text
stringlengths 247
264k
| id
stringlengths 47
47
| dump
stringclasses 1
value | url
stringlengths 20
294
| date
stringlengths 20
20
| file_path
stringclasses 370
values | language
stringclasses 1
value | language_score
float64 0.65
1
| token_count
int64 62
58.7k
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
George Washington (1732-1799), First President of the USA
Sitter in 20 portraits
Born in Virginia, the first son of a planter, Washington had formal education lasting only a few years. Despite this, he managed to teach himself skills through reading books and watching others. He learned planting and land surveying and in 1759 married Martha Dandridge Custis, a widow with large land holdings and numerous slaves. While still young he devoted his time to being a soldier and politician. He was Commander-in-Chief of the American forces during the War of Independence and in 1789 became the first President of the United States.
by James Stephenson, after J.F. Renault
line and stipple engraving, circa 1860
Sulgrave Manor, Banbury, Oxfordshire
Washington Old Hall, Tyne & Wear
Politics, Government and Diplomacy
|
<urn:uuid:7ae16636-8924-430d-af7f-e61b568ca055>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/person/mp04716/george-washington
|
2013-06-19T12:32:45Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00001-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.960099
| 180
|
Can you suggest any science fair projects that have to do with black holes?
Here's one you might be interested in that has to do with black hole
Stephen Hawking discovered from theoretical considerations back in the mid
1970's that black holes evaporate due to a quantum mechanical process.
The particular equations are as follows:
The black hole radius of its event horizon is given by
2 G M -28
R = ------ = 1.48 x 10 centimeters
The temperature of a black hole due to the emitted radiation is given by
h c 1.2 x 10
T = ------------ = ---------- Kelvins
8 pi G k M M
Equivalent mass of the radiation at this temperature
k T -37
m = ---- = 1.53 x 10 grams
The power radiated by the black hole, that is, its luminosity, is
2 4 10
P = 4 pi R A T = ------- Watts
The rate at which it looses mass is then
dM P 10
--- = ----- = ----- grams per second
dt 2 2
And the lifetime of the black hole undergoing evaporation is then
M -26 3
L = ------- = 10 M seconds
In the above formulae, M is the mass of the black hole in grams, and all
other constants are given in 'centimeter-gram-seconds' units .c is the speed
of light ( 3 x 10^10 centimeters/sec), G is the constant of gravity
( 6.6 x 10^-8 dynes cm^2/gram), A is the Stephan Boltzman constant ( 5.67 x
10^-5 erg/cm^2/degree^4/sec), pi = 3.14159 and k is Boltzman's constant (1.38
x 10^-16 ergs/degree).
First, use these formula to examine the properties of a variety of black holes
with masses from 10^-5 grams ( quantum black holes), 10^14 grams ( mini-black
holes), 10^33 grams ( solar black holes) and 10^42 grams ( supermassive black
Physicists have predicted that at the Big Bang, black holes with sizes from
10^-5 grams up to perhaps solar mass size might have been formed. Use the
above formulae to predict the mass range of the black holes would have lasted
as long as the present age of the universe, between 9 billion to 15 billion
years, and which should just now be evaporating completely away.
Predict what the final few thousand years of life would look like for such
black holes, by computing their REMAINING mass, the temperature of the
radiation they are producing, and their power.
From the equivalent mass of the emitted radiation, and the masses of various
fundamental particles such as electrons, protons, muons etc, predict the
kinds of particles that might be emitted by the black hole.
How bright would these evaporating black holes be compared to the SUn which
produces 3.8 x 10^27 watts of power? ( 1 watt = 10^7 ergs/sec).
As an astronomer, what would you look for in the sky that might be a candidate
for such a phenomenon? Examine the internet for information about
variable stars, supernovae, novae, flair stars, x-ray bursts and gamma-ray
bursts to find possible classes of phenomena, and discuss each one given what
you now know about evaporating black holes.
Return to the POETRY
|
<urn:uuid:a6ba76f6-a61d-413b-9cf9-87aaf89a8f6d>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.all-science-fair-projects.com/science_fair_projects/7/74/df7312f92be51153071293433b00f9f2.html
|
2013-05-18T05:24:42Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00051-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.889841
| 745
|
Estimating Luminance and Illuminance With Reflection-Type Exposure Meters
and an 18% Neutral Test Card
Download an Adobe Acrobat version of this publication for printing. (17K)
Strictly speaking, "light" is the name given to electromagnetic radiation that can evoke a human visual response. Meters that measure the brightness of a surface (luminance) or the amount of light incident on a test area (illuminance) are designed to match as nearly as possible the spectral response of the average human eye.
Photographic exposure meters also respond to light, but the spectral response of such meters never matches the spectral sensitivity of any photographic film or the spectral response to the human eye. In fact, an imperfect spectral match with representative films can actually increase the probability of making correct exposure determinations.
As a matter of convenience, exposure meters are calibrated during manufacture in photometric (i.e., visual) terms with light of a particular color temperature. Other test conditions and calibration constants are selected to optimize exposure determinations for a variety of film types and a wide range of photographic situations. Unless such meters are fitted with an accessory converter (offered by some meter manufacturers), they will generally provide an accurate indication of luminance or illuminance only when the actual conditions are close to those used during calibration.
In the absence of a properly designed and carefully calibrated light meter or an adapter intended to convert an exposure meter into a light meter, you can estimate luminance or illuminance values with a reflection-type exposure meter and an 18% neutral test card; such as a Kodak Gray Card.
Set the meter for 1/30 second and a film speed of ISO 400. Hold the meter close enough to the gray card so that the meter "sees" only the card and excludes the background. Convert the meter reading into the appropriate f-number and find the value of luminance or illuminance.
Note: The luminance or illuminance values obtained by using this method are only approximate.
Kodak is a trademark.
AM-105KIC October, 1999
|
<urn:uuid:1bc30fa2-82b8-4809-9792-056a6c6872c1>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.kodak.com/cluster/global/en/consumer/products/techInfo/am105/am105kic.shtml
|
2013-05-18T19:04:21Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382705/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.826663
| 432
|
Finding Suggests New Therapy For Genetic Disorder
La Jolla, CA – A home movie of toddlers will show them wobble and weave, often to the amusement of adult viewers. But for babies born with the rare genetic disease ataxia-telangiectasia, commonly known as A-T, what may seem like normal and adorable lack of polish accelerates into a progressive and pervasive loss of muscle control and early death.
By locating the source of neurodegeneration, a new Salk study suggests a course of potential treatment, bringing hope to those afflicted by this currently incurable disease.
"The exciting thing here is that there are therapies available that now make sense to try," said Brad Margus, president of the A-T Children's Project, a patient advocacy group for patients with A-T. Ataxia refers to the altered gait produced by the neurodegenerative effects of the disease; telangiectasia refers to patches of dilated blood vessels commonly seen in patients' skin.
Babies born with A-T appear perfectly normal and healthy for their first several years. As toddlers or young schoolchildren they show their first symptoms, typically by beginning to sway. "The seriousness of the condition is not immediately clear," said Salk Assistant Professor Carrolee Barlow, M.D., lead author of the study, which appears in the current issue of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. "But by their teen years, most are in wheelchairs, and many lose control of their eye movements, so even reading or focusing on a game becomes difficult."
A-T patients are also prone to cancers, usually leukemias and lymphomas, and lack a robust immune system. Before the age of 30, most succumb to either cancer or infection.
With colleagues at the National Institutes of Health, Barlow developed mice that lacked the gene Atm, shown in 1995 to be the cause of A-T. The mice display symptoms closely paralleling the course of the human disease.
"Developing an animal model for the disease provided the breakthrough we needed to find the underlying defect, an inability to cope with oxidative damage," said Barlow.
In the current study, Barlow and collaborators examined brain cells from the cerebellums of these mice, the part of the brain known to be affected by A-T.
"The cerebellum is the central control panel for all movements," said Barlow. "For instance, if you hold your arm out to your side and decide to lift it over head, your cerebellum informs the rest of your brain and body about where your arm is and in which direction it should be moved."
In A-T patients, important cells in the cerebellum, called Purkinje cells, slowly but steadily die off, causing the progressive loss of motor control. When Barlow and colleagues looked at the Purkinje cells in the Atm-deficient mice, they found the likely killer.
"The cells showed clear evidence of oxidative damage," said Barlow. "We all encounter oxidants, commonly called free radicals, in our day-to-day lives – they're byproducts of ordinary metabolism. Most of us can contain or repair the insults these toxins inflict on our cells, but in people with A-T, the defense system appears to be impaired in these important brain cells."
Oxidants are highly reactive compounds that wreak havoc with the sensitive chemical balance inside cells, creating "molecular debris." Inside the brain cells of Atm -deficient mice, Barlow and colleagues found telltale scars of oxidative assault.
The results were somewhat unexpected, since the product of the Atm gene is not an enzyme specialized to cope with oxidative stress. Rather, it is a kinase, a type of protein that typically switches other proteins on and off.
"So we think the ATM protein most likely turns on defense system molecules," said Barlow. "When it's missing, oxidative damage builds up inside these brain cells, until key enzymes and other proteins no longer function and the cells die. This type of cumulative effect is seen in other neurodegenerative disorders and, in fact, one school of thought states that normal aging is due to an accumulation of oxidative damage."
She noted an intriguing similarity between the Atm gene and a gene called age-1, found in the tiny experimental worm Caenorhabditis elegans. Worms that manufacture extra age-1 live much longer than their counterparts.
"The worm findings underscore the central role of oxidative defense in maintaining life," said Barlow. "They also suggest that it may be possible to prolong life by administering anti-oxidant medications. Vitamin E is one anti-oxidant found in our diets, and there are other more potent drugs that could be tried to prolong the lives of people with A-T."
Said Margus: "Dr. Barlow's study is the first to present hard empirical evidence of what is actually causing brain cells to die in this disease. And that gives us a rationale for potential treatment."
The oxidative defense defect may also help to explain the high cancer rate seen in A-T patients, since damage to DNA can result in the types of mutations that give rise to cancer cells.
Collaborators on the study include Phyllis A. Dennery at Stanford University, Mark K. Shigenaga at the University of California, Berkeley, Mark A. Smith at Case Western Reserve University, Jason D. Morrow and L. Jackson Roberts II at Vanderbilt University, Anthony Wynshaw-Boris at the University of California, San Diego and Rodney L. Levine at the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. The study, titled "Loss of the ataxia-telangiectasia gene product causes oxidative damage in target organs" was supported by the National Institutes of Health, the Burroughs Wellcome Fund, and the A-T Children's Project. Barlow holds the Frederick B. Rentschler Developmental Chair.
Brad Margus can be reached at (800) 543-5728. The A-T Children's Project can assist in arranging patient interviews: (561) 395-2621.
The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, located in La Jolla, Calif., is an independent nonprofit institution dedicated to fundamental discoveries in the life sciences, the improvement of human health and conditions, and the training of future generations of researchers. The Institute was founded in 1960 by Jonas Salk, M.D., with a gift of land from the City of San Diego and the financial support of the March of Dimes Birth Defects Foundation.
|
<urn:uuid:13e87703-16e2-4caa-8e29-5fc798fddbf6>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.salk.edu/news/pressrelease_details.php?press_id=39
|
2013-05-24T22:36:54Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.950631
| 1,367
|
All About Email Addresses
Email today is among the most common forms of communication. It feels as though everybody uses email these days, and use it quite frequently. While some people receive only a message or two every week, others will send and receive thousands within that same time.
Email got started back in 1968, at a business called Bolt Beranek and Newman (BBN). This company was hired by the Department of Defense to create what was, at the time, called ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network), which was later to be known as the Internet. ARPANET was to be used for communications among military and educational institutions.
Engineer Ray Tomlinson was assigned to a project in 1971, which had two main parts: SNDMSG and READMAIL. SNDMSG was the first form of electronic mail. It had already existed for several years and was an exceptionally primitive way for users of the same machine to send messages to one another. Text files could be created and delivered to inboxes on the same machine. It could not send to different machines. The mailbox consisted only of a simple text file to which additional text could be added. Data could not, however, be deleted or edited.
Tomlinson's goal for the project, however, was to broaden the capabilities of SNDMSG. He had already been working on a project called CYPNET, which had the purpose of transferring files among different computers within the ARPANET. Therefore, he modified his CYPNET to allow appended files.
Tomlinson's next decision was a mark in history. He created the current email address format, with the mailbox name, the @ symbol, and the machine's node name.
He then sent the first email message - to himself. Its contents have been forgotten over time. It was simply sent between two ARPANET network PDP-10 nodes. From that point on email became exceptionally popular, where 75% of all ARPANET traffic was email within two years of time. One of the first large email programs for the public that achieved real popularity was Eudora. It was written as an email client by Steve Dorner in 1988.
Today, research shows that over half of all Americans use email for approximately half an hour every day. 87 million Americans actively use email.
|
<urn:uuid:04d97cf8-971c-48d5-9a7a-aa4a7482d3b0>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.myfreeemailsearch.com/free-email-search/all-about-email-addresses.html
|
2013-05-21T10:27:32Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00001-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.981328
| 482
|
This year's Nobel prize in Physiology or Medicine has been awarded to John Gurdon at the University of Cambridge and Shinya Yamanaka, who splits his time between Kyoto University in Japan and the Gladstone Institutes in San Francisco. They rewrote biology textbooks by showing that mature cells could be reprogrammed into embryonic cells that could then turn into all other tissues of the body.
In 1962, Gurdon showed that frog eggs grew into healthy tadpoles even though he had removed the original nucleus and replaced it with the nucleus from a gut cell taken from a mature frog.
Then in 2006, Yamanaka showed that by inserting just four "rejuvenation" genes into skin cells, he could rewind their genetic code, turning them back into embryo-like cells that he called induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells.
"If it really works, it would be remarkable and immensely useful, both scientifically and therapeutically," Gurdon told New Scientist at the time of Yamanaka's discovery. "It's surprising to me that it works, and I'm sure there will be lots of labs trying to repeat and refine it."
Both breakthroughs destroyed the long-held dogma that once cells had matured into specific tissue types, such as skin, brain or muscle, they could never regress back to the state from which they originated in an embryo.
"This joint Nobel Prize traces and celebrates the wonderful scientific journey from John Gurdon's pioneering early work to the sensational discovery of somatic cell reprogramming by Shinya Yamanaka," said Anthony Hollander, head of cellular and molecular medicine at the University of Bristol, UK. "It's fantastic news for stem-cell research and for UK science."
Back in the 1960s, Gurdon also showed that tadpoles could be cloned into healthy frogs. This was the prelude to the creation of Dolly the sheep, the first mammal produced from a single mature cell. Dolly was created by rewinding an udder cell into an embryonic state, then fusing its DNA with an egg cell that had been stripped of its nucleus.
Yamanaka's breakthrough in 2006 raised the prospect of growing tissues from a person's own cells. Skin cells, for example, could be taken from a patient, rewound to an embryonic state, then turned into whatever tissue was needed.
Researchers had already shown that they could do this using pluripotent cells from human embryos, called human embryonic stem cells. But because human embryos had to be destroyed to obtain the cells, the technique was widely opposed by anti-abortion groups, especially in the US.
Yamanaka's technique overcame this objection, raising the prospect of producing tissues without the need to destroy embryos.
Nobody has yet been treated with iPS cells as there are still safety issues to be resolved. For example, Yamanaka inserted his rejuvenation genes into mature cells with the help of a virus, a process that could also lead to cancer-causing oncogenes being activated.
Furthermore, researchers showed last year that mice that received iPS cells displayed an immune response even though the cells were made from their own tissue. That suggests there is something in these cells that makes them different from native tissue, and therefore potentially harmful.
But iPS cells still have huge clinical potential, and work continues to develop safer ways to use them.
If you would like to reuse any content from New Scientist, either in print or online, please contact the syndication department first for permission. New Scientist does not own rights to photos, but there are a variety of licensing options available for use of articles and graphics we own the copyright to.
Have your say
Only subscribers may leave comments on this article. Please log in.
Only personal subscribers may leave comments on this article
|
<urn:uuid:53e2acf2-124c-429a-8033-464012b9c674>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn22348-cloning-and-stem-cell-nobel-for-gurdon-and-yamanaka.html
|
2013-05-24T15:58:26Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00050-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.968639
| 784
|
Croup is an infection that causes swelling of the larynx and the trachea that in turn makes the airway just beneath the vocal cords become swollen and narrow. When there is both swelling and narrowing of the airway breathing becomes more difficult and the noisy sound that is made with each breath almost like a barking seal is described as being croupy.
Croup is quite common in young children and the sound can be both scary and to concerning to both parent and child.
Children between the ages of 6 months and 3-4 years are most likely to get croup. As a child gets older the airway is larger so the symptoms may not be as severe. When adults get this same virus it often causes laryngitis rather than croup.
Most cases of croup are caused by a common virus so croup is not treated with antibiotics. The best treatment for croup is symptomatic and taking your child into the bathroom to sit in the steam while the hot shower is running may be all that is needed. I would awaken to the sound of a croupy cough, walk right to the bathroom and turn the shower on hot and close the door, grab the child and a few books and head back to sit in the steamy bathroom while calming the barking child. After a few minutes in the hot steam the cough should calm down and the child should appear less anxious and more comfortable. If the steamy bathroom does not seem to be working try taking your child out into the cold night air. This often seems to help open the airway and relieve some of the cough.
You always want to be watching your child for signs of respiratory distress. Your child may cough so hard they turn red, but they should never turn blue. Red is good and means they are oxygenating, blue is bad. Look to make sure they are not using their chest muscles or abs to breath, which is called retracting. Watch for nasal flaring or grunting with each breath. If your child is having any respiratory distress call 911 for emergency help.
For children who have mild distress or continuous coughing an oral steroid may be prescribed. Children who are having respiratory distress or problems with oxygenating will require hospital admission for management.
For some reason children with croup always seem to be worse at night. If your child has sounded croupy make sure you put them to bed with a cool mist humidifier in their room which will provide some moisture to their airway and may lessen their cough.
Remember to look at your child's chest and how they are breathing and watch their color. If you have concerns in the middle of the night, call your pediatrician for further advice.
I'm Dr. Sue with The Kid's Doctor helping parents take charge.
|
<urn:uuid:35983172-cb6b-401a-ab01-d62a47b56c39>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://yourbigsky.com/kidsdr-fulltext?nxd_id=11892&d=1
|
2013-05-18T17:58:57Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00050-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.973018
| 563
|
5.3.1 UNDESCENDED TESTICLES
The testicles (male sex glands)—like the ovaries (female sex glands)—are formed within the abdomen during the development of the embryo. However, before a baby boy is born they descend from his abdomen into his scrotum (the bag of skin which hangs between his legs just behind the penis). !n some rare cases, the testicles fail to descend. This can be due to some hormonal deficiency or some other reason. If a boy approaches the age of puberty in this condition, treatment becomes necessary because the testicles cannot produce sperm at body temperature, and thus infertility would result. Hormone replacement or surgery can usually bring about the proper development.
There are also (even rarer) cases where the testicles prove to be imperfect or absent altogether. Boys with this problem can also be given hormonal treatment so that they develop physically just as other boys. However, for obvious reasons they will remain sterile. A normal physical appearance can be achieved by a surgical insertion of artificial testicles into the scrotum.
|
<urn:uuid:da1d69c3-b2b2-4711-8f6d-a0ae21062a55>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www2.hu-berlin.de/sexology/ATLAS_EN/html/undescended_testicles.html
|
2013-05-26T02:49:41Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00001-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.954788
| 220
|
Invention of the Tank
willie" British prototype of the first tank
War I was a defensive war. Troops who went "over the top" of
the trenches soon found that an infantry advance against entrenched
machine guns was not very successful. Casualties in offensives
were outrageously high and usually the result was very little
gain. A stalemate soon settled in along the western front
which lasted most of the war.
they needed of course was a tank. A Colonel in the British
army developed the idea when he noticed that the only vehicles
that could navigate the rough terrain were caterpillar tractors
with moving treads. He realized that if such a vehicle were
covered with armor, it might be just the very thing to get
into and over the other side's trenches.
passed the idea along to the government and Winston Churchill,
then First Lord of the Admiralty, got it. He was intrigued
by the idea and started a project to develop the idea.
was so top secret that the workers were told that they were
working on water carriers - naturally, they began to call them "tanks," short
for water tanks, and the name stuck.
tanks weren't used in battle until the end of 1916, but then
the first batch was tried. Unfortunately most of them broke
down before they got very far, but a few did get past the enemy
trenches. The army saw the potential and got production
underway. A year later, in November of 1917, they were for
the first time used effectively to break through the enemy
World War I
|
<urn:uuid:5ca6b3b2-1b7f-4f43-a577-d1e47c867cf0>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.historywiz.com/tank.htm
|
2013-06-19T06:22:06Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142617/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00001-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.982109
| 337
|
Context for this case:
Introduce these guidelines by "touring" them with CDC's Sudden Unexplained
Infant Death reporting form.
Cognitive Apprenticeship Features:
A. The Tour.
One way to reveal the purpose of good descriptions is to tour the description-writing guidelines and give a brief, concrete example of each principle applied. Pointing out the different result of honoring or ignoring each principle, one by one with a simple case, shows just how well-designed descriptions are useful in ways that poor descriptions are not. See the "Giving a Guideline Tour" section below for an easy, systematic way to do this with a "crime scene" flavor that interests students.
B. The Trial Run.
A second approach may work better for younger students or those for whom discussing so many guidelines at once proves too abstract. Start instead with Exercise 0. Post the overt four-item "why write descriptions" list from the annotated version of that exercise and then have students try that simple description practice themselves. Afterwards, backtrack from the overt four-reasons list and from the writing problems that turn up during Exercise 0 to introduce each guideline as a solution to a common problem that all description writers face. With this list of potential solutions at hand, students can then apply them to the draft description in the paper clip case (Exercise 1) and to subsequent exercises.
An easy, focused way to introduce each of these guidelines to
students is to "tour" through them using some authentic
technical descriptions to illustrate how they work.
infant death (SUID) is a practical situation where
real-life reporting (description)
forms are not only available to the public but
eagerly shared to promote their wider use.
Hence, I have found that SUID
forms from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(freely posted at
provide a dramatic way to introduce the good-description guidelines to otherwise disinterested high-school students.
The six-page SUID "investigation report form" at the above URL contains many clever descriptive features. First, it includes a concrete example of virtually every technique listed on the basic guidelines for good descriptions above. Surveying the SUID form is a convenient, persuasive way to highlight those techniques.
Second, the SUID form is heavily scaffolded (with checklists, labeled tables to fill in, and prompted comparisons). Yet this exposure of often-hidden descriptive moves is very much "for life," not just for school. At the sometimes chaotic death scene, first responders who witness possibly crucial details (about temperature, ventilation, or clothing, for example) need clear, organized prompts to help them record diverse nutritional, medical, and environmental clues in reliable ways. Months later and thousands of miles away (at CDC in Atlanta), investigators need systematic, easily compared reports rich enough in detail to suggest possible causes. The scaffolding on the SUID form helps both groups meet their needs in complementary ways. This is also a keen lesson for students in the social value of good technical description, for writers and readers alike.
Third, CDC's SUID form includes front and side infant-body outlines on which paramedics can mark wounds or scars. Many technical descriptions blend words and pictures, so this offers a practical introduction to the general design challenges of effective text-graphics integration.
Finally, this real-life SUID form has its share of little imperfections that students can be asked to find and improve by using the guidelines (it needs a better way than a small empty box, for instance, to capture information about prescription and OTC medications that the infant was taking). So it affords a nice opportunity to explore the benefits of guideline-based text revision. The CSI flavor of this technical description case makes it appealing; the usability features make it a very helpful instructional tool.
Several items in the guidelines here overlap with those that Darlene Smith-Worthington includes in her Technical Communication: Writing Descriptions (Perfection Learning, 1997, 32 pp.), a short high-school technical writing text. Smith-Worthington approaches description writing quite broadly. She spends time on general audience analysis, on "observing things," and on literary terminology (simile contrasted with metaphor and analogy, for example). Her guidelines for writing and revising descriptions are helpful, but they appear only late in her text (pp. 16 and 24, the last half of the book). Several extended example descriptions treat familiar but mechanically complex objects (a rotary egg beater, a clothes hanger) and could support much more commentary than they receive. One strength of her book is her use of nutrition labels and similar tabular product specifications, which she cleverly contrasts with descriptions in sentence and paragraph format.
My approach to teaching technical description places greater stress than Smith-Worthington does on the psychological and linguistic techniques that make good descriptions good. I follow the same empirical, research-based approach to teaching technical writing that the American Federation of Teachers promotes for effectively teaching reading (summarized in Louisa C. Moats, Teaching Reading IS Rocket Science, Washington, D.C.: American Federation of Teachers, 1999, 32 pp., available free online). The last 30 years have revealed much about the psychological grounds for nonfiction text usability; we should not ignore these discoveries when introducing students to effective drafting and revising techniques. The exercises here embody this work, and the guidelines (especially the "Signals for Your Reader" section at the end) make them explicit (since seeing them spelled out and naming them help new students recognize them in action).
I also introduce description-writing guidelines before, not after, the exercises to which they apply. And I suggest explicitly invoking them in every subsequent lesson. They tie the separate exercises together: an easy way to review at the start of each lesson, an overt focus for practice, and a shared evaluation standard. I have even hung these guidelines in the classroom as a 3-by-4-foot poster to provide visual continuity and a tangible resource for student writers.
|
<urn:uuid:fac01a7f-d087-4006-b061-22d9ef864ea7>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.ebstc.org/TechLit/analysisGd.html
|
2013-05-26T03:30:27Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706578727/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121618-00050-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.918542
| 1,246
|
Cases of one of the world's deadliest diseases—tuberculosis—are rising at an alarming rate, despite widespread vaccination. Reasons for the ineffectiveness of the vaccine, especially in regions where this infectious disease is endemic, as well as arguments for replacing the existing vaccine with novel synthetic vaccines, are presented in a review published online August 28th in Trends in Molecular Medicine.
"Tuberculosis is a global health threat, and it is a highly communicable disease that may influence practically anyone and everyone," says senior author Javed Agrewala of the CSIR-Institute of Microbial Technology in Chandigarh, India. "There is a serious need and challenge for the scientific community to develop alternative vaccination approaches for the control of the disease."
Tuberculosis is a bacterial infection caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). About one third of the world's population is infected with Mtb, which causes about two million deaths each year. Vaccines may be the best strategy for controlling tuberculosis, but the only available vaccine—Bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG)—does not reliably prevent the disease in adults, especially in regions where tuberculosis is endemic.
In the review, Agrewala explains that BCG does not work well in these regions because exposure to prevalent mycobacterial strains triggers the production of antibodies that counteract the vaccine. In addition, infections with parasitic worms called helminths interfere with protective immune responses induced by BCG.
To overcome these limitations, Agrewala proposes the use of novel vaccines called lipidated-promiscuous-peptide vaccines. These synthetic vaccines are safer than BCG because they do not contain infectious material. Moreover, they generate long-lasting, protective immune responses and are not influenced by pre-existing antibodies. This type of vaccine strategy has already proven to be successful in an animal model of tuberculosis and is being tested in human clinical trials for other infectious diseases and cancer.
"We believe that lipidated-promiscuous-peptide vaccines have all the essential qualities that can make them successful in tuberculosis-endemic countries," Agrewala says. "Such vaccines can impart better protection than BCG and will have a long-reaching positive impact on millions of people."
More information: Gowthama et al. "Lipidated promiscuous peptides vaccine for tuberculosis-endemic regions" dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molmed.2012.07.008
|
<urn:uuid:41b275ae-2b97-4565-bfa0-13d5ce54b318>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://medicalxpress.com/news/2012-08-vaccines-tuberculosis-millions.html
|
2013-06-20T02:53:25Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368710115542/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516131515-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.934819
| 511
|
The People of Papua New Guinea, Way of Life
Most people in villages follow a traditional way of life that revolves around subsistence agriculture and fishing. Extended families are the basic social unit. There are also many tribal groups, subdivided into clans and subclans. These groups help families preserve and transmit the store of traditional knowledge. They support clan members through major events such as birth, marriage, and death. Most villages are led by men, called “big men” in Tok Pisin, who win leadership positions by their own efforts. Hereditary chiefs are rare. The most experienced men in the village normally form a body of decision-makers, and no important actions are taken without their consent. Women typically do the planting. They rarely have much voice in village affairs. In some groups, however, people inherit land through the female line. Villagers live in small houses with frames built of wood, walls made of plaited bamboo strips or leaves, and roofs thatched with grass or palm leaves. Often there is a larger men’s house and separate small cooking houses. Some villages have a medical post and small store.
The lifestyle in urban areas is significantly different. The larger towns and small cities, including Port Moresby, formed during the colonial era. They grew around the port areas that the foreign-owned mines and plantations required for the import and export of goods. Today, these urban areas also serve as local marketplaces and are the sites for government, banking, commercial, and cultural activities. Over time, the native people who have migrated to towns and cities from rural areas have lost their traditional ways of life. They have had to adjust, for example, to living in the cash economy, which requires that they purchase essential goods with currency instead of gathering, growing, or hunting what they need. With fewer family members to help them, people have formed new ties, usually with other migrants who speak their language. Housing in urban areas is scarce and expensive, and many new arrivals live in crowded squatter settlements, usually located on the fringe of the urban area.
|site map privacy legal|
|
<urn:uuid:87ae0209-c842-44a5-82ca-b6085dbdb7af>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.countriesquest.com/oceania/papua_new_guinea/the_people_of_papua_new_guinea/way_of_life.htm
|
2013-06-18T23:18:37Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707436332/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123036-00050-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.979223
| 429
|
Holocaust items put on display for remembrance day
Published: Sunday, January 27, 2013 at 7:59 p.m.
Last Modified: Sunday, January 27, 2013 at 7:59 p.m.
JERUSALEM (AP) — When Stella Knobel's family fled World War II Poland in 1939, the only thing the 7-year-old girl could take with her was her teddy bear. For the next six years, the stuffed animal never left her side as the family wandered through the Soviet Union, to Iran and finally the Holy Land.
"He was like family. He was all I had. He knew all my secrets," the 80-year-old said with a smile. "I saved him all these years. But I worried what would happen to him when I died."
So when she heard about a project launched by Yad Vashem, Israel's national Holocaust memorial and museum, to collect artifacts from aging survivors, she reluctantly handed over her beloved bear Misiu, Polish for "teddy bear," so the memories of the era could be preserved.
"We've been through a lot together, so it was hard to let him go," said Knobel, who was widowed 12 years ago and has no children. "But here he has found a haven."
The German Nazis and their collaborators murdered 6 million Jews during World War II. In addition to rounding up Jews and shipping them to death camps, the Nazis also confiscated their possessions and stole their valuables, leaving little behind. Those who survived often had just a small item or two they managed to keep. Many have clung to the sentimental objects ever since.
On Sunday, Knobel's tattered teddy bear was on display at Yad Vashem, one of more than 71,000 items collected nationwide over the past two years. With a missing eye, his stuffing bursting out and a red ribbon around his neck, Misiu was seated behind a glass window as part of the memorial's "Gathering the Fragments" exhibit.
The opening came as other Holocaust-related events took place around the world.
In 2005, the United Nations designated Jan. 27 as International Holocaust Remembrance Day, marking 60 years to the liberation of the Auschwitz death camp.
Israel's main Holocaust memorial day is in the spring, marking the anniversary of the uprising of the Jewish ghetto in Warsaw, Poland, against the Nazis.
To coincide with the international commemorations, Israel released its annual anti-Semitism report, noting that the past year experienced an increase in the number of attacks against Jewish targets worldwide, mainly by elements identified with Islamic extremists.
At Sunday's weekly Cabinet meeting, Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu said the lessons of the Holocaust have yet to be learned. He accused Iran of pursuing nuclear weapons with the goal of destroying Israel.
"What has not changed is the desire to annihilate the Jews. What has changed is the ability of the Jews to defend themselves," he said.
Yad Vashem showcased dozens of items, each representing tales of perseverance and survival. They included sweaters, paintings, diaries, letters, dolls, cameras and religious artifacts that were stashed away for decades or discarded before they were collected and restored.
Yad Vashem researchers have been interviewing survivors, logging their stories, tagging materials and scanning documents into the museum's digitized archive.
Aside from their value as exhibits in the museum, Yad Vashem says the items are also proving helpful for research, filling in holes in history and contributing to the museum's huge database of names.
"Thousands of Israelis have decided to part from personal items close to their hearts, and through them share the memory of their dear ones who were murdered in the Holocaust," said Yad Vashem Chairman Avner Shalev. "Through these examples, we have tried to bring to light items whose stories both explain the individual story and provide testimony to join the array of personal accounts that make up the narrative of the Holocaust."
For 83-year-old Shlomo Resnik, one such item was the steel bowl he and his father used for food at the Dachau concentration camp. His father Meir's name and number are engraved on the bowl, a reminder of how hard they had to scrap for food. "We fought to stay alive," he said.
Approaching the glass-encased display, Tsilla Shlubsky began tearing. Below she could see the handwritten diary her father kept while the family took shelter with two dozen others in a small attic in the Polish countryside. With a pencil, Jakov Glazmann meticulously recorded the family's ordeal in tiny Yiddish letters. His daughter doesn't know exactly what is written and she doesn't care to find out.
"I remember him writing. I lived through it," said Shlubsky, 74. "Abba (Dad) wasn't a writer, but with his heart's blood he wrote a diary to record the events to leave something behind so that what had taken place would be known."
She said it pained her to part with the family treasure.
"I know this is the right place for it and it will be protected forever," she said. "Now is the time and this is the place."
All rights reserved. This copyrighted material may not be re-published without permission. Links are encouraged.
|
<urn:uuid:ecdfea6a-4b01-4346-9746-51a87bab2d6c>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.blueridgenow.com/article/20130127/WIRE/130129825/1016/printads?Title=Holocaust-items-put-on-display-for-remembrance-day
|
2013-05-18T08:11:48Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00002-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.982287
| 1,100
|
Identifying Yarns & Dyes to Tell Time
Knowing the history of material changes allows scholars to construct a timeline for southwestern textile types. Changes in yarns, fiber quality, and dyes occurred frequently during the 1800s. When these changes are considered together with a textile’s designs and individual history, production dates can be estimated to create a more complete history of Navajo textiles.
Handspun yarns include single-spun strands of naturally colored, undyed sheep’s wool as well as wool colored with vegetal or synthetic dyes. The earliest Navajo sheep had clean, lustrous wool, while breeds after the 1880s had curlier, greasier wool. Navajo spinners cleaned and aligned the wool fibers with their fingers or with wire-toothed combs, called carders, and twisted the wool together on hand spindles.
Raveled yarns came from bolts of imported fabrics that weavers cut into strips and unraveled, reweaving the yarns into blankets. Raveled yarns, often used in groups of two to six, appear to have small ridges or kinks and are sometimes speckled. Some researchers call these yarns bayeta, from the Spanish name for one type of cloth that was unraveled.
Commercial yarns, produced in textile mills and obtained through government annuities and trade, introduced new shades of red, orange, yellow, purple, blue, and green. Commercial yarns have a regularly ridged texture and solid coloring, and were plied, or twisted, from multiple spun strands of wool.
Red dyes can be chemically identified to help scholars interpret Navajo textile histories. From 1800 through the 1870s, insect dyes—cochineal from Mesoamerica and lac from India—colored many raveled and commercial red yarns. Beginning in the late 1860s, many red yarns contained synthetic dyes. Red dyes can be identified by several chemical tests, including spectrophotometry.
|
<urn:uuid:7ad7014f-0f18-46a1-accd-76d645c8efc0>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://statemuseum.arizona.edu/exhibits/navajoweave/historic/yarns_dyes.shtml
|
2013-06-18T22:25:28Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00001-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.955227
| 414
|
- any (adj.)
- Old English ænig "any, anyone," literally "one-y," from Proto-Germanic *ainagas (cf. Old Saxon enig, Old Norse einigr, Old Frisian enich, Dutch enig, German einig), from PIE *oi-no- "one, unique" (see one). The -y may have diminutive force here.
Emphatic form any old ______ (British variant: any bloody ______) is recorded from 1896. At any rate is recorded from 1847. Among the large family of compounds beginning with any-, anykyn "any kind" (c.1300) did not survive, and Anywhen (1831) is rarely used, but OED calls it "common in Southern [British] dialects."
|
<urn:uuid:7b634817-7bf5-454e-bf47-b9929c25e3e1>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://etymonline.com/index.php?term=any&allowed_in_frame=0
|
2013-05-21T18:20:48Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700380063/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.902958
| 174
|
Reduction of the carrier level permits higher power levels in the sidebands than would be possible with conventional AM transmission. Carrier power must be restored by the receiving station to permit demodulation, usually by means of a beat frequency oscillator (BFO). Failure of the BFO to match the original carrier frequency when receiving such a signal will cause a heterodyne.
Suppressed carriers are often used for single sideband (SSB) transmissions, such as for amateur radio on shortwave. That system is referred to in full as SSB suppressed carrier (SSBSC) or (SSB-SC). International broadcasters agreed in 1985 to also use SSBSC entirely by 2015, though IBOC and IBAC digital radio (namely Digital Radio Mondiale) seems likely to make this irrelevant.
FM stereo transmissions use a double-sideband suppressed carrier (DSBSC) signal from a stereo generator, together with a pilot tone of exactly half the original carrier frequency. This allows reconstitution of the original stereo carrier, and hence the stereo signal.
Source: partly from Federal Standard 1037C
See also Carrier recovery.
Schoolgirls Forced to Strip to Underwear in Front of Boys for PE; Parents' Fury as 'Health and Safety' Ends Separate Changing Rooms
Oct 01, 2006; Byline: ALISTAIR SELF PARENTS have staged an angry protest after their young daughters were forced to strip to their underwear in...
|
<urn:uuid:3896850b-ead8-441a-8522-75d5e02f254e>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.reference.com/browse/reduced+tears
|
2013-05-23T12:08:41Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703306113/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112146-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.940208
| 297
|
Definition of Mechanical
Mechanical properties of steel are defined as the reaction of the
material to certain types of external forces. Mechanical properties
The maximum force that a material can withstand before fracturing.
Also called Ultimate Strength. This is usually reported in terms
of force per unit of area: lbs. per square inch or newtons per millimeter
The force that a material can withstand before permanent deformation
occurs. Also reported as force per unit of area.
The ability of a material to deform without fracturing. Generally reported
as elongation and reduction of area in a cross section that has been
Tensile, Yield, and Ductility of steel are determined by performing
a Tension Test in which a standard sample of the material is subjected
to a pulling force that increases gradually until the material deforms,
stretches, and fractures.
The resistance of the material to penetration. Not to be confused with
hardenability, which is a measure of the ability of a certain steel
to respond to heat treatment. Hardness is measured by applying a
standard force to the surface of the steel through a small, hardened
ball point, and then measuring the diameter of the resulting impression.
Hardness usually is reported as a value on one of two industry standard
scales, Brinell or Rockwell. Brinell hardness is usually more accurate
for measuring hardness of plate products.
The ability of a material to withstand a high velocity impact. Impact
strength is measured by subjecting a standard notched sample to a
swinging weight. As it is often important to know how the steel will
perform in colder environments, this test is often done at sub-zero
temperatures. Known as a notch test or Charpy test, the testing requires
three standard samples of a defined grain orientation. The results
are reported as foot-lbs or joules, showing the average of the three
specimens and the lowest value of the three, at the testing temperature.
Physical properties of steel pertain to the physics of the material,
such as density, electrical conductivity, and coefficient of thermal
expansion. The term “physical properties” is often used
erroneously to refer to mechanical properties.
|
<urn:uuid:e191417a-c6ae-4fea-ab0c-f25593c3c44d>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.oliversteel.com/d_mechanical-properties.htm
|
2013-06-20T09:50:49Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368711240143/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516133400-00001-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.919386
| 468
|
PHILADELPHIA – A coalition of academic researchers in the United States is preparing to shine a rigorous scientific light on the polarized and often emotional debate over whether using hydraulic fracturing to drill for natural gas is hazardous to human health.
Some five years after the controversial combination of fracking and horizontal drilling in the gas-rich Marcellus Shale in Pennsylvania and surrounding states got under way, a team of toxicologists from the University of Pennsylvania is leading a national effort to study the health effects of fracking.
The university’s Center of Excellence in Environmental Toxicology has organized a working group with researchers at other top universities including Columbia, Johns Hopkins and the University of North Carolina to investigate and analyze reports of nausea, headaches, breathing difficulties and other ills from people who live near natural gas drilling sites, compressor stations or wastewater pits.
The aim is to bring academic discipline to the unresolved national debate, which pits an industry that denies any link between fracking and environmental contamination against those who assert that fracking poisons air and water with natural and man-made chemicals that can cause cancer, birth defects and other illnesses.
“There is an enormous amount of rhetoric on both sides,” said Trevor M. Penning, head of the Penn toxicology center and the driving force behind the Environmental Health Sciences Core Center Hydrofracking Working Group. “We felt that because we are situated in Pennsylvania, we had a duty to get on top of what was known and what was not known.”
Dr. Penning has asked 17 centers affiliated with the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences to take part in different aspects of research on the health effects of fracking. Ten have so far accepted, he said in an interview.
Among the questions to be answered, Dr. Penning said, is the toxicity of the “flowback” water that emerges from gas wells, which contains a mix of man-made and naturally occurring chemicals. The drilling technique forces a mixture of water, sand and chemicals at high pressure a mile or more underground to fracture shale formations and release the natural gas – mainly methane.
Determining whether flowback water or fracking fluid is dangerous to health is challenging if the chemicals and their combinations are not fully disclosed, he said. The teams will also look at whether air quality is dangerously affected by the flaring of waste gases, and whether the industry’s extensive use of diesel fuel for trucks, drills and compressor stations is polluting the air near gas installations to unhealthy levels.
“We don’t know if the levels we are dealing with are hazardous,” he said. “We think it’s unsafe, but we don’t know it’s unsafe.”
The first project, based on work at Penn, surveyed residents in the Marcellus Shale regions of Pennsylvania about their health symptoms and whether they believed their symptoms were related to local gas drilling. Results are expected to be published in mid-February.
Future projects, which depend on obtaining financing from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, would include working with a cancer center at the University of Texas to compare the heavily drilled Barnett Shale in that state with the Marcellus and to determine whether state laws on gas drilling have taken public health into consideration.
Also awaiting financing is a plan to use a Harvard University mapping tool to correlate natural gas installations with reports of sickness and a proposal to study the health outcomes of targeted populations by examining billing data from insurance companies.
Dr. Penning said the planned research projects would not duplicate the continuing work of the federal Environmental Protection Agency, which is conducting its own research into whether fracking contaminates water supplies. That study is not explicitly focused on the health effects of any contamination, he said.
Asked why academics are only now proposing a systematic study of fracking’s health effects about five years after the shale boom began in earnest in Pennsylvania, Dr. Penning replied, “Politics.”
With a strongly pro-industry administration led by Pennsylvania’s Republican governor, Tom Corbett, and a Republican-controlled legislature that has recently approved a gas-drilling law friendly to industry, state financing has not been available for research into whether drilling activities have negative health effects, Dr. Penning said.
“Academia can only do work if there’s funding to do that work,” he said.
The projects may guide industry and government worldwide in developing shale gas reserves, which are expected to become a major global energy source.
“The Marcellus Shale is a microcosm of what’s going on across the globe,” Dr. Penning said.
|
<urn:uuid:ff0dcc06-c676-4743-a722-b9a6f7804e59>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/01/21/taking-a-harder-look-at-fracking-and-health/?ref=universityofpennsylvania
|
2013-05-22T00:35:56Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00052-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.949902
| 959
|
Credit: NASA/CXC/MIT/L.Lopez et al.
Fifty score years ago, or thereabouts, the thermonuclear furnace at the heart of a very massive star tested whether that star, or any star, so conceived and so created, could long endure. It could not. The ensuing explosion ripped through the Milky Way in a titanic fireball, leaving behind a strange, barrel-shaped remnant known as W49b, and not much else. Astronomers have searched in vain to see if a neutron star or pulsar was left behind as the cinder of the stellar core, as has been seen in other supernova remnants (most notably the Crab Nebula). In an X-ray image (shown above, obtained by the Chandra X-ray observatory) astronomers were able to measure the distribution of the nuclear material thrown out by the blast. Oddly enough, this material was spread out in a noticeably asymmetric way, with iron atoms (shown in purple in the above image) found in only half of the remnant, while lighter silicon atoms (shown in blue) were spread throughout. This strange distribution, and the barrel-shaped nature of the nebula, suggests that the exploding star was extremely massive, with a very strong stellar wind, enhanced along the rotational axis of the star. The explosion of such an object should have produced a bright burst of gamma-rays, and should have left behind a wrinkle in spacetime called a black hole. Astronomers have here dedicated themselves to the great task of unraveling the formation and eventual death of such stars, how they explode and pollute their environments in the unfinished work of cosmic chemical enrichment. With new observations, we highly resolve the remains of these honored dead stars, and help astronomers understand how the complex chemicals so created and so distributed give rise to new stellar generations, ensuring that systems of the stars, by the stars and for the stars shall not totally perish from the Galaxy.
Published: February 18, 2013
HEA Dictionary * Archive
* Search HEAPOW
* Other Languages
* HEAPOW on Facebook
* Download all Images
Each week the HEASARC
brings you new, exciting and beautiful images from X-ray and Gamma ray
astronomy. Check back each week and be sure to check out the HEAPOW archive!
Page Author: Dr. Michael F. Corcoran
Last modified Monday, 25-Feb-2013 07:10:25 EST
|
<urn:uuid:4d6b3c8a-6547-4a2e-8269-ea4b829f0fe1>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/objects/heapow/archive/nebulae/w49b_chandra.html
|
2013-05-21T17:17:53Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00002-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.938173
| 505
|
Less than Chuban: Japanese Miniature Woodblock
Japanese homemade paper, although varying among different
paper makers, was generally made in a size referred to as o-obosho. The most common size for Japanese woodblock prints is
referred to as oban, which is approximately 10.7 x 15 .6 inches, or half the size of an o-obosho sheet. Other formats derive
from divisions of the o-ohosho sheet, as well as a several other large standards. However, paper sizes varied from era to
era, and even within the same time period. Presently, paper makers may use the same terms in reference to slightly different
Although some authors have used the term miniature in reference to surimono, small prints (frequently
kaku-surimono or shikishiban in size) privately published for exchange within poetry circles, no tradition exists that definitively
demarcates a size at which point a print is considered miniature. For the purpose of this discussion, miniature prints are
defined as those that are smaller than chuban, a print size approximately half that of oban. This designation seems appropriate
since chuban and the larger oban format are the most prevalent sizes in print production. Table one includes examples of some
smaller print dimensions.
Table 1. Small Prints Sizes
7 x 8
Kaku-Surimono 7 x 8.5
Koban 6.75 x 9
8 x 9
Sho-tanzaku 3.75 x 10
Yatsugiri-ban 3.75 x 5
5.1 x 6.7 inches
Oban prints were generally printed directly from oban-sized paper. Smaller prints, including chuban
prints and miniatures were generally printed as more than one print to an oban, or other larger sized sheet of paper, and
then cut apart. In most cases, different designs were printed together. However, for some very small designs, examples exist
of multiple identical images printed on the same sheet. In these cases, minor differences can be noted from image to image
since the designs were carved more than once.
The production of a Japanese woodblock print in the ukiyo-e
tradition was a collaborative process involving at least four individuals:
1. A publisher commissioned an artist for
a print design, often suggesting the theme based on his perception of the market at the time.
2. The artist drew a design
with black ink onto thin paper and indicated the colors intended for different areas of the design.
3. Carvers pasted
the artist’s image onto cherry wood. Excess wood was then carved out between the lines of the drawing. Multiple black on white
prints from the resulting image were produced and pasted onto additional blocks of cherry wood. One block was then carved
for each intended color, removing the wood for all but the region for the specific color.
4. Expert printers inked the
blocks, and in a sequential process built up the final image by passing a sheet of paper from block to block and rubbing each
color into the paper with a circular tool called a baren. Often the printers experimented with different color combinations
which may, or may not, have been under the direction of the publisher or artist.
As the ukiyo-e tradition faded in
the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, the print making collaborative also changed. Although some prints were still
commissioned and produced in the traditional manner, the publishers of shin hanga, or “new prints”, established new approaches
to the production of prints. These prints were mostly marketed for foreign tourists who had shown interest in the older woodblock
prints following the opening of the historically secluded Japan. This new marketing strategy often accounts for the idealistic
depictions of old Japan despite a country now yearning for industrial and westernized development.
Shin hanga artists
more typically produced a painting from which the publisher then had reproduced in the woodblock medium. This break with tradition
would cause little concern for most Japanese, since prints were, in contrast to the Western view, generally considered reproductions
rather than original works of art. Later, with the development of the sosaka hanga (creative prints) movement, many artists
chose to carve their own blocks, which they then had printed or printed themselves. These differences in print production
are not merely technical points, but important to any discussion of how to consider the originality of a miniature print along
a spectrum of different types of production.
With the advent of shin hanga, publishers often produced miniature images
of artist’s larger print designs. It is likely that the artist was no longer involved with print production when a larger
design was miniaturized. Smaller formats necessitated some simplification of the original images. In the case of many shin
hanga prints, simplification had already occurred, as an original painting had been adapted to the print medium. With further
miniaturization, the print moved a step further from the artist’s brush. Yet the carving and printing were not compromised.
Indeed, one could argue that an additional level of skill was required for a miniature print to favorably impact the viewer.
The delicacy of carving, and the use of such advanced printed techniques as karazuri (embossing), bokashi (gradation of color),
and the addition of metallic powders, are testament to the care and skill applied to miniature print production, and argues
against the view of miniatures as merely reproductions. However, it is inevitable that miniaturization at times changed the
essence of a print design. For example, the rendering of a larger shin hanga print into a miniature often changes the feel
of the print to be somewhat more reminiscent of ukiyo-e with a greater emphasis on simple lines and a more limited pallet.
Many miniature prints were produced as gift-card inserts. These were usually in yatsuguri-ban size but some artist,
most notably Hiroaki Shotei, designed even smaller prints for enclosures. Shotei’s prints stand out in that most of the small
images were created specifically for the amazing 2 1/8” by 3 1/16” size and, for the most part, do not represent miniaturization
of larger images. The only woodblock prints that appear to have been regularly produced in smaller formats than these were
those meant for matchbox covers. These latter prints are only 1 3/8” by 2 1/8” and often depict simple designs more reminiscent
of comics than fine art. However, occasionally even these are quite finely produced with such deluxe printing techniques as
the addition of metal pigments and mica.
Miniature prints do not appear to have been delegated to a different standard
of print production or importance, particularly in the eyes of the savvy publishers of shin hanga. To emphasize the important
role that miniature Japanese woodblock prints played, it should be noted that it was an emphasis on the production of “postcard”
sized prints by such famous artist’s as Kawase Hasui (1883-1957) that helped the great publisher Watanabe revitalize his business
after it burned to the ground, woodblocks and all, in the great Kanto earthquake of 1923. Although the descriptor ‘postcard”
is applied to these yatsugiri-ban sized prints, these were usually intended as card inserts rather than postcards. However,
postcards were also frequently printed by woodblock technique.
The Japanese postcard made it’s debue in December 1873,
one year and nine months after the establishment of the Japanese postal service. The first postcards were government issued
and very plain in appearance. In 1900, a change in the law allowed for the private production of postcards with the resultant
opportunity to explore this medium in artistic ways. Hand painted and woodblock printed postcards appeared on the scene but
by 1910 other printing techniques took dominance. Still some artists and publishers continued to print with the traditional
woodblock techniques. Many were purchased as souveniers and mailed of carried back home by foreign visitors. These prints
covered a variety of topics. Some reproduced in miniature established ukiyo-e classics such as prints of Utemaro, Shunco,
and Hiroshige. Others were designed by contemporary Meiji artists and share stylistic similarities with the Kuchi-e prints
of the day.
Koban sized prints leant themselves particularly well for book covers and page illustrations.
and other miniature formats were also a popular size for shunga, erotic images, which were produced either as single sheets
or as pages of a “pillow book.”
Another variety of prints, that were well suited for the miniature format, were senshafuda
(or Senja fuda),“thousand shrine cards”. Senshafuda are slips of paper bearing the names of people or businesses which are
pasted to the walls and pillars of shrines for the purpose of bringing good fortune to the person or group inscribed on the
card. More elaborate senshafuda were printed by woodblock with diverse graphic designs for the sole purpose of exchange and
collecting by members of senshafuda societies. Members of these societies engaged in two main activities. First they would
travel from shrine to shrine to affix simple senshafuda to the shrine walls and columns. They would also hold monthly meetings
(kokainkai) to exchange more elaborate senshafuda ,which were privately commissioned by the group and not for sale to the
general public. To indicate this designation, a convention of adding borders with indentations around the senshafuda was introduced.
The standard for the width of indentation size, “icchou fuda”, was established in 1887 and corresponded to one-sixteenth of
a double oban sheet of Japanese paper. Senshafuda that are double this width are referred to as "nicchou fuda". In some cases
the artist’s seal is found in the design and, occasionally, the carver is also identified. However, more often the artist
is not known.
Kuchi-e, literally “mouth pictures,” are named for their position of insertion in the “mouth” (just
after the cover) of literary magazines and novels. They were produced from about 1890 to 1914. Kuchi-e have recently become
popular among collectors. They typically were printed using deluxe printing techniques and are often found in well-preserved
states owing to their protection under magazine covers over time. Kuchi-e are more typically printed as 8 1/2” x 11 3/4” (plus
an additional 3/4” “tail” for insertion) and demonstrate two folds that were required for inclusion in the smaller magazines.
This relatively large size would prohibit their inclusion in a discussion of miniature prints. However, some Kuchi-e were
produced in smaller formats, and appear without folds.
Other magazines also included woodblock prints. Some of these
were specifically devoted to this purpose. For example the short-lived magazine Shin Nagao-e (actor's new Portraits) was published
in 1915 to promote images of Kabuki actors.
Small woodblock prints were also commissioned by galleries to promote artist’s
exhibitions. These were at times miniaturizations of larger prints offered for sale, but some also were designed specifically
for the small format. In some cases these probably represented small gifts to gallery patrons.
It might be easy to
draw the conclusion from the above discussion that miniature prints had a primarily commercial motive behind them, being produced
as book and magazine illustrations, greeting card inserts, inexpensive souvenirs, promotional items, and even matchbox covers.
Indeed they did, but this could be equally argued for oban or chuban sized prints produced in the ukiyo-e and shin hanga traditions,
in that a publisher surveyed the market and then commissioned artists to produce images that would be popular among print
purchasers and, therefore, ensure a profit. However, it is also true that artists appear to have been drawn to smaller formats
purely for aesthetic reasons, as well as the challenge of working within such a confined paper space.
Much is still
to be discovered about the history of miniature prints. Some of work has already been done. For example, books have been published
on the topic of senshafuda, although the information is inaccessible to those who do not read Japanese. Shunga have been studied
extensively, although miniature shunga, to the author’s knowledge, have not been treated as a separate subject. Digital images
are also being collected and documented in specialized web sites such as Shotei.com and Koitsu.com. Yet some basic knowledge,
such as who was directly involved in the creation of miniaturizations of larger images, remains unclear. Hopefully, a more
focused interest in miniature Japanese prints will lead to a greater understanding and appreciation of these small artistic
Special thanks to : Mathew Welch, Minneapolis, Minnesota
Doi, Tokyo, Japan
Ross Walker, Koitsu.com., Otsu, Japan
Paul Steier, New York, New York
Marc Kahn, Shotei.com
Marty Bronstein, Evanston, Illinois
Shingo, Ueda, Japan
|
<urn:uuid:1ae3b783-36cc-4c6b-b91b-bdc79e93081d>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://miniaturejapaneseprints.com/
|
2013-05-20T02:21:07Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698207393/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095647-00052-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.962987
| 2,835
|
BALCONES CREEK. Balcones Creek rises a mile southwest of the junction of the Bandera, Kendall, and Bexar county lines in northeastern Bandera County (at 29°43' N, 98°48' W) and runs east for thirteen miles to its mouth on Cibolo Creek, at the junction of Kendall, Bexar, and Comal counties (at 29°45' N, 98°39' W). Live oak, mesquite, Ashe juniper, prickly pear, and a variety of grasses grow in the clayey loams that cover the steep slopes and benches of the surrounding terrain. Balcones Creek has served as the boundary between Kendall and Bexar counties since the establishment of Kendall County in 1862.
The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article."BALCONES CREEK," Handbook of Texas Online (http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/rbb10), accessed May 25, 2013. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.
|
<urn:uuid:2bfb71c9-0eb2-4a81-b04d-46ae3126421c>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/rbb10
|
2013-05-26T03:39:58Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706578727/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121618-00002-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.914724
| 232
|
Organism that derives the material for its nutrition from the living or the dead tissues of a plant (=host).
Wound parasite: a parasite which feeds on a lesion of the host. It is a parasite with a saprophytic tendency.
Facultative parasite: an organism able to develop on either lesioned or non lesioned tissues.
Obligate parasite: a parasite that can only feed on the living tissues of the host. Does not grow in artificial culture medium.
Strict parasite: a parasite that can grow on a single species of host.
HYP3 on ligne : Species (scientific name), Diseases (common names), Glossary, Crops.
|
<urn:uuid:6cd3e474-1b20-4b86-8340-2fada6435af1>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www7.inra.fr/hyp3/pgloss/6---630.htm
|
2013-05-21T18:00:17Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700380063/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103300-00051-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.86627
| 141
|
Analyse and evaluate diverse sources (examples: primary sources, secondary sources, maps, images, archaeological evidence) in order to locate and interpret the ruins of the pre-Deportation Acadian community at Grand-Pré.
Develop a hypothesis about the location of the Grand-Pré parish church, Sainte-Charles- des-Mines.à
Read the backgrounder that gives the pre-Deportation historical context of the community of Grand-Pré by clicking on The Story icon.
Click on the Virtual Excavation icon and then:
Click on The Site to read about Grand-Pré National Historic Site of Canada.
Click on the Research Question and read it.
Click on the Historical Evidence. Read and evaluate the primary and secondary sources by answering the questions that your teacher has provided. (The questions are also located at the bottom of the Historical Evidence page. You can print them out.)
Click on the Archaeological Evidence and read the What is archaeology? backgrounder.
Conduct archaeological excavations within Grand-Pré National Historic Site by clicking on the Archaeological Site Map. There are nine possible excavation sites on this map.
Examine the archaeological drawings and artifacts at each site and record your discoveries in your field notebook provided by your teacher. (This is also located at the bottom of the Archaeological Evidence page. You can print it out.)
Formulate a hypothesis and present it to your classmates as to the identities of the archaeological sites you have examined and the possible location of the Church of Saint-Charles-des-Mines Church.
See also: The Story ; Virtual Excavation ; Site Report
|
<urn:uuid:34ab5dd2-4521-4009-9737-94a53ec15cbf>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.grand-pre.com/en/for-teachers.html
|
2013-05-22T21:25:17Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368702448584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516110728-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.903829
| 343
|
2 entries found for ability
To select an entry, click on it.
Main Entry: abil·i·ty
Inflected Form(s): plural -ties
1 a :
the quality or state of being able :
power to do something b :
competence in doing : SKILL2 :
natural or learned skillsynonyms ABILITY
mean the capacity for doing or achieving something. ABILITY
suggests having from birth the power to do a thing especially well <always has had the ability
to run fast>. APTITUDE
suggests a quickness to learn and a natural liking usually for a field or activity <people with a natural aptitude
for computers>. TALENT
suggests a great ability to create things and one that needs to be developed <you should work on your talent
for writing short stories>.
|
<urn:uuid:561c7604-2838-4b5c-abc4-58b2e25af9cd>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://wordcentral.com/cgi-bin/student_clean?va=ability
|
2013-06-18T23:17:54Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707436332/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123036-00052-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.918172
| 177
|
Warbling Vireo is a very plain looking bird with a musical warbling song.
They are often found high in the treetops, and may be known by song more
than by appearance for many people. They can be found across much of
North America. The eastern and western birds sing slightly different
songs, leading some to believe they should be classified as separate
species, but they are virtually identical in appearance.
open deciduous or mixed forest during the summer breeding season, especially
along woodland edges and clearings. They can also be found in isolated
groves of trees in otherwise largely unforested land, such as farmsteads and
shelterbelts, riparian areas, and suburban settings. They winter in open
woods in the tropics.
Diet: Primarily feeds on insects in all seasons.
Will also eat spiders, snails, fruits, and berries.
Behavior: Forages by moving briskly through
foliage and gleaning insects from leaves and branches. They will also
sometimes hover to glean insects.
Nesting: Late May through mid-July. The nest
of a Warbling Vireo is a cup of grasses, sedges, strips of bark, leaves, and
other plant material, placed in the fork of a tree. The female lays
between 3 and 5 eggs, and both parents help to incubate them. When the
eggs hatch, both parents help to feed the young. The young fledge after
about 2 weeks.
Migration: Summers throughout most of the
continental United States except for portions of the South, also in much of
western Canada. Winters in Mexico and points south.
Conservation Status: Numbers are probably much greater than before European settlement of North
America, due to the vast increases in "edge" habitat created through
fragmentation and clearing of forest land.
The IUCN lists the
Warbling Vireo as a species of "Least Concern".
Cornell Lab of Ornithology - Warbling Vireo
Photo Information: September 5th, 2011 - Minnehaha
County, South Dakota - Terry Sohl
Additional Photos: Click on the image chips or
text links below for additional, higher-resolution Warbling Vireo photos.
|
<urn:uuid:b8a36ee5-78c1-4941-99ef-fd8cd4910a0e>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://sdakotabirds.com/species/warbling_vireo_info.htm
|
2013-06-19T13:12:32Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708783242/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125303-00001-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.944223
| 483
|
Individual differences |
Methods | Statistics | Clinical | Educational | Industrial | Professional items | World psychology |
Paramedical personnel are included amongst allied health personnel.
A paramedic is a medical professional, usually a member of the emergency medical service, who primarily provides pre-hospital advanced medical and trauma care. A paramedic is charged with providing emergency on-scene treatment, crisis intervention, life-saving stabilization and, when appropriate, transport of ill or injured patients to definitive emergency medical and surgical treatment facilities, such as hospitals and trauma centers.
The use of the specific term paramedic varies by jurisdiction, and in some places is used to refer to any member of an ambulance crew. In countries such as Canada and South Africa, the term paramedic is used as the job title for all EMS personnel, who are then distinguished by the terms primary or basic (e.g. Primary Care Paramedic) intermediate, or advanced (e.g. Advanced Care Paramedic). This approach may be completely appropriate in such jurisdictions, where primary care staff receive more than double the classroom and clinical training of an EMT, and in fact more than those in some jurisdictions permitted by law to call themselves paramedics. In countries such as the United States and the United Kingdom, the use of the word paramedic is restricted by law, and the person claiming the title must have passed a specific set of examinations and clinical placements, and hold a valid registration, certification, or license with a governing body. Even in countries where the law restricts the title, lay persons may incorrectly refer to all emergency medical personnel as 'paramedics', even if they officially hold a different qualification, such as emergency medical technician-basic.
The category may also include:
The term paramedic comes from para- (auxiliary) +medical, meaning "related to medicine in an auxiliary capacity," the military term paramedic, meaning a parachuting medical corpsmen, came later.
History of paramedicineEdit
Throughout the evolution of what we now call paramedicine, there has been an ongoing association with military conflict. One of the first indications of a formal process for managing injured people dates from the Imperial Legions of Rome, where aging Centurions, no longer able to fight, were tasked with organizing the removal of the wounded from the battlefield and providing some form of care. Such individuals, although not physicians, were probably among the world's earliest surgeons, suturing wounds, completing amputations, and not through training, but by default. This trend would continue throughout the Crusades, with the Knights Hospitallers of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem, known throughout the British Commonwealth today as St. John Ambulance, filling a similar function.
The first vehicle that was specifically designed as an ambulance was created during the Napoleonic War, and called the ambulance volante. Created by Napoleon's Chief Surgeon, Baron Dominique Jean Larrey, this new horse-drawn contrivance was intended to rapidly (and jarringly...they had no springs)transport the wounded to surgeons, waiting at the rear. If they survived their wounds and the trip in the ambulance, given the level of surgical skill and sepsis in the early 19th century, their nightmare was just beginning! Such vehicles were seen by the military as a general resource and care of the wounded was not given much priority; it was not uncommon for such vehicles to be tasked with carrying fresh ammunition to the battlefront, before they transported the wounded back. The basic design of such vehicles remained unchanged for nearly 100 years.
