talking about $10/100MB. That'd be madness in our day and age ($200/2GB) so we're pretty happy when they ask for less than 50 bucks a month for this generous 2GB package. In [2010 AT & T released their tiered data structure](_URL_4_) which was the genesis of the current 2GB trend in wireless plans. Then they sunsetted the unlimited plans. Now, people were monitoring their data use, badgering their coffee shops to install wifi and generally giving the internet tubes significantly less of a beatdown. This helped, and today NYC has wireless coverage that isn't completely terrible.\n\n(Cont)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because people happily pay for it.\n\n\nThey may use the \"we can't have everyone maxing it or nothing would work\" excuse.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33993923",
"title": "Data at rest",
"section": "Section::::Concerns about data at rest.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "Because of its nature data at rest is of increasing concern to businesses, government agencies and other institutions. Mobile devices are often subject to specific security protocols to protect data at rest from unauthorised access when lost or stolen and there is an increasing recognition that database management systems and file servers should also be considered as at risk; the longer data is left unused in storage, the more likely it might be retrieved by unauthorized individuals outside the network.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11340736",
"title": "Internet in New Zealand",
"section": "Section::::Data caps.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "Most mobile phone data plans have set caps, with any excess paid for per MB (although extra data blocks can be purchased to avoid the expensive casual data pricing). As of 2014, Vodafone claimed its cellular data network is the fastest in the world, with downloads of 5 to 20 Mbit/s on 3G and 20 to 75 Mbit/s on LTE 4G being usually available. In April 2017, 2degrees announced unlimited data plans as part of a plan with unlimited calls and texts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1751434",
"title": "Jargon Software",
"section": "Section::::Products.:ForceField Mobile SFA.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "Successful mobile applications must be able to run when disconnected from the network, due to coverage dead spots or restrictions on use of wireless devices in certain areas (e.g. medical facilities). This results in the need to store data locally on the mobile device. Jargon Reader can store low-volume data automatically in text and table components. Embedded SQL databases (such as the Oracle Lite Database from Oracle Corporation) are used for higher volume storage requirements. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16934252",
"title": "Data pack",
"section": "Section::::Mobile data packs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "When you refer to the word data pack it can come in many forms such as a mobile data pack. A mobile data pack refers to an add-on which can enable you to boost the amount of data which you can use on your mobile phone. The rate at which you use your data can also be monitored, so you know how much data you have left. Mobile data is a service which provides a similar service to Wi-Fi and allows you to connect to the Internet. So the purpose of a data pack is to increase the amount of data that your mobile has access to. An example of a mobile data pack can be found on the references.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28846270",
"title": "Mobile business intelligence",
"section": "Section::::History.:Purpose-built Mobile BI apps.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "More importantly, the advent of the mobile device has radically changed the way people use data on their mobile devices. This includes mobile BI. Business intelligence applications can be used to transform reports and data into mobile dashboards, and have them instantly delivered to any mobile device.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23739365",
"title": "Mobile device forensics",
"section": "Section::::Types of evidence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "As mobile device technology advances, the amount and types of data that can be found on a mobile device is constantly increasing. Evidence that can be potentially recovered from a mobile phone may come from several different sources, including handset memory, SIM card, and attached memory cards such as SD cards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7756768",
"title": "Femtocell",
"section": "Section::::Overview and benefits.:Benefits for users.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "BULLET::::- Higher mobile data capacity, which is important if the end-user makes use of mobile data on his or her mobile phone (may not be relevant to a large number of subscribers who instead use WiFi where femtocell is located)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4xe0lq
|
Does the wobble of our sun caused by Jupiter's gravity effect the weather on Earth?
