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Los Angeles Times: Launched in 2007, the Dawn spacecraft has spent the past 13 months in orbit around Vesta, the second biggest asteroid in the solar system. Now the probe is heading toward a new and bigger asteroid, Ceres, which is officially designated a dwarf planet, the only one inside Jupiter’s orbit. While in orbit around Vesta, Dawn discovered a history of large-scale melting and hardening and significant collisions. Dawn is propelled by an ion thrust engine, which uses electricity to ionize xenon gas, and magnetics to expel the ions. Though much less powerful than conventional fuel rockets, its propulsion system is highly efficient. Dawn is scheduled to reach Ceres in 2015.	<urn:uuid:c27ea789-7419-417b-8954-47b6431fd414>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://blogs.physicstoday.org/newspicks/2012/09/nasas-dawn-leaving-vesta-heading-to-ceres/	2013-05-25T20:16:06Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706298270/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121138-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.935528	140
Wild Costa Rica The small Central American country of Costa Rica—less than one-eighth the size of California—boasts the highest density of plant and animal species in the world. Its wild and rugged landscapes include dense rainforests where jaguars roam, a volcano that spews rivers of molten lava, and beaches as unspoiled as they were when Christopher Columbus first anchored his ships off the Caribbean coast in 1502. Costa Rica's rich biodiversity is the result of a hugely varied topography that creates a wide range of natural habitats, and of the presence of animals and plants native to both North and South America. In Wild Costa Rica, photographer Adrian Hepworth explores the natural riches of Costa Rica, providing engaging reports from the field and more than 200 stunning color photographs. We learn about Costa Rica's rainforest, cloudforest, and paramo (high, treeless plain); the abundance of plants, mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and insects these habitats support; and the country's network of protected areas—a system of parks, reserves, and refuges that makes up over twenty percent of Costa Rica's land. These areas—including such flagship wildlife-watching locations as Tortuguero and Corcovado—attract more than a million visitors every year. The money generated by responsible eco-tourism is central to the survival of Costa Rica's wild places. Hepworth's photographs show us breathtaking vistas introduce us to distinctive native wildlife, including the scarlet macaw, the resplendent quetzal, the three-toed sloth, and spider and howler monkeys. Wild Costa Rica gives us a fascinating picture of the most biologically diverse country in the world. About the Author Adrian Hepworth is a wildlife photographer based in San José, Costa Rica. In 2002, he was a winner in the prestigious BBC Wildlife Photographer of the Year Competition.	<urn:uuid:7096044a-3272-4181-8de0-41303ef6b481>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.mitpress.mit.edu/books/wild-costa-rica	2013-05-19T02:30:58Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00050-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.922089	392
\|Texture of landing sites. Upper left, the moon; upper right, Venus; middle left, Pathfinder 1997 Mars; middle right, Viking 1977 Mars; lower left, airbag imprint in Eagle Crater, Meridiani Planum 2004; lower right, airbag drag mark, Meridiani Planum, 2004 Opportunity site. Image Credit:NASA/ JPL The year in space exploration has offered a range of topics for astronomy and astrobiology. Astrobiology Magazine compiled its own list of top ten stories for 2004, and compares those choices to the broader agency list below. Exploration of Mars and Saturn was among the highlights mentioned in a review of NASA's accomplishments over the last twelve months. NASA'S ROVERS A BIG HIT ON MARS AND EARTH NASA successfully landed the mobile geology labs Spirit and Opportunity on Mars on January 3 and January 24, respectively. Opportunity discovered evidence its landing site was a standing body of water in the distant past, raising the possibility key ingredients for life might have existed on Mars. In April, both rovers successfully completed their primary three-month missions and went into bonus overtime work. Spirit completed a two-mile trek to the Columbia hills. Opportunity descended into Endurance Crater and found layers of rocks bearing evidence of having once been drenched in water. CASSINI-HUYGENS FIRST MISSION TO ORBIT SATURN After a seven-year, two billion mile journey, Cassini-Huygens became the first spacecraft to go into orbit around Saturn. The NASA, European and Italian Space Agencies' mission found the planet roiled by storms, detected lighting, discovered a new radiation belt, found four new moons, a new ring around Saturn, and mapped the composition of the planet's rings. Cassini flew within 745 miles of Titan, the closest any spacecraft has come to Saturn's largest moon. GENESIS CRASH-LANDS BUT BRINGS HOME PRECIOUS SAMPLES The Genesis solar-sample return mission made a hard landing in the Utah desert, but NASA managed to preserve a significant portion of the precious samples of the sun it brought back from space. Genesis scientists believe they will achieve the most important portions of their science objectives, which should tell us about the conditions when the sun and planets were created more than five billion years ago. Genesis was launched in August 2001. STARDUST MAKES HISTORIC COMET FLYBY NASA's Stardust mission flew within 147 miles of the comet Wild 2. Sent to collect samples, images and other data, the flyby yielded the most detailed, high-resolution comet images ever -- revealing a rigid surface dotted with towering pinnacles, plunging craters, steep cliffs, and dozens of jets spewing material into space. Launched in 1999, Stardust is headed back to Earth with its payload of thousands of captured particles. The sample return capsule is scheduled for a soft landing in the Utah desert in January 2006. SPITZER SPACE TELESCOPE UNVEILS STRANGE COSMIC SIGHTS The Spitzer Space Telescope pierced cosmic dust to reveal previously hidden objects. It unmasked a family of newborn stars whose birth was triggered by the death of another star; a dying star surrounded by a mysterious donut-shaped ring; a cannibalistic galaxy and what may be the youngest planet ever detected. Spitzer identified one of the farthest galaxies yet seen, measuring its age and mass for the first time. Spitzer was launched August 24, 2003. SWIFT OFFERS NEW POSSIBILITIES TO SPOT BIRTH OF BLACK HOLES NASA's Swift satellite will pinpoint the location of distant, fleeting explosions that appear to signal the births of black holes. Each gamma-ray burst is a short-lived event, and Swift should detect several weekly. Swift, launched Nov. 20, is a mission with British and Italian participation designed to solve the mystery of the origin of gamma-ray bursts. HUBBLE SEES FARTHER THAN EVER Astronomers used NASA's Hubble Space Telescope to take the deepest portrait ever of the visible universe. The Hubble Ultra Deep Field revealed the first galaxies to emerge from the time shortly after the big bang, when the first stars reheated the cold, dark universe. The image should offer new insights into what types of objects reheated the universe. The image exposed galaxies too faint to be seen by ground-based telescopes. AURA SPACECRAFT WILL HELP US UNDERSTAND THE AIR WE BREATHE NASA's Aura, a next generation Earth-observing satellite launched on July 15, is supplying the best information yet about the health of Earth's atmosphere. Aura will help scientists understand how atmospheric composition affects and responds to Earth's changing climate; help reveal the processes that connect local and global air quality; and track the extent Earth's protective ozone layer is recovering. JUPITER ICY MOONS ORBITER ENTERS DESIGN PHASE NASA selected Northrop Grumman Space Technology, Redondo Beach, Calif., to co-design the Prometheus Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter (JIMO) spacecraft. JIMO will be the first NASA mission using nuclear electric propulsion. The system will enable the craft to orbit Jupiter's three planet-sized moons, Callisto, Ganymede and Europa. JIMO will perform extensive investigations of their composition, history and potential for sustaining life. MOON SHEDS LIGHT ON EARTH'S CLIMATE A NASA-funded study found insights into Earth's climate might come from the moon. During the 1980s and 90s, the Earth bounced less sunlight out to space. The trend reversed during the past three years. The apparent change in the amount of sunlight reaching Earth in the 1980s and 90s is comparable to doubling the effects of greenhouse-gas warming since 1850. Increased reflectance since 2001 suggests change of a similar magnitude in the opposite direction. Related Web Pages 2003: Year in Review Solar System Exploration Survey Mars Opportunity Rover Mars Spirit Rover Planet Ten: Beyond Pluto?	<urn:uuid:923f88aa-da33-42cf-b236-f85d4ec273a5>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.astrobio.net/index.php?option=com_retrospection&task=detail&id=1426&fid=9&pid=	2013-05-24T15:49:43Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00050-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.885862	1,251
Questions and Answers About Smallpox Vaccine What is smallpox vaccine? The smallpox vaccine helps the body develop immunity to smallpox. The vaccine is made from a virus called vaccinia which is a "pox"-type virus related to smallpox. The smallpox vaccine contains the "live" vaccinia virus—other vaccines containing live virus include measles, mumps, and German measles. For that reason, the vaccination site must be cared for carefully to prevent the virus from spreading. Also, the vaccine can have side effects. The vaccine does not contain the smallpox virus and cannot give you smallpox. (Apr 28, 2003) How long is the vaccinia virus viable on clothing, towels, dressing, etc.? There is an experiment that attempts to shed light on this question. It is noted in a 1976 Western J. Med article and referenced in Sepkowicx NEJM study on nosocomial transmission, Johnson et al 1976 Nosocomial Vaccinia Transmission. In this experiment smallpox vaccine was reconstituted, allowed to dry on a slide, then reconstituted after room temp incubation for 0-144 hours. At 78 hours saw drop in viability, at 144 hours, no longer viable. There has been no documented case of fomite transmission. Vaccination and Clinic Operations What is the current thinking on vaccinating the vaccinators? Vaccinators can be vaccinated at the time they begin vaccinating but it may be preferable to vaccinate vaccinators earlier than that to eliminate the possibility that the vaccinators may be experiencing vaccine-related symptoms and not feel well enough to work for a few days (possibly up to 1/3), usually ~7-10 days after begin vaccinated. Each state will determine how they will vaccinate vaccinators. Who specifically among the vaccination clinic staff should be vaccinated? Do we include all clerical staff, as well? To minimize the clinical impact of inadvertent inoculation, should it occur, ACIP recommends that persons who will be handling and administering smallpox vaccine in the proposed pre-event smallpox vaccination program be vaccinated. It is not necessary for anyone not handling the smallpox vaccine to be vaccinated. Are nurses the only ones who can administer smallpox vaccine? The vaccine can be administered by nurses, doctors, or other licensed health care professionals. Whether or not non-clinical personnel can be used in a vaccination clinic is dependent on state laws. Local health agencies should consult with their state health department on what is allowable. The Privacy Act statement says that all of the information on the patient screening form is voluntary. Is it truly voluntary? How does this work legally? The screening worksheet is a voluntary tool for individuals considering vaccination. It is not collected and the information is not elicited. However, the Patient Medical History and Consent Form, does elicit information. Vaccinees are asked to provide demographic information, vaccination and medical history information, and are asked whether they have any of the conditions that would mean they should not be vaccinated. They also are asked to provide a consent signature acknowledging their agreement to proceed with vaccination. Does CDC expect all adverse events will be entered into www.vaers.org? If so, will the current form be modified to have smallpox specific information on it? All adverse event information should be entered in VAERS using the form as it currently stands. The Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) recommendations no longer match the product insert for ACAM2000. Which should I follow? ACIP recommendations are considered by the CDC and, if the CDC chooses to adopt the recommendations as policy, they are published in the CDC’s Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Reports (MMWR). Any ACIP recommendations published in the MMWR are also official HHS/CDC recommendations, including those related to smallpox vaccination. However, since the bulk of the recommendations are still valid, there are no plans to update it, at this time, to accommodate the licensure of ACAM2000®. When it comes to instructions on how to administer the vaccine, providers are encouraged to refer to the package insert: http://www.fda.gov/Cber/label/acam2000LB.pdf Can vaccinators immediately begin inoculating others after they’ve been vaccinated or should they wait a period of time and if so, how much time? They can begin vaccinating others immediately. Should gloves be worn when administering smallpox vaccine? Yes, gloves are recommended whenever there is a possibility of exposure to reconstituted smallpox vaccine. Persons administering the vaccine should wear gloves. After a person is vaccinated and the needle placed in a sharps container, gloves should be removed and discarded, hands should be disinfected with soap and water or a waterless hand product, and a new pair of gloves donned before the next person is vaccinated. How do you document th e dosage and route the administration of smallpox vaccine? Document dosage as a "dose" or 0.0025ml, and route as percutaneous with bifurcated needle. What bifurcated needles can be used with the smallpox vaccine? Is the CDC recommending that only the bifurcated needle accompanying the vaccine vials be used? What brand of needle has been approved for vaccination? Vaccine kits will include 100 individually wrapped needles as part of the kit. Since each vial contains 100 doses of vaccine, this should be an adequate supply of needles. However, if a project area runs into problems, they should have their SNS coordinator contact the Strategic National Stockpile at the number provided in the shipping instructions. Some documents say that no skin prep be done, in others it says use acetone. What can be used? Alcohol, soap and water, or other chemical agents are not needed for preparation of the skin for vaccination unless the area is grossly contaminated. If needed, soap and water are the preferred cleaning agents. If any cleaning agent is used, the skin must be thoroughly dry in order to prevent inactivation of the vaccine. With Dryvax® vaccine, there was discussion about using diluted vaccine (1:5 or 1:10) for mass vaccination. Can we do the same with ACAM2000®? There are currently no protocols for using diluted ACAM2000®. What is the ACIP recommendation for the number of needle sticks? The Supplemental Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) and the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee (HICPAC) were published in the April 4, 2003, Recommendations and Report of the MMWR. "Recommendations for Using Smallpox Vaccine in a Pre-Event Vaccination Program" is posted on the CDC Web site: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/PDF/rr/rr5207.pdf. The DryVax® vaccine discussed in this guidance is no longer available and has been replaced by ACAM2000®. ACAM2000® uses 15 insertions for both primary and revaccination and has no provision for additional insertions if no trace of blood is visible after vaccination. Providers are encouraged to read and follow the directions provided in the packet insert: http://www.fda.gov/Cber/label/acam2000LB.pdf. How do you designate between a "primary" versus "secondary" smallpox vaccinee? With ACAM2000® there is no longer the need to differentiate between “primary” and “secondary” vaccinees. However, it is useful to know should an adverse event occur. A person is determined to be a primary vaccinee based on their medical history. If they don’t know or did not receive the smallpox vaccine previously, then they should be treated as a primary vaccinee. If they were born prior to 1971, they were most likely vaccinated, although this is not guaranteed. If there was no take on their previous smallpox vaccination, they are not considered previously vaccinated and should be treated as a primary vaccinee. If there was a take on the previous vaccination, they are considered a secondary vaccinee. Some individuals are allergic to nickel. What is the composition of the bifurcated needle? The Precision bifurcated vaccinating needle is manufactured of solid stainless steel wire. What does the bifurcated needle look like? The bifurcated needle is approximately 2-1/2 inches long with a very small two-pronged needle at one end. The prongs have a very small opening between them that holds the vaccine to be applied to the arm. The prongs are 1/16 inches long and are used to pierce the outer layer of the skin only. A photograph is available at http://emergency.cdc.gov/agent/smallpox/images/hand_position_for_vaccination.jpg. What should be done if the vaccine is administered too rigorously or deep (if that is possible)? If you feel that you've administered the vaccine too vigorously or deep, wait to see if a take occurred on day 6-8 and revaccinate if no take occurred. If a newly reconstituted vial vaccine hasn't gone into a more or less homogeneous solution/suspension after gently swirling it and letting it sit for 30 to 45 minutes, can it be used or should it be discarded? To break up any clumps and to help facilitate a more uniform suspension, the vaccine product may be gently agitated with a bifurcated needle if the needle is sterile and discarded appropriately after use. Why is the smallpox vaccination site recommended on the deltoid versus other places on the body? Are vaccinees allowed to choose the body site they prefer for vaccination? The skin over the deltoid muscle or the posterior aspect of the arm over the triceps muscle is the preferred site for smallpox vaccination. The deltoid region offers ease of observation, ease of dressing changes, and is easier to keep dry while bathing or showering. Also, the arm is more easily left uncovered or lightly bandaged during the day than the thigh, hip or back. Consequently, a site on the arm may heal more rapidly. Vaccination on the upper arm also will allow for easy visualization of a vaccination scar in emergency situations where vaccination status may need to be quickly assessed. The CDC does not have enough information to determine the safety of administering smallpox vaccinations at sites other than the deltoid, therefore CDC recommends only using this site. What if individuals being vaccinated have extensive tattoos over both arms? Can these individuals be vaccinated? If so, where should they be vaccinated? CDC does not have a standard policy concerning tattoos. One can vaccinate over a tattoo, but it may change the appearance of the tattoo. It would seem prudent to inform the potential vaccinee that vaccination over a tattoo may change it, and that use of another site is not routinely recommended. If you wish to vaccinate persons at another body site, they should be informed that CDC has no data about what use of an altered site means in terms of local adverse events, or autoinoculation risk. What should we do if the client becomes ill and/or faints before all punctures are made? If they faint during the administration, the vaccinator should stop the procedure and then check on day 6-8 to see if enough vaccine was administered to illicit a take (i.e., a major reaction is seen). If not, revaccinate at that time. What is the recommended timeframe for revaccination of non-takers? If no evidence of vaccine "take" is apparent after 7 days, the person can be vaccinated again immediately or any time thereafter using 15 insertions, regardless of the vaccinee's prior vaccination status (i.e. primary vs. revaccinee). If clinic logistics delay this time frame, revaccination can be delayed as necessary. Revaccination can be done in the same arm as the first dose. How is the vaccine stopper to be stored so that it can be used to recap the smallpox vaccine vial? Once the vial cap is removed, it should be placed with the top of the stopper facing down and stored in such a way that the cap is free of contamination and inadvertent handling. (For example, the cap could be placed between clean gauze pads.) Clean gloves should be worn while removing or replacing the cap. Can federal employees be vaccinated by state Smallpox Vaccination Programs? What is the policy for federal employees of agencies outside of the Department of Health and Human Services? The state health departments are responsible for deciding who should be vaccinated in their state smallpox vaccination program. The states can include federal employees as part of their program. When the state decides against vaccinating federal employees and the federal agency disagrees, the agency should contact the Assistant Secretary for Public Health Preparedness and Response, Office of the Secretary, Department of the Health and Human Services at (202) 401-5840. Even though the public is not being vaccinated for smallpox at this time, what if a person insists? Members of the general public who would like to be vaccinated now should check the Web site: http://www.clinicaltrials.gov to see if there is a clinical trial near them in which they are eligible to enroll. This is currently the only available option. Why the restriction of smallpox vaccination to persons less than 65 years of age (and greater than 18 years)? At this time the vaccine is not recommended for the general public. The original restriction was based on absence of studies about smallpox vaccination in the "geriatric" age group, which CDC defined as 65 years and greater. This cutoff was chosen for simplicity. However, if an individual older than 65 is asked to participate in a smallpox response team (and does not have a contraindication to receiving the vaccine, http://emergency.cdc.gov/agent/smallpox/vaccination/contraindications-clinic.asp), they can volunteer and be vaccinated. At this time, vaccination against smallpox is only recommended for laboratorians who work with orthopox viruses, and public health and health care response team members. It is unlikely that smallpox response team members are under the age of 18, but can be older than 65. The vaccine manufacturer package insert states that smallpox vaccination is not recommended for routine use in geriatric populations. See package insert http://www.fda.gov/cber/label/smalwye070303LB.pdf. As more research becomes available, CDC will address general smallpox geriatric use and update the recommendation. Will Level A and B Laboratory staff be required to get vaccinated? No. Level A and B laboratory staff will not be required to be vaccinated, but vaccination will be offered through the Laboratory Response Network. Generally, however, the amount of virus in specimens for routine clinical laboratory testing, and not virus diagnostic testing, would be low and good laboratory safety practices should protect laboratory staff from exposure. For more information on laboratory safety practices, please see the "Biosafety" section of the Public Health Emergency Preparedness and Response Laboratory Information page at http://emergency.cdc.gov/labissues/index.asp. Where can I get information about the military's smallpox vaccination program? Information is located on the Department of Defense (DoD) Smallpox Vaccination Program Web site at http://www.smallpox.mil/. Questions can be emailed directly to: Vaccines@otsg.amedd.army.mil; or call 1-877-GET-VACC (1-877-438-8222) TOLL FREE; 703-681-5101 DSN 761; Fax 703-681-4692; 8am EST - 6pm EST, Monday - Friday (except Federal holidays). This question was considered at the October 2002 ACIP meeting and the impression from this meeting was that health care workers did not need to inform patients of their vaccination status. Each institution should follow the procedures they use for other infections in health care workers that can be transmitted to and present a risk to patients, e.g. hepatitis B and HIV infection. - Page last reviewed: March 13, 2009 - Page last updated: March 13, 2009 - Content source: CDC Emergency Risk Communication Branch (ERCB), Division of Emergency Operations (DEO), National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases (NCEZID) Get email updates To receive email updates about this page, enter your email address: - Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 1600 Clifton Rd Atlanta, GA 30333 TTY: (888) 232-6348 - Contact CDC-INFO	<urn:uuid:69766ea9-85f8-4e4c-a700-28256c00a900>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.bt.cdc.gov/agent/smallpox/faq/characteristics.asp	2013-06-19T14:32:30Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00001-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.92865	3,479
AIDS and Kaposi's Sarcoma People who develop AIDS after being infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) are at high risk for developing a specific type of cancer called Kaposi's sarcoma. Kaposi's sarcoma is a malignant tumor of blood vessels located in the skin. This type of cancer is not directly caused by HIV infection. Instead, HIV causes an immune deficiency that makes people more susceptible to viral infection. Infection by a virus called KSHV (Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus) then appears to stimulate the development of Kaposi's sarcoma.	<urn:uuid:350bd652-0917-4de6-b9e0-4bfe405f1aa2>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://cancer.gov/cancertopics/understandingcancer/cancer/page33/print	2013-06-20T01:45:44Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368710006682/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516131326-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.938958	131
Cornelius Vanderbiltindustrialist, financier Birthplace: Port Richmond, N.Y. Having gotten his feet wet operating the Staten Island ferry in 1810, Vanderbilt then worked for Thomas Gibbons before forming his own very successful and lucrative steamboat business. When the California gold rush increased demand for transportation, he devised a steamship route in 1849, including an overland passage through Nicaragua. By 1862 his interest had shifted to railroads. He acquired stock in the New York & Harlem, then bought the Hudson River Railroad and the New York Central. He continued expanding his holdings to include lines in Michigan and Canada, but he failed to buy the Erie Railroad in 1868 when Daniel Drew, Jay Gould, and James Fisk declared the “Erie Wars,” in which the three managed to manipulate stock to prevent Vanderbilt from buying Erie. Vanderbilt was responsible for the $1 million donation that was used to found Vanderbilt University.Died: 1/4/1877 Fact Monster/Information Please® Database, © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. More on Cornelius Vanderbilt from Fact Monster:	<urn:uuid:c61ce818-4c9c-425e-8e98-7409df20915e>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.factmonster.com/ipka/A0772001.html	2013-05-25T06:06:55Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705559639/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115919-00003-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.956282	232
© 2005-2012 American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO). All rights reserved worldwide. - Calories come in the form of macronutrients including fat, carbohydrate, and protein. Most foods provide a mixture of macronutrients. - Clinical trials and other association studies are examining whether the macronutrients people eat over time affect their cancer risk. - Factors that contribute to energy balance such as physical activity and diet also play an important role in cancer prevention, because energy imbalance is associated with either obesity or inadequate nutrition. Finding the association with cancer Foods, including meat, dairy, grains, fruits and vegetables, fats, and legumes (beans) make up the main parts of your diet. The nutrients in foods that the human body turns into energy are called macronutrients. They include fat, carbohydrates, and protein. Alcohol is also considered a macronutrient, although you do not need it to survive. Many foods and nutrients have long been studied for cancer prevention, but finding a specific link between a food or macronutrient and cancer is difficult. There are many challenges, including: - Foods contain many components, macronutrients, micronutrients (vitamins and minerals), and non-nutrients, that may (or may not) contribute to cancer prevention. - Most people eat a variety of foods and drinks, creating interactions that are challenging to study. - Sometimes, macronutrients have different effects on the body, depending on the amount of the macronutrient consumed and whether your body is in a state of excess, neutral or deficit for total energy balance. - Some research shows that food preparation may influence the risk or benefits of a food. For example frying chicken in fat or making beans with lard adds additional fat and could influence your overall energy balance. Foods and the cancer connection Here is what is known about selected foods and macronutrients and their connection to cancer: Fruits and vegetables. Fruits and vegetables probably protect against several cancers, including mouth, pharynx (part of throat), larynx (voice box), esophagus, stomach, lung, pancreas and prostate, according to a 2007 American Institute of Cancer Research (AICR) and World Cancer Research Fund (WCRF) report. The extent of the protection and how it works continue to be researched. Dietary fiber. Fiber is a term for compounds from plants that are not digested by the body. It comes from the outer layer of grains and is found in fruits, vegetables, legumes, and nuts. Fiber helps add bulk to stool and helps move food more quickly through the digestive system. The AICR/WCRF study found that foods containing fiber, such as whole-grain bread and pasta, oats, and vegetables and fruits, are linked to a reduced risk of cancer, particularly colorectal cancer. The Institute of Medicine (IOM) Food and Nutrition Board recommends that women and men age 50 and younger consume 25 grams (g) and 38 g of fiber each day, respectively. Women and men over 50 should consume 21 g and 30 g of fiber each day, respectively. This is equivalent to the fiber found in one serving of high fiber breakfast cereal (6 g to 10 g), 5 servings vegetables and fruit (15 g to 21 g), one serving whole grain bread (2 g to 3 g) and Â½ cup beans (8 g to 10 g). Protein. Meat, fish, shellfish, and eggs are the major sources of animal protein in most diets. Of those, red meat and processed meat are often studied as risk factors for cancer. Most of the studies suggest that people who eat more red meat have higher risk for developing colorectal cancer than those who eat less red meat, but avoiding processed meats is even more important. For example, the AICR/WCRF study found convincing evidence that eating processed meat, such as hot dogs, bacon, and salami, also increases the chances of colorectal cancer. The study found people can eat up to 18 oz of red meat a week without raising cancer risk. Selecting lean cuts is important (such as flank steak or extra lean ground beef). Research on processed meat shows cancer risk starts to increase with any portion. Dairy foods. Dairy foods are a varied food group and are usually a good source of calcium. Multiple studies of dairy foods and cancer have shown conflicting results. The AICR/WTCF study found that milk probably protects against colorectal cancer, and there is limited evidence that milk protects against bladder cancer. The study also found that the diets high in calcium are a probable cause of prostate cancer. Read more about calcium, vitamin D, and cancer prevention. Alcohol. Alcohol increases the risk of several cancers, including risk of cancer of the mouth, pharynx, larynx, esophagus, and breast, as well as colorectal cancer in men. Alcohol also probably increases colorectal and liver cancer risk in women. Physical activity and weight control Maintaining a healthy weight may be one of the most important ways to protect yourself against cancer. More and more research is indicating that being overweight or obese (extremely overweight) increases the risk of several cancers. The AICR/WTCF study found convincing evidence that greater body fatness is a cause of colorectal cancer and cancer of the esophagus, endometrium, pancreas, kidney, and breast (in women who have been through menopause). One way to avoid gaining weight is physical activity. Studies also show that regular activity can keep hormone levels healthy, which is important because having high levels of some hormones can increase your cancer risk. There is convincing evidence that physical activity protects against colon cancer, and that it probably protects against postmenopausal breast cancer and endometrial cancer. Last Updated: February 15, 2012	<urn:uuid:8eb7130f-8852-4064-b381-efca72cfc906>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.cancer.net/all-about-cancer/risk-factors-and-prevention/diet-and-nutrition/role-major-nutrients-cancer-prevention	2013-06-18T23:24:32Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707436332/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123036-00050-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.951488	1,232