While communities had organized to deal with the care and transportation of the sick and dying as far back as the plague in London, England (1598, 1665), such arrangements were typically temporary. In time, however, such arrangements began to formalize and become permanent. During the American Civil War, Jonathan Letterman had devised a system of forward first aid stations at the regimental level, where principles of triage were first instituted. Letterman, with the rank of major, served as the medical director of the Army of the Potomac. He established mobile field hospitals to be located at division and corps headquarters. The United States Army had reeled from inefficient treatment of casualties, in part because of the adoption of new firearm technology such as breech-loadingrifles and Minié ball systems. Letterman established mobile field hospitals to be located at division and corps headquarters. This was all connected by an efficient ambulance corps, established by Letterman in August 1862, under the control of medical staff instead of the Quartermaster Department. Letterman also arranged an efficient system for the distribution of medical supplies. His system was adopted by other Union armies and was eventually officially established as the medical procedure for the entirety of the United States' armies by an Act of Congress in March 1864. Following the American Civil War, some veterans began to attempt to apply what had they had seen on the battlefield to their own communities, through the creation of volunteer life-saving squads and ambulance corps. This translation to civilian use did not occur in the same way everywhere; in Britain, early civilian ambulances were often operated by the local hospital or the police, while in some parts of Canada, it was common for the local undertaker (having the only transport in town in which one could lie down) to operate both the local furniture store (making coffins as a sideline) and the local ambulance service. In larger centers in various countries, such services might fall to the local Health Department, the Police, the Fire Department, or some combination of all of the above. Once again, the civilian model followed the lead of the military; although there were a handful of motorized ambulances just prior to the First World War (1914-1918), the concept of motorized ambulances was proven first on the battlefield, and spread rapidly to civilian systems immediately following the war.
There is some debate as to when the first formal training of "ambulance attendants" began. The generally accepted belief is that this occurred in the United States, at Roanoke, Virginia, with the Roanoke Life Saving and First Aid Crew, under Julian Stanley Wise, in 1928. While this may have been true of the U.S., Canadian records indicate the members of the Toronto Police Ambulance Service received a mandatory five days of training, conducted by St. John, as early as 1889 , and well developed printed manuals, clearly beyond the scope of simple first aid, were present in England even earlier. In terms of advanced skills, it is known that, once again, the military led the way. During the Second World War (1939-1945) and the Korean Conflict, battlefield 'medics' were administering painkilling narcotics by injection, as emergency procedures, and 'pharmacists' mates' on warships without physicians were permitted to do even more. Korea also marked the first widespread use of helicopters to evacuate the wounded from forward positions to medical units, coining the phrase 'medevac'. These innovations would not find their way into the civilian sphere for nearly twenty more years.
By the early 1960s experiments in improving care had begun in some civilian centres. The first such experiment involved the provision of pre-hospital cardiac care by physicians in Belfast, Northern Ireland, in 1966 . This was repeated in Toronto, Canada in 1968, using a single ambulance called Cardiac One, staffed by a regular ambulance crew, plus a hospital intern, who was tasked with performing the advanced procedures. While both of these experiments had certain levels of success, technology had not yet reached the required level (the Toronto 'portable' defibrillator/heart monitor was powered by lead-acid car batteries and weighed nearly 100 lbs.). The required telemetry and miniaturization technologies already existed in the military, and particularly in the space program, but it would take several more years before they found their way to civilian applications. In North America, physicians were judged to be too expensive to be used in the pre-hospital setting, although such intiatives were implemented, and in some cases still operate, in the United Kingdom, Europe, and Latin America.
Around 1966 in a published report entitled "Accidental Death and Disability: The Neglected Disease of Modern Society", (known in EMS trade as the White Paper) medical researchers began to reveal, to their astonishment, that soldiers who were seriously wounded on the battlefields of Vietnam had a better survival rate than those individuals who were seriously injured in motor vehicle accidents on California freeways. Early research attributed these differences in outcome to a number of factors, including comprehensive trauma care, rapid transport to designated trauma facilities, and a new type of medical corpsman, one who was trained to perform certain critical advanced medical procedures such as fluid replacement and airway management, which allowed the victim to survive the journey to definitive care. As a result, a series of grand experiments began in the United States. Almost simultaneously, and completely independent from one another, experimental programs began in three U.S. centers; Miami, Florida, Seattle, Washington, and Los Angeles, California. Each was aimed at determining the effectiveness of using firefighters to perform many of these same advanced medical skills in the pre-hospital setting in the civilian world. Many in the senior administration of the Fire Departments were initially quite opposed to this concept of 'firemen giving needles', and actively resisted and attempted to cancel pilot programs more than once.
In a curious example of 'life imitating art' a television producer, working for producer Jack Webb, of Dragnet and Adam-12 fame, happened to be in Los Angeles' UCLA Harbor Medical Center, doing background research for a proposed new TV show about doctors, when he happened to encounter these 'firemen who spoke like doctors and worked with them'. This novel idea would eventually evolve into the Emergency! television series, which ran from 1972-1977, portraying the exploits of a new group called 'paramedics'. The show captured the imagination of emergency services personnel, the medical community, and the general public. When the show first aired in 1972, there were exactly 6 paramedic units operating in 3 pilot programs (Miami, Los Angeles, Seattle) in the whole of the United States. No one had ever heard the term 'paramedic'; indeed, it is reported that one of the show's actors was initially concerned that the 'para' part of the term might involve jumping out of airplanes! By the time the program ended production in 1977, there were paramedics operating in every state. The show's technical advisor was a pioneer of paramedicine, James O. Page, then a Battalion Chief responsible for the Los Angeles County Fire Department 'paramedic' program, but who would go on to help establish other paramedic programs in the U.S., and to become the founding publisher of the Journal of Emergency Medical Services (JEMS).
Throughout the 1970s and 80s, the field continued to evolve, although in large measure, on a local level. In the broader scheme of things the term 'ambulance service' was replaced by 'emergency medical service' in order to reflect the change from a transportation system to a system which provided actual medical care. The training, knowledge base, and skill sets of both Paramedics and Emergency Medical Technicians (both competed for the job title, and 'EMT-Paramedic' was a common compromise) were typically determined by what local medical directors were comfortable with, what it was felt that the community needed, and what could actually be afforded. There were also tremendous local differences in the amount and type of training required, and how it would be provided. This ranged from in service training in local systems, through community colleges, and ultimately even to universities. In the U.S. the community college training model remains the most common, although university-based paramedic education models continue to evolve. These variations in both educational approaches and standards led to tremendous differences from one location to another, and at its worst, created a situation in which a group of people with 120 hours of training, and another group (in another jurisdiction) with university degrees, were both calling themselves 'paramedics'. There were some efforts made to resolve these discrepancies. The National Association of Emergency Medical Technicians (NAEMT) along with National Registry of Emergency Medical Technicians ((NREMT) attempted to create a national standard by means of a common licensing examination, but to this day, this has never been universally accepted by U.S. States, and issues of licensing reciprocity for paramedics continue, although if a EMT obtains certification through NREMT (NREMT-P, NREMT-I, NREMT-B), this is accepted by 40 of the 50 states in the United States. This confusion was further complicated by the introduction of complex systems of gradation of certification, reflecting levels of training and skill, but these too were, for the most part, purely local. The only truly common trend that would evolve was the relatively universal acceptance of the term 'Emergency Medical Technician' being used to denote a lower lever of training and skill than a 'Paramedic'.
During the evolution of paramedicine, a great deal of both curriculum and skill set was in a state of constant flux. Permissible skills evolved in many cases at the local level, and were based upon the preferences of physician advisers and medical directors. Treatments would go in and out of fashion, and sometimes, back in again. The use of certain drugs, Bretyllium for example, illustrate this. In some respects, the development seemed almost faddish. Technologies also evolved and changed, and as medical equipment manufacturers quickly learned, the pre-hospital environment was not the same as the hospital environment; equipment standards which worked fine in hospitals could not cope well with the less controlled pre-hospital environment. Physicians began to take more interest in Paramedics from a research perspective as well. By about 1990, most of the 'trendiness' in pre-hospital emergency care had begun to disappear, and was replaced by outcome-based research; the gold standard for the rest of medicine. This research began to drive the evolution of the practice of both paramedics and the emergency physicians who oversaw their work; changes to procedures and protocols began to occur only after significant outcome-based research demonstrated their need. Such changes affected everything from simple procedures, such as CPR, to changes in drug protocols. As the profession of paramedic grew, some of its members actually went on to become not just research participants, but researchers in their own right, with their own projects and journal publications.
Changes in procedures also included the manner in which the work of paramedics was overseen and managed. In the earliest days of the field, medical control and oversight was direct and immediate, with paramedics calling into a local hospital and receiving orders for every individual procedure or drug. This still occurs in some jurisdictions, but is becoming very rare. As physicians began to build a bond of trust with paramedics, and experience in working with them, their confidence levels also rose. Increasingly, in many jurisdictions day to day operations moved from direct and immediate medical control to pre-written protocols or 'standing orders', with the paramedic typically only calling in for direction after the options in the standing orders had been exhausted. Medical oversight became driven more by chart review or rounds, than by step by step control during each call.
In other places, the evolution of paramedicine occurred somewhat differently. In Canada, for example, there was an early, but unsuccessful attempt to introduce paramedicine. In 1972, a pilot paramedic training program occurred at Queen's University, located in Kingston, Ontario. The program, intended to upgrade the mandatory 160 hours of training then required for 'ambulance attendants', was found to be too costly and premature. While the program operated for two years and produced a number of graduates, it would be more than a decade before the legislative authority for them to practice was put into place. The program then moved in another direction, providing 1,400 hours of training at the community college level, prior to commencing employment. This change was made mandatory in 1977, with formal certification examinations being introduced for the first time in 1978. Similar, but not identical, programs occurred at roughly the same time in the Province of Alberta, and in British Columbia, through its Justice Institute. Other Canadian provinces gradually followed, but with their own education and certification requirements. Advanced Care Paramedics were not introduced until 1984, when Toronto trained its' first group internally, and the process continued to spread across the country. The current model in Ontario calls for a two year community college based program, including both hospital and field clinical components, prior to designation as an Advanced Care Paramedic, although this is gradually evolving in the direction of a university degree-based program. Some services, such as Toronto EMS, continue to train paramedics internally (indeed, Toronto EMS is accredited in its own right by the Canadian Medical Association as an Advance Care Paramedic training academy).
In the United Kingdom, ambulance services became largely municipal services, with some exceptions, shortly after the end of World War Two. Training was frequently conducted internally, although national levels of coordination led to better standardization of staff training. All public ambulance services are currently operated by regional entities, most often 'trusts', under the authority of the National Health Service. Tremendous standardization of training and permitted skills has also occurred. The English model utilizes, two levels of ambulance staff. The first of these is 'Ambulance Technician'. This role is not a paramedic, but more closely corresponds to the EMT role in the United States. Most services train these individuals internally, using a common curriculum. The second role is that of 'Paramedic'. These are practitioners of advanced life support skills, similar to U.S. paramedics. Initially, many of these individuals were trained internally by the services that employed them, with the step to Paramedic being a logical career path progression for an experienced Ambulance Technician. Increasingly, this trend has moved toward training in the University system, with the entry level for Paramedics being an Honours Bachelor of Science degree in Pre-Hospital or Paramedic Care. Some British Paramedics have been further elevated, into the role of Paramedic Practitioner, a role that practices independently in the pre-hospital environment, in a capacity similar to that of a nurse practitioner, but with more of an acute care orientation. Some Paramedic Practitioners in the U.K. hold M.Sc. degrees.
Today, the field of paramedicine continues to grow and evolve into a formal profession in its' own right, complete with its own standards and body of knowledge. What began as a concept of simple 'technicians' with a couple of weeks of training, performing procedures that they didn't fully understand, has evolved into a career that in many cases (U.K., Australia, increasingly U.S. and Canada)requires a university education, and which is, in some locations actually evolving into a second tier medical practitioner. In many places, the practice of paramedics began as an extension of the supervising physician's license to practise medicine. As such, they were absolutely subject to every condition that the physician placed on their practice. More recently, however, paramedics in both the U.K. and some Canadian provinces have been granted the legal status of self-regulated health professions. When this occurs, the individual paramedics are certified and licensed by a College of Paramedicine, created by legislation but run by the paramedics themselves. This body sets standards, conducts licensing exams, deals with complaints regarding individual practitioners, and consults the government with respect to legislation, policy, and regulations. Paramedics are governing and regulating themselves; the true measure of a profession. In the U.S., paramedics are subject to regulation by individual states, and the degree and type of regulation, as well as paramedic participation in that process, varies from state to state.
Places of workEdit
Paramedics are employed by a variety of different organizations, and the services provided by paramedics may occur under differing organizational structures, depending on the part of the world. In the United States, a paramedic can be employed by government agencies such as the Parks Service or the Coast Guard. They may also be employed as part of a public hospital system; in some cases working inside the hospital. They are most commonly employed as part of a municipal Emergency Medical Service, which may be free-standing "Third Service" (municipal department operating independently of other emergency services) option, or a part of some other public safety agency, such as a fire, police, or the health department. Paramedics may also be employed by private companies, some of which may have contractual emergency service provision commitments to local municipalities, corporations, mines, air ambulances, or racetracks or entertainment venues. Paramedics may also work on a volunteer basis, receiving no monetary compensation for their services (i.e. Volunteer Rescue Squad / Volunteer Fire Department and community response units).
In England, paramedics are typically employed by ambulance services, as a part of the National Health Service Trust system. An NHS Trust is, in effect, a type of public sector corporation, and most NHS health services, including both primary care and hospitals, are organized in this fashion. Service organization occurs regionally, with Ambulance Service Trusts typically covering several local Counties, and with 12 such Trusts currently providing coverage for the entire country. Ambulance Service in Wales operates on a similar system, while the Scottish Ambulance Service and Northern Ireland Ambulance Service are single entities provided by the Health Departments of their respective federal governments. Additional coverage, particularly for special events, may be provided by Voluntary Ambulance Services, including the British Red Cross and St. John Ambulance, or by private companies, but neither of these typically uses fully qualified paramedics.
In Canada, paramedics are employed almost exclusively by publicly operated EMS systems. The manner in which such systems are organized and funded varies somewhat from province to province. The British Columbia Ambulance Service is organized as a branch of the provincial government, with that government providing services directly through a branch of the Ministry of Health. In Ontario, the provision of EMS has been allocated to Upper-tier municipalities (like U.S. Counties). Each of these provides its own EMS, and is free to operate the service directly as third service or, in rare cases, as a branch of the fire department, or to contract those services to a private business entity or a local hospital. In all of these cases, the provincial government accredits the services, and provides operating standards and some funding. In the Maritime Provinces the provincial governments have entered into long term contractual arrangements with a single private company for the operation of their EMS systems. Other Canadian provinces use still other approaches to the provision of service and the operating environment in which paramedics will work.
In Australia, paramedics work exclusively for the State Ambulance Service, including Ambulance Victoria service (http://www.ambulance.vic.gov.au/), among others. Public ambulance services in Australia are exclusively third-service option. These services are operated directly by each of the states and territories. A separate service is provided for the Australian Capitol Territory. Unlike the U.S., Australian paramedics are not typically employed in hospitals or the fire brigade. While there are a handful of private ambulance companies operating in Australia, these do not typically provide what would normally be described as 'paramedic' levels of service.
In some centers, some paramedics have begun to specialize their practice. This specialization frequently is to some degree tied to the environment in which the paramedic will work. One of the earliest examples of this involved aviation medicine, and the use of helicopters. Another was the transfer of critical care patients between facilities. While some jurisdictions still use physicians, nurses and technicians for this purpose, increasingly, this role falls to specially-trained, very senior and experienced paramedics, who perform this role as their primary job function. Other areas of specialization include such roles as tactical paramedics working in police tactical units, marine paramedics, hazardous materials (Hazmat)teams, and Heavy Urban Search and Rescue. Still others work in physical isolation, on offshore oil platforms, oil and mineral exploration teams, and in the military. In some cases, one can even find paramedics working on cruise ships! A new and evolving role for paramedics involves the expansion of their practice into the provision of relatively simple primary health care and assessment services.
Examples of skills performed by paramedicsEdit
Skills by certification levelEdit
Although there is a great deal of variation in what paramedics are trained and permitted to do from region to region, some skills performed by paramedics include:
|Treatment issue||Common technician skills||Paramedic/advanced technician skills||Advanced paramedic skills|
|Airway management||Manual and repositioning, Oro- and nasopharyngeal airway adjuncts, manual removal of obstructions, suctioning||endotracheal intubation (in some cases, naso as well), advanced airway management, ETT, LMA, ETOA, and combitube, deep suctioning, use of Magill forceps||Rapid sequence induction, surgical airways (including needle cricothyrotomy and others)|
|Breathing||Initial assessment (rate, effort, symmetry, skin color), obstructed airway maneuver, passive oxygen administration by nasal canula, rebreathing and non-rebreathing mask, active oxygen administration by Bag-Valve-Mask (BVM) device.||pulse oximetry, active oxygen administration by endotracheal tube or other device using BVM||Use of mechanical transport ventilators, active oxygen administration by surgical airway, decompression of chest cavity using needle/valve device (needle thoracotomy)|
|Circulation||Assessment of pulse (rate, rhythm, volume), blood pressure and capillary refill, patient positioning to enhance circulation, recognition and control of hemorrhage of all types using direct and indirect pressure and tourniquets||Ability to interpret assessment findings in terms of levels of perfusion, intravenous fluid replacement, vasoconstricting drugs||intravenous plasma volume expanders, blood transfusion, intraosseous (IO) cannulation (placement of needle into marrow space of a large bone), central venous access (central venous catheter by way of external jugular or subclavian)|
|Cardiac arrest||Cardiopulmonary resuscitation, airway management, manual ventilation with BVM, automatic external defibrillator||Dynamic resuscitation including intubation, drug administration (includes anti-arrhythmics), ECG interpretation (may be limited to Lead II) Semi-automatic or manual defibrillator||Expanded drug therapy options, ECG interpretation (12 Lead), manual defibrillator, synchronized mechanical or chemical cardioversion, external pacing of the heart|
|Cardiac Monitoring||Cardiac monitoring and interpretation of ECGs||12-lead ECG monitoring and interpretation||18-lead ECG monitoring and interpretation|
|Drug administration||Limited oral, limited aerosol, limited injection (usually IM)||Intramuscular, subcutaneous, intravenous injection (bolus), IV drip||per ETT, per rectal tube, per infusion pump|
|Drug types permitted||Low-risk/immediate requirements (e.g. ASA (chest pain), nitroglycerin (chest pain), oral glucose (diabetes), glucagon (diabetes), epinephrine (Allergic Reaction), ventolin (Asthma)). Note: Some jurisdictions also permit naloxone (Narcotic Overdose), nitrous oxide (for pain); considerable variation by jurisdiction||Considerable expansion of permitted drugs, but still typically limited to about 20, including analgesics (narcotic or otherwise) (for pain), antiarrhythmics (irregularities in heartbeat), major cardiac resuscitation drugs, bronchodilators (for breathing), vasoconstrictors (to improve circulation), sedatives||Dramatically expanded (up to 60) drug list, Note: In some jurisdictions advanced levels of paramedics are permitted to administer any drug, as long as they are familiar with it. Note: In some jurisdictions certain types of advanced paramedics have limited authority to prescribe.|
|Patient assessment||Basic physical assessment, 'vital' signs, history of general and current condition||More detailed physical assessment and history, auscultation, interpretation of assessment findings, ECG interpretation, glucometry, capnography, pulse oximetry||Interpretation of lab results, interpretation of chest x-rays, interpretation of cranial CT scan, limited diagnosis (e.g. rule out fracture using Ottawa Ankle Rules)|
|Wound management||Assessment, control of bleeding, application of pressure dressings and other types of dressings||Wound cleansing, wound closure with Steri-strips, suturing|
Skills common to all EMTs and ParamedicsEdit
- Spinal injury management, including immobilization and safe transport.
- Fracture management, including assessment, splinting, traction splints where appropriate.
- Obstetrics, assessment, assisting with uncomplicated childbirth, recognition of and procedures for obstetrical emergencies, such as breech presentation, cord presentation, placental abruption.
- Management of Burns, including classification, estimate of surface area, recognition of more serious burns, treatment.
- Assessment and evaluation of general incident scene safety.
- Effective verbal and written reporting skills (Charting).
- Routine medical equipment maintenance procedures.
- Routine radio operating procedures.
- Triage of patients in a mass casualty incident.
- Emergency vehicle operation.
Paramedics in most jurisdictions administer a variety of emergency medications; the individual medications vary widely, based on physician medical director preference, local standard of care, and law. These drugs may include Adenocard (Adenosine), which will slow the heart for a short period of time, and Atropine, which will speed a heartbeat that is too slow. The list may include sympathomimetics like dopamine for severe hypotension (low blood pressure) and cardiogenic shock. Diabetics often benefit from the fact that paramedics are able to give D50W (Dextrose 50%) to treat hypoglycemia (low blood sugar). They can treat crisis and anxiety conditions; some may also be permitted to perform rapid sequence inductionRSI, a rapid way of obtaining an advanced airway with the use of paralytics and sedatives, using such medications as Versed, Ativan, or Etomidate, and paralytics such as succinylcholine, rocuronium, or vecuronium. Paramedics in some jurisdictions may also be permitted to sedate combative patients using antipsychotics like Haldol or Geodon. The use of medications for treating respiratory conditions such as, albuterol, atrovent, and methylprednisolone is common. Paramedics may also be permitted to administer medications such as those which relieve pain or decrease nausea and vomiting. Nitroglycerin, baby aspirin, and morphine sulfate may be administered for chest pain. Paramedics may also use other medications and antiarrhythmics like amiodarone to treat cardiac arrhythmias such as ventricular tachycardia and ventricular fibrillation not responding to defibrillation. Paramedics also treat for severe pain, i.e. burns or fractures, with narcotics like morphine sulfate, pethidine, fentanyl and in some jurisdictions, ketorolac. This list is not representative of all jurisdictions, and EMS jurisdictions may vary greatly in what is permitted. Some jurisdictions may not permit administration of certain classes of drugs, or may use drugs other than the ones listed for the same purposes. For an accurate description of permitted drugs or procedures in a given location, it is necessary to contact that jurisdiction directly. The material included here is, however, fairly typical and representative.
Different qualification levels across the worldEdit
- Main article: Paramedics in the United States
In the United States, there are 4 levels of emergency prehospital care defined by the U.S. Department of Transportation, which regulates prehospital emergency care education federally. From the most basic level to the most advanced, they are Medical First Responder, Emergency Medical Technician-Basic (EMT-B), Emergency Medical Technician-Intermediate (EMT-I), and Emergency Medical Technician-Paramedic (EMT-P). The paramedic is the most advanced level of EMT; however, in order to avoid confusion about the level of care, in practice the term "EMT" usually refers to Emergency Medical Technicians below the paramedic level. Official paramedic insignias and laws that designate level of care have codified this custom in many places. In the United States, paramedics working under the direction of emergency medical control physicians, provide the most advanced level of emergency medical care available to the general public outside of a hospital setting. Exceptions to this general statement include those physicians who sometimes operate with air ambulance services, and some jurisdictions with specially trained Critical Care Paramedic for inter-hospital critical care transfers.
- Main article: Paramedics in Canada
In most of Canada there are 3 levels of Paramedics: the Primary Care Paramedic with limited pharmaceutical protocols, the Advanced Care Paramedic with full ACLS qualification, and the Critical Care Transport Paramedic with very advanced qualifications. Several variations to this system occur in the City of Toronto and the province of Saskatchewan, which uses a four level model with Level I (Primary Care), Level II (Intermediate Care), Level III (Advanced Care) and Critical Care Transport Paramedics. It should also be noted that many Canadian jurisdictions do not use multiple levels of paramedics. There are many smaller and isolated communities which, for reasons of potential skills decay, medical control issues, or costs, operate with Primary Care Paramedics only. In Canada, paramedics provide the most advanced level of emergency medical care available to the general public outside of a hospital setting. Advanced Care and Critical Care Paramedics are able to perform more delegated medical acts than any other health professional besides physicians in the pre-hospital setting.
In a number of Canadian centres, paramedics are currently using a 12-Lead ECG to diagnose ST-Elevated Myocardial Infarction (STEMI), a specific type of heart attack. The experience of paramedics from the City of Ottawa with the use of this procedure was recently a topic of an article in the New England Journal of Medicine. Ottawa paramedics were the first paramedic service in Canada to have this STEMI protocol, which is now being implemented across the world, available to treat their patients.
In many parts of Europe a different paradigm is used for prehospital care, in which doctors, nurses and occasionally medical students function as pre-hospital providers, either in conjunction with or instead of paramedics. The following are two fairly representative examples illustrating the differing approach to the idea of paramedics in Europe.
- Main article: Paramedics in France
Paramedics, as we understand the role, do not exist in France. Within France, EMS is provided by means of an organization called a SAMU for each French Departement (county). Emergency response may be through the use of a fire department-based ambulance, such as the Paris Fire Department (www.pompiersparis.fr), or by an ambulance (labeled SAMU)staffed by a physician-led team (SMUR). The French philosophy is to provide more definitive care at the scene during life-threatening emergencies, and a SMUR team, consisting of a physician, a nurse, and an ambulance driver, may elect to conduct the majority of care, even resusctitation attempts, at the scene, prior to transport. SMUR teams are typically hospital-based. Since 1986, fire department-based ambulances have had the option of providing resuscitation service (reanimation) using specially-trained nurses, operating on protocols, in the role that we would normally expect to be performed by the paramedic. In actual practise, however, such units, and nurses, are extremely rare outside of the City of Paris. In France non-emergency and low-priority ambulance services are normally provided by private companies, with no formal requirements for the training of their staff.
- Main article: Paramedics in Germany
In Germany, the closest role to that of paramedic is called Rettungassistent. Although there are others working in EMS in Germany, this is considered to be the only professional role, and the training of subordinate staff can vary greatly. The Rettungassistent is required to complete two years of training, the first consisting of theory classes at the post-secondary level, and hospital-based clinical experience. The second year consists of a 1,600 hour EMS-based preceptorship. At the conclusion of this training the Rettungassistent will have a skill set which is roughly similar to that of paramedics in many other countries, and will function as the crew chief on an emergency ambulance. One important difference, however, involves the manner in which EMS operates in Germany. In the German system it is much more common for emergency doctors (called Notarzt) to respond directly to high priority emergency calls. A Notarzt is a physician with additional training; although no specific medical specialty is required, the majority are anesthetists. The role of the Rettungassistent is to assist the Notarzt in the treatment of the patient; they may perform all of their advanced life support skills only under the direct supervision of the Notarzt. In exceptional circumstances, when there is an immediate threat to life, and when the Notarzt is not present, the Rettungassistent must be able to unilaterally perform all of their ALS skills. Not doing so places them in violation of federal German legislation (Handeln durch Unterlassen), however, federal law in German will normally provide the Rettungassistent with legal protection, under these extraordinary circumstances. (32,35 StGB)
- St. John Ambulance in Hong Kong A charitable organization with
a long history stretching back over a century and has been serving the community since 1884. In Hong Kong, the St. John Ambulance Association was established in 1884.It provides ambulance service,first aid and caring training course.
- Auxiliary Medical Service An independent government department
that trained, committed voluntary medical and health services provider in Hong Kong. Its mission is to supply effectively and efficiently regular services.
- Main article: Emergency medical services in South Africa
All health practitioners in The Republic of South Africa are regulated by a standards generating body (SGB), the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA). The Department of Education has initiated the phasing out of short course training. This is to be replaced with a mid-level worker, and a prehospital clinician. The mid-level course is 2 years in duration, and exits on a level just above what many know as Intermediate Life Support (ILS), but below Advanced Life Support (ALS). They are placed on the Emergency Care Technician (ECT) register. The clinician qualification is a four year professional degree in Emergency Medical Care (Bachelor Emergency Medical Care), and is placed on the Emergency Care Practitioner (ECP) register. The only four institutions in the country to obtain the ECP qualification are the:
- University of Johannesburg
- Central University of Technology
- Durban University of Technology
- Cape Peninsula University of Technology
- Main article: Paramedics in Australia
In Australia, the paramedic is a health care professional who responds to and treats all types of medical and trauma emergencies outside of a hospital setting before and during transportation to an appropriate medical facility. Paramedics also work in the inter-facility transport environment where a paramedic will continue or upgrade medical care to a higher level while transporting a patient from one healthcare facility to another. Under normal circumstances, paramedics transport patients to a hospital-based emergency department, however, this is not their only option. When it is clinically appropriate to do so, paramedics can also choose to treat patients requiring simple primary care or procedures in the out of the hospital setting, without the need to transport the patient to a hospital (e.g. a paramedic gives a diabetic patient 50% dextrose in water).
In Australia use of the term "paramedic" is not restricted, registered or licensed. Prior to the 1990s most paramedics were known as "ambulance officers". Today student paramedics are referred to as Ambulance Officers.
Paramedics spend a minimum of four years being trained and can attend university. At the end of three years a Bachelor of Science (Paramedical Science) is granted (the name of the degree varies from state to state). The successful officers then complete a further 12 month internship under the guidance of senior paramedics before they become a paramedic. Another method is to apply directly to the ambulance service and undergo a traineship which takes a couple of years to compleate. Following successful completion of internship Australian paramedics can choose to further their education to become certified as a Intencive Care Paramedic after four years of experience in the job.
Paramedics normally function under the authority (medical direction) of one or more physicians charged with legally establishing the emergency medical directives for a particular region. Paramedics are credentialed and authorized by these physicians to use their own clinical judgment and diagnostic tools to identify medical emergencies and to administer the appropriate treatment, including drugs that would normally require a physician order. Credentialing may occur as the result of a State Medical Board examination (U.S.) or the National Registry of Emergency Medical Technicians (U.S.). In England, and in some parts of Canada, credentialing may occur by means of a College of Paramedicine (http://www.britishparamedic.org/). In these cases, paramedics are regarded as a self-regulating health profession. The final common method of credentialing is through certification by a Medical Director and permission to practice as an extension of the Medical Director's license to practice medicine. The authority to practice in this semi-autonomous manner is granted in the form of standing order protocols (off-line medical control) and in some cases direct physician consultation via phone or radio (on-line medical control). Under this paradigm, paramedics effectively assume the role of out-of-hospital field agents to regional emergency physicians, with independent clinical decision-making authority that is typically enjoyed only by expert clinicians within the hospital setting. In some parts of Europe, those in the paramedic role are only permitted to practice many of their advanced skills while assisting a physician who is physically present, except in cases of immediately life-threatening emergencies. In certain other jurisdictions, such as the United Kingdom and South Africa, paramedics may be entirely autonomous practitioners capable of prescribing medications.
- Fire fighters
- Home care personnel
- Paramedical sciences
- Psychiatric aides
- Psychiatric hospital staff
- ↑ Careers: Paramedic science - Faculty of Health and Social Care Sciences, Kingston University London and St George's, University of London
- ↑ National Reregistration and the Continuing Competence of EMT-Paramedics DOT HS 810 577
- ↑ Brouhard, Rod The difference between and EMT and a Paramedic. About.com. URL accessed on 2008-07-26.
- ↑ http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=paramedic
- ↑ Toronto EMS Website
- ↑ Br Heart J 1986;56:491-5
- ↑ Le May, M. R. et al. A Citywide Protocol for Primary PCI in ST-Segment Elevation Myocardial Infarction. New England Journal of Medicine. URL accessed on 2008-03-27.
- ↑ Harlan M. Krumholz, MD, SM. Reducing Door-to-Balloon Times: The Transfer Factor. Journal Watch. URL accessed on 2008-03-27.
- ↑ http://sunzi1.lib.hku.hk/hkjo/view/22/2200010.pdf
- National Registry of Emergency Medical Technicians
- National Association of Emergency Medical Technicians
- NHTSA Emergency Medical Services National Page
Health Science > Medicine > Emergency medicine, medical emergency
Advanced cardiac life support (ACLS) • Advanced Life Support (ALS) • Advanced Trauma Life Support (ATLS) • Basic life support (BLS) • Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) • First aid • Pediatric Advanced Life Support (PALS)
|This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (view authors).|
|
<urn:uuid:a168995e-cf04-4833-b6f4-b23e9b5ed69c>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Paramedical_personnel?oldid=134120
|
2013-05-26T02:35:57Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00053-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.952062
| 9,268
|
How The Eye Works
The human eye is the organ which gives us the sense of sight, allowing us to learn more about the surrounding world than any of the other five senses. We use our eyes in almost everything we do: reading, working, watching TV, writing a letter, driving a car, and countless other activities. Sight is the most precious of the five senses, and many people fear blindness more than any other disability. The eye allows us to see and interpret the shapes, colors, and dimensions of objects in the world by processing the light they reflect or give off. The eye is able to see in dim light or bright light, but it cannot see objects when light is absent. The eye changes light rays into electrical signals then sends them to the brain, which interprets these electrical signals as visual images. The eyeball is set in a protective cone-shaped cavity in the skull called the orbit or socket and measures approximately one inch in diameter. The orbit is surrounded by layers of soft, fatty tissue which protect the eye and enable it to turn easily. Six muscles regulate the motion of the eye. Among the more important parts of the human eye are the cornea, lens, iris, conjunctiva, retina, the macula, and the optic nerve.
The cornea is the dome shaped layer that lies in front of the colored part of the eye (iris) that resembles the crystal of a wrist watch. The cornea and the sclera (white part of the eye) form the outer wall of the eyeball. Because the cornea contains no blood vessels, it remains transparent allowing light rays to enter the eye. Due to its curved shape, incoming light gets refracted (bent) and is focused at the back of the eye. Combined with the lens, the curvature of the cornea determines how well the eye can focus on objects close-up and far away. Since the cornea does not replenish itself, it allows laser vision correction to permanently change the shape of the cornea providing long lasting result.
The lens is a tiny flexible structure, about the size of an aspirin tablet, located directly behind the iris. Like the cornea, the lens is transparent because it contains no blood vessels, and refracts light that enters the eye. The lens is surrounded by muscles of the ciliary body. These muscles make constant adjustments to the shape of the lens to produce sharp visual image as the eye shifts focus between nearby and distant objects. As we get older, the elasticity of the ciliary muscles weakens, diminishing the lens’ ability to focus vision on near objects. As a result, there is the need for reading glasses. This condition is known as presbyopia (see monovision). Another aging condition of the lens is known as a cataract. This is a clouding that develops in the lens which obstructs the passage of light. Cataract surgery is a replacement of the natural lens of the eye. Having laser vision correction of the cornea does not prevent patients from undergoing cataract surgery in the future if needed.
The iris is the colored disk that lies behind the cornea and is what people refer to when they speak of the color of their eyes. Melanin, a dark brownish-black substance inside the cornea, determines eye color. The more melanin there is and the closer it is to the surface of the tissue, the darker the color of the iris. For example, there is more melanin in brown eyes — and it lies closer to the tissue surface — than in blue eyes. In addition to giving the iris color, melanin absorbs strong or bright light that might otherwise be too overwhelming or cause blurred vision. Melanin is the same substance that gives skin and hair their color. People called albinos have little or no melanin and appear to have milky-white skin, white hair, and pinkish-gray irises. Quite often they have very poor vision and their eyes are extremely sensitive to light.
The conjunctiva is a membrane that lines the inside of the eyelids and extends over the front of the white part of the eye. It produces mucus, a clear viscous fluid that lubricates the eyeball, as well as some tears, which help keep the eye clean. Most tears, however, are produced by the lacrimal glands. The lacrimal gland lies at the upper outer corner of each orbit and spreads a smooth layer of mucus and tears over the eye each time a person blinks. After a person blinks, the fluid spreads evenly over the eye then flows into tiny canals in the lids. These canals lead to the lacrimal sac, a pouch at the lower inner corner of each orbit. From the lacrimal sac, the mucus and tears drain through a passage into the nose.
The retina makes up the innermost layer of the wall of the eyeball. It is only as strong as a wet piece of tissue paper. Light-sensitive cells in the retina absorb light rays and change them into electrical signals which are passed to the brain and interpreted as visual images. There are two types of these light-sensitive cells: rods and cones. The retina has about 120 million rods and about 6 million cones. Bits of pigment or colored material fill the rods and cones, and absorb even the minutest particles of light that strike the retina. The pigment in the rods is called rhodopsin or visual purple, and enables the eye to discern shades of gray and see in dim light. There are three types of pigment in the cones that enable the eye to see colors and to see sharp images in bright light. Cyanolabe absorbs blue light. Chlorabe absorbs green light. Erythrolabe absorbs red light. These pigments enable us to see and distinguish more than 200 colors.
Macula (part of the retina)
The macula is a round area that lies near the center of the retina. The macula consists primarily of cones and produces a sharp image of scenes at which the eyes are directly aimed, especially in bright light. The rest of the retina provides peripheral vision, which enables the eyes to see objects off to the side while looking straight ahead. Most of the rods lie in this part of the retina. Because rods are more sensitive in the dark than cones, faint objects can often be seen more clearly if the eyes are not aimed directly at them. For example, looking to the side of a dim star makes its image fall on the part of the retina that has the most rods and provides the best vision in dim light. In contrast, the cones in the macula often give a sharper image of an object in bright light if the eyes are aimed directly at it.
Optic Nerve (connects the retina to the brain)
The optic nerve is formed by rods and cones joined by nerve fibers at the center of the retina. This nerve consists of about a million fibers and serves as a flexible cable that connects the eyeball to the brain. The optic nerve carries the electrical signals produced in the retina to the brain, which interprets them as visual images. The point at which the optic nerve enters the eye is known as the blind spot. It has no rods or cones and as a consequence cannot respond to light. Normally, a person does not notice the blind spot because it covers such a small area and the eye makes so many rapid movements.
|
<urn:uuid:b6ab1fcf-8a0e-4a67-bdc2-3d0cdc839766>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.lasereye.com/learning-centre/how-the-eye-works/
|
2013-06-18T23:30:49Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707436332/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123036-00001-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.937676
| 1,523
|
Normally when we hear the word immunity, we think of defense against infections, graft rejection, inflammation, etc. But, what if this defense may cause more damage than the infection itself ? In this case, the immune system shows a certain privilege through acting smarter where it deviates its mechanisms in a way to down-regulate its own damaging mechanisms. This whole process is known as Anterior Chamber-Associated Immune Deviation (ACAID).
image credit: http://research.opt.indiana.edu/
ACAID is endogenous to specific sites such as the anterior chamber of the eye and the brain. The process is considered as saving in cases of ocular infections where the visual axis is easily deflected by inflammation leading to blindness. Also ACAID is considered beneficial in case of allografting as it downregulates the immune processes responsible for allograft rejection. The process was discovered by Medwar in 1940, when he first noticed that surprisingly certain tumors proliferate more rapidly in the anterior chamber of the eye than anywhere else. Medwar’s further studies demonstrated the role of the process in transplantation immunology.
As an example of ACAID, upon antigenic inoculation of anterior chamber of the eye, the immune deviation presents itself as follows: Instead of Natural Killer T-cells perform certain functions attributed to T-Helper & T-Cytotoxic cells, the antigen injected into the eye APCs (Antigen Presenting Cells) that carry antigen to the spleen. These APCs activate NKT cells which in turn produce certain cytokines as TGF-ß that induce the generation of CD8+Tr cells which by production of cytokines such as TGF-ß and IL-10, can downregulate subsequent Th1-mediated DTH reactions against the same antigen.
image credit : http://www.nature.com
Thus, regarding the beneficial effects that can be drawn from ACAID, current research is being conducted for inducing ACAID to avoid graft and transplant rejection. ACAID can be induced by animal injection with non-ocular APCs, e.g., peritoneal exudate cells (PECs) that have been precultured with TGF-ß and antigen in vitro. Such procedure is believed to be a step forward toward the success of transplantation.
|
<urn:uuid:2d1f03c6-938a-4776-a4c3-5a33b539211f>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://micro-writers.egybio.net/blog/?tag=apc
|
2013-05-22T08:02:10Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701508530/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105148-00052-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.9137
| 473
|
Quilling or paper filigree is a lovely art in which strips of paper are rolled, shaped, and glued together to create decorative shapes and designs. Although the art of quilling flourished during the Renaissance, its history may reach as far back as Ancient Rome.
To begin quilling, first you need lightweight paper, since thicker cardstock weight will not roll well. You can use scrap paper of any kind, although specific solids or metallics can work well for different projects. This is a great way to get rid of junk mail.
You need to cut the paper into strips. For speed and ease, nothing beats a paper shredder. If you don’t have access to a paper shredder, you can use a paper cutter (or paper guillotine) or just regular scissors. Most quillers swear by 1/8 inch or 1/4 inch strips, the thicker being less time consuming in cutting.
Once the strips are cut, you need a rolling implement such as a toothpick, needle, or pin. Moisten the end of the strip with a damp washcloth to allow the paper strip to roll around the implement easily. You can also run your fingernail or the rolling implement along the length of the paper to “condition” the paper and make it more pliable.
You roll the paper up around your rolling implement and secure with a dot of glue. Any white glue will work. Tight circles work well as key components for things such as snowflakes. For different designs (such as flowers), you will take the paper tool off the tool and let it unravel a bit before gluing. Pinching the roll on one end will give you a petal shape.
Remember to protect your table from the glue and any cutting tools. A pair of tweezers is handy for manipulating the quilled shapes and moving them around.
|
<urn:uuid:e1ff1012-1afc-45c0-b155-e3bdbb23f104>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.favecrafts.com/papercraft-tips/Quilling-Basic-Materials-and-Technique-Paper-Filigree/ct/1
|
2013-06-19T14:26:14Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00052-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.93493
| 386
|
Reconfigured n-reactors can power space flights
Researchers and engineers from the Los Alamos National Lab are reconfiguring nuclear reactors to power space flights.
Current space missions use power supplies that generate as much electricity as one or two light bulbs. The availability of more power could boost the speed with which mission data is transmitted back to Earth.
The Los Alamos team recently showed how a heat pipe can cool a small nuclear reactor and power a Stirling engine at the Nevada National Security Site's device assembly facility near Las Vegas.
Developed at Los Alamos in 1963, heat pipe technology is a sealed tube with an internal fluid that can efficiently transfer heat produced by a reactor with no moving parts, according to a Los Alamos statement.
A Stirling engine is a relatively simple engine that converts heat energy into power using a pressurized gas to move a piston. Using the two devices together allowed for creation of a simple, reliable electric power supply that can be adapted for space applications.
Demonstration Using Flattop Fissions (DUFF) is the first to show how a space nuclear reactor system can produce electricity, and the experiment confirms basic nuclear reactor physics and heat transfer for a simple, reliable space power system.
The DUFF experiment produced 24 watts of power. Engineers from Los Alamos, NASA Glenn Research Centre and National Security Technologies LLC (NSTec) conducted the experiment.
"The nuclear characteristics and thermal power level of the experiment are remarkably similar to our space reactor flight concept," said Los Alamos engineer David Poston.
"The heat pipe and Stirling engine used in this test are meant to represent one module that could be used in a space system," said Marc Gibson of NASA Glenn.
"A flight system might use several modules to produce approximately one kilowatt of electricity."
|
<urn:uuid:083e8bc6-7e98-4ff5-9004-c276cdb9d973>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.newkerala.com/news/newsplus/worldnews-109229.html
|
2013-05-23T11:35:48Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703298047/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112138-00002-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.905809
| 370
|
What is a decennial census? It’s a count of the population of the United States that only happens once a decade (10 years). The first official count of the 2010 census took place in Noorvik, a remote village in Alaska that is in the Arctic Circle. In the photo above, you can see U.S. Census Bureau Director Robert Groves traveling to meet with Noorvik residents by dogsled.
Many of the people living in Alaska’s remote villages leave for hunting or fishing grounds during the spring thaw, so the census traditionally begins earlier there than the rest of the United States. People living in bigger Alaskan cities will receive the census form by mail in mid-March, along with the rest of the country. Taking a national census is mandated by the U.S. Constitution. Census data is important for determining how many seats a state gets in the House of Representatives, as well as how to distribute funds for schools and hospitals.
Learn more about the 2010 decennial census on the U.S. Census Bureau website.
How much do you know about the Iditarod, the famous yearly dogsled race? Quiz Your Noodle and find out!
Photograph courtesy U.S. Census Bureau, Public Information Office
|
<urn:uuid:0917e23b-b79d-44cf-8724-b1b16fd12db4>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://kidsblogs.nationalgeographic.com/2010/01/26/2010-census-begins-in-alaska/1/
|
2013-05-26T09:34:58Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706890813/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516122130-00002-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.951772
| 260
|
Philosophy for Children
Stone Soup is a day-long interactive drama session for Key Stage 2 groups based on a Traditional Tale.
The workshop engages children with ideas surrounding the P4C (Philosophy for Children) agenda and encourages children to question what kind of role they play in society and in their community. What kind of values are important and what responsibilities do we have as a member of a group?
Stone Soup provides an inventive stimulus for these issues for children as young as Year 4 through the security of working 'in role'.
Konflux Theatre in Education's workshop uses the traditional tale of Stone Soup and adds a modern twist. Using the safety net of allegory, the drama looks at complex issues of community, bullying, and injustice.
Stone Soup -
- Uses Actor / Teachers in role to challenge the children's ideas and provide stimulus through performance
- Encourages the group to interrogate story building (scene setting, character building, motivation etc.)
- Looks at how to present a story on stage (mime, improvisation, movement)
- Gives the children ownership of the story as they work together to solve problems in the story and dramatise their own ending
- Provides useful material for follow up work in the classroom
- Exposes children to the central concepts of philosophy in such a way that they learn how to reason cooperatively, build on each others ideas and construct meanings that help them to make sense of their world
Stone Soup is an ancient folk tale of sharing and community told across many traditions. The story tells of a mysterious old woman who visits a village which had been hit by great famine for many years. The villagers say they are too poor to help the old woman, but when she begins to create a magic soup, they learn that by sharing what little they have, they can feed the whole village.
Stone Soup is a full day workshop for up to 30 Key Stage 2 children.
To learn more about Philosophy for Children (P4C) please visit - www.sapere.net
What is P4C?
P4C is an extension of Thinking Skills, a way of creating situations within the classroom to encourage children as young as 4 years old to begin to question, to think things through for themselves, seek answers to things that may seem puzzling and discuss them with friends who might disagree in order to begin to form their own opinions.
There is already considerable evidence from America that suggests that developing these skills as part of the structured curriculum leads to much higher engagement and attainment levels. Stories, particularity presenting moral issues, are commonly used as a stimulus, however participatory drama is a new way of stimulating this work.
Why not watch our P4C video?
For more information please call Rebecca on 01937 832740 or email email@example.com
|
<urn:uuid:e80fd7ce-ead6-471c-aab3-7d74875923bf>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.konfluxtheatre.co.uk/philosophy.php
|
2013-05-23T19:47:16Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703728865/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112848-00052-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.954535
| 589
|
PV-Tech/Sile McMahon/January 28, 2009
Product Briefing Outline: First Solar’s FS Series 2 PV Modules are designed for use in grid-connected, commercial power plants and are sold to leading system integrators, independent power project developers and utility companies worldwide. The modules are CdTe thin film in construction that will generally produce more electricity under real-world conditions than conventional solar modules with similar power ratings and the lowest cost per watt overall.
Problem: Cadmium Telluride is a direct bandgap semiconductor, which enables it to convert solar energy into electricity more efficiently (i.e., more watts per kg of material) than the indirect bandgap semiconductor materials used historically. As a result, it is capable of converting solar energy into electricity at an efficiency level comparable to historical technologies, but uses only about 1% of the semiconductor material required by traditional PV technologies.
Solution: Solar cells become less efficient at converting solar energy into electricity as their cell temperatures increase. However, the efficiency of Cadmium Telluride is less susceptible to cell temperature increases than traditional semiconductors, enabling First Solar thin film modules to generate relatively more electricity under high ambient (and therefore high cell) temperatures. The semiconductor material also converts low and diffuse light to electricity more efficiently than conventional cells under cloudy weather and dawn and dusk conditions. CdTe permits simple device structures and manufacturing processes, leading to low cost production.
Applications: Free Field Power Plants: Multi-megawatt grid-tied free field applications
Commercial Rooftop Systems: Large grid-tied, commercial rooftop applications
Platform: Front (substrate) and back (cover) laminated glass sheets are heat-strengthened to withstand handling and thermally induced stresses, while avoiding breakage over the 25+ year module life. Manufactured in highly automated state-of-the-art facilities certified to ISO9001:2000 quality and ISO14001:2004 environmental management standards. Tested by leading US and European institutes and certified for reliability and safety: Safety Class II; IEC 61646; CE Mark & UL 1703.
Availability: Currently available.
|
<urn:uuid:ecdffd3e-4413-49e1-bda6-2618ad619dbd>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://solarfocus.blogspot.com/2009_01_01_archive.html
|
2013-05-25T13:42:42Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705955434/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516120555-00001-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.891418
| 449
|
Secret behind bats' long life and resistance to diseases revealed
A team of researchers conducted a wide range of research into bats and bat borne viruses, and their potential effects on the human population as part of the effort to safeguard Australia from exotic and emerging pests and diseases.
The paper by researchers at the Australian Animal Health Laboratory (AAHL) in Geelong provides an insight into the evolution of the bat's flight, resistance to viruses, and relatively long life.
The Bat Pack, in collaboration with the Beijing Genome Institute, led a team that sequenced the genomes of two bat species and #65533; the Black Flying Fox, an Australian mega bat, and the David's Myotis, a Chinese micro bat.
Once the genomes were sequenced, they compared them to the genomes of other mammals, including humans, to find where the similarities and differences lay.
Chris Cowled, post-doctoral fellow at AAHL says the research may eventually lead to strategies to treat, or even prevent disease in humans.
"A deeper understanding of these evolutionary adaptations in bats may lead to better treatments for human diseases, and may eventually enable us to predict or perhaps even prevent outbreaks of emerging bat viruses," Cowled said.
"Bats are a natural reservoir for several lethal viruses, such as Hendra, Ebola and SARS, but they often don't succumb to disease from these viruses. They're also the only mammal that can fly, and they live a long time compared to animals similar in size," he said.
Flying is a very energy intensive activity that also produces toxic by-products, and bats have developed some novel genes to deal with the toxins. Some of these genes, including P53, are implicated in the development of cancer or the detection and repair of damaged DNA.
"What we found intriguing was that some of these genes also have secondary roles in the immune system," Dr Cowled said.
"We're proposing that the evolution of flight led to a sort of spill over effect, influencing not only the immune system, but also things like ageing and cancer," he added.
The study has been recently published in the journal Science.
|
<urn:uuid:d83e26df-5234-406e-91f8-9f74dd83f967>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.newkerala.com/news/newsplus/worldnews-119808.html
|
2013-05-19T18:35:01Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00002-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.971207
| 437
|
Thank The Simple Wasp For That Complex Glass Of Wine
Originally published on Mon October 22, 2012 9:33 am
That's because those big scary flying insects whose stings can be especially painful may be the secret to the wonderful complex aroma and flavor of wine. "Wasps are indeed one of wine lovers' best friends," says Duccio Cavalieri, a professor of microbiology at the University of Florence in Italy.
Cavalieri and his colleagues discovered that these hornets and wasps bite the grapes and help start the fermentation while grapes are still on the vines. They do that by spreading a yeast called Saccharomyces cerevisiae — commonly known as brewer's yeast and responsible for wine, beer and bread fermentation — in their guts. When the wasps bite into the fruit, they leave some of that yeast behind.
Cavalieri says one of the reasons the discovery is so exciting for him is that it's an example of just how connected the natural world is and how humans rely on this interconnection in ways we simply cannot perceive.
"It's important because it's telling to me it's crucial to look at conservation and the study of biodiversity," says Cavalieri, one of the authors who published his findings in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences recently.
"Everything is linked," he adds.
Of course, Cavalieri says, winemakers can add yeast later. But wines would not taste the same without wasps. Different yeasts applied at different times have a big impact on flavors. The wasps also introduce other microorganisms to the grapes, which add flavors to the wine.
"One of the most beautiful things of wine is the fact that basically it's complex; it's made of several parts and it communicates to several parts of your brain," he says, which could be lost without the wasps and hornets.
Cavalieri comes by his interest in wine naturally. He's from a family of winemakers in the Chianti region of Italy. He first had the inkling of hornets' special role when he saw them piercing the skin of grapes during field research in the region 15 years ago.
Insects have long helped out with wine and other crops, we just didn't know why. At least since the time of the ancient Romans, winemakers have planted flowers near their vines to lure certain insects.
The researchers were able to unwrap the mystery of the insects' role by using DNA sequencing techniques to analyze the genes of the yeast, then tracing them to the guts of wasps. They even did a lab experiment to see if hornets could pass the yeast to their offspring, and they did.
Other insects and birds also carry the yeast, Cavalieri says.But hornets seem to play a special role because they both harbor the yeast over winters and can pass them along to their offspring.
You can imagine a vineyard might be interested in pest control — but perhaps it should be careful about which bugs it considers pests.
Evolutionary biologist Anne Pringle of Harvard, who was not involved in the study, says the findings have two strong messages: Great wines need bugs and people still know almost nothing about ecology.
"If you'd like to have your grapes fermented by local yeasts, which I think many vineyards do, then you have to have these insects around," she says.
STEVE INSKEEP, HOST:
Before the next time you take a sip of wine, you might want to make a toast to wasps. Those big scary insects play a key role in making wine, we're told. NPR's Elizabeth Shogren reports new research reveals their special function and suggests that preserving biodiversity might be more important than you think.
ELIZABETH SHOGREN, BYLINE: Years ago, Italian microbiologist Duccio Cavalieri was doing field research in the vineyards of the Chianti region, and he noticed something special about the relationship between grapes and wasps, particularly a type of wasp called the European hornet.
DUCCIO CAVALIERI: If you are looking at the berry and who was eating the berry, who could actually eat the berry were these big hornets.
SHOGREN: Other insects couldn't pierce grape skin. Cavalieri had an inkling that he was observing an important secret about wine. It took nearly 15 years and some sophisticated DNA sequencing to prove his hunch.
CAVALIERI: Wasps are indeed one of wine lovers' best friends.
SHOGREN: It turns out wasps have yeast in their bellies and they regurgitate it into the grapes they bite. Yeast is the stuff that turns grape juice into wine. The type of yeast a winemaker uses will affect the way it tastes. So the yeast in the wasps gut gets passed into the wine and imbues it with the flavor of the region.
CAVALIERI: Since the times of the Romans we have realized that it was important to improve some qualities and characteristics of the wine to have flowers and insects around the vineyard. And now we really know more about it.
SHOGREN: Cavalieri comes from a family of winemakers in the Chianti region, so he's delighted to be able to unveil one of the mysteries of wine. He published his team's results in the proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. He says what's really important to him about his discovery is that it hints at just how interconnected the natural world is.
CAVALIERI: I think everything is linked.
SHOGREN: Those links aren't always apparent to us. Winemakers never knew that wasps were kicking off the fermentation process for them.
CAVALIERI: Yet, if we lose this, we lose complexity. And one of the most beautiful things of wine is the fact that basically it's complex, it's made of several parts and it communicates to several parts of your brain.
SHOGREN: Harvard evolutionary biologist Anne Pringle wasn't involved in the research, but she says it sends a warning to wine growers who might be inclined to use pesticides to get rid of wasps and hornets.
ANNE PRINGLE: If you'd like to have your grapes fermented by local yeasts, which I think many vineyards do, then you have to have these insects around.
SHOGREN: Pringle says there's a larger message.
PRINGLE: Personally, what this tells me is how little we know about how the world works and we're running out of time.
SHOGREN: The natural world is changing quickly because of stresses like climate change, invasive species, habitat loss and pollution. And Pringle says many species already have been lost or may soon vanish before we learn what magic they perform for Earth's ecology.
Elizabeth Shogren, NPR News. Transcript provided by NPR, Copyright National Public Radio.
|
<urn:uuid:641d2648-06ed-4f9d-974b-0f36e3bad4dd>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://kanw.com/post/thank-simple-wasp-complex-glass-wine
|
2013-06-19T14:21:38Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.973614
| 1,430
|
CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEM DYNAMICS
- How does “nutrient” cycling work on the
- How do these systems respond to changes in “nutrient” levels?
- What is the significance of the form (solid/liquid) of the nutrients?
- What is the ecosystem response to the removal of organic biomass by fishing?
-Are fish equivalent to “nutrients?’
- Might their removal be equivalent to “nutrient” loss?
- Can fishing negatively affect “primary production?"
- How do the changing trends in coral reef ecosystem compare with those in other marine systems?
1. Coral Reef Ecosystem dynamics.
At first glance, coral reef ecosystems seem to present something of an incongruity. A healthy coral reef is a diverse, highly “productive” community of marine organisms, thriving in exceptionally “nutrient poor” waters. “Productive” refers to the relatively high amount of “carbon fixation” that takes place in these systems...measurements and calculations have been made to show that by this measure, coral systems rank among the most productive of marine ecosystems anywhere. And this is accomplished in the relative absence of dissolved nutrients (N and P) in the clear, “oligotrophic” water. Rather than being a “poor” system, however, the coral reef is a “rich” living system that manages to have (and keep) it’s nutrients largely tied up in solid, living matter. The standing stock of reef fish represents a significant nutrient resevoir for a these systems.
The secret to the success of the coral reefs is commonly believed to be the “tight recycling of nutrients” in the system, particularly in the corals, in which tiny plants and animals live together in a symbiosis that conserves key nutrients quite effectively. Algae (zooxanthellae), living inside the tissues of the cnidarian host, harness energy from sunlight and “fix carbon” by photosynthesis. Energy from this source is provided to the polyp host in return for exclusive access to the waste-nutrients produced by the host. These wastes (N and P) function to fertilize the algae. The most significant, and apparently “limiting” nutrient in the picture is fixed nitrogen, a critical element in the construction of all proteins. The symbiotic arrangement allows the partners to avoid the loss of fixed N to the water, a process that normally occurs in both free floating algae and solo-living marine animal lifeforms. In larger marine systems, overall fixed N is essentially passed back and forth between the plant and animal compartments of the community - corals have evolved a way to capture and complete this loop inside their own special symbiosis. It’s a micro-model of what happens in the bigger picture, and the same principle applies in the more “nutrient” rich systems of the temperate and polar zones. Plants and animals perpetually passing the precious ball (fixed N) back and forth - it’s a common theme in all living systems on the planet.
It is definitely an efficient plan for conserving nutrients, but the coral-algae symbiosis cannot live on sunshine, CO2 and water alone. A net input of N and P is still essential to maintaining life and growth, and all corals have feeding strategies in addition to deriving energy from their plant partners. The partners have the ability to extract dissolved bio-available N from the water at low ambient levels, and also they capture and consume microscopic prey (zooplankton) as well as bacteria and particles of edible detritus that come into contact with their mucus layer. In short, corals also need to eat to live.
Like many organisms, corals are adept at storing food-energy for the lean times. Under favorable feeding conditions they can become quite “fat.” This is important, since the food sources listed above may not be consistently available. Of the dissolved forms of fixed N, ammonia is by far the most easily available for uptake from the water by the symbionts, and this apparently is true for phytoplankton in general. Since living fish constantly excrete ammonia from their gills....it suggests that removing major amounts of fish from the system “might” ultimately deprive corals of needed nutrients. That’s the hypothesis.
So, the coral reef ecosystem as a whole is characterized by a relatively low net exchange of nutrients with the surrounding areas. How much do we know about the overall input-output patterns, or “nutrient balance” in the system? The capture of plankton from oceanic water passing over the reefs is thought to be one important input route, although this water is characteristically very “low” in nutrients. Another significant input is the contribution of fixed N by the blue green algae - this group of organisms does well in tropical water since they can out-compete other N-limited algae forms, having the advantage of “making their own fertilizer.” As described in a basic marine ecology text:
“Atmospheric nitrogen is also fixed by blue-green algae such as Calothrix crustacea, which occurs on intertidal reef flats in the Pacific as a thin, mono-specific film (it also occurs in other reef habitats in different growth forms). Calothrix can fix nitrogen at the rate of 1.8 kg/ha/day -- two to five times the rate achieved by fields of lucerne or alfalfa. Fixed nitrogen enters the food web through at least three routes: (1) the blue-green algae are consumed by herbivores, especially by certain fish with low assimilation efficiencies, so that the water over the reef gains nitrogen via the fish faeces; (2) in areas subject to strong wave action, large peices of the Calothrix film are dislodged and washed over the reef, where they will be available to consumers; (3) Calothrix releases about 50% of is fixed nitrogen into solution, from which it may be taken up by other autotrophs.” (Barnes and Hughes, 1999, page 140).
Besides the capture of oceanic plankton, and the use of N fixed by the blue-greens, many coral reefs derive significant nutrient input from terrestrial sources. (Although a normal feature in many undisturbed areas, the “mangrove-seagrass-coral reef” type of system does not support all coral communities. Undisturbed, the atoll reefs appear able to sustain themselves very nicely without a current direct route for terrestrial source nutrients. Efficient recycling is the key.) Elsewhere, in the “mangrove-seagrass-coral reef” systems, the mangroves grow at the shoreline, tolerant of relatively high dissolved nutrient levels, very “productive,” and providing habitat for a wide range of other organisms. The mangrove environment makes use of large amounts of dissolved nutrients, also significant denitrification takes place there, so the natural effect of the mangrove growth is a significant drop in nutrient levels in the water. Seaward of the mangroves are the seagrass beds, another highly productive area that also removes a significant amount of dissolved nutrients from the water. Seaward of the seagrass beds are the coral reefs, described as “oligotrophic systems least tolerant of nutrient enrichment.” Mangrove forests and seagrass beds both provide ideal feeding and shelter for a variety of juvenile reef fish, and they are well known to function as “nursery areas” for these. From “Coral Reefs, Seagrass Beds and Mangroves” (UNESCO, 1983):
“The sheltered nature of these areas also contribute to make them important as nurseries. Mangrove areas thus export protein to coastal areas in the form of aquatic organisms that use the mangrove areas for their early development and then migrate offshore. Well known are the massive migrations of mullets and shrimp from these areas. This is high quality protein that links mangroves directly to other coastal systems like coral reefs, seagrass beds, and ultimately to man.” (Bak in Ogden and Gladfelter, UNESCO Report, 1983).
The function of the mangrove and seagrass areas could be described as converting liquid nutrients to solid nutrients, prior to their export to the coral reef....in other words, organic “runoff” is converted to fish flesh by this system. And the “fish flesh” type of “nutrient enrichment” seems to be quite acceptable to the reef ecosystem...so “oligotrophic systems least tolerant of nutrient enrichment” isn’t precise enough, it’s only liquid forms of nutrient enrichment that are “intolerable.” In contrast, the solid, swimming fish form of “nutrients” has traditionally been very well “tolerated” by the reefs.
One other natural route of net nutrient input into these tropical ecosytems may once have been significant. Large migratory animals, like the great whales, that travel long distances to the temperate zones to feed; these animals spend part of the year in the tropics. Not feeding, but subsisting on stored energy from their northern excursions, the whales are in the warm water to give birth and nurse their young. Therefore, on occasion, whales must die naturally in the tropics. If their corpses come to rest within scavenging distance of the coral reef fish, that event must be considered a significant nutrient input, and it is of a type that is natural and acceptable, non-damaging to the ecosystem. And a key feature of the “acceptability” of this “nutrient enrichment” is its solid form. (If the dead whale came to rest beside a coral reef and was ultimately consumed bit by bit, by the organisms living there, the sea water would remain clear, and life in the community would basically go on as before, just a whole lot of little consumers growing a bit fatter....on the other hand, if the dead whale had first been put through a “blender” and then the nutrients were poured over the reef, a rapid bloom of free-floating phytoplankton and an increase in sedimentation and a decrease in sunlight hitting the corals....an unhealthy mess, a quite different result would be obtained.)
One theme that emerges from the story is this one:
It’s the FORM of the nutrient input that is highly significant to aquatic systems. It actually comes down to the important advantages of “SOLID” vs “LIQUID” food.
We are often reminded that coral reefs are “intolerant of nutrient enrichment” and normally “nutrient poor.” More accurately it should be stated that they are “intolerant of LIQUID nutrient enrichment” and normally “LIQUID (dissolved and particulate) nutrient poor.” As the previous discussion has (possibly) made clear, most of the “normal” or naturally acceptable forms of nutrient input to reef systems are SOLIDS. The most acceptable (and significant) form of terrestrial-source nutrient input to the coral reef systems arrives in the form of living, swimming fish that have ingested nutrients nearshore, grown larger and then migrated off to the reef. The fixed N contributed by the blue-green algae enters into the web to a large extent via fish feces, or by organisms eating the solid algae mats directly. The oceanic plankton captured basically also represents tiny solid forms, dissolved nutrients playing only a very minor role in the larger “input” picture of the reef.