|
[
{
"answer": "Jupiter's gravity does affect the climate on Earth but it's over many thousands of years. The variations in Earth's axial tilt, orbital obliquity, etc caused by Jupiter are called the Milankovich cycles and are associated with ice ages. As for the 12 year orbit of the Sun/Jupiter system...the 11 year sunspot cycle likely has a larger effect, especially because the sun doesn't move that much compared to Earth's ellipiticity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3885908",
"title": "The Jupiter Effect",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "The Jupiter Effect is a 1974 book by John Gribbin and Stephen Plagemann, in which the authors predicted that an alignment of the planets of the Solar System would create a number of catastrophes, including a great earthquake on the San Andreas Fault, on March 10, 1982. The book became a best-seller. The predicted catastrophes did not occur.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44815546",
"title": "Grand tack hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Scope of the grand tack hypothesis.:Absent super-Earths.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1330,
"text": "The absence of close orbiting super-Earths in the Solar System may also be the result of Jupiter's inward migration. As Jupiter migrates inward, planetesimals are captured in its mean-motion resonances, causing their orbits to shrink and their eccentricities to grow. A collisional cascade follows as their relative velocities became large enough to produce catastrophic impacts. The resulting debris then spirals inward toward the Sun due to drag from the gas disk. If there were super-Earths in the early Solar System, they would have caught much of this debris in resonances and could have been driven into the Sun ahead of it. The current terrestrial planets would then form from planetesimals left behind when Jupiter reversed course. However, the migration of close orbiting super-Earths into the Sun could be avoided if the debris coalesced into larger objects, reducing gas drag; and if the protoplanetary disk had an inner cavity, their inward migration could be halted near its edge. If no planets had yet formed in the inner Solar System, the destruction of the larger bodies during the collisional cascade could have left the remaining debris small enough to be pushed outward by the solar wind, which would have been much stronger during the early Solar System, leaving little to form planets inside Mercury's orbit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6794",
"title": "Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9",
"section": "Section::::Jupiter as a \"cosmic vacuum cleaner\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "The impact of SL9 highlighted Jupiter's role as a \"cosmic vacuum cleaner\" (or in deference to the ancients' planetary correspondences to the major organs in the human body, a \"cosmic liver\") for the inner Solar System (Jupiter Barrier). The planet's strong gravitational influence leads to many small comets and asteroids colliding with the planet, and the rate of cometary impacts on Jupiter is thought to be between 2,000–8,000 times higher than the rate on Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33903903",
"title": "Orbital effects on climate",
"section": "Section::::External/Celestial forces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1170,
"text": "There are also forces external to Earth itself that affect Earth's climate. Two examples of these external forces are meteors/asteroids becoming meteorites and striking the surface of the earth, and geomagnetic storms from the sun affecting the earth. Asteroids only about two kilometers in diameter, according to Young's paper referencing original author Michael Paine, can cause craters in Earth's surface about 40 kilometers in diameter. Such an impact could throw enormous quantities of dust into the sky, blocking out the sun and causing significant climate changes, somewhat similar in effect to a gigantic volcanic eruption. Among other things, meteorites striking Earth also “affect sea level, rainfall, temperature, ocean currents, and atmospheric circulation”. Asteroids and meteors are not, however, the only external forces to affect Earth climate change. Variations in solar output can also bring about climate change on the Earth. More specifically, varying amounts of sun activity, including sunspots, solar flares, solar wind, and massive solar radiation, can all be grouped together as geomagnetic storms, which together, act to affect Earth's climate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38930",
"title": "Jupiter",
"section": "Section::::Interaction with the Solar System.:Impacts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 832,
"text": "Jupiter has been called the Solar System's vacuum cleaner, because of its immense gravity well and location near the inner Solar System. It receives the most frequent comet impacts of the Solar System's planets. It was thought that the planet served to partially shield the inner system from cometary bombardment. However, recent computer simulations suggest that Jupiter does not cause a net decrease in the number of comets that pass through the inner Solar System, as its gravity perturbs their orbits inward roughly as often as it accretes or ejects them. This topic remains controversial among scientists, as some think it draws comets towards Earth from the Kuiper belt while others think that Jupiter protects Earth from the alleged Oort cloud. Jupiter experiences about 200 times more asteroid and comet impacts than Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2504665",
"title": "John Gribbin",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "In 1974, Gribbin, along with Stephen Plagemann, published a book titled \"The Jupiter Effect\", which predicted that the alignment of the planets in a quadrant on one side of the Sun on 10 March 1982 would cause gravitational effects that would trigger earthquakes in the San Andreas Fault, possibly wiping out Los Angeles and its suburbs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38930",
"title": "Jupiter",
"section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Atmosphere.:Cloud layers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "Jupiter's low axial tilt means that the poles constantly receive less solar radiation than at the planet's equatorial region. Convection within the interior of the planet transports more energy to the poles, balancing out the temperatures at the cloud layer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1dutm8
|
How different is breast milk to formula in terms of the baby's health?