Tag: international tooth decay trends Showing 10 of 13: Fluoride & Tooth Decay: The Facts Fact 1: Fluoride’s Primary Effect is Topical, Not Systemic Water fluoridation began in the 1940s under the premise that swallowing fluoride is the most effective way to strengthen teeth. It is now known, however, that fluoride’s main benefit comes from topical contact with teeth, not from ingestion. Even if fluoridated water has a benefit, therefore, there is [...] How Many Countries Fluoridate Water? One of the little known facts about this practice is that the United States, which fluoridates over 70% of its water supplies, has more people drinking fluoridated water than the rest of the world combined. Most developed nations, including all of Japan and 97% of western Europe, do not fluoridate their water. The Benefits of Water Fluoridation? This short video presents four inconvenient facts about the purported miraculous benefits of water fluoridation. Fact 1: If fluoridated water has a benefit, it is a topical one (there is no need to actually swallow it). Fact 2: Despite 60+ years of research, there is not a single randomized controlled trial, let alone a blinded [...] WHO: Tooth Decay Rates in Fluoridated vs. Non-Fluoridated Countries The following data from the World Health Organization provides the most recently reported tooth decay rates in 12-old-year children in developed nations. As can be seen, many countries with no water fluoridation at all have lower rates of tooth decay than countries that fluoridate more than 60% of their water. In fact, of the seven countries [...] Water Fluoridation Status in Western Europe As the following table shows, only 3% of the population in western Europe is currently consuming fluoridated water. Europe’s reasons for not fluoridating its water are explained here. Despite not fluoridating its water, tooth decay rates in these western European countries are no higher than in the few western countries (e.g., the United States) that fluoridate [...] Water Fluoridation Status in OECD Nations Quick Facts: Most developed nations, including 97% of western Europe, do not fluoridate their drinking water. Of the 34 countries in the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), only 10 have water fluoridation programs. Four of the 10 OECD countries with water fluoridation programs have less than 15% of their population drinking fluoridated water: [...] Countries that Fluoridate Their Water Quick Facts: Most developed nations do not fluoridate their water. In western Europe, for example, only 3% of the population consumes fluoridated water. While 25 countries have water fluoridation programs, 11 of these countries have less than 20% of their population consuming fluoridated water: Argentina (19%), Guatemala (13%), Panama (15%), Papa New Guinea (6%), Peru (2%), [...] Studies on Tooth Decay Rates After Water Fluoridation Is Stopped For decades, the American Dental Association (ADA) has long warned that if communities end their water fluoridation programs, the rate of tooth decay will increase. In it’s “Fluoridation Facts” brochure, the ADA states: “Dental decay can be expected to increase if water fluoridation in a community is discontinued for one year or more, even if [...] Tooth Decay Trends in Fluoridated vs. Unfluoridated Countries Most western countries do not fluoridate their water and yet their tooth decay rates have declined at the same rate as the U.S. and other fluoridated countries. The Mystery of Declining Tooth Decay Large temporal reductions in tooth decay, which cannot be attributed to fluoridation, have been observed in both unfluoridated and fluoridated areas of at least eight developed countries over the past thirty years. It is now time for a scientific re-examination of the alleged enormous benefits of fluoridation.	<urn:uuid:c7f08d17-50cf-477e-a376-905b167a0b54>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.fluoridealert.org/tag/international-2/	2013-05-24T15:36:38Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00050-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.942871	814
The Friedrich Naumann Foundation promotes liberal democracy, respect for human rights, rule of law and economic freedom. 1) Liberal Democracy The term is essentially the combination between liberalism and democracy.At the core of liberalism is individual freedom and protection of that freedom. Democracy alone simply means majority rule, which in practice can mean tyranny by a majority. As such, a majority can decide to harm minorities or passes a law that puts ethic minorities at disadvantage. In a liberal democracy, there are safeguards to protect minorities through a constitutional procedure and due democratic process.This means that when it comes to passing a bill, special provisions that exist for minorities must be considered. The majority cannot pass a law that benefit them but that will infringe on the rights of minorities.If they do, the latter can, for instance, appeal to the constitutional court. In a liberal democracy, the rights and interests of minorities--whoever they happen to be at any particular time--are respected and protected.Such a society observes the rule of law, which limits the power of the state and ensures judicial independence.It employs a system of constitutional checks and balances to enable public scrutiny of government actions and to ensure that a government does not have absolute power to do whatever it pleases. A liberal democracy prizes pluralism and tolerance. It sees dissent and disagreement as being normal and even as something positive.A majority might be right or wrong.If it is wrong, it is the process of open discussion and debate between people of different convictions and opinions that can put things right. Without discussion, there is no way to find out what people want and what better solutions there might be. A liberal democracy can take the form of a constitutional republic or a constitutional monarchy. 2) Respect for Human Rights Human rights are rights that the individual deserves to enjoy as a human being and member of a society. They protect the individual as well as the freedom and dignity of that individual.Respect for human rights is essential to social stability and peace while human rights abuses breed resentment, hatred and unrest. The basic human rights pertain to: It is essentially the rights to life and inviolability of the person. They include the prohibition of torture, of arbitrary incarceration or forced labour and of arbitrary interference with a person’s privacy, family, home or correspondence. It is, first and foremost, freedom from slavery. Liberty also encompasses freedom to choose a religion, to express ideas and opinions, to assemble peacefully, to form or join an association, to move or reside in one’s home country, to leave and return to one’s own country. Individuals have the right to own property alone as well as in association with others, and the state cannot take it away arbitrarily. The right to ownership of private property is essential to the improvement in the standard of living of the individual and hence to the prosperity of the national economy. The will of the people is the basis for a democratic government in which citizens can participate in the national or state government, either directly or through elected representatives. In a democracy, people have the right to vote and to run for political office, to form a political party or movement, to campaign and to stage or join a protest. This concept guarantees non-discrimination and equal treatment before the law. They include the rights to seek legal protection and to defend oneself in a court. Well-being and welfare The rights to well-being include the right to a standard of living adequate for a person’s health and well-being, including food, clothing, housing and medical care. The rights to social welfare ensure access to education as well as to a livelihood. They guarantee free choice of employment (no forced labour), provide for fair remuneration, protect individuals against mistreatment by employers, and give employees the right to join trade unions in order to defend their interests. These rights are also termed “social and economic rights”. Over and above individual rights, human rights also include: Collective or group rights Most important of all, these rights protect ethnic minorities against genocide and racial harassment. They also encompass positive measures that foster the development of a minority’s culture and resources. To view the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, please click here. 3) Economic Freedom Economic freedom consists of a number of ingredients, the most important being personal choice, voluntary exchange, freedom to enter and compete in markets and protection of people and property from aggression by others. With economic freedom, consumers can choose what they consider the best for themselves while individuals are free to set up businesses or engage in lawful international trade and companies are free to compete in a fair manner. When people are free and free markets exist, everyone benefits. The overall effect is an increase in wealth and well-being. Empirical studies show that the wealthiest countries are countries with high levels of economic freedom while the poorest nations are usually those with little or no economic freedom. They also show a positive correlation in which countries with higher levels of economic freedom enjoy higher employment rates. Governments can reduce economic freedom through high taxation and regulation which narrow the scope for individual choice and voluntary exchange.They can also undermine economic freedom by limiting entry into certain occupations and business activities. On the contrary, a state that pursues a liberal market policy that favours economic freedom will try to keep barriers to local and international trade such as duties and tariffs at the minimum or even at zero percent where appropriate. It also treats citizens equally when it comes to trade benefits and economic opportunities. On one hand, this may affect local producers in certain industries in which they lack competitive advantages and therefore have to rely on government subsidies or some form of market intervention by the state such as minimum price protection or high tariffs aimed at keeping foreign competitors out of the market.On the other hand, it works in favour of those in the right industries where they have competitive advantages and can prosper on their own without subsidies or market intervention by the state. Eventually, economic freedom and market economy benefit not only traders and corporations but also consumers. In a free market environment, producers or suppliers have to compete on quality, price and service to win customers who have the freedom to choose from a wide variety of choice. Governments can improve economic freedom by * Establishing legal structures that provide for the even-handed enforcement of contracts and the protection of individuals and their property against violence, coercion and fraud. * Allowing citizens access to sound money * Refraining from activities that interfere with personal choice, voluntary exchange and the freedom of individuals and businesses to compete. Economies with a high level of economic freedom are called market economies. 4) Rule of Law Without the rule of law, constitutions and laws are meaningless. The most basic idea underlying the principle of rule of law is that law is supreme. It is law that rules and nothing else. In a liberal democratic society, rule is made through the joint decision of democratically elected representatives of the people, not by the arbitrary decision of any single individual or group that happens to possess power. As such rule of law imposes order. You can only be punished if you break the law. Law must apply equally to all (equality under the law). If it doesn’t, law itself is arbitrary – which would contradict the principle of rule of law. Rule of law also requires enforcement of the law. Not just the citizens, but government, officials, lawmakers must abide by the law.A key aspect of rule of law is the limitation of power so that even a democratically elected official or leader cannot abuse his/her power without facing a possible prosecution or imprisonment. Rule of law ensures such limitation of power through a required separation of executive, legislative and judiciary powers.As a result, judicial independence is possible. Beyond equal enforcement of the law, rule of law also protects minorities against discrimination and prevents preferential treatment for certain individuals or groups. When everyone is treated equally under the law, there cannot be any special favour or discrimination imposed through law. Rule of law, also termed “government under law”, cannot exist in tyrannies or in totalitarian states because they do not allow equality under the law and judicial independence.	<urn:uuid:996e9e71-bff0-4311-b2b3-2ea9c4344f20>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.fnfasia.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=51&Itemid=31	2013-05-19T11:08:26Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697420704/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094340-00052-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.948497	1,676
ESL Phrasal Verbs Printable worksheet reviewing phrasal verbs with the words "make", "stick", and "pull". Choose one word from the left, and one word from the right, to complete each sentence. 2. People in poor countries often cannot afford food and have to simply __________ __________ with whatever food they can find. 3. Good friends __________ __________ even when times are tough. 4. I don’t have my glasses, so I can’t __________ __________ the words on the 5. Teacher: Johnny, could you please __________ __________ after class? I need to 6. Stop yelling! You’ve got to __________ yourself __________! This is no time to 7. Wow, I didn’t think I would be able to pass that test. I can’t believe I __________ it __________! 8. Bill and Melissa had a big argument last night. They still haven’t ________ ________, so they’re not talking to each other right now. 9. When you go to Taipei, you will notice that Taipei 101 really __________ __________ because it is much taller than all the other buildings. 10. John Smith was behind in most of the polls before the election, but in the last few days he managed to __________ __________ of his opponent and win the election. 11. The young couple was caught __________ __________ last night in the park. A police officer noticed them and told them to go home.12. The thief __________ ____________ with my diamond ring, but not before I wrote down his license plate number. Back to ESL Phrasal Verbs	<urn:uuid:28560962-f6de-4c71-adfe-41201ef1d89d>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://stickyball.net/phrasal-verbs.html?id=438	2013-05-20T02:14:48Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698207393/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095647-00052-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.934477	383
Since ancient times, airborne chemical and biological weapons have been used to threaten populations. During sieges throughout history, human and animal corpses were used in attempt to spread plague and cholera. In the First World War, chlorine and mustard gas killed hundreds of thousands. More recently, the chem-bio threat has gone—literally—underground. In 1993, during the World Trade Center truck bombing, a canister of hydrogen cyanide was placed in the truck in the hope that the poison gas would be blasted up the ventilation system. Two years later, Japanese cult members opened canisters of sarin in the Tokyo subway, killing 12 and leaving thousands in need of medical attention. The Secretary of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security is charged with leading Federal efforts to prepare for, respond to, and recover from a domestic attack. Secretary Napolitano has emphasized preparedness and shared responsibility when it comes to protecting the nation's critical infrastructure. One vitally important aspect of preparation is for public safety officials to understand how gases might behave in different scenarios—such as when released in the underground subway system of a large American city. The incapacitation or destruction of a major transportation system could debilitate the overall stability of the United States and threaten national security. That's why on December 5, the Department's Science & Technology Directorate began releasing plumes of sulfur hexafluoride and perfluorocarbon gas, and sodium fluorescein particles in the tunnels of Boston's Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA) subway system. Yes, you read that right. But not to worry. "Both gases are innocuous, non-toxic, and inert," says Teresa Lustig, a program manager in S&T's Chemical & Biological Division, who is leading the study. "They've been used since the 1960s in dispersion experiments, and pose no health risk." Throughout the seven day S&T study, particle and gas concentrations are being sampled in more than 20 stations and in subway cars in the underground portion of the MBTA system. Commuters may notice the presence of equipment and researchers, but the study is designed not to disrupt normal activities or inconvenience the public. Some of these non-toxic gases have been used in similar studies and others even have common, everyday uses. Sulfur hexafluoride is a harmless, common tracer gas used for indoor and outdoor air testing. Perfluorocarbons are used during eye surgery to temporarily replace the vitreous humor when a retina is being reattached. Sodium fluorescein is an organic dye used in medical imaging applications and in oceanography as a marker in seawater. A similar subway system airflow study was conducted in 2008 in the Washington, DC area, and serves as an excellent contrast to the Boston study. Whereas the MBTA subway system is very old and poorly ventilated, Washington's is relatively modern and well-ventilated. Data obtained from these initial groundbreaking studies have been critical to the development of specifications for the next generation of biological agent detectors, and for designing response strategies for both biological and chemical detection systems. The research team included scientists from Argonne National Laboratory (ANL) of Argonne, Ill.; Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) of Berkeley, Calif.; ICx Technologies of Arlington, Va.; Defense Science and Technology Laboratory of the United Kingdom; and Chemistry Centre of Australia. Here's how the study worked: The particle tracers, embedded in an aerosol spray, were released at the same time as the gases so that researchers could compare which form of agent—aerosol or gas—travels further, faster, or more unpredictably. The gaseous and aerosol tracers are complementary—dispersing and sinking at different rates and in different patterns—allowing removal mechanisms such as deposition and filtration to be measured in addition to the transport and dispersion processes. The gaseous tracers, like the chemical agents they simulate, provide baseline data for the transport and dispersion processes because they pass through filters and are transported much further. The two gases weigh about the same as air, which means they remain airborne indefinitely and can be measured in the air for a much longer period of time. The aerosol particles deposit on surfaces and the ground after a short period.	<urn:uuid:796c1164-49e7-4d31-b893-7262c72b7529>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.dhs.gov/bostons-big-sniff	2013-05-18T18:15:16Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382705/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00050-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.944157	889
California Science CenterEcosystems Discover how environment affects living things—and vice versa—in a new immersive exhibit. Ecosystems is divided into eight zones, each of which demonstrates a different ecological principle. In Extreme Zone, visitors feel the heat of a desert ecosystem and the chill of an “ice wall” in a polar ecosystem. Forest Zone includes an underwater kelp forest inhabited by such California coastal creatures as leopard sharks and moray eels. Island Zone, home to lizards and tropical fish, shows the workings of evolution in isolated habitats. Ecosystems also features a Discovery Room especially designed for children seven and younger.Permanent ExhibitVisit the exhibit website Credit information can be found on the museum website.	<urn:uuid:d3f3a975-a7ee-4e89-b78c-3555317d2c33>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://learning.si.edu/families/at_the_smithsonian/in_the_spotlight.html	2013-05-19T09:47:49Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00002-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.879373	150
The researchers examined two types of fruit flies with variants in the foraging gene (for) known as rovers and sitters because of their different behaviours in the presence of food. When well fed as larvae, rover adults exhibit darting exploration into open areas as they move about in search of food, while sitters show little of this behaviour. When nutritionally deprived as larvae, both rover and sitter adults exhibit darting exploration. Further, the sitters that faced nutritional adversity in early life displayed a reduction in their ability to reproduce. Rovers exhibited no effect on their reproductive fitness. "The foraging gene makes an enzyme called PKG, which is found in the fly as well as in most other organisms, including humans. When faced with a nutritionally adverse environment while growing up, the levels of the enzyme dropped in flies," says Sokolowski. "This told us that the foraging gene listens to its environment." Transgenic manipulations of PKG levels altered darting exploration in well fed but not nutritionally deprived flies. The research team included James Burns, a CIFAR junior fellow in Sokolowski's lab, U of T EEB professor Locke Rowe and EEB post-doctoral fellow Nicolas Svetec, as well as colleagues from the Universitiy of British Columbia and the Universit Paris-Sud. The findings are reported in the paper "Chronic food deprivation in early life affects adult exploratory and fitness traits, in the October 16, 2012 issue of the Proceedings of the Nataional Academy of Science. The papers in the volume are authored largely by CIFAR researchers, and comprise a multidisciplinary collection of research into fields from molecular genetics, evolutionary biology and neuroscience, to social and behavioural science, epidemiology and social policy as well as the emerging field of epigenetics, which investigates deviations in a gene's ability to produce its product \|Contact: Sean Bettam\| University of Toronto	<urn:uuid:ac710fd8-e2c5-418b-8b15-80c0092440f9>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.bio-medicine.org/biology-news-1/University-of-Toronto-study-demonstrates-impact-of-adversity-on-early-life-development-27060-2/	2013-05-20T11:32:12Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698924319/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516100844-00002-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.953299	398
Websites for more information A brief, strong surge of abnormal electrical activity affects part or all of the brain, which leads to transient symptoms and signs from convulsions and loss of consciousness to more subtle symptoms such as blank staring, lip smacking, or jerking movements of arms and legs. It can occur due to provoking factors, such as fever, infection, alcohol, drugs, certain medications, or other medical conditions. Chronic/two or more recurrent unprovoked seizures from an underlying neurologic condition. When providing seizure first aid for generalized tonic clonic (grand mal) seizures, these are the key things to remember: - Keep calm and reassure other people who may be nearby. - Don't hold the person down or try to stop his movements. - Time the seizure with your watch. - Clear the area around the person of anything hard or sharp. - Loosen ties or anything around the neck that may make breathing difficult. - Put something flat and soft, like a folded jacket, under the head. - Turn him or her gently onto one side. This will help keep the airway clear. - Do not try to force the mouth open with any hard implement or with fingers. A person having a seizure CANNOT swallow his tongue. Efforts to hold the tongue down can injure teeth or jaw. - Don't attempt artificial respiration except in the unlikely event that a person does not start breathing again after the seizure has stopped. - Stay with the person until the seizure ends naturally. - Be friendly and reassuring as consciousness returns. - Offer to call a taxi, friend or relative to help the person get home if he seems confused or unable to get home by himself. Is an Emergency Room Visit Needed? An un-complicated generalized tonic clonic (grand mal) seizure in someone who has epilepsy is not a medical emergency, even though it looks like one. It stops naturally after a few minutes without ill effects. The average person is able to continue about his business after a rest period, and may need only limited assistance, or no assistance at all, in getting home. In other circumstances, an ambulance should be called. Also, when these conditions exist, immediate medical attention is necessary: diabetes, brain infections, heat exhaustion, pregnancy, poisoning, hypoglycemia, high fever, head injury, etc. No Need to Call an Ambulance if — - medical I.D. jewelry or card says "epilepsy," and - the seizure ends in under five minutes, and - consciousness returns without further incident, and - there are no signs of injury, physical distress, or pregnancy. An Ambulance Should Be Called if — - the seizure has happened in water. - there's no medical I.D., and no way of knowing whether the seizure is caused by epilepsy. - the person is pregnant, injured, or diabetic. - the seizure continues for more than five minutes. - a second seizure starts shortly after the first has ended. - consciousness does not start to return after the shaking has stopped. - The person has been injured as a result of the seizure If the ambulance arrives after consciousness has returned, the person should be asked whether the seizure was associated with epilepsy and whether emergency room care is wanted. Department of Motor Vehicle (DMV) of NC regulations for seizures – It is the patient’s responsibility to report the incidence of the seizure in the state of NC. North Carolina has no statutory provision requiring physicians to report patients diagnosed with epilepsy or seizures to a central state agency. The recommended requirement for a driver’s license in NC for an individual with epilepsy is that they be seizure-free for 6-12 months. However, the DMV may consider the following exceptions to this general rule where: (1) a physician-directed change in medication causes a seizure and the individual immediately resumes the previous therapy which controlled seizures; (2) there is a history of nocturnal seizures or seizures which do not involve loss of consciousness, loss of control of motor function, or loss of appropriate sensation and information process; and (3) an individual has a seizure disorder preceded by an aura (warning) lasting 2-3 minutes. While the DMV may also give consideration to other unusual circumstances which may affect the general requirement that drivers be seizure-free for 6-12 months, interpretation of these circumstances and assignment of restrictions is at the discretion of the Medical Advisor. The DMV also considers compliance with medical therapy essential for safe driving. [The North Carolina Physician's Guide to Driver Medical Evaluation (June, 1995 ed.)] The Department learns of an individual's condition by inquiring on the application form or renewal form, a physician's report to the DMV, an accident report or from correspondence from the individual. The person may be required to submit a Medical Report Form either annually or semi-annually. A person whose license has been denied for medical reasons may request a hearing in writing within 10 days of the notice of cancellation. The licensee may retain his or her license during the hearing process until advised otherwise by the Review Board. North Carolina has adopted the federal Department of Transportation's medical standards for licensing individuals to drive commercial vehicles intrastate. Persons with epilepsy may apply to the state for a waiver; however, no specific criteria exists for determining eligibility. Decisions are made on a case by case basis by the DMV's Medical Advisor. Persons with epilepsy may be licensed to drive passenger carrying vehicles such as taxis; however, they are restricted from driving buses or school buses. - Epilepsy Websites for More Information	<urn:uuid:4ee53227-cb76-45d4-9792-08842344f328>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.med.unc.edu/neurology/divisions/epilepsy-1/frequently-asked-questions-and-useful-links	2013-05-23T05:23:49Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368702849682/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516111409-00002-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.931311	1,159
Some new editions of the ESV include a section in the preface explaining the ESV translators’ philosophy toward translating certain specialized terms. If you’ve wondered why the ESV translates YHWH as “the LORD” (with small caps), why “Christ” instead of “Messiah” occurs consistently throughout the New Testament, or why the ESV uses “behold,” here are your answers: In the translation of biblical terms referring to God, the ESV takes great care to convey the specific nuances of meaning of the original Hebrew and Greek terms. First, concerning terms that refer to God in the Old Testament: God, the Maker of heaven and earth, introduced himself to the people of Israel with the special, personal name, whose consonants are YHWH (see Exodus 3:14-15). Scholars call this the “Tetragrammaton,” a Greek term referring to the four Hebrew letters YHWH. The exact pronunciation of YHWH is uncertain, because the Jewish people considered the personal name of God to be so holy that it should never be spoken aloud. Instead of reading the word YHWH, they would normally read the Hebrew word adonai (“Lord”), and the ancient translations into Greek, Syriac, and Aramaic also followed suit. When the vowels of the word adonai are placed with the consonants of YHWH, this results in the familiar word Jehovah that was used in some earlier English Bible translations. As is common among English translations today, the ESV usually renders the personal name of God (YHWH) with the word LORD (printed in small capitals). An exception to this is when the Hebrew word adonai appears together with YHWH, in which case the two words are rendered together as “the Lord [in lower case] GOD [in small capitals].” In contrast to the personal name for God (YHWH), the more general name for God in Old Testament Hebrew is ’elohim and its related forms of ’el or ’eloah, all of which are normally translated “God” (in lower case letters). The use of these different ways to translate the Hebrew words for God is especially beneficial to the English reader, enabling the reader to see and understand the different ways that the personal name and the general name for God are both used to refer to the One True God of the Old Testament. Second, in the New Testament, the Greek word Christos has been translated consistently as “Christ.” Although the term originally meant “anointed,” among Jews in New Testament times the term came to designate the Messiah, the great Savior that God had promised to raise up. In other New Testament contexts, however, especially among Gentiles, Christos (“Christ”) was on its way to becoming a proper name. It is important, therefore, to keep the context in mind in understanding the various ways that Christos (“Christ”) is used in the New Testament. At the same time, in accord with its “essentially literal” translation philosophy, the ESV has retained consistency and concordance in the translation of Christos (“Christ”) throughout the New Testament. A third specialized term, the word “behold,” usually has been retained as the most common translation for the Hebrew word hinneh and the Greek word idou. Both of these words mean something like “Pay careful attention to what follows! This is important!” Other than the word “behold,” there is no single word in English that fits well in most contexts. Although “Look!” and “See!” and “Listen!” would be workable in some contexts, in many others these words lack sufficient weight and dignity. Given the principles of “essentially literal” translation, it is important not to leave hinneh and idou completely untranslated, and so to lose the intended emphasis in the original languages. The older and more formal word “behold” has usually been retained, therefore, as the best available option for conveying the original sense of meaning.	<urn:uuid:0506ce68-b4dc-47c9-b390-6ea5888a134e>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.crossway.org/blog/2007/02/translating-specialized-terms/	2013-06-20T09:09:34Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368711005985/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516133005-00052-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.944618	882
The following HTML text is provided to enhance online readability. Many aspects of typography translate only awkwardly to HTML. Please use the page image as the authoritative form to ensure accuracy. Scientific Research in Education can be found across the full range of scientific inquiry. Throughout this chapter we provide examples from a variety of domains—in political science, geophysics, and education—to demonstrate this shared nature. Although there is no universally accepted description of the elements of scientific inquiry, we have found it convenient to describe the scientific process in terms of six interrelated, but not necessarily ordered,1 principles of inquiry: Pose significant questions that can be investigated empirically. Link research to relevant theory. Use methods that permit direct investigation of the question. Provide a coherent and explicit chain of reasoning. Replicate and generalize across studies. Disclose research to encourage professional scrutiny and critique. We choose the phrase “guiding principles” deliberately to emphasize the vital point that they guide, but do not provide an algorithm for, scientific inquiry. Rather, the guiding principles for scientific investigations provide a framework indicating how inferences are, in general, to be supported (or refuted) by a core of interdependent processes, tools, and practices. Although any single scientific study may not fulfill all the principles—for example, an initial study in a line of inquiry will not have been replicated independently—a strong line of research is likely to do so (e.g., see Chapter 2). We also view the guiding principles as constituting a code of conduct that includes notions of ethical behavior. In a sense, guiding principles operate like norms in a community, in this case a community of scientists; they are expectations for how scientific research will be conducted. Ideally, individual scientists internalize these norms, and the community monitors them. According to our analysis these principles of science are common to systematic study in such disciplines as astrophysics, political science, and economics, as well as to more applied fields such as medicine, agriculture, and education. The principles emphasize objectivity, rigorous thinking, open-mindedness, and honest and thorough reporting. Numerous scholars For example, inductive, deductive, and abductive modes of scientific inquiry meet these principles in different sequences.	<urn:uuid:6de19e11-020f-458d-b58e-68653ce5fa95>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=10236&page=52	2013-05-26T02:49:51Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00051-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.907205	466