What about natural “losses” of nutrients from coral reef systems? Some nutrients are inevitably swept away in the seawater, and some will undergo denitrification in the seabed. Accurate quantification of the amount of fixed N lost by the system in these ways is really not possible with the state of today’s knowledge. Therefore, the annual amount of “extra” fixed N/protein in the reef system -- the amount that could safely be removed without diminishing the system overall -- is unknown, but seems unlikely to be a very great amount.
The other obvious mechanism of “nutrient loss” from tropical ecosystems is fishing. The removal of fish from these systems by human fishing most likely represents the biggest net loss of nutrients. Large quantities of “solid nutrients.” The argument offered in the temperate zones that “the food web can always replace the fish that have been removed because the ocean contains a vast pool of bioavailable nitrogen”....well, that particular line of reasoning will obviously not go far in the tropics, since it is essentially referring to some great reserve of dissolved (liquid, non-living) nutrients. It is clear that the tropical fish WERE a major fraction of the “nutrient pool” themselves. Is it likely or possible that the N fixing activity of the blue-green algae can keep pace with human fishing removals? If so, they would need to “pick up the pace” very significantly, and fix N at a greater rate than they did during the pre-fishing millenia of the reefs’ existence. Have they done this? It seems not, considering the current depleted state of life on many reefs....many will say that’s only because they have been “overfished”...but that’s only a term referring to recent fishing intensity, a more credible argument may be that all-fishing, over the recent centuries of human exploitation, has greatly reduced the overall quantity of life in the reef systems. It’s because we are the “unnatural predator,” the one who takes but does not give back (anything useful)...and that is part of the essence of the whole problem with disappearing marine life today. Mass coral bleaching (death of clean water corals by food starvation during warm spells) is a truly new and ominous phenomenon, and it’s most likely to be merely the ultimate end result of all the fishing that humans have done in the tropics.
Regarding the importance of the form (solid vs. liquid) in which nutrients exist in the coral reef system, and indeed in all marine ecosystems, I would like to elaborate on this point a bit further. It seems that fish assimilate on average about 10% of the energy and nutrients in the food that they consume, and the remaining 90% they excrete rather promptly back into the environment. In discussions of this point with marine biologists, one gets the impression that the 90% that’s not assimilated is shunted back to the bottom of the food web for recycling, in effect it’s transformed into the equivalent of human sewage. But this seems to be somewhat less than accurate, because when our sewage hits the ocean it’s essentially liquid.
Admiring the fish in an aquarium store recently, I became very interested in the question: “why do fish excrete solid feces?” Not a terribly extensive survey to be sure, but all of the fish that I observed, both the freshwater and salt water species, were defecating what can only be described as “formed stool,” which was sinking to the bottom of the tanks. Now why would this be the case? Land animals resorb the water from their feces before excretion presumably because we are conserving water. But for the purposes of digestion in all animals, the way to efficiently absorb nutrients from one’s food is to convert it to liquid form in the gut. So...if fish do not have a great need to conserve water, why don’t they just excrete their feces in liquid form? After all, that would be the quickest way to send the nutrients back to the “bottom of the web” to be recycled. If they did, the nutrients would be better dispersed throughout the water column and more likely to be quickly taken up in the process of photosynthesis. But instead, fish excrete a solid stool that sinks. By keeping the waste product in a solid form, the nutrients remain more available for consumption by a wider range of scavengers, and relatively less available to the phytoplankton. Even the tiniest sea animals, the zooplankton, apparently excrete what is termed “fecal pellets” (which sink). One underlying principle in aquatic nutrient recycling seems to be: “minimize the liquid input, as much as possible keep edibles in a solid form.” This may be a reflection of the low tolerance for liquid nutrient input in living aquatic ecosystems. It appears that fish excrete ammonia and urea in liquid form, both are forms of fixed N that are very easily available to the phytoplankton, and are therefore perhaps “intended” for their use...and the remainder of the fishes’ food waste is packaged in a solid sinking form, intended for recycling at a “lower level” but not necessarily the very “bottom” of the web. This strategy may be an important part of the overall design to preserve the balance between the many organisms living in the system.
The consumption of another’s feces, (a concept most repulsive to us), is a routine part of nutrient cycling in nature. Even carnivores (once we give them that label, do we only imagine them consuming flesh?) are known to consume feces. One example is the codfish in the North Atlantic - they are known to consume seal feces. A parasitic worm takes advantage of this fact and plans its life cycle accordingly -- from our point of view it’s “distasteful,” we hate to see the worms in the cod fillets -- but from the point of view of nature, it’s just the seals putting leftover “nutrients” into the proper recycling bin. And it is just one example of a natural recycling route whose success depends on the fact that the nutrients are maintained in solid form. Many similar feedback loops are likely completed between other groups of marine organisms without the basic nutrients returning each time to the “bottom” (phytoplankton) to be recycled.
Of all the variations on the marine ecosystem theme, coral reefs appear to be the example that best illustrates the intolerance to excessive amounts of liquid nutrients. This intolerance is a characteristic of all aquatic systems, but the fact that this feature is taken to such an extreme in the case of the coral reefs, helps to educate us about the underlying principle, one that is valid in the oceanic system overall -- The form, solid or liquid, in which nutrients are added to marine ecosystems is of critical importance in determining the likelihood that the system will be able to assimilate them and incorporate them into the “web of life.” Too much liquid causes an imbalance and sickens the system, and mechanisms will be used by nature in those cases to get rid of the excess, unusable nutrients. The capacity of these systems to make use of solid food input far exceeds their capacity to assimilate liquid food. This is one key reason why our current pattern of removing solid fish from the sea and “replacing the nutrients” with organics-loaded liquid runoff...just does not work. Too quickly, this approach saturates the ability of the system to accept liquid food, and triggers the “get rid of it” strategies. “IF” we changed our behavior and started to “feed the ocean” with solid food, we could expect to see a far healthier result....
Another theme in this discussion is an attempt to dispel the myth that the ocean is currently “nutrient overloaded.” Reassurances given that “total fixed N in” (largely runoff) exceeds “total fixed N out” (fishing and natural routes) don’t hold up, once the comparative value of solid vs. liquid nutrient forms is factored in. (And beyond the form, the location of the N-input (coastal only) is inappropriate, if it really is “intended” to make up for the fishing-induced losses (significant amounts from offshore)).
....but this is leading away from the main topic in this essay...so, back to the coral reefs. What is happening? How much to we know?
2. EXACTLY HOW DO CORALS RESPOND TO CHANGES IN NUTRIENT LEVELS?
“Too much” liquid nutrient input clearly seems to damage them, the “eutrophication” pathology picture has been fairly well examined and described in the literature. Has the possiblity of the other extreme (“oligotrophication?”...is that a word? -- excessive nutrient depletion, anyhow)...has that one been investigated? (Even if it were, absolute measurements of ammonia and nitrate levels are unlikely to be enough to tell the tale -- they might remain unchanged and “nutrient depletion” of the system overall could still be a reality due to the fact that so many “fish”(aka “nutrients”) are missing. At the very least it would probably be necessary to average measurements over the year -- the lows may not be getting any lower, it might just be the high points that are coming down.)
First, “excessive nutrient loading,” eutrophication caused in reef systems near to human population centers. Unnaturally large amounts of liquid nutrients (dissolved and particulate) run off into coastal waters, from sewage, fertilizers, aerial deposition and sediment/soil erosion. These consequences of human activity clearly threaten corals. Eutrophication is commonly defined along the lines of “an increase in the rate of supply of organic matter to an ecosystem.” One of the obvious signals that an aquatic system is eutrophied is an anomalously high increase in phytoplankton biomass. The growth of macroalgae also seems to be favored under these conditions. How exactly does this hurt corals? Water becomes increasingly turbid as a result, so corals receive less light, also the rate of sedimentation increases as phytoplankton die and sink, decomposition can result in oxygen depletion....in short, an unhealthy chain of events is set in motion which threatens the continued health and dominance of the corals. Overgrowth of algae, and possibly also a disproportionate increase in benthic filter feeders, which can also displace corals and accelerate bioerosion of the reef - these also can be part of the picture of a reef degraded by eutrophication....or at least that has been the commonly accepted thinking. Recent research, however, on the shift from coral to macroalgal dominance (a common picture in reefs experiencing eutrophication) indicates that this effect, presumed to be a direct impact from liquid nutrient enhancement, may not be exactly as imagined. Apparently, accomplishing the "shift" also requires that the population of herbivorous fish be significantly depleted. (McCook, 1999)...so "fishing" does factor into the "shift to algal dominance," it's not effectively driven by "nutrient enhancement" alone.
But at the same time, nutrient enhancement alone does have the potential to harm corals. Olivieri (1997) describes some of the fine points of “eutrophication,” including how excess nutrients have a harmful effect on coral by overstimulating the growth of zooxanthellae to a point where their “uncontrolled” growth disrupts the normal function of the coral: “Eutrophication also operates at the zooxanthellae level. Excess nutrients increase zooxanthellae growth, which, counterintuitively, is not beneficial for the coral host. Under natural conditions zooxanthellae populations are fairly constant and nutrient-limited, particularly by nitrates, within the coral host. With excess nutrients the zooxanthellae population grows uncontrolled and the balance of the nitrogen-carbon fluxes between the coral host and zooxanthellae is disrupted, resulting in a reduction of calcification and weakening of the coral calcareous skeleton.” (Olivieri, 1997)
But exactly how much is too much?
Experimental studies of increasing ammonia levels available to corals have shown that initially an increase results in accelerated normal growth of zooxanthellae and also an increase in growth of the polyp host. Above a certain threshold, however, the presence of more ammonia in the water stimulates a disorganized growth pattern in the zooks - and this is likely the point where the enrichment becomes disadvantageous for the coral as a whole. But a general statement that nutrient enrichment interferes with the growth of corals obviously cannot be made. They are certainly not completely “allergic” to “nutrient enrichment.”
Ove Hoegh-Guldberg in 1994 reported a study entitled “The population dynamics of symbiotic zooxanthellae in the coral Pocillopora damicornis exposed to elevated ammonia” in J. Pacific Science 48: 263-272. : “The presence of low concentrations of NH4Cl (0.2 µM) did not affect (compared to corals growing in NH4+-stripped seawater) either division synchrony or growth rate. Exposure to higher concentrations of NH4Cl (20 mM or 50 µM), however, affected the population dynamics of the zooxanthellae residing in P. damicornis. Zooxanthellae in corals exposed to 20 µM NH4Cl had mitotic indices (the percentage of the total cells dividing) that were two to three times higher than the mitotic indices of zooxanthellae in control (0.2 µM) corals. Although the division of zooxanthellae was still phased in corals exposed to 20 µM NH4Cl, there were many more cells dividing out of phase as compared to control corals. The division of zooxanthellae in corals exposed to 50 µM was not phased. The calculated growth rates of zooxanthellae exposed to 20 µM or 50 µM NH4Cl were higher than those representative of zooxanthellae living in control corals, although the growth rate of both carbon and nitrogen pools were lower in 50 µM as compared to 20 µM NH4Cl. These data support the conclusion that the population dynamics of symbiotic zooxanthellae within P. damicornis are affected by concentrations of NH4Cl in seawater that are equal to or higher than 20 µM, and that 50 µM NH4Cl concentrations may be toxic to some extent. These data taken in isolation, however, do not constitute an effective test of the hypothesis that zooxanthellae are limited by the supply of NH4Cl under ambient conditions, and further emphasize the importance of enrichment studies concentrating on growth and nitrogen incorporation rates measured for the entire symbiotic association.”
Maybe not. But it is an interesting hypothesis, “that zooxanthellae are limited by the supply of NH4Cl under ambient conditions”....since important “suppliers” are fish.
What would a normal ammonia level be on a coral reef?
“Nitrogen sources for a coral include both organic nitrogen from ingested food and inorganic nitrogen in the form of nitrate and ammonia...Ambient levels of these nutrients are usually low: 1.0 uM nitrate and .02-0.8 uM ammonia at most reef sites except for inner bays where measurements are twice these values...(corals) are functioning as oligotrophic phytoplankton. In addition, at ambient concentrations of these two sources of inorganic nitrogen, the rate of uptake of ammonia is twice that of nitrate. This suggests that ammonia is probably the more significant of the nitrogen sources as is true of many marine phytoplankters.” (Gladfelter, 1983)
In the same report she included the observation that: “Lewis and Smith (1971) demonstrated that the amount of C14 incorporation by animal tissue as alanine was increased if the medium was spiked with 5 uM ammonia.”
So, the ambient concentration of ammonia in reef water is generally under 2 uM, spiking it to 5 uM has been shown to result in increased growth in the polyp, and even increasing it 10 times to 20 uM seems to result only in an increased rate of normal coral growth. Only ammonia levels higher than 20 uM seem to result in increasingly disorganized and deleterious growth patterns. This fact has been noted by other sources as well, for example, from http://www.marinebiology.org/coralbleaching.htm , “Rather than causing coral bleaching, an increase in ambient elemental nutrient concentrations (e.g. ammonia and nitrate) actually increases zooxanthellae densities 2-3 times. Although eutrophication is not directly involved in zooxanthellae loss, it could cause secondary adverse effects such as lowering of coral resistance and greater susceptibility to diseases.”
........ The effect of INCREASING the density of zooxanthellae (thereby deepening the color of the coral!) is directly opposite to the scenario involved in recent mass coral bleaching events, the density of the algae is well known to DECREASE prior to their loss by the host. This rather strongly suggests that an insufficient supply of their preferred N source (“ammonia”....stuff constantly excreted through the gills of all living fish...) is a more likely trigger for the bleaching problem. It looks like the coral’s tolerance for ammonia is significantly higher than today’s “ambient levels” on reefs -- not surprising considering their long history of coexisting with far higher “ambient levels” of LIVE FISH in the sea.
One other aspect of the eutrophication problem is the (good fortune?) that it really is only a nearshore problem. The addition of large quantities of liquid nutrients to aquatic systems triggers the compensatory mechanisms that were built into the system to counteract them. (Phyto bloom, with sedimentation, death and decomposition, denitrification intensifying as nitrate levels increase. This scenario appears to be a built in homeostatic mechanism in aquatic systems. And it works, the excess nutrients will be removed before they move too far from shore.)
But corals are dying in areas with “pristine water,” not affected by eutrophication...that’s why the offshore deaths seem so mysterious, and their coincidence with the annual high temperature has lead to the suspicion by many that “water temperature” or “climate change” is the primary cause. Indeed, media reports of the problem conveyed to the general public relate the coincidence of coral bleaching and warmer water temperatures as if it were a simple case of cause and effect. Scientists studying the problem know better than this, but the general public hasn’t got a clue....
3. “OVERFISHING” IS A MAJOR THREAT TO CORAL REEFS
This observation is commonly made today. But exactly what is the nature and consequences of this threat?
How does fishing have a negative impact on coral reef communities?
1. Local community short-term impact of removing a particular species. Usually described as a “shift” in species composition rather than being seen as a “loss.”
“Fishing activities are often aimed at a particular trophic level within a community or at one particular species. By removing either predators or competitors from a system fishing can confer a competitive advantage on species that were previously constrained.” (Barnes, p 242)
“Overexploitation affects the vast majority of the world’s reefs...At a minimum, overfishing results in shifts in fish size, abundance, and species composition within reef communities. Evidence suggests that removal of key herbivore and predator species may ultimately affect large-scale ecosystem changes. For example, removal of triggerfish has been linked with explosions in burrowing urchin populations, their prey, who subsequently accelerate reef erosion through feeding activities.” (World Resources Institute, online article “Threats to coral reefs, coral ecosystems”).
Unusually large outbreaks of coral-eating “Crown of thorns starfish” have damaged reefs in quite a few places in recent years, including the Great Barrier Reef of Australia. This seems to be a suspected result of fishing removal of their predators -- “overfishing” the carnivorous reef fishes. And that much is not hard to believe.
The removal of herbivores is similarly seen as resulting in increased algae presence on reefs: “In the Caribbean, decades of overfishing has led, in many places, to very low levels of grazing fish species. Because of this, herbivorous sea urchins (a nonburrowing species) have played an increasingly important role in keeping down algal growth. In the early 1980s, huge numbers of these urchins succumbed to disease. Without grazing fish or urchin populations, and spurred on in many areas by organic pollution, algae quickly dominated the reefs, inhibiting coral settlement and sometimes overgrowing living corals.” (WRI)
(The removal of herbivores plus the addition of organic pollution are seen as both contributing to the increased growth of algae on the reefs. Entirely possible, of course.)
2. Destruction caused by fishing methods
Physical damage to habitat and non-targetted species. This is a major concern in many heavily exploited reef systems. “Blast fishing, fishing with cyanide and other poisonous chemicals, muro-ami netting (pounding reefs with weighted bags to scare fish out of crevices), and in deeper waters, trawling directly damage corlas. Because these methods are generally nonselective, large numbers of other species, along with undersized target species, may be swept up in nets or killed by poisons or explosives in the process...As not all fishing methods are destructive, this is less of a widespread threat than overexploitation.” (WRI)
3. Fewer fish.
“Overfishing” has one obvious and direct impact on reef fisheries: less fish become available for human harvesting and consumption.
4. Reducing the standing stock of reef fish lessens the aesthetic appeal of the reefs thereby possibly damaging their value to the tourism industry.
5. Occasionally, one will encounter the phrase “corals depend on fish” but it inevitably seems to end up meaning that corals depend on fish to consume their algae competitors and thereby maintain a more coral-friendly environment.
The prededing five points summarize what seems to be the usual thinking about how fishing degrades or damages coral reef ecosystems. But there is one other mechanism of harm wrought by fishing here, one not noticed because of its insidious nature perhaps; it seems most likely that fishing removal of organic “biomass” leaves behind a generalized nutrient deficit...in a system with a known practice of “tight nutrient recycling.” Have we somehow forgotten to state the obvious:
“FISHING REMOVES FOOD FROM THE SEA”...LOGICALLY RESULTING IN LESS FOOD BEING AVAILABLE TO SUSTAIN THE LIVING MARINE SYSTEM?
Is there theoretical or proven evidence to support or to deny this particular hypothesis?
“One of the universal processes inherent in all ecosystems is the recycling of matter. Without this process life on Earth cannot be sustained, as most of the 30-40 elements necessary for the growth and development of living organisms are in finite supply.” (Barnes & Hughes, p 233)
Safe to say, similarly,.... “without this process life in the sea cannot be sustained?”
And regarding finite supply, fixed nitrogen is recognized as most often being the limiting nutrient in marine systems. Therefore efficient and effective recycling of fixed nitrogen is a basic essential requirement for the continuation of life, and scientific evidence for a real balance between fixed N removed by fishing, and fixed N put back by humans...does not exist. (In contrast, it is a simple thing to delineate the exact routes by which all natural predators in the sea efficiently recycle the fixed N and other nutrients that they have consumed during their lives. They seem to operate on the simple principle “keep most nutrient ‘inputs’ in solid form” as this keeps them “in the game” and doesn’t trigger the systemic decompensation that kicks in when too much of the total is reduced to liquid form at one time. For best results, fertilize the phytos only lightly...)
Regarding coral reefs this is a typical explanatory statement:
“High production with very low available nutrients is explained by high levels of nitrogen fixation plus very intense nutrient recycling.”
The understood meanings of the words, “nutrients” and “production,” might be contributing to the confusion. Reference has already been made to the problem with using the word “nutrient” to denote those existing in liquid form only, and how this obscures the reality of how much “solid nutrient” has disappeared. The word “production” can also cause confusion - it seems that it has a couple of noticeably different meanings.
“Primary production” in marine biology refers to the amount of carbon fixed by the phytoplankton, basically the rate of conversion of CO2 to food. Expressed this way, estimates of “productivity” on coral reefs might be something like “7,000 gC/m(squared)/year.” A lot more carbon fixation takes place on the reefs as compared to the surrounding areas. The potential problem is when the assumption seems to be made that such a “highly productive” system can afford to give up a lot of fish repeatedly....there seems to be an implication that there should be no trouble in replacing them...just “producing” more. A lot of carbon may be fixed, but a lot of it may be reconverted to CO2 via respiration of organisms...and a lot more may become rather permanently sequestered in the seabed. It is not at all clear that there is any relationship between “grams of carbon” fixed on an annual basis, and the potential for “sustainable” fisheries yield.
“Carbon fixed by photosynthesis on the reef is lost partly by offshore transportation but most is accounted for by the metabolic activity of intermediate consumers. The production to respiration ratio (P:R) therefore is close to unity and there is insufficient fixed carbon left to support high, sustainable yields of large carnivores at the end of the food chain.” (Barnes and Hughes p 141)
“Close to unity?”....meaning that most of it is used up in that manner (respiration). So only a relatively small amount would be left over to invest in building new fish flesh?
“...the end of the food chain.” -- That is another unfortunate phrase, since it’s a reflection of human linear thinking...of the sort that has gotten us into this kind of trouble in the first place... “The food chain” concept may serve to distract us from really seeing “the food cycle” -- a more accurate image being of a CIRCLE, with no “end” -- that’s really what the recycling design was based on. The “food chain” is circular, not linear! ...Acknowledging this is hard for us to do however, since it is rather difficult to explain how it is that humans participate in the marine “circle” of perfectly balanced give and take -- it’s undeniable that that was the ecosystem plan that worked to sustain marine communities for eons. (We like to think of ourselves as just another top predator, happily glossing over the differences between ourselves, seals and sharks...) The balance of species in the sea doubtless shifted many times, and even the “total biomass” was subjected to natural fluctuations as the planet changed, but over time, and largely due to the N-fixing work of the blue-green algae, a great wealth of organic “nutrients” was accumulated in the sea. The most-valuable N was carefully conserved and recycled to the greatest extent possible by the living organisms. And, any way you look at it, “Mother Ocean” is just not looking particularly “wealthy” anymore...
“There are plenty of high-profile examples of marine species, such as whales, dolphins, seals, turtles and seabirds, that are considered to be endangered. However, these organisms tend to be at the top of the food chain, and so contribute little to the productivity of the ecosystem. Of more concern are the abilities of human activities to affect animals from lower trophic levels, the populations of which are considered, often over-optimistically, to be more resilient to exploitation.” (Barnes and Hughes, p 252, 1999)
There it is again, “the top of the food chain”...as if there is nowhere to go from there, except possibly “up” another notch to be consumed by humans (?). And what exactly is the meaning to be taken from the word “productivity” in that sentence? There’s the myth again, that the creatures at the higher trophic levels are not particularly important to the functioning of the ecosystem as a whole. But the truth is that they were simply living there and practicing “efficient recycling of nutrients,” just like all their neighbours at the “lower trophic levels.”
That quote was taken from a university level textbook on marine ecology published in 1999. Granted, a lot of current literature uses the term “food web” instead, and many diagrams exist of “food webs” which are essentially a complex intertwining of many upward tending “food chains.” Occasionally the “downside” is included, but usually only for lifeforms at the very lowest levels, for instance the “microbial loop” shows a circular movement pattern for nutrients. Usually the diagrams show all the top organisms as “dead ends” for nutrients.....perhaps that’s because that’s the way that we unconsciously “want” and “need” to see them. The fact is that besides feeding off their prey, predators also feed their prey in more ways than one. It was always the secret to their continued health and success.
But the “productivity” concept gets mixed up with fisheries “production.” A totally different meaning, “production” here means the amount of flesh extracted from the ecosystem by humans.
From a text on reef fisheries:
“Because industrial fishing gears are largely precluded, reef fisheries are the domain of small-scale fishers....Production is governed primarily by two features: distance from centers of human population, and population densities and hence demand for seafoods. Many remote Pacific atolls have perhaps never been fished by anything more than a passing yacht.” (Polunin and Roberts, 1996)
By this definition the Pacific atoll reefs are not particularly “productive,” yet they are among the healthiest in the world, with the best developed and thriving coral cover, a feature that should define them as highly “productive.” It is evident that there are two differing definitions for the word, but it seems that they clearly have the potential to cause a bit of confusion. One example is in the assumption that since large amounts of fish have been removed from a reef in the past, that it should always continue to be able to give up large amounts of fish. “Production” of coral reef fisheries has clearly been declining, sharply in recent decades but a gradual decline reaching back much farther is also apparent. Has “primary production” also been declining in these systems? Maybe. It seems possible that it has been, but reefs tend to only have had single calculations done so no trends have been revealed. Another question is whether just “primary production”/”carbon fixation by algae” is a good enough indicator of overall health. It does not appear to be, but that seems to be how it is interpreted at times. (Reassurances are given that "primary production is as healthy as ever," but they seem rather shaky, and largely based on chlorophyll concentrations.) If “primary production” has gradually declined, and the slowing of the growth of corals in clean waters seems to suggest that it has...it also seems entirely possible that it has been an insidious, indirect result of “nutrient” depletion due to all-fishing.
“Worldwide, the potential sustainable yield of fish, crustaceans, and molluscs from reefs represents approximately 10% of the world’s annual fisheries take - worth billions of dollars.” (NOAA)
“...In general, it is clear that degradation has outpaced our comprehension of the problems at many locations.” (same NOAA source)
Two seemingly contradictory statements - how can the first one really be made with any confidence?
The conclusions drawn about the coral reef system in a recent marine ecology text:
“Despite all the uncertainties about the relative contributions to the coral-reef ecosystems of different kinds of autotroph, bacteria, dissolved organic matter, and internal vs. external inputs, it is clear that the phenomenally high total productivity is in large measure due to the combination of a tremendous surface area of photosynthetic tissue (either in the form of zooxanthellae or benthic algae and higher plants), optimal light and temperature conditions for photosynthesis, and the tight recycling of nutrients in an otherwise nutrient-poor environment. The efficient recycling of nutrients occurs both at the level of the coral-zooxanthellae symbiosis and at the general level of the overall food web. Many consumers are present in reefs and although in absolute terms primary production is high, relative to the number of consumers food can be regarded as scarce. Hence food is consumed rapidly and utilization is efficient. A high proportion of the environmental pool of nutrients is therefore maintained within living tissues, so reducing opportunities for the loss of nutrients out of the system. Any such losses are compensated by the slow accrual of nutrients from water masses passing over the reef and by the nitrogen-fixing activities of blue-green algal associations on the reef or rhizomes of adjacent sea-grasses.” (Barnes and Hughes, 1999, p 141)
Looking through this for the nutrient balance, it seems that nutrients lost through fishing must also necessarily be replaced by the “slow accrual of nutrients from water masses passing over the reef” (water which is well known not to contain a great lot of nutritional value) and “the nitrogen-fixing activities of blue-green algae.” Therein lies the “hitch,” since “slow accrual” is all that has ever been managed by natural marine systems endeavoring to increase their fixed nitrogen/”nutrient” content. “Slow accrual” worked to build up the rich collection of life on the coral reefs, but “slow” it really was...it took millions of years. Fishing removals have clearly overwhelmed the ability of these ecosystems to replace their “nutrient” losses, and now they are impoverished to the point where corals are dying from starvation in “pristine” water. This occurrence is a “first” in coral history -- and sadly gives the ominous impression that if some positive change doesn’t happen soon, it may possibly also be the “last.”
From the introduction to a reef fisheries text:
“... in comparison to lakes, upwellings or ocean shelf systems, the production ecology of reefs is not well understood. For example, corals entail a subtle symbiosis between zooids and algae that is hard to quantify. A coral reef has been described as a ‘wall of mouths’ designed to intercept food transported on ocean currents in the midst of low productivity areas, but we do not clearly understand how to predict growth and production in these systems. These areas of ecological ignorance mean that the fundamental basis for assessment, evaluation and management of reef fisheries suffers from serious deficiencies that impede insight into the effects of harvest.” (Pitcher, T. (ed) in Polunin and Roberts, 1996)
That’s a fairly accurate assessment of the situation. But...the “understanding” that we think we have about the production ecology of upwelling and ocean shelf systems, has been based on the idea that these are constantly replenished (and fishing removals thereby replaced) by a “vast pool of nutrients” in the seawater. No so in the tropics, there the picture should be much “clearer” - but our inability to really appreciate the workings of the natural “food cycle” leads us into a major difficulty in “modelling” these systems and “managing” these fisheries. In fact, the production ecology models that have been used for upwelling and ocean shelf systems have been falling apart lately....examples abound, “unexpected” downturns and changes are virtually everywhere...it seems that the “serious deficiency” is not only in the tropical marine science. “...insight into the effects of harvest” -- that’s it, that’s the point that needs to be carefully examined, perhaps from a new angle that has not been previously considered. And the situation with tropical fish and corals provides a very strong clue as to “what” is missing. It has been suggested that a coral reef ecosystem might serve as a microcosm for the oceanic ecosystem as a whole - and that’s not unreasonable. They are as close as we’ll get to seeing an approximation of a natural “self-contained” marine system, so the principles that emerge in the coral reef ecosystem are likely to add insight into the workings of the larger system. Also, the reef system changes should offer insight into the overall “effects of harvest” in the larger system. And it seems now that the very base of these systems, the reef building corals, have been damaged.
The corals are bleaching, the fish are fewer, are there any other recent trends in the coral reef ecosystems? Are there any other parallels with recorded changes in fish stocks elsewhere?
The stories of the tropical fisheries sound much like those in the rest of the world. Maybe relatively lacking in recorded data (it’s hard to find “time series” data on anything), but the themes of a long-term gradual decline to a now very depleted state, declining trophic level of organisms, declining abundance of fish and average size of fish, and declining size at sexual maturity...are the same in the tropics as they are wherever we have exploited marine life. The “disappearance of the big ones” is a major theme all over, and is noted in the reef fisheries as well. This is said to be because we have preferentially targeted the big ones, and have thereby been killing them off more quickly than they can replace themselves. But the explanation may not be as simple as that - for example, there’s contradictory evidence from the North Atlantic where “big cod” are increasingly vanishing from an unfished stock. Might another factor, affecting the system overall, be subtly “forcing” the bigger fish to disappear?
I have only been to the tropics a few times, but I recall often eating fish while I was there. One thing I remember, that seemed to be common practice, was avoiding the consumption of the larger specimens of reef fish such as groupers. This is because the bigger ones tend to accumulate ciguatera - a toxin endemic in tropical fisheries; known for centuries, it is capable of causing illness in human consumers. I remember being told that the spear fishermen did not select fish above a certain size for this reason. Eating the big ones just becomes too risky. I really don’t know whether or not the avoidance of large fish would be strong enough to have an effect on the population - but it seems that “possibly,” this practice should have spared a noticeable number of the bigger older fish, and “perhaps” they should still be there. But they are not, the big groupers are definitely on the “missing list” for the fished out areas. If systemic food depletion is contributing to the picture however, the higher trophic level fishes, like the big grouper (and the big cod), will find themselves increasingly food limited, and this fact alone could account for their disappearance. Has it? (To compare with the northern cod again, records there show that the bigger, older fish showed a steeper declining trend in weight-at-age than did the younger ones...and then the big ones just vanished from the data tables.)
In conclusion, there is at least one more reason why fishing should be considered as a threat to the wider ecosystem. It seems that fish, even top carnivores, play important roles in nutrient cycling in coral reef systems; therefore fishing needs to be examined as an activity that inevitably undermines and decreases nutrient availability overall (...and concepts of “nutrient” need to move beyond the liquid forms).
Therefore, the next section of this report examines the pathophysiology of coral bleaching, pursuing a hunch that the problem might stem from a shortage of “nutrients.”
|
<urn:uuid:0c455f4e-fa3f-49a5-9ff9-c339c4b7db10>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.fisherycrisis.com/coral3.html
|
2013-06-19T13:00:14Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708783242/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125303-00002-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.950147
| 11,341
|
The Interwar Years (1919-1938)
The Spanish Civil War (1931-1939)
On April 14, 1931 the Spanish monarchy was declared overthrown and a provisional government took power. In the ensuing years, the government became increasingly divided between the socialists of the extreme left and the monarchists of the extreme right. In the elections of February 1936 the left won a clear majority. The right reacted with fervor. Generals Goded, Mola, and Francisco Franco disagreed with the leftist efforts at army reform, and viewed with distaste the violence and anarchy which reigned in the streets of Spain. They decided to overthrow the government.
Mola organized for military action in Pamplona, while Franco traveled to Morocco to lead the African installment of the Spanish army against the republic. The military Nationalists pronounced their intentions on July 17, 1936. The rebels stirred by the Nationalists were easily defeated in many cities where the loyal Civil Guard was present. However, in cities unprotected by the Civil Guard, the Nationalists took control quickly, in many cases aided by supplies from Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler. The Republicans, aided by the Soviet Union, consolidated support for the republic, and by May 1937 were entrenched in defensive positions in a triangle of cities with the points in Madrid, Valencia, and Barcelona.
The Republicans tried to turn their rag-tag militia into an effective fighting force, beginning in October 1936 with the creation of the Popular Army, which, while better organized than the militias, was chronically short of arms and ammunition, and was beset by incompetent junior officers and political factions within the ranks. With only limited support from France, and none at all from Britain, The Spanish Republicans turned to the Soviet Union for support. Soviet tanks, superior to the German Mark IIs, arrived in October, along with advanced aircraft and Soviet military advisors. One source of support for the Republicans was the presence of the International Brigades. These groups of leftist volunteers were made up mostly of workers, who volunteered out of boredom, disillusionment, or a desire for adventure as often as genuine political idealism. The protagonist of Ernest Hemingway's For Whom the Bell Tolls is such an international brigadier. However, this support was not enough.
On April 25, 1937, the small northern town of Guernica was bombed by the Nationalists, and civilians were gunned down as they fled the scene. In this brutal massacre 1500 died and 800 were wounded, but the military targets in the town remained intact. As the bloody conflict escalated, the Republican government fell prey to corruption and faction, and support and organization steadily waned. Under the barrage of nationalist attack Barcelona fell, during January 1939. Catalonia fell during February, and Valencia and Madrid collapsed by the end of March. Franco's ensuing rein was one of oppression and tradition. He imprisoned and many upon coming to power--up to a million according to some estimates. Many fled Spain, becoming refugees and awaiting the toppling of the Franco government. They would wait for 36 years, for Franco remained in power until his death in 1975.
One major difference setting the Nationalists apart from the Republicans was leadership. Nationalist, fascist leadership proved more effective at carrying out the war than the clumsy democratic government of the Republicans. The Republican government in Madrid under Largo Cabellero was divided within itself, confused about its identity and ideology. The Nationalists had no such difficulties. When Franco was proclaimed head of the Nationalist government on September 29, 1936, there was no one to challenge his authority. Franco's wing of the army was the most successful of the nationalist forces, and he was a respected and very professional soldier. The Nationalists did experience some military problems similar to those of the Republicans. The command structure of the army had been destroyed by the division of the nation. Thus, the Nationalists suffered from incompetent junior officers, but not to the same extent as the Republicans.
Mussolini had been involved to some extent in Spanish affairs before the revolt, but he knew nothing of the generals' plans. He supported the rebels against the judgment of his military advisors, sending bombers and soldiers to Spain in great quantity. There were 50,000 Italian soldiers in Spain at the height of their involvement, and hundreds of airplanes were sent, along with tanks and artillery. The Germans were far less generous, but sent the famous Condor Legion of about 100 planes, which was largely responsible for the Guernica bombing. Germany also made a great contribution in the form of specialists and instructors.
Comparatively, the Republicans received inadequate support. The French Popular Front was sympathetic to the republic, but Leon Blum's hands were tied by conservatives in the government, who did not want to get involved in a foreign war. Most important was the stance taken by Britain, which was more concerned about the spread of communism than fascism. The British urged the French not to get involved, and remained detached from the situation themselves. This attitude amounted to tacit support for Franco, and forced the Republicans into the arms of the Soviets. Stalin aided Spain in efforts to strengthen his position against Germany, to appear as the defender of legitimate government, and to divert attention away from the purge trials in Moscow. Soviet intervention gave the Republicans superior technology early in the conflict, but the republicans never capitalized on this advantage.
Added to unbalanced sources of support was the unbalanced zeal of the two contending groups. As the Cabellero government slipped further and further into uncertainty, many begun to question if it was worth fighting for. Morale was low throughout the republican forces, while it remained fairly high in the Nationalist ranks. The bombing of Guernica, while the casualty figures pale in comparison to later numbers, was crucial in crushing the spirit of the Republicans and convincing many that to resist the Nationalists was to open the doors to bloodbath. Morally crushed, the Republicans collapsed in front of the Nationalist effort.
The Spanish Civil War is sometimes referred to as a dress rehearsal for World War II. In military terms this was far from true. Both sides were starved for material, fighting with outdated weapons on flexible fronts with limited communication and little air support. Civilians were bombed, but the destruction in Spain did not compare to the assault unleashed upon all of Europe shortly after.
|
<urn:uuid:da32678e-38e0-451d-b86d-77b9b53cb2f6>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.sparknotes.com/history/european/interwaryears/section9.rhtml
|
2013-05-19T19:14:08Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698017611/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095337-00001-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.981284
| 1,280
|
Family farming is the base of Knox County's economy.
A community of
family-owned and operated
farms contributes significantly
to this rural area's social and economic character.
Increasingly, family farms are becoming fewer in number and larger in size.
This trend can be understood as part of a continuing shift in
rural economic values.
To remain competitive while allowing for tradition, family farms employ
a variety of methods for remaining economically viable in times of
market insecurity. Family farms have developed a variety of
survival mechanisms for remaining competitive
and maintaining their farm. These mechanisms include incorporating, forming partnerships,
and diversifying. The character of the local economy is also shaped by
government policy. Family farmers are not only significant to the local
economy but also play a significant part in the national and global
economy via agricultural markets.
|
<urn:uuid:9aa325f1-aff2-410b-834f-ad042b15d206>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www2.kenyon.edu/projects/famfarm/economy/economy1.htm
|
2013-06-19T12:18:20Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00050-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.947325
| 178
|
What is the difference between a Low pressure and a High pressure system?
There are two physical differences between Low pressure systems and High pressure systems.
First, is the circulation surrounding them.
Secondly, is the atmospheric motion that they cause.
Low pressure systems circulate counter-clockwise.
High pressure systems circulate clockwise.
These "motions" (caused by these circulations) are the building blocks in our atmosphere. They give us our weather.
A Low’s counter-clockwise circulation forces air upward (ultimately resulting in condensation, cloud formation and ultimately precipitation).
A High’s clockwise circulation causes a sinking motion in the atmosphere, resulting in fair/clearer and often sunnier skies.
» More Homework Help Questions
|
<urn:uuid:89ac412c-bce6-43b5-8d3c-876c1f9ed727>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.wfmz.com/weather/What-is-the-difference-between-a-Low-pressure-and-a-High-pressure-system/-/121290/184038/-/view/print/-/9d051lz/-/index.html
|
2013-05-21T18:14:53Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700380063/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.916036
| 160
|
- Scientists have discovered the world's oldest known animal fossils, dating to 650 million years ago.
- The fossils, likely sponges, push back the fossil record for animals by about 70 million years.
- The sponges existed before, and probably after, a severe "Snowball Earth" event that covered much of the globe in ice.
Animals have been on Earth for at least 650 million years, suggest recently found primitive sponge fossils from South Australia.
This discovery pushes back the fossil record for animals by about 70 million years, according to a new study published in the journal Nature Geoscience.
The prior oldest known hard-bodied animals were reef-dwelling organisms called Namacalathus, which date to approximately 550 million years ago. Disputed remains for other possible soft-bodied animals date to between 577 and 542 million years ago.
The even more advanced age of the newly found sponge fossils provides direct evidence that animal life existed before the severe "Snowball Earth" event. The episode marked the end of Cryogenian Period 635 million years ago and left much of the globe covered in ice.
The early sponges somehow managed to survive, perhaps in watery refuges around volcanic islands.
"The sponges were about one centimeter (0.4 inches) tall and probably lived on hard stromatolite reefs made by bacteria," lead author Adam Maloof told Discovery News.
"The sponges probably swayed in the ocean currents in less than 20 meters (65.6 feet) of water filtering organic carbon out of the water for food," added Maloof, a geosciences professor at Princeton University.
He and his colleagues found the fossils in the Trezona Formation of Flinders Ranges, South Australia.
The composition and location of the fossils meant they couldn't be removed from the surrounding rock using conventional techniques. Imaging with X-ray scanners also wasn't possible, since X-rays can only distinguish between materials with different densities. In this case, the fossils are made of calcite, the same material that makes up the rock matrix in which they are embedded.
To get around this problem, the researchers used what Maloof called a "serial grinder and imager." One of 32 collected block samples from the formation was shaved off 50 microns at a time -- about half the width of a human hair -- and then photographed after each minute shaving. The images were then stacked to create complete three-dimensional models of two of the sponge fossils.
"We hypothesize that the fossils are sponges because they are large (not bacteria), asymmetric (not any other animal group), and contain a network of one millimeter diameter tunnels inside that may have served as the 'water canal system' used by sponges to circulate water and food," he said.
The scientists ruled out that the tunnels were dug by worms, an even more complex organism than sponges.
Since sponges are now the most basal animals on the evolutionary tree of life, this latest find hints at how animals first arose on Earth.
"Perhaps rising oxygen, elevated dissolved organic carbon and the initial climate perturbation before the snowball glaciation all made it possible for the first animals to emerge," Maloof explained.
In an accompanying piece in the same journal, post doctoral associate Marc Laflamme of Yale University's Department of Geology and Geophysics points out that prior studies support the age of the sponges and suggest that the world's first animals could date to an even earlier time.
"Molecular clocks, which reflect rates of molecular change in DNA, and biomarker studies of sponge-specific organic compounds both strongly indicate that sponges were present in the Cryogenian interval between approximately 850 and 635 million years ago," Laflamme wrote.
Biologist Andrew Knoll of Harvard University further believes that the researchers have "built a reasonable case for interpreting the structures as sponge-like animals."
"At the very least, this should drive paleontologists back to the field to seek similar or better evidence in other rocks of comparable age," Knoll added.
Maloof and his team are already planning to do just that. He and his students perform three to four months of fieldwork each year.
"As we do so, we continue to uncover strange ancient fossils," he said. "Hopefully some will prove to be as interesting as these sponges."
|
<urn:uuid:fd2890d4-d3a3-4485-88a0-734a63704c42>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://news.discovery.com/animals/dinosaurs/oldest-animal-fossils-sponge.htm
|
2013-05-21T17:16:59Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00001-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.962707
| 917
|
This is a perfect unit to do anytime in the fall! It's full of fun literacy and math activities that are engaging too! Learning about scarecrows will have your students loving the fall season!
Here's what's included:
- identifying beginning sounds
- counting crows using 10-frames
- corn field colors (identification of colors)
- 1:1 correspondence activity
- sight word pocket chart game
- ABC's/abc's -> recognizing the alphabet and ordering letters
- sight word search and find
- beginning sounds focus on letter "s"
- patterning fun
- ordering numbers
- pocket chart story about leaves
- find the hidden letter "S"
- numbers and number word recognition
Please be sure to check out my blog for more ideas and to see how we are using this pack in my classroom.....and, of course, freebies!
Mrs. Albanese's Kindergarten Class
Thanks for looking!
|
<urn:uuid:3ed3ba07-24bb-4254-baa8-2f2fc2608d15>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.teacherspayteachers.com/Product/Scarecrows-Literacy-and-Math-Activities-390554
|
2013-05-18T08:50:52Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381630/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.874319
| 197
|
Sian Ka’an Biosphere Reserve
Stretching for 75 miles (120 km) along Mexico’s Caribbean coast, the Sian Ka’an Biosphere Reserve contains a mixture of mangrove swamps, lagoons, and freshwater marshes; it was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1987. The mangroves are protected from the energy of the Caribbean Sea by a barrier reef growing along the coast. However, the reserve’s terrestrial part is between 20 and 75 percent flooded, depending on season. Sian Ka’an’s mangrove systems are some of the most biologically productive in the world and their health is critical for the survival of many species in the western Caribbean region. Hidden between the massive mangrove roots live oysters, sponges, sea squirts, sea anemones, hydroids, and crustaceans. Bird species found here include roseate spoonbills, pelicans, greater flamingos, jabiru storks, and 15 species of heron. The swamps are also home to West Indian manatees and two endangered crocodiles: the American crocodile and Morelet’s crocodile. The explosion of tourism in the nearby resort of Cancún poses several threats to the area. Unregulated development has increased pollution and altered the distribution and use of water in Sian Ka’an, compromising the health of the mangroves.
|
<urn:uuid:ea9cbab1-ed58-49f0-bc8f-298ab528d8a4>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://oceana.org/es/explore/marine-places/sian-ka8217an-biosphere-reserve
|
2013-06-19T06:02:59Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00052-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.914402
| 298
|
Arthritic cane toads hobbling across Australia
Cane toads are paying a debilitating price for their invasion of Australia, researchers show. It seems the stress of constant movement has left many of the toxic pests vulnerable to severe arthritis.
Professor Rick Shine and his colleagues at the University of Sydney have been following the reviled pests as they spread into the Northern Territory.
Their latest research, published online today in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, shows that roughly one in 10 of the largest toads are suffering severe spinal arthritis.
The arthritis is linked to infection with the common soil bacteria Ochrobactrum anthropi.
In part, the situation seems to have arisen because the toads have evolved longer legs to adapt to the invasion, Shine says.
"Frogs' bodies are not well designed for long distance athletic challenges.
"But because of the invasion process, the cane toads have evolved into these road warriors that are travelling every night during the wet season."
During that season, the invasion front advances an average 130 metres each day, he says. For the toads, that means an extraordinary amount of physical wear and tear.
"There's a huge ball of bony tissue that's grown up around the joints," says Shine. "It substantially affects their ability to hop around."
Although radio tracking of the arthritic toads shows they keep moving, the researchers have found that if you chase them down a track, they begin taking shorter hops and show signs of stress after just a few metres.
"It certainly looks like they are extremely uncomfortable," he says.
Immune system run down
The fact that the toads are suffering in this way suggests their immune systems are worn down, which could prove to be a good thing for efforts to control the spread of the hopping pests.
"I think it's telling us it's not easy being an invader and that may well give us an Achilles heel when we start to talk about how to control toads. These guys at the invasion front are doing it tough."
The arthritis might also act as a brake on the accelerating spread of the species, Shine suggests.
"It may be that we're not going to see a great deal more acceleration of the toad front because they're really reaching the point that that's about as much as you can get a frog's body to do."
|
<urn:uuid:93d5e27e-45eb-42c3-8117-08865e2c89ca>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2007/10/16/2057073.htm?site=science&topic=latest&listaction=unsubscribe
|
2013-05-21T11:12:23Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699899882/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102459-00052-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.972698
| 489
|
on Thursday, April 19, 2012
Did you know that eye injuries are the leading cause of blindness in children in the United States? Most of these eye injuries are sports related. In fact, most eye injuries among kids ages 11-14 occur while playing sports. Of these eye injuries, almost 90% of them could have been prevented with the use of protective eyewear.
First, an eye exam before enrolling a child in any sport is important. An eye exam done by an eye care professional can help detect preexisting eye conditions in athletes. After an eye exam, an eyecare professional can recommend the best protective eyewear for that patient.
Protective eyewear includes safety glasses and goggles, safety shields, and eye guards designed for a particular sport. While protective eyewear does not include contact lenses, protective eyewear can easily be worn over them. In fact, all active children are encouraged to wear protective eyewear; not just children who need vision correction.
Here is a breakdown of sports according to eye injury risks:
The National Eye Institute provides a list of recommended protective eyewear for specific sports here. You can talk to an eyecare professional about the right type of protective eyewear for your child and to ensure proper fit. Remember, protecting eyes during sports can help prevent blindness and permanent eye damage. Make sure to talk about eye safety and sports with an eyecare professional for more information.
|
<urn:uuid:66f68f2b-1324-438c-ad71-4a3b35ff5ce3>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://blog.coopervision.com/post/Protect-Eyes-During-Sports-Activities.aspx
|
2013-05-25T20:01:29Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706153698/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516120913-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.930939
| 297
|
Saturday, August 26, 2006
Z+Blog writes about the Eastgate Building in Harare Zimbabwe that is cooled and ventilated entirely by natural ventilation based on biometric termite technology.
The Eastgate Centre is a shopping centre and office block in central Harare, Zimbabwe. The building was designed to be ventilated and cooled entirely by natural means — it was biomimetically modeled on local termite mounds. It was probably the first building in the world to use natural cooling to this level of sophistication.
Because of its altitude, Harare has a temperate climate despite being in the tropics, and the typical daily temperature swing is 10 or 14° C. This makes a mechanical or passive cooling system a viable alternative to artificial air-conditioning. But long before the building was created, passive cooling was being used by the local
Termite mounds include flues which vent through the top and sides, and the mound itself is designed to catch the breeze. As the wind blows, hot air from the main chambers below ground is drawn out of the structure, helped by termites opening or blocking tunnels to control air flow.
Photo courtesy of Treehugger
|
<urn:uuid:c8aacee2-dcbd-4898-b2c3-fba9570db4a5>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.africanarchitecture.blogspot.com/2006_08_01_archive.html
|
2013-05-21T17:10:46Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00052-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.965686
| 239
|
National Institutes of Health
- The primary NIH organization for research on Cartilage Disorders is the National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases
Cartilage is the tough but flexible tissue that covers the ends of your bones at a joint. It also gives shape and support to other parts of your body, such as your ears, nose and windpipe. Healthy cartilage helps you move by allowing your bones to glide over each other. It also protects bones by preventing them from rubbing against each other.
Injured, inflamed, or damaged cartilage can cause symptoms such as pain and limited movement. It can also lead to joint damage and deformity. Causes of cartilage problems include
Osteoarthritis results from breakdown of cartilage.
NIH: National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases
References and abstracts from MEDLINE/PubMed (National Library of Medicine)
|
<urn:uuid:d55b3054-f318-42dd-a0eb-47ac79566e9b>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/cartilagedisorders.html
|
2013-05-19T18:42:49Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00052-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.939868
| 190
|
Suicide by thousands of farmers exposes the limits of pesticide-driven industrial agriculture.
Learning from Bhopal tragedy
It was on the night of December 2 and early morning of December 3, 1984 the world witnessed the dark side of the pesticides industry in Bhopal.
The disaster in Union Carbide unit led to death of over 4,000 people, and it had since impacted about 5,58,000 people. The survivors are still waiting for justice and the government is debating as to how to clean the poisoned surroundings of the plant.
Apart from these immediate concerns that stand unresolved for last three decades, the pertinent question is whether the country has learnt lessons from this tragedy.
Unfortunately after this disaster our agricultural policies have pushed the farmers into a deeper pesticides trap. We boast of record food grain production of over 250 million tons every year.
We also claim to be the second biggest producer of vegetables and fruits. However, we rarely question as how this record productions have been achieved. How much of pesticides and insecticides have been used to produce these crops?
The consumption of pesticides in India has seen a drastic increase from 154 tons in 1954 to 88,000 tons in 2001 and 56,000 tons in 2009-10. Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh, the food bowl of India are the highest consumers of pesticides in the country. The government has accepted in the Lok Sabha that it has allowed the import of 67 pesticides that are banned in other countries.
There are obvious indications that the indiscriminate use of pesticides is leading to adverse impact on the farmers, farm labourers as well as the consumers.
It is estimated that almost 90 per cent of the pesticides fail to reach the targeted insect or pest and they eventually end up in our soil and water bodies. They also get into our food chain and enter human bodies, leading to diseases like cancer.
According to FAO ( Food and Agricultural Organisation) the effects of pesticides has consequences for the entire food chain leading to causes of cancer, tumours, reproductive inhibition or failure, suppression of immune system, cellular DNA damage and adverse impact on aquatic life and birds.
A study conducted by Delhi-based Centre for Science and Environment found that the daily intake of pesticides presents “a horrific picture.” An average adult was consuming more pesticides than which is allowed.
It was about 376 per cent of DDT, 300 per cent of monocroptophes and in children it was still higher at 622 per cent!
These facts show that food and vegetables that we eat are not only unsafe but they are bound to cause health disorders in human bodies. Obviously, the politicians and policy makers have scarified the health of common citizens as well as those of the future generation at the cost of providing food security.
Ironically, the pesticide lobby has successfully invaded the farmer’s fields and minds. We have reached a situation in which a farmer practicing agriculture in irrigated Gangetic plain or in a remote hill village in the Himalayas is forced to use pesticides to grow staple rice, wheat or vegetables and fruits. The farmers think that it is impossible to grow any crop without using pesticides.
These developments indicate that rather than learning from Bhopal, the country is deeply entrenched itself into the clutches of pesticide giants. In recent years we have been witnessing the enactment of Bhopal at numerous places across the country. Suicide by thousands of farmers exposes the limits of pesticide-driven industrial agriculture.
Nevertheless, there are attempts to find alterative ways to produce food through organic farming. The states of Uttaranchal and Sikkim have declared themselves as ‘Organic States’ assuring to produce food without pesticides.
Similarly in Karnataka ‘Organic Farming Missions’ has been formed to propagate organic farming methods. Though proactive, these methods are symbolic in nature and have very minimal impact on the overall agricultural scenario. Most of the time the state and Central governments are closely linked to the powerful pesticides lobby, who are able to bribe officials and politicians to keeps their stronghold.
The push for record food production with over emphasis on quantity rather than quality has had adverse impact on the common people.
This has already created a large number of diabetic population earning us the dubious distinction of becoming the ‘diabetic capital of world’. May be, we will get an additional title of ‘cancer capital’ if we continue to grow our crops using pesticides indiscriminately. The high number of cancer patients reported in Punjab is a clear indicator of where our food bowls are heading for.
Before it is too late, it is essential that the government wakes up to the impact of pesticides on present and future generations. India needs to learn from the Bhopal tragedy and find ways to salvage the health of its people, and stop contamination of the basic capitals of mankind, the soil and water.
|
<urn:uuid:931bc578-f32b-4424-97aa-a60d255666d1>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.deccanherald.com/content/295880/in-perspective.html
|
2013-05-18T08:32:51Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381630/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00052-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.961425
| 987
|
A bacterium that causes appendicitis and gum disease has been detected in colon tumors, according to new research that suggests it may set the stage for colorectal cancer, the second-deadliest malignancy. Only lung cancer kills more people each year.
If the finding can be validated by larger studies, fusobacterium might one day be used to prevent and screen for colorectal cancer, currently detectable through colonoscopy or tests for the presence of blood in the stool. fuscobacterium also might play a role in determining the prognosis of colorectal cancers and shaping their treatment, according to two research teams independently reporting a relationship between the rod-shaped microbe and cancers of the lower digestive system.
Fuscobacterium is a known player in disorders characterized by inflammation, such as gum disease and appendicitis. Scientists have tied some strains to two inflammatory bowel diseases, ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease, both of which elevate the risk of colon cancer. In addition to promoting inflammation, fuscobacterium has other qualities that make it a formidable foe: it invades tissues and it's sticky, which helps explain its presence in the dental plaque that clings to tooth enamel.
A Canadian research team found significantly more fuscobacterium RNA (a type of genetic material) in colon tumors than in healthy tissues from the same people. That surprised the investigators because fuscobacterium is a rare inhabitant of healthy guts and "has not been previously associated with cancer," said Robert Holt, a senior scientist with the British Columbia Cancer Agency Genome Sciences Center and associate professor at Simon Fraser University in Vancouver.
A U.S. group compared tissues lining cancerous and healthy regions of patients' colons, looking in each for stretches of the microbes' DNA (another type of genetic material).They theorized that if bacteria and viruses were involved in the development of colorectal cancer, the quantity of the microbes in tumor tissue would differ from the quantity in adjacent healthy tissue. Indeed, looking first at tissues of nine people, and then 95 more, they found a spike in fuscobacterium species, especially fuscobacterium nucleatum, fuscobacterium mortiferum and fuscobacterium necrophorum in diseased tissue.
"Tumors and their surroundings contain complex mixtures of cancer cells, normal cells, and a variety of microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses," said Dr. Matthew Meyerson, co-director of the Center for Cancer Genome Discovery at the Dana-Farber Cancer Center in Boston and senior author of the second study. "Over the past decade, there has been an increasing focus on the relationship between cancer cells and their 'microenvironment,' specifically on the cell-to-cell interactions that may promote cancer formation and growth."
Both studies will be published online Tuesday in the international journal Genomic Research.
Holt and Meyerson said their findings couldn't discern whether fuscobacterium infection causes colon cancer, or fuscobacterium infection and inflammation develop because of colon cancer. Meyerson said additional studies comparing bacteria in the tissues of cancer patients and healthy people could demonstrate whether there are more fuscobacterium species in the intestines of colon cancer patients than in the intestines of the general population.
Earlier this year, British researchers published in the International Journal of Case Reports and Images the case of a 72-year-old man with rectal cancer whose abscessed liver contained fuscobacterium nucleatum. They called their findings "the first incidence in literature of colonic cancer in association with fuscobacterium nucleatum."
|
<urn:uuid:442df04c-b9f2-4724-8f74-d0f4d4739897>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://abcnews.go.com/Health/CancerPreventionAndTreatment/colon-cancer-bacteria/story?id=14755840
|
2013-05-20T02:42:27Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698207393/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095647-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.945151
| 760
|
From the FMS Global News Desk of Jeanne Hambleton (UK)
Courtesy of MedicalNewsToday.com
Written by Christian Nordqvist
The English word ‘pain’ probably comes from Old French (peine), Latin (poena – meaning punishment pain), or Ancient Greek (poine – a word more related to penalty), or a combination of all three.
In medicine pain relates to a sensation that hurts. If you feel pain it hurts, you feel discomfort, distress and perhaps agony, depending on the severity of it. Pain can be steady and constant, in which case it may be an ache. It might be a throbbing pain – a pulsating pain. The pain could have a pinching sensation, or a stabbing one.
Only the person who is experiencing the pain can describe it properly. Pain is a very individual experience.
Types of pain
Acute pain – this can be intense and short-lived, in which case we call it acute pain. Acute pain may be an indication of an injury. When the injury heals the pain usually goes away.
Chronic pain – this sensation lasts much longer than acute pain. Chronic pain can be mild or intense (severe).
How do we classify pain?
Pain can be nociceptive, non-nociveptive, somatic, visceral, neuropathic, or sympathetic. Look at the details below.
Nociceptive: Somatic – Visceral: Non-Nociceptive: Neuropathic – Sympathetic
Nociceptive Pain – specific pain receptors are stimulated. These receptors sense temperature (hot/cold), vibration, stretch, and chemicals released from damaged cells.
Somatic Pain – a type of nociceptive pain. Pain felt on the skin, muscle, joints, bones and ligaments is called somatic pain. The term musculo-skeletal pain means somatic pain. The pain receptors are sensitive to temperature (hot/cold), vibration, and stretch (in the muscles). They are also sensitive to inflammation, as would happen if you cut yourself, sprain something that causes tissue damage. Pain as a result of lack of oxygen, as in ischemic muscle cramps, are a type of nociceptive pain. Somatic pain is generally sharp and well localized – if you touch it or move the affected area the pain will worsen.
Visceral Pain – a type of nociceptive pain. It is felt in the internal organs and main body cavities. The cavities are divided into the thorax (lungs and heart), abdomen (bowels, spleen, liver and kidneys), and the pelvis (ovaries, bladder, and the womb). The pain receptors – nociceptors – sense inflammation, stretch and ischemia (oxygen starvation).
Visceral pain is more difficult to localize than somatic pain. The sensation is more likely to be a vague deep ache. Colicky and cramping sensations are generally types of visceral pain. Visceral pain commonly refers to some type of back pain – pelvic pain generally refers to the lower back, abdominal pain to the mid-back, and thoracic pain to the upper back (see below for the meaning of referred pain).
Nerve Pain or Neuropathic Pain
Nerve pain is also known as neuropathic pain. It is a type of non-nociceptive pain. It comes from within the nervous system itself. People often refer to it as pinched nerve, or trapped nerve. The pain can originate from the nerves between the tissues and the spinal cord (peripheral nervous system) and the nerves between the spinal cord and the brain (central nervous system, or CNS).
Neuropathic pain can be caused by nerve degeneration, as might be the case in a stroke, multiple-sclerosis, or oxygen starvation. It could be due to a trapped nerve, meaning there is pressure on the nerve. A torn or slipped disc will cause nerve inflammation, which will trigger neuropathic pain. Nerve infection, such as shingles, can also cause neuropathic pain.
Pain that comes from the nervous system is called non-nociceptive because there are no specific pain receptors. Nociceptive in this text means responding to pain. When a nerve is injured it becomes unstable and its signaling system becomes muddled and haphazard. The brain interprets these abnormal signals as pain. This randomness can also cause other sensations, such as numbness, pins and needles, tingling, and hypersensitivity to temperature, vibration and touch. The pain can sometimes be unpredictable because of this.
The sympathetic nervous system controls our blood flow to our skin and muscles, perspiration (sweating) by the skin, and how quickly the peripheral nervous system works.
Sympathetic pain occurs generally after a fracture or a soft tissue injury of the limbs. This pain is non-nociceptive – there are no specific pain receptors. As with neuropathic pain, the nerve is injured, becomes unstable and fires off random, chaotic, abnormal signals to the brain, which interprets them as pain.
Generally with this kind of pain the skin and the area around the injury become extremely sensitive. The pain often becomes so intense that the sufferer daren’t use the affected arm or leg. Lack of limb use after a time can cause other problems, such as muscle wasting, osteoporosis, and stiffness in the joints.
What is referred pain?
Also known as reflective pain. When pain is felt either next to, or at a distance from the origin of an injury it is called referred pain. For example, when a person has a heart attack, even though the affected area is the heart, the pain is sometimes felt around the shoulders, back and neck, rather than in the chest. We have known about referred pain for centuries, but we still do not know its origins and what causes it.
How do you measure pain?
It is virtually impossible to measure a person’s pain objectively. Most experts say that the best way to find out how much pain a person is enduring is by a subjective pain report. A comprehensive assessment of pain should include:
* The identification of all the pains.
* This must include the most important ones.
* The site, quality, and radiation of pain
* What factors aggravate and relieve the pain
* When the pain occurs throughout the day
* What impact the pain has on the person’s function
* What impact the pain has on the person’s mood
* The sufferers’ understanding of their pain
There are many different methods for measuring pain and its severity. Health care professionals say it is important to stick to whatever system or tool you chose for a specific patient all the way through. If a patient is unable to report his pain, such as an infant, or a person with dementia, there are a number of observational pain measures a doctor can use.
Here is a list of some pain measures used today:
* Numerical Rating Scales
* The patient is given a form which asks him to tick from 0 to 10 what his level of pain is. 0 is no pain, 5 is moderate pain, and 10 is the worst pain imaginable.
* Please rate the pain you have right now
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
No pain Moderate pain Worst pain imaginable
The Numerical Rating Scales are useful if you want to measure any changes in pain, as well as gauging the patient’s response to pain treatment. If the patient has dyslexia, autism, or is very elderly and has dementia this may not be the best tool (see the ones below).
Verbal Descriptor Scale
This type of scale exists in many different forms. The patient is asked questions and responds verbally choosing from such terms as mild, moderate, severe, no pain, mild pain, discomforting, distressing, horrible, and excruciating.
Elderly patients with cognitive impairment, very young children, and people who respond better to verbal stimuli tend to have better completion rates with this type of scale, compared to the written numerical scale. Children respond even better to the faces scale (description below).
The patient sees a series of faces. The first one is calm and happy, the second less so, etc., and the final one has an expression of extreme pain. This scale is used mainly for children, but can also be used with elderly patients with cognitive impairment. Patients with autism may respond better to this type of approach – people with autism tend to respond to visual stimuli well.
Brief Pain Inventory
This is a much more comprehensive written questionnaire. Not only does it gauge current level of pain, but also records the peaks and troughs of pain during previous days, how pain has affected mood, activity, sleep patterns, and how the pain may have affected the patient’s interpersonal relationship. The questionnaire also has diagrams which the patient shades – the shaded parts being where the pain is located and where it is most severe.
McGill Pain Questionnaire
This questionnaire measures the intensity (severity) of the pain, the quality of the pain, mood, and understanding of the pain. It is also known as the McGill Pain Index. It is a scale of rating pain developed at McGill University by Melzack and Torgerson (1971).
Look at the 20 groups below.
Circle one word in each group that best describes your pain.
Circle only three words from Groups 1 to 10 that best describe your pain response.
Choose just two words in Groups 11 to 15 that best describe your pain.
Just pick the one in Group 16.
Finally, choose just one word from Groups 17-20.