|
[
{
"answer": "Please remember that this is /r/askscience. While it may be tempting to share your own experiences as a parent, this forum is for a discussion of science. **Please refrain from sharing your own experiences or speculation/guesses.** \n\nThere is a lot of research on this topic, so please make sure to use scientific sources (not popular media articles or parenting websites). \n\nThanks, have a wonderfully scientific day!",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "I've seen numbers that kids are 60 - 80% less likely to have SIDS if given breast milk. \n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_1_\n\nSo... at least that different.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "In some cases up to 30% of cells in breast milk are stem cells, which in primate trials have been found to enter the bloodstream. _URL_0_\n\nSo that's a pretty big difference.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "A colleague of mine studies the ability of breast milk antibodies to protect children from enteric infections. Breast milk contains a lot of IgA (a particular kind of antibody) which has been shown to protect against parasitic infections like Cryptosporidiosis. \n\nThis particular aspect of breast milk may not be so important for kids growing up in the first world, but frequent diarrheal disease in third world countries causes a lot of growth and cognitive issues for children, and can even reduce their ability to respond to important vaccinations (i.e. polio). ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "[Colostrum](_URL_1_) is especially important:\n\n > Newborns have very immature digestive systems, and colostrum delivers its nutrients in a very concentrated low-volume form. It has a mild laxative effect, encouraging the passing of the baby's first stool, which is called meconium. This clears excess bilirubin, a waste-product of dead red blood cells, which is produced in large quantities at birth due to blood volume reduction, from the infant's body and helps prevent jaundice. Colostrum is known to contain immune cells (as lymphocytes)[4] and many antibodies such as IgA, IgG, and IgM. These are the major components of the adaptive immune system. Inter alia IgA is absorbed through the intestinal epithelium, travels through the blood, and is secreted onto other Type 1 mucosal surfaces. Other immune components of colostrum include the major components of the innate immune system, such as lactoferrin,[5] lysozyme,[6] lactoperoxidase,[7] complement,[8] and proline-rich polypeptides (PRP).[9] A number of cytokines (small messenger peptides that control the functioning of the immune system) are found in colostrum as well,[10] including interleukins,[10] tumor necrosis factor,[11] chemokines,[12] and others. Colostrum also contains a number of growth factors, such as insulin-like growth factors I,[13] and II,[14] transforming growth factors alpha,[15] beta 1 and beta 2,[16][17] fibroblast growth factors,[18] epidermal growth factor,[19] granulocyte-macrophage-stimulating growth factor,[20] platelet-derived growth factor,[20] vascular endothelial growth factor,[21] and colony-stimulating factor-1.[22]\nColostrum is very rich in proteins, vitamin A, and sodium chloride, but contains lower amounts of carbohydrates, lipids, and potassium than normal milk. The most pertinent bioactive components in colostrum are growth factors and antimicrobial factors. The antibodies in colostrum provide passive immunity, while growth factors stimulate the development of the gut. They are passed to the neonate and provide the first protection against pathogens.\n\nFormula contains more iron than breast milk - however, a newborn typically has enough iron stored to last them for the first six months postpartum, so supplementation is not necessary before then.\n\nIf formula is used to supplant breastfeeding, then the mother tends to cease lactation sooner than had she employed breastfeeding exclusively.\n\n > [Breastfeeding](_URL_0_) also provides health benefits for the mother. It assists the uterus in returning to its pre-pregnancy size and reduces post-partum bleeding, as well as assisting the mother in returning to her pre-pregnancy weight. Breastfeeding also reduces the risk of breast cancer later in life.[13][14]\n\n-edit\n\nAdded additional link.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Breast milk contains human milk protein, which is much easier for brand new infants to digest than the bovine milk protein used in most formulas. Most importantly, the human breast secretes a product called \"collostrum\" in the first few days of life. Collostrum is filled with antibodies, which the mother needs to transfer to the infant in order for him or her to gain immunity to many common pathogens. Immunoglobulin G is the only type of antibody that easily crosses the placenta, and the other four types must be transferred through collostrum.\n\nFrom a developmental perspective, the act of breastfeeding itself is seen to be very important to secure mother-child attachment. The skin-to-skin contact between mother and baby in the early stages of life is so important, that we will actually place the baby on his or her mother's chest immediately after birth, before even clamping the cord if possible.\n\nNo online sources, just my obstetrical nursing textbook:\nPerry, Shannon E. (2013). *Maternal Child Nursing Care in Canada.* Toronto: Elsevier.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Are you asking:\n\n1. How does the composition of breast milk differ from formula?\nor\n2. What are the differences in health outcomes between infants fed formula versus breast milk?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Formula milk is associated with infant weight gain significant enough to require a separate growth chart from infants who are breast fed.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "[This](_URL_0_) suggests that the \"human milk microbiome\" changes over the course of lactation. So, as a breastfeeding baby ages, s/he is exposed to different bacteria. \n\nFormula does no such thing, and I'm guessing is typically devoid of bacteria altogether. The question, then, is whether or not exposure to a diverse microbiome is healthier than the other option. Surely someone here can answer that?",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I'm not an expert in this topic, but seeing as there's a significant lack of scientific sources posted so far in this thread, I thought I could at least put my research media to good use! Feel free to add any useful sources you can find!