Trails of dust behind haymaking equipment signal trouble for dairy producers wanting to minimize ash levels in their rations, warns Faith Cullens, Michigan State University Extension dairy educator. “We don’t know what the impacts of soil in the diet are on the cow, such as whether it binds other nutrients, impacts fermentation or accumulates in the rumen,” says Cullens. “But we do know that dirt doesn’t make milk and that it does replace productive nutrients in the diet.” Dry weather increases the danger that alfalfa and grass hay will test higher than the normal 8-10% ash, she says. “Any more than 10% ash in a forage sample can be considered contamination from external sources, primarily soil added during hay harvesting or heavy rain splashing soil onto the leaves.” To avoid contaminating hay or haylage with soil, she says to leave a 3-4” stubble and use a windrow merger instead of a rake. If a rake is used, be sure it’s properly adjusted to keep the tines from touching the ground. Wheel rakes tend to incorporate more ash than rotary rakes since they’re ground driven. Also, flat disc-mower knives pick up less soil, particularly in dry weather, than curved knives that create suction to pick up downed hay and soil. “If you haven’t given much thought about the ash analysis of your forages, it would be good to monitor it and adjust your field and farm practices to keep ash content in the normal range,” Cullens advises.	<urn:uuid:f6a331f5-e4e1-4aa1-8b83-779f7ae0f890>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://hayandforage.com/print/hay/don-t-let-ash-invade-dry-weather-forages	2013-05-25T20:17:22Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706298270/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121138-00001-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.913694	341
A BRANCH of mathematics used by code-breakers could help to solve a 500-year-old mysterywhether syphilis was brought to Europe by Christopher Columbus's crew. Syphilis appeared in Naples soon after Columbus returned from the New World. Scientists have speculated that some of his sailors were infected in America with A group of 3000-year-old Chilean mummies held a tantalising clue suggesting that syphilis had been present in the Americas for centuries before Columbus arrived. Some of the bodies had unusual bony growths on their shins and skulls similar to deformities seen in advanced syphilis. Peter Rogan, a geneticist at Allegheny University of the Health Sciences in Pittsburgh, told the AAAS that ... To continue reading this article, subscribe to receive access to all of newscientist.com, including 20 years of archive content.	<urn:uuid:2abf80aa-8890-4792-9aab-54ba19993e35>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg15721233.600-this-week-at-the-aaas--mummies-curse--codebreakers-hold-the-key-to-ancient-diseases.html	2013-05-24T08:29:26Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00050-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.972565	173
Below are the Common Core State Standards that most closely relate to the following lesson. History of monopolies in the United States. ~ http://www.econedlink.org/e628 English Language Arts College and Career Readiness Anchor Standards for Language - Vocabulary Acquisition and Use CCRA.L.6 - Acquire and use accurately a range of general academic and domain-specific words and phrases sufficient for reading, writing, speaking, and listening at the college and career readiness level; demonstrate independence in gathering vocabulary knowledge when encountering an unknown term important to comprehension or expression. College and Career Readiness Anchor Standards for Speaking and Listening - Comprehension and Collaboration CCRA.SL.1 - Prepare for and participate effectively in a range of conversations and collaborations with diverse partners, building on others’ ideas and expressing their own clearly and persuasively. History/Social Studies -- Grade 11-12 - Key Ideas and Details RH.11-12.1 - Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of primary and secondary sources, connecting insights gained from specific details to an understanding of the text as a whole. RH.11-12.2 - Determine the central ideas or information of a primary or secondary source; provide an accurate summary that makes clear the relationships among the key details and ideas. RH.11-12.4 - Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, including analyzing how an author uses and refines the meaning of a key term over the course of a text (e.g., how Madison defines faction in Federalist No. 10). RH.11-12.7 - Integrate and evaluate multiple sources of information presented in diverse formats and media (e.g., visually, quantitatively, as well as in words) in order to address a question or solve a problem. RH.11-12.9 - Integrate information from diverse sources, both primary and secondary, into a coherent understanding of an idea or event, noting discrepancies among sources. History/Social Studies -- Grade 9-10 - Key Ideas and Details RH.9-10.1 - Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of primary and secondary sources, attending to such features as the date and origin of the information. RH.9-10.2 - Determine the central ideas or information of a primary or secondary source; provide an accurate summary of how key events or ideas develop over the course of the text. RH.9-10.4 - Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, including vocabulary describing political, social, or economic aspects of history/social science. RH.9-10.7 - Integrate quantitative or technical analysis (e.g., charts, research data) with qualitative analysis in print or digital text. RH.9-10.9 - Compare and contrast treatments of the same topic in several primary and secondary sources. Writing Grade 11-12 - Text Types and Purposes WHST.11-12.1 - Write arguments focused on discipline-specific content. Writing Grade 9-10 - Text Types and Purposes WHST.9-10.1 - Write arguments focused on discipline-specific content.	<urn:uuid:267de4b5-a365-44f1-ac85-05587ae8ad6e>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.econedlink.org/economic-standards/standards-by-resource.php?educatorState=nat&ccss=ELA&lid=628	2013-05-18T17:37:17Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00051-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.877175	675
Photodissociation of Molecular Nitrogen (N2) This animation illustrates the process of photodissociation of nitrogen. When an extreme ultraviolet (EUV) photon strikes a nitrogen molecule, it photodissociates the molecule into two separate nitrogen atoms. The energy from the photon breaks the chemical bond that holds the molecule together. The result is two separate nitrogen atoms. You will need to have the latest version of the Flash player to see this animation. Photodissociation of Molecular Oxygen Photodissociation of Water Photodissociation of the Hydroxyl Radical Shop Windows to the Universe Science Store! Our online store includes issues of NESTA's quarterly journal, The Earth Scientist , full of classroom activities on different topics in Earth and space science, as well as books on science education! You might also be interested in: Sometimes when a photon hits a molecule, the energy from the photon causes the molecule to break apart. Scientists use the term "photodissociation" for such events. Photodissociation plays a very important...more Light is very strange. Sometimes it is best to think of light as a series of waves. At other times, it is useful to think of light as a swarm of particles. When we think of light as particles, we call...more Nitrogen is a chemical element with an atomic number of 7 (it has seven protons in its nucleus). Molecular nitrogen (N2) is a very common chemical compound in which two nitrogen atoms are tightly bound...more Most things around us are made of groups of atoms bonded together into packages called molecules. The atoms in a molecule are held together because they share or exchange electrons. Molecules are made...more The thermosphere is a layer of Earth's atmosphere. The thermosphere is directly above the mesosphere and below the exosphere. It extends from about 90 km (56 miles) to between 500 and 1,000 km (311 to...more Triton, by far the largest moon of Neptune, is slightly smaller than Earth's Moon. Triton has the coldest surface temperatures in our Solar System. Surprisingly, this frigid moon has an atmosphere, albeit...more Nitric acid is a colorless, corrosive liquid and a toxic acid which can cause severe burns. Nitric acid consists of nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen atoms. Nitric acid, in its gas phase, is present in very...more	<urn:uuid:b049ccbc-eda6-4d98-847a-928b7115ae98>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.windows2universe.org/physical_science/chemistry/photodissoc_n2.html&edu=high	2013-05-24T02:20:55Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132729/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00051-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.912862	508
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS ON VALUE ADDED TAX (VAT) 1. What is VAT? A. Unlike the name suggest, VAT is NOT a tax on the margin of the business. VAT is a Consumption Tax, meaning, tax on consumption of goods by the consumers. VAT is to be borne by the consumers. 2. What is the similarities and differences between Sales Tax and VAT? A. Both Sales tax and VAT are Consumption tax. To take an example, if a consumer consumes a goods worth Rs. 100 on which tax rate is 10%, the objective of both the system is to collect Rs 10 (i.e. 10% of Rs 100) to the Government. Both are Indirect Tax, meaning the consumer does not pay the tax to directly the government, but to the business from whom he has purchased the goods. The business remits it to the Government. In Sales tax, the entire tax collected from the consumer by the dealer is paid by one of the dealer (out of the chain through whom the goods have passed). Chain meaning Chain of business comprising of Manufacturer -Wholeseller – Intermediate – Retailer etc. To take the above example, the said tax of Rs. 10 would be collected from one of the person in the chain, it can be the manufacturer or Wholeseller or the Retailer (depending on the type of Sales tax system in the State). In VAT system, the same Rs 10 would be collected in installments from every dealer in the chain. Each dealer will contribute a portion of the tax in proportion to his margin of operation. 3. Does VAT System increase the incidence of Tax on consumer? A. No. The tax incidence remains the same. 4. Will VAT system complicate the Book of Accounts to be maintained by the dealer? A. No. On the Other hand, it will simplify it. A dealer is expected to maintain two registers. Sales Book and Purchase Book. In Sales Book, he would record chronologically sales made and tax collected from the purchaser. In Purchase book, similarly, he will record purchases made and tax paid on such purchases. 5. How will the Net Tax payable be calculated? A. First, the ‘Output tax’ is calculated from Sales Book by adding the tax collected from the consumer in respect of sales made in the quarter. Then ‘Tax Credit’ is calculated by adding the tax paid on purchases made in the same quarter. The Net tax payable is the Output Tax minus Tax Credit. If this value is negative, dealer gets a refund from the department in that quarter. 6. What kind of purchases are eligible for Tax Credit? A. All business inputs, be it raw material, capital goods, computer, record books or anything which is used by the dealer to conduct his business. However there are two exceptions. Tax Credit can-not be availed in respect of purchase of items used for conducting business of Exempt items. Also there is a list of ‘non-creditable purchases’ specified in the Seventh Schedule of the A.P. Goods Tax Bill. 7. What is the implication of reduction of CST to zero, as announced by the Chief Minister? A. It means that if a dealer in Arunachal Pradesh makes a sale to a dealer outside Arunachal Pradesh, no tax will be charged by the Government of Arunachal Pradesh. In addition, if any tax is paid on inputs to produce or trading of the said item, it will be eligible for tax credit. 8. Is any declaration Form required for claiming zero CST for interstate sales? A. Yes. Sale can be made against any CST declaration form such as C-Form, F-Form, H-Form etc. 9. What is Entry Tax? Will it not make purchases of a dealer in Arunachal more costly? A. Entry tax is a tax levied on all imports into Arunachal. It is levied on all importers, (whether dealers or consumers) so long as the value of goods imported is more than Rs. 10,000. This entry tax levied is fully VAT-able, i.e., a dealer making resale of such goods or use of such goods in his business, can claim full tax credit of entry tax paid. Thus Entry tax will not be an additional levy on the business, but on the other hand will protect the Arunachal business from the dealers of Assam, who make direct sales to consumers in Arunachal Pradesh. It gives level playing field to honest tax complying dealers. 10. Will Entry Tax not cause hindrance in movement of goods at the borders? A. Mostly No. The importers will be expected to pre-pay the entry tax due at the Starting locations itself (such as Guwahati) before commencement of movement of goods, and carry the proof of payment. If the goods are imported through ‘Approved Road Transporters’, entry tax can be pain in Arunachal before taking the delivery of the goods. Such vehicles can pass across the borders without stopping. 11. I make purchases on Inter-state basis. Do I get credit of CST charged on such purchases? A. No. CST has been charged by the state of origin, and hence, Arunachal government will not give any credit on account of tax charged by the other State Governments. 12. Is Registration compulsory? A. No. Registration is compulsory only to dealers whose turnover in the year exceeds Rs 5 Lakhs. For other dealers, it is optional. 13. Can VAT system work on items where MRP inclusive of tax is prescribed? A. Yes. MRP can be inclusive of tax. Tax component and tax exclusive price can be calculated by applying tax fraction [r/(r+100) where r is the tax rate] on the MRP. 14. Will dealers be allowed to sell their goods without charging sales tax separately ? A Dealers can include tax on the sale price. 15. How will MRP mentioned on the goods be calculated in the VAT system ? A. MRP can be inclusive of tax and tax can be calculated by applying tax fraction. 16. Will Central sales tax be abolished ? A. Central Sales Tax Act will not be abolished because it is required for documentation of Inter-state sales. However, for Inter-state sale made from Arunachal, the CST rate (against C form) shall be zero. (Presently this rate is 4%) 17. Will first point tax end ? A. Yes, the first point tax would end. 18. Will the entry tax applicable be collected at the State borders ? A. Normally, entry tax will not be payable at borders. It is to be paid by the importer before he receives delivery of goods. We propose to install Facilitation Counters at rail, roads and airports to provide additional avenues for tax payment. 19. Would entry tax have an negative impact on the imports to the state ? A. No, entry tax just ensures levy of tax on all goods coming into Arunachal. It does not make imports difficult; on the other hand, it gives level playing field to honest tax complying traders. 20. Would there be uniform tax rates across the states implementing VAT ? A. Tax system should be such that no trade diversion takes place despite tax differentials. There may exist some differential tax rates for each state implementing VAT. Uniform tax rates takes away the leverage of states to optimize their revenues. 21. Is the tax rate going to be the same all over India ? A. Yes with minor variations. 22. Are the tax rates the same for all items ? A. There would be two basic slabs of 4 percent 12.5 percent in which most of the goods will get covered. Apart from this a very few items shall have 1% and 20% tax rate. Essential items like foodgrains etc. shall be exempt. 23. Can dealers below the threshold register ? A. Yes, Voluntary registration is available. 24. Will RC No. of purchasing dealer be required to be recorded for each transaction? A. For retail/consumer sale, details of purchaser is not required. Sale to registered dealers, which are to be covered under tax invoices, name and address of purchasing dealer has to be recorded. 25. What if the total sales in the quarter are less than the purchases (and stocks are carried forward in the next quarter)? A. You can carry forward the net credit in your favour to the next quarter. 26. What if my total tax liability on outputs is less that the tax levied on purchases? A. You can claim refund after each return. 27. Would dealers be permitted to adjust the tax credit in the next financial year ? A. Yes, dealers would be allowed to adjust the tax credit in the next year. 28. Will refund be carried forward to the next year ? A. Yes, you will be allowed to carry forward refund to the next year. 29. Would credit be given on the tax paid on the opening stock on the commencement of the act ? A. Yes, credit would be given on the tax paid on the opening stock on the commencement of the act. 30. With the implementation of VAT, would dealers be required to keep more working capital ? A. No. The tax on the stock inventory is to be paid from the tax collected by you on your sales and not from your pocket. 31. What is the frequency of returns ? A. The frequency of returns is quarterly for those dealers with annual turnover less than Rs.5 crore and monthly for those with annual dealers with annual turnover more than Rs. 5 crore. However, you can choose to file monthly returns even if your turnover is below Rs. 5 crore. 32. By how much time will refunds be paid ? A. The refund will be paid within 30 days. In case of a delay, interest will be paid on the refund amount. 33. What is the rate of interest in case of delayed refunds ? A. The rate of interest of late payment is 1 percent. This rate is as prescribed for delayed payment for Income tax/Excise laws. 34. What is the documentation required to be submitted with the return to get refunds ? A. Normally, proof of exports is required to be submitted with the return to get refunds. 35. Which inputs can I claim set-off of ? A. Any business inputs which is used to produce a taxable output in Arunachal is allowed for set-off. However, there is a list of items that if consumed even in business process are not allowed for input tax credit. 36. Apart from input credit on raw material would dealers be allowed to claim credit on other costs like labor, overheads ? A. VAT paid on any business input would be allowed to be set off. Since services are not a part of VAT as of now, no tax is levied on it and no credit allowed. However, in future, when services will be included, full credit shall be given even for service inputs. 37. I am a manufacturer. Goods manufactured by me are both taxable and exempt. How do I do the entries in the Purchase Book when the inputs are purchased ? A. Inputs (raw material as well as finished goods) that go in exclusively for manufacture of taxable goods are to be put in creditable purchases (provided other conditions are also met). Similarly, inputs that go in exclusively for manufacture of exempt goods are to be put in non-creditable purchases. However, the inputs that go in partially for manufacture of exempt goods and partially for taxable goods, such purchases are to be appropriated in the ratio of taxable : exempt out put. Alternatively, you can maintain two separate inventories of such inputs (a) for use in manufacture of taxable goods and (b) for use in manufacturing of exempt goods. Then, all the purchases that are credited into inventory (a) can be claimed credit of and for all others, credit is not allowed. 38. How do I calculate Input Tax credit on purchases against which partial credit is available? A. If you are using the second method as explained in the last question, you can avail input tax credit of all purchases of input that you credit into the inventory “for use in manufacture of taxable goods” while all the purchases of inputs that are credited to the inventory “for use in manufacture of exempted goods”, shall not be entitled for input tax credit. If you are using the first method, at the end of each quarter, the input tax charged on purchases for which partial credit is available, is to be proportionately divided using the following formula : Credit Allowed = I * T/(T+E) I : Input tax charged on purchases, for which partial credit is available, made during the quarter. T : Total sales of taxable manufactured goods made during the quarter and zero rated sales. E : Total sales of exempt manufactured made during the quarter + revenues from outputs not available under VAT system. Finally, at the time of filing the last quarter return, you are required to perform the same calculation based on the total value of purchases for which partial credit is available, and total value of sales (of exempted and taxable manufactured goods) made during the year. This will be the total credit allowable for the year (on account of inputs for which partial credit is available). After adjusting the credits already taken in the previous quarters, the remaining credit can be availed in the last quarter. 39. I am making inter-state sales, which type of invoice am I supposed to issue ? A. Retail invoices are to be issued in case of interstate sales, interstate branch transfers and exports. 40. Keeping in mind the C & H forms requirements, what is the stipulated time for filing self assessment ? A. With the streamlining of issue of C forms, CST self-assessment can be completed in 6 months after the close of the year. Filing of return is the Self Assessment under the Arunachal Goods Tax. 41. What are the documents required to be submitted for refunds arising in cases of interstate sales ? A. You have to file a bank Guarantee of the amount of refund claimed in lieu of Central Statutory forms. This Bank Guarantee shall be released whenever you furnish the Central Statutory forms. 42. I make purchases intended for sale on Inter-State basis. Can I avail input tax credits on such purchase ? A. Yes, on purchases intended for sale on Inter-State basis as well as exports, input tax credits can be availed. 43. What are the timelines for providing refunds ? A. Refunds would be provided in 30 days from the date of filing returns. 44. Is a guarantee required for refunds ? A. Normally not. If the documentation with the return is complete (i.e. you file the C/F forms etc.) no guarantee is to be filed. However, in case where the C/F forms etc. are not filed with returns, bank guarantee equal to the amount claimed as refunds is required until the C/F forms are filed. 45. Can we get refunds or only adjustments ? A. You can avail of either based on your personal choice. 46. What is an Approved Warehouse ? A. Approved warehouses are authorized warehouses, where a re-exporter can temporarily store the goods, without levy of Entry Tax on it. 47. Would three be entry tax on goods imported for exports ? A. If goods are not stored in the Approved warehouses, in such cases, entry tax is required to be paid first and then refunded. There are providing provisions for “Approved warehouses” to take care of such cases and thereby solve the case flow problems of the re-exporters. 48. Will we get set-off for Entry Tax on stock transfers ? A. If you stock your goods (intended for re-exports) in a bonded warehouse, no Entry Tax is levied. Hence there would be no set-offs either (which means that you can bring goods in Arunachal free of Entry Tax, store it an Approved Warehouse and subsequently branch transfer it again, free of tax). Otherwise also, if you purchase locally /pay entry tax on imports and subsequently branch transfer it, you will get input tax credits on branch transfers also. 49. Should VAT be implemented as long as CST and Entry tax are in force ? A. VAT is a reform of local tax law, independent of CST, VAT will make Arunachal trade more competitive, irrespective of whether CST rate in Assam and other States is reduced or not. Entry tax is a part of VAT implementation methodology. In fact, VAT can’t work without entry tax. 50. Should VAT be implemented in all states simultaneously? A. VAT is expected to make Arunachal trade more competitive vis-à-vis other states and therefore it is not necessary for us to wait for other states to implement the same. 51. Are services included in VAT? A. Services would be included in future. 52. Will exemptions continue ? A. Yes exemptions would continue of few commodities. 53. Are there any statutory declaration forms under VAT ? A. There are no statutory forms under VAT. 54. Would the product classification under each category be uniform ? A. Yes, we are trying to classify products using a uniform system of nomenclature. 55. Is it possible to use old local sales tax number as new sales tax number for VAT? A. Yes, it is possible to do the same if your turnover exceeds the threshold value (Rs. 5 Lakhs). 56. Will the new registrants have to give surely ? A. No, only if you are below the threshold, surety is required. 57. What will be the frequency of filing returns ? A. Frequency of filing returns would be monthly/quarterly. 58. What is the rate of interest on late payment ? A. The rate of interest of late payment is 2 per cent. This rate is as prescribed for delayed payment for Income tax/ Excise laws. 59. Would dealers be allowed to print their own stationery of statutory declaration forms ? A. There are no statutory forms under VAT system. Dealers are allowed to print their own tax invoices. 60. How will management of accounts be easier ? A. Since all sales would be taxable and all purchases be tax paid, the classification/bifurcation of various kinds of taxable/non taxable sales need not be maintained. 61. What is an invoice ? A. Invoices are crucial documents for administering VAT because they record each supply of goods, whether taxable exempt. They are to be issued by all registered dealers for each of their sales. An invoice establishes both the tax liability of the supplier and the deduction (credit) to the registered purchaser. There are two kinds of invoices that can be issued under VAT i.e. Tax Invoice & Retail Invoice. 62. What kinds of invoices are required for VAT? Why is the name and address of the printer mandatory? A. Tax and retail invoices for a registered dealer/ consumer sale respectively is a normal VAT practice. Name and address of the printer is not mandatory. 63. What is a Tax invoice and when can I issue it ? A. If you are making a local sale to another registered dealer of Arunachal, a tax invoice can be issued. Specially, tax invoice should always mention : · Identity of the seller (with pre-printed registration number, name & address). · Identity of buyer (with name & address ); and · Amount charged with the amount of tax charged in the transaction indicated separately. The purchaser, on the strength of the tax invoice, can claim the benefit of input tax credit of the VAT paid on his purchases. (Provided his purchases are such that credit of the tax paid on them is allowable) 64. What is a Retail Invoice and when can I issue it ? A. In retail sales, which are much more numerous and of smaller amounts, simplified sale invoices or retail invoices can be issued. Although retail invoice should always identify the seller, indication of buyer’s name is optional and tax charged can be included in the sale price. No tax credit can be availed by the purchaser on the strength of a retail invoice. 65. What kinds of books of accounts are required to be maintained under VAT? A. The VAT book-keeping is very simple and can be kept even by enterprises that do not maintain full books of accounts or do not use double entry accounting. Taxpayers are essentially required to keep two books: · Purchases Book ; and · Sales Book. These books are a record purchases and sales respectively and are specifically designed for easy calculation of VAT. Simplicity of record keeping is the major objective in designing of these books. 66. Describe the format of the Purchase Book. A. The Purchase Book is a record required to be maintained buy all registered dealers. If should be used to log those purchases against which credit is allowed and those against which credit is not allowed, separately. 67. On which purchases can I not take credit? A. Credit is not allowable for any purchase used for consumption or producing non-taxable output. Further, purchase of fuel for consumption, food, liquor etc. is also eligible for credit. 68. On which purchases can I take credit? A. You can take credit on all business inputs that are used to produce taxable output. 69. Describe the format of the Sales Book. A. The sales book is a record to be maintained by all registered dealers, and is used to record the total volume of sale, and to distinguish between export, exempt, inter-state and taxable sale. 70. In case of original tax invoice being lost will credit be allowed on personal surety and not on duplicate invoices? A. No, this is normal VAT practice. 71. How will the scrutiny be targeted? A. Scrutiny would be targeted by using computerized selection. 72. Will there be a compulsory scrutiny for returns filed late? A. No. Continuous default in returns will lead to increased possibility of scrutiny. 73. Will some of the self-assessed returns be scrutinized ? A. Yes a small percentage will be selected for audit assessment. 74. Would assessment be conducted at the business premise of the dealers ? A. Yes, this is normal VAT practice. 75. Is there a provision for revision of assessment order in the Arunachal Goods Tax Bill? A. Appeal provision is available. There is no need for a parallel alternate forum. 76. With the introduction of Entry tax, would transporters be also required to register for VAT? A. The liability of Entry tax is on importer. If the importer is a businessman, he gets full credit of the entry tax paid. Transporters will have option to obtain an Approval Certificate from the Tax Department. 77. What will be the responsibility of the transporter? A. If you are an approved transporter, then before handing delivery you must ensure that the importer has fulfilled liability of Entry Tax. If you are not an approved transporter, then before entering Arunachal, you have to ensure that the importer has fulfilled liability of Entry Tax. 78. What happens if I do not do this? A. You will be liable for penalty. 79. Are Railways and Airlines also covered under the system? 80. Are transporters required to file any returns? 81. Will there be any assessment / audit of the transporters? A. Yes, transporters, railways, airlines can be assessed / audited for levy of penalty, if any. 82. Is Input Tax credit available to unregistered declares also? A. For dealers below the threshold and unregistered, there is no out put tax liability nor any input tax credits. However, if you cross the threshold, you are liable for output taxes, and can avail input tax credits. If you choose not to register (even after the crossing the threshold), you are liable for penalty and you don’t get any refunds. 83. Can a registered dealer claim credits for a purchase from an unregistered dealer? A. No, you cannot claim credits for purchase from an unregistered dealer. However, there is a special “deemed credit” system for purchases of “second hand” goods from unregistered dealers, if you are in the business of sale/purchase of “second hand” goods.	<urn:uuid:16268017-23fc-4534-971c-b6822bb54c8f>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://arun-taxexcise.nic.in/html/faqvat.html	2013-05-25T20:10:34Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706153698/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516120913-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.947718	5,185