You should now have seven words. Those seven words should be taken to your doctor. They will help describe both the quality and intensity of your pain
Group 1 – Flickering, Pulsing, Quivering, Throbbing, Beating, Pounding
Group 2 – Jumping, Flashing, Shooting
Group 3 – Pricking, Boring, Drilling, Stabbing
Group 4 – Sharp, Gritting, Lacerating
Group 5 – Pinching, Pressing, Gnawing, Cramping, Crushing
Group 6 – Tugging, Pulling, Wrenching
Group 7 – Hot, Burning, Scalding, Searing
Group 8 – Tingling, Itching, Smarting, Stinging
Group 9 – Dull, Sore, Hurting, Aching, Heavy
Group 10 – Tender, Taunt, Rasping, Splitting
Group 11 – Tiring, Exhausting
Group 12 – Sickening, Suffocating
Group 13 – Fearful, Frightful, Terrifying
Group 14 – Punishing, Grueling, Cruel, Vicious, Killing
Group 15 – Wretched, Binding
Group 16 – Annoying, Troublesome, Miserable, Intense, Unbearable
Group 17 – Spreading, Radiating, Penetrating, Piercing
Group 18 – Tight, Numb, Squeezing, Drawing, Tearing
Group 19 – Cool, Cold, Freezing
Group 20 – Nagging, Nauseating, Agonizing, Dreadful, Torturing
Measuring pain when the patient is cognitively impaired
In this case doctors say that the patient’s subjective pain report is the most effective and accurate way of evaluating pain. If the severely cognitively impaired patient is observed carefully it is possible to pick out clues as to the presence of pain, e.g. restlessness, crying, moaning, groaning, grimacing, resistance to care, reduced social interactions, increased wandering, not eating, and sleeping problems.
What are the treatments for pain?
An underlying disorder, if treated effectively, will also get rid of the pain, or at least reduce it. If you have an infection and take antibiotics, the antibiotics may get rid of that infection, resulting also in the elimination of pain. Even if an underlying problem can be treated, you may still need analgesics (pain relievers).
Analgesics are good at relieving nociceptive pain, but not neuropathic pain. Chronic pain – long-lasting pain – may need other non-drug treatments as well.
Opioid analgesics are also known as narcotics. These are the strongest painkillers and are commonly used after surgery, for cancer, broken bones, burns, and various other situations. Even though opioids are not commonly used to treat non-cancer pain, their usage for non-cancer pain is becoming more widespread and acceptable. Some patients do not respond well to opioids and should not take them.
The patient will be given opioids in gradually increasing dosages. The ideal dose is reached when the pain is relieved and the side-effects are tolerable (increase any higher and the side effects become too much for the patient). Dosages should be generally much lower for older patients and infants.
The patient is administered opioids every few hours – each dose coinciding with the moment just before the pain starts becoming severe. Some patients are given higher dosages if the pain becomes more intense, while others are given other medications alongside the opioid. Pain can become more intense if the patient needs to move about, or if a wound dressing needs to be changed.
The dosage goes down if the pain intensity drops, until if possible, the doctor switches to a non-opioid analgesic.
People with kidney failure, liver problems, COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, dementia, tend to have more side effects when given opioids. The most common opioid side effects are drowsiness, constipation, nausea, vomiting, and itching. Generally, the side effects lessen as after time. Taking too much opioid can be dangerous. Patients who take opioids for long period become physically dependent and will have withdrawal symptoms when treatment is stopped – it is important that their dosage is tapered off gradually.
Nonopioid analgesics are used generally for mild to moderate pain. They are not addictive and their pain-relieving effects do not dwindle over time.
NSAIDs (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs)
These may be obtained either OTC (over-the-counter) or as a prescription medication, it depends on the dosage. Low dosage NSAIDs are effective for headaches, muscle aches, fever, and minor pains. At a higher dose they help reduce joint inflammation. There are three main types of NSAIDs, and they all block prostaglandins – hormone-like substances that cause pain, inflammation, muscle cramps, and fever.
Traditional NSAIDs – the largest subset of NSAIDs. As is the case with most drugs, they do carry a risk of side-effects, such as stomach upset and gastrointestinal bleeding. The risk of side effects is significantly higher if the patient is over 60. At higher doses, they should only be taken when monitored by a doctor.
COX-2 inhibitors – these also reduce pain and inflammation. However, they are designed to have fewer stomach and gastrointestinal side-effects. In 22004/2005 Vioxx and Bextra were withdrawn from the market after major studies showed Vioxx carried increased cardiovascular risks, while Bextra triggered serious skin reactions. Some other COX-2 inhibitors are also being investigated for side-effects. The FDA told makers of NSAIDs to highlight warnings on their labels in a black box.
Salicylates – these include aspirin which continues to be a popular medication for many doctors and patients. If your plan to take aspirin more than just occasionally you should consult your doctor. Long term high dosage usage of aspirin carries with it a significant risk of serious undesirable side effects, such as kidney problems and gastrointestinal bleeding. For effective control of arthritis pain and inflammation frequent large doses are needed. Nonacetylated salicylate is designed to have fewer side effects than aspirin. Some doctors may prescribe nonacetylated salicylate if they feel aspirin is too risky for their patient. Nonacetylated salicylate does not have the chemical aspirin has which protects against cardiovascular disease. Some doctors prescribe low dose aspirin along with nonacetylated salicylate for patients who they feel need cardiovascular protection.
Copyright: Medical News Today
Not to be reproduced without permission of Medical News Today
|
<urn:uuid:dd75b759-87f4-4305-9bb1-536276ea686a>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://fmsglobalnews.wordpress.com/tag/nociceptive-pain/
|
2013-05-21T11:03:05Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699899882/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102459-00002-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.934887
| 3,395
|
Why do we lose most of our heat through our heads when we exercise?
Barry S. Brown, University Professor of kinesiology in the College of Education and Health Professions, replies:
In general, heat loss is essential to provide thermoregulation and prevent excessive heat build-up in the body to avoid the consequences of heat stroke. However, heat loss in the head is the same as for any exposed body part. The exposed surface area of the body, along with relative humidity and temperature, determines heat loss primarily through evaporation and our head makes up only 10 percent of body surface area. So, at rest, heat loss through the head accounts for only 7-10 percent of total heat dissipation.
The brain is supplied by blood flow through the cerebral and vertebral arteries, which also supply oxygen and heat to the brain. This flow does not change since the oxygen demand to the brain is constant. However, as cardiac output is increased, the blood transported via the cerebral arteries to the brain also is increased. This increase in blood flow to the brain also results in an increase in the percentage of heat loss. As you begin exercise, cerebral blood flow increases due to increased cardiac output and the percentage of heat lost through the head accounts for about 50 percent of total body heat loss. As exercise continues, more oxygen is directed toward muscle and blood flow to this tissue increases. Core temperature has to be maintained and as body heat increases, the skin arterioles expand, or vasodilate, redirecting blood flow to the skin which cools the blood. Hence, total blood flow to the brain is decreased and the percentage of total body heat lost through the head is reduced to about 10 percent. The percent lost through the scalp returns to 7 percent after sweating begins.
One important caveat occurs during hypothermia, or cold exposure. If shivering occurs during hypothermia, 55 percent of the heat loss can occur in the scalp. Therefore, head covering during cold weather is strongly advised.
|
<urn:uuid:a2cffe7c-a2f1-44c4-b6cc-940c9d9c7f3b>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://researchfrontiers.uark.edu/12401.php
|
2013-05-25T19:41:52Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706153698/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516120913-00052-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.948526
| 409
|
Fretwork for a ventilation or light grill
||This article needs additional citations for verification. (April 2010)
Fretwork is an interlaced decorative design that is either carved in low relief on a solid background, or cut out with a fretsaw, coping saw, jigsaw or scroll saw. Most fretwork patterns are geometric in design. The materials most commonly used are wood and metal. Fretwork is used to adorn furniture and musical instruments. The term is also used for tracery on glazed windows and doors. Fretwork is also used to adorn/decorate architecture, where specific elements of decor are named according to their use. e.g. eave bracket, gable fretwork or baluster fretwork, and may be of metal, especially cast iron or aluminum.
Fretwork patterns originally were ornamental designs used to decorate objects with a grid or a lattice. Designs have developed from the rectangular wave Greek fret to intricate intertwined patterns. A common misconception is that fretwork must be done with a fretsaw. However, a fretwork pattern is considered a fretwork whether or not it was cut out with a fretsaw.
Computer numerical control (CNC) has brought about change in the method of timber fretwork manufacture. Lasers or router/milling cutting implements can now fashion timber and various other materials into flat and even 3D decorative items.
|
<urn:uuid:a0721070-07ae-4adc-9fb2-fee234381d65>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fretwork
|
2013-06-18T05:25:52Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706933615/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516122213-00001-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.933507
| 292
|
From as far away as New York and West Virginia, a network of rivers and streams flowing hundreds of miles feeds the Chesapeake Bay. Like arteries and capillaries, these tributaries nourish this body of water. Diverse migratory birds, animals and plants thrive in this watershed and the bay itself.
Legendary for its marine life, no other estuary in North America rivals the bay’s productivity. The bay ranks second only to the open oceans and the Gulf of Mexico for commercial catches, producing 500 million pounds of seafood a year worth hundreds of millions of dollars.
Yet these impressive facts belie alarming trends of the last 50 years. Critical habitats have been lost. As much as 125,000 acres of underwater grasses have disappeared, and oyster populations have fallen to less than one per cent of historic levels.
The American shad population, once the bay’s most important commercial fish, has shrunk to three percent of previous levels in the Susquehanna River, their most important spawning river historically. Many sections of the bay and its tributaries are unsafe for fishing, swimming and drinking.
For generations, those who live near the bay and in its surrounding watershed have forged deep connections to its lands and waters.
The bay comprises some of the most densely occupied communities as well as our country’s longest standing maritime economies and richest agricultural lands. Many residents rely on livelihoods steeped in tradition such as fishing, forestry and agriculture, while others who enjoy the region’s opportunities for recreation and reflection.
Yet inappropriate development threatens the region. Every day more than 100 acres of forested land is lost to development. Today more than 16 million people live in the watershed with an estimated 3 million more expected by 2020, growth that stresses the balance of this natural area.February 11, 2011
|
<urn:uuid:e09b9bf2-5ad3-491f-9f52-34925b51eaf9>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.nature.org/ourinitiatives/regions/northamerica/areas/chesapeakebay/howwework/conservation-challenges.xml
|
2013-06-20T08:39:51Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368711005985/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516133005-00051-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.949619
| 371
|
The Internet is not a single network; rather, it is a group of thousands of individual networks connecting thousands of computers all over the world and millions of individual subscribers, which have chosen to allow traffic to pass among them. The traffic sent out to the Internet may actually traverse several different networks before it reaches its destination. The Internet was developed to support open research and education in and among US research and instructional institutions, plus research arms of for-profit firms when engaged in open scholarly communication and research.
The Internet connection for W-TCPL is provided through OPLIN (Ohio Public Library Information Network), a state-funded program.
Philosophy of Library Internet Use
The Internet is a tool for lifelong learning. Users may access and use resources from computers around the world, significantly expanding their available information base. All users will be granted free and equal access to as many network services as W-TCPL's policy and technology allow.
Computer and Internet access are a privilege, not a right, which may be revoked at any time for abusive conduct. Such conduct includes, but is not limited to violations listed under APPROPRIATE USE OF LIBRARY COMPUTERS, below. Users will adhere to the policies and procedures established by the library and by the administrators of any networks accessed. Use of computing resources must follow the guidelines of all the networks traversed.
Disclaimer on Net content
The Internet service contains material of a controversial nature. The library and OPLIN do not have control of the information on the Internet, nor do they provide any barriers to users accessing the full range of information available, other than those constraints imposed by finite resources or federal eRate reimbursement requirements. Other sites accessible via the Internet may contain material that is illegal, defamatory, inaccurate, or potentially offensive to some people. While the library's intent is to make Internet access available to further the educational and informational needs of its users, users will have the ability to access other materials as well. In offering Internet access, the library staff cannot control access points, which often change rapidly and unpredictably. Many Internet access providers set their systems to offer users a menu of choices. By controlling what choices appear on the menu, users can be limited to specific services. The open and interconnected nature of the Net, however, makes such attempts almost futile. Because the Internet is a fluid environment, the information which will be available to users is constantly changing; therefore, it is impossible to predict with certainty what information might be located. Users must be aware that there are many services available on the Internet that could potentially be offensive to certain groups of users. The library and OPLIN cannot eliminate access to all such services, nor could they even begin to identify them. Thus individual users must take responsibility for their own actions in navigating the network. Parents of minor children must assume responsibility for their children's use of the Internet in the library.
Third Party Supplied Information
Opinions, advice, services and all other information expressed by users, information providers, service providers, or other third party personnel on the Internet are those of the provider and not of W-TCPL or OPLIN. Users are urged to seek professional advice for specific, individual situations. Use of any information obtained via W-TCPL is at your own risk. W-TCPL specifically denies any responsibility for the accuracy or quality of information obtained through its services. W-TCPL exercises no control whatsoever over the content of the information residing on or passing through the Internet. W-TCPL makes no warranties of any kind, whether expressed or implied, for the Internet service it is providing. W-TCPL also disclaims any warranty of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose.
Most information available on the Internet is made available under identifiable constraints - users can find out who has "published" the information, and how it was collected. If the source of information is not clear, it must be treated very differently than when sources are clear and reputable.
Connectivity & System Use
The library will attempt to keep equipment and the local network fully operational. However, the library is not responsible for system failures at the local or wider levels. There is no guarantee that the operation of the system will be uninterrupted or error-free or that defects in the system will be corrected. Internet access is provided on an "as is, as available" basis. W-TCPL will not be responsible for any damages, direct or indirect, arising from use of its connections to Internet services. This includes loss of data resulting from delays, non-deliveries, misdeliveries, or service interruptions caused by W-TCPL's own negligence or the user's errors or omissions. Some sources may not be available at some times.
Internet functions not supported
The library will provide electronic mail accounts for designated staff members for use in fulfilling their job functions. Public users may access E-mail accounts on other networks, but the library will not provide E-mail accounts. (WARNING: Users of electronic mail systems should be aware that electronic mail in its present form cannot be secured and is, therefore, extremely vulnerable to unauthorized access and modification.) Listserves are not available to public users of library computers. W-TCPL does not provide any data storage for public users. Users must download to their own storage media or print. Social Internet chat rooms and instand messaging services for juveniles, and visiting "X-rates" web sites are prohibited by this library's Internet use policies.
Who can use the Internet from library-based computers:
The Internet may be accessed by any library user, except those who have been sanctioned for improper use. Parents of minor children must assume responsibility for their children's use of the Internet in the library.
Appropriate uses of library computers
Effective March 20, 2001, Trumbull County residents using library computers must have a valid Warren-Trumbull County Library card in good standing. Library computers may be used for word processing, data organization and analysis, database research, Internet access (other than chat sites) and other applications for personal or educational purposes. Users are expected to observe appropriate computer etiquette at all times. This includes:
1. Be polite, using appropriate language. Never send or encourage others to send abusive, threatening, libelous, slanderous or harassing materials. Avoid offensive or inflammatory speech. Never swear, use vulgarities, obscenities or any other inappropriate language. Your monitor is visible to other users.
2. Be responsible. Do not disrupt the use of others, whether in the library or connected to the Internet. It is not acceptable to use library computers to interfere with or disrupt network users, services, or equipment. Disruptions include, but are not limited to, distribution of unsolicited advertising; the uploading or creation of embedded messages, computer viruses, worms, etc.; using the network to make unauthorized entry to any other machine accessible via the network (hacking); destruction or damage to equipment, software, or data belonging to the library, any of the agencies or other networks that are connected to OPLIN or the NSFNET Internet backbone, or other users. "Computer viruses" are programs developed as pranks to destroy computer programs and data.
3. Respect copyright laws. Users may download copyrighted material for their own use. Any user may also non-commercially redistribute a copyrighted program with the expressed permission of the owner or authorized person. Permission must be specified in the document or must be obtained directly from the author. Users may save public domain programs for their own use on their own device or non-commercially redistribute a public domain program. User assumes all risks regarding the determination of whether a program is in the public domain. Unauthorized copying of copyright-protected material or violation of software license agreements is a violation of federal law.
4. Be ethical. Use library computers and the Internet for purposes appropriate to the library setting. Examples of unacceptable purposes (some of which may also have legal consequences) include, but are not limited to, the following:
- Accessing material of a sexually explicit or violent nature.
- Unauthorized use of computer accounts, access codes, network identification numbers assigned to others
- Use of computer communications facilities in ways that unnecessarily impede the computing activities of others (such as randomly initiating interactive electronic communications or e-mail exchanges, overuse of interactive network facilities, etc.)
- Violation of network usage policies and regulations.
- Violation of another user's privacy. Re-posting personal communications without the original author's prior consent is a violation of the author's privacy. However, all messages posted in a public forum such as newsgroups or listservs may be copied in subsequent communications, so long as proper attribution is given.
- Violation of any local, state or federal laws.
- Plagiarizing material written by others.
The library endorses cooperative computing. This includes:
- Refraining from overuse of connect time, information storage space, printing facilities, or processing capacity.
- Refraining from use of sounds and visuals which might be disruptive to others.
- Refraining from use of any computing resource in an irresponsible manner.
All public computers are subject to random monitoring by library staff to insure compliance with library policies.
|
<urn:uuid:01892105-d8e8-4a2f-80f7-867b598090f9>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://wtcpl.lib.oh.us/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=51%3Ainternet-policy-a-computer-use-guidelines&catid=12&Itemid=10
|
2013-05-24T22:36:23Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00050-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.914079
| 1,893
|
Children are significantly more likely to maintain a relationship with financial institutions and have greater financial assets later in life when they own a savings account earlier in life. However, some children gain access to savings accounts while others do not—an inequity that tends to be based on parents’ socio-economic status. This paper explores the case for extending financial inclusion to children by improving access to basic financial services. Such an approach may offer a number of economic benefits, especially among those children whose parents have limited financial resources. Policy innovations that make savings accounts widely available to children may be a valuable tool to trigger increased savings behavior that can continue into adulthood and lead to improved financial outcomes over the long-term.
This paper builds a case for extending early financial inclusion to children by discussing how early financial inclusion might accelerate their capabilities to save and presents research findings on the current state of children's savings. The paper discusses policy innovations and recommendations for designing an infrastructure that extends financial inclusion to children. The paper also presents research findings by Friedline and colleagues that inform how children experience early financial inclusion by predicting their financial outcomes, including savings accounts and amount saved.
Finally, research findings are used to describe how policies might be re-envisioned to develop infrastructure around children's savings and maximize benefits to children whose parents have few financial resources. The paper expands on the ASPIRE Act (a legislative proposal that would provide every American child with a savings account at birth for post-secondary education, homeownership and retirement) by proposing infrastructure improvements that more successfully extend financial inclusion to all children.
Click here to read the full paper.
|
<urn:uuid:40a974da-1711-42b0-ae09-cdab6f238864>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://assets.newamerica.net/publications/policy/the_case_for_extending_financial_inclusion_to_children
|
2013-06-19T18:52:00Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368709037764/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125717-00001-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.95108
| 322
|
Our region missed the brunt of the storm. But many of us have friends and family who were deluged by Hurricane Sandy. Even those without direct connections witnessed scenes of flooding and devastation in and on the news.
Adults may be used to these occasional bouts with Mother Nature, but to a child the unpredictability of natural disasters can bring a special sort of anxiety. They watched their parents preparing, sometimes frantically, and now they see that those who did prepare may still have suffered.
Elmo may have said it best when the muppet took to the radio on WNYC to help reassure kids in the New York area. “Elmo was a little scared.”http://www.wnyc.org/shows/bl/2012/oct/30/elmo-explains-hurricane-sandy/?utm_source=local&utm_media=treatment&utm_campaign=daMost&utm_content=damostlistened
Fairfax therapist Meredith Gelman, who specializes in family counseling, suggests that parents seize the chance to discuss weather unpredictability, especially because it seems we’re fielding an increasing number of intense events.
“ In recent months children have been exposed to more natural disasters with serious outcomes. Children often become very frightened by all the unknowns around the impending storms, especially when children are participating in more prep drills for the unexpected. I encourage parents to talk to their children about the upcoming storms and their unpredictability,” Gelman said.
“When difficult feelings come up for children, I encourage parents to validate those feelings. Validating allows the children to actually feel safe, to feel heard and to be able to cope with the unknown.
“Validated kids are willing to talk about how to prepare — just like studying for tests and drilling for potential fires at school. What are the safety plans?”
Most importantly talk about what things and people they can count on that are predictable. Reassure them that you as the parents will keep them safe the best way you can. Their teachers, coaches and leaders will do their best to keep them safe.”
Meanwhile, Dr. David Schonfeld, a member of the American Academy of Pediatrics Disaster Preparedness Advisory Council reiterated that trying to shield children can cause confusion. Honesty is better.
“If children ask whether or not a storm like this could occur in their community, realize that the underlying question is not whether or not is possible, but rather whether it is likely that such an event will occur. The recent storm is highly unusual in terms of the extent of the storm and the amount of damage that it caused,” he said.
“Reassure children of what is being done to keep them safe and help them appreciate that the chance of a storm of this magnitude occurring in the near future in their community is relatively small. Yes, storms are likely to occur, but they are likely to have far less adverse impact — help them tell the difference between the storm that is present in their community now or is likely to occur from the recent storm that had devastating impact.
“But don’t provide false reassurance or deny actual risk.
“Sometimes it is best to help children deal with troubling concerns that are legitimate concerns rather than trying to convince them not to be worried when their concerns are legitimate. Share with them your concerns and your strategies for coping with those concerns. Children will be more likely to learn coping strategies when they are modeled and taught by adults who care for them. Learning how to cope with distress provides a lifelong skill they will, unfortunately, have other opportunity to use.”
Gelman also added on a more upbeat note, that parents can remind children of the good times that minor storms bring: “Game playing by flashlight, family read-a-thons or family movie night with a battery operated DVD player decreases anxiety and increases coping skills and resiliency for future storms. Natural disasters pose a great deal of unpredictability, but there is a lot in our children’s lives that are stable and predictable and that they can count on.”
How are you explaining to kids the damage from Hurricane Sandy?
|
<urn:uuid:d2ce0120-7b27-4b90-bf1e-310d13197233>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/on-parenting/post/making-sense-of-hurricane-sandy/2012/10/30/6429a012-22d2-11e2-8448-81b1ce7d6978_blog.html
|
2013-06-18T23:31:31Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707436332/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123036-00050-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.968099
| 863
|
Constitution of Ireland
|This article is part of the series:
Politics and government of
the Republic of Ireland
The Constitution of Ireland (Irish: Bunreacht na hÉireann, pronounced [ˈbunraxt nə ˈheːrʲən]) is the fundamental law of Ireland. The constitution falls broadly within the tradition of liberal democracy. It establishes an independent state based on a system of representative democracy. It guarantees certain fundamental rights, along with a popularly elected non-executive president, a bicameral parliament based on the Westminster system, a separation of powers and judicial review.
It is the second constitution of the state since independence, replacing the 1922 Constitution of the Irish Free State. It came into force on 29 December 1937 following national plebiscite held on 1 July 1937. The Constitution may be amended solely by a national referendum.
The Constitution of Ireland replaced the Constitution of the Irish Free State which had been in effect since the independence of the Irish state from the United Kingdom on 6 December 1922. There were two main motivations for replacing the constitution in 1937. Firstly, the Statute of Westminster 1931 granted parliamentary autonomy to the six British Dominions (now known as Commonwealth realms) within a Commonwealth of Nations. The Irish Free State constitution of 1922 was, in the eyes of many, associated with the controversial Anglo-Irish Treaty. The largest political group in the anti-treaty faction, who opposed the treaty initially by force of arms, had boycotted the institutions of the new Irish Free State until 1926. In 1932 they were elected into power as the Fianna Fáil party.
After 1932, under the provisions of the Statute, some of the articles of the original Constitution which were required by the Anglo-Irish Treaty were dismantled by acts of the Oireachtas of the Irish Free State. Such amendments removed references to the Oath of Allegiance, appeals to the United Kingdom's Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, the British Crown and the Governor General. The sudden abdication of Edward VIII in December 1936 was quickly used to redefine the royal connection. Nevertheless, the Fianna Fáil government, led by Éamon de Valera, still desired to replace the constitutional document they saw as having been imposed by the UK government in 1922.
The second motive for replacing the original constitution was primarily symbolic. De Valera wanted to put an Irish stamp on the institutions of government, and chose to do this in particular through the use of Irish Gaelic nomenclature.
Drafting process
De Valera personally supervised the writing of the Constitution. It was drafted initially by John Hearne, legal adviser to the Department of External Affairs (now called the Department of Foreign Affairs). It was translated into Irish over a number of drafts by a group headed by Micheál Ó Gríobhtha (assisted by Risteárd Ó Foghludha), who worked in the Irish Department of Education. De Valera served as his own External Affairs Minister, hence the use of the Department's Legal Advisor, with whom he had previously worked closely, as opposed to the Attorney General or someone from the Department of the President of the Executive Council. He also received significant input from John Charles McQuaid, the Archbishop of Dublin, on religious, educational, family and social welfare issues.
There are a number of instances where the texts in English and Irish clash, a potential dilemma which the Constitution resolves by favouring the Irish text.
A draft of the constitution was presented personally to the Vatican for review and comment on two occasions by the Department Head at External Relations, Joseph P. Walsh. Prior to its tabling in Dáil Éireann and presentation to the Irish electorate in a plebiscite, Vatican Secretary of State Eugenio Cardinal Pacelli, the future Pope Pius XII, said about the final amended draft "We do not approve, neither do we disapprove; We shall maintain silence." The quid pro quo for this indulgence of the Catholic Church's interests in Ireland was the degree of respectability which it conferred on De Valera's formerly denounced republican faction and its reputation as the 'semi-constitutional' political wing of the 'irregular' anti-treaty terrorist minority.
The text of the draft constitution, with minor amendments, was approved on 14 June by Dáil Éireann (then the sole house of parliament, the Senate having been abolished the previous year).
The draft constitution was then put to a plebiscite on 1 July 1937 (the same day as the 1937 general election), when it was passed by a plurality. 56% of voters were in favour, comprising 38.6% of the whole electorate. The constitution formally came into force on 29 December 1937.
Among the groups who opposed the constitution were supporters of Fine Gael and the Labour Party, Unionists, and some independents and feminists. The question put to voters was simply "Do you approve of the Draft Constitution which is the subject of this plebiscite?".
|Plebiscite on the Constitution of Ireland|
|Invalid or blank votes||134,157||9.97%|
Legal continuity
At the time the constitution was adopted there was uncertainty over whether its enactment amounted to a 'legal' amendment of the Free State constitution or a violation of its terms. If the enactment of the constitution were considered to be illegal in this way, it could be considered an act of peaceful revolution. De Valera's government insisted that owing to the principle of popular sovereignty, provided it was approved by the people in a plebiscite, it was not necessary for the new constitution be adopted legally under the terms of the old. Nonetheless, in order to avoid a challenge to the new constitution in the courts, senior judges were required to make a formal declaration that they would uphold the new constitution in order to be permitted to remain in office once it had come into force.
International response
When the new constitution was enacted, the British government, according to the New York Times "contented itself with a legalistic protest". Its protest took the form of a communiqué on 30 December 1937 in which the British stated:
"His Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom has considered the position created by the new Constitution ... of the Irish Free State, in future to be described under the Constitution as 'Eire' or 'Ireland' ... [and] cannot recognize that the adoption of the name 'Eire' or 'Ireland', or any other provision of those articles [of the Irish constitution], involves any right to territory ... forming part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland ... They therefore regard the use of the name 'Eire' or 'Ireland' in this connection as relating only to that area which has hitherto been known as the Irish Free State."
The Irish Government received a message of goodwill from 268 United States congressmen including eight senators. The signatories expressed "their ardent congratulations on the birth of the State of Ireland and the consequent coming into effect of the new constitution", adding that "We regard the adoption of the new constitution and the emergence of the State of Ireland as events of the utmost importance."
Main provisions
The official text of the constitution consists of a Preamble and fifty Articles arranged under sixteen headings. Its overall length is approximately 16,000 words. The headings are:
- The Nation (Arts. 1–3)
- The State (Arts. 4–11)
- The President (Arts. 12–14)
- The National Parliament (Arts. 15–27)
- The Government (Art. 28)
- Local Government (Art. 28A)
- International Relations (Art. 29)
- The Attorney General (Art. 30)
- The Council of State (Arts. 31–32)
- The Comptroller and Auditor General (Art. 33)
- The Courts (Arts. 34–37)
- Trial of Offences (Arts. 38–39)
- Fundamental Rights (Arts. 40–44)
- Directive Principles of Social Policy (Art. 45)
- Amendment of the Constitution (Art. 46)
- The Referendum (Art. 47)
- Repeal of Constitution of Saorstát Éireann and Continuance of Laws (Arts. 48–50)
The constitution also includes a number of "Transitory Provisions" (Arts. 51-63) which have, in accordance with their terms, been omitted from all official texts since 1941. These provisions are still in force but are now mostly spent.
Preamble (full text)
- In the Name of the Most Holy Trinity, from Whom is all authority and to Whom, as our final end, all actions both of men and States must be referred,
- We, the people of Éire,
- Humbly acknowledging all our obligations to our Divine Lord, Jesus Christ, Who sustained our fathers through centuries of trial,
- Gratefully remembering their heroic and unremitting struggle to regain the rightful independence of our Nation,
- And seeking to promote the common good, with due observance of Prudence, Justice and Charity, so that the dignity and freedom of the individual may be assured, true social order attained, the unity of our country restored, and concord established with other nations,
- Do hereby adopt, enact, and give to ourselves this Constitution.
Characteristics of the nation and state
- National sovereignty: The constitution asserts the "inalienable, indefeasible, and sovereign right" of the Irish people to self-determination (Article 1). The state is declared to be "sovereign, independent, [and] democratic" (Article 5).
- Popular sovereignty: It is stated that all powers of government "derive, under God, from the people" (Article 6.1). However, it is also stated that those powers "are exercisable only by or on the authority of the organs of State" established by the Constitution (Article 6.2).
- Name of the state: The Constitution declares that "[the] name of the State is Éire, or, in the English language, Ireland" (Article 4). Under the Republic of Ireland Act 1948 the term "Republic of Ireland" is the official "description" of the state; the Oireachtas, however, has left unaltered "Ireland" as the formal name of the state as defined by the Constitution.
- United Ireland: Article 2, as substituted after the Good Friday Agreement, asserts that "every person born in the island of Ireland" has the right "to be part of the Irish Nation"; however, Article 9.2 now limits this to persons having at least one parent as an Irish citizen. Article 3 declares that it is the "firm will of the Irish Nation" to bring about a united Ireland, provided that this occurs "only by peaceful means", and only with the express consent of the majority of the people in Northern Ireland.
- National flag: The national flag is defined as "the tricolour of green, white and orange" (Article 7).
- Capital city: The Houses of the Oireachtas (parliament) must usually meet in or near Dublin (Article 15.1.3°) ("or in such other place as they may from time to time determine"), and the President's official residence must be in or near the city (Article 12.11.1°).
Article 8 of the Constitution states the following:
1. The Irish language as the national language is the first official language.
2. The English language is recognised as a second official language.
3. Provision may, however, be made by law for the exclusive use of either of the said languages for any one or more official purposes, either throughout the State or in any part thereof.
The Irish text of the Constitution takes precedence over the English text (Articles 25.4.6° and 63). However, the second amendment included changes to the Irish text to align it more closely with the English text, rather than vice versa. The Constitution provides for a number of Irish language terms that are to be used even in English. The old Irish terms Taoiseach and Tánaiste, for the head and deputy head of government, made their first appearance in the 1937 Constitution, whilst the terms Oireachtas, Dáil Éireann and Seanad Éireann had previously featured in the Free State constitution.
Organs of government
The Constitution establishes a government under a parliamentary system. It provides for a directly elected, largely ceremonial President of Ireland (Article 12), a head of government called the Taoiseach (Article 28), and a national parliament called the Oireachtas (Article 15). The Oireachtas has a dominant directly elected lower house known as Dáil Éireann (Article 16) and an upper house Seanad Éireann (Article 18), which is partly appointed, partly indirectly elected and partly elected by a limited electorate. There is also an independent judiciary headed by the Supreme Court (Article 34).
National emergency
Under Article 28.3.3° the Constitution grants the state sweeping powers "in time of war or armed rebellion", which may (if so resolved by both Houses of the Oireachtas) include an armed conflict in which the state is not a direct participant. During a national emergency the Oireachtas may pass laws that would otherwise be unconstitutional, and the actions of the executive cannot be found to be ultra vires or unconstitutional provided they at least "purport" to be in pursuance of such a law. However, the constitutional prohibition on the death penalty (Article 15.5.2°), introduced by an amendment made in 2001, is an absolute exception to these powers.
There have been two national emergencies since 1937: an emergency declared in 1939 to cover the threat to national security posed as a consequence of World War II (although the state remained formally neutral throughout that conflict), and an emergency declared in 1976 to deal with the threat to the security of the state posed by the Provisional IRA.
International relations
- European Union: Under Article 29.4.6° EU law takes precedence over the Constitution if there is a conflict between the two, but only to the extent that such EU law is "necessitated" by Ireland's membership. The Supreme Court has ruled that any EU Treaty that substantially alters the character of the Union must be approved by a constitutional amendment. For this reason separate provisions of Article 29 have permitted the state to ratify the Single European Act, Maastricht Treaty, Amsterdam Treaty, Nice Treaty and Treaty of Lisbon.
- International law: Under Article 29.6 international treaties to which the state is a party are not to be considered part of Ireland's domestic law unless the Oireachtas has so provided. Under Article 29.3 it is declared that the state "accepts the generally recognised principles of international law as its rule of conduct in its relations with other States", but the High Court has ruled that this provision is merely aspirational, and not enforceable.
Individual rights
As enumerated under the heading "Fundamental Rights"
- Equality before the law: Equality of all citizens before the law is guaranteed by Article 40.1.
- Prohibition on titles of nobility: The state may not confer titles of nobility, and no citizen may accept such a title without the permission of the Government (Article 40.2). In practice, governmental approval is usually a formality.
- Personal rights: The state is bound to protect "the personal rights of the citizen", and in particular to defend "the life, person, good name, and property rights of every citizen" (Article 40.3).
- Unenumerated rights: The language used in Article 40.3.1° has been interpreted by the courts as implying the existence of unenumerated rights afforded to Irish citizens under natural law. Such rights upheld by the courts have included the right to marital privacy and the right of the unmarried mother to custody of her child.
- Prohibition of abortion: Abortion is prohibited by Article 40.3.3°, except in cases in which there is a threat to the life of the mother. However, this prohibition may be lawfully circumvented as it is expressly stated not to interfere with the right to travel abroad; there also exists a qualified right to obtain and distribute information of "services lawfully available in another state" (such as abortion).
- Habeas corpus: The citizen's right to personal liberty is guaranteed by Article 40.4, which section also sets out in detail the procedure for obtaining habeas corpus. However, these rights are specifically excepted from applying to the actions of the Defence Forces during a "state of war or armed rebellion" (Article 40.4.5°). Since the Sixteenth Amendment it has also been constitutional for a court to deny bail to someone charged with a crime where "it is reasonably considered necessary", in order to prevent that person from committing a "serious offence" (Article 40.4.6°).
- Inviolability of the home: A citizen's home may not be forcibly entered, except as permitted by law (Article 40.5).
- Freedom of speech: Subject to "public order and morality", a qualified right of freedom of speech is guaranteed by Article 40.6.1°. However, "the State shall endeavour to ensure that organs of public opinion" (such as the news media) "shall not be used to undermine public order or morality or the authority of the State". Furthermore, "the publication or utterance of blasphemous, seditious, or indecent matter" is specifically stated to be a criminal offence. In Corway v. Independent Newspapers (1999), the Supreme Court dismissed an attempt to bring a prosecution for blasphemy on the basis that, amongst other things, no coherent definition of the offence was provided by law. Such a definition is now provided by the Defamation Act 2009 which defines it as the publication of matter "grossly abusive or insulting in relation to matters held sacred by any religion, thereby [intentionally] causing outrage among a substantial number of the adherents of that religion".
- Freedom of peaceful assembly: Subject to "public order and morality", the right of citizens to peaceful assembly "without arms" is guaranteed by Article 40.6.1°. However, the Oireachtas is empowered to limit this right by law when a meeting may be "calculated to cause a breach of the peace or to be a danger or nuisance to the general public"; the Oireachtas is similarly empowered to limit this right in relation to meetings held "in the vicinity" of either House.
- Freedom of association: Subject to "public order and morality", the right of citizens "to form associations and unions" is also guaranteed by Article 40.6.1°; however, the exercise of this right may be regulated by law "in the public interest".
- Family and home life: Under Article 41.1 the state promises to "protect the Family", and recognises the family as having "inalienable and imprescriptible rights, antecedent and superior to all positive law". Under Article 41.2 the state is required to ensure that "economic necessity" does not oblige a mother "to engage in labour to the neglect of [her] duties in the home". Article 41.3 sets out conditions that must be fulfilled before a court may grant a divorce, including that adequate financial provision has been made for both spouses and any of their children.
- Education: Article 42 guarantees parents the right to determine where their children shall be educated (including at home), provided a minimum standard is met. Under the same article the state must provide for free primary level education. Currently Irish law also guarantees free second and third level education.
- Private property: The right to own and transfer private property is guaranteed by Article 43, subject to "the principles of social justice", and in accordance with laws passed reconciling the right "with the exigencies of the common good" (Article 43).
- Religious freedom: A citizen's freedom of religious conscience, practice, and worship is guaranteed, "subject to public order and morality", by Article 44.2.1°. The state may not "endow" any religion (Article 44.2.2°), nor discriminate on religious grounds (Article 44.2.3°).
As enumerated under other headings
- Prohibition of the death penalty: Since the enactment of the twenty-first amendment, signed into law in 2002, the Oireachtas is prohibited from enacting any law that imposes the death penalty (Article 15.5.2°); this restriction even applies during a time of war or armed rebellion (Article 28.3.3°).
- Prohibition of ex post facto laws: The Oireachtas may not enact ex post facto criminal laws (Article 15.5.1°).
- Due process and trial by jury: Trial for any alleged criminal offence may only be "in due course of law" (Article 38.1). All trials for a serious offence of a person not subject to military law must be before a jury (Article 38.5), except where "special courts" have been established by law because "the ordinary courts are inadequate to secure the effective administration of justice, and the preservation of public peace and order", and except where military tribunals have been established by law "to deal with a state of war or armed rebellion".
- Sexual discrimination: The sex of an individual cannot be a reason to deny them the right to citizenship (Article 9.1.3°), nor to deny them a vote for (or membership of) Dáil Éireann (Article 16.1).
Statutory rights
Irish law currently also forbids discrimination in employment and services (from both the public and private sectors) on grounds of sex (including transsexuals), marital status, family status, sexual orientation, age, disability, race (including nationality), membership of the Traveller community, and lack of religious belief.
Directive Principles of Social Policy
Article 45 outlines a number of broad principles of social and economic policy. Its provisions are, however, intended solely "for the general guidance of the Oireachtas", and "shall not be cognisable by any Court under any of the provisions of this Constitution" (preamble to Article 45).
The "Directive Principles of Social Policy" feature little in contemporary parliamentary debates. However, no proposals have yet been made for their repeal or amendment.
The principles require, in summary, that:
- "justice and charity" must "inform all the institutions of the national life".
- Everyone has the right to an adequate occupation.
- The free market and private property must be regulated in the interests of the common good.
- The state must prevent a destructive concentration of essential commodities in the hands of a few.
- The state must supplement private industry where necessary.
- The state should ensure efficiency in private industry and protect the public against economic exploitation.
- The state must protect the vulnerable, such as orphans and the aged.
- No one may be forced into an occupation unsuited to their age, sex or strength.
Transitory provisions
The transitory provisions of the constitution consist of thirteen articles that provide for a smooth transition from the state's pre-existing institutions to the newly established state. Article 51 provides for the transitional amendment of the constitution by ordinary legislation. The remaining twelve deal with such matters as the transition and reconstitution of the executive and legislature, the continuance of the civil service, the entry into office of the first president, the temporary continuance of the courts, and with the continuance of the attorney general, the comptroller and auditor general, the Defence Forces and the police.
Under their own terms the transitory provisions are today omitted from all official texts of the constitution. The provisions required that Article 51 be omitted from 1941 onwards and the remainder from 1938. However, paradoxically, under their own provisions Articles 52 to 63 continue to have the full force of law and so may be considered to remain an integral part of the constitution, even though invisible. This created the anomalous situation that, in 1941, it was deemed necessary, by means of the Second Amendment, to make changes to Article 56 despite the fact that it was no longer a part of the official text.
The precise requirements of the transitory provisions were that Articles 52 to 63 would be omitted from all texts published after the day on which the first president assumed office (this was Douglas Hyde who was inaugurated in 1938) and that Article 51 would be omitted from the third anniversary of this inauguration (1941). Unlike the other articles, Article 51 expressly provides that it would cease to have legal effect once it was removed from the document.
Any part of the Constitution may be amended, but only by referendum.
The procedure for amendment of the Constitution is set out in Article 46. An amendment must first be passed by both Houses of the Oireachtas, then be submitted to a referendum, and then finally must be signed into law by the President.
Judicial review of laws
The Constitution states that it is the highest law of the land and grants the Supreme Court authority to interpret its provisions, and to strike down the laws of the Oireachtas and activities of the Government it finds to be unconstitutional. Under judicial review the quite broad meaning of certain articles has come to be explored and expanded upon since 1937. The Supreme Court ruled, before their alteration in 1999, that Articles 2 and 3 did not impose a positive obligation upon the state that could be enforced in a court of law. The reference in Article 41 to the family's "imprescriptable rights, antecedent and superior to all positive law" has been interpreted by the Supreme Court as conferring upon spouses a broad right to privacy in marital affairs. In the 1974 case of McGee v. The Attorney General the court invoked this right to strike down laws banning the sale of contraceptives. The court has also issued a controversial interpretation of Article 40.3, which prohibits abortion. In the 1992 case of the Attorney General v. X (more commonly known simply as the "X case") the Supreme Court ruled that the state must permit someone to have an abortion where there is a danger to her life from suicide.
Issues of controversy
The "national territory"
As originally enacted in 1937, Article 2 asserted that "the whole island of Ireland, its islands and the territorial seas" formed a single "national territory", while Article 3 asserted that the Oireachtas had a right "to exercise jurisdiction over the whole of that territory". These articles offended Unionists in Northern Ireland, who considered them tantamount to an illegal extraterritorial claim.
Under the terms of the 1998 Belfast Agreement, Articles 2 and 3 were amended to remove any reference to a "national territory", and to state that a united Ireland should only come about with the consent of majorities in both the jurisdictions on the island of Ireland. The amended Articles also guarantee the people of Northern Ireland the right to be a "part of the Irish Nation", and to Irish citizenship.
The Constitution guarantees freedom of worship, and forbids the state from creating an established church.
Article 44.1 as originally enacted explicitly "recognised" a number of Christian denominations, such as the [Protestant] Church of Ireland, the Presbyterian Church in Ireland, as well as "the Jewish Congregations"; most controversially of all, it also recognised the "special position" of the Roman Catholic Church. These provisions were removed by the Fifth Amendment in 1973 (see below). Nevertheless the constitution still contains a number of explicit religious references, such as in the preamble, the declaration made by the President, and the remaining text of Article 44.1, which reads:
The State acknowledges that the homage of public worship is due to Almighty God. It shall hold His Name in reverence, and shall respect and honour religion.
The Constitution has also, since 1983, contained a controversial prohibition of abortion. However, this does not apply in cases where there is a threat to the life of the mother (including from risk of suicide) and may not be used to limit the distribution of information about abortion services in other countries or the right of freedom of travel to procure an abortion.
A number of ideas still found in the Constitution reflect the Catholic social teachings current in the 1930s, when the original text was drafted. Such teachings informed the provisions of the (non-binding) Directive Principles of Social Policy, as well as the system of vocational panels used to elect the Senate. The Constitution also grants very broadly worded rights to the institution of the family.
As originally enacted, the Constitution also included a prohibition on divorce. The ban on divorce was not removed until 1996.
Few contemporary commentators argue that the original text of the Constitution would be fully appropriate today. Those that have argued that:
- incorporating Catholic social teaching into law was common to many predominantly Catholic countries in the 1930s. Divorce, for example was banned in other states such as Italy, which repealed its ban in the 1970s.
- the reference to the Catholic Church's special position was of no legal effect and there was significance in the fact that the "special position" of Catholicism was held to derive merely from its greater number of adherents. Notably, Éamon De Valera resisted pressure from right-wing Catholic groups such as Maria Duce to make Catholicism an established church or to declare it the "one true religion".
- the prohibition on divorce was supported by senior members of the (Protestant) Church of Ireland.
- the Constitution's explicit recognition of the Jewish community was progressive in the climate of the 1930s.
The remaining religious provisions of the Constitution, including the wording of the Preamble, remain controversial and widely debated.
Status of women
The Constitution guarantees women the right to vote and to nationality and citizenship on an equal basis with men. However, it also contains a provision that was objected to by women's organisations at the time of its enactment in 1937. Article 41.2 states:
1° [...] the State recognises that by her life within the home, woman gives to the State a support without which the common good cannot be achieved.
2° The State shall, therefore, endeavour to ensure that mothers shall not be obliged by economic necessity to engage in labour to the neglect of their duties in the home.
Article 41.2.1° could, however, be viewed in the context of the 1930s, and some point out that it is not coercive and that there is no constitutional obligation for women to stay in the home. Indeed, some have argued that the provision highlights the value of the unremunerated role that women in the home contribute to society.
A republic?
In 1949 the Irish state abandoned its few remaining constitutional ties with the British monarchy, and it was declared by an Act of the Oireachtas that the term "Republic of Ireland" could be used as a "description" for the Irish state. However, there is debate as to whether or not the state was a republic in the period 1937–1949; between these dates the state was not described in any law as a republic. The current text of the Constitution does not mention the word "republic", but does for example assert that all power is derived, "under God, from the people" (Article 6.1).
Debate largely focuses on the question of whether, before 1949, the head of state was the President of Ireland, or King George VI. The Constitution did not directly refer to the King, but also did not (and still does not) state that the President was head of state. The President exercised most of the usual internal functions of a head of state, such as formally appointing the Government, and promulgating laws.
In 1936, before the enactment of the existing Constitution, George VI had been declared "By the Grace of God, of Great Britain, Ireland and the British Dominions beyond the Seas King, Defender of the Faith, Emperor of India" and, under the External Relations Act of the same year, it was this King who formally represented the state in its foreign affairs. Treaties, for example, were signed in the name of the King, who also accredited ambassadors and received the letters of credence of foreign diplomats. Representing a state abroad is seen by many scholars as the key characteristic of a head of state. This role meant, in any case, that George VI was the Head of State in the eyes of foreign nations.
However, the removal of the King's constitutional position within Ireland was brought about in 1948 not by any change to the Constitution, but by ordinary law (the Republic of Ireland Act 1948). Since the Irish state was unambiguously a republic after 1949 (when the 1948 Act came into operation), and the same Constitution was in force prior to that time, some have argued that the Irish state was in reality a republic from the Constitution's enactment in 1937.
Name of the state
The constitution begins with words "We, the people of Éire". It then declares, in Article 4, that the name of the state is "Éire, or, in the English language, Ireland". The text of the draft constitution as originally introduced into the Dáil had simply stated that the state was to be called Éire, and that term was used throughout the text of the draftconstitution. However, the English text of the draft constitution was amended during the parliamentary debates to replace "Éire" with "Ireland". (The only exceptions were the preamble, in which "Éire" is used alone, and Article 4, which was amended so as to refer to both "Éire" and the alternative English language name of "Ireland".) The name of the state was the subject of a long dispute between the British and Irish governments which has since been resolved.
Non-traditional family units
Article 41.1.1° of the Constitution "recognises the Family as the natural primary and fundamental unit group of Society, and as a moral institution possessing inalienable and imprescriptible rights, antecedent and superior to all positive law", and guarantees its protection by the state. However, these rights and protections are not extended to every family unit, such as single parents, unmarried opposite-sex co-habiters, and same-sex couples.
The institution of marriage enjoys a privileged position in the Constitution. A family exclusively based on marriage is envisaged: Article 41.3.1° states that "[t]he State pledges itself to guard with special care the institution of Marriage, on which the Family is founded". The effect is that non-marital unit members are not entitled to any of the encompassed protections, including those under the realms of tax, inheritance, and social welfare, granted by Article 41. For example, in State (Nicolaou) v. An Bord Uchtála IR 567, where an unmarried father, who had become estranged from the mother of his child some months after living and caring for the same child together, was prevented from invoking the provisions of Article 41 to halt the mother’s wishes of putting the child up for adoption. The then Mr. Justice Walsh of the Supreme Court stated that "the family referred to in [Article 41 was] the family which is founded on the institution of marriage".
Discrepancies between the Irish and English texts
A number of discrepancies have been identified between the Irish and English texts of the Constitution. According to Article 25.5.4° the Irish text prevails in such cases.
Minimum age requirement for the President
Perhaps the most significant discrepancy between the two texts of the Constitution is to be found in the subsection stipulating the minimum age for a candidate to be eligible for election as President (Art. 12.4.1°). According to the English text, an eligible candidate "has reached his thirty-fifth year of age", whereas the Irish text has this as "ag a bhfuil cúig bliana tríochad slán" ("has completed his thirty-five years"). Because a person's thirty-fifth year of life begins on his or her thirty-fourth birthday, this means there is a one year's difference between the minimum ages as stated in the two texts. Various proposals have been made to amend the Constitution so as to eliminate this discrepancy.
Constitutional reviews
The Constitution has been subjected to a series of formal reviews during the last 40 years or so.
- The then Taoiseach, Seán Lemass, encouraged the establishment of an informal Oireachtas committee, which undertook a general review of the Constitution and issued a report in 1967.
- A draft report was produced by a legal committee, chaired by the Attorney General Colm Condon. No final report was published.
- The Inter-Party Committee on the Implications of Irish Unity addressed constitutional issues in relation to Northern Ireland. Its work was continued by the 1973 All-Party Oireachtas Committee on Irish Relations and later by the 1982 Constitution Review Body, a group of legal experts under the chairmanship of the Attorney General. Neither of the 1972 groups published a report.
- The New Ireland Forum was established in 1983, and its report in 1984 covered some constitutional issues.
- The Progressive Democrats published a review entitled Constitution for a New Republic.
- In October 1994, the government established a Forum for Peace and Reconciliation, which considered some constitutional issues relating to Northern Ireland. The Forum suspended its work in February 1996 but met once more in December 1997.
- The Constitution Review Group was an expert group established by the government in 1995, and chaired by Dr T.K. Whitaker. Its 700-page report, published in July 1996, has been described as "the most thorough analysis of the Constitution from the legal, political science, administrative, social and economic perspectives ever made".
- The first All-Party Oireachtas Committee on the Constitution was set up in 1996.
All-Party Oireachtas Committee
The All-Party Oireachtas Committee on the Constitution was established in 1996.
First committee
Second committee
- 3rd Progress Report: The President, 1998
- 4th Progress Report: the courts and judiciary, 1999
- 5th Progress Report: abortion, 2000
- 6th Progress Report: the referendum, 2001
- 7th Progress Report: Parliament, 2002
The second committee also published two commissioned works:
- A new electoral system for Ireland?, by Michael Laver (1998)
- Bunreacht na hÉireann: a study of the Irish text, by Micheál Ó Cearúil (1999)
Third committee
The current (2002) committee is chaired by Fianna Fáil TD Denis O'Donovan. It describes its task as being to "complete the programme of constitutional amendments begun by the earlier committees, aimed at renewing the Constitution in all its parts, for implementation over a number of years". It describes the job as "unprecedented", noting that "no other state with the referendum as its sole mechanism for constitutional change has set itself so ambitious an objective".
The committee has divided its work into considering three types of amendment:
- technical/editorial: changes in form but not in substance, for example changing "he" to "he or she" where it is clear that a provision in the Constitution applies to both men and women.
- non-contentious: changes in substance generally agreeable to the people, for example describing the President as Head of State.
- contentious: changes in substance which of their nature divide people, for example changes in the character and scope of human rights.
The current All-Party Committee has published three reports:
- 8th Progress Report: Government, 2003
- 9th Progress Report: Private Property, 2004
- 10th Progress Report: The Family, 2006
The committee summarises its remaining tasks as being to consider:
- fundamental rights (apart from the right to life and property rights, which have already been considered)
- Article 45 (Directive Principles of Social Policy)
- a miscellany ranging from the Preamble, the name of the state, the position of the Irish language, to the transitory provisions.
See also
- Politics of the Republic of Ireland
- History of the Republic of Ireland
- List of Ireland-related topics
- "Constitution Of Ireland Bunreacht Na hÉireann". The All-Party Oireachtas Committee On The Constitution. Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 2008-08-24.
- Article 46(2)
- Dáil Éireann - Volume 64 - 12 December, 1936. Executive Authority (External Relations) Bill, 1936 - Committee Stage.
- Emmett Larkin, of the University of Chicago in Church, State, and Nation in Modern Ireland, 1975; The Historical Dimensions of Irish Catholicism, 1976; Irish Times 25 Nov. 2006 by Stephen Collins based on Republic of Ireland state papers released under 30 year rule.
- "Referendum Results 1937–2009". Department of the Environment, Community and Local Government. Retrieved 8 March 2010.
- [ULSTER'S INCLUSION BARRED BY BRITAIN; London Protests Claim That Belfast Eventually Must Be Ruled by Dublin; LITTLE CHANGE IS SEEN; Premier of Northern Ireland Attacks Constitution as an 'Affront to His Majesty' - New York Times, 30 December 1937]
- Circular dated 1 April 1949 from the Canadian Secretary of State for External Affairs to Heads of Post Abroad (Circular Document No.B38, 836. DEA/7545‑B‑40)
- The Manchester Guardian, 30 December 1937 Britain accepts new name for the Free State. Full text of British Government's communiqué cited in Clifford, Angela, The Constitutional History of Eire/Ireland, Athol Books, Belfast, 1985, p153.
- In May 1938 the British government enacted the Eire (Confirmation of Agreements) Act 1938.
- The Canberra Times - Thursday 13 January 1938
- Minutes & Recordings of the College Historical Society debate on the presence of God in the Constitution, featuring Archbishop John Neill, Patsy McGarry and Senator Ronan Mullen.
- "Dáil Éireann - Volume 67 - 25 May 1937 - Bunreacht na hEireann (Dréacht)—Coiste". Historical-debates.oireachtas.ie. Retrieved 2008-10-24.
- Parliamentary Under Secretary of State at the Northern Ireland Office, Lord Dubs, House of Lords Debates volume 593 Column 1188 (19 Oct 1998).
- Ó Cearúil, Micheál (199). "Bunreacht na hÉireann: A study of the Irish text". Dublin: Stationery Office. pp. 132–4. Archived from the original on 21 July 2011.
- See All-Party Oireachtas Committee on the Constitution: Constitutional Reviews. This section is adapted from this source, under the presumption of fair use of government publications.
- Constitution Review Group (1996). Report of the Constitution Review Group. Dublin: Stationery Office. ISBN 0-7076-2440-1.
- See Constitution Review Group
- All-Party Oireachtas Committee on the Constitution; Chair: Jim O'Keeffe (1997). First progress report. Dublin: Stationery Office. ISBN 0-7076-3858-5.
- All-Party Oireachtas Committee on the Constitution; Chair: Jim O'Keeffe (1997). Second progress report. Dublin: Stationery Office. ISBN 0-7076-3868-2.
- All-Party Oireachtas Committee on the Constitution; Chair: Brian Lenihan (1998). Third progress report: The President. Dublin: Stationery Office. ISBN 0-7076-6161-7.
- All-Party Oireachtas Committee on the Constitution; Chair: Brian Lenihan (1999). Fourth progress report: the courts and judiciary. Dublin: Stationery Office. ISBN 0-7076-6297-4.
- All-Party Oireachtas Committee on the Constitution; Chair: Brian Lenihan (2000). Fifth progress report: abortion. Dublin: Stationery Office. ISBN 0-7076-9001-3.
- All-Party Oireachtas Committee on the Constitution; Chair: Brian Lenihan (2001). Sixth progress report: the referendum. Dublin: Stationery Office. ISBN 0-7557-1168-8.
- All-Party Oireachtas Committee on the Constitution; Chair: Brian Lenihan (2002). Seventh progress report: parliament. Dublin: Stationery Office. ISBN 0-7557-1211-0.
- Laver, Michael; All-Party Oireachtas Committee on the Constitution (1998). A new electoral system for Ireland?. Dublin: Stationery Office. ISBN 1-902585-00-3.
- Ó Cearúil, Micheál; All-Party Oireachtas Committee on the Constitution (1999). Bunreacht na hÉireann: a study of the Irish text. Dublin: Stationery Office. ISBN 0-7076-6400-4.
- See Work Programme of the All-Party Oireachtas Committee on the Constitution
- see Publications of the All-Party Oireachtas Committee on the Constitution
- All-Party Oireachtas Committee on the Constitution; Chair: Denis O'Donovan (2003). Eighth progress report: government. Dublin: Stationery Office. ISBN 0-7557-1552-7.
- All-Party Oireachtas Committee on the Constitution; Chair: Denis O'Donovan (2004). Ninth progress report: private property. Dublin: Stationery Office. ISBN 0-7557-1901-8.
- All-Party Oireachtas Committee on the Constitution; Chair: Denis O'Donovan (2006). Tenth progress report: private property. Dublin: Stationery Office. ISBN 0-7557-1901-8.
Further reading
- Brian Farrell, De Valera's Constitution and Ours
- Brian Doolan, Constitutional Law and Constitutional Rights in Ireland
- Jim Duffy, "Overseas studies: Ireland" in An Australian Republic: The Options - The Appendices (Republic Advisory Committee, Vol II, Commonwealth of Australia, 1993) ISBN 0-644-32589-5
- Michael Forde, Constitutional Law of Ireland
- John M. Kelly, The Irish Constitution
- Dermot Keogh and Andrew McCarthy, 'The making of the Irish Constitution 1937', Mercier Press, Cork, 2007, ISBN 978-1-85635-561-2
- Tim Murphy & Patrick Twomey, Ireland's Evolving Constitution 1937–1997: Collected Essays
- Micheál Ó Cearúil, Bunreacht na hÉireann: A Study of the Irish Text (published by the All Party Oireachtas Committee on the Constitution, The Stationery Office, 1999).
- James Casey, "Constitutional Law in Ireland"
- Séamas Ó Tuathail, "Gaeilge agus Bunreacht"
|Wikisource has several original texts related to: Constitution of Ireland|
- Text of the constitution
- Latest text, accurate up to and including the Thirtieth Amendment from Department of the Taoiseach:
- Bilingual Irish and English text: PDF
- Original text:
- Original text of the Constitution of Ireland - Full text of the document as it was adopted in 1937, from Wikisource
- Transitory Provisions of the Constitution of Ireland - Full text from Wikisource.
- The Unabridged Constitution of Ireland - An unofficial variorum edition with amendments alongside the original text. Only accurate up until the Twentieth Amendment in 1999.
- 1937 Dáil debates
- Draft Constitution:
- Plebiscite (Draft Constitution) Act, 1937: First Reading: 25 May; Second Reading: 1 June; Money Resolution: 1 June; Committee and Final stages: 1 June
- Constitution (Consequential Provisions) Act, 1937: First Reading: 24 November; Second Reading: 10 December; Committee Stage: 16 December
- The All-Party Oireachtas Committee on the Constitution
- Bunreacht na hÉireann: A study of the Irish text - included the enrolled Irish text
- The Origins of the Irish Constitution project of the Royal Irish Academy with documents covering the period 1929 to 1941.
|
<urn:uuid:684272a9-7beb-42aa-8398-596afb2c34b6>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Ireland
|
2013-05-25T19:55:52Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706153698/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516120913-00050-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.9385
| 10,147
|
The intelligent bed, that automatically turns patients over to keep them from developing bedsores (Photo: Empa)
Decubitus ulcers, more commonly known as bedsores, are a common and potentially serious problem for bedridden hospital patients. Staff are often required to regularly turn patients over in their beds, as the sores are the result of too much prolonged pressure to the skin, caused by lying on one spot for too long. Turning those patients over (especially the larger ones) can be physically difficult work, however, plus some facilities won't always have enough staff on hand to do the turning as often as needed. Swiss entrepreneur Michael Sauter thought the situation needed addressing, so he invented a bed that turns the patients over itself.
|
<urn:uuid:bd6c1ce0-3b32-4421-9195-04c732f3c3b9>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.gizmag.com/intelligent-bed-prevents-bedsores/19229/picture/137867/
|
2013-05-24T22:29:21Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00003-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.969071
| 150
|
Cell Division: Mitosis
This video gives a detailed and visual description of mitosis within the cell. It explains the role of the nucleus, cell membrane, chromosomes, chromatids and other components involved in mitosis. It uses appropriate terminology and can help students relate vocabulary words with the actual process. (01:29)
Informatie opzoeken : Online en op papier In deze werkbundel vergelijken we papieren naslagwerken zoals woordenboeken en encyclopedieën met verschillende onlinebronnen. Bij de verschillende onderdelen horen telkens ook opdrachtjes. Leerlingen worden aangespoord om kritisch te …
In deze werkbundel vergelijken we papieren naslagwerken zoals woordenboeken en encyclopedieën met verschillende onlinebronnen. Bij de verschillende onderdelen horen telkens ook opdrachtjes. Leerlingen worden aangespoord om kritisch te …
Explanation of the use of quotation marks in English writing. Video gives purpose and examples.
Workers Union Organizations
This video is accompanied by text. "In the 1842 case Commonwealth v. Hunt, the Massachusetts Supreme Court held that it was not illegal for workers to organize a union or try to compel recognition of that union with a strike. This was certainly an important step for labor, but the idea of permanent unions was slow to catch on. Since many laborers were immigrants, they often spoke different languages and harbored racial and cultural biases. Many only planned to stay in America long enough to earn
The Roman Empire: Years of Eruption-Episode 4 fo 4
Rival generals fight for control in Rome; Mount Vesuvius erupts; Emperor Trajan expands the empire.
The First Emperor: The Man Who Made China (Part 5 of 9)
This video is a documentary which tells the story of Qin Shi Huang, who ascended to the throne at age 13. Under his reign the first version of the Great Wall was constructed. For high school students. CAUTION: There are battle scenes--which may be too graphic for some viewers.
The Voting Rights Act of 1965
This brief video is about the Voting Rights Act of 1965 which secured the right to vote without any penalty to Black Americans.
How to Write a Persuasive Essay
This eight-minute video is about how to write a persuasive essay and provides some major points such as an introduction, a hook, and a thesis. This video moves slowly and is easy for students to follow. A good introduction video before teaching this type of essay. (08:49)
Italy: Arts and Culture in Florence
This 2:27 long video shows the Renaissance period in Florence, Italy with images of architecture and art made during this time period. The video does show the statute of David and thus may be offensive to some.
The Great Depression Pt.3
It happened in the 30's. Interview with people who lived through the Depression and discussion of what happened and why.
David Shannon Interview - (No, David!)
David Shannon says as a child he always read books and drew pictures to go along with them. When he does a book, he says it is like directing a movie, he makes everything in the pictures reinforce the story in some way, such as color, mood, and tone of the story. The story "No, David!" was a story he wrote when he was younger, his mom had kept the book. He tried to change it by putting in more words, but it didn't work. The book reflects the many ways adults say no. Author's head talking. (6:5
Plants Cells Slide Show by StudyJams
The cells of plants include several parts, such as the cell body, cytoplasm, mitochondria, nucleus, vacuole, cell wall, and cholorplasts. Only plant cells have plant cell walls and chloroplasts. Learn more about the plant cell with these detailed images from StudyJams. The pictures are set to music with information written under each photo. A short, self-checking quiz and song are also included on this link.
Interview with Phyllis Reynolds Naylor (Part 4)
In this section Phyllis Reynolds Naylor, winner of the ASPCA Roger Caras Award, answers the question, "Which is your favorite among the books you have written?" She comments that answering this question is really hard, but if she had to give an answer it would be Shiloh. (0:39)
How to Identify Spruce Trees
The difference between spruce and pine trees is explained in this 2:48 minute video. The cones, shape of the tree, and needles are all clues to telling the difference between pine and spruce trees. The video moves slowly and it easy for students to follow. The use of spruce wood by the Wright Brothers is explained as well as the fact that there are about 35 species growing around the world.
American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
Provides a comprehensive picture of childhood mental illness.
Coral Reefs -- Our Ocean Ecosystem Engineers
UM Rosenstiel School Coral Reef Biologist Andrew Baker studies how coral reefs are impacted by climate change and other threats worlsdwide. Corals are important ocean ecosystem engineers, similar to trees in a rainforest, they provide essential habitat to one-third of all ocean life.