\n\nFrom the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, [this study](_URL_1_) is an analysis of research done on the effect of breastfeeding on cognitive health: Found higher cognitive function in breast-fed children than in formula-fed children from 6-23 months of age. Low-weight infants saw the most distinction (premature babies benefit from breastfeeding more than average weight babies). Note this is from 1999, I'm certain there are more recent studies.\n\nFrom NIH, [this study](_URL_0_) (PDF), concluded that babies breastfed for more than 13 weeks had significantly fewer gastro-intestinal infection and also significantly (but less so) fewer respiratory infections. Babies breastfed for less than 13 weeks were similar to those bottle-fed.\n\nAlso from NIH, [this study](_URL_3_) found no correlation between breast-feeding and intelligence of the child (after the intelligence of the mother was accounted for, mothers with higher IQ were more likely to breast-feed).\n\nFinally, from Pediatrics (official journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics), [this study](_URL_2_) determined that breast-fed children were less likely to die in the postneonatal period and longer periods of breastfeeding continued to decrease that risk.\n\nAgain, I am not an expert and simply posted the information that I could find full-text available research for.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Excellent question! And, as with most excellent questions, the results are controversial (well, not much controversy in the scientific and pediatric community, but in the public at large).\n\nWhile there are minor differences in nutrient supplementation between formula and breast milk, and there are supposedly differences in terms how breast milk changes to fit the baby (breast milk produced to feed a 1-month old may be different from breast milk produced to feed a 6-month old), the largest difference seems to be related to the baby's immune system. Babies are naturally born with very immature immune systems, and they are susceptible to a host of various diseases! Nowadays, we often vaccinate our babies, but vaccination can be incomplete and starts much later than the baby starts being vulnerable (ie, from birth). Breast milk can help the baby's immune system fight off any infections in the short term as well as train the immune system to deal with infection later!\n\nThe other \"immune-related\" difference that's become popular recently is that breast milk can direct how the baby's gut bacteria develop! It's definitely true that breast milk and formula, though they may be calorically similar, have different types of sugars, which means they encourage different kinds of bacteria to grow and survive in the gut. There are also studies indicating that there are other molecules in breast milk (like hyaluronan) that direct gut bacteria in a certain way! This could be important for preventing a variety of different diseases, just by encouraging the so-called \"good\" bacteria.\n\nI'm sure there are other differences, but those are the two that stand out the most to me!",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "795199",
"title": "Breast milk",
"section": "Section::::Benefits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 848,
"text": "Though it now is almost universally prescribed, in some countries in the 1950s the practice of breastfeeding went through a period where it was out of vogue and the use of infant formula was considered superior to breast milk. However, it is now universally recognized that there is no commercial formula that can equal breast milk. In addition to the appropriate amounts of carbohydrate, protein, and fat, breast milk provides vitamins, minerals, digestive enzymes, and hormones. Breast milk also contains antibodies and lymphocytes from the mother that help the baby resist infections. The immune function of breast milk is individualized, as the mother, through her touching and taking care of the baby, comes into contact with pathogens that colonize the baby, and, as a consequence, her body makes the appropriate antibodies and immune cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "65330",
"title": "Infant formula",
"section": "Section::::Preparation and content.:Nutritional content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "Besides breast milk, infant formula is the only other milk product which the medical community considers nutritionally acceptable for infants under the age of one year (as opposed to cow's milk, goat's milk, or follow-on formula). Supplementing with solid food in addition to breast milk or formula begins during weaning, and most babies begin supplementing about the time their first teeth appear, usually around the age of six months.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "19347033",
"title": "Breastfeeding",
"section": "Section::::Breast milk.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "Not all of breast milk's properties are understood, but its nutrient content is relatively consistent. Breast milk is made from nutrients in the mother's bloodstream and bodily stores. It has an optimal balance of fat, sugar, water, and protein that is needed for a baby's growth and development. Breastfeeding triggers biochemical reactions which allows for the enzymes, hormones, growth factors and immunologic substances to effectively defend against infectious diseases for the infant. The breast milk also has long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids which help with normal retinal and neural development.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "65330",
"title": "Infant formula",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
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"text": "Manufacturers state that the composition of infant formula is designed to be roughly based on a human mother's milk at approximately one to three months postpartum; however, there are significant differences in the nutrient content of these products. The most commonly used infant formulas contain purified cow's milk whey and casein as a protein source, a blend of vegetable oils as a fat source, lactose as a carbohydrate source, a vitamin-mineral mix, and other ingredients depending on the manufacturer. In addition, there are infant formulas using soybean as a protein source in place of cow's milk (mostly in the United States and Great Britain) and formulas using protein hydrolysed into its component amino acids for infants who are allergic to other proteins. An upswing in breastfeeding in many countries has been accompanied by a deferment in the average age of introduction of baby foods (including cow's milk), resulting in both increased breastfeeding and increased use of infant formula between the ages of 3- and 12-months.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "875445",