What is it? Dental bonding is a procedure in which a tooth-colored resin material (a durable plastic material) is applied and hardened with a special light, which ultimately "bonds" the material to the tooth to restore or improve person's smile. For What Conditions Is Dental Bonding Considered? Dental bonding is an option that can be considered: - To repair decayed teeth (composite resins are used to fill cavities) - To repair chipped or cracked teeth - To improve the appearance of discolored teeth - To close spaces between teeth - To make teeth look longer - To change the shape of teeth - As a cosmetic alternative to amalgam fillings - To protect a portion of the tooth's root that has been exposed when gums recede What Are the Advantages and Disadvantages of Dental Bonding? Advantages: Bonding is among the easiest and least expensive of cosmetic dental procedures. Unlike veneers and crowns, which are customized tooth coverings that must be manufactured in a laboratory, bonding usually can be done in one office visit unless several teeth are involved. Another advantage, compared with veneers and crowns, is that the least amount of tooth enamel is removed. Also, unless dental bonding is being performed to fill a cavity, anesthesia is usually not required. Disadvantages: Although the material used in dental bonding is somewhat stain resistant, it does not resist stains as well as crowns. Another disadvantage is that the bonding materials do not last as long nor are as strong as other restorative procedures, such as crowns, veneers, or fillings. Additionally, bonding materials can chip and break off the tooth. Because of some of the limitations of bonding, some dentists view bonding as best suited for small cosmetic changes, for temporary correction of cosmetic defects, and for correction of teeth in areas of very low bite pressure (for example, front teeth). Consult with your dentist about the best cosmetic approach for your particular problem. Preparation. Little advance preparation is needed for dental bonding. Anesthesia is often not necessary unless the bonding is being used to fill a decayed tooth. Your dentist will use a shade guide to select a composite resin color that will closely match the color of your tooth. The bonding process. Next, the surface of the tooth will be roughened and a conditioning liquid applied. These procedures help the bonding material adhere to the tooth. The tooth-colored, puttylike resin is then applied, molded and smoothed to the desired shape. An ultraviolet light or laser is then used to harden the material. After the material is hardened, your dentist will further trim and shape it, and polish it to match the sheen of the rest of the tooth surface. - Time-to-completion. The procedure takes about 30 to 60 minutes per tooth to complete. Do Bonded Teeth Require Special Care? No. Simply follow good oral hygiene practices. Brush your teeth at least twice a day, floss at least once a day and see your dentist for regular professional check-ups and cleanings. Because bonding material can chip, it is important to avoid such habits as biting fingernails; chewing on pens, ice or other hard food objects; or using your bonded teeth as an opener. If you do notice any sharp edges on a bonded tooth or if your tooth feels odd when you bite down, call your dentist. How Long Does Bonding Material Last? The lifespan of bonding materials depends on how much bonding was done and your oral habits. Typically, however, bonding material lasts from 3 years up to about 10 years before needing to be touched up or replaced.	<urn:uuid:00211a07-0a05-4280-892b-dd28115df7a3>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.indianhealthguru.com/dental-bonding-surgery-india.html	2013-05-24T22:48:56Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00003-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.92847	772
HPV (human papillomavirus) is a family of viruses that causes these conditions: The interval between infection with HPV and changes to the cervix, also known as cervical dysplasia, can be a few months to many years. These changes are detectable by Pap and HPV testing. The interval to cervical cancer (if not treated appropriately) is usually 10-20 years. It is only when HPV infects the cervix for many years that it can cause cervical cancer. However, cervical cancer is nearly 100% preventable if you have regular Pap tests, as advised by your medical provider. Any sexually active person, regardless of gender or sexual orientation, is at risk for HPV. HPV viruses that cause genital warts and HPV-related cervical changes are sexually transmitted—in fact, they are the most common sexually transmitted infection (STI) among college students. Most people contract HPV through sexual intercourse (anal or vaginal), but it can be passed through any sexual contact. Thus, it is possible for even those who have never had vaginal or anal sex to have HPV infections. As many as 75% of sexually active men and women will have an HPV infection during their lifetimes. In a study done here at the University of Washington, over one-third of young women who did not have evidence of HPV infection at the start of the study were infected after 24 months. An equal percentage of women who became sexually active for the first time during the study period were infected after by 24 months. Smoking can greatly increase your risk of abnormal cervical changes, known as cervical dysplasia, and cancer. If you have multiple sexual partners, this also increases your risk of HPV infection. Knowing a new partner less than 8 months before having sexual contact may also increase your chance of contracting HPV. A vaccine is available that can protect you against some of the most common types of HPV. If you haven't yet been exposed to the virus, it can prevent you from ever getting infected. It can also prevent genital warts. Yes. Within two years, 90% of those infected will have cleared the virus. However, a few will have HPV for much longer. The average duration of cervical infections is about 8 months. No. Most often, both partners are infected by the same virus and develop immunity to that strain of the virus. Neither partner is in danger of reinfection by the same virus once their bodies have fought it off. However, all sexually active people are at risk for new infections with different subtypes of HPV. If you have a cervix, a Pap test is the best way to check for the abnormal cellular changes that can lead to cancer.. Talk to your healthcare provider about when to start screening and how often you will need to have Pap testing. Schedule an appointment with Hall Health for a Pap test. There is currently no test to determine whether biological males have HPV. Our knowledge about HPV infections is growing rapidly. What we know changes constantly as new information is added to our body of knowledge. At the same time, there is a great deal of misinformation about HPV out there, especially on the web. Below are sources of additional—and reliable—information on HPV infections: American Sexual Health Association (ASHA)'s page on HPV, which includes information for male partners of those diagnosed with HPV The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's (CDC) page on all things HPV You can call the National STD Hotline for more information about HPV or other STDs at 1-800-227-8922, 24 hours a day, 7 days a week The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists' Frequently Asked Questions on HPV For additional information, call one of Hall Health's Consulting Nurses. Authored by: Charles Petty, MD, and Ingrid Helsel, RN	<urn:uuid:3c6fda36-e670-4cc7-8ffa-849680f76f06>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://depts.washington.edu/hhpccweb/content/clinics/family-health/all-about-hpv-human-papillomavirus	2013-05-22T15:35:34Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701910820/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105830-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.969676	788
Shaivism (also spelled Śaivism) refers to a cluster of religious schools and traditions in Hinduism devoted primarily to the worship of the god Shiva, who is one of the principle gods of the Hindu religion. Shaivism is practiced widely throughout India, and has many distinct regional variations in both philosophy and practice. Its followers are referred to in English as Shaiva(s), or sometimes Shaivite(s). The most commonly worshipped symbol for Shaivites is the linga, a phallic column representative of Shiva's paradoxical virility and chastity. Indus Valley Civilization It is very difficult to determine the precise origins of Shaivism. Artifacts from excavations of archaeological sites from the Indus Valley Civilization have been interpreted to suggest that the earliest form of Shiva worship was practiced between 2800 B.C.E. - 1500 B.C.E. These artifacts include numerous lingas carved on rock surfaces, as well as the "Pashupati seal" (see picture inset) found at Mohenjo-daro, which has been the subject of much study. An engraving upon this seal depicts a horned male figure with an erect phallus, the emblem of Shiva. This image appears to represent a prototype of the Vedic deity Pashupati, the "lord of the creatures," who would become an aspect of Shiva. The central figure is seated in a yogic posture and is surrounded by animals, perhaps foreshadowing the associations with meditative asceticism and wildlife that Shiva, and his early precursor Rudra, would take on. With the dissolution of the Harrapan culture, religion in the Indus Valley region and India at large changed dramatically. The Rig Veda (c. 1200 B.C.E.), saw the initial proto-Shiva figure develop into Rudra, a terrifying, capricious deity who held jurisdiction over disease and the wilderness. Although only four of the Rig Vedic hymns are dedicated exclusively to this character, he plays an important mythological role in the Vedas in his association with the fire god Agni and the sacrificial beverage Soma. Not unlike Shiva, Rudra is connected with wildlife in his role of "lord of the cattle" (pasunam patih) and "wearer of the animal hide." As a proper name, Shiva means "The Auspicious One," and may have originally been used as a euphemistic epithet for Rudra. In fact, Shiva and Rudra are viewed as the same personality in a number of Hindu traditions today, and are often referred to mutually as Rudra-Shiva by scholars. In the later Vedas, Rudra-Shiva is venerated as a supreme, monotheistic figure for the first time. In the Svetsvara Upanishad, for instance, a text possibly dating back as far as the sixth century B.C.E., Rudra-Shiva is proclaimed to be the primordial creator. Furthermore, this text ultimately describes Rudra-Shiva as Brahman, the monistic essence of the universe. As a result, Rudra-Shiva came to be perceived to be protector and creator of all things, and had begun to resemble Shiva as he is known today. The Epics and The Puranas By the year 150 B.C.E., Shiva seems to have garnered a strong cult following. During this time, the grammarian Patanjali notes in his "Great Commentary" on Panini's Sanskrit grammar that devotees of Shiva are typically clad in animal skins and carry with them iron lances as the symbol of their god. This lance may be a precursor of Shiva's trident. The two great epics of India, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, also indicate Shiva's burgeoning significance, dealing extensively with stories of his exploits. Specifically, the Mahabharata suggests that an important Shaivic cult, the Pasupatas, may have been dedicated to the god around the beginning of the Common Era. Shiva was also featured on coins during the Kushan period (300-550 C.E.) suggesting his sustained popularity. It is with the rise to prominence of the Puranas during the Gupta dynasty (c. 320-500 C.E.), however, that Shaivism spread most rapidly throughout the Indian subcontinent. Gupta emperors sponsored Shaivite temples despite their own Vaishnavite stance, while kings of the Vakataka and the later Maukhari dynasties were fully Shaivite. By the seventh century C.E., Shaivism replaced Jainism and Buddhism as the dominant religious affiliation of South India. At this time, numerous texts were also touting Shiva to be the supreme deity. Shiva himself is distinguished as the central deity in the Shiva Purana, as well as the Linga, Matsya, Kurma, Skanda, and Agni Puranas. In these texts, Shiva is portrayed as the supreme god, a suggestion of monotheism that was put into practice by contemporaneous Shaivite sects such as the Kapalikas, the Kalamukhas, the Pasupatas and the Shaiva Siddhantins. Here Shiva comes to the fore and acts independently to create, preserve, and destroy the world. Also presented in these texts are some myths central to the definition of Shiva's later character. One particularly important story tells of incidents that transpired when Shiva entered a pine forest, in the typical dress of the ascetics who lived there. In the forest, Shiva took the time to seduce the wives of the ascetics. Angry with Shiva's licentious behavior, and unbeknowing of his true identity, the ascetics castrated the destroyer god and fixed his severed genital organ in the ground. This legend provides mythological explanation for the worship of the linga as it is performed today. Shankara and beyond Shankara (788-820 C.E.), one of the foremost Hindu philosophers, was a devoted Shaivite and composed several important hymns to Shiva. As such, Shaivism has often been linked with Shankara's Advaita or non-dual thought. By the ninth century, Shaivism had come to prominence in the North with the development of the Trika school, located primarily in Kashmir. This sect drew heavily upon Shankara's monistic philosophy, as well as that of Tantra. Such Tantric influences had been prominent in Shaivism from the Gupta period onward Shaivism continued to thrive in South India during medieval times. Between approximately 500 and 700 C.E., the 63 Nayanars, a group of Shavite saints, spread Shaivism through the Tamil speaking regions of South India. The Nayanars were among first proponents of the bhakti movement, which centered upon intense emotional devotion to a personal deity as the highest religious ideal. Although the Pasupata, Kapalika, and Kalamukha sects faded to extinction during this time period, they laid the foundation for the Virashaivas, also known as the Lingayats, a reformist Shaivite sect formed along the border regions of Maharashtra and Karnataka in the mid-twelfth century. Shaivite influences had also spread beyond India and into Southeast Asia. In eighth century Cambodia, elements of Shaivism were synthesized with those of Mahayana Buddhism, leading to the formation of the cult of Lokeshvara, a bodhisattva who fused elements of the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara and Shiva. This Shaivite influence eventually faded away, though it would rise again in the 13th century resulting in severe persecution of the Buddhist community. Shaivite worship also had influence on the Champa in what is today south Vietnam, and legitimized several ruling dynasties such as pre-Islamic Malaya and the Majapahit empire in early medieval Indonesia. During the later medieval period, the bhakti movement went on to become the most popular form of Hindu religious practice. Although this movement was typically favored by worshippers of Vishnu, many bhaktins would devote themselves exclusively to Shiva. Most of these followers were and are not, however, devoted exclusively to Shiva. Regardless, millions of Hindus appear at temples in order to worship Shiva today. For example in Banares, the holy city of Shiva, the temple of Siva Visvesvara remains one of the most popular pilgrimage sites in contemporary India. Orders and Lineages Shaivism has many different schools showing both regional variations and differences in philosophy. Shaivism has a vast literature that includes texts representing multiple philosophical schools, such as the non-dualist (abheda), dualist (bheda), and non-dual-with-dualism (bhedābheda) perspectives. The following section provides a summary of some of the major schools of Shaivism; in the case of regionally-bound schools, maps have been provided to show the primary areas of origin or present-day concentration. The ascetic Pashupatas (Sanskrit: Pāśupatas) are one of the oldest named Shaivite sects. The most likely founder of this group was Lakulisa, "the lord of the club," who lived around the early part of the second century C.E. Each of his four major disciples, Kusika, Gargya, Kaurusa, and Maitreya, established important lineages of their own. The Pasupatas wielded great influence over South Indian Shaivism from the seventh to fourteenth centuries, mainly in its connection to the Kalamukhas. Together these sects revived Shaivism in this region, ensuring that Jainism and Buddhism declined there. Pashupata influence also spread to more northern regions such as Gujarat, Kashmir and Nepal. Although the Pashupata movement seems to have died out by the late fifteenth century, its precepts are still well known because of two surviving texts, the Ganakarika, and the Pasupata Sutra. The Ganakārikā delineates five stages in progress towards spiritual union with god, each of which involves a specific procedure. This process begins with time spent in the temple along with a guru and progresses to the outside world, where the adept attempts to generate a loathing of the general populace. Finally, the ascetic draws his religious behavior inward in order to attain full union with Shiva. The Pasupata Sutra, meanwhile, describes in detail the five major theological concerns of the sect. They were: 1) kārya, the created universe, 2) kārana, God, cause of the universe, 3) yoga, the union of the individual soul with god, 4) vidhi, or observance, which includes devotion and ascetic practice, which leads to 5) duhkhāntha, the "end of suffering." In both texts, the dualistic distinction between souls (pashu), God (pati) and the physical word (pāsha) was made, a worldview that would live on in Shaiva Siddhanta. Kapalikas and Kalamukhas Two medieval Shaivite sects often paired together in scholarly opinion are the Kapalikas and Kalamukhas. Little is known about either sect, since no compositions belonging to either group are extant. Information on the Kapalikas (or "skull-bearers") gleaned from outsider commentaries, most notably Shankara's biographies, suggests that the group centred around bhakti devotion to Bhairava - Shiva in his most terrifying form. In order to accumulate merit, members of the Kapalika sect apparently undertook the Mahavratin, an extremely austere ritual of penance performed as punishment for the murder of a Brahmin. As their name would suggest, members of the Kapalika sect became famous for their association with human skulls, which doubled in function as a begging bowls and drinking cups. Accordingly, the Kapalikas were linked with any number of other horrifying practices, including meat-eating, intoxication, orgies, and even cannibalism, though these accusations were probably based largely upon polemical descriptions of the groups by outsiders. The Kalamukhas (or "black-faced"), meanwhile, were more closely associated with the Bramanical tradition. Information on this sect, culled mostly from epigramatic inscriptions on temples, suggests that the Kalamukhas existed in mathas, monastic organizations centered around a temple. The Kalamukhas were apparently influenced by the Pasupatas, sharing many of their traditions and identifying numerous sages from their fold with Lakulisa. The high regard for the linga and the prominence of the Kalamukhas in the Karnataka region between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries CE suggests that Virashaivism may represent a reformation of the Kalamukha tradition. However, contemporary scholars, most notably David N. Lorenzen, have been more hesitant to link the Kalamukhas as closely to the Kapalikas as they have been in the past. Among the first proponents of the vernacular bhakti tradition in Hinduism were the Nayanars, an exalted group comprised of sixty-three poet-saints that developed in South India duirng the seventh century C.E. These saints came from all levels of the social strata, promoting selfless, loving devotion as well as a spiritually equalitarian ethic. Among the most prominent of these figures are Nancampantar (c. 650 C.E.), Tirunavukkaracar (580-760 C.E.), Cuntaramurtti (c. seventh-eigh8th century C.E.), and Manikkavacakar (c. ninth century), the four primary poet saints. The latter is responsible for the Tiruvacakam, an important collection of texts that praise Siva as a figure worthy of worship by all people, though ultimately belonging to the southern country. It is the Nayanar Tirumular (seventh or eighth century C.E.) who is considered to be the earliest proponent of Shaivism in Tamil areas. His Tirumantiram is a primary source for the system of Shaiva Siddhanta, and is considered the tenth book of that tradition's canon. The hymns penned by these saints, communicate deep emotional love for Shiva in his personal form. They are divided into eleven collections together with a Tamil Purana called the Periya Puranam. The first seven collections, composed in the seventh-eighth century CE by Nancampantar, Sambandar (c. seventh century C.E.), and Sundarar (eighth century C.E.), are known as the Thevaram and are considered by Tamil Shaivites to be tantamount to the Vedas in spiritual importance. All throughout the corpus of their hymns, the Nayanars drew upon many aspects of Tamil culture so as to provide their works with distinct local color. Not only are the songs of these saints still sung by Tamil worshippers today, but their images are also widely worshipped as divine. Shaivism in the northern Indian region of Kashmir involves a number of influential sects, which thrived during the second half of the ninth century C.E. Among these groups were the dualistic Shaiva Siddhantas (see below) and the monists, comprised of the Trika and Krama traditions. The Shaiva Siddanthas maintained what they held to be a "pure" form of Shaivism, which was compatible with the orthodox Brahmanical philosophy and practice. They were lead primarily by Narayanakantha (c. 950-1025 C.E.) and his son Ramakantha, who composed the Naresvaraparkisaprakasa. Some of the initial movements in Kashmiri monism were made by Somananda, who formulated what would come to be known as the "Pratyabhijna" somewhere around the ninth century C.E. Pratyabhijna placed an early focus upon consciousness as the essence of the universe as well as the will and the self. Monist opposition to Shaiva Siddhanta continued in this direction, being officially codified by Vasugupta (ca 800 C.E.) and carried on by his student Kallata (850-900 C.E.), culminating in the works of Abhinavagupta, who further elaborated Pratyabhijna thought. These monists considered Shiva to be the substrate of a ubiquitous self that existed between all persons. This transpersonal self attributed Shiva with the characteristics of both immanence and transcendence, rendering Him a real but also wholly abstract creator-preserver-destroyer. In accordance with Tantric influences, the Trika tradition claimed that the initiated Saiva householder was able to experience the power of transcendence for himself by offering meat, wine, and sexual fluids to eight mother goddesses and their embodiments, called yogini. The Kramas, meanwhile, followed similar influences, dressing in skulls, frequenting cremation grounds, and propitiating the goddess Kali with meat and acts of caste-free sex in hopes that she would "possess" them. Needless to say, these practices were abhorred by the more orthodox Shaiva Siddhanta sect. Trika non-dualism eventually was absorbed by the Kaula cult, which sought erotic, mystical union with the goddess Srividya, and came to prominence in Kashmir during the eleventh century. Precepts for worship of Srividya superceded those of the Trika cult, due in no small part to their dissemination by figures like Jayaratha (c. 1225-1275), Sahib Kaula (b. 1629) and Harabhatta (1874-1951). Trika came to be strongly influence by the Krama, eventually adopting several of the Krama dieties into its pantheon. In contrast to the Trika, the Krama thrived for a number of centuries due in no small part to texts such as Nityasvatantra's Mahanayaprakasa, wherein Krama ritual is connected to the yearly Shivaratri festival (see below). The Krama also enjoyed popularity outside Kashmir in the cult of the goddess Guhyakali; liturgical texts of this group still circulate in the Kathmandu Valley today. The aforementioned non-dualist sects have traditionally been identified as Kashmir Shaivism proper, though Shaiva Siddhanta was the more popular group in this region during the tenth and eleventh centuries. In fact, the foremost of all the Shaiva cults in Kashmir during this time was actually that which worshipped Svacchandabhairava and his wife Aghoresvari. Although nondual Shaivism and meditational techniques are still employed by some Brahmans in the Kashmir region, the influx of Muslim influence forced the Tantric ritualism of the nondualists into obscurity. Not only is the medieval Shaiva Siddhanta tradition one of the most popular and persistent Shaivic philosophies, it has also provided the fundamental basis for the ritual and theology of many other Shaiva groups that followed it. The tradition seems to have originated as early as the sixth century CE in Kashmir and central India, although it also flourished in South India. Between the eleventh or twelfth centuries C.E. Shaiva Siddhanta was well-established in South India, particularly in Tamil Nadu. Shaiva Siddhanta upholds the older Pashupata distinction between three eternal substrates: souls, God, and the physical world. Shiva, the supreme divine being, is the effecient cause of the universe and the volitional souls within it, while his Shakti provides the instrumental cause. Souls are bound to the material state because of ignorance, karma, and maya, the illusory aspects of reality. Shiva, however, provides the soul with the abiltiy to obtain empirical knowledge, which in turn leads to action that is either good or evil. This philosophy is put into practice as an intense devotional monotheism, wherein the most profound experience of god is held to be of the personal and loving variety. Shaiva Siddhanta allows for three paths of salvation, service (carya), worship (kriya) and meditation (yoga). No matter which path a devotee choses to follow, they must keep their mind fixed lovingly upon Shiva in every aspect of their lives in order to attain salvation. Such devotion alone supercedes asceticism, scriptural understanding, and external ritual in importance. Liberation in this tradition entails the dispensation of divine knowledge (patijnana) directly from Lord Shiva, the precursor for eventual realization of inseparability from (although not identity with) the single god. In addition to the Vedic Samhitas, Upanishads, and the 28 Saiva and Rudra Agamas, the canonical texts for this group include the Tirumura and Meykantasastras, texts written in the vernacular Tamil. The Tirumurai (c. tenth century C.E.) includes devotional songs of a mystical nature attributed to the poet Nampi Antar Nampi, while the Meykantasastras (c. thirteenth-fourteenth century C.E.) are doctrinal explanations composed by theologians. Due in no small part to its connection with the vernacular Tamil, Shaiva Siddhanta survives as the most normative form of Shaivism in South India today, with a large following in Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka. The Virasaivas (or "heroic Shaivas") are a reformist Shaivite sect with approxiamately six million adherents located in the South India state of Karnataka at present. The movement originated along the border regions of Karnataka and Maharashtra in the mid-12th century. As is evident by their alternative moniker, the Lingayats ("bearers of the linga"), the linga represents the most important religious symbol for this group. The founder of this movement is traditionally thought to be Basava (1106-1167 C.E.), although his contemporary Ekantada Ramayya, may have been the principal reformer. Basava/Ekantada Ramayya rejected traditional elements of the mainstream Brahmanical religion such as temple worship and caste domination. As such, the literature of this group, consisting mainly of vacanas (or aphoristic sayings of the Virashaiva saints), is largely written in the vernacular Kannada. Virashaivas follow a system of qualified nondualism, which accepts both difference and nondifference between soul and God. Shiva and the cosmic force are one, yet Shiva is beyond His creation, which is real and not illusory. Shiva acts by way of his Shakti, which divides itself into God who is manifested in the linga and the guru. Because of this, every Virashaiva must be guided by a guru, who is held in high esteem. Members are required to wear a linga around their neck or arm, which is fastened in a tube as a constant reminder of Shiva's presence. Virashaivas must pay homage to this linga at least twice every day. Liberation is said to result from six phases of devotion, the culmination of which is union with Shiva. One of the primary symbols of Shaivism is the linga (also known as "Lingam"), a phallic shape which represents Shiva by embodying both his regenerative capability as the destroyer and reproducer of the universe, and his persistent ascetic restraint from sex. As such, the ever-erect phallus of Shiva is his infinite creative potentiality writ large. The linga has become the definitive mark of Shaivism, allowing a devotee to recognize and identify with followers of the group. The linga is commonly found in proximity to a yoni, the vulvular symbol of Shakti. The linga is also the focal point of worship throughout India in both temples and family shrines. In Shavite temples, worship of the linga is performed with offerings of fresh flowers, water, sprouts of grass, fruits, leaves and sun-dried rice. In the home, Shaivites often collect natural linga-shaped stones to which they perform ablutions and food offerings. Lingas used in worship are of two varieties: those sculpted by humans and those that occur naturally, such as the ice Lingam located at the Cave Temple of Lord Amarnath in Kashmir. Additionally, the twelve Jyotirlinga shrines, where Shiva is worshipped in the form of a Jyotirlingam (or "Lingam of light) are among the most esteemed worship sites in the Śaivite tradition. The tilak is a Hindu sectarian mark worn on the forehead, which varies in shape according to the different folds of Hinduism. The Shaivite tilak typically appears as three horizontal lines, also known as tripundra, drawn upon the forehead with ashes. Ash used for this purpose is held to be holy and is referred to by the Sanskrit terms bhasma and/or vibhuti, both of which can be translated as "sacred ash". Shiva-worshippers also wear this type of ash upon various other parts of the body. Some sects such as the Kapalikas, are said to have covered themselves in the funerary ashes of cremated corpses. There are innumerable Shaivite temples and shrines throughout India. These temples usually enshrine a linga that resides deep within the temple compound, inside the sanctum sanctorum. Typically, only the guru may enter this sanctum sanctorum. Many shrines to Shiva are accompanied by images and icons dedicated to those closely related to Shiva in his mythology, including Ganesha and Skandha, his sons, and Shakti, his consort. Shiva and Parvati are often depicted together in devotional images as Ardhanarishvara, "the Lord whose half is woman"—an androgenous deity, who is half Shiva and half Parvati. Shivacharyas ("teachers of Shiva") conduct Shiva worship services. The usual service proceeds with the anointing of the image of the diety with oil, water, milk, ghee, honey, curd, sandalwood paste, and a number of other substances before being showered with blossoms. The idol is then adorned with jewels and flower garlands. Incense is burned, and then a food offering is made, usually of a rice preparation. Camphor and lamps of various designs are lit and presented to the image of the deity. The burning camphor is then carried to the congregation. The worshippers reverentially place their palms over the falme before placing them over their eyes; some say this gesture signifies that the devotion is as precious to the worshipper as his or her own sight. Finally sacred ash and kungumam (powdered turmeric mixed with slaked lime) are distributed into the upraised palms of the worshippers, who touch this mixture onto their foreheads. The worshippers then progress along the path of circumambulation around the diety at least once before prostrating in prayer to the sanctum sanctorum, singing and reciting verses from the holy texts. These services are held daily, with as many as six occuring each day depending on the resources and the popularity of the temple. The fourteenth day of the waning moon in the month of Falgun (occuring between February- March) is considered Shiva Ratri, the night of Lord Shiva. This day marks the most important festival dedicated to the god. On this day, Shaivite Temples are elaborately decorated, with hordes of devotees lining up to offer obeisances to Lord Shiva. In honor of Shiva's benumbed and non-plussed attitude toward the phenomenal world, for this occassion devotees (usually male) become intoxicated by a drink called Thandai made from cannabis, almonds, and milk. This beverage is consumed as prasad while singing devotional hymns and dancing to the rhythm of the drums. Shiva Rati is especially popular in Nepal, particularly at the Shaivite temple of Pashupatinath in the eastern part of the Kathmandu valley which welcomes upwards of 100,000 worshippers during this festival. Many participants in the Shiva Ratri celebrations throughout Nepal smoke marijuana since the substance is temporarily legalized in the nation for this day only. Shiva is also the focus of smaller, more regionally-specific events. One example is the Pooram feast, which is held at the Shaivite temples located in Trichur, Kerala during April or early May. In a grand procession, elephants are lead through the streets in battle formation, a spectacle that attracts millions of spectators. From dawn until dusk, musicians beat drums, smash cymbals and blow bugles during this festival. Shaivism stands with Vaishnavism and [Shaktism]] as the most influential branches of devotional Hinduism today, with almost 200 million worshippers throughout the world. Although Vaishnavites outnumber Shaivites, some scholars argue that Shaivism remains the more coherent and unified of the two monotheistic schools. Broadly speaking, the strength of this collection of traditions, sects, and schools devoted to Shiva suggests the continued importance of a personal diety in the religious consciousness of Hinduism. Shaivism generally spurned the more abstract conceptions of the Absolute put forth in the Upanishads. Through devotional practice, Hindus have been able to express their own worship through their chosen diety. Therefore, Shaivism continues to provide a comprehensive sadhana (religious path) for many practicioners of Hindu bhakti (devotion). - ↑ The World Almanac & Book of Facts. (Mahwah, NJ: K-111 Reference Corp., 1998), 654. - ↑ Gavin Flood, An Introduction to Hinduism. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 28-29. - ↑ Flood (1996), 154. - ↑ David Lorenzen, "Shaivism: An Overview," Encyclopedia of Religion, Edited by Mircea Eliade. (New York: MacMillan Publishing, 1987. ISBN 00290985059), 7-10. - ↑ Lorenzen, "Shaivism: An Overview," 9. - ↑ Flood (1996), 110. - ↑ Lorenzen, (1987), 10. - ↑ Ingrid Fischer-Schreiber, et al. The Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy & Religion: Buddhism, Hinduism, Taoism, Zen. (Boston: Shambhala, 1994), 51. - ↑ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, "A Historical Sketch of Saivism," in: Bhattacharyya (1956), Volume IV, 63-78. - ↑ Gavin Flood, (Ed.) The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2003), 206. - ↑ David Lorenzen, "Shaivism: Pasupatas," Encyclopedia of Religion, Edited by Mircea Eliade. (New York: MacMillan Publishing, 1987. ISBN 002909850518), 18-19. - ↑ Lorenzen, "Pasupatas," 18. - ↑ David Lorenzen. The Kāpālikas and Kālāmukhas: Two Lost Saivite Sects. (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1972), 167-168. - ↑ Indira Viswanathan Peterson, "Saivism: Nayanars." Encyclopedia of Religion, Edited by Mircea Eliade. (New York: MacMillan Publishing, 1987. ISBN 0029098505), 13. - ↑ Maurice Winternitz. History of Indian Literature. (New Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint Corporation, 1972), 588, note 1. - ↑ Viswanathan Peterson, 13. - ↑ Sanderson, "Saivism in Kashmir," 16. - ↑ Andre Padoux, "Saivism: Pratyabhijna." Encyclopedia of Religion, Edited by Mircea Eliade. (New York: MacMillan Publishing, 1987), 17-18. - ↑ Sanderson, "Trika Shaivism," 15. - ↑ Sanderson, "Krama Shaivism," 14. - ↑ Sanderson, "Saivism in Kashmir," 16-17. - ↑ Sanderson, "Saivism in Kashmir," 17. - ↑ Flood (2003), 210. - ↑ John Keay. India: A History. (New York: Grove Press, 2000. ISBN 0802137970), 62. - ↑ Flood (2003), 217. - ↑ Mariasusai Dhavamony. "Saivism: Saiva Siddhanta." Encyclopedia of Religion, Edited by Mircea Eliade. (New York: MacMillan Publishing, 1987), 12. - ↑ Dhavamony, 11. - ↑ Flood (1996), 162. - ↑ Padoux, "Virashaivas," 12. - ↑ Padoux, "Virashaivas," 12. - ↑ Vaman Shivram Apte. The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary, Fourth Ed. (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1965. ISBN 8120805674), 714; 866. - ↑ Mahashivratri Festival.vmission.org. Retrieved December 18, 2008. - ↑ By the Powers of Lord Shiva. hinduism.about.com. Retrieved December 18, 2008. - ↑ Avigya Karki, Shiva Ratni.nepalhomepage.com. Retrieved December 18, 2008. - ↑ Thrissur Pooram.webindia123.com. Retrieved December 18, 2008. - ↑ Peter Bishop & Michael Darton, (ed). The Encyclopedia of World Faiths: An Illustrated Survey of the World's Living Faiths. (New York: Facts on File Publications, 1987), 194. - Apte, Vaman Shivram. The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary 1965, Fourth Ed. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. ISBN 8120805674 - Basham, A. L., Kenneth Zysk, Ed. The Origins and Development of Classical Hinduism. New York: Oxford University Press, 1989. ISBN 0195073495 - Bhandarkar, Ramakrishna Gopal. Vaisnavism, Śaivism, and Minor Religious Systems, Third AES reprint edition. 1913 New Delhi: Asian Educational Services, 1995. ISBN 812060122X The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture 1956. - Bhattacharyya, Haridas. The Cultural Heritage of India Volumes 1-4. Calcutta: The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture 1956. - Bishop, Peter & Michael Darton, eds. The Encyclopedia of World Faiths: An Illustrated Survey of the World's Living Faiths. New York: Facts on File Publications, 1987. ISBN 0356140628 - Chakravarti, Mahadev. The Concept of Rudra-Shiva Through the Ages. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1986. ISBN 8120800532 - Courtright, Paul B. Ganeśa: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985. ISBN 0195057422 - Dallapiccola, Anna. Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend. London: Thames and Hudson, 2002. ISBN 0500510881 - Dhavamony, Mariasusai. "Saivism: Saiva Siddhanta." Encyclopedia of Religion, Edited by Mircea Eliade. New York: MacMillan Publishing, 1987. 11-12. ISBN 0029098505 - Fischer-Schreiber, Ingrid, et al. The Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy & Religion: Buddhism, Hinduism, Taoism, Zen. Boston: Shambhala, 1994. ISBN 087773433X - Flood, Gavin. An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. ISBN 0521438780 - Flood, Gavin, Ed. The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2003. ISBN 1405132515 - Grimes, John A. Ganapati: Song of the Self. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1995. ISBN 0791424405 - Harper, Katherine Anne, & Robert L. Brown. The Roots of Tantra. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2002. ISBN 0791453065 - Keay, John. India: A History. New York: Grove Press, 2000. ISBN 0802137970 - Lorenzen, David. The Kāpālikas and Kālāmukhas: Two Lost Saivite Sects. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1972. ISBN 8120807081 - Lorenzen, David. "Saivism: An Overview." Encyclopedia of Religion, Edited by Mircea Eliade. New York: MacMillan Publishing, 1987. 7-10. ISBN 0029098505 - Lorenzen, David. "Saivism: Pasupatas." Encyclopedia of Religion, Edited by Mircea Eliade. New York: MacMillan Publishing, 1987. 18-19. ISBN 0029098505 - Michaels, Axel. Hinduism: Past and Present. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004. ISBN 0691089531 - Padoux, Andre. "Saivism: Virasaivas." Encyclopedia of Religion, Edited by Mircea Eliade. New York: MacMillan Publishing, 1987, 12-13. ISBN 0029098505 - Padoux, Andre. "Saivism: Pratyabhijna." Encyclopedia of Religion, Edited by Mircea Eliade. New York: MacMillan Publishing, 1987, 17-18. ISBN 0029098505 - Sharma, Ram Karan. Elements of Poetry in the Mahābhārata, Second ed. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1988. ISBN 8120805445 - Sanderson, Alexis. "Saivism: Krama Saivism" Encyclopedia of Religion, Edited by Mircea Eliade. New York: MacMillan Publishing, 1987. 14-15. ISBN 0029098505 - Sanderson, Alexis. "Saivism: Trika Saivism" Encyclopedia of Religion, Edited by Mircea Eliade. New York: MacMillan Publishing, 1987. 15-16. ISBN 0029098505 - Sanderson, Alexis. "Saivism: Saivism in Kashmir" Encyclopedia of Religion. Edited by Mircea Eliade. New York: MacMillan Publishing, 1987. 16-17. ISBN 0029098505 - Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta. "A Historical Sketch of Saivism," in: Bhattacharyya (1956), Volume IV, 63-78. - Viswanathan Peterson, Indira. "Saivism: Nayanars." Encyclopedia of Religion, Edited by Mircea Eliade. New York: MacMillan Publishing, 1987. 13-14. ISBN 0029098505 - Winternitz, Maurice. History of Indian Literature. New Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint Corporation, 1972. (translated from the German). - Sadhus and Yogis of India Retrieved Aug 9, 2007. New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here: - Shaivism (Aug 9, 2007) history - History_of_Shaivism (Aug 9, 2007) history - Shiva (Aug 9, 2007) history Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.	<urn:uuid:b8cbb5a7-0adc-402a-83b0-30800409d4f7>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Shaivism	2013-05-23T19:19:01Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703728865/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112848-00050-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.926743	8,475
The South Pacific’s Only Monarchy More than a 1000 years ago, Tongan rulers created a hierarchal system of monarchy very similar to that of European dynasties. The structure included commoners, nobility and above all royalty, with the royal title passed down from father to eldest son. This patrilineal mode of succession continues in modern times. Today’s Tongan monarchy remains an influential and powerful entity in the modern Kingdom, although the present and more contemporary King, George Tupou V, has introduced concessions to accommodate a more democratic state. Historically, one of the most loved and admired members of the Tongan Royal Family was Queen Salote. Her choice to show respect by sitting in an uncovered carriage in pouring rain at the 1953 Coronation of Queen Elizabeth made her famous around the world. The Importance of Family Tongan society is guided by four core values, all of which combine to ensure a generous and genuine welcome to visitors to the Kingdom; Fefaka’apa’apa’aki (mutual respect), Feveitokai’aki (sharing, cooperating and fulfilment of mutual obligations), Lototoo (humility and generosity), and Tauhi vaha’a (loyalty and commitment). Family is the central unit of Tongan life. Older persons command the most respect and each family member knows their role. A typical family unit may consist of adopted children, cousins and other distant relatives, alongside siblings and grandparents. Everything is communal, from food to sleeping arrangements. Brothers and sisters always sleep under separate roofs in accordance with the Tongan culture of sibling separation and respect. The two biggest occasions for Tongan families are weddings and funerals, both characterised by the giving of gifts including traditional tapa cloths and woven mats. Today, many Tongans still live in villages, especially in the outer islands, and traditional village life has not changed greatly from earlier days. Many traditional practices are still an integral part of village life, making Tonga one of most of the most authentic travellers’ destinations in the South Pacific. A Nation Entwined With Christianity Visiting a church on Sunday is a treasured memory for many travellers to the Kingdom of Tonga. Sundays are devoted to church, family and rest. Beautifully clear harmonies, the ringing of church bells, and the rhythmic beat of the “lali” (wooden drums), are all familiar sounds drifting on the tropical breezes. From the days of the early missionaries until modern times, Christianity has been a vital and influential aspect of every Tongan’s life, second only to the respect for family. Extremely modest dress is necessary for both Tongans and visitors, and it is expected that visitors respect Sunday as a day of rest. Businesses and shops are closed by law allowing Tongan families spend the day attending church for a relaxed day of worship and feasting. No flights are scheduled, and business contracts signed on a Sunday are legally void. It is a very respectful day and sports activities are not permitted, even in rugby-mad Tonga. Learning the local language Both Tongan and English are taught in schools across the Kingdom, and on the major islands of Tongatapu and Vava’u, virtually everyone speaks English as a second language. Despite the widespread bilingual skills of the Tongan people, they always welcome visitors to the Kingdom attempting to learn and use a few local phrases. Try mastering a few of these phrases, and see the warmth and generosity of the Tongan people quickly emerge. \|\|Malo e lelei \|\|Malo e lelei ki he pongipongi ni \|\|Malo e lelei ki he efiafi ni \|How are you? \|Fine, thank you \|\|Sai pe, Malo \|What's your name? \|\|Ko hai ho hingoa? \|My name is ... \|\|Ko hoku hingoa ko ... \|Where are you from? \|\|Ko ho'o ha'u mei fe fonua? \|I'm from ... \|\|Ko 'eku ha'u mei ... \|Are you married? \|\|Kuo ke'osi mali? \|Thank you (very much) \|Goodbye (to someone who is leaving) \|Goodbye (to someone who is staying) Tongan Food & Feasting Expect to be very well fed on your travels. Traditional Tongan favourites to try include ‘ota 'ika (raw fish marinated in lemon and coconut cream), and lu pulu (corned beef and coconut milk wrapped in taro leaves). Food and feasting are an integral part of Tongan society, and the feasts of the Kingdom are renowned throughout the Pacific for their size and diversity. In a Tongan feast, up to 30 different dishes are served on a pola, a long tray made from plaited coconut fronds. Traditional food growing and the gathering of seafood is still an important way of Tongan life. Delicious meat and seafood may include spit-roatsed suckling pig or steamed fish, chicken, beef, and octopus, and the freshest of local vegetables including yam, taro, sweet potatoes and cassava. Starchy fruit like plantain and breadfruit are also eaten like vegetables, often boiled with delicate coconut cream, and a popular local custom is to wrap vegetables in banana leaves for cooking or for serving. A special memory for many visitors is to experience a traditional earth oven or umu. Food cooked slowly and carefully in an umu retains its flavour, and also develops a delicious smokiness. Not everyone goes back for a second helping of this murky and spicy liquid, but drinking it at least once is an essential experience for visitors to Tonga. Usually drunk from a coconut shell, kava quickly relaxes the body and makes your tongue and lips go numb. The ceremonial drinking of kava is an ancient custom undertaken across all of Polynesia, and still an integral part of life in the Kingdom of Tonga. The homegrown product is renowned across the Pacific, with the finest Kava-Tonga reputedly being produced from the fertile soils of the volcanic islands of Tofua in the Ha’apai group and Tafahi in Niuatoputapu. Most Tongan villages have at least one kava club (kava kulupu), and they’re popular after dark venues for local men. Kava is also drunk before and after church on a Sunday, during the conferment of nobility, and at village meetings. It's definitely worth trying, and if a few sips makes you slightly too relaxed, a shady beachside hammock is never far away. Authentic Tongan Handicrafts Look forward to some of the South Pacific's most fascinating shopping, as the Kingdom of Tonga is a destination where it’s very easy to find interesting and authentic souvenirs. Traditional art and handicrafts including intricate bone carving, woodcarving, fine weaving and basket making are available at markets and specialised stores. The Kingdom's two most important handicrafts are tapa making and the weaving of mats, and Tongan womens' pride, skill, patience and sense of design are all showcased in these two ancient crafts. The stunning work on display is often sold directly by the craftspersons responsible, so shoppers are also taking home a personal connection to these beautiful South Pacific islands. Tapa Making and Painting Made from the bark of the mulberry tree (broussonetia papyrifera), known locally as hiapo, tapa cloth is of great cultural significance in the Kingdom of Tonga. It’s a very important traditional gift, and no Tongan is born, marries or dies without being presented with metres of tapa cloth. All tapa is still proudly handmade, and the sound of wooden mallets beating out lengths of tapa cloth is one of the Kingdom’s most familiar sounds. From early morning until sunset, women gather in their homes or at the fale kautaha (the village’s communal tapa house) to assist each other in tapa making. Every piece of tapa is uniquely different, making for an extremely authentic souvenir. Like tapa making, mat weaving is an everyday part of Tongan life. Women gather in small groups weaving, and sing or talk together to keep themselves inspired. Mats are the most treasured possessions in Tongan households, and are traditionally presented at births, weddings, funerals and other special occasions. Tongans also wear mats known as ta’ovala around the waist, the most respectful form of dress in the Kingdom. This custom originated in ancient times when men returning after long voyages at sea, would cut the mat sails of their canoes and cover their naked bodies prior to appearing before their chief. Finely woven ta’ovala are particularly treasured, and are handed down from generation to generation, some dating back hundreds of years. Make sure you pack plenty of memory for your camera. A vibrant and colorful experience for many visitors to Tonga is the dignified and graceful dancing of the Kingdom. Complex arm movements visually enhance subtle melodies of sung poetry, culminating in a style of dance that is uniquely Tongan, and quite different from the vigorous tamure of Tahiti and the Cook Islands or the swaying hula of Hawaii. Tongan dance is also a spectacle that demands the involvement of spectators, and a gift of appreciation or fakapale is a local tradition to reward a dancer. Once these gifts were tapa and mats, but in modern society money is now more common. Tonga's traditional dances include the Me’etu’upaki, ‘Otuhaka, Ma’ulu’ulu, Ula, Tau’olunga, Kailao and Soke, and most famous is the Lakalaka, a dance practised throughout the Kingdom. Expressing stories of Tongan history and legends, the Lakalaka is performed by both men and women, sometimes in spectacular groups of up to several hundred. Dancers step their feet and move their arms in intricate gestures, and decoration includes beautiful bracelets, neck garlands and the tekiteki (a feather headpiece). Wearing of the tekiteki enhances the dancers' head movements and is considered one of the most important actions in the Lakalaka, a graceful Tongan art form that's been recognised by the United Nations as a "Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity”.	<urn:uuid:4e765901-11c7-4e0a-b032-9bd9e5c96c5d>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.thekingdomoftonga.com/discover/tonga-today/	2013-05-20T03:23:00Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698222543/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095702-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.93487	2,204
Yesterday‘s post mentioned that Britain and France sometimes entrusted the development of Canada to private enterprise rather than doing it themselves. An example of such enterprise was the company called “The Merchant Adventurers of England trading into Hudson’s Bay,” formed in 1670. The Hudson’s Bay Company concluded a big deal on January 13, 1849 when it leased Vancouver Island from the British Government for seven shillings a year — in those days, seven shillings was worth about $1.75! The reason the Hudson’s Bay Company made such a bargain was that Britain was in the throes of a depression, including a famine in Ireland. In addition, the United States had in the year before bought California from Mexico and now controlled the Pacific to the 49th parallel. Britain needed a naval base on the Pacific coast, and Vancouver Island was the logical place for it. The Hudson’s Bay Company had exclusive trading rights on the island, but in return agreed to pay for the cost of defence and to bring in settlers. The agreement was supposed to last until 1859, but was kept in effect until 1866 when Vancouver Island was united with the mainland, and the whole area became British Columbia. Some of the earlier settlers were quickly disenchanted. The first governor, Richard Blanchard, was sent out by the British Government. He agreed to serve without pay because he hoped the post would be the first step in a diplomatic career. However, he also expected that he would have a mansion and an estate of extensive lawns as in England. Not finding them, he lasted only a few months before asking to be recalled. Other settlers arrived with coaches and horses, only to find that there were no roads. Some brought equipment for playing cricket, but, alas, it takes a long time to convert a forest into a cricket pitch! Still, they were no more badly informed than tourists over one hundred years later, who often arrive in Canada in July bringing skis and winter clothing. - A Government on Horseback! (tkmorin.wordpress.com) - 2013 ~ Vancouver Island’s year of the Labyrinth (insideawarenessblog.wordpress.com)	<urn:uuid:90843702-5f76-4bce-97aa-913d2fb605cf>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://tkmorin.wordpress.com/2013/01/12/vancouver-island-leased/	2013-05-22T14:59:40Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701910820/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105830-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.981591	455
Computers… it seems we just can’t live without them, so lets learn to live with them, recycling computers is an important part of a sustainable future. The question is, what to do with your old computer when it’s no longer useful? Unfortunately, computer recycling is a relatively new term. Over the years millions of tonnes of computer equipment have ended up in landfill with dangerous toxic metals left to leach into the ground and eventually the waterways. Thankfully, just like bottles, plastic bags, cans etc. recycling will also be the answer for computers. What does computer recycling really mean? Computer recycling is a detailed process, but in essence the electronic waste is broken down into its various components, ie. plastics, metals, glass etc. and from there, 95-98% (by weight) of these materials can be fully recycled for future use. One of the biggest issues facing computer recycling Lack of knowledge about computer recycling is the biggest hurdle at the moment. All too often computer equipment is dumped on the side of the road or simply just put out with the general rubbish, inevitably this means it will end up in landfill. This approach is simply not sustainable. Our approach to recycling computer equipment At 1800Ewaste we are passionate about diverting as much electronic equipment from landfill as possible, a large part of this is the recycling of computer equipment. We believe it’s a vital step in our continued journey with technological advancement. Our service is professional, fast and reliable, we’ll come to you, collect your computer equipment and deliver it to the appropriate recycling facility. How to get your computer recycled… If you’re interested in computer recycling or would just like to get rid of the general ewaste that’s no doubt cluttering up your garage or basement, please give us a call today on 1800ewaste, 1800 392 783. Originally posted 2009-10-27 11:49:28.	<urn:uuid:dc711c48-2a0b-4876-b600-ea7252c07475>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.ewaste.com.au/ewaste-articles/computer-recycling-age-electronic-waste/	2013-05-19T02:45:35Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383160/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.937909	407
Monday, January 21st, is Inauguration Day. It seems a perfect time then, to share Charles R. Smith's latest picture book, BRICK BY BRICK. This picture book tells the story of how the White House was actually built. Did you know that? In the author's notes, Smith says: When construction began in 1792, it (the White House) was in the middle of nowhere. Manpower was needed to clear the forest, build the house, and make all the beautiful details inside. Lots of manpower. Local workers including immigrants from Scotland and other countries were hired, as well as free blacks, but it wasn't enough. That's where the slaves come in. After realizing there weren't enough workers in the population to assist in construction, the government looked to slaves to round out the workforce. Slave owners from Virginia and Maryland received five dollars a month to rent out each slave. After a hard day of work, slaves returned to a small, shared hut and ate from the rations of pork, beef, and cornmeal provided to them.And so Smith takes readers through the slaves' building of the White House- digging and breaking the stone, sawing down trees, making bricks, building walls, completing the finish work- focusing on the hands with his typical, gorgeous, rhythmic, repetitious poetry, and tight-in specificity. Listen to a page: Slaves endured a snake-infested swamp island and mosquito swarms to dig up the stones needed for the walls of the house. They endured hour after hour of cutting and trimming wood, often until their hands were bloodied or deformed. The work was hard on the body, especially the hands. I chose to focus on the hands… Sawyers saw bladesHands also feature prominently in Floyd Cooper's illustrations. Cooper, illustrator of many, many books, including classics like BROWN HONEY AND BROOMWHEAT TEA and MEET DANITRA BROWN, and newer work like QUEEN OF THE TRACK: ALICE COACHMAN, OLYMPIC HIGH JUMPER, and IN THE LAND OF MILK AND HONEY is right up there with Kadir Nelson on my list of favorites. The illustrations for BRICK BY BRICK, done in tans, browns, sepia, and blues, are perfect. through logs of oak wood, seven days a week where a forest once stood. Up, down, push, pull two men per pit saw, until slave hands are raw. Slave hands saw twelve hours a day, but slave owners take slave hands' pay. A book you will definitely want to share this week…	<urn:uuid:6accec7d-7bd2-4877-9e53-c23a3587ec8d>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://carolwscorner.blogspot.com/2013/01/brick-by-brick-charles-r-smith.html	2013-05-24T08:29:08Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00050-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.953096	568
ocean linerArticle Free Pass ocean liner, one of the two principal types of merchant ship as classified by operating method; the other is the tramp steamer. A liner operates on a regular schedule of designated ports, carrying whatever cargo and passengers are available on the date of sailing. The first liners were operated in the North Atlantic, notably by Samuel Cunard of Britain, beginning in 1840. Cunard liners continued to be leaders, though soon joined by French, German, U.S., and other ships, subsidized by their national governments and competing in size, speed, and passenger accommodations. The heyday of the ocean liner lasted from the late 19th to the mid-20th century. Among the most famous were the “Mauretania,” sister ship of the ill-fated “Lusitania” and for 23 years holder of the blue ribbon for transatlantic speed; the “Aquitania,” also a Cunarder, the last four-funnelled vessel; the German “Vaterland,” seized in New York in 1917 and renamed “Leviathan,” for many years the largest ship afloat; the 80,000-ton “Queen Mary” and “Queen Elizabeth,” giant Cunarders of the 1940s and 1950s; the French Line’s “Normandie,” which set a new transatlantic speed record of just over four days but which was destroyed by a fire in New York harbour in 1942; and the “United States,” which set a new transatlantic record of three days, ten hours, averaging 35 knots, or 41 land miles per hour, in 1952. The reign of the transatlantic liners as glamour ships of the world was gradually ended by the rise of air travel. A vast fleet of liners, ranging from passenger-cruise vessels to refrigerated cargo ships, continued to cover the world. What made you want to look up "ocean liner"? Please share what surprised you most...	<urn:uuid:ba78fa6f-6f8e-4db5-b59c-0c229c0da656>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/424398/ocean-liner	2013-05-21T11:17:22Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699899882/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102459-00052-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.963881	433
Armin W. Doerry and Fred M. Dickey Optics and synthetic aperture radar (SAR) share a history that dates from the earliest efforts in the field of coherent radar imaging. Technological advances have allowed a leap in the utility of SAR as a remote sensing instrument, so that today its effectiveness can rival that of electro-optical/infrared systems. Access to the full text of this article is restricted. In order to view this article please log in.	<urn:uuid:89649337-4d99-40b5-bcfe-5ffc2f757606>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.osa-opn.org/home/articles/volume_15/issue_11/features/synthetic_aperture_radar/	2013-05-20T12:48:51Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698958430/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516100918-00001-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.936144	98
Michigan Jewry During Depression and War June 20 - September 23, 2012 The Great Depression and World War II had significant impact on every American during that era. American Jews had a unique experience. While many enjoyed success and popularity, they were also aware that anti-Semitism was an ever-present threat. The rise of Nazi Germany and the horrors of the Holocaust were further sources of stress. Uneasy Years: Michigan Jewry During Depression and War explores the dilemmas and successes of Michigan Jews during the decades of the 1930s and 1940s. The exhibit’s photographs explore how Jews, many of whom were recent immigrants or refugees, adjusted to American life, made it through the Great Depression, and participated in the American war effort. A series of oral history interviews with members of the Kalamazoo Jewish community brings a local dimension to the exhibit. Artifacts reflecting local religious observances will also be on display. This traveling exhibit was made possible with financial support from the Congregation Shaarey Zedek of East Lansing, Michigan State University Jewish Studies Program, Michigan State University Museum, the Michigan Humanities Council, the Ben Teitle Foundation, the Michigan Council for Arts and Cultural Affairs, and private donors.	<urn:uuid:c5251224-cb60-444e-9cc2-6e5e7e90100a>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://kvm.kvcc.edu/exhibits/special_exhibits/uneasy_years/	2013-05-25T05:57:39Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705559639/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115919-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.960731	249
Remember a veteran this year On Nov. 11, 1918, an armistice was reached to cease hostilities until a final peace treaty could be reached, basically bringing a conclusion to the fighting in World War I. The following year, President Woodrow Wilson proclaimed Armistice Day would be recognized every year in this nation on Nov. 11. The original thought was to celebrate the armistice with a two-minute suspension of business at 11 a.m. to recognize those who fell in combat during “The Great War.” The recognition of Armistice Day evolved into a legal holiday in most states in the 1920s and 1930s, and was officially made a federal holiday in 1938. Following World War II from 1941-1945 and the Korean War from 1950-1953, millions more veterans were added to the rolls in the nation and, with that in mind, President Dwight Eisenhower signed legislation in 1954 to change the name of the holiday to Veterans Day. Congress passed the Monday Holiday Law in 1968, which established that the fourth Monday in October would be the new date for observing Veterans Day, starting in 1971. That was so wildly unpopular across the nation that the holiday was moved back to Nov. 11 in 1975 legislation, permanently making Nov. 11 Veterans Day when that took effect in 1978. Got all that? We’ve been historically wild in celebrating the achievements and sacrifices of our veterans. We’ve changed days, duration of observance and who is included. But, at the basic core of it all, we have consistently chosen to honor them. We see them as our protectors. We understand that they have done things so the rest of us have been able to live our day-to-day lives without fear. And we thank them for their sacrifices. Often lost in the high-powered rhetoric and political gamesmanship we see from our political divide in this nation today is that there are more and more veterans returning home every day. They carry the scars — both emotional and physical — of their own experiences in war, and often come home to find that people are far more concerned about the economy than what they have done. That’s not to say the economy shouldn’t be a major concern for most of us in this nation. People are out of work. They’re losing their homes. It’s hard out there. But the wars overseas, and the men and women returning home, are often getting brushed aside. Take a moment this Veterans Day to thank a veteran for his or her efforts. If you pray, take a minute and say a prayer for those overseas right now. We all have busy lives, and we all have our concerns. But let’s remember those who give of themselves for the rest of us.	<urn:uuid:93fb506a-fc92-4e61-9b28-61b31130fc26>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://bethanybeachnews.com/content/remember_veteran_year	2013-06-19T19:06:26Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368709037764/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125717-00003-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.968607	574