ACAD 1100 at the University of Memphis.
Taking ACAD 1100 as a freshman at the University of Memphis is the first step to a successful college career.
La cristallerie du Val Saint-Lambert: beeldmateriaal mondeling beschrijven, begrijpend lezen, schrij
Op het einde van deze les kun je uitleggen hoe kristallen voorwerpen worden gemaakt, welke vakkennis er vereist is en waarom je al dan niet zou deelnemen aan een rondleiding in de kristalfabriek van Val Saint-Lambert.
"Health Policy and Practice in Tennessee: Assessing the Health of our Young Children".
The Papasan Public Policy Institute at the University of Memphis presents "Health Policy and Practice in Tennessee: Assessing the Health of our Young Children".
|
<urn:uuid:82e16328-c1d2-4450-a53c-c849791c8f46>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/xpert/scoreresults.php?keywords=Transatlantic%20security%20relat&start=1740&end=1760
|
2013-05-25T20:13:56Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706153698/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516120913-00051-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.856216
| 1,367
|
In 1961 Rolf Landauer linked information and thermodynamic entropy by showing that erasing or combining bits of memory must be accompanied by an increase in entropy. For the first time since then, a team of physicists have experimentally verified this principle.
According to Landauer’s principle, any logically irreversible transformation of information results in, at best, some small dissipation of heat. The specific amount depends on the operating temperature—per bit, it amounts to around 3×10-21 joules at room temperature. This energy is the Landauer limit, and controls the maximum energy efficiency of computers (it's similar to the Carnot efficiency in heat engines, both of which are related to entropy).
Measuring such a tiny amount of energy in a memory storage devices is, to say the least, challenging. But now, a team from École Normale Supérieure, the University of Kaiserslautern, and the University of Augsburg has managed to do so.
Currently, our computers operate around a thousand times the Landauer limit. But as computer speeds increase, we need to move closer to this maximum efficiency to control power consumption and heat dissipation. However, until now, Landauer’s principle hasn’t been experimentally verified.
Their experimental approach is similar to one we previously covered being used to run a microscopic heat engine. The authors here represented one bit of memory with a single two-micrometer silica bead held in water between glass slides. They used a laser to create a double potential well by rapidly switching the focus of the laser between two positions. This functioned as an optical tweezer, holding the bead in one of the positions. The left position represented the 0 state, and the right the 1 state.
In this system, erasing the memory is moving the bead to the right-hand well regardless of the initial position (0 to 1, or 1 to 1). The team managed this by first lowering the energy barrier between the two potential wells, then tilting the glass slide. This tilt created a viscous force that moved the bead to the right.
Now, let’s consider this operation in terms of entropy. Initially, the bead could be in either well, so the probability of each is one-half. This corresponds with a small but known entropy. After the erasure, the entropy is zero since the final position is known. Therefore, to satisfy that pesky second law of thermodynamics, the procedure must transfer (at minimum) the initial entropy in the surrounding environment.
This entropy increase manifests as heat dissipated in the surrounding water during the erasure. The actual entropy produced depends on the timing of the erase cycle. The researchers found that shorter cycles (meaning faster movement) dissipated more heat. As the cycle time gets larger and larger, the entropy asymptotically decreases to the Landauer limit.
This behavior makes sense: in macro thermodynamic systems, no process (like heat addition or piston work) is actually reversible; every real process generates some amount of entropy. We can approximate processes as reversible, though, if they move slow enough compared to the system response. Here, in a microscopic single-particle system, the researchers found a similar time-dependent behavior. Fundamentally, though, a minimal amount of entropy must be produced in a logically irreversible process—the Landauer limit—and this study finally confirmed this principle.
|
<urn:uuid:a84d2e42-2489-4fe6-97d3-0e0e291a707c>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://arstechnica.com/science/2012/03/information-and-entropy-finally-linked-through-experiment/?comments=1&post=22635589
|
2013-05-23T12:04:15Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703298047/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112138-00050-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.923091
| 703
|
In the world of embedded and computer security, one of the often debated topics is whether 128-bit symmetric key, used for AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) is computationally secure against brute-force attack. Governments and businesses place a great deal of faith in the belief that AES is so secure that its security key can never be broken, despite some of the inherent flaws in AES.
This article describes the strength of the cryptographic system against brute force attacks with different key sizes and the time it takes to successfully mount a brute force attack factoring future advancements in processing speeds.
Any cryptographic algorithm requires multi-bit key to encrypt the data as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Multi-bit key to encrypt data using cryptographic algorithm
The key length used in the encryption determines the practical feasibility of performing a brute-force attack, with longer keys exponentially more difficult to crack than shorter ones.
Brute-force attack involves systematically checking all possible key combinations until the correct key is found and is one way to attack when it is not possible to take advantage of other weaknesses in an encryption system.
Here is an example of a brute force attack on a 4-bit key:
Figure 2: Brute Force attack on 4-bit key
As shown, it will take a maximum 16 rounds to check every possible key combination starting with "0000." Given sufficient time, a brute force attack is capable of cracking any known algorithm.
The following table just shows the possible number of key combinations with respect to key size:
Figure 3: Key combinations versus Key size
Notice the exponential increase in possible combinations as the key size increases. "DES" is part of a symmetric cryptographic algorithm with a key size of 56 bits that has been cracked in the past using brute force attack.
There is also a physical argument that a 128-bit symmetric key is computationally secure against brute-force attack. Just consider the following:
Faster supercomputer (as per Wikipedia): 10.51 Pentaflops = 10.51 x 1015 Flops [Flops = Floating point operations per second]
No. of Flops required per combination check: 1000 (very optimistic but just assume for now)
No. of combination checks per second = (10.51 x 1015) / 1000 = 10.51 x 1012
No. of seconds in one Year = 365 x 24 x 60 x 60 = 31536000
No. of Years to crack AES with 128-bit Key = (3.4 x 1038) / [(10.51 x 1012) x 31536000]
= (0.323 x 1026)/31536000
= 1.02 x 1018
= 1 billion billion years
Figure 4: Time to crack Cryptographic Key versus Key size
As shown above, even with a supercomputer, it would take 1 billion billion years to crack the 128-bit AES key using brute force attack. This is more than the age of the universe (13.75 billion years). If one were to assume that a computing system existed that could recover a DES key in a second, it would still take that same machine approximately 149 trillion years to crack a 128-bit AES key.
There are more interesting examples. The following snippet is a snapshot of one the technical papers from Seagate titled "128-bit versus 256-bit AES encryption" to explain why 128-bit AES is sufficient to meet future needs.
If you assume:
- Every person on the planet owns 10 computers.
- There are 7 billion people on the planet.
- Each of these computers can test 1 billion key combinations per second.
- On average, you can crack the key after testing 50% of the possibilities.
Then the earth's population can crack one encryption key in 77,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 years!
The bottom line is that if AES could be compromised, the world would come to a standstill. The difference between cracking the AES-128 algorithm and AES-256 algorithm is considered minimal. Whatever breakthrough might crack 128-bit will probably also crack 256-bit.
In the end, AES has never been cracked yet and is safe against any brute force attacks contrary to belief and arguments. However, the key size used for encryption should always be large enough that it could not be cracked by modern computers despite considering advancements in processor speeds based on Moore's law.
About the author
Mohit Arora (email@example.com) is a Sr. Systems engineer and Security Architect at Freescale Semiconductor. He is responsible for product and architecture definition for 32-bit industrial and general-purpose parts. "Embedded Security" is one of his main expertise and focus areas and he also leads the Security IP Asset team in AISG (Automotive Industrial and Solution Group). He holds more than 35 publications and is also the author of the book "The Art of Hardware Architecture."
For more articles like this and others related to designing for the embedded Internet, visit Embedded Internet Designline and/or subscribe to the biweekly Embedded Internet newsletter (free registration).
|
<urn:uuid:0fbadf56-ee3c-4e9b-bd19-6fe14b1c099d>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.eetimes.com/design/embedded-internet-design/4372428/How-secure-is-AES-against-brute-force-attacks
|
2013-05-25T05:58:51Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705559639/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115919-00050-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.905094
| 1,061
|
Can you briefly trace the Civil War’s continuing impact on national politics, starting with the post-Reconstruction period up to today?
Because the Republicans were the party of Lincoln and the party of abolition, the Democratic Party ruled the South from the ending of the Civil War through the 1940s. The South became part of the Democratic coalition forged by the New Deal — the city-dwellers of the North and the rural voters of the South — which created electoral majorities for the Democrats throughout the 30s and most of the 40s.
But once the Great Depression and the war ended, that Democratic coalition grew increasingly fragile. Then the simmering issues of race, segregation, and civil rights exploded into the Civil Rights movement of the 1960s, culminating in the passage of two seminal laws, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. These legislative efforts, led by Democrats in the White House and in Congress, were a long-delayed reaction to underlying racial and ethnic issues that came out of the South’s past — notably, the aftermath of the Civil War.
This had the political impact of a 180-degree transformation, causing Southern voters to move to the Republican Party — and today, we see substantial majorities for the Republicans in the South. Other factors have played a role — for example, the impact of air conditioning, which has made summers in the South more palatable and helped lure GOP voters from the North — but Civil Rights was the spark.
You’ve said that the Civil War was, on one level, about the use of federal power and the competition between the national government’s role and the states. Has the Tea Party tapped into this tension?
The Tea Party is a very American phenomenon, representing a mindset that goes back to our founding — apprehensive of government power and devoted to the idea of liberty.
But the current popularity of the Tea Party has more to do with economics than with political philosophy. Recessions and depressions always kick up a lot of political dust. The Panic of 1837 fostered an anti-property tax movement, and the economic problems of the 1970s killed the Great Society Democrats. People are anxious and frustrated about their economic security. They can’t blame employers because they’re worried about their jobs, so who is left? The people in charge of the government.
That distrust of government, driven by the bad economy, has the most resonance with traditional Republican policy stands: against big social programs, against big government, for individual rights.
How has the GOP managed to maintain its traditional popularity with Big Business, while supplanting the Democrats as the party of many white working-class and rural voters?
The Republican political alliance with business goes back to the late 19th century. As far as the GOP’s more recent popularity with so-called Main Street voters, social issues have been important in that transformation.
Ethnic voters such as Irish and Italians, who once saw the Democratic Party as a refuge, don’t need that anymore because they’ve been assimilated into the mainstream. Issues like abortion have drawn Catholic voters towards the GOP, and the white backlash in the 1960s against civil rights cost the Democrats a lot of working-class and rural support.
Plus, since 1970, working guys have really taken a hit in income, which has discredited liberal economics and made the GOP’s tax-cutting approach, as embodied by Ronald Reagan, more popular.
Wealthy voters care much more about business than social issues, but they also know that support for conservative social positions helps bring in GOP majorities, so there’s a kind of uneasy partnership there. Whether it’s calculated or happenstance, social issues help keep the Republican Party together.
|
<urn:uuid:b9acd7c8-cad4-4e6e-b612-7a316a54954f>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.northeastern.edu/news/2011/06/ballard_campbell/
|
2013-05-20T11:54:28Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698924319/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516100844-00052-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.965438
| 774
|
Person Born 31/10/1451 Died 20/5/1506
Explorer. Born in the Republic of Genoa (his birth date is approximate). From 1492 to 1504, he made four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean under the auspices of the monarchs of Spain. These voyages took him to the Caribbean islands, in particular Cuba and Hispaniola (modern day Haiti/Dominican Republic) where he attempted to establish a colony. Although he is thought to be the original discoverer of North America, he never actually set foot on the continent. Died in Valladolid, Spain.
|
<urn:uuid:a07c30d7-5e79-4545-b10c-d5ac95c2e1fe>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.londonremembers.com/subjects/christopher-columbus
|
2013-05-22T00:56:55Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700984410/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104304-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.909286
| 125
|
You and your wife have different opinions about where your daughter should go to school. Your wife thinks she should go to a public school, but you would prefer a private school. You say this when describing this disagreement to your wife's parent.
We disagree over whether or not to send her to private school.
The word "disagree" means to have different or opposite opinions. You use the word "over" to tell what topic the disagreement is about. What follows "over" can be a topic:
We often disagree over politics.
Or it can be a longer noun phrase:
Martha and Paul have always disagreed over where they first met.
When you have a yes-or-no choice, and you want to describe and talk about that choice, you can use "whether or not to ___".
We talked for hours about whether or not to redecorate the kitchen.
This can also be used in the order "whether to ___ or not". This version is a little more formal.
We talked for hours about whether to redecorate the kitchen or not.
(Print this lesson)
|
<urn:uuid:ff404f31-204b-417d-93c7-71275496a91e>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.phrasemix.com/examples/we-disagree-over-whether-or-not-to-send-her-to-private-schoo
|
2013-06-20T02:09:03Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368710006682/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516131326-00051-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.954544
| 229
|
Go to the previous, next section.
All of the millions of people around the world who use the Net have their own e-mail addresses. A growing number of "gateways" tie more and more people to the Net every day. When you logged onto the host system you are now using, it automatically generated an address for you, as well.
The basic concepts behind e-mail parallel those of regular mail. You send mail to people at their particular addresses. In turn, they write to you at your e-mail address. You can subscribe to the electronic equivalent of magazines and newspapers. You might even get electronic junk mail.
E-mail has two distinct advantages over regular mail. The most obvious is speed. Instead of several days, your message can reach the other side of the world in hours, minutes or even seconds (depending on where you drop off your mail and the state of the connections between there and your recipient). The other advantage is that once you master the basics, you'll be able to use e-mail to access databases and file libraries. You'll see how to do this later, along with learning how to transfer program and data files through e-mail.
E-mail also has advantages over the telephone. You send your message when it's convenient for you. Your recipients respond at their convenience. No more telephone tag. And while a phone call across the country or around the world can quickly result in huge phone bills, e-mail lets you exchange vast amounts of mail for only a few pennies -- even if the other person is in New Zealand.
E-mail is your connection to help -- your Net lifeline. The Net can sometimes seem a frustrating place! No matter how hard you try, no matter where you look, you just might not be able to find the answer to whatever is causing you problems. But when you know how to use e-mail, help is often just a few keystrokes away: you can ask your system administrator or a friend for help in an e-mail message.
The quickest way to start learning e-mail is to send yourself a message. Most public-access sites actually have several different types of mail systems, all of which let you both send and receive mail. We'll start with the simplest one, known, appropriately enough, as "mail," and then look at a couple of other interfaces. At your host system's command prompt, type:
where username is the name you gave yourself when you first logged on. Hit enter. The computer might respond with
or, actually, anything at all (but you'll have to hit enter before you get to the end of the screen). Hit enter.
The cursor will drop down a line. You can now begin writing the actual message. Type a sentence, again, anything at all. And here's where you hit your first Unix frustration, one that will bug you repeatedly: you have to hit enter before you get to the very end of the line. Just like typewriters, many Unix programs have no word-wrapping.(4)
When done with your message, hit return. Now hit control-D (the control and the D keys at the same time). This is a Unix command that tells the computer you're done writing and that it should close your "envelope" and mail it off (you could also hit enter once and then, on a blank line, type a period at the beginning of the line and hit enter again).
You've just sent your first e-mail message. And because you're sending mail to yourself, rather than to someone somewhere else on the Net, your message has already arrived, as we'll see in a moment.
If you had wanted, you could have even written your message on your own computer and then uploaded it into this electronic "envelope." There are a couple of good reasons to do this with long or involved messages. One is that once you hit enter at the end of a line in "mail" you can't readily fix any mistakes on that line (unless you use some special commands to call up a Unix text processor). Also, if you are paying for access by the hour, uploading a prepared message can save you money. Remember to save the document in ASCII or text format. Uploading a document you've created in a word processor that uses special formatting commands (which these days means many programs) will cause strange effects.
When you get that blank line after the subject line, upload the message using the ASCII protocol. Or you can copy and paste the text, if your software allows that. When done, hit control-D as above.
Now you have mail waiting for you. Normally, when you log on, your public-access site will tell you whether you have new mail waiting. To open your mailbox and see your waiting mail, type
and hit enter.
When the host system sees "mail" without a name after it, it knows you want to look in your mailbox rather than send a message. Your screen, on a plain-vanilla Unix system will display:
Mail version SMI 4.0 Mon Apr 24 18:34:15 PDT 1989 Type ? for help. "/usr/spool/mail/adamg": 1 message 1 new 1 unread >N 1 adamg Sat Jan 15 20:04 12/290 test
Ignore the first line; it's just computerese of value only to the people who run your system. You can type a question mark and hit return, but unless you're familiar with Unix, most of what you'll see won't make much sense at this point.
The second line tells you the directory on the host system where your mail messages are put, which again, is not something you'll likely need to know. The second line also tells you how many messages are in your mailbox, how many have come in since the last time you looked and how many messages you haven't read yet.
It's the third line that is of real interest -- it tells you who the message is from, when it arrived, how many lines and characters it takes up, and what the subject is. The "N" means it is a new message -- it arrived after the last time you looked in your mailbox. Hit enter. And there's your message -- only now it's a lot longer than what you wrote!
Message 1: From adamg Jan 15 20:04:55 1994 Received: by eff.org id AA28949 (5.65c/IDA-1.4.4/pen-ident for adamg); Sat, 15 Jan 1994 20:04:55 -0400 (ident-sender: email@example.com) Date: Sat, 15 Jan 1994 21:34:55 -0400 From: Adam Gaffin <adamg> Message-Id: <199204270134.AA28949@eff.org> To: adamg Subject: test Status: R This is only a test!
Whoa! What is all that stuff? It's your message with a postmark gone mad. Just as the postal service puts its marks on every piece of mail it handles, so do Net postal systems. Only it's called a "header" instead of a postmark. Each system that handles or routes your mail puts its stamp on it. Since many messages go through a number of systems on their way to you, you will often get messages with headers that seem to go on forever. Among other things, a header will tell you exactly when a message was sent and received (even the difference between your local time and Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) -- as at the end of line 4 above).
If this had been a long message, it would just keep scrolling across and down your screen -- unless the people who run your public-access site have set it up to pause every 24 lines. One way to deal with a message that doesn't stop is to use your telecommunication software's logging or text-buffer function. Start it before you hit the number of the message you want to see. Your computer will ask you what you want to call the file you're about to create. After you name the file and hit enter, type the number of the message you want to see and hit enter. When the message finishes scrolling, turn off the text-buffer function. The message is now saved in your computer. This way, you can read the message while not connected to the Net (which can save you money if you're paying by the hour) and write a reply offline.
But in the meantime, now what? You can respond to the message, delete it or save it. To respond, type a lowercase "r" and hit enter. You'll get something like this:
To: adamg Subject: Re: test
Note that this time, you don't have to enter a user name. The computer takes it from the message you're replying to and automatically addresses your message to its sender. The computer also automatically inserts a subject line, by adding "Re:" to the original subject. From here, it's just like writing a new message. But say you change your mind and decide not to reply after all. How do you get out of the message? Hit control-C once. You'll get this:
(Interrupt -- one more to kill letter)
If you hit control-C once more, the message will disappear and you'll get back to your mail's command line.
Now, if you type a lowercase "d" and then hit enter, you'll delete the original message. Type a lowercase "q" to exit your mailbox.
If you type a "q" without first hitting "d", your message is transferred to a file called mbox. This file is where all read, but un-deleted messages go. If you want to leave it in your mailbox for now, type a lowercase "x" and hit enter. This gets you out of mail without making any changes.
The mbox file works a lot like your mailbox. To access it, type
mail -f mbox
at your host system's command line and hit enter.
You'll get a menu identical to the one in your mailbox from which you can read these old messages, delete them or respond to them. It's probably a good idea to clear out your mailbox and mbox file from time to time, if only to keep them uncluttered.
Are there any drawbacks to e-mail? There are a few. One is that people seem more willing to fly off the handle electronically than in person, or over the phone. Maybe it's because it's so easy to hit R and reply to a message without pausing and reflecting a moment. That's why we have smileys (see section Smileys)! There's no online equivalent yet of a return receipt: chances are your message got to where it's going, but there's no absolute way for you to know for sure unless you get a reply from the other person.
So now you're ready to send e-mail to other people on the Net. Of course, you need somebody's address to send them mail. How do you get it?
Alas, the simplest answer is not what you'd call the most elegant: you call them up on the phone or write them a letter on paper and ask them. Residents of the electronic frontier are only beginning to develop the equivalent of phone books, and the ones that exist today are far from complete (still, later on, see section Telnet (Mining the Net, part I), we'll show you how to use some of these directories).
Eventually, you'll start corresponding with people, which means you'll want to know how to address mail to them. It's vital to know how to do this, because the smallest mistake -- using a comma when you should have used a period, for instance, can bounce the message back to you, undelivered. In this sense, Net addresses are like phone numbers: one wrong digit and you get the wrong person. Fortunately, most net addresses now adhere to a relatively easy-to-understand system.
Earlier, you sent yourself a mail message using just your user-name. This was sort of like making a local phone call -- you didn't have to dial a 1 or an area code. This also works for mail to anybody else who has an account on the same system as you.
Sending mail outside of your system, though, will require the use of the Net equivalent of area codes, called "domains." A basic Net address will look something like this:
Tomg is somebody's user ID, and he is at (hence the sign) a site (or in Internetese, a "domain") known as `std.com'. Large organizations often have more than one computer linked to the Internet; in this case, the name of the particular machine is world (you will quickly notice that, like boat owners, Internet computer owners always name their machines).
Domains tell you the name of the organization that runs a given e-mail site and what kind of site it is or, if it's not in the U.S., what country it's located in. Large organizations may have more than one computer or gateway tied to the Internet, so you'll often see a two-part domain name; and sometimes even three- or four-part domain names.
In general, American addresses end in an organizational suffix, such as ".edu," which means the site is at a college or university. Other American suffixes include:
Sites in the rest of the world tend to use a two-letter code that represents their country. Most make sense, such as `.ca' for Canadian sites, but there are a couple of seemingly odd ones, at least if you don't know the ISO 3166 standard international abbreviations. (see section Internet Connectivity for a list of the rest of the world.) E.g., swiss sites end in `.ch' (Confederatio Helvetica), German sites end in `.de' (DEutschland), while South African ones end in `.za' (from the archaic spelling Zuid Afrika). Some U.S. sites have followed this international convention (such as well.sf.ca.us).
You'll notice that the above addresses are all in lowercase. Unlike almost everything else having anything at all to do with Unix, most Net mailing systems don't care about case, so you generally don't have to worry about capitalizing e-mail addresses. Alas, there are a few exceptions -- some public-access sites do allow for capital letters in user names. When in doubt, ask the person you want to write to, or let her send you a message first (recall how a person's e-mail address is usually found on the top of her message). The domain name, the part of the address after the @ sign, never has to be capitalized.
It's all a fairly simple system that works very well, except,
again, it's vital to get the address exactly right -- just as you have
to dial a phone number exactly right. Send a message to
(which is the University of New Mexico) when you meant to send it to
firstname.lastname@example.org (the University of Minnesota), and your letter will either
bounce back to you undelivered, or go to the wrong person.
If your message is bounced back to you as undeliverable, you'll get an ominous looking-message from MAILER-DAEMON (actually a rather benign Unix program that exists to handle mail), with an evil-looking header followed by the text of your message. Sometimes, you can tell what went wrong by looking at the first few lines of the bounced message. Besides an incorrect address, it's possible your host system does not have the other site in the "map" it maintains of other host systems. Or you could be trying to send mail to another network, such as Bitnet or CompuServe, that has special addressing requirements.
Sometimes, figuring all this out can prove highly frustrating. But remember the prime Net commandment: Ask. Send a message to your system administrator. He or she might be able to help decipher the problem.
There is one kind of address that may give your host system particular problems. There are two main ways that Unix systems exchange mail. One is known as UUCP and started out with a different addressing system than the rest of the Net. Most UUCP systems have since switched over to the standard Net addressing system, but a few traditional sites still cling to their original type, which tends to have lots of exclamation points in it, like this:
The problem for many host sites is that exclamation points (also known as "bangs") now mean something special in the more common systems or "shells" used to operate many Unix computers. This means that addressing mail to such a site (or even responding to a message you received from one) could confuse the poor computer to no end and your message never gets sent out. If that happens, try putting backslashes in front of each exclamation point, so that you get an address that looks like this:
Note that this means you may not be able to respond to such a message by typing a lowercase `r' -- you may get an error message and you'll have to create a brand-new message.
If you want to get a taste of what's possible through e-mail, start an e-mail message to
Leave the "Subject:" line blank. As a message, write this:
Or, if you're feeling a little down, write this instead:
In either case, you will get back a message within a few seconds to a few hours (depending on the state of your host system's Internet connection). If you simply asked for a quote, you'll get back a fortune-cookie-like saying. If you asked for moral support, you'll also get back a fortune-cookie-like saying, only supposedly more uplifting.
This particular "mail server" is run by Oregon State University. Its main purpose is actually to provide a way to distribute agricultural information via e-mail. If you'd like to find out how to use the server's full range of services, send a message to its address with this line in it:
You'll quickly get back a lengthy document detailing just what's available and how to get it.
Feeling opinionated? Want to give the President of the United States a piece of your mind? Send a message to <email@example.com>. Or if the vice president will do, write <firstname.lastname@example.org>.
The "mail" program is actually a very powerful one and a Netwide standard, at least on Unix computers. But it can be hard to figure out -- you can type a question mark to get a list of commands, but these may be of limited use unless you're already familiar with Unix. Fortunately, there are a couple of other mail programs that are easier to use.
Go to the previous, next section.
|
<urn:uuid:0a302a64-9f92-436c-a9ec-aed67c950af4>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.ripco.com/download/text/EFF/eeg_49.html
|
2013-05-19T03:00:01Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383160/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00052-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.944276
| 3,962
|
Ancient Trees in the Landscape – Norfolk’s arboreal heritage is a fascinating and original study by Gerry Barnes and Tom Williamson, which explores many aspects of ancient and traditionally managed trees in Norfolk. It investigates why old trees are found in certain contexts and not others; discusses traditional management practices; and looks at the various ways in which trees have been used in parks and gardens. Above all, it considers how trees were regarded by people in the past, and how this has affected their survival to the present day.
This comprehensive and well-illustrated publication is available from Oxbow books at www.oxbowbooks.com, and is essential reading for countryside managers and conservationists and all those interested in landscape history, arboriculture and the history of the English countryside. A GIS map layer of the ancient trees featured in the publication is available from Norfolk Biodiversity Information Service (NBIS) website.
|
<urn:uuid:92a18777-9704-4c37-bc80-23fa01983ddf>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.norfolkbiodiversity.org/news/?id=17
|
2013-06-18T04:41:25Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706933615/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516122213-00002-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.948542
| 186
|
Another dino fossil, more evidence for feathers. Only this one is unique: it’s a megalosaur. A big non-avian therapod, and now we know it had feathers!
Hindustan Times– Theropods are bipedal, mostly carnivorous dinosaurs. In recent years, scientists have discovered that many extinct theropods had feathers. But this feathering has only been found in theropods that are classified as coelurosaurs, a diverse group including animals like T. rexand birds.Sciurumimus—identified as a megalosaur,nota coelurosaur— is the first exception to this rule. The new species also sits deep within the evolutionary tree of theropods, much more so than coelurosaurs, meaning that the species that stem from Sciurumimus are likely to have similar characteristics.
“All of the feathered predatory dinosaurs known so far represent close relatives of birds,” said palaeontologist Oliver Rauhut, of the Bayerische Staatssammlung fur Palaontologie und Geologie. Sciurumimus is much more basal within the dinosaur family tree and thus indicates that all predatory dinosaurs had feathers,” Rauhut stated.
Up to now feathered dinos had all been from the raptor family. But Mega is different. This Cretaceous lady was a two-legged meat-eater lacking the more obvious anatomical characteristics associated with feathers and birds. If she had feathers, almost any dinosaur could have had them. Which suggests that dinos evolved feathers long before birds and bird-like dinos diverged from other genera.
|
<urn:uuid:bd7f0189-5006-42e9-b30e-4dbd152a6eb6>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://freethoughtblogs.com/zingularity/2012/07/03/new-feathered-dino-is-no-mesozoic-ostrich/?ak_action=force_mobile
|
2013-05-19T11:08:09Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697420704/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094340-00050-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.953792
| 354
|
Playing with nature on a sticky table
I was very inspired to try making a "sticky table" after seeing the Pumpkin vines on the sticky table activity created by Deborah Stewart on the Teach Preschool site. I thought this would work very well with various items in nature that we have outside during this time of year.
To set this up, I cut a large sheet of clear contact paper and used clear packing tape to adhere the contact paper (sticky side up) to the table so it wouldn't move around. To have some variety of items, I brought in a collection of leaves, pine branches and small pinecones from home. The children also gathered other leaves and sticks from the playground outside. Depending on the season, you can select other items like flowers, clovers and blossoms.
Then we had the children explore their treasures on the sticky table. They played around and noticed that some things didn't "stick" so well (like larger sticks). But it's great for them to explore that. They loved the small pinecones I had found from home -- and they had to learn to press down on those to make them stick. Most of the children just liked "sticking" the items to the contact paper. Others tried to fill up all the open space. And some children tried to make shapes of other things out the materials - one girl arranged some small red leaves like flower petals. I heard another say "Look, mine looks like a dragonfly!". And still others liked walking their fingers across the paper and feeling how they stick!
The contact paper allowed for children to explore the items and be able to move them around (it's sticky - but items are repositionable). After they were done playing, we folded over the contact paper and sealed it. This makes for a good display to be hung in the classroom or put into the science center, where children can touch it and feel the impression of the items underneath.
What other kinds of things can you do with a sticky table?
|
<urn:uuid:b075ce0f-22bf-4bb5-b723-f452f6d475c4>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://theseedsnetwork.com/seeding/playing-with-nature-on-a-sticky-table
|
2013-05-26T02:42:20Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00052-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.971503
| 410
|
South African Sign LanguagePrint
12,100 deaf persons including 6,000 Black, 2,000 English white, 2,000 Afrikaans white, 1,200 Coloured, 900 Indian (Van Cleve 1986).
The North British sign system was used for the deaf in white English-speaking families. In 1881 a school for Afrikaans [afr]-speaking families began using British Sign Language [bfi]. Several dialects are used unofficially in different schools. 9 sign language systems, 60% related to British Sign Language [bfi] or Australian sign languages [asf], few to American Sign Language [ase].
Understood to some degree by most deaf people. Some interpreters provided in courts.
First deaf school established about 1846. Now 29 schools for 4,000 children. There is a Signed Afrikaans as well.
|
<urn:uuid:72bfd77e-7e06-4608-8fe1-e441e5c5af37>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.ethnologue.com/language/sfs
|
2013-05-19T02:01:13Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00051-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.910746
| 177
|
(edit – please take note of the addendum at the bottom)
From the Official Groundhog Day Website, Punxsutawney Phil:
(Adapted from “Groundhog Day: 1886 to 1992″ by Bill Anderson)
Groundhog Day, February 2nd, is a popular tradition in the United States. It is also a legend that traverses centuries, its origins clouded in the mists of time with ethnic cultures and animals awakening on specific dates. Myths such as this tie our present to the distant past when nature did, indeed, influence our lives. It is the day that the Groundhog comes out of his hole after a long winter sleep to look for his shadow.
If he sees it, he regards it as an omen of six more weeks of bad weather and returns to his hole.
If the day is cloudy and, hence, shadowless, he takes it as a sign of spring and stays above ground.
The groundhog tradition stems from similar beliefs associated with Candlemas Day and the days of early Christians in Europe, and for centuries the custom was to have the clergy bless candles and distribute them to the people. Even then, it marked a milestone in the winter and the weather that day was important.
According to an old English song:
If Candlemas be fair and bright,
Come, Winter, have another flight;
If Candlemas brings clouds and rain,
Go Winter, and come not again.
According to an old Scotch couplet:
If Candlemas Day is bright and clear,
There’ll be twa (two) winters in the year.
Another variation of the Scottish rhyme:
If Candlemas day be dry and fair,
The half o’ winter to come and mair,
If Candlemas day be wet and foul,
The half of winter’s gone at Yule.
The Roman legions, during the conquest of the northern country, supposedly brought this tradition to the Teutons, or Germans, who picked it up and concluded that if the sun made an appearance on Candlemas Day, an animal, the hedgehog, would cast a shadow, thus predicting six more weeks of bad weather, which they interpolated as the length of the “Second Winter.”
Pennsylvania’s earliest settlers were Germans and they found groundhogs to in profusion in many parts of the state. They determined that the groundhog, resembling the European hedgehog, was a most intelligent and sensible animal and therefore decided that if the sun did appear on February 2nd, so wise an animal as the groundhog would see its shadow and hurry back into its underground home for another six weeks of winter.
The Germans recited:
For as the sun shines on Candlemas Day,
So far will the snow swirl until the May.
This passage may be the one most closely represented by the first Punxsutawney Groundhog Day observances because there were references to the length of shadows in early Groundhog Day predictions.
Another February 2nd belief, used by American 19th century farmers, was:
Groundhog Day – Half your hay.
New England farmers knew that we were not close to the end of winter, no matter how cloudy February 2nd was. Indeed, February 2nd is often the heart of winter. If the farmer didn’t have half his hay remaining, there may have been lean times for the cows before spring and fresh grass arrived.
The ancient Candlemas legend and similar belief continue to be recognized annually on February 2nd due to the efforts of the Punxsutawney Groundhog Club.
From offering support of political events, to rooting for area sports teams, to becoming the star of a Hollywood movie, Punxsutawney Phil has increasingly been in the public eye.
Early observances of Phil’s predictions were conducted privately in the wooded areas that neighbor the town. Today’s celebration sees tens of thousands of visitors from all over the world as revelers await Phil’s appearance as most fans wait to see their favorite rock stars.
The Punxsutawney Spirit newspaper is credited with printing the news of the first observance in 1886 (one year before the first legendary trek to Gobbler’s Knob):
“Today is groundhog day, and up to the time of going to press the beast has not seen his shadow.”
Over the course of Phil’s appearances, Phil has had numerous noteworthy highlights:
During Prohibition Phil threatened to impose 60 weeks of winter on the community if he wasn’t allowed a drink.
In 1958 Phil announced that it was a “United States Chucknik,” rather than a Soviet Sputnik or Muttnik that became the first man-made satellite to orbit Earth.
In 1981 Phil wore a yellow ribbon in honor of the American hostages in Iran.
Phil traveled to Washington DC in 1986 to meet with President Reagan. He was joined by Groundhog Club President Jim Means, Al Anthony and Bill Null.
Phil met Pennsylvania Governor Dick Thornburg in 1987.
In 1993, Columbia Pictures released the movie Groundhog Day starring Bill Murray.
Phil appeared on the Oprah Winfrey show in 1995.
In the years following the release of the movie, record crowds numbering as high as 30,000 have visited Gobbler’s Knob in Punxsutawney!
In 2001, Phil’s prediction was shown live on the JumboTron at Times Square in New York City. Pennsylvania Governor Ed Rendell attended the ceremonies, making him the first sitting governor ever to do so.
The above website will have a live simulcast for the sunrise festivities. I have been to two of these events. They are quite interesting indeed. The amount of booze consumed overnight by the throng is terrific. It’s a great party and something everyone should see at least once.
The celebration of Groundhog Day began with the Germans, Pennsylvania’s earliest settlers. They brought with them the legend of Candlemas Day, which states “For as the sun shines on Candlemas day, so far will the snow swirl in May…”. The settlers found that groundhogs were plentiful and were the most intelligent and sensible animal to carry on the legend of Candlemas Day.
Addendum: Happy Birthday Andrew Breitbart! You were an inspiration!
|
<urn:uuid:0d127d32-1ebd-47b3-8b15-02c38794c84e>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.theblogmocracy.com/2013/02/01/groundhog-day-2013-oot/
|
2013-05-24T08:58:18Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.959867
| 1,321
|
The systematic persecution of Jews in Nazi Germany began on the April 1, 1933, with a national boycott of Jewish-owned shops, doctor's offices and law firms. The boycott was ordered and organized by the leadership of the NSDAP (National Socialist German Workers' Party). In the course of the boycott many Jewish shops were damaged and looted, and their owners were physically attacked.
This historical event, which is now often referred to as the "April Boycott," was followed by many far more drastic measures and laws in the period leading up to 1945. Their purpose was to systematically destroy the foundation of Jewish life in Nazi Germany. They culminated in the expulsion and murder of around six million Jews from across Europe.
An archive is a place where records are stored. In most cases these records consist of written documents, but there are also archives for film, sounds, images and objects. Although some archives today contain personal items such as diaries, letters and photo albums, the first archives were used primarily to collect official records, including court files and documents from government agencies. This is reflected in the word "archive," which is derived from "archivum," the Latin word for government house.
People store documents and records in archives to enable future generations to reconstruct what people wrote in the past, how they lived and what they thought. The films, images, texts and objects that come from certain periods can help us understand the past from a contemporary perspective.
The Jewish Museum Berlin also houses an archive. It contains numerous papers and manuscripts that shed light on the fate of German Jewish families. In most cases, the owners of these documents or their descendants have donated them to the museum. Through its work, the archive of the Jewish Museum Berlin contributes to securing information on the social and religious life of Jews in Germany in the near and more distant past and also to preserving this information for future generations. After all, preservation is one of the most important tasks for all museums.
The Hebrew term "Ashkenaz" was first used in the Middle Ages to describe the region of Europe occupied by present-day Germany. It included the cities of Speyer, Worms and Mainz, which formed an important center of Jewish learning. Ashkenaz is the root of both Ashkenazi and Ashkenazim, which refer to Jews and their descendants from western and eastern Europe. Throughout the centuries Ashkenazi Jews developed a common cultural tradition. The Ashkenazim spoke Yiddish, a language that originally evolved from Middle High German but which also incorporates Hebrew and Slavic elements. It is written using Hebrew letters.
The other large group of European Jews is the Sephardim or Sephardi. These Jews first inhabited the Iberian peninsula (present-day Spain and Portugal), but after their large-scale expulsion in 1492 they settled in parts of northern Europe and in the Ottoman Empire (the area covering modern Turkey, North Africa, as well as regions in the Middle East and southern Europe). The Sephardim also had their own language, called Ladino or Judaeo-Spanish.
When the word Ashkenazi is used today, it usually refers to a family history or self-view (e.g. personal identity) as opposed to a place of domicile. A large number of Ashkenazi Jews now live in other regions of the world, above all in the US and Israel, due both to the large waves of immigration in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries and to the persecution of European Jews by Nazi Germany. As a result, only a minority of Ashkenazi Jews currently speak Yiddish as their mother tongue.
|
<urn:uuid:458381bf-b86f-44ff-8a0a-47144965c0e3>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.jmberlin.de/ksl/glossar/a/a_EN.php
|
2013-05-24T08:44:19Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00003-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.97385
| 740
|
I live in New York City, and for me, there’s nothing that compares to its culture, energy and convenience. I’m not alone in feeling this way — more than half of the world’s population now lives in urban areas.
But I also know that when it comes to mental health, the urban lifestyle may not be such a good thing. City dwellers tend to be more stressed and have higher levels of mood disorders and psychotic illnesses such as schizophrenia than those living in rural or suburban areas. And now researchers say they have uncovered certain changes in brain activity that could potentially help explain why.
In an international study, researchers at University of Heidelberg and the Douglas Mental Health University Institute at McGill University report in the journal Nature that people who live or were raised in cities show distinct differences in activity in certain brain regions than those who aren’t city dwellers.
Those who currently live in the city, for example, showed higher activation the amygdala, the brain region that regulates emotions such as anxiety and fear. The amygdala is most often called into action under situations of stress or threat, and the data suggest that city dwellers’ brains have a more sensitive, hair-trigger response to such situations, at least when compared with those living in the suburbs or more rural areas.
The study also found that people who were raised in the city during their first 15 years of life were more likely to show increased activation in another brain region, a more global regulator of stress known as the anterior cingulate. In these individuals, the change appears to be more permanent than in people who move to cities later in life, says Jens Pruessner, director of aging and Alzheimer’s research at the Douglas Institute and one of the study’s co-authors, because it occurs during an important period of development. Living in the city during your early years “means you will become more alert to [stress] situations via the anterior cingulate for the rest of your life,” he says.
The researchers came to their conclusions after conducting a stress test on volunteers while their brains were imaged with functional MRI to detect which areas of the brain were more or less active when the participants felt stressed. The stress was applied by asking people to solve difficult math problems, either under time pressure or while enduring criticism from researchers for their bad performance.
The research team then correlated the participants’ brain scan results with information they provided about where they currently lived or where they were raised. Activation of the amygdala increased in step with the population density of participants’ home towns: from rural areas to small cities to large urban settings.
The researchers think it is the social aspects of urban living — the stress of living and dealing with lots of people, and feeling more anxiety, fear and threat as a result — more so than other urban factors like pollution or noise that explains the higher stress-related brain responses among the city dwellers.
Although it would seem that the more people were faced with stress, the more they might tolerate these annoyances and even become immune to them — thus lowering, rather than increasing their threshold for triggering the stress response — the new findings suggest otherwise. Even after years of city living, people remained highly alert and anxious, which indicates that the stresses of city life may be both constant and diverse and not easy to adapt to.
“City people may never really face the same stresses,” says Pruessner. “Even though the type of stress may be similar, such as time pressure or being stuck in a commute or meeting a deadline, it’s always distinct enough that you don’t have the chance to habituate to them.”
So what does this mean for avid city livers like me? I’m not giving up my urban lifestyle, but I may have to balance the high-energy hum of city activity with more downtime. “In general when it comes to stress, it’s important to keep a balance,” says Pruessner. “These results suggest the need to keep things in balance so after a period of working hard, you balance that with a period of off-time as well.”
That sounds good, but in the city, that’s a lot easier said than done.
|
<urn:uuid:c946d707-8d82-4b21-bc65-68afeb157d48>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://healthland.time.com/2011/06/22/stressed-in-the-city-how-urban-life-may-change-your-brain/?iid=WBeditorspicks
|
2013-05-22T21:59:33Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368702448584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516110728-00002-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.967348
| 886
|
How-to video: Providing meaningful student feedback on a classroom wiki
Brief synopsis: A classroom wiki web site can be a powerful tool for teaching and learning in today's digital classroom. With a wiki classroom web site, students can create virtually any activity or project and place it on a secure wiki web page, hosted in the teacher's online Content Management System. A classroom wiki can also be a powerful tool for providing meaningful feedback to students.
Drawbacks: Supplying feedback online is a progressive method that is new to parents, so they may need some coaching. Also, student wiki web sites are password protected, so students will have to share their sites with parents, in order for parents to see the feedback.
Conclusion: The how-to video above demonstrates how to provide meaningful student feedback on a classroom wiki.
|
<urn:uuid:baf43b86-b29c-4bed-912a-5ef35eeea981>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.learnitin5.com/feedback
|
2013-05-24T16:44:43Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704752145/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114552-00052-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.882395
| 166
|
PIR(Passive InfraRed) sensor'
What is PIR sensor?'
Infrared radiation exists in the electromagnetic spectrum at a wavelength that is longer than visible light.
It cannot be seen but it can be detected. Objects that generate heat also generate infrared radiation and
those objects include animals and the human body whose radiation is strongest at a wavelength of 9.4um.
Infrared in this range will not pass through many types of material that pass visible light such as ordinary
window glass and plastic. However it will pass through, with some attenuation, material that is opaque to
visible light such as germanium and silicon. An unprocessed silicon wafer makes a good IR window in a
weatherproof enclosure for outdoor use. It also provides additional filtering for light in the visible range.
The PIR Sensor detects motion up to 20 feet away by using a Fresnel lens and infrared-sensitive element
to detect changing patterns of passive infrared emitted by objects in its vicinity.
How does PIR sensor work as a motion detecting sensor?'
An IR emitting body moving across the front of a sensor will expose first one, then both and then the
other sensor element.The output signal waveform shows that first a positive, then zero and then a
negative transition results.There are many different ways to create a motion sensor.
Motion is detected when an infrared emitting source with one temperature, such as a human body,
passes in front of a source with another temperature, such as a wall.
Infrared radiation enters through the front of the sensor, known as the sensor face. At the core
of a PIR is a solid state sensor or set of sensors, made from approximately 1/4 inches square
of natural or artificial pyroelectric materials, usually in the form of a thin film, out of gallium
nitride (GaN), caesium nitrate (CsNO3), polyvinyl fluorides, derivatives of phenylpyrazine, and
cobalt phthalocyanine. (See pyroelectric crystals.) Lithium tantalate (LiTaO3) is a crystal
exhibiting both piezoelectric and pyroelectric properties.
A Fresnel lens is a Plano Convex lens that has been collapsed on itself to form a flat lens that retains
its optical characteristics but is much thinner and therefore has less absorption loss.
A Fresnel lens is usually thin and flexible and is about 0.015 inch (0.38mm) thick with grooves molded
into one surface. The groove side of the lens usually faces the PIR sensor. A Fresnel lens both captures
more IR radiation and focuses it to a small point. This focal point moves across the sensor as the IR source
moves and exposes one element at a time. A Fresnel lens can extend detection range to about 100 feet.
Because the sensor is passive, it relies on an infrared signature (heat) from the object to be monitored
so only warm-bodied items (relative to the ambient temperature of the room) can be detected.
For example, people and animals can be detected but a ball would not -unless it was noticeably
warmer or colder than the ambient temperature.
Sensor Product Company
|
<urn:uuid:86aec817-103b-4024-b42d-457b97908dce>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://itp.nyu.edu/physcomp/sensors/Reports/PassiveInfraRedSensor
|
2013-05-26T03:09:17Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00053-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.895251
| 675
|
The San Antonio River floods on this day in 1921, killing 51 people and causing millions of dollars in damages. The flood was caused by some of the heaviest rainfall ever recorded in Texas.
The San Antonio River winds through southwest Texas, an area that is generally dry. However, on September 7, a storm stalled over the town of Taylor and dumped an astounding 23.11 inches of rain on the area in less than a day. It was the heaviest single day of rainfall in the state to that time.
The immense amount of rain quickly overwhelmed the river. Taylor is located 30 miles upstream from San Antonio, so the resulting flash flood went barreling toward the city. Most of the victims were trapped in their cars by the surprise flood and drowned. Five to 10 feet of water submerged the city's streets, delaying an evacuation.
The city was under water for nearly a week following the flood. The flood was responsible for at least $5 million in damages in the then-small city. In the aftermath, San Antonio embarked on a 10-year overhaul of its levee system.
|
<urn:uuid:de93a9a8-8c43-4942-89d5-063ba0384053>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/flash-flood-hits-san-antonio
|
2013-05-23T18:52:06Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00001-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.98097
| 220
|
Rigorous instruction is a term with multiple definitions but few practical guidelines. This lessoncast shares a practical process for ensuring rigor in everyday instruction. First we have to define what rigor looks like in the classroom. Here’s our definition: Rigorous instruction engages every student in learning that is complex, thought-provoking, and moves from concrete to abstract. Rigorous instructional tasks may include critical thinking skills, problems solving, higher-level questioning, developing conceptual definitions, categorizing and sorting, cross-curricular connections, and real-world applications. Use these criteria to plan what students should be able to do to achieve at rigorous levels. Next, knowing the end goal, consider students’ current level of understanding and readiness. Where are they now? Third, anticipate what misconceptions students might have as they move from their current understanding to the rigorous goal. Think about how priming prior knowledge or using particular examples might help students re-think their misconceptions and get back on track to achieve the rigorous goal. Knowing what students know and anticipating potential misconceptions, consider how to scaffold student learning. What stepping stones can you build into the lesson to assist students in achieving the rigorous goal? Stepping stones include modeling examples, working in small groups, chunking reading or tasks, using picture aids, providing a word bank or sentence frames. Then decide which students need which stepping stones. Some students may be able to work more independently, while others will have more success with certain scaffolding. This process automatically differentiates based on the needs of students. All students are given the support they need to achieve a rigorous level of learning. Interdisciplinary connections can promote rigorous learning, because the more connections students can make the deeper their understanding will be. Rigorous instruction shouldn’t be a nebulous nice to have. It can be a real expectation for everyday instruction and every student learning.
|
<urn:uuid:724934f7-b24c-4fd9-9f9e-73a507648d23>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://lessoncast.org/lesson/rigor-for-real-classroom-instruction/
|
2013-05-19T02:31:57Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00050-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.933993
| 379
|
Opus Dei (Latin for "Work of God"), formally known as The Prelature of the Holy Cross and Opus Dei, is an organization of the Roman Catholic Church that emphasizes the belief that everyone is called to holiness and that ordinary life is a path to sanctity.
Opus Dei was founded in Spain in 1928 by the Roman Catholic priest Josemaría Escrivá and given final approval in 1950 by Pope Pius XII. In 1982, it was made into a personal prelature — its bishop's jurisdiction is not linked to one specific geographic area, but instead covers the persons in Opus Dei, wherever they are. Opus Dei is the first and so far the only Catholic organization of this type. The Opus Dei prelature is made up of ordinary lay people and secular priests governed by a prelate. Most of its members called supernumeraries, lead traditional family lives and have secular careers. The other three classes of members, numeraries, associates, and numerary-assistants, are celibate, and often live in special centers.
Some ex-members and their families, liberal Catholics, secularists, and supporters of liberation theology have argued that Opus Dei is cult-like, secretive, and highly controlling. John Allen, Jr. and Vittorio Messori, Catholic journalists who studied Opus Dei, state that these allegations are mere myths. For Massimo Introvigne, a Catholic sociologist, Opus Dei is intentionally stigmatized by its opponents, because they "cannot tolerate the 'return to religion' of the secularized society." Various Popes and Catholic leaders have strongly supported Opus Dei's innovative teaching on the sanctifying value of work, and in 2002, Pope John Paul II canonized Saint Josemaría Escrivá.
Opus Dei was founded by a Roman Catholic priest, Josemaría Escrivá, on October 2, 1928 in Madrid, Spain. According to Escrivá, on that day he experienced a "vision" in which he "saw Opus Dei". He gave the organization the name "Opus Dei," which in Latin means "Work of God," in order to underscore the belief that the organization was not his (Escrivá's) work, but was rather God's work. Throughout his life, Escrivá maintained that the founding of Opus Dei had a supernatural character. Escrivá summarized Opus Dei's mission as a way of helping ordinary Christians "to understand that their life… is a way of holiness and evangelization… And to those who grasp this ideal of holiness, the Work offers the spiritual assistance and training they need to put it into practice."
Initially, Opus Dei was open only to men, but in 1930, Escrivá created a women's branch. In 1936, the organization suffered a temporary setback when rampant killing of ecclesiastics occurred due to the Spanish Civil War, forcing Escrivá to go into hiding. After the civil war was won by General Francisco Franco's Nationalists, Escrivá was able to return to Madrid. Escriva said that it was in Spain where Opus Dei found "the greatest difficulties" because of traditionalists who misunderstood Opus Dei's ideas, still Opus Dei flourished during the years of Franco's rule, spreading first throughout Spain, and after 1945, expanding internationally.
In 1939, Escrivá published The Way, a collection of 999 maxims concerning spirituality. In the 1940s, Opus Dei found an early critic in the Jesuit leader Wlodimir Ledochowski, who told the Vatican that he considered Opus Dei "very dangerous for the Church in Spain," citing its "secretive character" and calling it "a form of Christian Masonry."
In 1946, Escrivá moved the organization's headquarters to Rome. In 1950, Pope Pius XII granted definitive approval to Opus Dei, thereby allowing married people to join the organization. In 1975, Escriva died and was succeeded by Alvaro del Portillo. In 1982, Opus Dei was made into a personal prelature. This means the Opus Dei related objectives of the members fall under the direct jurisdiction of the Prelate of Opus Dei wherever they are. As to "what the law lays down for all the ordinary faithful," the lay members of Opus Dei, being no different from other Catholics, "continue to be …under the jurisdiction of the diocesan bishop," in the words of John Paul II´s Ut Sit. n 1994, Javier Echevarria became Prelate upon the death of his predecessor.
One-third of the world's bishops sent letters petitioning for the canonization of Escrivá. In 2002, approximately 300,000 people gathered in Saint Peter's Square on the day Pope John Paul II canonized Josemaría Escrivá. According to one author, "Escrivá is… venerated by millions".
There are other members whose process of beatification has been opened: Ernesto Cofiño, a father of five children and a pioneer in pediatric research in Guatemala; Montserrat Grases, a teenage Catalan student who died of cancer; Toni Zweifel, a Swiss engineer; and Bishop Alvaro del Portillo.
On September 14, 2005, Benedict XVI blessed a newly-installed statue of Josemaria Escriva placed in a niche of the outside wall of Saint Peter's Basilica. While blessing the six metre white Carrara marble statue, the Pope said he hopes it will serve as inspiration for those who passed by to "do one's daily work in the spirit of Christ."
Opus Dei is an organization within the Roman Catholic church. As such, it ultimately shares the theology of the Catholic Church.
Opus Dei places special emphasis on certain aspects of Catholic doctrine. A central feature of Opus Dei's theology is its focus on the lives of the ordinary Catholics who are neither priests nor monks. Opus Dei emphasizes the "universal call to holiness": the belief that everyone should aspire to be a saint, that sanctity is within the reach of everyone, not just a few special individuals. Opus Dei does not have monks or nuns, and only a minority of its members are part of the priesthood. A related characteristic is Opus Dei's emphasis on uniting spiritual life with professional, social, and family life. Whereas the members of some religious orders might live in monasteries and devote their lives exclusively to prayer and study, members of Opus Dei lead ordinary lives, with traditional families and secular careers, and strive to "sanctify ordinary life." Indeed, Pope John Paul II called Escrivá "the saint of ordinary life".
Similarly, Opus Dei stresses the importance of work and professional competence. While some religious orders encourage their members to withdraw from the material world, Opus Dei's members are exhorted to "find God in daily life" and to perform their work excellently as a service to society and as a fitting offering to God. Opus Dei teaches that work not only contributes to social progress but is "a path to holiness." and its founder advised members to: "Sanctify your work. Sanctify yourself in your work. Sanctify others through your work."
At the bottom of Escriva's understanding of the “universal call to holiness” are two dimensions, subjective and objective. The subjective is the call given to each person to become a saint, regardless of his place in society. The objective refers to the teaching that all of creation, even the most material situation, is a meeting place with God, and leads to union with Him.
Structure and activities
Leaders of Opus Dei describe the organization as a teaching entity, whereby Catholics are taught to assume personal responsibility in sanctifying the secular world from within. Its lay people and priests organize seminars, workshops, retreats, and classes to help people put the Christian faith into practice in their daily lives. Spiritual direction, one-on-one coaching with a more experienced lay person or priest, is considered the "paramount means" of training. Through these activities they provide religious instruction (doctrinal formation), coaching in spirituality for lay people (spiritual formation), character and moral education (human formation), lessons in sanctifying one's work (professional formation), and know-how in evangelizing one's family and workplace (apostolic formation).
Supporters often liken Opus Dei to a family, and many claim members of Opus Dei resemble the members of the early Christian Church—ordinary workers who seriously sought holiness with nothing exterior to distinguish them from other citizens. In Pope John Paul II's 1982 decree known as the Apostolic constitution Ut Sit, Opus Dei was established as a personal prelature, an official structure of the Catholic Church like a diocese which contains lay people and secular priests who are led by a bishop. In addition to being governed by Ut Sit and by canon law, Opus Dei is governed by the Vatican's Particular Law concerning Opus Dei, otherwise known as Opus Dei's statutes. This pecifies the objectives and workings of the prelature.
The head of the Opus Dei prelature is known as the Prelate. The Prelate is the primary governing authority and is assisted by two councils — the General Council (made up of men) and the Central Advisory (made up of women). The Prelate holds his position for life. The current prelate of Opus Dei is Monsignor Javier Echevarria, who became the second Prelate of Opus Dei in 1994. The first Prelate of Opus Dei was Monsignor Alvaro del Portillo, who held the position from 1982 until his death in 1994.
Opus Dei's highest assembled bodies are the General Congresses, which are usually convened once every eight years. There are separate congresses for the men and women's branch of Opus Dei. The General Congresses are made up of members appointed by the Prelate, and are responsible for advising him about the prelature's future. The men's General Congress also elects the Prelate. After the death of a Prelate, a special elective General Congress is convened. They elect from their ranks one individual to become the next Prelate — an appointment that must be confirmed by the Pope.
Opus Dei has about 87,000 members in more than 80 different countries. About 60 percent of Opus Dei members reside in Europe, and 35 percent reside in the Americas. The organization's assets total at least $2.8 billion. Two members of Opus Dei, Juan Luis Cipriani and Julián Herranz, have achieved the rank of Cardinal.
Opus Dei runs residential centers throughout the world. These centers provide residential housing for celibate members, undertake recruitment, and provide doctrinal and theological education. Opus Dei is also responsible for a variety of non-profit institutions called "Corporate Works of Opus Dei." A study of the year 2005, showed that members have cooperated with other people in setting up a total of 608 social initiatives: schools and university residences (68 percent), technical or agricultural training (26 percent), universities, business schools and hospitals (6 percent). The University of Navarra in Pamplona, Spain is a corporate work of Opus Dei which has been rated as one of the top private universities in the country, while its business school, IESE, was adjudged one of the best in the world by the Financial Times and the Economist Intelligence Unit.
Types of membership
Opus Dei is made up of several different types of membership:
Supernumeraries, the largest type, currently account for about 70 percent of the total membership. Typically, supernumeraries are married men and women with careers. Supernumeraries devote a portion of their day to prayer, in addition to attending regular meetings and taking part in activities such as retreats. Due to their career and family obligations, supernumeraries are not as available to the organization as the other types of members, but they typically contribute financially to Opus Dei, and they lend other types of assistance as their circumstances permit.
Numeraries, the second largest type of members of Opus Dei, comprise about 20 percent of total membership. Numeraries are celibate members who usually live in special centers run by Opus Dei. Both men and women may become numeraries, although the centers are strictly gender-segregated. Numeraries generally have careers and devote the bulk of their income to the organization.
Numerary assistants are unmarried, celibate female members of Opus Dei. They live in special centers run by Opus Dei but do not have conventional jobs outside the centers — instead, their professional life is dedicated to looking after the domestic needs of the centers.
Associates are unmarried, celibate members who typically have family or professional obligations. Unlike numeraries and numerary assistants, the associates do not live inside the special Opus Dei centers.
The Clergy of the Opus Dei Prelature are priests who are under the jurisdiction of the Prelate of Opus Dei. They are a minority in Opus Dei— only about two percent of Opus Dei members are part of the clergy. Typically, they are numeraries or associates who ultimately joined the priesthood.
The Priestly Society of the Holy Cross consists of priests associated with Opus Dei. Part of the society is made up of the clergy of the Opus Dei prelature — members of the priesthood who fall under the jurisdiction of the Opus Dei prelature are automatically members of the Priestly Society. Other members in the society are traditional diocesan priests — clergymen who remain under the jurisdiction of a geographically-defined diocese. Technically speaking, such diocesan priests have not "joined" Opus Dei membership, although they have joined a society that is closely affiliated with Opus Dei.
The Cooperators of Opus Dei are those who, despite not being members of Opus Dei, collaborate in some way with Opus Dei — usually through praying, charitable contributions, or by providing some other assistance. Cooperators are not required to be celibate or to adhere to any other special requirements. Indeed, cooperators are not even required to be Christian.
In accordance with Catholic theology, membership is granted when a vocation, or divine calling is presumed to have occurred.
Much public attention has focused on Opus Dei's practice of mortification — the voluntary offering up of discomfort or pain to God. Mortification has a long history in many world religions, including the Catholic Church. It has been endorsed by popes as a way of following Christ who died in a bloody crucifixion and who gave this advice: "renounce yourself, take up the cross daily, and follow me." Supporters say that opposition to mortification is rooted in having lost (1) the "sense of the enormity of sin" or offense against God, (2) the notion of "wounded human nature" and of concupiscence or inclination to sin, and thus the need for "spiritual battle," and (3) a spirit of sacrifice for "supernatural ends" and not only for physical enhancement.
As a spirituality for ordinary people, Opus Dei focuses on performing sacrifices pertaining to normal duties and to its emphasis on charity and cheerfulness. Additionally, Opus Dei celibate members practice "corporal mortifications" such as sleeping without a pillow or sleeping on the floor, fasting, or remaining silent for certain hours during the day. They may also wear a cilice, a small metal chain with inward-pointing spikes that is worn around their upper thigh. The cilice's spikes cause discomfort and may leave small marks, but typically do not cause bleeding. Numeraries in Opus Dei generally wear a cilice for two hours each day.
Although use of the cilice is no longer common, its practice in the Catholic Church is "more widespread than many observers imagine." In modern times it has been used by Blessed Mother Teresa, Saint Padre Pio, and slain archbishop Óscar Romero. On the other hand, critics state that self-mortification is a "startling," "extreme," and "questionable" practice — one that borders on masochism.
Escrivá's opponents point out that his personal mortification practices were even more extreme than the those typically performed by Opus Dei numeraries— in one incident, Escrivá flailed himself over a thousand times. Opponents likewise criticize Escrivá's maxim on suffering: "Loved be pain. Sanctified be pain. Glorified be pain!" Critics have cited mortification as one of the reasons for their opposition to Opus Dei.
The bishop of Madrid where Opus Dei was born, Leopoldo Eijo y Garay, supported Opus Dei and defended it in the 1940s by saying that "this opus is truly Dei" (this work is truly God's). Contrary to attacks of secrecy and heresy, the bishop described Opus Dei's founder as someone who is "open as a child" and "most obedient to the Church hierarchy."
In 1960, Pope John XXIII commented that Opus Dei opens up "unsuspected horizons of apostolate". Furthermore, in 1964, Pope Paul VI praised the organization in a handwritten letter to Escrivá, saying:
- Opus Dei is "a vigorous expression of the perennial youth of the Church, fully open to the demands of a modern apostolate... We look with paternal satisfaction on all that Opus Dei has achieved and is achieving for the kingdom of God, the desire of doing good that guides it, the burning love for the Church and its visible head that distinguishes it, and the ardent zeal for souls that impels it along the arduous and difficult paths of the apostolate of presence and witness in every sector of contemporary life."
Despite his praise, the relationship between Paul VI and Opus Dei has been described by one Opus Dei critic as "stormy". After the Second Vatican Council concluded in 1965, Pope Paul VI denied Opus Dei's petition to become a personal prelature.
Pope John Paul I, a few years before his election, wrote that Escrivá was more radical than other saints who taught about the universal call to holiness. While others emphasized some monastic practices applied to lay people, for Escrivá "it is the material work itself which must be turned into prayer and sanctity," thus providing a lay spirituality.
With the 1978 election of Pope John Paul II, Opus Dei gained one of its greatest supporters. John Paul II cited Opus Dei's aim of sanctifying secular activities as a "great ideal." He emphasized that Escrivá's founding of Opus Dei was ductus divina inspiratione, led by divine inspiration, and he granted the organization its status as a personal prelature. Stating that Escrivá is "counted among the great witnesses of Christianity," John Paul II canonized him in 2002, and called him "the saint of ordinary life." Of the organization, John Paul II said:
- "[Opus Dei] has as its aim the sanctification of one’s life, while remaining within the world at one’s place of work and profession: to live the Gospel in the world, while living immersed in the world, but in order to transform it, and to redeem it with one’s personal love for Christ. This is truly a great ideal, which right from the beginning has anticipated the theology of the lay state of the Second Vatican Council and the post-conciliar period."
The current pope, Benedict XVI, is also a particularly strong supporter of Opus Dei and of Escrivá. Pointing to the name "Work of God," Benedict XVI (then Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger), wrote that "The Lord simply made use of [Escrivá] who allowed God to work." Ratzinger cited Escrivá for correcting the mistaken idea that holiness is reserved to some extraordinary people who are completely different from ordinary sinners: Even if he can be very weak, with many mistakes in his life, a saint is nothing other than to speak with God as a friend speaks with a friend, allowing God to work, the Only One who can really make the world both good and happy.
Ratzinger spoke of Opus Dei's "surprising union of absolute fidelity to the Church’s great tradition, to its faith, and unconditional openness to all the challenges of this world, whether in the academic world, in the field of work, or in matters of the economy, etc." He further explained:
- "the theocentrism of Escrivá...means this confidence in the fact that God is working now and we ought only to put ourselves at his disposal...This, for me, is a message of greatest importance. It is a message that leads to overcoming what could be considered the great temptation of our times: the pretense that after the 'Big Bang' God retired from history."
Opus Dei has been called "the most controversial force in the Catholic Church", and Escrivá has been described as a "polarizing" figure. In the English-speaking world, the most vocal critic of Opus Dei is a group called the Opus Dei Awareness Network (ODAN), a non-profit organization that exists "to provide education, outreach and support to people who have been adversely affected by Opus Dei." ODAN is headed by Diane DiNicola, mother of a former member, Tammy DiNicola. Other critics include former members of Opus Dei, liberal catholic theologians such as Fr. James Martin, a Jesuit, and supporters of Liberation theology, such as Penny Lernoux and Michael Walsh, an ex-Jesuit.