"title": "Nestlé boycott",
"section": "Section::::Baby milk controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 914,
"text": "BULLET::::- Breast milk has many natural benefits lacking in formula. Nutrients and antibodies are passed to the baby while hormones are released into the mother's body. Breastfed babies are protected, in varying degrees, from a number of illnesses, including diarrhea, bacterial meningitis, gastroenteritis, ear infection, and respiratory infection. Breast milk contains the right amount of the nutrients essential for neuronal (brain and nerve) development. The bond between baby and mother can be strengthened during breastfeeding. Frequent and exclusive breastfeeding can also delay the return of fertility, which can help women in developing countries to space their births. The World Health Organization recommends that, in the majority of cases, babies should be exclusively breast fed for the first six months, and then given complementary foods in addition to breastfeeding for up to two years or beyond.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "59621783",
"title": "Human milk immunity",
"section": "Section::::Impact on health.:Health outcomes for Breastfed versus formula-fed infants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 987,
"text": "Over the last century, breastfeeding has been consistently shown to reduce infant mortality and morbidity, particularly of infectious disease. Comparative research between human milk and formula has pointed towards the bio-active components in human milk as potential proponents of its immunological protection. Studies have shown that breastfed infants respond better to vaccines, and are better protected against diarrhea, otitis media, sepsis, and necrotizing enterocolitis, celiac disease, obesity, and inflammatory bowel disease than formula-fed infants. Human breast milk is seen as particularly beneficial to infants born before full term and those that are underweight at birth who are at a higher risk of infectious diseases, such as sepsis and meningitis. Also, there is a lower chance of contamination acquired through direct breastfeeding than with mixing formula with water or other animal milks which may also help explain why human milk is more protective for the infant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "2753115",
"title": "Milk substitute",
"section": "Section::::Infant formula.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "Breast milk substitutes are available for infants if breast feeding is not an option. Infant formulas based on cow’s milk, soy or rice can be a supplement to breast milk or a sole source of nutrition before solid food is introduced. Infant formula is usually fortified with dietary nutrients optimised for babies and toddlers, such as iron, to ensure survival, growth and health of the baby. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
c562rv
|
Rhodesia & NIBMAR
|
[
{
"answer": "The policy of 'No Independence Before Majority Rule' came out of the September 1966 meeting of the Commonwealth of Nations. At that meeting, Commonwealth members from the Caribbean, Asia and Africa (minus Southern Rhodesia) caucused together and proposed that the Commonwealth position should be No Independence Before Majority Rule. East African leaders like Milton Obote, Jomo Kenyatta and Kenneth Kaunda were particularly prominent in pushing this position, as they had already met in Dar es Salaam in Tanzania to articulate a unified strategy prior to the opening of the Commonwealth meeting.\n\nOn the other hand the UK, Australia and New Zealand formed a bloc resistant to NIBMAR. British PM Harold Wilson had previously been engaged in negotiations with Ian Smith that established a formula for independence, and was resentful at being forced to backtrack from those negotiations. Wilson proposed to the commonwealth a phased plan where UK would engage in another round of negotiations with Smith, and if Smith remained intransigent on points of contention, UK would end negotiations and _then_ support NIBMAR.\n\nIn between these two blocks was the government of Canada which sought to build a consensus between the two factions, and Harold Wilson gave Canadian PM Lester Pearson the task of writing a compromise draft communique that would present a consensus Commonwealth position on the Rhodesia issue. Pearson's compromise draft included NIBMAR as \"the demand of a majority of the Commonwealth\". Pearson's draft was ultimately adopted by the meeting.\n\nSo, NIBMAR was *not* a British attempt to maintain control over Rhodesia, it was a position articulated by African heads of state and forced on UK by diplomatic pressure.\n\n----\nSource\n\n[UDI: The international relations of the Rhodesian Rebellion](_URL_0_) by Robert Goode, pp 170-177",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "40902864",
"title": "Southern Rhodesia in World War II",
"section": "Section::::Africa and the Mediterranean.:North Africa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 1030,
"text": "Rhodesians made up an integral component of the Long Range Desert Group (LRDG), a mechanised reconnaissance and raiding unit formed in North Africa in 1940 to operate behind enemy lines. Initially made up of New Zealanders, the unit's first British and Rhodesian members joined in November 1940. It was reorganised several times over the next year as it expanded and by the end of 1941 there were two Rhodesian patrols: S1 and S2 Patrols, B Squadron. Each vehicle bore a Rhodesian place-name starting with \"S\" on the bonnet, such as \"Salisbury\" or \"Sabi\". From April 1941 the LRDG was based at Kufra in south-eastern Libya. The Rhodesians were posted to Bir Harash, about to the north-east of Kufra, to patrol, hold the Zighen Gap and guard against a possible Axis attack from the north. For the next four months they lived in near-total isolation from the outside world, an exception coming in July 1941 when they and a group of airmen from No. 237 Squadron celebrated Rhodes Day together in the middle of the Cyrenaican desert.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14114",
"title": "History of Zimbabwe",