The U-M C.S. Mott Children's Hospital National Poll on Children's Health looked at concussion in school sports, and found that parents are not prepared for their role in reducing kids' risks. __________________________________________________________________ What do I need to know about kids and sports injuries? Playing sports is a great way for your child to stay fit and healthy, to learn about teamwork, make friends, and develop a sense of personal satisfaction. In addition, taking part in youth sports may lead to greater leisure-time physical activity as an adult . - Physical stress from the demands of training on kids’ growing bodies - Life stress (which increases the risk of injury) - Improper training - Poor coaching Can youth sports injuries be prevented? Most sports injuries can be prevented, even predicted! The first step in preventing sports injuries is finding out why sports injuries occur. Sports injuries may be caused by: - Individual risk factors (such as medical conditions) - Inadequate physical exams before participating (every child should get a sports-specific physical exam before each season) - Find out what UM experts say about heart screening for young athletes. - Lack of pre-season conditioning - Lack of safety equipment, or poorly fitted, improper equipment - Lack of proper eye protection - Teaming up by age instead of size - Unsafe playing fields, or surfaces - Improper training or coaching, or lack of instruction - Not warming up, cooling down and stretching properly - Playing while injured - Stress and inappropriate pressure to win - Poor nutrition or hydration - Check out this excellent guide from the National Institutes of Health on Childhood Sports Injuries and Their Prevention. It has tips on treating and avoiding sports injuries, and even has “scorecards” with information about specific sports. - The Young Athlete, from the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons (AAOS), describes how young athletes are different, and what to watch out for with kids involved in sports. - A Guide to Safety for Young Athletes, also from the AAOS, discusses reasons for concern, plus how to prevent injuries and play it safe. - Sports Safety Checklist to help prevent common athletic injuries—from the National Athletic Trainers’ Association. What do I need to know about trampoline safety? Trampoline injuries have been increasing in number and severity. In 2007, hospital emergency rooms treated more than 210,000 kids under age 15 for trampoline injuries. According to professional medical associations, trampolines should never be used at home, in gym classes, or on the playground. Kids should use trampolines under the supervision of a professional trained in trampoline safety in competitive sports training programs. The American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons (AAOS) offers these additional safety precautions : - Only one person should use a trampoline at a time. - Trampoline legs should be placed firmly into a hole slightly wider and longer than the trampoline frame, and deep enough so that the mat is level with the ground. - The surrounding surface should be shock-absorbing to reduce risk of injury. - The supporting bars, hooks, springs, strings and surrounding landing surfaces should be completely covered with adequate shock-absorbent protective padding. - Place the trampoline away from structures, fences, trees and other play areas. - Adult spotters must be present when participants are jumping. - Somersaults or high-risk maneuvers should never be attempted without appropriate supervision and instruction; these maneuvers should be done only with proper use of protective equipment, such as a harness and helmet. - Do not use the trampoline in inclement weather conditions like rain or snow. - Tip the trampoline onto its side (if possible) when not in use to prevent jumping without proper supervision. - More trampoline safety tips in this position statement from the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons (AAOS). - Listen to the American Academy of Pediatrics Minute for Kids about Trampoline Safety A good sports program will provide a safe learning environment where kids can grow physically and emotionally in self confidence. However, some kids have negative experiences and sustain real emotional injury. Find out more in this fact sheet: Emotional Injuries, from the National Youth Sports Safety Foundation. Parents have a big role to play. Listen: Parents: Be a Good Sport Too. - Vitamin and mineral supplements - Listen to the American Academy of Pediatrics Minute for Kids about Steroids in Sports - Information for teens on Sports Supplements In 2008, the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) reported the following statistics on injuries to youth under age 18 : - Football sends 1,024,022 kids to doctor’s offices, emergency rooms and hospitals. - Soccer is next on the list, with 368, 726 injuries for that same age group. - Cheerleading was the cause of 75,307 injuries. - Gymnastics injuries numbered 67,542. - Fact sheet on ice hockey injuries from the British Columbia Injury Research and Prevention Unit (Canada). - Be familiar with the Heads up, don't duck! campaign to prevent ice hockey spine injuries. - The AAP has issued a policy statement on Safety in youth ice hockey: the effects of body checking. - Video: Check out these instructional videos from Massachusetts Hockey’s “Heads Up, Don’t Duck!” campaign. The short videos teach you how to safely take a check and hit the boards. - Listen to the American Academy of Pediatrics Minute for Kids about Body Checking in Hockey - Common injuries: Bruises, cuts and scrapes, headaches, sunburn. - Safest playing with: Shin guards, athletic supporters for males, cleats, sunscreen, water. - Injury prevention: Aerobic conditioning and warmups, and proper training in “heading” (that is, using the head to strike or make a play with the ball). - Soccer safety, from SafeUSA. - Guidelines for moveable soccer goal safety, from the CPSC. - Listen to the American Academy of Pediatrics Minute for Kids about preventing soccer injuries - The American Academy of Pediatrics makes these recommendations : - “Protective eyewear and mouth guards may help reduce the number of some nonfatal head and facial injuries. - Further research is needed to determine if rule changes, equipment modifications, or further safety interventions can reduce the number of other injuries. - Because soccer-related fatalities have been strongly linked with head impact on goalposts, goalposts should be secured in a manner consistent with guidelines developed by the manufacturers and the US Consumer Product Safety Commission. - The potential for permanent cognitive impairment from heading the ball needs to be explored further. Currently, there seems to be insufficient published data to support a recommendation that young soccer players completely refrain from heading the ball. However, adults who supervise participants in youth soccer should minimize the use of the technique of heading the ball until the potential for permanent cognitive impairment is further delineated. - Violent behavior and aggressive infractions of the rules that tend to decrease broad participation in youth sports should be strongly discouraged. Parents, coaches, and soccer organizations should work to promote enforcement of all safety rules and strongly encourage sportsmanship, fair play, and maximum enjoyment for the athletes. - Pediatricians should encourage efforts to increase participation in all forms of physical activity, including youth soccer. Because soccer is a valuable component of physical activity and fitness for youth in the United States, pediatricians should work with other members of the community to make it safer for young people. “ - Cheerleading has become the leading cause of catastrophic injury in young female athletes. - Listen to the podcast about cheerleading injury and injury prevention, with UM expert Amy Miller Bohn, MD. - A parent's guide to cheerleading safety, from the American Association of Cheerleading Coaches and Administrators (AACCA). - Tips for avoiding cheerleading injuries from the AAOS. - AACCA high school safety rules. - March is cheerleading safety month. - Common injuries and locations: Bruises; sprains; strains; pulled muscles; tears to soft tissues such as ligaments; broken bones; internal injures(bruised or damaged organs); concussions; back injuries; sunburn. Knees and ankles are the most common injury sites. - Safest playing with: Helmet; mouth guard; shoulder pads; athletic supporters for males; chest/rib pads; forearm, elbow, and thigh pads; shin guards; proper shoes; sunscreen; water. - Injury prevention: Proper use of safety equipment, warmup exercises, proper coaching techniques and conditioning. - Football safety from SafeUSA. - Youth football: Heat stress and injury risk—a consensus statement from the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM). - Download a full-color poster with the ACSM’s recommendations - Common injuries: Sprains and strains of soft tissues. - Safest playing with: Athletic supporters for males, safety harness, joint supports (such as neoprene wraps), water. - Injury prevention: Proper conditioning and warmups - AAP SportsShorts: Gymnastics, with guidelines for families and coaches on one page, and pediatrician guidelines on the other. - Tips for parents to keep gymnasts' health from taking a tumble. Prepared just for parents by the AAP. - Common injuries and locations: Sprains; strains; bruises; fractures; scrapes; dislocations; cuts; injuries to teeth, ankles and knees. (Injury rates are higher in girls, especially for the anterior cruciate ligament or ACL, the wide ligament that limits rotation and forward movement of the shin bone). - Safest playing with: Eye protection, elbow and knee pads, mouth guard, athletic supporters for males, proper shoes, water. If playing outdoors, wear sunscreen and, when possible, a hat. - Injury prevention: Strength training (particularly knees and shoulders), aerobics (exercises that develop the strength and endurance of heart and lungs), warm-up exercises, proper coaching, and use of safety equipment - Basketball safety from SafeUSA. - Common injuries: Soft tissue strains; impact injuries that include fractures due to sliding and being hit by a ball; sunburn. - Safest playing with: Batting helmet; shin guards; elbow guards; athletic supporters for males; mouth guard; sunscreen; cleats; hat; detachable, “breakaway bases” rather than traditional, stationary ones. - Injury prevention: Proper conditioning and warmups. - Baseball and softball safety from SafeUSA. - Listen: Preventing Baseball and Softball Injuries - Common injuries: Strains, sprains, scrapes from falls. - Safest playing with: Proper shoes, athletic supporters for males, sunscreen, water. - Injury prevention: Proper conditioning and coaching. - Heads Up—free CDC tool kit on concussion for high school coaches (also in Spanish) - Current comment on Strength Training in Children and Adolescents from the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM). - For teens: Handling sports pressure and competition. - Sports, food, and fitness topics for teens from Kidshealth.org. - Sickle cell trait and the athlete—a press release on the consensus statement from the National Athletic Trainers’ Association. - STOP (Sports Trauma and Overuse Prevention) Sports Injuries is a public outreach and education program. Listen (American Academy of Pediatrics’ Minute for Kids): - Overuse Injuries in Sports - Protective Eyewear in Sports - Quitting a Sports Program - Avoiding Golf Cart Injuries - Exercise-Induced Asthma - Heat Exhaustion and Heat Stroke - Treating Sprains - The National Youth Sports Safety Foundation is an educational organization dedicated to reducing kids' sports and fitness injuries. - The National Center for Sports Safety seeks to promote the importance of injury prevention and safety on all levels of youth sports through education and research. The NCSS focuses on decreasing the number and/or severity of injuries through developing and teaching sports safety courses and collecting, analyzing and researching injury data. - The Positive Coaching Alliance is a non-profit within the Stanford University Athletic Department. Its mission is to transform the culture of youth sports to give all young athletes the opportunity for a positive, character-building experience. The Alliance offers workshops for youth sports coaches, parents, organizational leaders and athletes, as well as free tips and tools for parents and coaches at their website. - The Institute for the Study of Youth Sports, in the College of Education, Michigan State University, Department of Kinesiology, studies the beneficial and harmful aspects of youth sports in order to maximize the beneficial aspects. The website contains content for parents, coaches and kids. - YourChild: Sledding and Winter Sports Safety - YourChild: Playground and Outdoor Play Safety - YourChild: Recreational Vehicle Safety - YourChild: Safety Out and About (Biking, Walking, Skating, Skateboarding and Scooters) - YourChild: Eating Disorders - YourChild: Hunting and Shooting Sports Safety Compiled by Kyla Boyse, RN. Reviewed by Amy Miller, MD. Updated August 2009 U-M Health System Related Sites and Services: U-M Bone & Joint Injury Prevention & Rehabilitation Center: Youth Sport Injury Prevention Family Medicine Sports Medicine Program U-M MedSport Sports Medicine Program	<urn:uuid:ef5bd3b8-4340-4c6e-9547-041130719987>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://med.umich.edu/yourchild/topics/sportsaf.htm	2013-05-25T20:09:53Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706153698/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516120913-00052-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.889218	2,837
On Wednesday, the Phoenix lander performed the first-ever wet chemistry experiments on the Martian surface. According to the scientists behind the Microscopy, Electrochemistry and Conductivity Analyzer, the data coming back is like "winning the lottery." So far, the first round of wet-chemistry experiments are approximately 80 percent complete, and the lander has three more chemistry sets on board to use at a later date. This week's results are from a single scoop of Martian soil. The science pack was designed to understand the wet chemistry of the soil: what is dissolved in it, and how acidic or alkaline it is. The initial results showed that the soil is very basic, as the pH was measured at between eight and nine. In addition to the basic nature of the soil, the instrument found a host of salt components. Those identified so far include magnesium, sodium, potassium, and chlorine, and the analysis is not yet complete. According to co-investigator Sam Kounaves of Tufts University, science lead for the wet chemistry investigation, these salt findings are simply further evidence of water. How does this out-of-the-world soil compare to Earth? According to Kounaves, "This soil appears to be a close analog to surface soils found in the upper dry valleys in Antarctica. [...] Over time, I've come to the conclusion that the amazing thing about Mars is not that it's an alien world, but that in many aspects, like mineralogy, it's very much like Earth." While this instrument has provided a wealth of data, it is not the only chemical analysis currently being undertaken on the Martian surface. The Thermal and Evolved-Gas Analyzer (TEGA) has baked a soil sample up to 1,800oF to examine the gases released at various temperatures, which can provide a large amount of data. In this case, the analysis is very complicated and it's expected to take a few more weeks until the results are known. Coupled with the previous results, where the lander uncovered water ice that later sublimed, these new discoveries strengthen the idea that liquid water once existed on the surface. "At this point, we can say that the soil has clearly interacted with water in the past. We don't know whether that interaction occurred in this particular area in the northern polar region, or whether it might have happened elsewhere and blown up to this area as dust," said William Boynton of the University of Arizona, lead TEGA scientist.	<urn:uuid:da0ce354-6578-4c08-aa27-6925b7cb036d>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://arstechnica.com/science/2008/06/wet-chemistry-on-the-martian-surface/	2013-05-22T14:39:59Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00050-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.96502	510
Pacific Coastal & Marine Science Center Bedform Sedimentology Site: “Bedforms and Cross-Bedding in Animation” FIG. 42b. Structures formed by bedforms with along-crest- migrating in-phase sinuosities. Fig. 42a (A) Rate of along-crest migration of sinuosities is equal to the rate of lateral migration of the main bedform. Fig. 42b (B) Rate of along-crest migration of sinuosities is approximately four times the rate of lateral migration of the main bedform. RECOGNITION: These structures are most easily recognized in horizontal sections, because such sections display both the lateral migration of the bedforms and the along-crest displacement of the crestline sinuosities. Like other structures deposited by oblique bedforms, this structure has dip patterns in which cross-beds and bounding surfaces are asymmetrically distributed relative to the center of the plot and relative to each other. Note the divergence between the trough axes and the cross-bed dip directions. ORIGIN: Deposition of these structures requires sinuous bedforms that are oblique to the resultant transport direction. An example of real bedforms with along-crest-migrating sinuosities is shown in Figure 70.	<urn:uuid:f3c41da6-d394-419a-91af-d21111eb3509>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/seds/bedforms/dip_pages/dip42b.html	2013-06-18T22:57:05Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00001-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.882943	274
Darwin claimed that all living species attained their present complex structures by undergoing small, gradual changes. According to his imaginary claim, an extremely lengthy evolutionary process must have taken place, and primitive and half-developed transitional life forms must once have existed in the past. In addition, there should be a large number of fossils belonging to such creatures in the geologic strata of the Earth. However, the fossil record provides not a single example of any semi-developed or supposedly "primitive" life forms whose discovery Darwin predicted. As can clearly be seen in the fossil record, as well as in the 45-million-year-old deathwatch beetle pictured, the fact is that living fossils reveal the fact of Creation.	<urn:uuid:034e4f9f-139a-4204-8384-2879148f524f>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.baltic-ambers.com/AI0585.php	2013-06-18T23:11:44Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707436332/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123036-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.965014	144
Seven out of 10 people in the U.S. have at least one headache per year, according to the American College of Physicians (ACP). And it is estimated that 45 million Americans suffer from chronic headaches. Headaches are an important cause of days missed from work, costing billions of dollars in lost productivity annually. (ACP) Most headaches are not life threatening, and can be managed with medication and lifestyle changes. Tension headaches are the most common and they occur most frequently in women over the age of 20. A tightening of muscles in the neck and scalp causes them. Poor posture and stress are contributing factors. Tension headaches tend to be recurrent and last from several minutes to several days. Cluster headaches are a type of non-throbbing vascular headache. The pain is described as severe, burning and and penetrating and the headaches can last for long periods of time, known as the cluster period. The cluster period can be as long as six weeks at a time. The headaches occur every day and often more than once a day. Symptoms occur on one side of the head, behind the eye, and can be associated with tearing. It is estimated that 1 million Americans have cluster headaches. Men are most often affected. Migraines are considered a neurological disease caused by the activity of nerve pathways and brain chemicals. They are a type of throbbing vascular headache that typically involves one half of the head (the word “migraine” is derived from the Greek word for “half-head”). This type of headache is often the most severe and complex. The Migraine Research Foundation (MRF) reports that nearly one out of every four households in the United States has a migraine sufferer. They are one of the top 20 most disabling diseases in the world. (MRF) Migraines have a genetic tendency: having a family member with migraines increases your risk. In adults, they occur more frequently in women (18 percent) than in men (six percent). Prior to puberty, however, migraines are more common in boys than in girls. (MRF) There are two basic types of migraine headaches: with aura and without auras. Auras are types of visual disturbances of bright spots, flashing lights, zig-zagging lines, or temporary loss of vision. These visual disturbances occur about 30 minutes before the headache and can last for 15 minutes. However, 80 percent of people with migraines do not have auras. Another kind of migraine is hemiplegic migraines. They are migraine headaches accompanied by stroke-like symptoms. Speech can be slurred, and there can be numbness and weakness of the face, arm, or leg. Hemiplegic migraines can resolve without any permanent deficits. Women with migraines who take birth control pills have an increased risk of hemiplegic migraines and strokes. Migraines have three phases: prodrome, peak headache, and postdrome. Prodrome is the period leading up to the migraine. This is the time when auras occur. The prodrome phase may affect concentration, mood, appetite and frequent yawning may occur. Postdrome is the 24-hour period after the migraine. During this time, drowsiness can occur, and mood can vary from depression to feelings of joyfulness. Migraines can occur before, during, or after menstrual periods. The most common food trigger for migraines is alcohol. There is uncertainty, however, as to whether chocolate is a migraine trigger. Keeping a personal food diary is a good way to track what foods may be associated with your migraines. Obesity and a sedentary lifestyle are known to increase frequency of migraines in adults and children. Maintaining optimal weight and getting proper amounts of exercise are two lifestyle changes that can help to decrease migraines. Most headaches are not signals of a life threatening illness. You should contact your doctor immediately if headache occurs after head trauma, or is associated with drowsiness, fever, vomiting, facial numbness, slurred speech, or weakness in an arm or a leg, convulsions or confusion. Seek medical attention if you have sudden onset of a severe headache, or neck stiffness. Pressure around the eyes with a yellowish-green nasal discharge and sore throat also should be evaluated by your physician. A headache can be a symptom of many different disease processes. The cause of a headache is determined by a complete history and physical exam. This examination should include a look at the head and neck and include a complete neurological evaluation. Medication history is important, because the sudden absence of medication and foods can cause rebound headaches. For example, heavy coffee drinkers who suddenly stop drinking coffee can experience headaches. Tests that can evaluate headaches include: Treatment varies according to the cause. Most tension headaches are successfully treated with over-the-counter medications, such as aspirin, acetaminophen (Tylenol), or ibuprofen (Advil). Stress reduction, biofeedback, elimination of food triggers, exercise, and medication are common treatments for migraines and other vascular headaches. Preventive treatment is used when headaches occur three or more times per month. Sumatriptan, a drug that acts to decrease the vascular inflammation in migraines, is commonly used for the control of migraine headaches. Other medications that can be used to prevent migraines are: - beta blockers (propranolol, atenolol) - verapamil (calcium channel blocker) - methysergide maleate (helps to reduce blood vessel constriction) - amitriptyline (antidepressant) - valproic acid (anti-seizure medication)	<urn:uuid:aa3652fd-7278-4c91-ae5b-2e300e484b3a>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.healthline.com/health/headache/overview	2013-05-22T00:43:59Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00050-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.935187	1,193
Whether you are a college student cramming for a final exam or a teenager with ADHD, the important of maintaining a healthy and cognitively fine-tuned brain can never be underestimated. But what is the best way to improve our attention and our ability to retain information? So far psychopharmacology has had the most influential impact on how we treat those with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Drugs like adderall are also becoming a common cognitive enhancer amongst college students. Some doctors believe these psychostimulants are getting abused. Studies have shown how similar drugs such as modafinil boost dopamine levels in the brain, which in return cause a greater chance of an individual getting addicted to the drug later in life. Surely there can be better ways of improving our brain-functioning than having to depend on pills? Of course there are some individuals who have a chemical imbalance, but that isn’t typically how psychiatrists diagnose a patient with ADHD – it is only their justification for resorting to pills as proper medical treatment instead of probing deeper into why children today are suffering from these poor attention skills. For example, how do we know the rise of ADHD is not due to the environmental factors of living in an industrialized, overstimulating society? Surely these kinds of factors can affect our brain chemistry, but it doesn’t mean that our brain chemistry was the origins of the disorder. If I am right – and I am certainly not the first person to bring up this idea nor will I be the last – then changing our living habits and our environment may be a much better and long-lasting cognitive enhancer than resorting to the temporary solutions that drugs typically offer. One study by Berman, Jonides, and Kaplan (2008) (pdf), tested the effects of different environments on attention and found: “Attention Restoration Theory (ART) provides an analysis of the kinds of environments that lead to improvements in directed-attention abilities. Nature, which is filled with intriguing stimuli, modestly grabs attention in a bottom-up fashion, allowing top-down directed-attention abilities a chance to replenish. Unlike natural environments, urban environments are filled with stimulation that captures attention dramatically and additionally requires directed attention (e.g., to avoid being hit by a car), making them less restorative. We present two experiments that show that walking in nature or viewing pictures of nature can improve directed-attention abilities as measured with a backwards digit-span task and the Attention Network Task, thus validating Attention Restoration Theory.” PsyBlog reports that when participants went for a nature walk they did 20% better on a memory test then participants who took a walk through a busy city. With knowledge like this why wouldn’t we try changing some of our living habits? These studies have implications that can affect everyone: students, those with ADHD or Alzheimers disease, and even your regular Joe and Jane. It is important that we find some space and time to spend with nature, especially if we are typically accustomed to the busy reality of our industrialized world. Why not visit a local park one afternoon, do your homework in the nature preserve, or spend the weekend hiking in the Catskill Mountains? For some of us winter is right around the corner so we should have a good incentive to go outside while it is still nice. Your Xbox 360 and Macbook will still be there when you get back.	<urn:uuid:00ba7e52-f6f5-4a07-a416-4d514611e435>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.theemotionmachine.com/alternative-to-cognitive-enhancing-drugs-more-time-with-nature	2013-06-19T14:37:24Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00052-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.935527	702
The retina is the light-sensitive layer of tissue at the back of the inner eye. It acts like the film in a camera -- images come through the eye's lens and are focused on the retina. The retina then converts these images to electric signals and sends them via the optic nerve to the brain. The retina is normally red due to its rich blood supply. An ophthalmoscope allows a health care provider to see through your pupil and lens to the retina. If the provider sees any changes in the color or appearance of the retina, it may indicate a disease. Anyone who experiences changes in sharpness or color perception, flashes of lights, floaters, or distortion in vision should get a retinal examination. Fay A. Diseases of the visual system. In: Goldman L, Ausiello D, eds. Cecil Medicine. 23rd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier; 2007:chap 449. Schubert HD. Structure and function of the neural retina. In: Yanoff M, Duker JS, eds. Ophthalmology. 3rd ed. St. Louis, Mo: Saunders Elsevier; 2009:chap 6.1. Updated by: David C. Dugdale, III, MD, Professor of Medicine, Division of General Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, A.D.A.M., Inc. The information provided herein should not be used during any medical emergency or for the diagnosis or treatment of any medical condition. A licensed physician should be consulted for diagnosis and treatment of any and all medical conditions. Call 911 for all medical emergencies. Links to other sites are provided for information only -- they do not constitute endorsements of those other sites. Copyright 1997-2013, A.D.A.M., Inc. Duplication for commercial use must be authorized in writing by ADAM Health Solutions.	<urn:uuid:771dc5f0-db5e-4511-926a-34fd8b2e1421>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002291.htm	2013-05-19T03:00:05Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383160/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00002-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.873019	405
As the principal of a busy teaching and assessment centre, parents often say to me: "I always knew there was something but nobody would take any notice of me." But what signs, symptoms and behaviour should parents look out for? Not all dyslexics will have the same problems and they range in severity from child to child. Most dyslexic children will exhibit a 'cluster' of symptoms. This article looks at the traits to look out for, and what parents can do to help their child. Your child may be dyslexic if they exhibit some of the following behaviour or traits: - Excel at some things whilst having difficulty with others. - Struggle to remember two or more instructions in sequence - e.g. when you ask them to go upstairs and find a pair of socks, they will either come back with nothing or the wrong item of clothing. - Appear clumsy in some respects but good at manipulating things (like Lego). - Seem uncertain of which hand to use for eating. - Confuse names or objects or get them back to front (e.g. par cark). - Struggle to remember nursery rhymes. - Have difficulty in clapping or moving to rhythm. The child will be the first to know he is failing, but they won’t know why or how to help themselves and the longer that goes unaided the more difficult the problem can become. The exact nature of their difficulties can only be identified by an educational assessment. However, assessment before the age of seven is not always conclusive, except when there were similar problems with other family members. A good assessment is invaluable as it will highlight strengths and weaknesses, which will be used in planning a support programme for the child. An appropriately qualified specialist teacher or an educational psychologist can carry out an assessment. The assessment will test the child's cognitive abilities (IQ) and their attainments in literacy and numeracy. If there is a discrepancy, a series of diagnostic tests are administered to find the underlying causes. The psychologist will integrate observations and information from the child's family and their school to develop a full understanding of the nature of their difficulties. Build a relationship with school Once a positive diagnosis has been confirmed, it is essential to develop a good parent/teacher relationship. Discuss the problems your son or daughter is experiencing with their teacher, and include your child in the discussion where possible. Make yourself known to each new teacher as your child moves through school. Information is not always passed from teacher to teacher. Be aware of the ignorance and misunderstanding that you will meet at all levels. Not all head teachers or teachers have understanding and sympathy for the dyslexic. Be diplomatic. Remember your attitude can do more harm than good, so keep cool, calm and dignified (even though this may be hard at times, it will pay dividends). School can be a very stressful place for the dyslexic child. Your son or daughter may be teased or bullied by their peers, and be frustrated and disappointed by many things in school. However, if parents can be aware and see the risk before it becomes a problem, then the stress can be minimised. Patience is essential when dealing with a dyslexic child. It is often extremely difficult for the non-dyslexic to understand just what the dyslexic child is going through. Take your time and above all, don't lose your temper! Try and encourage your child to be independent and teach them to do things for themselves - to tie their shoe laces, dress themselves correctly, to tell the time, left from right (a little tip - the right may be the hand they write with or show them that the thumb and first finger on the left hand make an L when the palm of the hand faces away from you). Once they are receiving specialist teaching - be patient, miracles will not happen over night. The important thing to remember is dyslexia is an explanation not an excuse. Dyslexics are just as capable of learning as everyone else - some things are easier and some are a lot harder. Fun and games at home Home should always be a refuge - a safe place. Avoid failure situations at home – your child probably gets enough of those at school. Let them enjoy the weekend and holidays. Just remember that your child's brain has to work twice as hard at school, so they understandably will get very tired. Try to see that your child gets plenty of sleep and avoid pressure in making them read and spell at home. Parents are usually far too involved with their children to be impartial teachers. Playing games in a relaxed atmosphere is probably the best idea and can be very effective in helping the dyslexic child. Here are a few practical suggestions for activities and games: - Recite nursery rhymes together as this will encourage an awareness of rhythm and rhyme. - Read to your child - make it a positive experience. Continue to read aloud long after they can read to themselves, or use tapes. - Get out some board games - they are useful for counting, colour recognition and dice control. - Play listening games – good ones to try are ‘Guess the sound of the object’ (use things like sand, dried peas and pebbles and shake them in a container) and ‘Which word doesn’t rhyme?’ (make up a sequence such as ‘cap, tap, flap, sock, lap’ and get your child to tell you which is the odd one out). - Have fun playing visual activities together – e.g. snap, pairs, sorting (colours, shapes, sizes). Memory games are good too – e.g. place objects on a tray, cover them and ask the child to remember as many as possible.	<urn:uuid:611a1481-ff50-47a9-9012-2085afcb31c7>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.bbc.co.uk/cbeebies/grownups/article/supporting-a-child-with-dyslexia	2013-05-18T05:51:52Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00003-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.961662	1,192
News & Updates - 2013 Directory of Summer Camps and Programs - Pursuing Equity Through Culturally Relevant Pedagogy - Single-Sex Education: The Connecticut Context - The Perceptions of General Education Teachers about the Over-Representation of Black Students in Special Education - Technology and Transition: Resource Guide to Creating and Sustaining an AT Team at the High School Level High-performing schools have aligned curriculum with core learning expectations to improve the performance of all students. Students achieve high standards through rigorous, challenging learning. Staff delivers an aligned curriculum and implements research-based teaching and learning strategies. Students are actively involved in their learning through inquiry, in-depth learning, and performance assessments.	<urn:uuid:219a7929-3cae-4abd-8930-c273c789818e>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.ctserc.org/s/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&id=50&Itemid=143&2fa6f942252db2ec6c621fe255459617=75853bdfe426d6676453e34058f22446	2013-05-24T23:00:07Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00003-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.906321	143