David Clark, who specializes in helping people leave cults, say that Opus Dei is either a "cult," or at least "cult-like." Critics state that Opus Dei is "intensely secretive"— for example, members generally do not publicly disclose their affiliation with Opus Dei, and under the 1950 constitution, members were expressly forbidden to reveal themselves without the permission of their superiors. This practice has led to rampant speculation about who may be a member. Opus Dei has been accused of deceptive and aggressive recruitment practices such as showering potential members with intense praise ("Love bombing"), instructing numeraries to form friendships and attend social gatherings explicitly for recruiting purposes, and even requiring regular written reports from its members about those friends who are potential recruits. Most of all, critics allege that the group maintains an extremely high degree of control over its members— there used to be a time when numeraries submitted their incoming and outgoing mail to their superiors to read, and members are forbidden to read certain books without permission from their superiors. Critics charge that Opus Dei pressures numeraries to sever contact with non-members, including their own families.
Critics assert that Escrivá and the organization supported the governments of Francisco Franco and Augusto Pinochet, and it has even been alleged that Escrivá expressed sympathy for Adolf Hitler. One former Opus Dei priest, Vladimir Felzmann, who has become a vocal Opus Dei critic even contends that Escrivá once remarked that Hitler had been "badly treated" by the world and he further declared that "Hitler couldn't have been such a bad person. He couldn't have killed six million [Jews]. It couldn't have been more than four million." (see Opus Dei and politics)
Concerning the group's role in the Catholic Church, critics have argued that Opus Dei's unique status as a personal prelature gives it too much independence, making it essentially a "church within a church". Some critics claim that Opus Dei exerts a disproportionately large influence within the Catholic Church itself, citing for example the unusually rapid canonization of Escrivá, which some considered to be irregular. Lastly, Opus Dei, as a part of the Roman Catholic Church, also shares any criticisms of Catholicism in general— for example, some criticize the fact that female members of Opus Dei cannot become priests or prelates.
Replies to criticism
Supporters of Opus Dei contend that Opus Dei has been falsely maligned. John L. Allen, Jr., a journalist, explained this view by saying: "There are two Opus Deis: an Opus Dei of myth and an Opus Dei of reality," since he perceived that Opus Dei members generally practice what they preach. He says accusations of secrecy stem from mistakenly equating its members with monks and expecting members to behave as clerics. Instead, its lay members, like any normal professional, are ultimately responsible for their personal actions, and do not externally represent the prelature which provides them spiritual training. Opus Dei itself, he says, provides abundant information. To explain the celibate lifestyle of numeraries and their relationship with their family, supporters quote Jesus's comment that "He who loves his father or mother more than me is not worthy of me". Catholic officials say that church authorities have even greater control of Opus Dei now that its head is a prelate appointed by the Pope and they argue members are "even more conscious of belonging to the Church".
Supporters deny that support of Franco during the Spanish Civil War was unique to Opus Dei. As John L. Allen, Jr. observed: "It’s worth noting that in the context of the Spanish Civil War, in which anticlerical Republican forces killed 13 bishops, 4,000 diocesan priests, 2,000 male religious, and 300 nuns, virtually every group and layer of life in the Catholic Church in Spain was ‘pro-Franco’." He said that at the end of Franco's regime, Opus Dei members were 50-50 for and against Franco. Peter Berglar, a German historian and Opus Dei member, argued that connecting Opus Dei with the Franco government is a "gross slander," because there were notable members of Opus Dei who were vocal critics of the Franco Regime. Similarly Alvaro del Portillo, the former Prelate of Opus Dei, said that any claims that Escrivá supported Hitler were "a patent falsehood," that were part of "a slanderous campaign". He and others have stated that Escriva condemned Hitler as a "rogue," a "racist" and a "tyrant." Allen said that Escriva was staunchly non-political, and repeatedly stressed that freedom is an essential element of Opus Dei. He said that Escriva's relatively quick canonization does not have anything to do with power but with improvements in procedures and John Paul II's decision to make Escriva's sanctity and message known.
Supporters of Opus Dei have also questioned the motives and reliability of some critics. Sociologists like Bryan R. Wilson point out that some former members of any religious group may have psychological or emotional motivations to criticize their former groups, and they claim that such individuals are prone to create fictitious "atrocity stories" which have no basis in reality. Many supporters of Opus Dei have expressed the belief that the criticisms of Opus Dei stem from a generalized disapproval of spirituality, Christianity, or Catholicism. Expressing this sentiment, one Opus Dei member, Julian Cardinal Herranz, stated "Opus Dei has become a victim of Christianophobia." Massimo Introvigne, a sociologist, argues that critics employ the term "cult" in order to intentionally stigmatize Opus Dei because "they cannot tolerate 'the return to religion' of the secularized society".
Regarding women, John Allen reports that half of the leadership positions in Opus Dei are held by women, and they supervise men. The Catholic Church emphasizes that "the greatest in the Kingdom of Heaven are not the ministers but the saints."
Lastly, some supporters of Opus Dei have viewed the controversy surrounding the organization as a "Sign of contradiction," in reference to the biblical quote of Jesus Christ as a "sign that is spoken against."
Opus Dei in popular culture
Since 2003, Opus Dei has received world attention as a result of Dan Brown's novel The Da Vinci Code and the 2006 film based on the novel. In The Da Vinci Code, Opus Dei is portrayed as a Catholic organization that is led into a sinister international conspiracy.
In general, The Da Vinci Code has been sharply criticized for its numerous factual inaccuracies, and its conspiracy theory has been debunked by a wide array of scholars and historians. According to the Bishop of Durham, the Rt Rev Dr Tom Wright, the novel is a "great thriller" but "lousy history". For example, the major villain in The Da Vinci Code is a monk who is member of Opus Dei — but in reality there are no monks in Opus Dei. The Da Vinci Code implies that Opus Dei is the Pope's personal prelature — but the term "personal prelature" does not refer to a special relationship to the Pope: It means an institution in which the jurisdiction of the prelate is not linked to a geographic territory but over persons, wherever they be. Nonetheless, Brown claims that his portrayal of Opus Dei was based on interviews with members and ex-members, and books about Opus Dei. An Opus Dei spokesman questions this claim.
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Pope John Paul II. Apostolic Constitution Ut Sit, Establishing Opus Dei as the first Personal Prelature of the Catholic Church. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Address of John Paul II in Praise of St. Josemaria, Founder of Opus Dei. Retrieved 2007-06-08.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 Religious Movements Homepage Project entry on Opus Dei. University of Virginia. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 Historical Overview. Opus Dei Official Site. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 Opus Dei. BBC Religion and Ethics. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 Kim Lawton (June 29, 2001). Opus Dei. PBS Religion & Ethics Newsweekly. Retrieved 2006-11-28.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 Opus Dei’s focus on secular life. Opus Dei Official Site. Retrieved 2006-11-27.; John Allen, Jr. Opus Dei, 2005 and Vittorio Messori, Opus Dei, 1997.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 Massimo Introvigne (1994). Opus Dei and the Anti-cult Movement. Retrieved 2006-11-28.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Papal statements on Opus Dei. Opus Dei Official Site. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ St. Josemaría Escriva de Balaguer. Catholic Online. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Opus Dei. JosemariaEscriva.info. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Vatican proves the power of Opus Dei Founder. The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Pope Benedict XVI on St. Josemaría Escriva. Opus Dei Official Site. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Josemaria Escrivá The Founding of Opus Dei. JosemariaEscriva.info. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Josemaría Escriva, Conversations 60. Retrieved 2006-05-16.
- ↑ Josemaria Escriva: Highlights of His Life. Eternal Word Television Network. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Historical Overview. JosemariaEscriva.info. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Josemaria Escrivá Conversations 33. Retrieved 2007-05-30.
- ↑ The Way. EscrivaWorks.org. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Philip Copens. Deciphering the Da Vinci Code. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Opus Dei. MSN Encarta. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Blessed Josemaría Escrivá to be canonized. Opus Dei Official Site. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ John L. Allen Jr. 300,000 pilgrims turn out for canonization of Opus Dei founder. National Catholic Reporter. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ The Process of Canonization. JosemariaEscriva.info. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 John Allen (2005). Opus Dei: An Objective Look Behind the Myths and Reality of the Most Controversial Force in the Catholic Church. Doubleday Religion.
- ↑ Guardian/Associated Press. Pope blesses statue of Opus Dei founder. Retrieved 2007-04-02.
- ↑ Fr. John McCloskey, "The Pope and Opus Dei". Crisis Magazine (March 1995). Retrieved 2006-11-27. mirrored on CatholiCity
- ↑ Opus Dei’s focus on secular life. Opus Dei Official Site. Retrieved 2006-11-28.
- ↑ 'Da Vinci' And Opus Dei. The New York Sun. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ A Glimpse Inside a Catholic 'Force': Opus Dei. National Public Radio. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ 31.0 31.1 Opus Dei called 'complete opposite' of 'The Da Vinci Code' portrayal. Catholic News Service. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs named
- ↑ Decree of Canonization. JoseMaria.info. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Josemaría Escrivá. Chapter 15: "Work". Furrow. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ "Josemaria Escriva: Work and Holiness". Eternal Word Television Network. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Josemaría Escrivá. "Opus Dei: an Association which fosters the Search for Holiness in the World". Conversations. Retrieved 2007-04-13.
- ↑ "Opus Dei as a Political Force in Post Cold War Latin America: Civil Society, Associationalism, and Democracy". American Political Science Association. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Interview with Opus Dei National Spokesman. ABC News. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Homily of Bishop Echevarría. Romana: Official Bulletin of Opus Dei. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Message of Opus Dei. Opus Dei website. Retrieved 2007-03-11.
- ↑ "Opus Dei: Foundation and Purpose" accessdate=2007-05-16}}
- ↑ or a "great catechsis" Catechetical Trips. JosemariaEscriva.info. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ "Opus Dei: A Dialogue Between Friend and Foe"|title=St. Liguori et Als on vocation and Opus Deiaccessdate=2006-11-27}}
- ↑ David Van Biema, "The Ways of Opus Dei" | TIME (April 19, 2006) accessdate = 2007-03-24}}
- ↑ Domingo Ramos-Lissón. The Example of the Early Christians in Blessed Josemaria's Teachings. Romana: The Official Bulletin of Opus Dei. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ 46.0 46.1 Place in the Church. Opus Dei Official Site. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Dennis Dubro. Government, Direction and Control in Opus Dei. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ What is Opus Dei - Governance. Opus Dei Official Site. Retrieved 2006-11-28.
- ↑ 49.0 49.1 Opus Dei. IdeasRapidas.org. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ 50.0 50.1 1982 Statutes of Opus Dei. Opus Dei. Retrieved 2006-11-27.mirrored on Odan.org. Original Latin version on Opus Dei Official Site
- ↑ Ruth Gledhill. Controversial Catholic group is given care of parish church. Times Online. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Opus Dei: Its Mission, Structure and Members. Zenit News Agency. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Opus Dei has stake in new pope. Newsday. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Cardinals Tauran and Herranz installed at their titular churches. Opus Dei Official Site. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Opus Dei Corporate Works. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ University of Navarra Named Top Private University. IESE Business School Site. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ 57.0 57.1 57.2 57.3 Catholics scrutinize enigmatic Opus Dei. Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2006-11-27. mirrored on RickRoss.com and here
- ↑ Conservative Catholic Influence in Europe. Center for Research on Population and Security. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ 59.0 59.1 59.2 James Martin, S. J.. Opus Dei In the United States. America: The National Catholic Weekly. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Opus Dei. Cephas Library. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ 61.0 61.1 Raphael Caamano. The Priestly Society of the Holy Cross. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ 62.0 62.1 The Da Vinci Code, the Catholic Church and Opus Dei. Opus Dei Official Site. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Error on call to template:cite web: Parameters url and title must be specified. Catechism of the Catholic Church no. 405. Retrieved 2007-06-13.
- ↑ 64.0 64.1 64.2 Corporal Mortification in Opus Dei. Opus Dei Awareness Network. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ David Ruppe (June 18, 2001). Opus Dei: A Return to Tradition. ABC News. Retrieved 2006-11-28. mirrored at rickross.com and here
- ↑ They Whip Themselves, Don’t They?. The Da Vinci Code & Opus Dei. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Suzanne Smith (November 28, 2005). An inside look at Opus Dei. Australian Broadcasting Corporation "Lateline".
- ↑ Scalia and Opus Dei. Counterpunch (January 17,2004).
- ↑ Sharon Clasen. Making Modern-Day Martyrs using Medieval Methods.
- ↑ Behind The Shroud Of Opus Dei. CBS News (April 30, 2006).
- ↑ The Way. EscrivaWorks.org. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Andrés Vázquez de Prada, The Founder of Opus Dei: The life of Josemaría Escrivá, Volume 1: The early years, (New York, 2000).
- ↑ Ruth Bertels. The Ethics of Opus Dei. TakingFive.com. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Evolution of Opus Dei. Opus Dei Awareness Network. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Ordinary Christians in the World. EWTN. Retrieved 2007-03-9.
- ↑ Opus Dei. Sourcewatch.org. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Top 100 Catholics of the Century. Daily Catholic. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Brennan Hill. Who Stood For and Against Hitler?. American Catholic. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ The Opus Dei Awareness Network (ODAN). ODAN.org. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Leslie Crawford. Opus Dei's influence promotes a sainthood. Financial Times (London). Retrieved 2006-11-27.mirrored on RickRoss.com
- ↑ Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs named
- ↑ 82.0 82.1 82.2 Abbott Karloff (May 14, 2006). Opus Dei members: 'Da Vinci' distorted. Daily Record. Retrieved 2006-11-27. mirrored on ReligionNewsBlog.com
- ↑ Opus Dei's Questionable Practices. Opus Dei Awareness Network.
- ↑ 84.0 84.1 Paul Moses. Fact, Fiction And Opus Dei. Newsday. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Giles Tremlett (October 5, 2002). Sainthood beckons for priest linked to Franco. The Guardian. Retrieved 2006-11-28.
- ↑ Deborah Kovach. Princeton Catholic Divided. The Trenton Times. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Barry James (April 14, 1992). Rocky Road to Sainthood for a 'Choleric' Cleric. International Herald Tribune. Retrieved 2006-11-28.
- ↑ Damian Thompson (January 18,2005). A creepy scrape with the Da Vinci Code set.
- ↑ Kenneth L. Woodward (January 13, 1992). Opus Dei Prepares to Stand By Its Man. Newsweek.
- ↑ Robert Hutchinson (1999). Their Kingdom Come: Inside the Secret World of Opus Dei. Thomas Dunne Books, p.15. ISBN 0-312-19344-0.
- ↑ Opus Dei in the open. The Bulletin (10/02/2002). Retrieved 2006-05-16.
- ↑ Paul Baumann. Let There Be Light: A look inside the hidden world of Opus Dei. Washington Monthly. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Craig Offman (December 2003). Thank you Lord, may I have another?. GQ Magazine.
- ↑ Peter Gould. The rise of Opus Dei. BBC News. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Interview with John L. Allen. Kansas City Star. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Interview with John Allen. PBS:Religion&Ethics. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Edward Pentin. Profiles: John Allen. The American. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Christoph Schonborn, O.P.. Are there sects in the Catholic Church?. Eternal Word Television Network. Retrieved 2006-11-27., Matthew 10:37
- ↑ Francesco Monterisi. The Personal Prelature: a Framework which Enriches the Communion of the Church. Opus Dei website. Retrieved 2007-02-17.
- ↑ John Allen (2005). Opus Dei: An Objective Look Behind the Myths and Reality of the Most Controversial Force in the Catholic Church. Doubleday Religion. , quoted [here]
- ↑ P. Berglar, Opus Dei, (1987)
- ↑ See Antonio Fontan and Rafael Calvo Serer
- ↑ Alvaro del Portillo and Cesare Cavalleri, Immersed in God: Blessed Josemaria Escriva, Founder of Opus Dei As Seen by His Successor, Bishop Alvaro Del Portillo, Scepter Publishers, 1996 ISBN 0933932855)
- ↑ See Pilar Urbano (1995). El hombre de Villa Tevere. Retrieved 2007-01-28.
- ↑ Bryan Ronald Wilson (December 3, 1994). Apostates and New Religious Movements. Retrieved 2006-11-28.
- ↑ Julian Cardinal Herranz, quoted in Javier Espinoza. Opus Dei is not a Sect. OhmyNews. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Julia Baird (2006). Tall tale ignites an overdue debate. Retrieved 2007-04-04.
- ↑ Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith Approved for Publication by His Holiness Pope Paul VI (1976). Declaration on the Question of the Admission of Women to the Ministerial Priesthood (Inter Insigniores). Retrieved 2007-04-04.
- ↑ You can trust them to sell you a car. The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Vittorio Messori, |title=Opus Dei, Leadership and Vision in Today's Catholic Church|publisher=Regnery Publishing|year=1997|id=ISBN 0895264501}}
- ↑ Richard Gordon, "What is Opus Dei, and what role does it play at Franciscan University?". The University Concourse. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Da Vinci Decoded. The History Channel. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Nicole Zarayn. Opus Dei and The Da Vinci Code. National Catholic Reporter. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Charles Taylor, The Da Vinci Code" by Dan Brown. Salon.com (March 27, 2003).
- ↑ Bart Ehrman, (November 1, 2004) Truth and Fiction in The Da Vinci Code: A Historian Reveals What We Really Know about Jesus, Mary Magdalene, and Constantine. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0195181401.
- ↑ Da Vinci Code is 'lousy history'. BBC News (24 December, 2004).
- ↑ Dan Brown, The Da Vinci Code: Frequently Asked Questions. DanBrown.com. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
- ↑ Opus Dei on John Allen's New Book. ZENIT.org (DEC. 25, 2005).
All Links Retrieved September 17, 2007.
- Allen, John, Jr. (2005). Opus Dei: an Objective Look Behind the Myths and Reality of the Most Controversial Force in the Catholic Church, Doubleday Religion. ISBN 0385514492 Some online excerpts are: Opus Dei: An Introduction, Chapter I: A Quick Overview, Chapter 4: Contemplatives in the Middle of the World, Chapter 7: Opus Dei and Secrecy
- Berglar, Peter (1994). Opus Dei. Life and Work of its Founder, Scepter. online here
- Coverdale, John. (2002) Uncommon Faith, Scepter Publishers. ISBN 188933474X
- Estruch, Joan (1995). Saints and Schemers: Opus Dei and its paradoxes, online Spanish version here
- Hahn, Scott (2006). Ordinary Work, Extraordinary Grace: My Spiritual Journey in Opus Dei, Random House Double Day Religion. ISBN 9780385519243 online excerpt of Chapter One here
- Introvigne, Massimo (May 1994). "Opus Dei and the Anti-cult Movement." Cristianità, 229: 3-12 online here
- John Paul II. "Sacred Congregation for Bishops." (23 August 1982). Vatican Declaration on Opus Dei, online here
- Le Tourneau, Dominique. (2002) What Is Opus Dei? Gracewing. ISBN 0852441363
- Martin, James, S. J. (25 February 1995). "Opus Dei in the United States." America Magazine online here
- Messori, Vittorio. (1997) Opus Dei, Leadership and Vision in Today's Catholic Church, Regnery Publishing. ISBN 0895264501 online Spanish version here
- O'Connor, William. (1991) Opus Dei: An Open Book. A Reply to "The Secret World of Opus Dei" by Michael Walsh, Dublin: Mercier Press.
- Ratzinger, Joseph Cardinal (Benedict XVI) (October 9, 2002). "St. Josemaria: God is very much at work in our world today." L'Osservatore Romano Weekly Edition in English, online here
- Schall, James, S. J. (Aug-Sept 1996). "Of Saintly Timber." Homiletic and Pastoral Review review of Joan Estruch's book, Saints & Schemers: Opus Dei and Its Paradoxes, translated by Elizabeth Ladd Glick (New York: Oxford, 1995) online here
- Walsh, Michael. (2004). Opus Dei: An Investigation into the Powerful Secretive Society within the Catholic Church, San Francisco: Harper.
Sites supporting Opus Dei
- Opus Dei Official Site Retrieved September 17, 2007.
- Romana, the Opus Dei's Official Bulletin Retrieved September 17, 2007.
- Opus Dei Blogs - central hub of internet sources Retrieved September 17, 2007.
Sites critical of Opus Dei
- Opus Dei Awareness Network - by ex-members and family Retrieved September 17, 2007.
- Opus Libros - by ex-members, in Spanish Retrieved September 17, 2007.
- The Unofficial Opus Dei FAQ - by a member of the Communist Party Retrieved September 17, 2007.
New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:
Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.
|
<urn:uuid:2b5e2e3c-8ffc-44b3-9384-9f1e96de36ca>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Opus_Dei
|
2013-05-23T19:18:40Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703728865/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112848-00052-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.903918
| 10,685
|
The ancestor of our word Europe has been traced ways way back to the Assyrians of ancient Mesopotamia. The early civilizations of this fertile valley thought of their land as the center of the world. They had no idea of the five great land masses we called continents. They called the unexplored regions to the west of them Ereb, meaning Land of the Sunset or Land of Darkness. They called the land to the east of Mesopotamia Asu, meaning Land of the Morning Sun. These words, Ereb and Asu are preserved on ancient Assyrian monuments.
The Phoenicians, those early traders whose ships traveled all over the ancient world, learned of Freb and Asu from the Assyrians. The Greeks learned them from the Phoenicians and handed them on with a few changes. Finally, Ereb became Europe and the name of a continent. Asu became Asian also a continent.
|
<urn:uuid:1271ce3d-078b-47e8-a710-4d32f71cb1f3>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.youaskandy.com/questions-answers/25-article-series-1950/16687-how-did-europe-get-its-name.html
|
2013-06-18T04:41:43Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706933615/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516122213-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.967767
| 184
|
What is pediatrics? That's an easy question for most people, especially those who went to a pediatrician when they were kids. Pediatrics is just the branch of medicine for kids, right?
That is basically true, but doctors who go into pediatrics have long known that kids aren't just small adults. Newborns, toddlers, preschoolers and even teenagers all have different physical and mental needs and problems than adults. Pediatricians take care of all of those needs for kids from birth up to age 21.
History of Pediatrics
Although traditional medical doctors have been around since Hippocrates in ancient Greece -- and likely before if you consider the medical practices of non-western cultures -- pediatrics is a relatively new branch of medicine.
Today's pediatricians have their roots in the formation of the American Pediatric Society and the American Academy of Pediatrics. As with other medical specialties, the move toward a pediatrics specialty seemed to evolve after the AMA pushed to restructure and reform medical education in the early 20th century.
Early leaders in pediatrics, often called the fathers of pediatrics, include Drs. Abraham Jacobi, Osler, Rotch and Forchheimer.
In fact, in their policy statement on "The Pediatrician's Role in Community Pediatrics," the American Academy of Pediatrics calls Abraham Jacobi (1830-1919) "a founder of the discipline of pediatrics." Born and trained in Germany, Jacobi eventually came to New York City and began practicing and then teaching pediatrics. In addition to being a strong advocate of breastfeeding, Dr. Jacobi warned that women who did not breastfeed should not give their babies raw cow's milk and introduced the concept of bedside teaching of students.
Early Milestones in Pediatrics
Some of the more significant early developments in pediatrics include:
- Edward Jenner did tests that led to the first smallpox vaccine in 1796
- Dr. Eli Ives gave lectures to medical students at Yale about diseases in children and other medical topics between 1813 and 1852
- Two of the first textbooks in pediatrics are published in 1825, "Treatise on the Physical and Medical Treatment of Children" by Dr. William Potts Dewees and "Practical Observations on Diseases of Children" by Dr. George Logan
- Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell becomes the first woman to graduate from a U.S. medical school in 1849 and then goes on to study at children's hospitals in London, Scotland, and Paris, returning to help start the New York Infirmary for Women and Children
- Children's Hospital of Philadelphia is established in 1854 and becomes America's first children's hospital
- New York Medical College starts a regular professorship for the diseases of children in 1860
- Louis Pasteur invents pasteurization in 1862, which is later applied to keeping milk safe by Franz von Soxhlet in 1886
- Abraham Jacobi helps start the "American Journal of Obstetrics and Diseases of Women and Children" in 1868
- Dr. Frederick Forchheimer is the chief physician when the Home for Sick Children in Cincinnati, Ohio, opens in 1883 - the first children's hospital in the Midwest
- The first issue of the Archives of Pediatrics is published in 1884
- The American Pediatric Society is established in 1888, by Dr. Job Lewis Smith, with Dr. Abraham Jacobi as its first president, who later becomes president of the AMA
- Dr. Thomas Morgan Rotch is appointed America's first full professor of pediatrics at Harvard Medical School in 1893
- The "American Journal of Diseases in Children," published by the AMA and now called the "Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine," begins publishing in January 1911
- Seasonal epidemics of polio begin to occur in the United States in 1916
- Sir Edward Mellanby, a doctor in London, discovers that cod liver oil can treat rickets
- The diphtheria vaccine was introduced in 1923, soon followed by a pertussis (whooping cough) vaccine in 1926
- Dr. J. P. Crozier first publishes his pediatrics textbook "The Disease of Infants and Children," which eventually becomes the Nelson's Pediatrics textbook that is still used today
- Alexander Fleming discovers penicillin in 1928, although it isn't until the 1940s and 50s that penicillin began to be widely used as an antibiotic
- The American Academy of Pediatrics is formed on June 23, 1930 by a group of 35 pediatricians in Detroit, Michigan
- The American Board of Pediatrics, a certifying board of the American Board of Medical Specialties, is founded in 1933
- Cases of rickets start to decline as milk begins to be fortified with vitamin D in 1933
- A study is published describing the use of benzedrine (a form of amphetamine) in children with behavior problems in 1937 by Dr. Charles Bradley
- Drs William E. Ladd and Robert E. Gross (who performed the first PDA ligation three years earlier) publish the first modern pediatric surgery textbook in 1941, "Abdominal Surgery of Infancy and Childhood"
- Dr. Helen Taussig and Dr. Alfred Blalock work to develop a palliative surgical treatment for babies with Tetralogy of Fallot in 1943
- Dr. R. L. Jackson and Mrs. H. G. Kelly publish the first widely used pediatric growth charts in 1944
- The first edition of "Baby and Child Care" is published by Dr. Benjamin Spock in 1946
- The first military pediatrics residency program opens at Boston's Chelsea Naval Base in November 1946, although pediatricians were already serving in the Army and Navy Medical Corps, including more than 900 pediatricians in World War II
- C. Everett Koop, MD becomes surgeon in chief at Children's Hospital of Philadelphia around 1947
- The first issue of Pediatrics, the journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics is published in 1948
- A study in 1948 showed that only 58% of newborns were discharged from the hospital before they were 8 days old and 35% were strictly bottle fed, 27% fed from both the breast and bottle, and only 38% were exclusively breastfed
- Dr. Roland B. Scott, who was the chairman of pediatrics at Howard University from 1949 to 1973 and became the first African-American member of the American Pediatric Society in 1952, is likely the first black pediatrician in the U.S.
- The Harriet Lane Handbook is first published in 1950, and long becomes the go-to reference for pediatric residents
|
<urn:uuid:1d5cf567-c0be-4747-b50d-bf86a6b65dde>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://pediatrics.about.com/od/becomingapediatrician/a/pediatrics.htm
|
2013-05-23T19:06:35Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00050-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.963299
| 1,347
|
|Origin:||Perhaps from Old English dragan 'to pull'|
1 [intransitive and transitive]TTWTEC
to remove mud or sand from the bottom of a river, harbour etc, or to search for something by doing this:
They dredged for oysters.
2 [transitive + with]DF
to cover food lightly with flour, sugar etc
dredge something ↔ upphrasal verb
to start talking again about something that happened a long time ago, especially something unpleasant:
Newsweek magazine dredged up some remarks which he made last year.
to manage to remember something, or to feel or express an emotion, with difficulty:
Robertson tried to dredge up an image of her in his mind.
From somewhere she dredged up a brilliant smile.
to pull something up from the bottom of a river, lake etc
|
<urn:uuid:27e831a4-db13-42a0-92ab-1eb1456630b0>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.ldoceonline.com/Food-topic/dredge
|
2013-05-25T05:38:00Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705559639/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115919-00002-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.904742
| 185
|
Methodology: The research methods used for a study.
Respondent: A participant in a research process.
Sample: The number of people actually participating in a study.
Random sample: A sample of respondents chosen from the population at random. Also known as probability sample.
Quota Sample: A sample of participants who fall into designated demographic categories (i.e. age) or have specific traits necessary for the study (i.e. buy a particular product). Not a random sample because the participants are targeted for specific reasons.
Stratified random sample: A quota sample for which each sub-sample is selected at random.
Convenience sample: A sample selection method based on who can be reached quickly, efficiently, inexpensively or easily. No attempt to verify a representative cross-section of the target audiences. Subject to significant bias.
Qualitative: Data that cannot be precisely reported as representative of a larger audience. Often used more for exploration or concept validation. Examples include focus groups, small sample studies, and informal or in-depth discussions.
Quantitative: Data that can be scientifically analyzed and given empirical value. Suggests precision of responses, projectable to larger populations. Examples include scientific (random sample) surveys among various audiences.
Bias: Possibility that any aspect of a study misrepresents the true situation. Possible types of bias include question bias, interviewer bias, interviewer errors, environmental (external) bias and various forms of sample bias: non-response, list errors, sub-group absence or dominance.
Confidence interval: The range around a survey result for which there is a specific statistical probability that it contains the true margin of error. Most commonly in practical studies: 95%.
|
<urn:uuid:2d751cb1-9a6e-4b4a-8f83-b307ea90cfb6>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://rileyresearch.com/research_definitions.html
|
2013-05-19T02:58:56Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383160/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00052-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.893114
| 352
|
Hindu Timeline Introduction
A History of India and Hindu Dharma
Much of what India and Hinduism are today can be understood by examining their origins and history. Here is a humble chronology that tells the story of the sages, kings, outside invaders and inside reformers who contributed to the world's oldest living civilization and largest modern-day democracy. Remarkably, Hindu India has been home to one-fourth of the human race since the dawn of recorded time. Its story, summarized here, is crucial to human history.
The emphasis on spirituality in India's thought and history is unparalleled in human experience. The king in his court, the sage on his hill and the farmer in one of Bharat's 700,000 villages each pursues his dharma with a common ultimate purpose: spiritual enlightenment. This perspective is the source of Hinduism's resilience in the face of competing faiths and conquering armies. No other nation has faced so many invaders and endured. These invasions have brought the races of the world to a subcontinent one-third the size of the United States. There are many feats of which the ancient Hindus could be proud, such as the invention of the decimal system of numbers, philosophy, linguistics, surgery, city planning and statecraft. And most useful to us in this particular timeline: their skill in astronomy.
Dates in Hindu history after Buddha are subject to little dispute, while dates before Buddha have been decided as much by current opinion and politics as by scientific evidence. An overwhelming tendency of Western scholarship has been to deny the great antiquity of Hinduism.
Indian scholar S.B. Roy points out that the commonly accepted chronology of German linguist Max Muller (1823-1900) is based solely "on the ghost story of Kathasaritasagara." Historian Klaus K. Klostermaier agrees: "The chronology provided by Max Muller and accepted uncritically by most Western scholars is based on very shaky ground indeed." While making crucial historical contributions in bringing India's wisdom to the West, Muller admitted his covert intention to undermine Hinduism. In a letter to his wife in 1886 he wrote: "The translation of the Veda will hereafter tell to a great extent on the fate of India and on the growth of millions of souls in that country. It is the root of their religion, and to show them what the root is, I feel sure, is the only way of uprooting all that has sprung from it during the last 3,000 years.''
Contemporary researchers, such as Dr. B.G. Siddharth of B.M. Birla Science Centre, Dr. S.B. Roy, Professor Subhash Kak, Dr. N.R. Waradpande, Bhagwan Singh and Dr. David Frawley, Vedacharya, have developed a more accurate picture of ancient India, assembling new chronologies based on a highly reliable method: dating scriptural references by their relationship to the known precession of the equinoxes. Earth's axis of rotation "wobbles," causing constellations, as viewed from Earth, to drift at a constant rate and along a predictable course over a 25,000-year cycle. For example, a Rig Vedic verse observing winter solstice at Aries can be correlated to around 6500 bce. Frawley states, "Precessional changes are the hallmark of Hindu astronomy. We cannot ignore them in ancient texts just because they give us dates too early for our conventional view of human history." Besides astronomical references from scripture, there is much to support their dates, such as carbon-14 dating, the discovery of Indus-Sarasvati Valley cities and the recent locating of the Sarasvati River, a prominent landmark of Vedic writings.
Much of the dating in this timeline prior to 600 bce derives from the work of Dr. S.B. Roy (Chronological Framework of Indian Protohistory-The Lower Limit, published in The Journal of the Baroda Oriental Institute, March-June 1983) and that of David Frawley Ph.D. (Gods, Sages and Kings). For technical enhancements to the timeline we depended on Prof. Shiva G. Bajpai PhD., Director of Asian Studies at California State University, who co-authored "A Historical Atlas of South Asia" with Prof. Joseph E. Schwartzberg and Dr. Raj B. Mathur.
Max Muller is the primary evangelist of another, more invidious, dogma imposed on Hindu history: the "Aryan invasion" theory. Originally a Vedic term meaning "noble," then applied to the parent-language of Greek, Sanskrit, Latin and German, the term Aryan soon referred to those who spoke it, a supposed race of light-skinned Aryans. The idea of a parent race caught the imagination of 18th and 19th century European Christian scholars, who hypothesized elaborate Aryan migrations from Central Asia, west to Europe, south to India (ca 1500 bce) and east to China-conquering local primitive peoples and founding the world's great civilizations. This theory states that the Vedas, the heart and core of Sanatana Dharma, were brought to India by these outsiders and not composed in India.
Although lacking supporting scientific evidence, this theory, and the alleged Aryan-Dravidian racial split, was accepted and promulgated as fact for three main reasons. It provided a convenient precedent for Christian British subjugation of India. It reconciled ancient Indian civilization and religious scripture with the 4000 bce Biblical date of Creation. It created division and conflict between the peoples of India, making them vulnerable to conversion by Christian missionaries.
Scholars today of both East and West believe the Rig Veda people who called themselves Aryan were indigenous to India, and there never was an Aryan invasion. The languages of India have been shown to share common ancestry in ancient Sanskrit and Tamil. Even these two apparently unrelated languages, according to current "super-family" research, have a common origin: an ancient language dubbed Nostratic.
The Old Model
Credits India's culture to foreign invaders. Hypothesis, first proposed by German Max Muller (1823-1900), is still accepted in most historical textbooks. Supporters: Sir William Jones, Thomas Young, Joseph de Goubinau, Dwight Witney, Sir Mortimer Wheeler, A.L. Basham.
The New Model
Offers astrological and archeological evidence to discredit invasion theory, pushes Indian history back several thousand years. Supporters: B.G. Tilak, P.C. Sengupta, S.B. Roy, Pargiter, Jagat Pati Joshi, Dikshit, K.N. Shastri, Sri Aurobindo, Hermann Jacobi, S.R. Rao, Dayananda Saraswati, Subash Kak, David Frawley, B.G. Sidharth, and others.
WHAT IS CLAIMED?
The Old Model
Conquering legions of blue-eyed, white "Aryans" from Eastern Russia invaded North India on horseback around 1500bce and ultimately displaced most of India's unsophisticated Dravidian tribals. They brought civilization and the refined Sanskrit language into India, built the expansive Indus Valley complex, wrote the Vedas and other sacred texts. The Sarasvati River, prominent in the Vedas, is mythical, or lies outside of India somewhere. Claims no astronomical references are found in the Rig Veda.
The New Model
There was no invasion at all. India's native peoples founded the Indus/Sarasvati River civilization, developed Sanskrit and wrote all her ancient texts. European dates are all wrong. Rig Veda verses belie the old chronology (VI.51.14-15 mentions the winter solstice occurs when the sun rises in Revati nakshatra, only possible at 6,000bce, long before the alleged invasion.) Carbon dating confirms horses in Gujarat at 2,400bce, contradicting old model claim Aryans must have brought them. NASA satellite photos prove Sarasvati River basin is real, not a myth. Fire altars excavated at Kali Bangan in Rajasthan support existence of Rig Veda culture at 2,700 bce. Kunal, a new site in Haryana, shows use of writing and silver craft in pre-Harappan India, 6-7,000bce.
WHAT IT MEANS?
The Old Model
India's native peoples were primitive and her foundational culture and religion were imported. All the good stuff came from Eastern Europe, of course, and the rest is a vestige of conquered dark-skinned aboriginals. The Vedas are, at most, 3,500 years old.
The New Model
India's history goes back much farther than anyone knew, perhaps 10,000 years. India need not be indebted to others for her rich and ancient traditions. The Vedic texts, thought to be part mythology, are being vindicated by scientific evidence to be the world's oldest factual account of human experience.
The comments are owned by the author. We aren't responsible for their content.
|
<urn:uuid:70047ed8-4bfa-4dc9-acb1-5691656d7965>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.hinduismtoday.com/modules/smartsection/item.php?itemid=3211&keywords=David%20Frawley
|
2013-05-20T12:02:06Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698924319/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516100844-00003-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.941207
| 1,889
|
|North Korea Table of Contents
Estimating the size, growth rate, sex ratio, and age structure of North Korea's population has been extremely difficult. Until release of official data in 1989, the 1963 edition of the North Korea Central Yearbook was the last official publication to disclose population figures until 1989. After 1963 demographers used varying methods to estimate the population. They either totaled the number of delegates elected to the Supreme People's Assembly (each delegate representing 50,000 people before 1962 and 30,000 people afterward) or relied on official statements that a certain number of persons, or percentage of the population, was engaged in a particular activity. Thus, on the basis of remarks made by President Kim Il Sung in 1977 concerning school attendance, the population that year was calculated at 17.2 million persons. During the 1980s, health statistics, including life expectancy and causes of mortality, were gradually made available to the outside world.
In 1989 the Central Statistics Bureau released demographic data to the United Nations Fund for Population Activities (UNFPA) in order to secure the UNFPA's assistance in holding North Korea's first nationwide census since the establishment of the DPRK in 1948. Although the figures given to the United Nations (UN) might have been purposely distorted, it appears that in line with other attempts to open itself to the outside world, the North Korean regime has also opened somewhat in the demographic realm. Although the country lacks trained demographers, accurate data on household registration, migration, and births and deaths are available to North Korean authorities. According to the United States scholar Nicholas Eberstadt and demographer Judith Banister, vital statistics and personal information on residents are kept by agencies on the ri, or ni (village, the local administrative unit) level in rural areas and the dong (district or block) level in urban areas.
Size and Growth Rate
In their 1992 monograph, The Population of North Korea, Eberstadt and Banister use the data given to the UNFPA and also make their own assessments. They place the total population at 21.4 million persons in mid-1990, consisting of 10.6 million males and 10.8 million females. This figure is close to an estimate of 21.9 million persons for mid-1988 cited in the 1990 edition of the Demographic Yearbook published by the UN. Korean Review, a book by Pan Hwan Ju published by the P'yongyang Foreign Languages Press in 1987, gives a figure of 19.1 million persons for 1986.
The figures disclosed by the government reveal an unusually low proportion of males to females: in 1980 and 1987, the maleto -female ratios were 86.2 to 100, and 84.2 to 100, respectively. Low male-to-female ratios are usually the result of a war, but these figures were lower than the sex ratio of 88.3 males per 100 females recorded for 1953, the last year of the Korean War. The male-to-female ratio would be expected to rise to a normal level with the passage of years, as happened between 1953 and 1970, when the figure was 95.1 males per 100 females. After 1970, however, the ratio declined. Eberstadt and Banister suggest that before 1970 male and female population figures included the whole population, yielding ratios in the ninetieth percentile, but that after that time the male military population was excluded from population figures. Based on the figures provided by the Central Statistics Bureau, Eberstadt and Banister estimate that the actual size of the "hidden" male North Korean military had reached 1.2 million by 1986 and that the actual male-to-female ratio was 97.1 males to 100 females in 1990. If their estimates are correct, 6.1 percent of North Korea's total population was in the military, numerically the world's fifth largest military force, in the late 1980s.
The annual population growth rate in 1960 was 2.7 percent, rising to a high of 3.6 percent in 1970, but falling to 1.9 percent in 1975. This fall reflected a dramatic decline in the fertility rate: the average number of children born to women decreased from 6.5 in 1966 to 2.5 in 1988. Assuming the data are reliable, reasons for falling growth rates and fertility rates probably include late marriage, urbanization, limited housing space, and the expectation that women would participate equally in terms of work hours in the labor force. The experience of other socialist countries suggests that widespread labor force participation by women often goes hand-in-hand with more traditional role expectations; in other words, they are still responsible for housework and childrearing. The high percentage of males aged seventeen to twenty-six may also have contributed to the low fertility rate. According to Eberstadt and Banister's data, the annual population growth rate in 1991 was 1.9 percent.
The North Korean government seems to perceive its population as too small in relation to that of South Korea. In its public pronouncements, P'yongyang has called for accelerated population growth and encouraged large families. According to one KoreanAmerican scholar who visited North Korea in the early 1980s, the country has no birth control policies; parents are encouraged to have as many as six children. The state provides t'agaso (nurseries) in order to lessen the burden of childrearing for parents and offers a seventy-seven-day paid leave after childbirth. Eberstadt and Banister suggest, however, that authorities at the local level make contraceptive information readily available to parents and that intrauterine devices are the most commonly adopted birth control method. An interview with a former North Korean resident in the early 1990s revealed that such devices are distributed free at clinics.
Population Structure and Projections
Demographers determine the age structure of a given population by dividing it into five-year age-groups and arranging them chronologically in a pyramidlike structure that "bulges" or recedes in relation to the number of persons in a given age cohort. Many poor, developing countries have a broad base and steadily tapering higher levels, which reflects a large number of births and young children but much smaller age cohorts in later years as a result of relatively short life expectancies. North Korea does not entirely fit this pattern; data reveal a "bulge" in the lower ranges of adulthood. In 1991 life expectancy at birth was approximately sixty-six years for males, almost seventy-three for females.
It is likely that annual population growth rates will increase in the future, as will as difficulties in employing the many young men and women entering the labor force in a socialist economy already suffering from stagnant growth. Eberstadt and Banister estimate that the population will increase to 25.5 million by the end of the century and to 28.5 million in 2010. They project that the population will stabilize (that is, cease to grow) at 34 million persons in 2045 and will then experience a gradual decline. By comparison, South Korea's population is expected to stabilize at 52.6 million people in 2023.
Settlement Patterns and Urbanization
North Korea's population is concentrated in the plains and lowlands. The least populated regions are the mountainous Chagang and Yanggang provinces adjacent to the Chinese border; the largest concentrations of population are in North P'yngan and South P'yngan provinces, in the municipal district of P'yongyang, and in South Hamgyng Province, which includes the Hamhng-Hngnam urban area . Eberstadt and Banister calculate the average population density at 167 persons per square kilometer, ranging from 1,178 persons per square kilometer in P'yongyang Municipality to 44 persons per square kilometer in Yanggang Province. By contrast, South Korea had an average population density of 425 persons per square kilometer in 1989.
Like South Korea, North Korea has experienced significant urban migration since the end of the Korean War. Official statistics reveal that 59.6 percent of the total population was classified as urban in 1987. This figures compares with only 17.7 percent in 1953. It is not entirely clear, however, what standards are used to define urban populations. Eberstadt and Banister suggest that although South Korean statisticians do not classify settlements of under 50,000 as urban, their North Korean counterparts include settlements as small as 20,000 in this category. And, in North Korea, people who engage in agricultural pursuits inside municipalities sometimes are not counted as urban.
Urbanization in North Korea seems to have proceeded most rapidly between 1953 and 1960, when the urban population grew between 12 and 20 percent annually. Subsequently, the increase slowed to about 6 percent annually in the 1960s and between 1 and 3 percent from 1970 to 1987.
In 1987 North Korea's largest cities were P'yongyang, with approximately 2.3 million inhabitants; Hamhng, 701,000; Ch'ngjin, 520,000; Namp'o, 370,000; Sunch'n, 356,000; and Siniju, 289,000. In 1987 the total national population living in P'yongyang was 11.5 percent. The government also restricts and monitors migration to cities and ensures a relatively balanced distribution of population in provincial centers in relation to P'yongyang.
Koreans Living Overseas
Large-scale emigration from Korea began around 1904 and continued until the end of World War II. During the Japanese colonial occupation (1910-45), many Koreans emigrated to Manchuria (China's three northeastern provinces of Heilongjiang, Jilin, and Liaoning), other parts of China, the Soviet Union, Hawaii, and the continental United States. People from Korea's northern provinces went mainly to Manchuria, China, and Siberia; many from the southern provinces went to Japan. Most émigrés left for economic reasons because employment opportunities were scarce; many Korean farmers had lost their land after the Japanese colonial government introduced a system of private land tenure, imposed higher land taxes, and promoted the growth of an absentee landlord class charging exorbitant rents.
In the 1980s, more than 4 million ethnic Koreans lived outside the peninsula. The largest group, about 1.7 million people, lived in China; most had assumed Chinese citizenship. Approximately 1 million Koreans, almost exclusively from South Korea, lived in North America. About 389,000 ethnic Koreans resided in the former Soviet Union. One observer noted that Koreans have been so successful in running collective farms in Soviet Central Asia that being Korean is often associated by other citizens there with being rich, and as a result there is growing antagonism against Koreans. Smaller groups of Koreans are found in Central America and South America (85,000), the Middle East (62,000), Europe (40,000), Asia (27,000), and Africa (25,000).
Many of Japan's approximately 680,000 Koreans have belowaverage standards of living. This situation is partly because of discrimination by the Japanese. Many resident Koreans, loyal to North Korea, remain separate from, and often hostile to, the Japanese social mainstream. The pro-North Korean Choch'ongryn (General Association of Korean Residents in Japan, known as Ch sen s ren or Ch s ren in Japanese) (see Glossary) initially was more successful than the pro-South Korean Mindan (Association for Korean Residents in Japan) in attracting adherents among residents in Japan.
Between 1959 and 1982, Choch'ongryn encouraged the repatriation of Korean residents in Japan to North Korea. More than 93,000 Koreans left Japan, the majority (80,000 persons) in 1960 and 1961. Thereafter, the number of repatriates declined, apparently because of reports of hardships suffered by their compatriots. Approximately 6,637 Japanese wives accompanied their husbands to North Korea, of whom about 1,828 retained Japanese citizenship in the early 1990s. P'yongyang had originally promised that the wives could return home every two or three years to visit their relatives. In fact, however, they are not allowed to do so, and few have had contact with their families in Japan. In normalization talks between North Korean and Japanese officials in the early 1990s, the latter urged unsuccessfully that the wives be allowed to make home visits.
For more recent population estimates, see Facts about North Korea.
Source: U.S. Library of Congress
|
<urn:uuid:c7850c72-6454-4842-a565-2ca1db68b64c>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://countrystudies.us/north-korea/24.htm
|
2013-05-23T18:51:54Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00003-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.958153
| 2,532
|
In the future, says car designer Chris Bangle, self-driving cars will be invisible and have bus-like seating. In another future – the one that engineer William Bertelsen predicted in 1961 – self-driving cars will slide around on cushions of air and cross the U.S. in just two hours. Cities will be linked by grassy, eight-lane "airways" instead of interstates, and the 8-foot-wide "ground-effect machines" will change lanes at hundreds of miles per hour as their riders leisurely read magazines and smoke pipes, PopSci reported in August 1961.
The pumping stations that keep air flowing through the nationwide system of Aeromobile tubes would be nuclear-powered. Passengers would only need to input direction at junction points. And, with the mobility of a helicopter, Aeromobiles could perform pivot turns in driveways and parellel park by moving sideways.
According to Bertelsen, every bit of technology needed to implement his system was already available in 1961. So what happened to his dream? In June 2008, Bertelsen contacted PopSci to catch up. Basically, he said, Americans lost interest in hovercraft as the space race took off. (But don't call his Aeromobiles "hovercraft": "It's not meant to hover, it's meant to get places!" he told our reporter.) Bertelsen, who was also a practicing physician in Illinois for more than 50 years, died July 16, 2009.
Read the full story in our August 1961 issue: 1,500-m.p.h Family Cars?.
Five amazing, clean technologies that will set us free, in this month's energy-focused issue. Also: how to build a better bomb detector, the robotic toys that are raising your children, a human catapult, the world's smallest arcade, and much more.
|
<urn:uuid:699fd3a0-3324-45dd-9f1f-90ab0ac82c26>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.popsci.com/cars/article/2012-09/what-happened-1500mph-no-wheels-self-driving-car
|
2013-05-18T18:51:16Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382705/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00002-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.974107
| 383
|
Sexually transmitted diseases can be a real worry when you are sexually active. Engaging in unprotected forms of sexual intercourse can increase your risk of contracting a number of diseases including HIV, chlamydia, and gonorrhea. Unprotected sexual activity can also increase your chances of developing a rare STD known as granuloma inguinale. Though relatively unknown in the United States, it is still important that you are able to recognize symptoms of the disease. If left untreated, granuloma inguinale can cause a number of serious health complications.
What is Granuloma Inguinale
Granuloma inguinale is a sexually transmitted disease caused by a bacterial infection. Also known as donovanosis or granuloma venereum, the infection is caused by the bacteria Calymmatobacterium granulomatis, which inhabits contaminated drinking water and food. This sexually transmitted disease causes bumps and blisters to form on the genitalia, which, if left untreated, can destroy genital tissues and organs. The disease occurs most commonly in tropical and subtropical areas, including parts of India, Africa, and Asia. Though very rare in the United States, approximately 100 cases do occur here every year, particularly in states on the southeastern coast.
How is Granuloma Inguinale Transmitted?
Granuloma Inguinale is transmitted through sexual activity with an infected partner. It can be ingested by consuming contaminated food or water, and then passed along through sexual intercourse. It is most commonly spread through oral and anal intercourse, however, it can also be spread by touching contaminated sores. Women with granuloma inguinale can pass the disease onto their child during birth.
Who's At Risk For Developing Granuloma Inguinale?
All sexually active men and women are at some risk for developing granuloma inguinale. However, there are certain factors that appear to increase your risk of developing the disease. These risks include:
- participating in unprotected anal sex
- participating in unprotected oral sex
- having multiple sex partners
- being male (men are twice as likely to contract granuloma inguinale)
- being between the ages of 20 and 40
Travel to tropical and subtropical countries where food and water may be contaminated may also increase your risk of contracting this disease.
What are the Symptoms of Granuloma Inguinale?
The symptoms of granuloma inguinale usually appear within one week of infection, however, they can take as long as eighty days to manifest. First symptoms usually include:
- upset stomach
- rectal discomfort
The main symptom of granuloma inguinale is the appearance of small, red bumps on the genital area. These bumps are typically painless, and can form on the penis, vagina, labia, and rectum. These bumps are often confused with symptoms of chancroid and syphilis, however, after a few weeks they begin to change in size and appearance. The bumps gradually increase in size and begin to eat away at the genital tissue, causing scarring and destruction.
Complications of Granuloma Inguinale
If left untreated, granuloma inguinale can cause some serious health complications, including:
- permanent genital scarring
- destruction of the genitals
- loss of skin pigmentation around the genitals
- swelling of the subcutaneous tissue in the groin region
Treating Granuloma Inguinale
Treatment usually lasts for a minimum of three weeks, however, it may continue for several months. Antibiotics must be taken until all sores have healed. Within a week to ten days, you should begin to notice an improvement in your symptoms.
Preventing Granuloma Inguinale
The best way to avoid contracting granuloma inguinale is to abstain from sex. However, if you're you are sexually active, there are ways to lower your risk of contracting granuloma inguinale and other STDs:
- Always use a condom when engaging in any type of sexual activity.
- Limit your sexual partners.
- If you notice any symptoms of sexually transmitted disease, stop having sexual intercourse and speak with your health care provider.
|
<urn:uuid:af9d8f76-354d-48ea-9d00-ce95a3aa8422>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.epigee.org/health/granu_ingui.html
|
2013-05-26T03:29:27Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706578727/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121618-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.923643
| 875
|
'True comfort, as we understand it, was invented by the French in the seventeenth century,' writes Peter Thornton, who singled out the 1630s as the key decade in this development and showed how the new comfort was quite quickly transferred to the homes of aristocratic Englishmen in the early Restoration period. This section will look at how the homes of middling Londoners were also transformed in the course of our period.
This is much easier to document then diet or apparel, since most inventories list furniture, often in considerable detail. One can start by looking at valuations of domestic goods, though it should be noted that these are 'clearance sale' and not replacement values, and people actually spent much more than the figures listed by the valuers. Table 10.8 opposite provides average valuations broken down into five wealth groups and distinguishing between two sub-periods, before and after 1690. The table shows that there was little change over time, a rather
surprising result since, as will be seen, there was considerable qualitative change in domestic goods. As one might expect, richer people spent more than poorer people, though it is clear that demand for such goods was relatively inelastic. It seems, too, that richer people were spending rather less and poorer people rather more as time went on.
It was seen in Chapter 8 that the typical middle-class house had about seven rooms, comprising four or five bedrooms, one or two living rooms, the best one normally being called the dining-room and and the second best the parlour, and a kitchen. In Table 10.9 above, the average value of the contents of the main rooms is listed and it can be seen that the most valuable
room was normally the best bedroom, a room which was used for entertaining as well as sleeping, as is clear from contemporary prints and descriptions as well as from the inventories. Five of the sample, all merchants, had magnificent best bedrooms valued at over £100. Another merchant, who died in 1701, had a dining-room valued at £100, and there was a tendency for this room to be upgraded as our period continues to provide an increasingly important second focus of display.
What one might call class as well as wealth affected the level of domestic consumption. For example, 38 of the 162 people worth more then £2000 had best bedrooms valued at less than £15. Since these people could clearly have afforded bedrooms valued at the £20, £30 or more which was normal in this wealth group, it is interesting to see if they shared any characteristics. When one looks at their occupations, it is clear that they did, since, with few exceptions, they made their money in ways not considered very genteel by their contemporaries. There were only two merchants amongst them, for instance, and virtually none of the fashionable sort of shopkeeper. The fact is that most merchants, mercers and drapers made very sure that they would not be found dead in a bedroom worth less then £15, a fear not shared by such ungenteel tradesmen as builders, wine coopers, cheesemongers, coalmongers, soapmakers, distillers, printers and cloth finishers. Such men, although wealthy, saw no reason to lay out money on unnecessary display in their bedrooms or in any other part of their homes, a fact which helps to explain why they often managed to accumulate as much as mercers and merchants, since they were not subject to the same haemorrhage of their capital on domestic display.
One can now look at the qualitative changes in the contents of houses. These were considerable and, for the most part, followed with some delay the changes discovered by furniture historians in their studies of the court and aristocracy. One striking feature was the increasing emphasis on lightness, both in terms of visibility and in the materials used for hangings, curtains, bed furniture and upholstery. The replacement of small paned windows by sash windows from the late 1680s and a much greater provision of sconces and standing candle-sticks, often backed with mirrors, did much to dispel the gloom of interiors. From the 1690s, many wealthy people were using the
much larger mirror plates now available as chimney glasses above their fireplaces and pier-glasses between the windows, while, in general, one finds a much wider use of looking-glasses and their introduction to nearly every room. In 1691, Guy Miège noted the light and airiness of the London house, the 'lightsom stair-cases, fine sash-windows and lofty ceilings', the latter usually plastered, which 'make by their whiteness the rooms so much lightsomer.'
The use of lighter textiles was equally marked, heavier draperies such as broadcloth and serge being replaced by lighter mixtures such as mohairs and camlets, and, increasingly, by silks and cottons. These changes in taste are especially marked in the furnishing of beds, which were normally adorned with a huge yardage of textiles in the form of curtains, valances, headcloths and testers, quite apart from the quilts, blankets, rugs and sheets which lay on top of the nearly ubiquitous and expensive feather-beds. By the reign of Queen Anne, the hangings of the best bed in the house were nearly always camlet, mohair, damask or silk and many were also lined with silk or cotton, a development which can be seen throughout the house as camlet and mohair gradually replaced serge in the second and third bedrooms too and as similar textiles were used as hangings and furniture coverings generally.
The furniture itself was becoming more comfortable, curves which fitted the human body replacing the upright, angular furniture of earlier days, while improvements in upholstery led to better padded seats and a much wider use of cushions and squabs, usually stuffed with down or feathers. Sitting comfortably was now very much the thing to do and the ability to do so is indicated by the increasing appearance of couches, sofas and settees and by the 'easy chair', the high-backed, winged and well-upholstered armchair described by John Gloag as 'a national symbol of ease and comfort'. He dates the easy chair from the 1670s, but it is not common in our inventories before the reign of Queen Anne. Another innovation was the replacement of the 'turkeywork' chair by the cane chair as the normal form of upright chair for sitting at table and, in general, the much wider use of light, elegant and resilient canework in other types of furniture. Cane chairs are found in aristocratic inventories of the 1660s and John Gloag has suggested that the
demand for the new chairs 'was suddenly and dramatically expanded' by the Great Fire in 1666. This attractive thesis is not supported by our inventories, which show that the key decade for the adoption of the new chair was the 1680s, some twenty years after its first introduction, and it is in the same decade that anguished petitions from the turkeywork makers are found in a bid to ban the products of their competitors.
The decline of serge as a furnishing material and the rise of the cane chair are just two examples of the influence of fashion on domestic interiors. There were many others, such as the introduction of the 'oval table' from the 1670s, and it is clear that fashion, often derived from French or aristocratic models and followed with a delay of a decade or two, was an imperative influence forcing Londoners to change their furniture and furnishings long before they were worn out. This was good news for manufacturers and traders in general, although there were of course losers, such as the serge-makers of Exeter and the turkeywork makers of Bradford, who had good cause to bemoan their fate, while the cane-chair makers of London were basking in the sun.
Cane-work was first introduced from the Far East from where the rattans were imported and is an example of a wide range of innovations which bore a Far Eastern, Indian or Levantine influence. Japanning was another oriental import, a technique imitated by English craftsmen from at least the 1670s. Japan work begins to appear in middling homes in the 1690s, the banker Thomas Williams, for example, having Japan boxes, a chest of drawers, a table with matching candle stands and a Japan cribbage board in 1697, while after 1700 references to Japan work become commonplace. Japan and other lacquer-work was usually associated with high-quality cabinet-making and one sees increasing examples of this, much of it imported by the East India Company. The merchant John Barkstead, for instance, who died in 1694, had an 'Indian trunke and frame', 'a pair of India cabinets' and an 'India cabinet and frame'.
Another oriental product domesticated by the English was china, examples of which can be found in the earliest of our inventories but which did not become really common until the 1690s and the reign of Queen Anne. By this time, collecting china had become a craze for many people, such as John
Sherwood, a drysalter who died in 1703 with some 200 pieces of china and 'tonquin' in his house. Following in the wake of the china boom came the dual invasion of coffee and tea-making equipment into London homes. This was rare before the 1690s but, as with so many other innovations, what was rare or unknown in the 1680s becomes commonplace in the reign of Queen Anne, when inventory after inventory has its coffee-pot and coffee-mill or the standard set of tea-kettle, lamp and stand usually kept in the dining-room.
Another feature of middling homes was the huge increase in pictures, ornaments and bits and pieces as the period goes on. One finds pictures right from the beginning, but not very many of them. By the 1690s and the early eighteenth century, many people had huge collections of pictures and prints, the latter often being imported by the East India Company and thus giving a further oriental flavour to the houses. The haberdasher, Robert Fotherby, for instance, had forty-four Indian pictures in his dining-room when he died in 1709. Pictures could be found all over the house, often replacing the tapestries and wall hangings which were much commoner in the early part of the period. One is rarely told what was represented, but 'landskips', 'sea peices' and paintings of the King and Queen were quite often mentioned. Portraits of members of the family were also becoming increasingly popular, Daniel Thomas having six 'family pictures' in his hall, an indication of a growing bourgeois self-awareness which must have given a lot of work to portrait-painters from the 1690s onwards.
Halls were also a common place to find a clock, as indeed was the head of the staircase, Tristram Shandy's father being unusual in 1715 neither in the ownership of a clock needing to be wound only once a month nor in the place where he chose to keep it. Clocks can be found from the beginning of our period and they had become very common, though not ubiquitous, by the reign of Queen Anne. By this date, there were often several clocks scattered through the rooms of houses, the dining-room being the commonest place to keep one, apart from halls and passages. Perhaps surprisingly, there were very few clocks in servants' rooms and workshops, despite E. P. Thompson's insistence on the connection between the development of the clock and labour discipline, the only two examples being Adrian
Vanderpost, sugar-refiner of Vauxhall, who had an 'old' clock in the men's garret and Richard Walford, a metalworker, who kept a clock in his workshop and only an hourglass in his dining-room.
Bric-à-brac and ornaments, such as 'images' made of alabaster and marble, stags' heads, bird-cages, chess, draughts and backgammon tables and pieces and anything else which might be captured by the catchall word 'toys', all became increasingly prominent and must, together with too much furniture, have made a terrible clutter in many homes. The impact of the collecting fever can perhaps best be seen in the inventory of Daniel Thomas, a mercer who died in 1704. In his closet, he had, amongst other things, 740 books, two models of churches, three telescopes, a globe, several maps, two hourglasses, a sailing compass, a draughts board and some fishing tackle. In other rooms, he had another 150 books and atlases, some 200 pieces of china, getting on for 100 pictures, more maps, a Noah's ark and a small organ, as well as a collection of weapons which included 18 hand-guns.
Pepys's observation that one in three families in the City had a pair of virginals amongst their goods when they fled from the Fire, and the emphasis on music-making at home in his diary, has led music historians to believe that middling Londoners were a very musical lot indeed, constantly engaged in entertaining each other in impromptu domestic concerts. This, however, is not borne out by our inventories, in which one finds only thirty-three men, less than a tenth of the sample, with any musical instruments in their house and six of these had only an instrument described as 'old' stored in the garret, suggesting that if their household had once been musical it was so no longer. The data give some substance to the view that growing access to professional music in concert rooms from the 1680s had a dampening effect on domestic music, the proportion of men with musical instruments falling from one in seven to one in seventeen before and after 1680.
The room which saw the least change was the kitchen, with its extensions into buttery and pantry, most of the change that there was consisting of an improvement of amenities in the kitchens of the less wealthy. This development meant that, by the late seventeenth century, the kitchen was the room with the
narrowest range of valuations, the great majority being valued at between £10 and £20, whatever the wealth of the householder. Kitchens were used not just for the preparation, cooking and serving of food but also for washing dishes and for making, mending, washing and ironing clothes, and their contents reflect these various functions. They were also the place where servants, apprentices and younger children ate their meals and relaxed, so that all kitchens contained one or more tables and several chairs and stools, the furnishings becoming increasingly attractive over time, with better quality chairs, curtains, perhaps a canary or a parrot in a cage, a clock, some pictures and a screen to protect the occupants from the heat of the fire.
Heat was provided by an open fire, either in a grate or a range, the latter presumably being what we understand by a range, with side ovens heated from the fire. Ovens, in fact, are rarely mentioned, possibly because they were landlords' fittings but quite probably because few houses did their own baking, the Londoner being well served by professional bakers, who baked three times a day and delivered to the door as well as being prepared to bake the housewife's pies and pasties in their large ovens. Most cooking involved spit-roasting, frying, simmering and boiling, and a formidable array of equipment for this can be found in all kitchens.
Nearly everyone had at least two or three spits turned by a weight-driven jack, the grease being caught in a large drippingpan. The battery of kettles, pots and pans, which were increasingly made of brass or copper and were becoming more specialized into saucepans, stewpans, fish-kettles, tea-kettles etc., were suspended from hooks over the fire or, from about 1700, from a swinging chimney crane, or they could be placed on the 'cheeks' of the range. All households also had frying-pans, grid-irons for grilling or broiling, long-handled skillets for boiling or stewing, each with their own little legs, and chafing dishes whose base held burning charcoal to keep food hot. Food preparation is represented by cleavers, chopping and shredding knives, flesh forks, skewers, ladles and scummers, a vast array of metalware which helps one to understand why London had so many smiths and metalworkers, the jacksmith for instance being an important and independent trade.