"section": "Section::::Colonial era (1888–1980).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "Southern Rhodesia became a self-governing British colony in October 1923, subsequent to a referendum held the previous year. Many Rhodesians served on behalf of the United Kingdom during World War II, mainly in the East African Campaign against Axis forces in Italian East Africa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35293005",
"title": "Rhodesiana",
"section": "Section::::Rhodesiana market.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 854,
"text": "The term \"Rhodesiana\" may be used to describe the theme of a museum or collection, or to summarise the character of goods for sale. Indeed, a London-based dealer of African memorabilia, David Saffery, reported in 2002 that Rhodesiana was one of his best-selling lines, with the majority of customers being expatriates, \"most of whom still describe themselves as Rhodesians\". Particularly popular items included civil and military flags, banknotes of the Rhodesian pound and dollar, stamps, documents and medals. Since 1980, Zimbabwean embassies and high commissions around the world have at various times raised money by selling off obsolete Rhodesian passports, documents, tableware, furniture and various curios. The Zimbabwean government itself entered the Rhodesiana market in 2002, when it sold off 9,000 unclaimed Rhodesian General Service Medals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1393850",
"title": "World War II by country",
"section": "Section::::Impact by country.:Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 521,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 521,
"end_character": 1119,
"text": "[[Southern Rhodesia]] (modern-day Zimbabwe) had been a self-governing British colony since 1923. It was covered by the British declaration of war, but its colonial government issued a symbolic declaration of war anyway. Southern Rhodesia's white troops did not serve in a composite unit (unlike their Australian, Canadian, or South African counterparts) because they constituted a significant part of the settler population; it was feared that the colony's future might be placed in jeopardy if an all-Southern Rhodesian unit went into the field and suffered heavy casualties. Southern Rhodesians served in [[East African Campaign (World War II)|East Africa]], Europe, North Africa, the Middle East and the [[Burma Campaign]]. A significant number of Southern Rhodesian troops, especially in the [[Rhodesian African Rifles]], were black or mixed race. Their service has never been recognised by the ZANU–PF government in Harare. [[Ian Smith]], the future Prime Minister, like many of his white contemporaries, [[Military career of Ian Smith|served]] under British command as a fighter pilot in the [[Royal Air Force]].\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15305079",
"title": "Southern Rhodesian Legislative Council",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "The Southern Rhodesian Legislative Council was the inaugural governing body for the British South Africa Company (BSAC) territory of Southern Rhodesia (today Zimbabwe) before its replacement by the Southern Rhodesian Legislative Assembly in 1923, when the country achieved responsible government, and duly became a self-governing colony within the British Empire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "284309",
"title": "Northern Rhodesia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "Northern Rhodesia was a protectorate in south central Africa, formed in 1911 by amalgamating the two earlier protectorates of Barotziland-North-Western Rhodesia and North-Eastern Rhodesia. It was initially administered, as were the two earlier protectorates, by the British South Africa Company (BSAC), a chartered company, on behalf of the British Government. From 1924, it was administered by the British Government as a protectorate, under similar conditions to other British-administered protectorates, and the special provisions required when it was administered by BSAC were terminated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "938876",
"title": "Rhodesia (region)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "The term \"Rhodesia\" was first used to refer to the region by white settlers in the 1890s who informally named their new home after Cecil Rhodes, the Company's founder and managing director. It was used in newspapers from 1891 and was made official by the Company in 1895.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5hxnnh
|
Is analytic continuation of the Riemann-Zeta function more than just a reflection over a vertical line?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's almost a reflection about the line Re(s)=1/2 (the critical line), but not exactly. If it were a reflection, then if s were a point to the left of this line, its value there would be equal to the value of the point exactly opposite on the right side of the line, and this point is 1-s. That is, we would have Z(s) = Z(1-s). But this isn't exactly what happens. In reality we have\n\n* Z(s) = Z(1-s)\\*2^(s)pi^(s-1)sin(pi\\*s/2)Gamma(1-s)\n\nSo there is an extra scaling factor in there, and this scaling factor can make it totally look not like a reflection (see [this](_URL_0_)) However, this extra scaling factor is in there because the Riemann Zeta Function is actually \"incomplete\". We can construct the Riemann Zeta Function for Re(s) > 1 either by the sum of 1/n^(s) for n=1 to infinity, or we an do it as the product of (1-p^(-s))^(-1) over all primes p. This is the [Euler Factorization](_URL_2_) of the Riemann Zeta Function. When viewed this way, the product in the Euler Factorization is actually missing a contribution from a prime. The \"Prime at Infinity\".\n\nIn their natural state, the Rational Numbers do not live on a line, they're just a pile of fractions that we can add/multiply together. But, if we put them on a line ordered by their absolute value, then we find that there are holes in this line, tons of holes. By filling in these holes, we are able to construct the Real Numbers. So we get the real number system by 1.) Applying a geometry to the rational numbers and then 2.) Filling in the holes left by this geometry. It might then be natural to ask \"Are there *other* geometries we could apply to the rational numbers that result in a *different* number system in a similar way?\"\n\nIt turns out that the answer is \"Yes!