Print this page. Home / Browse / Van Buren (Crawford County) Latitude and Longitude: 15.45 square miles (2010 Census) 22,791 (2010 Census) January 4, 1845 Historical Population as per the U.S. Census: Van Buren began as a port and trade center on the Arkansas River and served as a major starting point for prospectors of the 1849 gold rush. A border town linked to Indian Territory, it was the site of Arkansas’s first federal district court and a Civil War battle town. River traffic, railroad commerce, and mercantile trade dominated Van Buren’s early economy; manufacturing and tourism developed a strong presence in the last half century. Louisiana Purchase through Early StatehoodThe area that became Van Buren began as a land claim on the Arkansas River owned in the 1820s by Revolutionary War veteran James Phillips and his two sons, Thomas Phillips and Daniel David Phillips. The site, named Phillips Landing, became a busy port over the next several decades. Early traffic included American traders bound for Santa Fe, New Mexico, who assembled their cargo there. The Phillips family established the future town’s earliest business enterprises: a fuel depot/wood yard for steamers, as well as the first post office, which opened in 1831 with Thomas Phillips as postmaster. The post office was named after the secretary of state (and later president), Martin Van Buren. John Drennen and his brother-in-law David A. Thompson, transplanted Tennessee businessmen, established a ferry service just south of Van Buren and in 1836 bought the Phillips site. Drennen was appointed postmaster and had the land surveyed and the streets platted. Van Buren became the Crawford County seat in 1838, with the courthouse eventually situated on property donated by Drennen, and was incorporated in 1845. As part of the bustling merchant center that was Crawford County in the 1830s and 1840s, Van Buren served northwest Arkansas to Fayetteville (Washington County) and Indian Territory to the west. Steamboats carried goods from New Orleans, Louisiana, and Cincinnati, Ohio, and exported Arkansas crops. Smugglers used Van Buren as a depot from which to carry whiskey into Cherokee country, bypassing military interference. The city built a wood and rock wharf in the late 1840s, and retired river captain Phillip Pennywit operated a riverfront storage warehouse, a busy flourmill, and a popular mineral bathhouse. During the gold rush of 1849, the town’s population more than doubled by mid-March with the arrival of about 1,000 prospectors setting out for California. Two prospecting groups—the thirty-eight-member Van Buren California Association and the California Emigrating Company—assembled in Van Buren. The town competed with Fort Smith (Sebastian County) for prospectors’ business; the two cities ultimately served 3,000 emigrants from twenty-five states. The first District Court of Arkansas was created in March 1851 in Van Buren, where it operated until March 1871 before moving to Fort Smith. The Little Rock and Fort Smith Railroad was organized in 1853, with John Drennen as the company’s first president, and the first train arrived in Van Buren from Little Rock on June 24, 1876. Civil War through Early Twentieth CenturyBetween the spring of 1861 and the spring of 1865, Van Buren saw nine Civil War military exercises, seven of which occurred after its capture in late 1862. The Van Buren Militia, the Frontier Guard, and the Van Buren Rifles assembled in 1861, and the Daughters of the South organized in Van Buren to make uniforms and bandages. By early 1862, a paper shortage forced the Van Buren Press to shut down, and by summer, martial law was in place. On December 3, about 8,000 Union troops marched in from Cane Hill (Washington County) and captured Van Buren. They destroyed the local printing press, courthouse records, three steamboats, a ferry, 15,000 bushels of corn, and a cotton factory and took 100 prisoners. The Capture of Van Buren on December 29–30 served as a final major action on the Indian border. Two years of occupation followed. By 1864, Van Buren was one of several Arkansas cities with large settlements that attracted freed slaves throughout the war. The 1880s brought a passenger railroad route connecting Van Buren to Fayetteville and Rogers (Benton County). Turn-of-the-century cultural amenities included the Murta Opera House, destroyed by fire in 1897, and the King Opera House, dedicated in 1901. The latter venue operated as a movie theater in the 1920s. The early 1900s brought the Union Depot and the Van Buren-Fort Smith Free Bridge across the Arkansas River, which for decades had been crossed only by ferry. Van Buren was the only sizable town in mainly rural Crawford County. World War II through the Modern EraDuring World War II, a thirty-five-acre military railway base operated on Pickett Hill on the east side of town. Activated in December 1942 as Camp Johnson, the base was renamed Camp Jesse Turner in September 1943 in honor of the mid-1800s judge and state senator. A USO (United Service Organizations) center was established downtown in December 1941. The flood of May 1943 destroyed several thousand acres of farmland along the river, and the Turner camp took in evacuees. The base also hosted 400 African-American soldiers of the 469th Quartermaster Truck Regiment from Camp Maxey, Texas, while they worked over the summer to rehabilitate the land. That year, the Missouri Pacific Railroad formed a Negro Women’s Labor Battalion of “Rosie the riveters.” When the war ended, the base’s land was transferred back to the government, which donated it for what would become Crawford Memorial Hospital. The postwar years ushered in a more industrialized economy, and Van Buren became a manufacturing base supported by the city’s ideal position as a crossroads with railways, waterways, and major highways. The ensuing decades brought a 135-acre city park, the state’s first port authority, construction of Interstate 540 around the eastern edge of the city, a merchants’ association to promote the historic downtown, and an ambitious water supply project on the lower Lee Creek in cooperation with Fort Smith. Van Buren’s population soared from 8,373 in 1970 to 22,791 in 2010. Crawford County’s population grew from 25,677 to 61,948 over the same period, an increase attributed in part to the “good geography” promoted as far back as 1830. In recent decades, the area has become a bedroom community for people working in Fort Smith and northwest Arkansas. Education, Industry, Attractions, and Famous ResidentsAs of December 2011, the Van Buren School District serves 5,997 students (including 80 in Pre-K) and operates six elementary schools, two middle schools, two junior high schools, and one senior high school. The city also is home to the Center for Art and Education, founded in 1976 and serving 5,000 children and adults a year. Manufacturing, food processing, and medicine are sustaining industries in Van Buren. Major employers include poultry processors Tyson Foods and Simmons, the Van Buren School District, USA Truck, Allen Canning Company, and Summit Medical Center. In the early 1900s, yeoman farmers in the area grew diverse crops such as potatoes, corn, cotton, berries, fruit, oats, and peanuts, and some raised Angora goats, hogs, poultry, and registered cattle. Today, only a handful of dairy farms remain in the area out of about 120 during the early 1900s. Crop farming has been reduced to fewer and smaller-scale operations, and dairy and soybean farms have become large commercial operations. The Main Street Historic District offers tourist attractions such as restored Victorian structures, antiques, fine arts, the River Valley Museum in the old Frisco Train Depot, a vintage excursion train, and cultural amenities such as the century-old King Opera House, which was acquired and restored in the 1970s and operates as a stage theater. Recreational opportunities include the Dr. Louis Peer Memorial City Park, the Field of Dreams Athletic Complex, the Lee Creek Reservoir Recreation Area, and Cedars Country Club, with a public golf course. The house of John Drennen, credited as a town co-founder, has been restored as a museum known as the Drennen-Scott Historic Site. Notable residents include poet-soldier Albert Pike, who taught in a one-room schoolhouse, and trader Josiah Gregg, who undertook eight round trips to Santa Fe and Chihuahua, Mexico, between 1833 and 1842. Modern-day notables include comedian Bob Burns, who as a boy invented a musical instrument he called the bazooka. He went on to become a storyteller and humorist with his own radio show, The Arkansas Traveler, and a syndicated newspaper column in the 1930s and 1940s. Between 1931 and 1941, he appeared in about twenty-five movies, including Rhythm on the Range (1936, with Bing Crosby) and Waikiki Wedding (1937, with Crosby, Bob Hope, and Martha Ray). His radio show ran from 1941 to 1947, and his column, “Well, I’ll Tell You,” was syndicated in 240 U.S. newspapers from 1936 to 1940. For additional information:Bolton, S. Charles. Arkansas, 1800–1860: Remote and Restless. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1998. ———. Territorial Ambition: Land and Society in Arkansas 1800–1840. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1993. Eno, Clara B. History of Crawford County, Arkansas. Van Buren, AR: Press Argus, 1950. Hopkins, Eula, and Wanda M. Gray, eds. History of Crawford County, Arkansas. Van Buren: Historical Preservation Association of Crawford County, 2001. McArthur, Priscilla. Arkansas in the Gold Rush. Little Rock: August House, 1986. Moneyhon, Carl H. Arkansas and the New South: 1874–1929. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1997. Moneyhon, Carl H. The Impact of the Civil War and Reconstruction on Arkansas: Persistence in the Midst of Ruin. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 2002. Van-Buren.com. http://www.van-buren.com/ (accessed July 6, 2006). Wanda FreemanFort Smith, Arkansas Last Updated 3/23/2012 About this Entry: Contact the Encyclopedia / Submit a Comment / Submit a Narrative	<urn:uuid:e2a62f2d-111c-47f7-94f5-71b5dcce273b>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/entry-detail.aspx?entryID=868	2013-06-20T08:51:35Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368711005985/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516133005-00003-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.947516	2,276
Photo: Melissa Trachtenberg According to a study done by researchers at Maastricht University in the Netherlands, the longer it takes a woman to get pregnant, the greater her chances of having a boy. See, one reason why some women have trouble conceiving is that the mucous around their cervix is extra thick. That makes it harder for sperm to reach the egg. Now, the Y chromosome, which is the one that makes boys, contains less DNA than the X chromosome, which makes girls. This means that sperm that contain a Y chromosome are a bit lighter than sperm with two X chromosomes. The lighter, Y chromosome carrying sperm are faster and better at swimming through thick cervical mucous. At least the Y chromosome carrying sperm may have a better shot at getting through the mucous and reaching the egg. So, according to the study, it may be the case that women who take a long time to get pregnant because of thick mucous have a better chance of having a boy.	<urn:uuid:cc374656-c8f0-42cb-88fd-66a5f396af9f>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://indianapublicmedia.org/amomentofscience/waiting-for-a-boy/	2013-06-19T14:21:29Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00003-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.965671	205
TWO international conservation groups have joined forces in the fight against invasive species and to protect the native birds and biodiversity of islands in the Pacific region. Island Conservation and BirdLife International signed an agreement in Fiji this week to contribute to preservation efforts in protecting biodiversity. The BirdLife Pacific Partnership has been working to address this problem by destroying introduced predators from islands in Fiji, New Caledonia, French Polynesia and Palau. Island Conservation has wiped out pests from more than 50 islands worldwide and recently expanded its operations in the Pacific. The decline and extinction of numerous Pacific island birds and wildlife, such as Fiji's native crested iguanas have been caused by the introduction of invasive species includes rats, mongoose and feral cats. Regional director of BirdLife International Don Stewart said Pacific Island countries would benefit greatly from the partnership. "This is good news for the Pacific Island countries for it strengthens our ability to address the threats that invasive species pose to native birds throughout the region, many of whom are facing extinction," he said. Island Conservation's Pacific Regional director Dr Ray Nias said: "Although islands only occupy five per cent of the world's land surface, they have seen 80 per cent of the world's extinctions and are home to 40 per cent of all critically endangered animals. "It is therefore a privilege for us to join forces with Birdlife International to help prevent the extinction of Pacific island species threatened by invasive pests," Dr Nias added. Both conservation groups advocate the sustaining of biodiversity strongly. BirdLife International is a global partnership of conservation organisations that works with people to protect birds, and their habitats through sustainable use of natural resources. Since setting up its office in Fiji in 2003, it has had a regional presence. Island Conservation, a California-based non-government organisation focuses on protecting native animals from extinction by removing invasive pest species in small islands.	<urn:uuid:5c6fea06-8ea8-4795-8193-b6fcb5a3c613>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.fijitimes.com/story.aspx?id=216890	2013-06-18T05:18:26Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706933615/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516122213-00050-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.940287	390
\|Akbar - Emperor of India\| Akbar spent much of his difficult childhood on the run. Consequently, he never learned to read or write. However, he was a brilliant man with an inquisitive mind and phenomenal memory who had others read to him throughout his life. Akbar’s leadership highlighted his diverse achievements. He was a good general who expanded his empire after personally leading troops to defeat the powerful Hindu Rajput warriors. Then he married a Rajput princess, daughter of the ruler of Amber; she would become the mother of his heir. His lenient treatment of the defeated Rajputs, whom he kept as his vassals, foreshadowed his policy toward other Hindu subjects. In 1572, he conquered Gujrat, thereby gaining access to the sea. When he encountered the Portuguese, he grew to admire their ships, arms, and European merchandise. In 1573, he signed a treaty with the Portuguese viceroy ensuring safe passage for Indian Muslims crossing the Indian Ocean on pilgrimages to Mecca. Later he added Bengal, Baluchistan, Afghanistan, Kashmir, and part of the Deccan region to his empire. Like his grandfather Babur, Akbar was a builder. In Delhi, the tomb he built for his father was constructed of red sandstone and adorned with white marble, the precursor of the mature Indo-Islamic style of the taj mahal. He also built a fort at Agra from red sandstone. Above all, he was noted for building a new palace city at Fatehpur Sikri near Agra, close to the retreat of a Muslim holy man and his mentor. Built of white marble, it became his head-quarters until 1585, when he moved away and the palaces were never occupied again. Akbar’s national policies aimed at uniting his subjects. The centerpiece was religious tolerance, partly the result of his disillusionment with Sunni Islam’s rigidity and intolerance and partly to conciliate his Hindu subjects. Thus he abolished the poll tax on non-Muslims and the special tax on Hindu pilgrims. He hosted religious debates of Hindu, Muslim, Parsi (Zoroastrian), and Christian (Jesuit) scholars at Fatehpur Sikri and concluded that no religion held the exclusive truth. Attracted by mysticism he also took up Sufi Islam and Hindu yogi practices. Akbar eventually established a new religion called Din-I ilahi, or Divine Faith, in 1582. \|Diwan-i-Khas constructed by Akbar\| However, 70 percent of his officials were foreigners, mostly Afghans and Persians, and Persian was the official language of his empire. The rest were Indians, both Muslim and Hindu. The employment of some Hindus in government service was an improvement in the status of Hindus from previous Muslim dynasties. He abolished tolls, made roads safe, and kept dues low to encourage commerce. Akbar was a patron of the arts, and culture flourished during his reign, enormously impressing the Europeans who visited India at the time. His last years were saddened by the death of two sons from drinking and drugs, and by the revolt of his eldest son and heir, Selim (Salim). Similar troubles also plagued his successors, who faced revolts by their sons and civil wars among them.	<urn:uuid:d1bd90f5-2462-41ae-bed4-267aaac57294>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/07/akbar-emperor-of-india.html	2013-06-19T13:20:52Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708783242/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125303-00001-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.987197	686
Imagine a large cube made from small red cubes being dropped into a pot of yellow paint. How many of the small cubes will have yellow paint on their faces? How many moves does it take to swap over some red and blue frogs? Do you have a method? Euler discussed whether or not it was possible to stroll around Koenigsberg crossing each of its seven bridges exactly once. Experiment with different numbers of islands and bridges. If you can copy a network without lifting your pen off the paper and without drawing any line twice, then it is traversable. Decide which of these diagrams are traversable. Square numbers can be represented as the sum of consecutive odd numbers. What is the sum of 1 + 3 + ..... + 149 + 151 + 153? Triangle numbers can be represented by a triangular array of squares. What do you notice about the sum of identical triangle A huge wheel is rolling past your window. What do you see? A standard die has the numbers 1, 2 and 3 are opposite 6, 5 and 4 respectively so that opposite faces add to 7? If you make standard dice by writing 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 on blank cubes you will find. . . . Imagine an infinitely large sheet of square dotty paper on which you can draw triangles of any size you wish (providing each vertex is on a dot). What areas is it/is it not possible to draw? Here are four tiles. They can be arranged in a 2 by 2 square so that this large square has a green edge. If the tiles are moved around, we can make a 2 by 2 square with a blue edge... Now try. . . . Choose a couple of the sequences. Try to picture how to make the next, and the next, and the next... Can you describe your reasoning? Use the animation to help you work out how many lines are needed to draw mystic roses of different sizes. How could Penny, Tom and Matthew work out how many chocolates there are in different sized boxes? When dice land edge-up, we usually roll again. But what if we What size square corners should be cut from a square piece of paper to make a box with the largest possible volume? On the graph there are 28 marked points. These points all mark the vertices (corners) of eight hidden squares. Can you find the eight Imagine starting with one yellow cube and covering it all over with a single layer of red cubes, and then covering that cube with a layer of blue cubes. How many red and blue cubes would you need? Can you mark 4 points on a flat surface so that there are only two different distances between them? A package contains a set of resources designed to develop pupils' mathematical thinking. This package places a particular emphasis on “visualising” and is designed to meet the needs. . . . A useful visualising exercise which offers opportunities for discussion and generalising, and which could be used for thinking about the formulae needed for generating the results on a Is it possible to rearrange the numbers 1,2......12 around a clock face in such a way that every two numbers in adjacent positions differ by any of 3, 4 or 5 hours? In the game of Noughts and Crosses there are 8 distinct winning lines. How many distinct winning lines are there in a game played on a 3 by 3 by 3 board, with 27 cells? A 2 by 3 rectangle contains 8 squares and a 3 by 4 rectangle contains 20 squares. What size rectangle(s) contain(s) exactly 100 squares? Can you find them all? Draw a square. A second square of the same size slides around the first always maintaining contact and keeping the same orientation. How far does the dot travel? Three circles have a maximum of six intersections with each other. What is the maximum number of intersections that a hundred circles What would be the smallest number of moves needed to move a Knight from a chess set from one corner to the opposite corner of a 99 by 99 square board? Is it true that any convex hexagon will tessellate if it has a pair of opposite sides that are equal, and three adjacent angles that add up to 360 degrees? Seven small rectangular pictures have one inch wide frames. The frames are removed and the pictures are fitted together like a jigsaw to make a rectangle of length 12 inches. Find the dimensions of. . . . Show that among the interior angles of a convex polygon there cannot be more than three acute angles. ABCD is a regular tetrahedron and the points P, Q, R and S are the midpoints of the edges AB, BD, CD and CA. Prove that PQRS is a square. Imagine you have six different colours of paint. You paint a cube using a different colour for each of the six faces. How many different cubes can be painted using the same set of six colours? Slide the pieces to move Khun Phaen past all the guards into the position on the right from which he can escape to freedom. This article for teachers discusses examples of problems in which there is no obvious method but in which children can be encouraged to think deeply about the context and extend their ability to. . . . How many different symmetrical shapes can you make by shading triangles or squares? A game for 2 players. Can be played online. One player has 1 red counter, the other has 4 blue. The red counter needs to reach the other side, and the blue needs to trap the red. These are pictures of the sea defences at New Brighton. Can you work out what a basic shape might be in both images of the sea wall and work out a way they might fit together? The opposite vertices of a square have coordinates (a,b) and (c,d). What are the coordinates of the other vertices? Imagine you are suspending a cube from one vertex (corner) and allowing it to hang freely. Now imagine you are lowering it into water until it is exactly half submerged. What shape does the surface. . . . Every day at noon a boat leaves Le Havre for New York while another boat leaves New York for Le Havre. The ocean crossing takes seven days. How many boats will each boat cross during their journey? Start with a large square, join the midpoints of its sides, you'll see four right angled triangles. Remove these triangles, a second square is left. Repeat the operation. What happens? A rectangular field has two posts with a ring on top of each post. There are two quarrelsome goats and plenty of ropes which you can tie to their collars. How can you secure them so they can't. . . . ABCDEFGH is a 3 by 3 by 3 cube. Point P is 1/3 along AB (that is AP : PB = 1 : 2), point Q is 1/3 along GH and point R is 1/3 along ED. What is the area of the triangle PQR? Can you maximise the area available to a grazing goat? The diagram shows a very heavy kitchen cabinet. It cannot be lifted but it can be pivoted around a corner. The task is to move it, without sliding, in a series of turns about the corners so that it. . . . Lyndon Baker describes how the Mobius strip and Euler's law can introduce pupils to the idea of topology. Can you dissect a square into: 4, 7, 10, 13... other squares? 6, 9, 12, 15... other squares? 8, 11, 14... other squares? ABC is an equilateral triangle and P is a point in the interior of the triangle. We know that AP = 3cm and BP = 4cm. Prove that CP must be less than 10 cm. Bilbo goes on an adventure, before arriving back home. Using the information given about his journey, can you work out where Bilbo Can you find a way of representing these arrangements of balls? Blue Flibbins are so jealous of their red partners that they will not leave them on their own with any other bue Flibbin. What is the quickest way of getting the five pairs of Flibbins safely to. . . .	<urn:uuid:91a92983-12da-4710-877d-4c76c6c58ed4>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://nrich.maths.org/public/leg.php?code=-68&cl=3&cldcmpid=915	2013-06-20T08:51:00Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368711005985/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516133005-00052-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.931326	1,802
Harriet Quimby Crash, 1912 During an air show on July 1, 1912, a two-seat Bleirot monoplane crashed into the Neponset River. Harriet Quimby, the first woman to earn an American pilot's license, and William Willard, the event's organizer, were tragically killed. The pilot and passenger were ejected from the aircraft due to air turbulence, mechanical problems, or pilot error. An extremely happy atmosphere prevailed that afternoon during the aviation meet. It was almost 7:00 pm when Harriett Quimby took off from Squantum (Quincy) Massachusetts. The aircraft rose to an altitude of about 1000 feet, and gracefully flew over Squantum Head, Thompson's Island, Dorchester Bay, and east to Little Brewster and Boston Light. Aviator Blanche Stuart Scott gained the attention of spectators as she encircled the field while Quimby flew out into the harbor. A speck in the sky then appeared at about 3000 feet. The July 2, 1912 Boston Globe describes what happened: "Nobody had ever flown to the Light at any such height, and everybody marveled that Miss Quimby should do it. But Miss Quimby said before she started that she would fly high, and she kept her word. Just what her reason for flying so high nobody will ever know. Perhaps her decision was due to the fact that this was about the height at which she flew over the English Channel. She began to descend slowly when she got about over Long Island, and when she was over the field she was about 2000 feet in the air. She made a circle of the field at this height...but she was seen to descend to a still lower altitude when she was passing over Thompson's Island.... When she reached the point where the accident occurred, and when she turned, facing almost due east, as if she were intending to alight in the getaway [runway], she appeared to be about 1000 feet above the earth. 'O, Look,' Cried [the] Crowd In Terror. Clearly it was her intention to land—to make a long glide from the point where she turned to the getaway. She tilted the machine downward at a somewhat acute angle after she had turned. Then it was, when the machine had probably dropped about 200 feet, that Willard was seen to either jump or fall out of the machine. That awful cry went up from those on the getaway and grandstand, which plainly meant terror. It was a quick 'O, look,' from hundreds of voices at the same moment. Then everybody looked and Miss Quimby was seen to fall out of the machine almost immediately after Willard. Women swooned, and men almost fainted on the getaway and in the grandstand. 'My God, they're killed,' came from hundreds of throats, almost simultaneously after the first shock, as the two figures were seen tumbling through the air, followed by the machine." Harriet Quimby and William Willard were killed instantly when they struck the shallow water of the Neponset River between Quincy and Dorchester. The unpiloted aircraft crashed nearby. We must not forget the pioneers of aviation. Accidents similar to this were quite common into the 1920s, and eventually led to the development of the modern four-prong torso harness of today's aircraft. It can be inferred that seatbelts were not used back then because pilots had to quickly escape during emergency landings, and undeveloped seatbelts might hinder such escapes.	<urn:uuid:9fcbb06e-95b1-4aee-a7f0-e39fa0eedda5>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.celebrateboston.com/disasters/harriet-quimby-crash.htm	2013-05-22T07:48:04Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00003-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.984002	731
Barley, a cereal grain that has been cultivated for millennia grows in two-row, four-row, or six-row form, as distinguished by the number of seeds on the stalk of the plant. Four-row barley is unsuitable for brewing. European brewers traditionally use the two-row type because it has a better starch/husk ratio and because of its malty flavor. Americans often preferred the six-row type because of the higher levels of diastatic enzymes and protein, which makes it better suited for mashing adjuncts, such as corn or rice. Six-row Barley Malt Generally, six-row barley has a higher enzyme content for converting starch into fermentable sugars, more protein, less starch, and a thicker husk than two-row barley. The higher level of diastatic enzymes makes six-row barley desirable for conversion of adjunct starches (those that lack enzymes) during mashing. On the down-side, the higher protein content can result in greater amount of break material (protein-polyphenol complexes) during wort boiling and cooling, as well as possibly increased problems with haze in the finished beer. The husk of the malt is high in polyphenols (tannins) that contribute not only to haze, but also imparts an astringent taste. Two-row Barley Malt Generally, two-row barley has a lower enzyme content, less protein, more starch, and a thinner husk than six-row barley. American two-row barley has greater enzyme potential than most European two-row barley. The protein content of U.S. two-row barley is comparable to that of continental Europe, while barley grown in the U.K. is generally lower in protein. In comparison to six-row barley, two-row has a higher starch content-the principal contributor to extract. Extract is a major economic concern for many large-scale brewers because the amount of brewhouse extract obtained determines the amount of beer that can be produced from a given amount of malt. Small-scale brewers, however, are generally less concerned about extract yield and may not consider this as important a criterion in their malt choice. Barley Malt Identification The number of rows of kernels makes for easy identification of two- and six-row varieties. In six-row varieties, two-thirds of the kernels are twisted in appearance because of insufficient space for symmetrical development. Since they must overlap, they twist as they grow. In two-row barley there are no lateral kernels-all kernels being straight and symmetrical. The kernels of two-row barley are broader than the central kernels of six-row barley and do not taper as sharply. Click on the following topics for more information on barley malts.	<urn:uuid:6558501e-f672-41b4-97ca-813dadc010e0>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.beer-brewing.com/beer-brewing/barley_malts/barley.htm	2013-05-22T07:33:04Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00051-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.953565	569
What is amnesia? Many things can cause amnesia, for example head injury, surgery, alcoholism, certain drugs and disease. There are different types of amnesia – some are temporary, others permanent. Amnesia can affect the storing of new memories, or the retrieving of old ones, or sometimes both. Amnesia rarely affects memories of how to do things. Most sufferers can still carry out daily activities like getting dressed or cooking, even if afterwards they cannot remember where they were at the time.	<urn:uuid:4953d81d-77ec-4d0f-9c56-01c9a54520d1>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/WhoAmI/FindOutMore/Yourbrain/Whyisyourmemorysoimportant/Canyouimaginelosingyourmemory/Whatisamnesia.aspx	2013-05-24T09:18:48Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704433753/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114033-00001-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.948532	102