Very few houses had less then 100 pounds weight of pewter
as well as brass, copper, iron and tinware. This was normally valued by weight but was occasionally itemized. The cheesemonger Samuel Palmer, for instance, had twenty pewter dishes including a basin, a cheese plate and a pie plate, thirty-nine plates, a dish frame, two saucers and a salt. Pewter was gaining at the expense of the wooden trencher, in common use at the beginning of our period, but losing out to glass, china, copper, brass and tinware. Silver was not in common use as table-ware by the middle class but almost everyone had some 'plate', which might range from the silver cup and two silver spoons of the salesman Richard Stock, valued at £4 12s., to several hundreds of pounds worth for the richer men, objects of pride and display which would only be seen in the kitchen for cleaning. The quantity of cutlery, sometimes silver but usually steel, also grew; forks, in particular, which were hardly used at all for eating in the 1660s, had become a common item by the early eighteenth century.
Most kitchens had a cistern or sink, with water pumped from the companies' mains, and most had a copper and numerous tubs for washing clothes. Ironing was done with smoothingirons heated on the fire or with box-irons filled with charcoal, and what had to be ironed can be seen by looking into the linen cupboards, whose contents were usually listed separately, their average value being greater than that of the entire contents of the kitchen but with a similar range from about £10 to £25. These valuations represented an amazing number of separate items, an average of thirty-six sheets, eighty-nine napkins and fifteen table-cloths; linen chests also held pillow-beeres (i.e. cases), towels, childbed linen, window curtains (mainly of cotton or muslin) and yards and yards of Holland, diaper, huckaback, damask etc. which had not yet been made up.
Peter Thornton writes that faces and hands were wiped after meals with a hot, damp napkin, which would help to explain the large numbers. He also claims that many people in the seventeenth century 'were a good deal less dirty than is now generally supposed'. He makes a good case but it is difficult to be totally convinced. Houses, clothes, bed linen, cooking equipment and furniture certainly seem to have been kept scrupulously clean—but were people? There is not a single bath-tub, let alone a bathroom, in the 375 inventories that have
been studied, though both the vessel and the name existed. Thornton says that many of the numerous tubs kept in kitchens and cellars may well have been used for personal washing, which seems a reasonable hypothesis but no more. Many houses also list ewers and bowls in bedrooms and, of course, materials for washing such as soap and perfumed washballs were easily available, though pretty expensive. Nonetheless, one must still be slightly suspicious of the personal hygiene of our period. Pepys often complained about dirtiness in other people and seems to have washed regularly every morning but whether this normally went beyond hands and face seems doubtful. Washing his feet seems to have been sufficiently rare to merit the occasional diary entry, as it does in the diary of Stephen Monteage seventy years later, whose feet were washed about once a month, normally by his maid. Whether either of them were in the habit of washing those parts of their bodies which lay between face and feet one cannot tell since they never tell one, which in the circumstances would suggest that they rarely did.
Innovations in the kitchen may have been rare, except for the multiplication of relatively minor gadgets, but they were widespread elsewhere in the house and even the kitchen saw the introduction of the equipment for making hot drinks. Who were the innovators? Who were the people who had already abandoned serge bed curtains before 1680, who already had cane chairs in the 1670s, china before 1690 or tea-making equipment before 1700? None of these innovations was particularly expensive; all of them were within the purchasing power of all the sample and indeed virtually everyone had adopted them by the end of the period. Nevertheless, with the exception of china, whose acquisition seems to follow no particular pattern, those who innovated were by no means a random group. They were nearly all either very wealthy men who might well have the entrée to West End houses or they were tradesmen with an aristocratic business who would see the new fashions when they delivered goods to their clients' houses and who might well think that being fashionable themselves could only enhance their business reputation.
These new fashions represent the 'true comfort', which was mentioned at the beginning of this section, and which, by the
reign of Queen Anne, had been introduced to a very considerable extent into the homes of middle-class Londoners. They now lived in houses which were better lit, were hung with more attractive textiles and were furnished in a way which would have made both sitting and sleeping more of a pleasure than they had been in the 1660s. Furniture was more sophisticated, walls were decorated with pictures instead of just hangings and tapestry, and surfaces were covered, perhaps littered would be a better word, with china, glass and ornaments instead of just with table carpets. Overall, there was little difference in the total valuation of domestic possessions at the beginning and the end of the period. However, it does seem clear that the poorer members of the middle station had definitely upgraded their domestic interiors. One might take as an example Thomas Toms, a barber-surgeon of Stocks Market, who died in 1719 aged only thirty. His total assets were valued at £484, of which £49 consisted of the value of his domestic possessions, which were kept in just four rooms. Lack of space forced him to keep a press bed in his dining-room, but the rest of the furniture was very fashionable: a chimney glass, two pier glasses, a pair of glass sconces, nine cane chairs with cushions, eleven pictures and two prints, a glass case, a tea table and forty-one pieces of china. Such a room would have seemed amazingly luxurious to a similar barber-surgeon in the 1660s but, by the 1710s, it was simply in fashion and Thomas Toms was doing nothing extraordinary in furnishing his room in this manner.
Such changes made houses much more comfortable, but they also have a wider significance. When one finds that men worth less than £500 were making a fairly successful attempt to furnish their homes in a way similar to those of great merchants, one can be sure that the economy as a whole was benefiting. Thomas Toms' mirrors and his forty-one pieces of china were good news for the expanding English glass and pottery industries. This deepening of the market also encouraged manufacturers and suppliers to cut costs and prices, by innovations, imitations and a successful search for cheaper sources of supply, and this could well be why what seem to be much better domestic interiors were valued in the early eighteenth century at little more or even less then those of the 1660s and 1670s.
This section has concentrated on those personal possessions
which were accumulated in the house and for most people these were all the possessions that they had, apart from their investments and the tools and stock in trade connected with their business. However, some members of the middle class owned their own transport, the greatest status symbol of the age being one's own coach or carriage. This was no light matter, as readers of Pepys's diary will remember, months of planning, worry and discussion finally ending with the arrival of his coach and horses in November 1668, an acquisition which 'doth put me into the greatest condition of outward state that I ever was in, or hoped ever to be, or desired'. Such glory was an immense expense, not just for the £50–£100 or more that the coach would cost, but for the very high maintenance costs and such ongoing expenses as rent of a coach house, the wages of the coachman and the cost of feeding the horses, a horse's food being about 5s. a week, very much the same as that of any other member of the household. It is not surprising, then, that only sixteen men in our sample owned a coach, nearly all of them merchants with a median fortune of £15,000.
Lesser men had to content themselves with their own riding horse, though this too posed problems in the more densely populated areas and horsekeeping was likely to cost considerably more each year than the value of the horse. Nevertheless, one in five men had his own horse, this being virtually essential for some occupations, such as the apothecaries who had to be able to visit their patients. The remainder had to content themselves with hiring a coach or a horse when they needed one, while on most occasions they would have walked, this being much the commonest way of getting round London. Contemporary diaries leave us in no doubt that early modern men and women were much more active pedestrians than we are today. It is clear, too, that they positively enjoyed walking for the fresh air and exercise and also for their health, though, as will be seen in the next chapter, it might take more than walking to keep a person alive in Augustan London.
|
<urn:uuid:da242665-6ee4-40bd-9c01-b4fda7953bbc>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft8489p27k&doc.view=content&chunk.id=d0e11729&toc.depth=1&anchor.id=bkd0e12036;query=pepys
|
2013-05-23T18:46:30Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00003-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.986336
| 5,449
|
Thomas Hobbes (15881679). Of Man, Being the First Part of Leviathan. The Harvard Classics. 190914.
THE INVENTION of printing, though ingenious compared with the invention of letters, is no great matter. But who was the first that found the use of letters is not known. He that first brought them into Greece men say was Cadmus, the son of Agenor, king of Phoenicia. A profitable invention for continuing the memory of time past and the conjunction of mankind, dispersed into so many and distant regions of the earth; and withal difficult, as proceeding from a watchful observation of the divers motions of the tongue, palate, lips, and other organs of speech, whereby to make as many differences of characters, to remember them. But the most noble and profitable invention of all other was that of speech consisting of names or appellations, and their connection; whereby men register their thoughts, recall them when they are past, and also declare them one to another for mutual utility and conversation; without which there had been amongst men neither commonwealth, nor society, nor contract, nor peace, no more than amongst lions, bears, and wolves. The first author of speech was God Himself, that instructed Adam how to name such creatures as He presented to his sight; for the Scripture goeth no further in this matter. But this was sufficient to direct him to add more names, as the experience and use of the creatures should give him occasion, and to join them in such manner by degrees as to make himself understood; and so, by succession of time, so much language might be gotten as he had found use for; though not so copious, as an orator or philosopher has need of: for I do not find anything in Scripture out of which, directly or by consequence, can be gathered that Adam was taught the names of all figures, numbers, measures, colours, sounds, fancies, relationsmuch less the names of words and speech, as general, special, affirmative, negative, interrogative, optative, infinitive, all which are useful, and, least of all, of entity, intentionality, quiddity, and other insignificant words of the school.
But all this language gotten, and augmented by Adam and his posterity was again lost at the Tower of Babel, when by the hand of God every man was stricken for his rebellion with an oblivion of his former language. And being hereby forced to disperse themselves into several parts of the world, it must needs be that the diversity of tongues that now is proceeded by degrees from them in such manner as need, the mother of all inventions, taught them; and in tract of time grew everywhere more copious.
The general use of speech is to transfer our mental discourse into verbal, or the train of our thoughts into a train of words, and that for two commodities, whereof one is registering of the consequences of our thoughts, which, being apt to slip out of our memory and put us to a new labour, may again be recalled by such words as they were marked by. So that the first use of names is to serve for marks, or notes, of remembrance. Another is, when many use the same words to signify by their connection and order one to another what they conceive or think of each matter; and also what they desire, fear, or have any other passion for. And for this use they are called signs. Special uses of speech are these: first, to register what by cogitation we find to be the cause of anything, present or past; and what we find things present or past may produce, or effect; which, in sum, is acquiring of arts. Secondly, to show to others that knowledge which we have attained, which is to counsel and teach one another. Thirdly, to make known to others our wills and purposes, that we may have the mutual help of one another. Fourthly, to please and delight ourselves and others by playing with our words, for pleasure or ornament, innocently.
To these uses there are also four correspondent abuses. First, when men register their thoughts wrong, by the inconstancy of the signification of their words; by which they register for their conceptions that which they never conceived, and so deceive themselves. Secondly, when they use words metaphorically, that is, in other sense than that they are ordained for; and thereby deceive others. Thirdly, when by words, they declare that to be their will which is not. Fourthly, when they use them to grieve one another; for seeing Nature hath armed living creatures, some with teeth, some with horns, and some with hands, to grieve an enemy, it is but an abuse of speech to grieve him with the tongue, unless it be one whom we are obliged to govern; and then it is not to grieve, but to correct and amend.
Of names, some are proper, and singular to one only thing, as Peter, John, this man, this tree; and some are common to many things, man, horse, treeevery of which, though but one name, is nevertheless the name of divers particular things; in respect of all which together it is called an universal, there being nothing in the world universal but names; for the things named are every one of them individual and singular.
One universal name is imposed on many things, for their similitude in some quality or other accident; and whereas a proper name bringeth to mind one thing only, universals recall any one of those many.
And, of names universal, some are of more, and some of less extent, the larger comprehending the less large; and some again of equal extent, comprehending each other reciprocally. As, for example, the name body is of larger signification than the word man, and comprehendeth it; and the names man and rational are of equal extent, comprehending mutually one another. But here we must take notice that by a name is not always understood, as in grammar, one only word; but sometimes, by circumlocution, many words together. For all these words, he that in his actions observeth the laws of his country make but one name, equivalent to this one word just.
By this imposition of names, some of larger, some of stricter signification, we turn the reckoning of the consequences of things imagined in the mind into a reckoning of the consequences of appellations. For example: a man that hath no use of speech at all, such as is born and remains perfectly deaf and dumb, if he set before his eyes a triangle and by it two right angles, such as are the corners of a square figure, he may by meditation compare and find that the three angles of that triangle are equal to those two right angles that stand by it. But if another triangle be shown him different in shape from the former, he cannot know without a new labour whether the three angles of that also be equal to the same. But he that hath the use of words, when he observes that such equality was consequent not to the length of the sides nor to any other particular thing in his triangle, but only to this, that the sides were straight, and the angles three, and that that was all for which he named it a triangle, will boldly conclude universally that such equality of angles is in all triangles whatsoever, and register his invention in these general terms, every triangle hath its three angles equal to two right angles. And thus the consequence found in one particular comes to be registered and remembered as a universal rule, and discharges our mental reckoning of time and place, and delivers us from all labour of the mind saving the first; and makes that which was found true here and now to be the true in all times and places.
But the use of words in registering our thoughts is in nothing so evident as in numbering. A natural fool that could never learn by heart the order of numeral words, as one, two, and three, may observe every stroke of the clock, and nod to it, or say one, one, one, but can never know what hour it strikes. And it seems there was a time when those names of number where not in use, and men were fain to apply their fingers for one or both hands to those things they desired to keep account of; and that thence it proceeded that now our numeral words are but ten in any nation, and in some but five; and then they begin again. And he that can tell ten, if he recite them out of order, will lose himself and not know when he has done. Much less will he be able to add, and subtract, and perform all other operations of arithmetic. So that without words there is no possibility of reckoning of numbers; much less of magnitudes, of swiftness, of force, and other things, the reckonings whereof are necessary to the being, or well-being of mankind.
When two names are joined together into a consequence, or affirmation as thus, a man is a living creature, or thus, if he be a man, he is a living creature, if the latter name, living creature, signify all that the former name, man, signifieth, then the affirmation, or consequence, is true; otherwise false. For true and false are attributes of speech, not of things. And where speech is not, there is neither truth nor falsehood: error there may be, as when we expect that which shall not be, or suspect what has not been; but in neither case can a man be charged with untruth.
Seeing then that truth consisteth in the right ordering of names in our affirmations, a man that seeketh precise truth had need to remember what every name he uses stands for, and to place it accordingly, or else he will find himself entangled in words, as a bird in lime twigsthe more he struggles the more belimed. And therefore in geometry, which is the only science that it hath pleased God hitherto to bestow on mankind, men begin at settling the significations of their words; which settling of significations they call definitions, and place them in the beginning of their reckoning.
By this it appears how necessary it is for any man that aspires to true knowledge to examine the definitions of former authors; and either to correct them, where they are negligently set down, or to make them himself. For the errors of definitions multiply themselves according as the reckoning proceeds, and lead men into absurdities which at last they see, but cannot avoid without reckoning anew from the beginning, in which lies the foundation of their errors. From whence it happens that they which trust to books do as they that cast up many little sums into a greater, without considering whether those little sums were rightly cast up or not; and at last, finding the error visible and not mistrusting their first grounds, know not which to clear themselves, but spend time in fluttering over their books, as birds that, entering by the chimney and finding themselves enclosed in a chamber, flutter at the false light of a glass window for want of wit to consider which way they came in. So that in the right definition of names lies the first use of speech, which is the acquisition of science; and in wrong, or no definitions, lies the first abuse; from which proceed all false and senseless tenets: which make those men that take their instruction from the authority of books and not from their own meditation to be as much below the condition of ignorant men as men endued with true science are above it. For between true science and erroneous doctrines ignorance is in the middle. Natural sense and imagination are not subject to absurdity. Nature itself cannot err; and as men abound in copiousness of language, so they become more wise, or more mad, than ordinary. Nor is it possible without letters for any man to become either excellently wise, or, unless his memory be hurt by disease or ill constitution of organs, excellently foolish. For words are wise mens countersthey do but reckon by them; but they are the money of fools, that value them by the authority of an Aristotle, a Cicero, or a Thomas or any other doctor whatsoever, if but a man.
Subject to names is whatsoever can enter or be considered in an account, and be added one to another to make a sum, or subtracted one from another and leave a remainder. The Latins called accounts of money rationes, and accounting ratiocinatio; and that which we in bills or books of account call items they call nomina, that is names, and thence it seems to proceed that they extended the word ratio to the faculty of reckoning in all other things. The Greeks have but one word, [Greek], for both speech and reason; not that they thought there was no speech without reason, but no reasoning without speech; and the act of reasoning they called syllogism, which signifieth summing up of the consequences of one saying to another. And because the same thing may enter into account for divers accidents, their names are, to show that diversity, diversely wrested and diversified. This diversity of names may be reduced to four general heads.
First, a thing may enter into account for matter or body, as living, sensible, rational, hot, cold, moved, quiet; with all which names the word matter or body is understood; all such being names of matter.
Secondly, it may enter into account, or be considered, for some accident or quality which we conceive to be in it; as for being moved, for being so long, for being hot, etc.; and then, of the name of the thing itself, by a little change or wresting we make a name for that accident which we consider; and for living put into the account life, for moved motion, for hot heat, for long length, and the like; and all such names are the names of the accidents and properties by which one matter and body is distinguished from another. These are called names abstract, because severed not from matter but from the account of matter.
Thirdly, we bring into account the properties of our own bodies, whereby we make such distinction; as, when anything is seen by us, we reckon not the thing itself but the sight, the colour, the idea of it in the fancy; and when anything is heard, we reckon it not, but the hearing or sound only, which is our fancy or conception of it by the ear; and such are names of fancies.
Fourthly, we bring into account, consider, and give names, to names themselves, and to speeches, for general, universal, special, equivocal, are names of names. And affirmation, interrogation, commandment, narration, syllogism, sermon, oration, and many other such, are names of speeches. And this is all the variety of names positive, which are put to mark somewhat which is in Nature, or may be feigned by the mind of man, as bodies that are or may be conceived to be; or of bodies, the properties that are may be feigned to be; or words and speech.
There be also other names, called negative, which are notes to signify that a word is not the name of the thing in question; as these words nothing, no man, infinite, indocible, three want four, and the like; which are nevertheless of use in reckoning, or in correcting of reckoning, and call to mind our past cogitations, though they be not names of anything, because they make us refuse to admit of names not rightly used.
All other names are but insignificant sounds; and those of two sorts. One when they are new, and yet their meaning not explained by definition; whereof there have been abundance coined by schoolmen, and puzzled philosophers.
Another, when men make a name of two names, whose significations are contradictory and inconsistent; as this name, an incorporeal body, or, which is all one, an incorporeal substance, and a great number more. For, whensoever any affirmation is false, the two names of which is composed put together and made one signify nothing at all. For example, if it be a false affirmation to say a quadrangle is round, the word round quadrangle signifies nothing, but is a mere sound. So likewise, if it be false to say that virtue can be poured, or blown up and down, the words inpoured virtue, inblown virtue, are as absurd and insignificant as a round quadrangle. And therefore you shall hardly meet with a senseless and insignificant word that is not made up of some Latin or Greek names. A Frenchman seldom hears our Saviour called by name of parole, but by the name of verbe often; yet verbe and parole differ no more but that one is Latin, the other French.
When a man, upon the hearing of any speech, hath those thoughts which the words of that speech and their connection were ordained and constituted to signify, then he is said to understand it, understanding being nothing else but conception caused by speech. And therefore, if speech be peculiar to man, as for aught I know it is, then is understanding peculiar to him also. And therefore of absurd and false affirmations, in case they be universal, there can be no understanding; though many think they understand then, when they do but repeat the words softly, or con them in their mind.
The names of such things as affect us, that is, which please and displease us, because all men be not alike affected with the same thing nor the same man at all times, are in common discourses of men of inconstant signification. For seeing all names are imposed to signify our conceptions, and all our affections are but conceptions, when we conceive the same things differently we can hardly avoid different naming of them. For though the nature of that we conceive be the same, yet the diversity of our reception of it, in respect of different constitutions of body and prejudices of opinion, gives everything a tincture of our different passions. And therefore in reasoning a man must take heed of words, which, besides the signification of what we imagine of their nature, have a signification also of the nature, disposition, and interest of the speaker; such as are the name of virtues and vices; for one man calleth wisdom what another calleth fear, and one cruelty what another justice; one prodigality what another magnanimity; and one gravity what another stupidity, etc. And therefore such name can never be true grounds of any ratiocination. No more can metaphors and tropes of speech; but these are less dangerous, because they profess their inconstancy, which the other do not.
|
<urn:uuid:540973e3-61f3-4da3-96fa-e9545872b089>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.bartleby.com/34/5/4.html
|
2013-05-22T01:25:06Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700984410/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104304-00050-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.96858
| 3,862
|
In the late 1980s, staff at the National Marine Mammal Foundation in San Diego, California heard what they thought was the sound of human conversation. They were surprised and delighted when they discovered that the noise was coming from a beluga whale called Noc.
Scientists' fascination with the case has been rekindled by the journal Current Biology, which has published new insights on the story, and posted audio on the internet of the whale in "conversation" mode.
While birds have been known to mimic human speech, it's not a common characteristic among mammals - the few exceptions apparently including Noc and, a decade earlier, a New England harbour seal named Hoover, who reportedly spoke with a Maine accent.
Although marine biologists have confirmed the phenomenon, they don't claim that the animals were attempting communication. But it's an area of research that holds out hope for further understanding of other species.
Noc lived until 2007, but he stopped making human-like sounds after four years, possibly because he had reached sexual maturity. Or perhaps he simply realised there was nothing we humans could tell him that was worthy of a response.
|
<urn:uuid:2cabc8db-da19-46a8-bd5a-e73a4eb4d9d4>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.thenational.ae/thenationalconversation/editorial/a-whale-of-a-tale
|
2013-05-25T19:57:00Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706153698/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516120913-00051-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.986383
| 230
|
Internal and External Parasites
There are a variety of parasites (internal and external) that affect our pets. Some of these parasites are also zoonotic, meaning the parasites themselves and/or the diseases they carry are transmissible to humans. Our hospital highly recommends monthly parasite prevention for our patients to protect them, us, and our living environments from these parasites. Our product of choice for dogs is Trifexis, a safe and effective product that controls the flea population by eliminating the adult flea before it has a chance lay eggs. Trifexis also protects against a broad-spectrum of internal parasites including heartworms, roundworms, hookworms, and whipworms. Trifexis is an oral tablet given once per month. For cats we recommend Revolution, a monthly topical treatment that kills adult fleas and protects against heartworms, roundworms, hookworms, and earmites. Birds, reptiles, and small mammals (rabbits, ferrets, chinchillas, rats, etc) each have different needs and product recommendations for parasite control. Please contact our hospital if you have one of these animals and want more information on parasite control and prevention.
Fleas and Ticks
Both of these parasites take blood meals from your pet and therefore are potential carriers of blood borne diseases. Ticks can transmit severe illness like Lyme disease, Ehrlichiosis, and Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever. Fleas cause serious skin reactions and itching in most pets. They can be the cause of life threatening anemia in puppies, kittens and geriatric pets. Fleas are also a source of tapeworm infection.
Other external parasites our pets can experience include ear mites, mange mites, lice, fly bots.
These parasites are transmitted in their microscopic youth stage by mosquitoes from pet to pet. When an infected mosquito bites a pet, the immature heartworm gets in the bloodstream and begins to mature. Within 6-7 months the heartworms grow to be 4-6 inches long and begin to plug up the major vessels coming out of the heart. In the dog, heart failure is the main concern. In the cat, sudden death is a possibility. In Oregon, most of the cases of heartworm disease are in the Grants Pass/Medford region. There have also been positive cases reported in Veneta and Eugene. Human cases are rare. We recommend monthly heartworm preventative for all pets.
This is the most common worm seen by our clients. This rice grain sized worm can be found on or around the stool, or caught on the hair surrounding your pet’s anus. The real story is that these small “worms” are actually segments from a worm that typically measures 1-2 foot long and lives in your pet’s small intestines. The intermediate hosts are rodents and fleas, therefore pets that hunt or have been exposed to fleas are at greatest risk. Unlike other intestinal parasites, tapeworm eggs are rarely found during a microscopic exam of the stool. We often rely on assessment of risk factors, physical exams and owner observation to determine which pets require treatment.
This is the most common internal parasite we diagnose with the fecal exam under the microscope. These worms live in the intestines of cats and dogs. Their immature stages can form cysts in the muscle tissue and emerge later in a pet’s life. If a pet has a large number of these worms, they will occasionally pass them in the stool. Every female roundworm can lay 100,000 eggs per day. The worms are tubular and 3-6 inches long. Pets may have no symptoms, be unthrifty, experience vomiting and/or diarrhea. Severe infections in puppies and kittens can result in death. Worms can be passed from the mother through the placenta. Up to 10,000 cases of human infection from this parasite are reported by the Center for Disease Control in the United States annually. This condition is called Visceral Larval Migrans. Raccoons carry a roundworm that can infect dogs and humans—please do not feed or encourage them to stay nearby.
This intestinal parasite is one of the most harmful to pets. With sharp mouths, these worms attach to the intestinal lining and take 24 hour a day blood meals from their hosts. We diagnose these worms with fecal exams by identifying their microscopic eggs. These worms can be passed to the kittens or puppies from their mother’s milk. You will not see these small adult worms in the stool. In humans, this worm can migrate under the skin resulting in Cutaneous Larval Migrans or on rare occasions cause a severe intestinal problem such as eosinophilic enteritis.
This intestinal parasite actually burrows in the intestinal lining and can cause severe disease. The eggs can be found microscopically and identified when examining a fecal sample. Unlike the heartworm, roundworm, tapeworm and hookworm; it does not seem to affect humans.
Other parasites such as coccidia and giardia are prevalent in our area and in some cases, can pose a serious health risk to your pet. Proper testing and treatment is available at West Hills Animal Hospital.
For additional up-to-date information on parasites and your pet please visit www.petsandparasites.org.
Another great website is www.capcvet.org/parasite-prevalence-maps which has an interactive map showing which parasites are most prevalent in the various states.
|
<urn:uuid:0140a8d8-e4e0-40fa-9da4-50237b7ad3bb>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://westhillsanimalhospital.com/wellness-preventative/internal-and-external-parasites/
|
2013-06-20T09:37:39Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368711240143/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516133400-00001-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.917191
| 1,128
|
First Aid Treatment for a Respiratory Infection
If you suspect that your snake has a respiratory infection, the first thing to do is to raise the temperature of the environment slightly. This will induce an immediate immune response in the snake and will help start to fight the infection. If the snake usually is housed in a busy part of the house, move it to somewhere quieter and if it usually lives with others, isolate it in its own environment. Give it plenty of warm, dry bedding and monitor it carefully. A good rule of thumb is to treat a snake with a respiratory infection as you would treat yourself; make it warm, quiet and comfortable.
When to call in the Vet to a Respiratory Infection in a Snake
Given the treatment outlined, most snakes will start to show an improvement quite quickly. If it doesn’t, then a specialist vet should be consulted and the snake will need antibiotics. The vet will probably take swabs to make sure what bacteria are causing the infection. While these grow in the laboratory, the vet will prescribe a wide spectrum antibiotic to get the treatment under way. If the snake is prone to repeated infections, or this particular respiratory infection proves hard to shift, it may be necessary to take a blood sample. This will tell if the snake has any more serious underlying problems, which, if untreated, could compromise the internal organs. In some cases the antibiotics have to be injected over a long period to make sure that the offending bacteria has been wiped out. Inhalation therapy is also used sometimes; this depends on it being possible in the environment situation available to your snake and can be a very long term procedure.
Preventing Respiratory Infections in Snakes
Snakes need to be kept in the right environment for their needs. Proper nutrition is essential as is monitoring their general day to day health. Bad care in the snake’s environment; allowing them to stay in unhygienic bedding for example, or keeping them too hot or too cold can stress them, making them more susceptible to all kinds of diseases, not just respiratory infections. Some snakes cannot stand stress from a loud environment. Obviously you have bought a snake as a pet, but apart from other considerations one of the most important is whether your snake is gregarious and will enjoy handling, or whether it would be happier in a quiet environment with no noise or bustle. Snakes are as different as people and it is important to match the snake to where it will be living. But above all, cleanliness and vigilance is the best way to keep your snake in the peak of condition and more able to fight off all infections, including respiratory ones.
|
<urn:uuid:cd9864ac-9376-4a11-a0d8-797707744231>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.netvet.co.uk/snakes/respiratory-infections.htm
|
2013-05-26T02:55:53Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00001-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.947493
| 545
|
By Larry James - Originally Published November 1975
On April 24, 1861, a 25-year-old native New York silversmith named John Mackie stood at attention in the Brooklyn Navy Yard to enlist in the United States Marine Corps.
Nine days earlier, President Abraham Lincoln had put out the call for 75,000 men following the surrender of Fort Sumter.
The Civil War had begun.
In a little more than four years the war would claim the lives of 493,349 Americans. For John Mackie, that April day was the beginning of four years and four months of honorable service, mostly as a member of Marine Guards aboard three U. S. ships-of-the-line.
The 5-foot-7, gray-eyed Mackie displayed a practiced penmanship as he inked the four-year enlistment contract and the accompanying oath of allegiance to the U.S. This allegiance and his later devotion to duty-re-sulted in the presentation of the first Medal of Honor to a Marine.
Although Mackie was the first Marine to lay claim to the Medal of Honor, 16 other members of the Corps were similarly honored during the Civil War. In the conflicts since then, including Vietnam, 291 Medals of Honor have been awarded to Marines. Of the 36,000,000 Americans who have served in the armed forces since the War Between the States, 3,385 have received this nation's highest decoration. Interestingly, almost half of the medals, 1,509, were awarded to Civil War veterans.
The laxity of requirements to earn the Medal of Honor during the Civil War resulted in 911 names being stricken from the records in 1917. The majority of these involved President Lincoln's decision at that time to award the medal to reenlistees of a few New England volunteer units. However, no names of members of the naval services were dropped. One famous American, William "Buffalo Bill" Cody, also lost his Medal of Honor recognition in 1917, along with the only female recipient-a Civil War surgeon.
Following his enlistment, Pvt Mackie reported aboard the USS Savannah. A year later, on the first of April, 1862, he became the Corporal of the Marine Guard aboard the USS Galena, the United States' second ironclad.
Among Northerners, the cry now was "On to Richmond!" which was viewed as the symbol of secession.
And, Cpl John Mackie was to take part in a four-hour battle in the Peninsular Campaign which most historians concede could have ended the war in May 1862.
Lincoln's Secretary of the Navy, Gideon Welles, had ordered ships at Hampton Roads to move up the James River in support of General George E. McClellan's maneuvers against the Confederate capital.
Lincoln believed a major victory was imminent. Specifically, the President wanted the U. S. Navy "to proceed to Richmond and shell that city into surrender."
By May 12th, the ironclad frigate Galena, and gunboats Aroostook and Port Royal, were beyond the broad stretches near the mouth of the James. The small flotilla was joined by the gunboat Naugatuck and the famed ironclad Monitor.
The banks of the James began closing in as the river grew narrower about 20 miles below Richmond. Mackie later described the river as being "crooked as a ram's horn, with very high banks, heavily wooded on both sides, from which the fleet was constantly being fired on by Confederate sharpshooters hidden in the underbrush."
At this point the Union command lost contact with the flotilla. President Lincoln demanded to know about the progress. McClellan was concerned. He was counting on the warships to support his drive for Richmond. On May 14th, he wrote the Secretary of War, "I have heard nothing of the James River gunboats."
But the Confederates knew where they were. Aboard the Galena, Cpl Mackie and his dozen Marines were busily engaging the Confederate sharpshooters in a moving rifle duel. Every foot of the James was being contested. When the ships arrived at the City Point landing, they found it had been burned and abandoned.
Early on the morning of May 15th, the Union force neared the last drastic turn in the James before the river straightened out-eight miles below Richmond. Atop the 200-foot Drewry's Bluff, ten-inch Columbiad guns in the Fort Darling emplacements were waiting for the Union force.
Little has been written about the 1,071 men who served in the Confederate Marine Corps, but they were manning guns on Drewry's Bluff as the ironclads Galena and Monitor steamed up the James River. The Marine gunners had been, moved to Fort Darling following the scuttling of the CSA Virginia (formerly the USS Merrimac before its capture by the South).
To the Northern leaders, the narrow confines of the James River seemed to have swallowed the U.S. Navy ships. The Galena led the way into the sweeping bend before sunken ships and submerged piles obstructed the way. She was within 100 yards of the ten guns atop the bluff and her 100-pound Parrot rifle and nine-inch Dahlgren guns couldn't be effectively elevated after she opened fire first. The Navy ships dropped back to 600 yards and anchored, with the Galena broadside toward the cliffs.
But the plunging fire of the Confederate gunners threatened to blast the fleet off the river. This was the final defense for Richmond.
The unarmored gunboats were in danger of destruction and the Monitor's guns still couldn't be raised high enough. The four dropped back and left the Galena to continue the clash alone.
Torn from stem to stern, she was taking a devastating pounding. The ironclad was hit 28 times by the big guns. Eighteen shots penetrated her armor and one passed completely through the double one-inch plates, separated by air space with iron bars. The ship suffered 40 percent casualties, with 13 men killed and 11 wounded.
Mackie later described the "sitting duck" situation following a direct hit: "Twelve men of the Marine Guard under my command and I were at the ports, taking care of sharpshooters on the opposite bank, and I barely escaped being struck by a ten-inch shot.
"As soon as the smoke cleared away a terrible sight was revealed to my eyes: the entire after division was down and the deck covered with dead and dying men.
"Without losing a moment, however, I called out to the men that here was a chance for them, ordering them to clear away the dead and wounded, and get the guns in shape. Splinters were swept from the guns, and sand thrown on the deck, which was slippery with human blood, and in an instant the heavy Parrot rifle and Dahlgren guns were ready and at work upon the fort.
"Our first shot blew up one of the casemates and dismounted one of the guns that had been destroying the ship."
A Confederate shell ripped into the boiler room. Another started a fire which the crew stamped out despite the raking enemy fire. Finally, after nearly four hours, the Galena limped down river, out of range. There were 132 holes in her and the port guns were shored up to keep them from dropping into the coal bunkers.
As the Galena slipped downstream, the defenders on the bluff climbed onto the parapets and gave a rousing cheer for the gallant attempt to reach Richmond.
Historians contend that if the Navy's request for supporting forces to land and capture Fort Darling had been approved, the war could have ended three years earlier.
The road to Richmond was wide open from Drewry's Bluff, with no defenses between.
Joseph P. Cullen concluded in "Peninsula Campaign 1862" that the war could have ended there. In Richmond, the Confederates' gold and silver bullion had been loaded, ready to roll, as the ships neared that sweep in the James. Hundreds had already fled the capital. According to Cullen, this included Jefferson Davis" family.
In a chapter entitled "A contrast of Generals: Fighting Lee and Politicking McClellan," Cullen stated that the leader of the Army of the Potomac was afraid the Navy would get credit if the ships reached Richmond in support of his 100,000 Union soldiers.
Navy Captain John Rodgers, skipper of the Galena, later recommended Mackie for the Medal of Honor during a visit to the ship by Secretary of Navy Welles.
Colonel John Harris, Commandant of the Marine Corps, wrote to the Galena's commanding officer on November 5, 1862. Harris referred to a letter he had received from the Secretary of the Navy about Mackie's deed of valor and stated that he would endeavor to procure a Medal of Honor for his gallantry. At the same time, he authorized Rodgers to promote Mackie to sergeant as "...my means are very limited...to reward gallant conduct."
After noting a plan he had received from Cpl Mackie about shells to use against iron plates, the Commandant wrote, "As you have one more sergeant than your ship is allowed you will transfer one to Norfolk Navy Yard."
Sgt Mackie left the Galena on November 10, 1862.
By the time the Navy Department's General Order 17 was issued in July 1863, awarding Mackie the Medal of Honor, he was aboard the USS Seminole as Orderly Sergeant in Charge with the West Gulf Squadron.
Mackie received the Medal while aboard the Seminole in the fall of 1863.
Forty years later, he again wrote to the Commandant of the Marine Corps. By then, 1903, Major General Charles Heywood was CMC. Former Sgt Mackie asked if the general remembered an 1864 visit he had aboard ship just before the Battle of Mobile Bay. Mackie asked the Commandant-in the 1903 letter-to assist in correcting his records in order to qualify for a $100 gratuity being given Medal of Honor winners at that time.
"I have always had a suspicion," Mackie wrote, "that there was no official record at Headquarters of Marine Corps."
After several endorsements from the Navy Department, it was determined that records of the award were on file in Washington, D. C.
Mackie's letter reflected the type of Marine he had been during those four years and four months, by adding:
"I never was on the sick list during my entire service...and was nearly killed suppressing a drunken riot in January 1864...one of the men, a fireman, hit me in the head with a chain hook, fracturing my skull, which has never healed, but I was on duty again the next day...."
The Corps' first Medal of Honor winner died in Philadelphia, Pa., in 1910.
|
<urn:uuid:5bae884d-a26c-473c-a7be-241af7de8e03>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.mca-marines.org/leatherneck/giants-corps
|
2013-05-23T11:27:48Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703298047/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112138-00051-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.981893
| 2,259
|
What A Waste: 5 Things You Didn't Know: Garbage
Pages: 1 2
Here are five things you didn't know about garbage.
1- Garbage has its own patch in the Pacific OceanThe first thing you didn't know about garbage is a nasty thing to think about: In one region of the Pacific, the discarded plastic garbage bobbing around is so prevalent that it outweighs the surface zooplankton population by a factor of 6 to 1, according to a study by the Algalita Marine Research Foundation (AMRF). This region is foully referred to as the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, which happens to sound like the title of the most cynical Charlie Brown special of all time.
At any rate, the AMRF believes that the whole world's oceans may contain as much as 100 million tons of plastic debris.
2- Garbage is all over Mount EverestYou would never know it by looking at the majestic, snow-white contours of the world's highest peak, but the people who spend time there are colossal slobs.
The well-trodden but challenging paths up the mountain are notoriously filthy; the most frequently encountered bit of garbage is a discarded oxygen tank, but over the years climbers have been known to discard plenty of other gear on the mountain as well.
If garbage-strewn paths weren't bad enough to spoil your leisurely hike 29,000 feet up, another frequent site will: dead people. A handful of climbers have reluctantly defied the old maxim about what goes up must come down, dying in a deep freeze at elevations too high to be retrieved safely.
3- Some garbage can live a million years or moreAnother thing you didn't know about garbage is just how determined some of it is to stay garbage. The Australian. Environmental Protection Agency estimates that glass bottles require a million years to fully break down in a landfill; that plastic foam cups require over 500 years; aluminum cans between 200 and 500 years; plastic bags as many as 20 years, and cigarette butts as many as five years.
We're not sure how the EPA arrived at the figure for glass, but here's a plausible theory: In 1939, archeologists found some Homo Erectus fossils in Indonesia that dated back one million years. Is it possible that among the bones they found an empty with an expiration date?
Think you can handle two more things you didn't know about garbage? Read on... Next Page >>
|
<urn:uuid:696f5dfc-443e-4b91-b91d-87cf3209ccf6>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://au.askmen.com/entertainment/special_feature_300/319_5-things-you-didnt-know-garbage.html
|
2013-05-20T12:55:12Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698958430/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516100918-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.957695
| 500
|
Allan Sandage (see Image 1), often described as the most influential astronomer of the last half-century, is credited with founding the discipline of observational cosmology. As Edwin Hubble’s star student, he took over Hubble’s mission to measure the universe’s expansion and, through those measurements, to determine the physics of the cosmic creation event. In his prime, Sandage published close to fifty papers per year in peer-reviewed astrophysical journals. Even in the last year of his life (2010), at age 84, Sandage published five papers. Throughout his career he won several awards for achievements in cosmology, including the Crafoord Prize (the astronomical equivalent of the Nobel Prize).
Image 1: Allan Sandage Inside the Dome of the 100-inch Mt. Wilson Telescope
Image credit: Permission for RTB’s use granted by Allan Sandage
Not all of Sandage’s discoveries were astronomical. I met Sandage when I was a research fellow at Caltech. A few years later, while serving as Sierra Madre Congregational Church’s minister of evangelism I noted Sandage’s name on one of the church’s registration cards. I paid him a visit. He told me he had just given his life to Christ after studying the Bible for 35 years. He then proceeded to ask me two questions: (1) Did I believe the Bible to be the error-free word of God, cover to cover, in all respects, including science and history? (2) How old did I believe the universe to be? After he heard my answers, Sandage told me ours was the only church out of sixty-six he had checked out that gave answers he felt he could endorse. Sandage not only got involved in our church, he also gave me access to library resources that greatly facilitated my writing of Creation and Time and The Creator and the Cosmos.
I first read a paper by Sandage while still in high school. In that paper Sandage proposed an elegant test, free of assumptions, that would definitely prove which of the following models for the universe is correct: steady state, oscillating, hesitating, and various ever-expanding big bang.1 The test was to measure in real time the changing redshifts of distant galaxies. That is, Sandage proposed accurate measurements of galaxy redshifts over a long span of time to determine whether the redshift values were decreasing or increasing and by how much. Sandage pointed out that observations of the 21-centimeter neutral hydrogen line by radio astronomers offered the best chance of success. However, given the instrumentation available at the time (1962) it would take nearly 1 million years of observations to establish the correct cosmological model.
Thirty-two years later, astronomer Abraham Loeb proposed the same test,2 apparently without any knowledge of Sandage’s paper. (Thus, some astronomical literature attaches both names to the test.) Loeb did point out that fast echelle spectrographs—developed to detect extrasolar planets—could be exploited to directly measure the variation in the cosmic expansion rate over the universe’s entire history. Thereby, researchers could determine—independent of any assumptions—the cosmic mass density, the dark energy density, Hubble’s constant, and the age and geometry of the universe. Loeb does not say this in his paper, but he has laid out a means by which the cosmic creation event and history of the universe according to the Bible3 could be proven without concern for systematic errors and without making any assumptions or preconditions.
With the best fast echelle spectrographs mounted on the world’s largest optical telescopes Loeb calculated that the Sandage test would be limited to measurements on the brightest quasars. Even then, Loeb determined that a minimum of 100 years of observations would be needed to obtain a satisfactory result. However, the test could be performed in only ten years if astronomers could make measurements on several hundred bright quasars rather than just a few dozen.
A 2007 research team led by Pier-Stefano Corasaniti,4 as well as a 2008 group led by Jochen Liske,5 drew attention to the Sandage-Loeb test as means to settle the debate over the nature of dark energy. In the realm of apologetics, dark energy is significant because it currently ranks as the most spectacular scientific evidence for supernatural, super-intelligent design.6 This evidence could be made even more potent and specific to the biblical God if astronomers could determine whether dark energy is explained by a single cosmological constant, a set of cosmological constants, or by something more complex.
While dark energy appears, at least roughly, to have been governed by a single cosmological constant throughout the past nine billion years, Corasaniti’s and Liske’s teams pointed out that astronomers lacked the tools to measure dark energy’s properties over the first five billion years of the universe’s history. It is in this very historical range, as the two teams explained, that the Sandage-Loeb test is ideally poised to deliver the much-desired measurements. Nevertheless, as noted by the Corasaniti and Liske groups, existing instruments are at least a factor of ten away from producing the needed measurements within a reasonable period of time. However, Liske’s research group demonstrated that dark energy’s nature could be determined in just 20 years, through 5,000 hours of dedicated observing time on the soon-to-be constructed European Extremely Large telescope (E-ESL).7 The E-ESL telescope will be 39.3 meters (129 feet) in diameter. Construction on it will begin in 2013 and is scheduled for completion between 2023 and 2024 (see Image 2).
Image 2: Artist’s Rendition of the European Extremely Large Telescope
When built, the E-ESL will be the world’s largest optical telescope.
Image credit: European Southern Observatory
In the December 20, 2012, issue of the Astrophysical Journal Letters, Jeremy Darling presented the first serious attempt to measure the real time change in the rate of the expansion of the universe.8 By this time, spectrograph technology had advanced to the point where scientists could make redshift measurements accurate to a few parts per hundred million. Darling established an upper limit on the rate by which dark energy is accelerating the expansion of the universe. He did this by analyzing redshift measurements of the 21-centimeter neutral hydrogen line from ten different radio galaxies made at epochs stretching from 2000 to 2012. These measurements were performed on the 100-meter (328-feet) diameter Green Bank radio telescope (see Image 3) and several other similarly sized radio telescopes.
Image 3: The Green Bank Telescope
Located in a West Virginia valley shielded from radio interference, this telescope currently ranks as the world’s largest single-antenna, fully steerable radio telescope.
Image credit: NRAO/AUI
Darling’s upper limit was robust enough to demonstrate that in just 125 years (and without any further advance in technology), ongoing measurements of the 21-centimeter neutral hydrogen line, by the Green Bank telescope, could determine several important features of the cosmos. These include the nature of dark energy and precise values for the cosmic mass density, da rk energy density, Hubble’s constant, the age of the universe, and the universe’s geometry—again without any appeal to assumptions or cosmic model parameters.
Yet it seems 125 years is a long time to wait for such important cosmological results. Darling went on to show that the wait would be reduced to just 5 years if scientists perform the Sandage-Loeb tests on the future Square Kilometer Array (see Image 4). Observations on this array will be possible by 2019. Thus, before the end of the 2020s, humanity could be confronted with: (1) indisputable evidence for the biblical cosmic creation model, (2) dramatically improved evidence for supernatural, super-intelligent design, and (3) by implication, the God of the Bible.
Image 4: Artist’s Rendition of a Portion of the Square Kilometer Array
This array will have a light collecting area equal to 1,000,000 square meters, making it about fifty times more sensitive than any other radio instrument. The antennae will be located in Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. The data links between the antennae will have a capacity greater than the current global Internet traffic. Construction will begin in 2016, with initial observations by 2019, and full operation by 2024.
Image credit: Square Kilometer Array Project Development Office
Coincidentally, an immediate and very important apologetics argument resulted from Darling’s report. His analysis of existing measurements confirmed—to a much greater degree—that the Bible got it right when it stated, thousands of years ago, the physical laws governing the universe and Earth do not vary.9 The measurements to which Darling refers establish that the fine structure constant, the proton gyromagnetic factor, and the ratio of the electron mass to the proton mass indeed have remained constant over the past 10.4 billion years. The maximum fractional change in these physical constants over the past 10.4 billion years is less than 3 x 10-6.10 This translates into a maximum possible change of less than one part in 5 x 1016 per year.11 Darling’s proof of the constancy of the physical laws that govern the universe is six times superior to the best previous effort.12
The Sandage-Loeb test, and Darling’s recent attempt to apply it, have already yielded a big payoff in providing more scientific evidence for the biblical model of creation and for the God of the Bible. As that test becomes more robust through the next generation of telescopes, we can look forward to even more scientific evidence for the Christian faith. We also can expect that Sandage test measurements will definitely establish the scientifically accepted age of the universe. Research by Sandage, Loeb, Corasaniti et al., Liske et al., and Darling demonstrates that the more we learn about the universe and the physics that governs it, the more reasons we gain to believe in Christ as Creator and Lord.
|
<urn:uuid:af1da717-e83b-4700-9fae-fa57c66605cc>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.reasons.org/articles/sandage-test-affirms-biblical-creation-model-and-constant-laws-of-physics
|
2013-05-25T05:51:51Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705559639/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115919-00051-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.939884
| 2,130
|
These worksheets are great tools for teaching kids to count by 5s. Count five, ten, fifteen, twenty, twenty-five, and so on.
This number line teaches students to count by fives up to sixty.Objects: Counting by 5s Member
Count by fives to find the total number of items in each set.Penguins - Count by 5s Member
The Antarctic penguins are lined up to show the numbers on their bellies. Count by fives and tell which numbers are missing.Golfers - Count by 5s Free
On this worksheet, students count by fives and write the numbers that are missing. Five pictures of goofy golfers decorate this page.Balloons - Count by 5s Member
The helium balloon pictures have numbers written on them. Skip count by fives to continue numbering the balloons.Counting Nickels 1 Free
Count the nickels and write the money amount.Counting Nickels 2 Member
To count the amount of money each group of nickels are worth, students will count by 5s.
This page contains a series of word problem questions about skip counting by 5s.Hundreds Chart - Count by 5s Member
Color in every fifth number of this hundreds chart. Do you see a pattern?
Also on Super Teacher Worksheets...More Skip Counting Worksheets
Skip count by 2s, 3s, 4s, 5s, and 10s.Hundreds Charts
When teaching place value and counting skills, these hundreds charts can be very helpful.Counting Worksheets
Teach students to count forwards and backwards with these counting worksheets. They feature two, three, and four digit numbers.Counting Up to 20 (Very Basic)
If your students are still learning the most basic counting skills, these 'one through twenty' worksheets should be able to help.
|
<urn:uuid:82618b45-3777-4ac8-b02c-3b372aafd872>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://superteacherworksheets.com/skip-counting-5s.html
|
2013-05-21T11:03:26Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699899882/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.935195
| 395
|
By Carmen da Silva Wells
Every year, diarrhoea kills more children in developing countries than AIDS, malaria and measles combined (Pruss-Ustun 2008). Sanitation subsidies are a common tool used to motivate households to construct toilets. This seems an obvious response: many who lack access to sanitation are extremely poor and the potential public health benefits of universal access to safe sanitation are immense. But what is a subsidy? All programmes have some form of subsidy – so the question is HOW to use them effectively.
On the 11th of September, IRC debated the pros and cons of sanitation subsidies. The debate started with short presentations for and against sanitation subsidies. After that, discussions shifted towards a common definition of a subsidy and improvements to ensure subsidies contribute to sustainable services.
Marielle Snel, Ingeborg Krukkert and Christine Sijbesma defended subsidies as a way to ensure that everyone can benefit from access to sanitation. Excluded groups including the ultra-poor, elderly without caring relatives, chronically sick, people with HIV/AIDS, disabled people cannot manage without some form of financial support. But, inclusive approaches should also focus on stimulating banks and local business to serve the poor. A broad range of subsidy options for different parts of the sanitation value chain should be considered.
Kristof Bostoen and Joep Verhagen opposed subsidies, pointing out shortcomings of current programmes. Firstly, the most common approach to sanitation subsidy- the provision of cash to a household for buying toilet parts, or the provision of toilet materials to a household- fails to reach the poorest.
Secondly, household cash subsidies in favour one specified costly design may distort the market and stifle service provision. Thirdly, toilet construction is just one step. What do households do when the toilet pit or septic tank is full? Instead of providing cash to households for construction of toilets we should look at financial support for viable businesses and ongoing sustainability.
A practical constraint for household subsidies is property rights. Renters and people without legal tenure have no incentive to invest in a toilet. In this context, focusing on subsidies for the poorest will not work: its landlords who need to be convinced to invest in toilet construction, maintenance and upgrading.
Kristof argued that any public service will have some kind of subsidy. Public money flows into the sanitation sector in many different ways, many of which are not generally called subsidies. Improving the effectiveness of sanitation subsidies is also about putting public money where it is needed most and its hardest to raise funds from households: financing of ‘software’ costs, such as hygiene promotion and sanitation marketing, are most likely to rely on subsidies.
A common definition of a subsidy
Discussions centred around the key question: what is a subsidy? In theory it is broader than governments giving cash to poor households to build a toilet. But, in reality cash is the option that most governments opt for, regardless of the effectiveness. As John Butterworth pointed out: subsidies are the easiest was to say you are working on equity. If effectiveness of subsidies isn’t a priority issue for programme implementers, then it is hard to promote alternative approaches.
Subsidy could be defined as the difference between the full actual costs of a service and what people actually pay for this service. Simply put: subsidy is not charging full costs of a service to the consumer. Public health announcements, sanitation marketing and sewers could be considered subsidy too. Even in developed countries there are cross subsidies for sanitation in the form of surcharges or taxes.
If subsidies are unavoidable then the question is HOW to use them effectively, ensuring the poorest benefit? Instead of direct subsidies to households, financial support can be given to businesses and banks to make sanitation more affordable to the poor. Instead of subsidies up-front, they can be given after completion of construction and managed through community committees that can also negotiate with the private sector for lower construction costs.
As Patrick Moriarty pointed out, what the sector now needs is set clear targets for levels of services, get clarity on what these services cost and which elements could be covered by subsidies.
What works at scale?
The BRAC WASH programme uses household subsidies at scale to increase coverage (the programme enabled 25.9 million people to access safe toilets from 2006-2010, providing 693,057 households with materials to construct or repair toilets). Clear and transparent indicators are used to determine which households are eligible for toilet subsidies or for loans. The programme also has a strong behavior change component and provides loans and capacity building to rural sanitation centres. In neighbouring India, the picture is quite different: The government’s Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC) provides cash to households, but is not reaching the poor, government endorsed toilets are expensive, and not used. The main focus is construction and not behaviour change.
In the sanitation marketing pilot project in Vietnam, programme funding was used for raising demand for toilets and improving the supply side. As a result the private sector has diversified its toilet products and financing options, and come up with cheaper toilet designs. They found that there is a market among poorer households but it requires different approach and different financing mechanisms. After the project ended, demand for toilets was sustained. 90 % of the households had a toilet, however, 16% of the poorest still didn’t have a toilet.
We concluded that appropriate sanitation financing mechanisms for the poor should go beyond hardware subsidies, and take into account hardware and software, capital and operational expenditure, the type of sanitation system being built, and consumer demand. Stimulating demand for toilets needs to go hand in hand with supporting service provision. We need to move the debate on from a simple yes/no subsidy. There is no sanitation programme without some form of subsidy – but the devil is in the detail. And the most important details are what level of service is to be delivered, what does it cost over the full life-cycle, and how will those different elements be paid for.
Carmen da Silva Wells, Programme Officer, South Asia & Latin America Team, IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre
Evans, B., Voorden, C. van der and Peal, A., 2009. Public funding for sanitation : the many faces of sanitation subsidies : a primer. [online] Geneva, Switzerland: Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council, WSSCC. Available at: http://washurl.net/193phw.
See also the related Powerpoint presentation
Karim, F., Akter, T., Dey, N.C. and Kanti Barua, M., 2012. The BRAC WASH programme : describing the core operational approaches, monitoring, evaluation and some results : paper written for the Asia regional sanitation and hygiene practitioners workshop in Dhaka, Bangladesh, on 31 January -2 February 2012 . Dhaka, Bangladesh: IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre. Available at: http://www.irc.nl/page/69295
Pruss-Ustun, A., Bos, R., Gore, F. and Bartram, J., 2008. Safer water, better health : costs, benefits and sustainability of interventions to protect and promote health. [online] Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization (WHO).
Available at: http://washurl.net/bhw3hg
Sijbesma, C., Truong, T.X. and Devine, J., 2010. Case study on sustainability of rural sanitation marketing in Vietnam. [online] Washington, DC, USA: Water and Sanitation Program, WSP.
Available at: http://washurl.net/a57zx4
See also the related research brief
You will find a list of over 100 publications on sanitation subsidies in the IRC WASH Library
This post appeared originally in IRC’s blog WASH Dialogues
|
<urn:uuid:021ab587-b0d3-46ca-8956-b8f375ed025c>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://sanitationupdates.wordpress.com/2012/09/20/making-sanitation-subsidies-effective-an-irc-summer-debate/
|
2013-05-23T18:58:43Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00003-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.925983
| 1,601
|
Cycloramic murals—building-sized paintings hung circularly for viewing from the inside—were a European innovation of the late nineteenth century. Frenchman Paul Philippoteaux supervised the painting of a cyclorama of the Battle of Gettysburg, which came to this country in 1884 and remains a prominent attraction at the Gettysburg National Military Park.
German artists also produced cycloramas, such as those depicting battles of the Franco-Prussian War. A number of them were recruited to America in 1883 by William Wehner of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, who ran the American Panorama Company, dedicated to cycloramic art. Thirteen artists painted The Battle of Missionary Ridge in 1883-84 and then turned to the Battle of Atlanta as the subject for their next mural. The company's choice of subject was influenced by one patron, the Republican Illinois senator John A. Logan, who ran unsuccessfully for vice president in 1884 and was rumored to be a candidate for the presidential nomination in 1888. A former Union general, Logan commanded the Fifteenth Corps in the Battle of Atlanta and assumed command of the Army of the Tennessee after the death of General James B. McPherson.
In the summer of 1885 the Milwaukee artists came to Atlanta for field study. Twenty years after the war, histories of the battle were in print, but the artists received most of the technical advice from Union and Confederate veterans. Assisting was Theodore Davis, wartime illustrator for Harper's Weekly, who had followed General William T. Sherman's armies. With trench lines outside Atlanta still extant, the artists fixed as the point of reference a site just inside Union lines at the Georgia Railroad, running eastward from the city. From a forty-foot tower they studied the terrain and sketched layouts. After several months on site, they returned to their Milwaukee studio, where, supervised by F. W. Heine and August Lohr, the artists—all specialists in landscapes, figures, and animals—completed the painting.
At its debut in Detroit in February 1887, the work was billed as "Logan's Great Battle" (although the senator had died three months before). The heavy canvases were draped on wooden frames, which were moved and reassembled at Minneapolis, Minnesota, and then Indianapolis, Indiana, where the Cyclorama opened in May 1888. Wehner sold the painting to an Indianapolis art exhibit company, which in turn sold it in 1890 to Paul Atkinson of Madison, Georgia.
Atkinson, already the owner of the Missionary Ridge cyclorama, sent the Atlanta painting to Chattanooga, Tennessee, and brought the former to Atlanta, exhibiting it in a circular building on Edgewood Avenue until February 1892. Missionary Ridge then traveled to Nashville, Tennessee, where it was later destroyed in a hurricane; in its place, The Battle of Atlanta opened in Atlanta on February 22, 1892. Resale to various owners led to its purchase at the Edgewood Avenue exhibition hall by Atlanta businessman George V. Gress, who donated the painting to the city in March 1898 after providing it with housing in Grant Park. Grant Park is a public park established in 1883 and named for Atlantan Lemuel P. Grant, the donor of the park land, who as a Confederate engineer had surveyed for the fortifications around Atlanta.
The painting takes in a wide sweep of the area: the skyline of Atlanta, Kennesaw Mountain, Stone Mountain, and the smoke of a cavalry fight at Decatur. Details of the battle are as if the viewer stood just inside the Fifteenth Corps lines at about 4:30 p.m. on July 22.
The Cyclorama has been housed at Grant Park since the 1890s. In 1921 a new building, designed by Atlanta architect John Francis Downing, took in the painting and, six years later, the locomotive Texas, famous in the Andrews Raid of 1862. In 1934-36, funded by the Works Progress Administration, artists Weis Snell, Joseph Llorens, and Wilbur Kurtz fashioned plaster figures for a diorama as foreground for the painting. Set on a flooring of red clay, the shrubbery, cannon, track, and 128 soldiers (twenty inches to fifty inches tall, to fit in perspective with the scale of the painting), give the painting more realism and extend it thirty feet toward the viewing platform. After Clark Gable visited the Cyclorama in December 1939 while in Atlanta for the premiere of Gone With the Wind, Mayor William B. Hartsfield had Snell make a figure of a Union corpse with a face painted to resemble Gable's Rhett Butler.
Deterioration of the painting and water damage led to an $11 million restoration of the Cyclorama in 1979-81. Under the supervision of Gustav Berger, the canvas was cleaned and treated, and the paint colors were restored. In the diorama the clay was replaced with a fiberglass and plastic flooring by Joseph Hurt (a descendant of Troup Hurt), and the plaster figures were reset. The building was remodeled and equipped with a 184-seat, tiered viewing platform, which rotates slowly as recorded narrative describes the painting. The upstairs museum was also updated, with artifacts given mostly by a former Cyclorama employee. The new Cyclorama reopened in June 1982 and continues to draw visitors from around the world.
The Battle of Atlanta: The Cyclorama, Grant Park, Atlanta, Georgia (Kansas City, Mo.: Terrell Publishing, 1982-1991?; distributed by Thomas Warren Enterprises).
Barry L. Brown and Gordon R. Elwell, Crossroads of Conflict: A Guide to Civil War Sites in Georgia (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2010).
Chip Carter, "Atlanta's Restored Cyclorama," Civil War Times Illustrated, January-February 1991, 18-22.
Harold Holzer and Mark E. Neely Jr., Mine Eyes Have Seen the Glory: The Civil War in Art (New York: Orion Books, 1993), esp. ch. 5, "The Theater of the War: Cycloramas and Panoramic Art."
Alma Hill Jamison, "The Cyclorama of the Battle of Atlanta," Atlanta Historical Bulletin 10 (July 1937): 58-75.
Wilbur G. Kurtz, "At the Troup Hurt House," Atlanta Constitution Magazine, January 25, 1931.
Wilbur G. Kurtz, "The Story of the Cyclorama Painting," in The Atlanta Cyclorama of the Battle of Atlanta (Atlanta: City of Atlanta, 1954), 24-28.
Stephen Davis, Marietta
A project of the Georgia Humanities Council, in partnership with the University of Georgia Press, the University System of Georgia/GALILEO, and the Office of the Governor.
|
<urn:uuid:61865c55-a83d-4e14-9434-7a04ca81a1ba>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.com/nge/Article.jsp?path=/Education/LibrariesMuseumsandArchives&id=h-825
|
2013-06-19T18:52:26Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368709037764/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125717-00001-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.958682
| 1,386
|
Origins of Life: Space Bacteria
Created 2/9/2003 - Updated 8/22/2004
1. Starlight is Dimmed by Dust | 2. Organic Molecules | 3. Mass of Bacteria | 4. Two Weeks | 5. Comets | 6. Bacteria Surviving in Space | 7. Food and Water Inside Comets | 8. Life on Earth | 9. Bacterial Rain | 10. Red Rain in Kerala, India | 11. Other Red Rains. | 12. Gravity vs. Solar Radiation Pressure | 13. Sun's Magnetic Poles Stalled, More Dust, More Disease | 14. Sunspots and Disease | 15. NASA's Stardust Probe | 16. Conclusion
In every direction astronomers look with telescopes, they see starlight dimmed by bacteria sized dust between the stars. A size of about a thousandth of a millimeter across is the best guess at the size of interstellar dust due to the ability of particles this size to scatter starlight.
In 1978 Wickramasinghe conducted experiments in the laboratory that showed infrared light passed through dried bacteria was absorbed in a characteristic way between 2 and 4 micrometers. He then confirmed that the infrared spectrum of GC-IRS7 (a powerful infrared light source from the center of the Milky Way galaxy) matched this absorption. This may mean that space is full of dried bacteria, but how can this be?
Some interstellar clouds contain organic molecules like acetylene and acetaldehyde, known precursors of amino acids. Further, NASA Scientists were able to create the amino acids: alanine, glycine, and serine in a deep-space environment simulator.
Perhaps the truth about life on Earth is kind of gross. How much bacteria dead are we talking about here? Since interstellar dust accounts for 1/3rd of all the carbon in interstellar space, the mass of the grains in our galaxy can be calculated to be about ten million times the mass of our Sun. How could there be so much?
With access to the right nutrients, a single bacteria can split into two bacteria in two to three hours. After four days, a single bacterium could produce a million million offspring, about the volume of a sugar cube. According to Marcus Chown's The Universe Next Door, "After another four days, its descendants could fill a village pond. After four days more, the volume of the Pacific Ocean. In less than two weeks, a single bacterium could have converted itself into a mass of bacteria equivalent to the mass of the entire Milky Way." Are there nutrients in outer space? Perhaps!
It is believed that orbiting our Sun beyond the farthest planet and extending a fair distance out to the nearest star, there are about 100 billion comets in a vast cloud known as the Oort Cloud.
If most of the other two hundred billion stars in our galaxy also have clouds of comets, there could be a mass 10 million times the mass of the Sun, enough material to feed the proposed amount of interstellar bacteria.
Collisions occasionally bump a comet out of the Oort cloud and send it into our solar system. As they near the sun, they melt and eject a multimillion mile long tail of debris. Halley's Comet, for example, visits the inner solar system every seventy six years.
During it's last visit, space probes revealed that the particles ejected were the same size as interstellar dust grains and that they absorbed light in the same way. As it turns out, pressure from the solar wind will push dead bacteria right out of the solar system. Comets, may be icy dust balls the size of small mountains. It is believed they form in the later stages of the collapse of a cloud of interstellar gas and dust which shrinks together under its own gravity.
If bacteria are not destroyed by space they could be incorporated into comets when the comets form.
Bacteria can survive dehydration, extremely low temperatures and intense radiation. Extremophiles such as Deinococcus radiodurans, for example, can survive the radiation in the cores of nuclear reactors. The August 15 issue of the journal Science published a new record. Strain 121 grows at 121 degrees Celsius, or about 250 degrees Fahrenheit. Previously, Pyrolobus fumarii held the upper known temperature limit for life at 113 C (235 F). Arrhenius showed that bacterial spores exposed to near vacuum and temperatures as low as -196 degrees Celsius came back to life. According to Wickramasinghe only one in 100 million million interstellar bacteria needs to survive space in order to convert a large amount of a comet into microorganisms in a matter of days. Once inside the comet, bacteria need liquid water and organic materials to consume.