\" If p is a prime number, then I can say that N is *p-adically* smaller than M if p divides M more than it divides N, and write this as |M|*_p_* < |N|*_p_*. For example, |50|*_5_* < |49|*_5_* and |16|*_2_* < |8|*_2_*. This can also be extended to fractions, where if the denominator has a p in it, then that takes away from the count. So |5/16|*_2_* > |5/8|*_2_* since 2 divides the bottom more in 5/16. This gives us an alternate geometry to arrange the rational numbers, and this geometry will be nicely behaved and have holes in it, just like when we put it on the line. If we fill in these holes, then we'll get a new number system that was constructed in the same way as the real numbers were constructed, just with a different geometry. These are the [p-adic Numbers](_URL_1_), and there's a different one for every prime p.\n\nSo using the same method, we can make the real numbers and the p-adic numbers (for each prime p). These should be thought of as siblings in a big family, where the reals are the odd one of the bunch. It then turns out that the reals+p-adics are the *only* number systems that can be made in this way. It then seems like the \"Reals\" should be included as a \"prime\" since it kinda behaves similarly to the primes in this way. We then say that the reals are the \"Prime at Infinity\" (which is a term we borrow from geometry). This \"Prime at Infinity\" doesn't have a number associated to it, but it behaves like primes in pretty much all other ways. \n\nSo, back to the Riemann Zeta Function. With this in mind, the Euler Product for the Riemann Zeta Function takes into account all the primes, except the reals. It seems like the reals are then a missing from the Riemann Zeta Function. In fact, we can view the term (1-p^(-s))^(-1) that appears for the prime p in the Euler Factorization as a specific kind of integral over the p-adic numbers and we can actually construct an analogous integral over the reals. The value of this integral will be 2^(-1)pi^(-s/2)s(s-1)Gamma(s/2) and if we append this to the Euler Factorization we get what is called the \"Completed Zeta Function\", Xi(s). The analytic continuation of *this* function is just a simple reflection:\n\n* Xi(s) = Xi(1-s)\n\nThis follows from the above expression + properties of the Gamma function.\n\nNote: This isn't how the Completed Zeta Function was originally made. Originally, we just used a trick involving a change of variables in an integral to recover the Zeta Function from the integral expression for the Gamma Function, and it is this that allowed us to get the analytic continuation in the first place. This transformation hinted at what Xi(s) should be, so we used that. The whole \"prime at infinity\" concept is a relatively modern idea.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19344125",
"title": "Riemann hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Arguments for and against the Riemann hypothesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 195,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 195,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "BULLET::::- The calculations in show that the zeros of the zeta function behave very much like the eigenvalues of a random Hermitian matrix, suggesting that they are the eigenvalues of some self-adjoint operator, which would imply the Riemann hypothesis. However all attempts to find such an operator have failed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2198016",
"title": "Zeta function universality",
"section": "Section::::Discussion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "The surprising nature of the theorem may be summarized in this way: the Riemann zeta function contains \"all possible behaviors\" within it, and is thus \"chaotic\" in a sense, yet it is a perfectly smooth analytic function with a rather simple, straightforward definition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25809",
"title": "Riemann zeta function",
"section": "Section::::Fractional derivative.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 171,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 171,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "In the case of the Riemann zeta function, a difficulty is represented by the fractional differentiation in the complex plane. The Ortigueira generalization of the classical Caputo fractional derivative solves this problem. The formula_120-order fractional derivative of the Riemann zeta function is given by \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14099326",
"title": "Odlyzko–Schönhage algorithm",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "calculating the Riemann zeta function with imaginary part \"T\" uses a finite Dirichlet series with about \"N\" = \"T\" terms, so when finding about \"N\" values of the Riemann zeta function it is sped up by a factor of about \"T\". This reduces the time to find the zeros of the zeta function with imaginary part at most \"T\" from \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34471935",
"title": "Arithmetic zeta function",
"section": "Section::::Main conjectures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "There are a number of conjectures concerning the behavior of the zeta function of a regular irreducible equidimensional scheme (of finite type over the integers). Many (but not all) of these conjectures generalize the one-dimensional case of well known theorems about the Euler-Riemann-Dedekind zeta function.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15287",
"title": "Series (mathematics)",
"section": "Section::::Series of functions.:Dirichlet series.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "Like the zeta function, Dirichlet series in general play an important role in analytic number theory. Generally a Dirichlet series converges if the real part of \"s\" is greater than a number called the abscissa of convergence. In many cases, a Dirichlet series can be extended to an analytic function outside the domain of convergence by analytic continuation. For example, the Dirichlet series for the zeta function converges absolutely when Re \"s\" 1, but the zeta function can be extended to a holomorphic function defined on formula_69 with a simple pole at 1.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6138",
"title": "Conjecture",
"section": "Section::::Important examples.:Weil conjectures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "Weil conjectured that such \"zeta-functions\" should be rational functions, should satisfy a form of functional equation, and should have their zeroes in restricted places. The last two parts were quite consciously modeled on the Riemann zeta function and Riemann hypothesis. The rationality was proved by , the functional equation by , and the analogue of the Riemann hypothesis was proved by \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ojtxw
|
what do underwriters for insurance companies do?
|
[
{
"answer": "Underwriters are the people actually taking on responsibility for the insurance claim; the people who will actually pay. \n\nIn a lot of cases this is the same company, but if for instance you use an insurance **broker**, that's where things would be different, because they would search around for the best company for whatever it is you need, and choose them on your behalf. \n\nSay for example you use the insurance broker, \"No Crash Insurance\". They might shop around and find the best deal for you is with \"Union Direct\". In case it wasn't obvious, these names are made up for the purposes of this example.\n\nIf you accpted that, then your insurance would then be through \"No Crash Insurance\", underwritten by \"Union Direct\".\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "433425",
"title": "Financial services",
"section": "Section::::Insurance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "BULLET::::- Insurance underwriting - Personal lines insurance underwriters actually underwrite insurance for individuals, a service still offered primarily through agents, insurance brokers, and stock brokers. Underwriters may also offer similar commercial lines of coverage for businesses. Activities include insurance and annuities, life insurance, retirement insurance, health insurance, and property insurance and casualty insurance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "927644",
"title": "Underwriting",
"section": "Section::::Insurance underwriting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 838,
"text": "The underwriters may decline the risk or may provide a quotation in which the premiums have been loaded (including the amount needed to generate a profit, in addition to covering expenses) or in which various exclusions have been stipulated, which restrict the circumstances under which a claim would be paid. Depending on the type of insurance product (line of business), insurance companies use automated underwriting systems to encode these rules, and reduce the amount of manual work in processing quotations and policy issuance. This is especially the case for certain simpler life or personal lines (auto, homeowners) insurance. Some insurance companies, however, rely on agents to underwrite for them. This arrangement allows an insurer to operate in a market closer to its clients without having to establish a physical presence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "927644",
"title": "Underwriting",
"section": "Section::::Insurance underwriting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "Insurance underwriters evaluate the risk and exposures of potential clients. They decide how much coverage the client should receive, how much they should pay for it, or whether even to accept the risk and insure them. Underwriting involves a measuring risk exposure and determining the premium that needs to be charged to insure that risk. The function of the underwriter is to protect the company's book of business from risks that they feel will make a loss and issue insurance policies at a premium that is commensurate with the exposure presented by a risk.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15176",
"title": "Insurance",
"section": "Section::::Insurance companies.:Insurance consultants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 216,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 216,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "Neither insurance consultants nor insurance brokers are insurance companies and no risks are transferred to them in insurance transactions. Third party administrators are companies that perform underwriting and sometimes claims handling services for insurance companies. These companies often have special expertise that the insurance companies do not have.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15176",
"title": "Insurance",
"section": "Section::::Controversies.:Redlining.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 249,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 249,
"end_character": 1191,
"text": "An insurance underwriter's job is to evaluate a given risk as to the likelihood that a loss will occur. Any factor that causes a greater likelihood of loss should theoretically be charged a higher rate. This basic principle of insurance must be followed if insurance companies are to remain solvent. Thus, \"discrimination\" against (i.e., negative differential treatment of) potential insureds in the risk evaluation and premium-setting process is a necessary by-product of the fundamentals of insurance underwriting. For instance, insurers charge older people significantly higher premiums than they charge younger people for term life insurance. Older people are thus treated differently from younger people (i.e., a distinction is made, discrimination occurs). The rationale for the differential treatment goes to the heart of the risk a life insurer takes: Old people are likely to die sooner than young people, so the risk of loss (the insured's death) is greater in any given period of time and therefore the risk premium must be higher to cover the greater risk. However, treating insureds differently when there is no actuarially sound reason for doing so is unlawful discrimination.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1898083",
"title": "Esurance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "Esurance Insurance Services, Inc. is an American insurance company. It sells auto, home, motorcycle, and renters insurance direct to consumers online and by phone. Its primary competitors are other direct personal insurance writers, mainly GEICO and Progressive. Founded in 1999, the company was purchased by Allstate in 2011, and is now a wholly owned subsidiary of Allstate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15176",
"title": "Insurance",
"section": "Section::::Insurance companies.:Reinsurance companies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 200,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 200,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Reinsurance companies are insurance companies that sell policies to other insurance companies, allowing them to reduce their risks and protect themselves from very large losses. The reinsurance market is dominated by a few very large companies, with huge reserves. A reinsurer may also be a direct writer of insurance risks as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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