The surface of Halley's Comet was found by both the Giotto and the Vega probes to be black, as would be expected from a coating of organic material. Radioactive aluminum-26, which geologists find in meteorites, is incorporated into comets and would be hot enough to keep the inside of a comet liquid for several million years after the comet's birth. If the comet then freezes slowly, water would leave the bacteria slowly and they would be preserved in a freeze-dried state, ready to be born again when a solar wind blows them into another forming comet.
This cycle takes about three billion years "for a bacterium ejected from a comet to become incorporated in another comet when a new planetary system is born" a ccording to Wickramasinghe. With this model, life can be very difficult to create, but it only needs to arise once in a galaxy for it to spread everywhere.
NASA, on the other hand, seems somehow to already know that life can't exist inside comets because, "Temperatures in a comet nucleus ... rang(e) from -50 to -250 deg C, and must have remained extremely cold since the time the comet was formed, some 4.6 billions of years ago." If you read this NASA site's decription of the nucleus of comet Borrelly, you will see that by 'nucleus' they mean the entire 4 mile long solid part of the comet. It seems they aren't considering that inside the large solid nucleus, there may be a warm watery liquid center full of bacteria.
About 3.85 billion years ago, the Earth had finally cooled down enough to have pools of liquid. At this time, the earliest possible time, life appears. We know this because living organisms concentrate the isotope carbon-12. When they die and become incorporated in rocks, which then have an unusually high concentration of carbon-12 compared to carbon-13. Rocks from 3.85 billion years ago show the fingerprint of life. Comets that struck the earth (and the moon) 3.85 billion years ago may have brought life. This is not a new idea. Aristarchus of Samos in the third century B.C. made the claim that life on earth was seeded from space.
If bacteria form interstellar dust, then the Earth, like the rest of the solar system, is traveling through these bacterial clouds and some bacteria would enter our atmosphere. According to NASA, "it is important to know that about 40,000 tons of dust particles from comets and asteroids fall on Earth every year. A large fraction of this is cometary material ... This constant bombardment of Earth by the particles shed from comets has been going on for the more than three billions of years that life has existed on this planet, yet life has flourished." Could bacterial spores survive this entry? Perhaps they do. Puzzling simultaneous outbreaks of diseases across the globe, too rapid even in the age of air travel, might be explained by the fact that bacteria are in fact raining down from the sky.
In the southern Indian state of Kerala a mysterious red rain fell in 2001. A paper by Louis and Kumar in at Mahatma Gandhi University dated Oct 5, 2003 states "Red coloured rain occurred in many places of Kerala in India during July to September 2001 due to the mixing of a huge quantity of microscopic red cells in the rainwater.
Considering its correlation with a meteor airburst event, this phenomenon raised an extraordinary question whether the cells are extraterrestrial.
... slow settling of cells in the stratosphere explain the continuation of the phenomenon for two months. The red cells under study appear to be the resting spores of an extremophilic microorganism. Possible presence of these cells in the interstellar clouds is speculated from its similarity in UV absorption with the 216.5 nm UV extinction feature of interstellar clouds." Read the rest of the paper here in .pdf format. The bar in the photo represents 10 micrometers. There was no nucleus visible, even after staining, but proteins were detected by a Xanthoproteic test.
Chemical analyses of the red cell samples showed the presence of carbon, silicon, calcium, magnesium, aluminum, iron, sodium and pottassium in addition to significant trace quantities (in parts per million) of phosphurus, titanium, chromium, manganese, copper and nickel. Yahoonews.
Red Rain in Nghe An, Vietnam.
A recent red rain lasted 30 minutes on July 29, 2003. "Scientists in Vietnam are baffled why red coloured rain fell from the skies last week over the central province of Nghe An. Water samples have been sent to laboratories in the provincial capital Vinh for further analysis, with results expected within a week." No word on the lab results.
Red Rain in Sicily.
According to William A. Corliss's compilation Strange Phenomena: A Sourcebook of Unusual Natural Phenomena (The Sourcebook Project, Glen Arm, MD: 1974, pp. G1-10) an analysis of a red rain which fell in Sicily on March 9th, 10th, and 11th, 1872 by O. Silvestri originally appeared in Chemical News, (25:300, June 21, 1872). The rain "was found to consist of 100 parts of red iron ochre, 75.1; carbonate of lime, 11.7; organic matter, 13.2." In this case--as in a number of others--the red rain was accompanied by meteoric dust, and this meteoric connection may be significant." Indeed. From strangemag.
Since its launch in 1990, Ulysses has monitored how much dust enters the solar system from interstellar space. The sun's radiation pressure is a flow of ionized gas expanding away from its surface and extending out beyond the edge of the solar system. Data from Ulysses shows that the force of gravity pulling dust in is the same or a little less than the radiation pressure pushing it out.
The sun's magnetic field weakens periodically during phases of the 22-year sunspot cycle. At these times, more grains of dust are able to leak into the solar system. Normally, the sun's magnetic poles shift from north to south every 11 years "like clockwork." Except now, the magnetic poles "have only rotated halfway and are now more or less lying sideways along the sun's equator" according to National Geographic. That a bit alarming. Here's why: "This weaker configuration of the magnetic field is allowing two to three times more stardust to enter the solar system than at the end of the 1990s." Coincidentally, there is also an alarming increase in diseases world wide.
At the Dominion Radio Astrophysical Observatory in Penticton, Ken Tapping and colleagues compared historical records of flu pandemics and solar flare activity dating back to the early 1700s. They found a definite tendency for pandemics to occur during periods of solar maxima. A statistical simulation found the chance of the two cycles being randomly coincidental was less than 2%. (Can. J. Inf. Dis. 2001, 12, in press). The researchers didn't speculate on a cause.
NASA's Stardust Probe probe will return to Earth in the year 2006 with samples of interstellar dust. Are we star dust?
If bacteria from comets are the true source of life on Earth and if the evolution of bacteria to 'higher' forms over billions of years resulted in human life, then we are all 'extraterrestrial' results of a massive bacterial infection of outer space! This idea is almost too funny to be wrong.
|
<urn:uuid:873538df-9f23-408c-bddb-91826d9c29aa>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.xenophilia.com/zb0045.htm
|
2013-05-19T10:33:30Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00051-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.931729
| 2,527
|
You may be what you eat, but if the Department of Agriculture has its way, you also could be what you wrap your leftovers in.
Scientists at the agency have developed edible wrap made of fruits and vegetables that keep food fresh. The point of the project is to provide more nutritional options to people and reduce waste, said Tara McHugh a research food technologist at the USDA's research arm in Albany, Calif.
When heated, the wrap transforms into a condiment for the food they're protecting. For example, wrap made of tomato puree that's covering a bowl of leftover pasta dissolves into sauce when placed in a microwave oven.
They really do have the color and taste of the vegetable or fruit they're made from, a reporter recently found. The vinyl-textured peach wrap, for example, resembles a fruit roll-up.
Popular Science magazine named the wrap to its list of 100 of the best innovations in 2001.
Published in the Athens Banner-Herald on Wednesday, January 9, 2002.
Athens Banner-Herald ©2013. All Rights Reserved.
|
<urn:uuid:a1a0acfb-16fa-49e5-bec1-6f7f6b13f2e0>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://onlineathens.com/stories/010902/foo_0109020018.shtml
|
2013-05-23T18:55:44Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00052-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.944994
| 224
|
- A cellulitis of the supraglottis that may cause airway compromise. An airway emergency, especially in children, and precautionary measures must be taken.
- Epiglottitis is classically described in children aged 2 to 6 years of age; however, it may manifest at any age, including in newborns. It may now be more common in older children and adults due to the Haemophilus influenzae type B (Hib) vaccine.
- The most common signs are rapid onset of high fever, sore throat, inability to control secretions, classic tripod positioning, difficulty breathing, and irritability. Adults may have a more indolent presentation and may not require airway intervention (only about 20% of adults require intubation whereas most children do).
- Cooperation between the otolaryngologist, paediatrician, or emergency department physician and anaesthetist is crucial.
- No action should be taken that could stimulate a child with suspected epiglottitis, including examination of the oral cavity, starting intravenous lines, blood draws, or even separation from a parent. Similar caution is required in fulminant acute epiglottitis in adults.
- Diagnosis is made on clinical grounds, and laboratory or other interventions should not preclude or delay timely control of the airway in a suspected case of epiglottitis.
- Once the airway has been secured and antibiotics have been initiated, the condition usually resolves rapidly.
- Vaccination does not preclude the possibility of epiglottitis or even the possibility of epiglottitis from Haemophilus influenzae.
最終更新日: 4 10, 2013
|
<urn:uuid:9b3fa99d-542b-4771-b670-675ce54318da>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://bestpractice.bmj.com/best-practice/monograph/452.html?locale=ja
|
2013-06-19T06:41:18Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142617/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00001-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.921976
| 355
|
Happy President’s day!!!
What use to be known as Washington’s Birthday, in honor of George Washington, our first president, is now known as President’s Day. Washington’s B-Day is Feb. 22 and Lincoln’s B-Day is Feb 12, the day was renamed to honor both of them as well as honoring the office of the presidency.
According to Wikipedia “the first attempt to create a Presidents Day occurred in 1951 when the “President’s Day National Committee” was formed by Harold Stonebridge Fischer of Compton, California, who became its National Executive Director for the next two decades.”
Wiki also list some facts about President’s Day we didn’t know:
- In Massachusetts, the state officially celebrates “Washington’s Birthday” on the same day as the Federal holiday. State law also directs the governor to issue an annual “Presidents Day” proclamation on May 29 honoring the presidents with Massachusetts roots: John Adams, John Quincy Adams, Calvin Coolidge, and John F. Kennedy.
- Alabama uniquely observes the day as “Washington and Jefferson Day”, even though Thomas Jefferson’s birthday is in April.
- In Connecticut, Missouri and Illinois, while Washington’s Birthday is a federal holiday, Abraham Lincoln’s birthday is still a state holiday, falling on February 12 regardless of the day of the week.
- In Washington’s home state of Virginia, the holiday is legally known as “George Washington Day.”
- Most corporations were closed on this day until the 1980′s
- Federal and state governments are closed
- It’s another way to honor the country’s veterans
- In Arkansas the third Monday in February is “George Washington’s Birthday and Daisy Gatson Bates Day,” an official state holiday.
- In New Mexico Presidents Day, at least as a state government paid holiday, is observed on the Friday followingThanksgiving
Have a safe holiday.
|
<urn:uuid:29fd4e1c-05c5-405e-a60c-5713360941b9>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://blog.collegebookrenter.com/2012/02/presidents-day/
|
2013-06-20T08:37:17Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368711005985/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516133005-00051-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.947394
| 429
|
Ethical issues linked to the use of specific forms of AT
The ethical issues linked to the use of assistive technology in dementia care
- Respecting autonomy - the issue of consent
- Leisure and social inclusion
- Socially assistive robotics
- Eenhancing safety and wellbeing in the home
- Memory and mobility
- Surveillance, safety and monitoring
Obtaining informed consent or assent
Difficulties obtaining the informed consent of people with dementia for the use of AT are quite similar to those linked to consent to medical treatment. Care must be taken to ensure that the person with dementia understands the information that is given, can retain it long enough to make a decision and can express his/her decision. This may sometimes be difficult due to the technical aspects of some devices (Fisk, 1997).
Consent must amount to more than agreement to the use of AT without understanding its function (e.g. consenting to wear a bracelet without realizing that it enables other people to monitor one’s whereabouts). Certain types of tracking device cannot be easily discarded which means that once they have been put on, the person with dementia no longer has the freedom to take them off, even if they are cumbersome or s/he later objects to their use. One system requires two hands to take the bracelet off (Miskelly, 2004). This puts people using such devices in a vulnerable position in which they have no power and may feel humiliated and trapped.
Different ways of presenting the information can be used and measures can be taken to check whether the person has really understood what is at stake and the consequences for him/her. There may be a tendency to conclude too hastily that the person does not have the capacity to consent and to ask carers instead. However, even in the case of incapacity to consent to the use of a particular form of AT, the person with dementia should be involved in the decision making to the greatest extent possible.
The capacity to consent is likely to deteriorate over time and in some cases may fluctuate from day to day or at different times of the day (Jacques and Jackson, 2000). A person may therefore consent to the installation of surveillance equipment but later not be aware that s/he is being monitored or able to reaffirm or withhold consent. Yet his/her desire for privacy may change as the disease progresses. It might be possible to obtain his/her views on the matter if the necessary time and effort were taken but the de-installation of the equipment might involve costs which the person with dementia would have to be able to consent to. For this reason, Essén (2008) emphasises the importance of having built-in possibilities to exit such services.
People who are responsible for obtaining the informed consent of people with dementia for the use of AT devices or systems should have received training in relevant communication methods as otherwise it could not be said that such consent had really been sought. This would mean that the rights of people with dementia had not been respected (Martin et al., 2010).
Ensuring that consent is given freely
It is important to obtain the person’s free and informed consent before installing or using AT. In the case of movement monitoring, for example, a person may be willing to sacrifice a certain degree of privacy in return for the benefits that s/he believes the device will bring but consent must not be based on pressure (e.g. the person being told that otherwise her/his husband/wife will not be able to sleep) or presented as the only option (e.g. being told that otherwise there will be nobody to help in case of need, that the use of such devices is standard policy in a particular nursing home or that it is obligatory for insurance purposes).
Perry, Beyer and Holm (2009) draw attention to possible coercion which may be subtle and even unintentional e.g. the fears of staff about the use of AT being passed on to the potential users. People with dementia who are in hospital or residential care are in a vulnerable position in that they may fear retribution if they do not consent to the use of AT. Alternatively, they may be inclined to give a socially desirable response particularly if the person asking is perceived as having a higher status than them.
In the case of learning disabilities, it has been found that some people with learning disabilities have a tendency to acquiesce (i.e. respond positively irrespective of the question asked) and to select the last of two possible options given (i.e. if asked whether they would like tea or coffee, they would say “coffee” but if asked whether they would like coffee or tea, they would say “tea”) (Sigelman et al., 1980 and 1982). It has been reported in connection with a person with dementia (Redfern et al., 2002) but it is not known whether this is common although it could at least apply to some people with dementia with learning disabilities.
Of course, it would be an over-simplification to portray people who are monitored, tracked or tagged as passive victims manipulated by care providers, as they have something to gain from this kind of AT such as a sense of feeling cared for and protected in the privacy of their own home (Essén, 2008).
When AT affects other people
The issue of consent is further complicated in group settings where one person’s desire to use AT may infringe on another person’s right to privacy or the other person may object to the use of a certain device or equipment (e.g. in the case of video surveillance of a shared room or of communal areas such as kitchens and lounges) (Bharucha et al., 2006; Perry et al., 2009). People sharing a room might also have different levels of capacity to consent, with some being able to decide themselves and others not.
Shinoda-Tagawa et al. (2004) have described the use of video surveillance as a means to investigate resident-to-resident violence. However, as almost 50% of violent acts reportedly occur in residents’ private space, this raises issues linked to privacy and in the shared areas to obtaining the consent of all concerned, including visitors (Sifford and Bharucha, 2010).
Staff also have a right to privacy. When used as part of a research project, it has been suggested that care staff who object to video surveillance could be temporarily reassigned to another unit (Sifford and Bharucha, 2010) but clearly such a solution is likely to be unrealistic in the case of prolonged use of such surveillance. It is possible that the consent of staff to the use of surveillance equipment is not always requested, but in cases where they are informed in advance of its installation, it has been suggested that their continued employment may be considered as implied consent (Carlson, 2001; Bharucha et al., 2006). However, with high levels of unemployment in most countries, people may feel that they have less freedom to decide not to stay and as equipment is introduced into more and more establishments, this might even necessitate a change of profession, which for some people may seem impossible if they have specialised in that particular domain. Consequently, it could be argued that a certain degree of coercion is present in such implicit consent.
Communication and social interaction
Multimedia software can be used in a variety of ways to stimulate physical and cognitive capacities, and to increase social interaction or contact with the outside world. Computer-based activities, for example, may be either solitary or involve interaction with others. Some may be based on cognitive stimulation; others may provide a pleasant experience or be combined with physical exercise. Whilst elderly people of today are not generally as knowledgeable about computers as the younger generation, using computer technology may help bridge the gap between generations and provide a common interest or activity which can be shared with younger people, thereby promoting inter-generational social interaction and in some cases helping maintain family ties.
The use of various devices has also been shown to promote social interaction amongst residents in residential care. An example is the picture gramophone which was developed in Finland and tested in the ENABLE project in some residential care homes. This is an easy-to-use device which does not necessitate any knowledge of computers. By simply touching icons on a computer screen, people with dementia can listen to the songs of their choice and see the lyrics displayed on the screen. The results of the study showed that it created social interaction (with two to three people using it together), led to singing/humming and was an enjoyable activity (Topo et al, 2004). In a different study involving the use of touch-screen displays for photos, videos and music for reminiscence work, it was found that this approach gave people more control over the direction of the conversation which in turn resulted in more prolonged engagement in the conversations (Castellot-Lou et al., 2010).
Such devices could presumably also be used in people’s homes. A possible drawback may be that some people who are not involved in the activity may overhear songs which they find annoying or which are associated with painful memories from the past.
The “window on the world”, described by Orpwood et al. (2007), relays images from the outside onto a screen, which is located in the person’s living environment. The images might be of people moving about outside, of visitors in a common room or of the garden (depending on where the camera is placed). This device might raise ethical and legal issues linked to obtaining consent or at least informing people that they are being filmed. Concerning people with dementia, this technology has the advantage of creating a link to the outside world as well as providing stimulation, perhaps creating opportunities for social interaction amongst viewers, but may also be enjoyable for people who are bored just sitting down all day with nothing to do. It might also be appreciated by people who are bedridden or have serious problems with mobility. It also has the advantage of being suitable for people who have great difficulty communicating but should not reduce efforts to maintain real human contact with them.
A drawback to such a device (and to the others mentioned in this sub-section) is that in communal settings, some people may find it annoying, disturbing or an intrusion into their personal worlds. Careful planning and attention to the location of such devices may help prevent other residents being disturbed.
Some forms of AT, such as video-telephoning, can be equally important in breaking the isolation of carers as that of people with dementia. It may also serve as a means of mutual support amongst carers or to help maintain communication between couples when one goes into residential care (Sävenstedt et al., 2003). Video-telephoning may also enable relatives and friends who are unable to visit as regularly as they would like to keep in touch with a person with dementia in residential care, reassure themselves that s/he is alright and perhaps reduce feelings of guilt about not visiting (Sävenstedt et al., 2003). In a study which set out to assess the level of satisfaction with such equipment, it was found that some carers received support from other carers during the bereavement process following the death of the person with dementia during the study (Magnusson and Hanson, 2003). The researchers felt that it would have been unethical to withdraw the equipment at that time and they draw attention to the risk of people becoming dependent on equipment which is subsequently withdrawn.
Video-phoning, like monitoring for safety purposes, may be perceived as an invasion of a person’s privacy. Whilst someone is sitting in front of the screen talking to someone, anyone who walks past may be captured on screen against their will or without their knowledge. In families with children and teenagers, it is unlikely that every one of them would have been asked to consent to the installation of such equipment. There may also be visitors who are unaware that their image is being recorded. Some people are very susceptible about their image and would be disturbed if they realised that they had been filmed in their pyjamas, without make-up, wearing curlers or having just woken up etc.
The person using the video-phone should also have a certain degree of privacy. For this reason, it would be good to have the video-phone in a separate room or private area but not all households have this option.
Having an open-line video-phone system, which is permanently switched on, opens up the possibility of professional carers or relatives using this system to ensure from a distance that the person with dementia remains in the home. This could be interpreted as a form of non-maleficence but it could also be considered as a form of restraint in that the person may feel compelled to comply (Magnusson and Hanson, 2003).
It could be argued that certain activities are inappropriate for elderly people and that encouraging people with dementia to participate is demeaning and fails to respect their dignity, particularly when it concerns activities that they would not, in the opinion of others, have done prior to having dementia. This is based on three assumptions: 1. that there are activities which are appropriate for certain age groups and others that are not 2. that people’s likes and dislikes do not change over time, and 3. that if they do change, after a person has developed dementia, they should not be considered as valid. Each assumption could be challenged.
People with dementia are constantly adapting to new situations and the experience of having dementia may result in a different outlook on life and even changing interests. It would be a mistake to consider every change as being linked to damage to the brain (Kitwood, 1993). Possibilities to engage in activities may arise which were simply not previously envisaged but which nevertheless prove rewarding. Moreover, the social and leisure activities of elderly people have already changed considerably in the last few decades, perhaps due to older people being physically fitter, having fewer family and professional responsibilities, greater purchasing power and better mobility than in the past (Föbker and Grotz, 2003).
Some concerns about dignity may be valid and care must be taken to ensure that people are not being pressurised to take part in activities which they personally find demeaning or of no interest. However, attention must also be paid to ensuring that a person’s autonomy is respected and his/her current wishes respected. As Lawrence (2007, p.555) points out, “Caring transforms family relationships, and carers may fight to protect and preserve their own image of the person with dementia, with the risk of losing contact with his [sic] present needs and identity.”
Socially assistive robotics (SAR) is an area of AT which is still very much in its early stages, particularly for use with people with dementia. Most of the information in this section is taken from the writings of Sherry Turkle (2007) and Feil-Seifer, Skinner and Matarić (2007). Please see the references section for full details.
There are different kinds of SAR systems such as companion robots which provide a focus of attention (e.g. in the form of a soft toy/animal which responds to touch or sound), or non-contact assistive robots which provide support in social interaction with little or no physical contact. A companion robot that has received a lot of attention in the media recently is “Paro” the baby harp seal developed by Dr Takanori Shibata. The producers of this robot divide companion robots into four categories:
- familiar animals such as dogs and cats
- non-familiar animals such as seals, penguins and whales
- new characters and artificial animals
and consider Paro as being in the third category (National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (NIAST), 2010).
According to Feil-Seifer et al. (2007), the use of companion robots has led to reduced stress levels and increased social interaction amongst residents in nursing homes. Robots can also be given a kind of personality, e.g. serious or playful. This may affect how people with dementia react towards them and feel about them.
SARs can have varying degrees of human-like appearance or qualities or with companion robots, varying degrees of similarity to living creatures. Turkle (2007) claims that this may create social side effects with ethical ramifications. A person may become attached to the robot but may have to share it with other people, the robot may break down or the person may be moved to another unit or home and have to part with it. He/she may come to consider the robot as “real” and become disappointed by it. In an exploratory study into the psychological effects of domestic AT, Cesta et al. (2007) found a clear preference by elderly people for the “no-face” version of a prototype assistive robot and that the “no-face” version resulted in deeper psychological attachment.
The designer of Paro (the baby harp seal robot) experimented with companion robots representing animals with which people were more familiar such as cats. They found that the initial reaction was very positive but that people soon started to make comparisons between the robot and real cats and were soon disappointed that the robots did not feel the same or react the same as cats they had known. They did not tend to do this with the seal which is an animal that most people are not familiar with, but found it very cute and developed an emotional attachment to it (NIAST, 2010).
Evidence that attachment is not limited to lifelike creatures was provided by a study into children’s use of “Furbies” (please see image). The children had formed such close emotional bonds to their Furbies that when the creatures broke, most children did not want a brand new replacement but rather the old one mending or “cured” (Turkle, 2004). These findings cannot be generalised to people with dementia but provide useful insight into the human capacity to attach to inanimate objects.
Another concern linked to the use of SARs is their authenticity or rather lack of it. Some people may feel that there is something uncanny about a computer which seems to show concern or exhibit caring behaviour, whereas others might appreciate this or simply have no problems with it. In the 1970s a famous computer programme known as “Eliza” was developed which was capable of mirroring input and providing supportive feedback. For example, to the statement “My mother is making me angry,” the computer might respond “Tell me more about your family.” On the basis of observation of students interacting with Eliza, Turkle (2007) suggests that they were not pretending to be chatting with a human but actually enjoying talking to a machine. A more recent example is the Tamagotchi and similar devices/creatures which promote a desire to nurture and the illusion of reciprocation (Turkle, 2007). Some SARs can be programmed to make eye contact based on detection of where a voice is coming from. SARs are different to traditional teddy bears and dolls in that they are active, demand attention, require nurturing behaviour and/or react to the user’s behaviour.
The use of SARs by people with dementia is probably fairly limited at the moment. Ethical questions may nevertheless arise such as whether it is right to give SARs of this kind to people whose ability to interact with humans is declining, who might at some point be unable to understand that something is not “alive” and who may be feeling isolated. However, one could also argue that anything that makes a person feel cared for, wanted, of interest to someone/thing else and drawn into interaction can only be a good thing.
Although SARs are not human, programmed reactions towards the behaviour and movement of the user may affect users’ sense of privacy in that people may feel that they are not alone (which can also be positive) or that they are being watched. If the user can control privacy levels, such problems can easily be overcome. SARs may also increase the level of privacy by side-stepping the need for human assistance for tasks which are potentially embarrassing or private (e.g. going to the toilet or getting washed). This may also serve to protect the user’s dignity.
Autonomy and safety
SARs could be used to carry out certain tasks on behalf of the user or to provide a sufficient level of support to enable the person to complete the task him/herself. This should promote the autonomy of the user. Cesta et al. (2007) divided the possible tasks of a domestic robot into two categories: on-demand interaction (in which the user takes the initiative and might ask the robot: have I taken my pills today, have I already had lunch or where are my keys?) or proactive interaction (in which the robot may detect certain programmed danger and warning scenarios such as the person lying on the kitchen floor, and take the appropriate action).
However, the degree of autonomy granted to the robot must be appropriate and carefully monitored, with the user retaining as much control as possible and if necessary, constant monitoring from carers or healthcare professionals (e.g. in the case of SARs dispensing medication) (Feil-Seifer et al., 2007). In the case of SARs designed to promote social interaction, a certain degree of autonomy of the robot is perhaps needed.
As people with dementia may at some point experience difficulties with mobility, vision and coordination, it is essential that SARs are stable and not likely to provoke accidents (e.g. through their colour, size, shape, movement or sound). In all cases, users need to feel safe using the robot and positive about it. People should avoid patronising those using various forms of assistive technology.
Dignity, truth-telling and confusion
As people may feel more or less at ease interacting with SARs, the interaction promoted and required by the SAR may suit some people more than others. It could even be problematic if people realise that they are dependent on the SAR but feel ridiculous using it. It may remind them of the human contact that is not available to them. Some may be confused by the robot, not understanding how it works, what to do to make it work or what triggers its actions. As some people with dementia suffer from confusion and delusions, the use of SARs may lead to fears about intrusion in their home. It must be clear to them that they can get rid of the SAR if they don’t like it and have access to alternative support for their needs.
Some of the ethical issues linked to doll therapy could be applicable to the use of companion robots. For example, it could be argued that the person with dementia who comes to believe that the device is living is being deceived. A counter argument would be that not correcting the person with dementia concerning this belief provides them with the opportunity to participate in a rewarding and meaningful activity, and to adopt a nurturing role (Andrew, 2006). Such deception linked to good intentions is what Marzanski (2000) would call “justifiable benevolent deception”. Whether it is actually justifiable is a matter for debate. However, it must also be borne in mind that a person (adult or child) who actsas ifan object is alive, does not necessarily believe that this is the case.
Detectors and monitors fitted to everyday equipment and stand-alone devices
Various devices and systems can be installed in people’s homes which result in a safer environment for people with dementia as well as peace of mind for them and their carers (provided that the devices and systems function properly and can be easily used). Such AT can therefore promote autonomy and safety. Blackman et al. (2003) suggest that despite attempts to create a safe environment where people have quality of life, there is a risk of the home starting to feel like a prison. They emphasise that supporting independence (e.g. through the use of AT) is no guarantee against exclusion and criticize disabling environments, adding that in some cases a person’s impairment may be removed by a suitable adaptation of the environment.
Buildings are now being constructed which incorporate as standard features various forms of AT such as cooker monitors (to detect gas, smoke and rings which have been left on), pictorial object locators, water level and temperature gauges, pressure sensors, automatically activated lighting and a range of other monitoring devices. Such buildings are sometimes called smart homes.
AT can be active (involving some purposive action on the part of the user) or passive (responding automatically to the behaviour of the user or to other conditions such as smoke, rising heat or water level). In the case of active AT, it is more likely that the person with dementia will be aware of it and have some degree of choice regarding its use once installed, whereas with passive AT, the user does not have the same degree of control, save uninstalling the equipment (not an easy task for many people) or getting rid of it. Different kinds of safety devices therefore have the potential to increase autonomy and safety but autonomy also involves the ability to choose and this may be affected by the type of AT used. When a person moves into residential care where such technology is used, it is possible that he/she will not be aware of the various devices used and will only find out later. In such cases, he/she would not have consented to its use as it was pre-existent and may be unhappy about its use.
There are also numerous stand-alone devices which may contribute towards self-esteem, autonomy, safety and wellbeing (as mentioned earlier depending on the devices, the people involved and the situation) such as picture telephones, digital pens, calendar clocks and medicine dispensers. Some of these devices may enable people with dementia to maintain social contact with family, friends and the outside world thereby helping avoid social exclusion and helping ensure recognition of their personhood.
In the case of people who do not live alone, the extent to which certain devices are visible to others may affect their sense of pride and dignity. If too obvious, the people for whom they are intended may feel incompetent and embarrassed, especially if people visit and ask what they are for. If such devices were installed on a large scale as standard features, this would be less likely.
Some devices, such as movement sensor light switches, may be confusing if the person with dementia has forgotten either how they work or having consented to their installation. Whilst certain devices may be experienced as contributing towards autonomy and thus reassuring, for some people, they may serve as a reminder of their own loss of capacity, loss of personal control over their lives and disability (Gitlin et al., 1998).
In some cases, elderly people may rely heavily on the AT device or system to the extent that they trust it more than they trust their own judgement. If the device then malfunctions and gives out faulty information (e.g. regarding taking medication), they would be less likely to detect the error and this makes them vulnerable (Ho et al., 2005). Apart from the need to take this into account during the design of various forms of AT, regular review and maintenance of AT is needed. Providers of AT also have an obligation to ensure that it is safe and reliable, particularly when used by people who may not have the capacity to check this themselves.
As some devices for use in the home are fairly expensive, their use raises concerns about equity. Clearly, people with a higher income will have more opportunity to obtain them although some devices may be financed to some extent by the State. This will differ, however, from one country to the next and may be dependent on certain conditions such as whether one lives alone, the severity of one’s condition and one’s level of income.
Finally, service providers may be hostile towards the introduction of AT in the home as they may feel that it is a threat, seeing it as an alternative to the personal service they provide in the home (Magnusson and Hanson, 2003). There is possible agreement from carers and people with dementia that AT should not replace human contact but on the other hand, decisions about this are most probably influenced by economic concerns and as stated earlier, it is the quality of human contact that is important, not the quantity.
Monitors and alarms linked to the person and his/her activities
Balancing discretion with transparency
Enuresis monitors may be a source of shame, particularly if they are visible to others or known about. However, they may also promote dignity by preventing accidents from happening in the long run due to careful analysis of the times that accidents tend to occur. Such monitoring may lead to the provision of timely support. Preventing enuresis may reduce embarrassment and the need to depend on others for hygiene needs and changing sheets, thereby also promoting autonomy.
As with most forms of AT, the visibility and invasiveness of the system may be disturbing to some people, especially those who do not need to use it. For example, it may be necessary to install a computer in the living room or monitors around the house or there may be visible wires and buttons. Certain equipment, such as hoisting devices, may be very obvious and cumbersome (check if this is the case). When obtaining consent for the installation of assistive technologies, cohabitants should therefore also be consulted as installation may represent an invasion of their privacy.
Finally, whilst it is important to make AT unobtrusive when fitted in people’s homes, there is an argument in favour of making sure that it can be seen, especially in the case of equipment designed for monitoring purposes. Being able to see the equipment, to see when it is switched on and to control it (to the extent that the user has the necessary capacity) has implications for consent, autonomy and management of privacy issues.
Privacy and autonomy
AT for the monitoring of falls (or to signal distress) can be active or passive. Some systems require the person to press a button (e.g. on a pendant or phone), whereas others react to the detection of sudden impact or prolonged immobility. Those which do not require purposive action may involve some degree of invasion of privacy in that they may record and transmit information to other people about the user’s activity. Some may even involve video monitoring. Systems which are more intrusive may nevertheless be most appropriate for certain individuals and permit greater autonomy.
Whilst various forms of AT may promote autonomy and provide safety, concerns are often expressed that AT should not be used to replace human contact. Indeed, one study found that the use of AT was in some cases dependent on a carer being present to remind the person to use it (Cahill et al., 2007). On the other hand, people with dementia have also expressed satisfaction about not having to rely on other people so in some cases, an advantage to AT could be that it enables people to express their independence. Talking about a night and day calendar, one person commented:
“It’s the best thing I’ve ever got, I don’t have to ask Deirdre (caregiver) what day it is. It gives me a sense of…. independence. I don’t have to be running to Deirdre.” (quoted in Cahill et al., 2007, p.137)
Autonomy and safety
The use of televideo monitoring for the self-administration of medication by people in the early stages of dementia helps promote autonomy but also has implications for safety. People using the technology may fail to respond to it or simply be out of the house when it is activated. This is not unusual as people in the mild stages of dementia, for whom the technology is mainly intended, may be leading fairly active lives and be less bound to the home than those in the later stages (Smith et al., 2007). They may also inadvertently switch off the monitor or camera. Such technology therefore has the advantage of promoting autonomy but may result in a false sense of security, which must be borne in mind when trying to balance the two principles. In a small-scale qualitative study in which 8 people using such a system were interviewed, it was found that some people appreciated the personal contact with the caller/operator which shows that technology can sometimes be combined with additional human contact rather than merely replacing it (Smith et al., 2007).
Determining who is granted access to the control of the AT is an important factor in the ethical use of AT. Provided that it would be safe to do so and that the person understands the consequences of doing so, the person using the AT should be able to switch it on and off, if and when required, as otherwise his/her continued consent to its use cannot be guaranteed.
AT can be used as a memory aid to enable people to carry out tasks which would otherwise be difficult or impossible to accomplish on their own due to difficulties remembering what to do, which items are needed for the task or which order to carry out each stage of the task. For example, a video prompt for every step needed to prepare a cup of tea or coffee can be used, based on a recording made in the person’s own kitchen (Davies et al., 2010). This may enhance self-esteem and promote autonomy and wellbeing. However, the various capacities of people with dementia deteriorate over time. Consequently, there may come a time when the device no longer promotes autonomy but rather represents a risk for the person’s safety (e.g. through scalding or electrocution).
Similarly, with a computer-based device which gives a reminder consisting of a symbol and text that a door has been left open (e.g. a door of the house or the fridge), it will only work if the person with dementia understands the symbol or text message and goes to close the door when the message is shown. If others with an interest in the safety of the person with dementia presume that the device is working, they may have a false sense of security and an alternative, perhaps more effective, approach would not be tried. Awareness of dementia and regular assessment of the person with dementia and the appropriateness of various AT solutions are therefore essential.
Proportionality, dependency and isolation
It is important to respect the principle of proportionality which means that the level of intervention should be restricted to what is really needed for a particular person in a particular situation. Providing more assistance than is actually needed may result in the premature loss of remaining capacities which Kubitschke et al. (2009) argue may foster a new form of dependency (namely on AT rather than on other people) and that this may be experienced by some people as dehumanising and reducing dignity. Furthermore, if the AT is introduced as a replacement for human assistance, the transferral of dependency may result in a loss of human contact, and hence in increased isolation.
Sensors/detectors can be useful devices enabling carers to rest, sleep or attend to other matters in the safe knowledge that they will be alerted by a signal should the person with dementia get out of bed in the middle of the night or out of a chair perhaps during the day and possibly need assistance. In a residential care setting, such devices could make it easier to ensure the safety and the provision of assistance to a larger number of people at the precise moment that it is needed. A night-time monitoring was recently tested which allows zones of varying degrees of perceived danger to be identified and linked to varying tones of urgency (Spring et al., 2009). This device also permits the control box (where the signal is heard) to be placed in a different room to that where the person with dementia sleeps which was found to enhance privacy for both carers and people with dementia.
Safety and restriction of liberty of movement
Although there is considerable evidence that restraint increases the likelihood of falling and also some evidence that it can lead to serious accidents and even death, people who have dementia or are confused are more likely to be restrained (Burton et al., 1992; Capezuti et al., 2002 and 2007; Gallinagh et al., 2001; Gastmans and Milisen, 2006; Sullivan-Marx et al., 1999). Kwok et al. (2005) investigated, by means of a randomized controlled trial, the use of pressure detectors to alert staff that elderly people in a convalescent hospital at risk of falling had moved from their bed or chair (i.e. so that they could be assisted by staff if necessary which would be preferable to using restraint). For one group of residents trunk restraint, bedrails and chair boards were used and for another group bed-chair pressure sensors were in addition made available to staff. No significant differences were detected in the number of falls, mobility, transferability or the amount of time that residents had to endure physical restraint. The researchers conclude that staff had only used the pressure sensors selectively as an additional means of safety. This suggests that AT may have the potential to serve as an alternative to the use of physical restraint (which can rarely if ever be justified on ethical or safety grounds) but that adequate training and explanation must be provided.
Movement sensors/detectors can also provide information at a distance that the person has not moved (i.e. that s/he has not remained immobile for a lengthy period of time) which could in some cases be an indication of a fall or problem. However, rather than providing a sense of security, such devices may in certain cases serve as a means of control or of imposing a daily rhythm on a person that is not his/her own. For example, a person may want to sleep or lie down for several hours during the day but fear triggering the alarm and so refrain from doing so.
Movement sensors/detectors may be perceived as an invasion of a person’s privacy. A senior citizen who had been trying out movement detector surveillance equipment complained about this and about the way she felt controlled:
“I don’t want people to know when I take a nap… when Toy[her dog] and I are lazy… that’s only between him and I … they know enough about me. I want to spare them my strange habits…
“…at times when I can’t sleep and get up in the middle of the night I sometimes think that this might be seen … which makes me reluctant to do so!” (Essén, 2008, p.133)
While (2006, p. 362) sums up the issue of privacy and control as follows:
“Older people, like everyone else, are entitled to vary their daily routine without consultation and it should not result in the arrival of a rapid response care team to whom they have to justify their lie-in.””
Some devices can be used to monitor the behaviour of the user via their use of equipment (e.g. recording how many times he or she opens the fridge door or measuring the weight of the fridge), which might help determine eating habits and whether food is being eaten, hoarded or thrown away (Van Hoof and Kort, 2009). Whilst the person with dementia may be aware of the use of such devices and have agreed to their use, they may nevertheless feel embarrassed or humiliated if they perceive this as infantilisation or unwelcome surveillance. It is therefore necessary to ensure that these devices are as discreet as possible and that their use is kept confidential (particularly in nursing homes where people live in community with other people whom they do not necessarily know very well).
The intrusion of people’s privacy can be limited by the type of equipment used. Movement detectors, such as the “just checking” devices described by Price (2007) can be used on a temporary basis in order to find out how a person behaves in his/her home in order to devise an appropriate care package. The devices are small, wireless and do not record any visual image. Access to the resulting chart can be controlled by a password protected website.
Privacy, dignity and personhood
Electronic surveillance, which could include closed circuit television (CCTV) and video surveillance, takes monitoring a step further in that it adds the visual image of the person being monitored. CCTV is used extensively in the UK in the public domain but in some countries much less or hardly at all. In the private sphere of a person’s home or living space, video surveillance could be considered an invasion of a person’s privacy, involve a lack of respect, and constitute a threat to their dignity and personhood (in treating them like objects). There could also be a risk of voyeurism and using video recordings for criminal purposes. The Royal College of Nursing (2004) and the Mental Welfare Commission for Scotland (2005) have suggested that electronic surveillance should be considered as a form of restraint. On the other hand, Essén (2008), who interviewed 17 seniors found that some perceived electronic surveillance as protecting their privacy as it enabled them to carry on living in their own homes instead of having to move into residential care. Säventedt et al. (2006) distinguish between the use of technology for plain surveillance or support, quoting one of their interviewees who stated:
“It is very important that the person who controls the older person via the electronic device has some kind of connection with them and understands their problems. It cannot be just anybody because then it changes from support of older people to surveillance.” (p.20)
It is therefore necessary to consider who should have access to video recordings, but also how and for how long recordings should be stored and the justification for using such devices. Should, for example, male carers have access to video recordings of female residents in nursing homes or residential care (or female carers of male residents)? This may be particularly relevant for people from certain cultural or religious backgrounds. In cases where special attire is required in public places (e.g. the burkha or the Sikh turban), the boundaries between the private and the public sphere may need to be clarified, especially in residential care settings (bearing in mind the way that each person interprets religious or cultural obligations). For some people with dementia, concerns over the use of surveillance equipment may be dependent to some extent on who is observing them (Robinson et al., 2007).
Also, there should be limits as to where electronic surveillance can be used (e.g. not in the WC or the bathroom). However, the use of AT must be considered on an individual basis as taking the example of the bathroom, the use of video surveillance might give the person more freedom, direct privacy and autonomy whilst they take a bath or shower than they would have if someone needed to be physically present. On the other hand,
perhaps an alternative, less intrusive form of AT could be used which would provide a sufficient level of protection (e.g. from falls, scalding or overflows), enhance self-esteem and promote autonomy.
The home or a person’s own room, in the case of communal living, is a very personal and private domain and people can usually decide whom they want to invite in. As with home care in general, but especially in the case of surveillance technology or tracking devices involving the intervention of other people, the same degree of privacy cannot be ensured. People may feel uneasy or even threatened by this invasion of their personal space and in the case of same-sex relationships, this may result in an undesired “outing”. Heterosexual couples might also prefer to keep their relationship private (e.g. due to ageist attitudes towards sexuality or tensions within the family).
Beneficence/maleficence and justification
Surveillance equipment may be considered as contributing towards beneficence and maleficence. Electronic video equipment, for example, can be used by people with dementia to identify visitors, protect against intruders and perhaps even reduce the likelihood of abuse or substandard care. Some relatives (or even people with dementia) arrange for video cameras (also known as “granny cams”) to be installed in the rooms of people with dementia living in residential care as a means to protect them against abuse (Bharucha et al., 2006). Provided that the person with dementia has consented to this and is currently aware of and in agreement with the use of the equipment, the resulting loss of privacy should not be problematic. However, it should be possible for the person to switch off the camera (or ask for it to be switched off if s/he cannot manage this alone) should s/he want a moment’s privacy (e.g. if s/he has an intimate relationship). The issue of privacy is also relevant to visitors who may feel uneasy about being observed. On the other hand, it has been suggested that the use of such equipment could make it even more difficult to attract and retain good staff due to the invasion of their privacy and fears about wrongful allegations (Bharucha et al., 2006).
Another argument is that constant monitoring might damage the personal bonds between people with dementia and professional carers (NewsMax.com, 2001). Nevertheless, with regard to the principle of justice, if some residents are able to have such surveillance and others not, and if such surveillance is effective, this could increase the likelihood of the abuse or inferior care of those residents who do not have it.
Tracking and tagging devices
The main types of tracking and tagging devices are as follows:
- the direct tracking of a person by means of global positioning systems (known as GPS) which locates a person by satellite (due to an ankle or wrist device, a pendent or a mobile phone) and then transmits details of his/her location via a mobile phone network to a mobile phone, computer or call centre.
- tagging which involves the person with dementia wearing a special device (e.g. on the ankle or wrist) which emits a signal if the person leaves a designated area such as his/her home or garden. This can be combined with a numeric paging device which alerts the carer.
- access control systems (equipment which recognises a chip card and acts on the environment accordingly by locking or unlocking doors, blocking elevators and recording access to certain areas).
- the identification of a trail of locations which indicates where a person has been (known as breadcrumbing)
- the use of infrared technology to detect immobility within the home or that a person has not returned home by a certain time or has left the house at an unusual time such as in the middle of the night.
Uses, benefits and practical problems
Tracking and tagging devices may contribute towards privacy, freedom and autonomy as they may enable people to go somewhere on their own (e.g. for a walk, to the shops or to visit someone) in the secure knowledge that if they get lost, it will be easier for others to find them. This also means that they are not dependent on someone else being available to accompany them and can choose when and where they would like to go. In some cases, a “geofence” may be erected (a virtual perimeter) which limits the freedom of people wearing a tag by emitting a signal if a person goes beyond a certain preset limit. However, this may still be a better alternative to a locked door policy (Bail, 2003).
Studies have shown that people with dementia who get lost are more likely to be permanently admitted to a care home than those who do not, so tracking devices may partly contribute towards the ability to lead an autonomous life (Balestreri et al., 2000; McShane and Skelt, 2009; Phillips and Diwan, 2003).
As the devices can also provide protection by ensuring that a person can be quickly found if they get lost, this can provide reassurance for carers (even if it is never actually necessary to track a particular person).
The above-mentioned benefits may be jeopardized by a number of factors. Such devices need batteries. Carers therefore need to remember to charge the batteries as if they run out, the person with dementia may be at greater risk. The devices should be fairly small and unobtrusive but this means that they can be easily misplaced. With regard to the actual technology used, there are sometimes problems with the accuracy of GPS readings as well as of those of the “geofence” (an additional function which sets a virtual perimeter). These problems can result in a false sense of security for both carers and people with dementia. In the context of residential care, this false sense of security may lead to reduced staffing levels (Welsh et al., 2003). Also, the setting of boundaries reflects the unequal power relationship between staff and residents and in the home setting may lead to a change in power relations between couples and between other members of the family and the person with dementia.
Finally, if tracking and tagging devices are used in settings where there is a shortage of staff or where available staff have a tendency to remain separated from residents and simply watch the recordings or wait for a signal that someone has crossed a barrier in order to react, the people with dementia using this type of AT may come to associate breaching the boundaries available to them with obtaining some kind of human contact (Mental Welfare Commission for Scotland, 2006). This would clearly be counter-productive as it could encourage “wandering” and create tension between residents and staff.
Conflict between autonomy and liberty, and safety/security
As part of his theory of human motivation, Maslow (1943) formulated a hierarchy of needs in which each set of needs must be met before attending to the next set of needs. He claimed that people are preoccupied with ensuring that their basic physiological needs are met before turning their attention to their safety needs and only after that to higher order needs such as love and affection, and self-esteem. Under self-esteem, Maslow included, amongst other things, the need for confidence in the face of the world, independence and freedom.
The use of tracking and tagging involves a conflict between safety/security and autonomy and liberty. Whilst most people are probably in favour of balancing respect for a person’s rights with the perceived need to protect him/her, different groups of people (e.g. relatives and professional carers) may have different opinions on this issue. Opinions may also differ between people from different cultures (Landau et al., 2009).
In a few studies, carers have been reported to have a positive view of tracking and tagging devices but at the same time to be in favour of a greater degree of freedom and respect for the autonomy of the person with dementia (Melillo and Futrell, 1998; Nicolle, 1998; Robinson et al., 2007), although a French study found that 50% of carers were in favour of a substantial amount of surveillance of the person with dementia and 50% against (Rialle et al., 2008).
Health and social care professionals tend to be very much concerned about protecting all their patients and residents from harm and may be influenced by concerns about litigation (Robinson et al., 2007). These concerns may lead to dilemmas for nurses and day centre staff dealing with people with dementia whose freedom of movement cannot legally be restricted (i.e. they are voluntary patients or attend a day care centre on a voluntary basis).
A recent study comparing the attitudes of informal carers and professional carers towards the use of GPS and radio frequency identification (RFID) to track people with dementia highlighted the different attitudes of various groups of people (Landau et al., 2009). Through a statistical analysis procedure known as factor analysis, five factors reflecting types of attitude were identified, namely use for the sake of the patients’ safety, use for caregivers’ peace of mind, respect elders’ autonomy, support restricted use and oppose use. The highest scores were obtained for the factor “use for the sake of the caregivers’ peace of mind” and the lowest score for the factor reflecting objection to the use of the device. Respondents who were older had significantly higher scores for concerns about the caregivers’ peace of mind and the patients’ safety but lower scores for respect for the person’s autonomy. No gender differences were found. When the scores of the two groups were compared it was found that informal carers of community dwelling people with dementia were significantly more in favour of the use of tracking for their own peace of mind and for the safety of the person. Professional carers obtained significantly higher scores for the restricted use of tracking (e.g. in severe cases when there was no suitable alternative) but informal carers were significantly more opposed to its use in general. This last finding contradicts the finding of some of the previously mentioned studies. Based on the scores of the informal carers, Landau et al. (2009) conclude that support for the use of tracking is mainly based on a desire for their own peace of mind (which is similar to the findings of Robinson et al., 2009 and Landau et al., 2010).
On the basis of a literature review, Robinson et al. (2007) concluded that it was not possible to draw conclusions about the perspectives of people with dementia on the use of AT to manage “wandering” as studies focused on carers’ views. In their qualitative study, carried out in 2006, which involved a focus group discussion with 6 people with dementia, the participants spoke about the benefits of walking and getting out which included getting some fresh air, independence, relieving tension, keeping fit and enjoyment. None of them described this as wandering.
Risk can be considered in relation to oneself, to another person or to a larger group of people. For example, if a person leaves a ring on the cooker switched on, he/she may later burn him/herself, someone else might burn themselves or if something inflammable is put on the ring, the whole kitchen might burn down, thereby endangering the lives of other people.
There may be differences in the perceptions of risk of people with dementia, carers and professionals, although most probably consider safety an important issue for people with dementia and some may believe in the necessity to aim for total safety. However, it could be argued that a total absence of risk is impossible and not even desirable. The Mental Welfare Commission for Scotland (2006) suggests that life is never risk-free and that some degree of risk taking is an essential part of good care. People may be more protective of others, than they would be of themselves (Nuffield Council on Bioethics, 2009), particularly in cases where the person being “protected” is considered in some way vulnerable.
Historically, risk was considered as something that could be either good or bad, resulting in loss or gain, but Lupton (1999) claims that it has been transformed into something that is entirely negative. Kemshall (2000) claims that in the context of social and healthcare, which is guided by a managerial discourse, risk is viewed as something that is objective and measurable, and hence can be acted upon although frontline staff might sometimes find the official policy of an organisation inappropriate or unhelpful for specific cases. Others argue that it is socially constructed and value-laden (Lupton, 2005). It must be borne in mind that everyone is different and that people have different perceptions of danger and different assessments of the level of risk they are willing to take. An example of this, not linked to dementia, is smoking which has been proven to be damaging to health but many people with full mental capacity consciously continue smoking and believe it is their right to do so. Imposing one’s perception of risk onto someone else deprives them of their autonomy and freedom, and in some cases may affect their wellbeing.
A person’s position regarding the relative importance of safety and autonomy may depend on whether they are personally responsible for the safety and wellbeing of the person with dementia (Landau et al., 2010):
“When the patients are in the community and the family caregivers feel they have the ultimate responsibility for the patients’ wellbeing, the family caregivers favor the need for safety more than the right to autonomy and privacy. In the study by Robinson et al. (2007), family caregivers claimed that dementia patients in nursing homes were overprotected. Thus, professionals prefer autonomy more than safety when patients are in the community, but safety more than autonomy when under their care in nursing homes.”(Landau et al., 2010, p.415)
However, Landau et al. (2007) also point out that many people with dementia in nursing homes are there because their relatives feel that they are no longer able to assure their safety within the community so the characteristics of the two groups may in some cases be different.
It is also important to consider the definition of “lost”. What constitutes lost might not be the same thing for the person with dementia and his/her carer and this may lead to conflict or to a breach of the person with dementia’s privacy and right to freedom (Hughes, 2008). However, there is a risk of erring on the side of safety and of the automatic presumption that the carer knows best which in some cases would be paternalistic and based on stereotypes of people with dementia lacking capacity and awareness. According to Martin et al. (2010), paternalism aims to protect people from themselves and involves an assumption that their safety is more important than their liberty.
Any potential dangers linked to the use of the device itself must also be considered and communicated to the person or people responsible for consenting to its use. Undesired reactions to the use of implanted RFID tags in animals have been reported such as adverse tissue reaction, migration of the device, electromagnetic interference and even tumours, and as Foster and Jaeger (2008) point out, few humans have been implanted with such devices so data on possible risks are not yet available.
Allocation of responsibilities
Systems designed to monitor or track people and their movements generally involve more than just technological devices as their use is dependent on people who are responsible for the information they provide and aware of the necessity to respect confidentiality. This raises various questions such as who is and should be responsible, how should their behaviour be monitored and controlled and what is the hierarchy of responsibilities? This is not usually inherent in the design as it could be organised in a number of different ways. It also raises the issue of justice mentioned earlier in that it may be presumed that some members of society, such as women, are more available than others. Moreover, informal carers are not always able or willing to take on the responsibility of looking for the person if and when s/he gets lost (McShane et al., 1998). Their consent to becoming involved in the functioning of the system cannot be presumed.
An interesting argument reported by Heeg et al. (2005) against informing people with dementia that a tagging device had been implanted in their shoes was to avoid triggering memories of psychiatry in the third Reich. In the reported case, carers were informed and their consent obtained. This raises the issue of the use of devices which might be perceived as restricting liberty of movement with people with prior experience of deprivation of liberty, humiliation and stigmatization (e.g. through war, incarceration, serious bullying or membership of certain groups). There may also be a perceived injustice of being deprived of liberty as expressed by an elderly veteran (in connection with physical restraint) who stated, “I have done nothing to deserve this. To think you fought a war – now I am a POW” (Sullivan-Marx, 1995, reproduced in Dawkins, 1998, p. 25). These examples also emphasise the importance of bearing in mind the personal history and cultural issues associated with each person.
Concern has been expressed about tagging and tracking devices failing to respect a person’s privacy (Dawkins, 1998; Department of Health, 2001). Two aspects of privacy have been identified: 1. the freedom to escape being observed or accessed when desired, 2. the freedom to escape observing and reacting to others (Essén, 2008; Sidenvall, Fjellstrom and Ek, 1994). This could include avoiding the undesired access by other people to one’s own personal space (Rössler, 2005).
Clearly, tracking devices may prevent people from getting away from others and from having a moment’s privacy, but at the same time may prevent others from encroaching on one’s personal space.
However, in communal living situations, this possible advantage would only occur if there were some prior agreement as to what constitutes one’s personal space and would have to be balanced against other people’s right to freedom of movement.
Dignity and personhood
The use of tagging has been likened to assault, an attack on civil liberties and a form of restraint (Cassidy, 1994; Hughes and Campbell, 2003), particularly when used on a person who is incapable of consent, but some argue that it is nevertheless preferable to physical or chemical restraint which is dehumanising and risky (Bail, 2003; Wrigglesworth, 1996). However, as physical or chemical restraint is rarely justifiable, this is not a convincing argument to override ethical concerns about the use of tagging. Moreover, as pointed out by Hughes (2003), straitjackets were initially considered more humane than shackles but this doesn’t make either acceptable. Even when walking about is considered by others as problematic, there are perhaps other solutions such as modifying the environment or looking for reasons why the person is walking about (Stokes, 2002). Arguing against the use of restraint for people with mental illness, Dawkins states his opinion that “people have unconditional worth and dignity that supports a strong argument for the maintenance of autonomy, even in the event of possible harm from an injury” (Dawkins, 1998, p.26). Such an argument could be applied to the use of AT which may involve a restriction of liberty (in order to protect) or alternatively increased liberty and autonomy (perhaps also involving a slight risk), but each situation could be seen from different perspectives depending on the actors involved.
According to Cahill (2003), tagging should have no place in dementia care as it removes personhood. O’Neill (2003) states, “tagging should be reserved for babies, convicted criminals and animals.” Others would argue that tagging and tracking technology is suitable for use in dementia care provided that it is applied in a way that respects personhood and maintains functional capacity (College of Occupational Therapists, 2005 – in Plastow, 2006; McShane et al., 1994). However, people with dementia may still feel that the use of such devices implies that they are irresponsible and in need of constant surveillance (Landau et al., 2009).
In an earlier study which involved a survey of family and professional carers, only 18% reported concern that the use of tracking or tagging devices would result in a loss of dignity (Nicolle, 1998 in Robinson et al. 2007). However, this is a fairly old study and perceptions may have changed [also need to obtain details of the study to see how representative it was]. According to interpersonal theories of personhood, personhood is maintained through genuine contact, and lack of human contact may lead to social withdrawal, the objectification of the person with dementia and non-respect of the person’s dignity. Consequently, if AT devices led to reductions in staff or reduced levels of interaction with residents in nursing homes, this could adversely affect dignity and personhood (although clearly it is the quality of the contact rather than its quantity that is important).
People who acquire disabilities later life may find the use of AT shameful and stigmatizing (Bjørneby et al., 1999; Brickfield, 1984; Häggblom Kronlöfand Sonn, 1999; Luborsky, 1993 and Zimmer and Chappell, 1999). Particular concerns have been expressed about the possible stigmatizing impact of tagging on people with dementia. Dementia, like a number of other health conditions, is already unfortunately considered a stigma by many people and experienced as such. The use of AT may, in some cases, draw attention to the fact that a person has dementia. In the context of health-related conditions, stigma has been described as follows:
“Stigma is typically a social process, experienced or anticipated, characterized by exclusion, rejection, blame, or devaluation that results from experience or reasonable anticipation of an adverse social judgment about a person or group. The judgment is based on an enduring feature of identity conferred by a health problem or health-related condition, and the judgment is in some essential way medically unwarranted. In addition to its application to the persons or group, the discriminatory social judgment may also be applied to the disease or designated health problem itself with repercussions in social and health policy. Other forms of stigma which results from adverse social judgments about enduring features of identity apart from health-related conditions (e.g. race, ethnicity, sexual preferences) may also affect health; these are also matters of interest that concern questions of health-related stigma.” (Weiss and Ramakrishna, 2004, p. 13)
However, the term stigma does not only refer to the complex social phenomenon described above but also to specific attributes which, due to the meanings attached to them, are considered discrediting and lead to stigmatization (Goffman, 1963; Jones et al., 1984). The attribute (an enduring feature of identity; sometimes but not necessarily a physical or visible mark) serves to identify those people who belong to the out-group (i.e. “them” not “us”). In the case of electronic tagging or even tracking, having the electronic device on one’s person can serve as a stigma. Tagging has been used for newborn infants, criminals, failed asylum seekers and animals (O’Neill, 2003; Carvel, 2005; Corsi, 2008), as well as to prevent the theft of clothes in stores (Counsel and Care, 1993). Marr (1989) and Welsh et al. (2003) suggest that the same stigma linked to the tagging of people within the penal system could be extended to people with dementia.
An additional link to criminality can be found in the origins of the term “stigma” which date back to ancient Greece where people were physically marked by burning or cutting as a visible sign to others that there was something bad or unusual about their moral status (Goffman, 1963). It was a sign of disgrace and/or a signal to other members of society that the bearer was in some way flawed or deviant, a kind of lesser person. In most cases, this kind of treatment was reserved for slaves, criminals or traitors. The marking of human beings in this way involves an element of dehumanisation and objectification.
Consequently, the electronic tagging of people with dementia can be stigmatizing as the devices serve as a sign to other people of a potentially discrediting difference and also due to the association with criminality. If the device is obtrusive, the person wearing or carrying it may feel infantilised or incompetent, or it may draw attention to their medical condition. Even if the tagging device cannot be seen, the consequences of wearing it may become apparent if ever the alarm is activated as a result of crossing a virtual geographical barrier. This is similar to the use of chair and sensor pads in communal settings where the signal may result in a person being regarded with shock or disapproval and being labelled as “the one making all the noise” (Morgan, 2003).
The issue of visibility/concealability fits in with Goffman’s distinction between being discredited on the basis of a stigma and being discreditable. The former describes the situation whereby the stigma is known about (e.g. everyone can see the device and knows what it is) whereas with the latter, the stigma is not immediately apparent (or at least the person does not think that it is) but risks becoming apparent (e.g. by crossing a boundary and hearing an alarm or being brought back). According to Corsi (2008), an implantable chip is marketed in the United States for use with people with chronic diseases including Alzheimer’s disease. Niemeijer and Hertogh (2008) suggest that the use of implantable radio frequency identification technology (RFID) may actually be less stigmatizing to the wearer than a bracelet as it is not visible. However, the person with the implanted chip is likely to eventually forget that he/she has it and from that point on would not be aware that he/she was being tracked (). In Germany, 23% of about 1000 respondents taking part in a survey organised by a lobby group BIKOM stated that they would be willing to have a chip inserted under their skin “for certain benefits” but 72% were completely opposed to having any electronics in their body (The Local, 2010).
However, the actual stigma (in the sense of the identifying mark) is rarely the real root of the problem as it depends on the meanings attributed to it. Not everyone interprets tagging and tracking in the same way and some people may be in favour of using such devices for themselves for various reasons and even express this in advance directives. Moreover, meanings are culturally constructed and can therefore change.
The meanings that people attribute to electronic tagging have not been systematically evaluated but there have been a couple of small-scale qualitative studies which involved asking people about their perceptions of tagging. In a small-scale telephone survey of carers and a feasibility study involving 24 people with dementia, when asked what tagging reminded them of, several said the tagging of criminals (Hughes and Campbell, 2003). A couple of other people made references to being on a lead and wearing a cow-bell. Further information is needed to determine how people with dementia feel about electronic surveillance, tracking and tagging, and also to see how this relates to the views of carers and healthcare professionals.
If electronic tagging becomes more common for different groups of people (e.g. people with dementia and infants), if its use and design is discussed with all actors concerned and if it is presented in a positive light by the media, negative associations with criminality might gradually be reduced. “Universal design” (Mace, 1985), sometimes referred to as “inclusive design”, involves trying to design products and environments which can be used by “all people, to the greatest extent possible, without the need for adaptation or specialised design” (Connell et al., 1997). Perry, Beyer and Holm (2009) suggest that designing AT according to the principle of universal design and paying attention to the way things look will reduce the likelihood of the item or system being stigmatizing. This might be possible in some cases but it may prove difficult to design certain devices which could be used by older users whilst remaining attractive to younger or more experienced users (Hawthorn, 2003). Wallace et al. (2010) question whether universal design is always appropriate and even desirable.
Mace (1998) criticized the lack of attention paid to aesthetics in the design of AT but this is perhaps gradually changing. With regard to disability, this might include ramp access to buildings (not as an alternative but as the only access) or large, easy to grip utensils with attractive handles which could be mass produced and not marketed as utensils for disabled people. The choice of AT could still be tailored to the individual needs of anyone using them.
Access control systems and breadcrumbing
With access control systems, access to designated areas is controlled automatically. If a person has a chip card which grants access to a particular area, it will be detected and the door unlocked or the lift activated. The equipment can also be used to record the access of each person carrying the chip card. Margo-Cattin and Nygård (2006) suggest that such technology promotes privacy, protection of property and a sense of security in that residents realize that access to their private living space is strictly controlled. They also point out that the automatic locking and unlocking mechanisms of doors may help individual residents find their way to their own rooms by limiting the number of wrong options, thereby promoting autonomy and leading to a sense of accomplishment.
One possible drawback to the access control systems is that it would become clear that different residents had different levels of access to specific areas other than their living space, such as balconies, gardens and kitchens. This could be used as a form of social control or punishment. Even if used fairly and with respect, some residents could feel awkward about being publicly denied access to certain areas, especially if they do not understand the reasons for the restriction, and this would not promote their wellbeing. This requires sensitive management of this type of AT so as to minimize the possibility of upsetting residents and maximise potential benefits to residents of such technology linked to freedom of movement, autonomy and wellbeing.
Finally, “breadcrumbing” and the use of infrared technology could be interpreted as an invasion of personal privacy if the person is not aware of its use. Non-authorized use of such equipment would amount to spying on someone. Care must also be taken to ensure that the person fully understands what they are agreeing to. The devices should be explained in terms that are easy to understand bearing in mind that potential users might not have a particularly good understanding of technical matters but not over-simplified so as to hide the full extent of the possible functions and the implications of using the device. Also, it should be possible for the person with dementia to know in advance whom to ask for the device to be removed and how much this would cost.
- In Chapter 3 we have examined the ethical issues linked to the use of assistive technology for and by people with dementia. We have drawn attention to the positive impact that AT can have on people’s lives as well as some potential dangers or drawbacks which can hopefully be avoided or minimised through increased awareness and communication as well as through careful planning and monitoring. In the next section, we will provide practical guidelines on the ethical use of AT by and for people with dementia.
The German State from 1933 to 1945
Prisoner of war
Last Updated: Monday 23 April 2012
|
<urn:uuid:ce0cf663-a44d-4f8f-b349-8c39e879d23e>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.alzheimer-europe.org/EN/Ethics/Ethical-issues-in-practice/The-ethical-issues-linked-to-the-use-of-assistive-technology-in-dementia-care/Ethical-issues-linked-to-the-use-of-specific-forms-of-AT
|
2013-05-18T06:43:25Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00001-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.963714
| 15,298
|
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.