Feds Protect Huge Areas of the Bering Sea from Trawling The National Marine Fisheries Service announced Friday that nearly 180,000 square miles of the Bering Sea will be closed to destructive bottom trawling to protect important seafloor habitats and marine life effective August 25, 2008. These in-the-water protections reflect an approach first developed by Oceana, and supported by local communities and other conservation organizations, that freezes the current area, or "footprint," where trawling already occurs in the Bering Sea and prevents trawlers from expanding into previously untrawled areas. The final regulations establish a northern boundary for trawling in the Bering Sea to protect the marine life and ecosystems of the northern Bering Sea and Arctic from the impacts of bottom trawling, where huge nets are dragged across the seafloor, pulverizing corals, sponges and other seafloor life in a technological race to fish harder and longer. "The Bering Sea is among the most productive and spectacular ocean ecosystems in the world," said Jon Warrenchuk, Ocean Scientist for Oceana. "Considering the current and future impacts of climate change, these regulations are an important step towards giving our oceans and fisheries the best chance for survival." The Bering Sea is home to 26 species of marine mammals, including the critically endangered northern right whale; millions of seabirds hailing from all seven continents; more than 450 species of fish; and some of the world's largest submarine canyons. Blue, humpback, gray and bowhead whales travel through the Bering Sea each year. The northern Bering Sea shelf is critical habitat for endangered spectacled eiders, with the entire population of these large seabirds coming to the Bering Sea each winter to feed on the clams and invertebrates that live in and on the seafloor. Clams and seafloor invertebrates are also a significant source of food for Pacific walrus. According to the National Academy of Sciences, fishing boats that trawl on the bottom destroy important seafloor habitat, decimating corals, sponges and other sensitive areas. Many of these seafloor animals and habitat areas can take centuries to recover, if they recover at all. Much is still not know about the possible impacts of bottom trawling in the northern Bering Sea, and the fishing industry has been aggressively expanding in "Bottom trawling is an outdated and wasteful way to try and catch fish," said Jon Warrenchuk, Ocean Scientist with Oceana. ""This ecosystem is already being figuratively hammered by climate change. It doesn't need to be literally hammered by bottom This latest action by NMFS joins a host of other regulations to protect Pacific marine animals and ecosystems from bottom trawling. Combined with closures that adopted the Oceana approach in the Aleutian Islands and other parts of Alaska and in state and federal waters off Washington, Oregon and California in 2006, this newest rule brings the total area of U.S. Pacific waters protected from bottom trawling to more than 830,000 square miles. This is more than five times the size of the state of California and almost double the roughly 420,000 square miles of land protected in the nation's parks, forests and grasslands. "This is the latest in a series of actions that show the tide is turning in ocean management away from managing for collapse and towards a science-based, ecosystem-focused approach to protect our oceans and sustainable fisheries," said The final regulation to close an estimated 178,145 square miles of the Bering Sea to bottom trawling was released in the Federal Register on Friday, July 25 and is available here: http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/2008/E8-17144.htm. The rule becomes effective and enforceable on August 25, 2008.	<urn:uuid:73663637-282e-4ca9-8936-3ba37a5f655f>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.enn.com/top_stories/article/37801	2013-05-22T14:48:31Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00051-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.906649	852
Life Science: Session 3 What is cloning? Cloning is a type of reproduction where the offspring is genetically identical to the parent. Cloning has become a topic that periodically receives attention in the news, with most people correctly understanding it to be a type of reproductive technology. However, cloning occurs all the time in nature. Not all organisms reproduce sexually. In fact, most single celled organisms reproduce asexually and many plants and animals can reproduce asexually as well. How does this occur? In these organisms, clones are formed in the same way that body cells are formed: The entire genome in a parent cell is duplicated and passed to two daughter cells, resulting in two identical individuals. In this way, body cells are actually clones of one another. While this can be advantageous in terms of not having to spend energy producing sex cells or locating a mate, the offspring lack the genetic variation observed in sexually reproducing organisms. How are clones formed through reproductive technology? In 1998, the world learned of the first successful example of a mammal cloned from an adult cell. This was Dolly, undoubtedly world’s most famous sheep. Dolly was formed by extracting a donor cell from an adult sheep and implanting it into an unfertilized sheep egg that had its DNA removed. The donor cell, with its DNA-containing nucleus, was stimulated by pulses of electricity to induce it with the egg cell. The result was an egg that contained the entire genome of the adult donor — without ever involving the process of sex cell production and fertilization. Under specific conditions, this cell began to divide, and the resulting embryo was implanted into the uterus of a surrogate mother sheep. Dolly was the result. is essentially the same process used for other cloning endeavors. \|prev: sex cell production\|\|next: the incredible egg\|	<urn:uuid:24cefec8-72d2-4795-b83d-4fd031dd8473>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.learner.org/courses/essential/life/session3/closer3.html	2013-05-24T22:28:48Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00051-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.950076	390
What are performance measures? Performance measures demonstrate how well the transportation system is doing its job of meeting public goals and expectations of the transportation network. Some methods used to measure performance include tracking average speeds and crash rates. Many states and metropolitan areas monitor how close they are to achieving specific goals, such as accessibility to key regional population, employment, cultural, and recreational centers, the mobility of disadvantaged populations, levels of air quality, and the health of the economy, by using performance measures. Measuring performance is a way to gauge the impacts of the decisionmaking process on the transportation system. Performance measures aim to answer questions about whether the performance of the transportation system (or economy, air quality, etc.) is getting better or worse over time; and whether transportation investments are correlated or linked to stated goals and outcomes.	<urn:uuid:3c2fef79-d882-4049-98dc-6e617b1419ed>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.fta.dot.gov/12347_9391.html	2013-06-18T23:31:45Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707436332/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123036-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.930821	163
Ancient Stringed Instrument Discovered in Scottish Cave Researchers working in a remote Scottish cave have uncovered part of what may be the oldest stringed instrument yet found in Europe. The artifact, estimated to be at least 1,500 years old, appears to be the bridge of a stringed instrument. The discovery occurred in High Pasture Cave, on Scotland’s Isle of Skye, which has been the subject of archaeological excavations since the 1970′s. The cave, which lies about 1 kilometer (0.6 miles) south-east of Skye the village of Torrin, has been the source of many finds dating back to the Late Bronze Age and Iron Age, more than 2,500 years ago. The archaeological excavations at High Pasture Cave in Skye have revealed an astounding site. The work has recorded the remains of almost a thousand years of ceremony, ritual and feasting. Rod McCullagh, Historic Scotland Archaeologist Until now, the earliest stringed instruments discovered in Europe were used by Vikings in Scandinavia, about 100 years later. It was believed that in the year 500 AD, the only instruments were wind instruments such as flutes and pipes or crude bronze trumpets. Oldest instrument is dug up in Skye cave [Scotsman]	<urn:uuid:5a933b71-9806-41fa-8a72-bf121e9740bb>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://cavingnews.com/20120227-ancient-stringed-instrument-discovered-in-scottish-cave-high-pasture-cave-isle-of-skye	2013-06-19T06:29:10Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142617/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00002-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.961058	264
Aug. 1, 2001 Astronomers have discovered 12 more moons around Saturn. And they have evidence that these once were just three or four moons, minding their business, orbiting the planet like all regular saturnian moons do today. The 12 new-found moons are in irregular orbits that suggest they are the collisional remnants of larger parent moons, once securely captured in, but later blasted from, their saturnian orbits. Using several medium-to-large sized telescopes, large-format CCD arrays that photograph big areas of sky, and computers that process multiple gigabytes of data each night, teams of astronomers collaborated last fall in a search for so-called "irregular" moons around the gas giant. Saturn was known to have six relatively large moons and 12 minor moons. Allexcept one minor moon, Phoebe, discovered in 1898, are classified as regular satellites because they move along nearly circular orbits in the planet's orbital plane, revolving in the same direction as the planet spins. The 12 new-found satellites are irregular - meaning they orbit outside the plane of Saturn's equator - and it appears that their orbits cluster in three, possibly four, distinct groups, said Carl W. Hergenrother of the UA Lunar and Planetary Laboratory (LPL). "We think we're seeing orbits cluster, that is, orbits of several moons fall in the same general plane, just as asteroids cluster," Hergenrother said. "And with asteroids that cluster, the belief is they are pieces of what once was a big asteroid that got hit by something. It's possible that we're seeing the same thing with the satellites." Brett Gladman of the Observatoire de la Cote d'Azur in France, J.J. Kavelaars of McMaster University in Canada, and Matthew Holman of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics in Cambridge, Mass., discovered the irregular saturnian moons in August, September and November, 2000, using the 2.2-meter (87-inch) European Southern Observatory in Chile, the 3.6-meter (142-inch) Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope in Hawaii, and the 1.2-meter (48-inch) Mount Hopkins telescope in Arizona. Hergenrother, Stephen M. Larson and Rob Whiteley - all of the LPL - and Dennis Means of the UA Steward Observatory used the Steward Observatory's 1.5-meter telescope (61-inch) in the Santa Catalina Mountains north of Tucson and the 2.3-meter (90-inch) Bok Telescope on Kitt Peak to observe the moons for more precise information on their orbits. Others doing this "recovery" work to help define the satellite orbits used the 4-meter Kitt Peak telescope, the 5-meter Palomar telescope and 2-to-3-meter class European telescopes. The research is reported in the article, "Discovery of 12 satellites of Saturn exhibiting orbital clustering," in the July 12 Nature. Astronomers in 1997 and 1999 discovered five irregular satellites around Uranus, and in 1999 - 2000 discovered another 12 irregular satellites around Jupiter, previously known to have eight. The UA Spacewatch on Kitt Peak discovered one of the new-found jovian moons. Almost all of the irregulars discovered since 1997 cluster in easily discernible groupings, the astronomers note in their article. "The difficult question is whether the disruptions occurred during the capture process itself when the planets formed long ago, or whether intact moons were captured at that time into orbits near the present grouping and these single moons were subsequently shattered and scattered by intruding comets or asteroids during the subsequent (more than 4-billion-year solar system history)," they wrote. The most probable theory is that each cluster is the remains of a once-intact moon smashed by a collision sometime after the planets were formed, according to their analysis. Saturn must have captured the original parent moons during planetary formation, as the objects passed through Saturn's surrounding proto-planetary gas cloud, Hergenrother said. An alternative theory is that the moons were captured when Saturn suddenly increased in mass - in which case the moons would all be prograde, moving around the planet in the same direction as the planet moves around the sun. "But we are seeing just as many retrograde as prograde irregular moons at Saturn," Hergenrother said. Objects captured as moons would move in either prograde or retograde orbits depending on their direction as they passed through and were slowed by proto-Saturn's gas cloud. Satellites in orbital clusters could range in size from one to 100 kilometers in diameter, he added. "Right now, we see irregular satellites as small as 3 kilometers around Saturn, but there may be many smaller than that. These may go on a continuum in size all the way down to the size of dust. " Other social bookmarking and sharing tools: The above story is reprinted from materials provided by University Of Arizona. Note: Materials may be edited for content and length. For further information, please contact the source cited above. Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.	<urn:uuid:60c02b75-b81d-40b1-8523-fc748731cc35>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2001/07/010730080136.htm	2013-05-20T02:41:59Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698207393/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095647-00052-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.943454	1,077
Sometimes you need to sit back and think: “I am insignificant.” This isn’t meant to be nihilistic or to make you sad. The earth is 4.3 billion years old, and sometimes we forget this. But it isn’t our fault, we cannot envision time properly. Humans can wrap their heads around a decade, maybe even a century. But any longer, and it gets shaky. The problem is scale. You cannot get a sense of the shape of Europe by backpacking through it. A map is required. One in which thousands of miles are represented by a few inches. Even if you are backpacking, a map of Europe will be of no help. You need a map of the region, even the town you are walking through. Scale dictates the way in which we place ourselves in any greater context. Time, like space, is immense when compared to the individual. Why does no such map exist for time? I propose using a song as our map through time. Richard Strauss’ Thus Sprach Zarathustra, Op. 30 is 1836 seconds long. If we think of the zero mark as representing 4.3 billion years ago and 1836th second as the year 2012, each second represents 2,342,047 years. Listen to the song and wait four minutes and fifty nine seconds. In these minutes, there is no life. The earth is cooling, the atmosphere changing. But nothing walks, slithers, or even glides over the surface of water. Yet, after all this time, against all odds, life arises in the form of a prokaryote. Three minutes later, the complex process of photosynthesis has begun. Yet, life is still unrecognizable. It will be another fifteen minutes before multicellularity. So at what point in the song do humans appear? At 0.0854 seconds before the end of the song, anatomically modern humans make their first appearance. Humanity occurs in such an infinitesimally small amount of time, it is almost below the threshold of human perception. Listen for the construction of the Great Pyramids, the rise and fall of the Roman Empire, every war of every civilization ever. You will hear nothing. Using the same song, let’s consider humans. If we set the zero mark at 200,000 years ago, the beginning of the song marks when anatomically modern humans first appear. Wait twenty seven minutes and fifty seven seconds and it is the Upper Paleolithic period. The famous cave paintings Lascaux are being created, humans are finally making their mark in the slightest way possible. With only two minutes and thirty eight seconds left, we still have no civilization. At twenty nine minutes and twenty two seconds, the Uruk civilization emerges from Mesopotamia. Two seconds before the song ends, America is founded. Two seconds. America, by no means old, still feels like a timeless institution. We have American values and sensibilities; we are decidedly exceptional. Yet, in the history of mankind, we have only just begun to make our mark. Again, it is nearly impossible to situate yourself in this time frame. One second is a period of time which almost no human will live to see. I suppose this is the problem with the time map, there is just too much time. If you had a song for which each second equaled a year, the history of the planet would take over 136 years. It is discouraging; 4.3 billion years is simply beyond our comprehension. Luckily, the history of humanity is not. Using the same scale, the song of humanity is only 2 days, 7 hours, 33 minutes, and 20 seconds. I don’t have that time for that song, but someone does.	<urn:uuid:a6eb779f-76bf-4df5-86f9-e5bdc6dcdcf1>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://bucultureshock.com/time-maps/	2013-05-26T03:22:22Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706578727/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121618-00052-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.943548	777
- Roadmap to Resouces - Tutorial PDF - Subject Review - Podcast - Estuaries - What is an Estuary? - Economy and Environment - Ecosystem Services - Water Circulation - Estuarine Habitats - Adaptations to Life in the Estuary - Monitoring Estuaries - The Future Why Are Estuaries Important? Disturbances to Estuaries Why Are Estuaries Important? The Economy and Environment Healthy estuaries are critical for the continued survival of many species of fish and other aquatic life, birds, mammals, and reptiles. All of the animals pictured above live in the Rookery Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve. Located on the gulf coast of Florida, Rookery Bay represents one of the few remaining undisturbed mangrove estuaries in North America. (Images: Rookery Bay NERRS site) Estuaries are important natural places. They provide goods and services that are economically and ecologically indispensable. Often called nurseries of the sea (USEPA, 1993), estuaries provide vital nesting and feeding habitats for many aquatic plants and animals. Most fish and shellfish eaten in the United States, including salmon, herring, and oysters, complete at least part of their life cycles in estuaries. Estuaries also help to maintain healthy ocean environments. They filter out sediments and pollutants from rivers and streams before they flow into the oceans, providing cleaner waters for marine life. Estuaries provide critical habitat for species that are valued commercially, recreationally, and culturally. Birds, fish, amphibians, insects, and other wildlife depend on estuaries to live, feed, nest, and reproduce. Some organisms, like oysters, make estuaries their permanent home; others, like horseshoe crabs, use them to complete only part of their life cycle(Sumich, 1996). Estuaries provide stopovers for migratory bird species such as mallard and canvasback ducks. Many fish, including American shad, Atlantic menhaden and striped bass, spend most of their lives in the ocean, but return to the brackish waters of estuaries to spawn. Estuaries are often the economic centers of coastal communities. Estuaries provide habitat for more than 75 percent of the U.S. commercial fish catch, and an even greater percentage of the recreational fish catch (National Safety Council’s Environmental Center, 1998). The total fish catch in estuaries contributes $4.3 billion a year to the U.S. economy (ANEP, 1998). Estuaries are also important recreational areas. Millions of people visit estuaries each year to boat, swim, watch birds and other wildlife, and fish. Coastal recreation and tourism generate from $8-$12 billion per year in the United States alone (National Safety Council’s Environmental Center, 1998). Many estuaries are important centers of transportation and international commerce. In 1997, commercial shipping employed over 50,000 people in the United States (National Safety Council’s Environmental Center, 1998). Many of the products you use every day pass through one or more estuaries on a commercial shipping vessel before ever reaching your home. The continuing prosperity many coastal communities reap from transportation, fishing and tourism is clearly linked to the health of their estuaries. The economy and the environment are completely intertwined.	<urn:uuid:c414cf60-d27b-47ec-86d9-5a1413060655>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/tutorial_estuaries/est02_economy.html	2013-06-20T01:44:22Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368710006682/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516131326-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.909504	709
Electronics Measurement: Ohm's Law The term Ohm's law refers to one of the fundamental relationships found in electronic circuits: that, for a given resistance, current is directly proportional to voltage. In other words, if you increase the voltage through a circuit whose resistance is fixed, the current goes up. If you decrease the voltage, the current goes down. Ohm's law expresses this relationship as a simple mathematical formula: In this formula, V stands for voltage (in volts), I stands for current (in amperes), and R stands for resistance (in ohms). Here's an example of how to calculate voltage in a circuit with a lamp powered by the two AA cells. Suppose you already know that the resistance of the lamp is 12 Ω, and the current flowing through the lamp is 250 mA, which is the same as 0.25 A. Then, you can calculate the voltage as follows: Ohm's law is incredibly useful because it lets you calculate an unknown voltage, current, or resistance. In short, if you know two of these three quantities you can calculate the third. Go back (if you dare) to your high-school algebra class and remember that you can rearrange the terms in a simple formula such as Ohm's law to create other equivalent formulas. In particular: If you don't know the voltage, you can calculate it by multiplying the current by the resistance. If you don't know the current, you can calculate it by dividing the voltage by the resistance. If you don't know the resistance, you can calculate it by dividing the voltage by the current. To convince yourself that these formulas work, look again at the circuit with a lamp that has 12 Ω of resistance connected to two AA batteries for a total voltage of 3 V. Then you can calculate the current flowing through the lamp as follows: If you know the battery voltage (3 V) and the current (250 mA, which is 0.25 A), you can calculate the resistance of the lamp like this: Wasn't going back to high school algebra fun? Next thing you know, you're going to start looking for a prom date. The most important thing to remember about Ohm's law is that you must always do the calculations in terms of volts, amperes, and ohms. For example, if you measure the current in milliamps (which you usually will in electronic circuits), you must convert the milliamps to amperes by dividing by 1,000. For example, 250 mA is 0.25 A. Here are a few other things you should keep in mind concerning Ohm's law: Remember that the definition of one ohm is the amount of resistance that allows one ampere of current to flow when one volt of potential is applied to it? This definition is based on Ohm's law. If V is 1 and I is 1, then R must also be 1. If you wonder why the symbols for voltage and resistance are V and R, which make perfect sense, but the symbol for current is I, which makes no sense, it has to do with history. The unit of measure for current — the ampere — is named after André-Marie Ampère, a French physicist who was one of the pioneers of early electrical science. The French word he used to describe the strength of an electric current was intensité – in English, intensity. Thus, amperage is a measure of the intensity of the current. Hence the letter I. In the interest of international cooperation, the term volt is named for the Italian scientist Alessandro Volta, who invented the first electric battery in 1800. (Actually, his full name was Count Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta.)	<urn:uuid:b52cad94-e47a-4f7a-86c6-bbaef4cfb476>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/electronics-measurement-ohms-law.navId-810951.html	2013-05-22T08:14:00Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701508530/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105148-00052-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.953019	786
Maayan S. Heller Preeclampsia-an incurable condition occurring in nearly 10 percent of pregnancies-is among the most poorly understood medical disorders. But new research on dietary calcium offers hope for the prevention of this potentially life-threatening condition. The condition is marked by high blood pressure (hypertension), swelling (often in the feet, legs and hands), seizures and high amounts of protein in a woman's urine. Women with chronic hypertension, diabetes, kidney disease or a history of preeclampsia are at greater risk. A new medical review claims that by increasing calcium intake, pregnant women may reduce their likelihood for developing preeclampsia. The review was published by the Cochrane Collaboration, an international group that evaluates medical research. The reviewers analyzed 12 studies, including one with more than 4,000 pregnant women in North America and another involving more than 12,000 women internationally. They found that women with low dietary calcium who were given calcium supplements-as opposed to women who received a placebo-had a lower risk of hypertension, preeclampsia and severe complications, including death. However, the study's reviewers didn't note a dramatically reduced risk in communities where women received better prenatal care and had adequate dietary calcium, leaving room for some skepticism. Preventing preeclampsia or reducing its severity would decrease maternal and fetal morbidity rates throughout the world and lessen other consequences of this disorder, which is diagnosed by the appearance of new onset hypertension and increased urinary protein after 20 weeks of pregnancy. Other complaints that might lead a physician to a diagnosis of preeclampsia include headaches, visual disturbances, nausea and abdominal pain. Cause still unclear "This is a disease that's peculiar to pregnancy," says Dr. Marshall Lindheimer, a nephrologist and professor of medicine and obstetrics and gynecology at the University of Chicago. Lindheimer is also on the medical advisory board for the nonprofit Preeclampsia Foundation, www.preeclampsia.org. "We're still not 100 percent certain of its cause," says Lindheimer, who also co-founded the International Society for the Study of Hypertension in Pregnancy. "Predicting and preventing it would really be huge." Besides not knowing much about what causes the condition, experts say it can have wide-ranging effects on those suffering from it. "The problem with preeclampsia is that it's basically a blood vessel issue and can pretty much affect any organ," says Dr. Virgil C. Reid III, head of the women's health department at Erie Family Health Center in Chicago and a clinical assistant professor of obstetrics and gynecology at Northwestern University's Feinberg School of Medicine. Because it's a multi-system disorder, it can also have additional manifestations, including low platelet count and abnormal liver enzymes. Doctors can run tests for some of these conditions to expedite diagnosis. "There is no cure for preeclampsia except for delivery," adds Reid. If it occurs later in pregnancy, this isn't a problem, but when preeclampsia is early, especially before 32 weeks, doctors will try to gain time for the fetus to grow. In many cases, prescribing a blood-pressure medication is the best way to do this. Though rare, untreated preeclampsia can progress to eclampsia, which in extremely unusual cases can cause coma and even death of the mother and baby before, during or after childbirth. Other dangers include premature birth, growth restriction or placental abruption (where the placenta separates from the wall of the uterus). Kidney and liver damage are among potential consequences for the mother. Results aren't definitive Although the medical review sheds new light on a possible prevention method for preeclampsia, its practical implications are unclear. "I'm not sure if the results can definitively be applied to the United States," says Reid. The U.S. recommended daily calcium allowance is 1,200 milligrams. Doctors say there is no harm in taking extra calcium during pregnancy. "While I can't guarantee it'll help, I know it won't hurt," Reid says. Nevertheless, the study's conclusions are a sign of progress. Despite a dramatic reduction in recent years, preeclampsia and eclampsia still are a leading cause of maternal, fetal and infant mortality. Past research focused on prevention through supplements such as vitamins C and E, antioxidants and aspirin. With aspirin, "in fact, there were some increased complications," says Reid. "We now have a better understanding of how the signs and symptoms of the disease come about and we have enough information to start experiments that may one day prevent and cure preeclampsia," says Lindheimer. "It makes common sense that something that every pregnant woman should be taking enough of, and has some indication of reducing the severity of preeclampsia, should be taken." Maayan S. Heller is a writer from Massachusetts now living in Chicago covering women's health issues. This article appeared in the edition of Archives. Error parsing XSLT file: \xslt\article-detail.xslt	<urn:uuid:35273945-9349-40cb-aaa7-0ff600e3dd3d>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.chicagoparent.com/magazines/archives/2006/got-calcium-(1)	2013-05-21T18:12:47Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700380063/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103300-00001-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.955577	1,064
Computer Hacking and Security With the rapid growth of the worldwide Internet user base, online transactions are believed to reach well over a trillion dollars in the next three years. With stakes this high, it makes sense for all parties involved to secure the Internet. Haphazard handling of financial and personal information can lead to the Internet being constantly associated with fraud and privacy abuses instead of being a viable commerce medium. The goal for higher security starts with the individual user. The term "hacker" has been around for a while. It originally referred to a person not well versed with a computer trying different things to accomplish a task. To hack was to figure out something through sheer trial and error or logical deduction. Today, a hacker described as a person who breaks into computers for various reasons. Crackers and script-kiddies are two other more commonly used terms describing those involved in the break in or disruption of an online service. Security problems can occur in any networked environment. Many of the problems are related to the exploitation of the original design of the TCP/IP suite of internetworking protocols, but the majority are due to configuration or operator errors. Hackers are not just looking for websites or government computers to hack - utility grids, emergency information systems, controls for dams and locks, financial information, inter-banking information, military communications and much more sensitive information travels on the Internet and other communication networks. In broad terms, security threats can be classified as active and passive. ACTIVE HACKING:Active attacks involve the modification of transmitted data and attempts to gain unauthorized access to systems. Data communication is based on a set of handshakes to ensure the smooth and reliable flow of information. A hacker that is between a client and a server and is able to spoof (illegally duplicate) the IP address and sequence numbers, can attack either machine in several ways. The hacker can disable one of the machines and take the identity of the other, or the hacker can mimic either machine and carry on conversations impersonating the other. A hacker could also attach additional information to a client request and strip the corresponding additional response from the packet before forwarding the remaining response to the client's original request. All this while having access to information that is assumed to be going back and forth between two 'trusted' systems. Computer viruses and trojans are also examples of active attacks. They can disable machines or in the case of trojans allow malicious hackers access to senstive information by creating a back door. PASSIVE HACKING:Passive attacks have to do with evesdropping and monitoring transmissions. All electronic transmissions (email, WWW, telenet, etc) can theoretically be monitored. Since most computers (and the whole Internet) is part of network(s), spying on data transmissions is a major concern. One of the earliest and most sophisticated passive evesdropping example comes to us from the Cold War. The US Navy was able to 'tap' into Soviet undersea fiber optic lines by using special submaries and for years had complete knowledge of that set of communications. On the Internet, protocols like HTTP, FTP and telnet are non-encrypted modes of communications that can easily be compromised. Therefore, encrypted versions (HTTPS, SSH, etc) should be used when transmitting sensitve information. Refer to the resources section for other interesting links and sources, consider a personal firewall router and check these personal firewall reviews.	<urn:uuid:f471d58d-641c-4714-9c18-c6daa4f309d1>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.mycrypto.net/underground/hack.html	2013-05-23T12:02:39Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703298047/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112138-00001-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.934142	702
\|a scrap or morsel of food left at a meal.\| \|a screen or mat covered with a dark material for shielding a camera lens from excess light or glare.\| \|1.\|\|an apparent change in the position of an object resulting from a change in position of the observer\| \|2.\|\|astronomy the angle subtended at a celestial body, esp a star, by the radius of the earth's orbit. Annual or heliocentric parallax is the apparent displacement of a nearby star resulting from its observation from the earth. Diurnal or geocentric parallax results from the observation of a planet, the sun, or the moon from the surface of the earth\| \|[C17: via French from New Latin parallaxis, from Greek: change, from parallassein to change, from \| \|parallax (pār'ə-lāks') Pronunciation Key (click for larger image in new window) An apparent shift in the position of an object, such as a star, caused by a change in the observer's position that provides a new line of sight. The parallax of nearby stars caused by observing them from opposite points in Earth's orbit around the Sun is used in estimating the stars' distance from Earth through triangulation.	<urn:uuid:78650ebc-35b2-45f8-8ecf-c866d8c65589>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://dictionary.reference.com/science/geocentric+parallax	2013-05-25T20:17:30Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706298270/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121138-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.845838	275
An MRI uses magnetic waves to make pictures of the inside of the body. It can make two-dimensional and three-dimensional pictures. Reasons for Test You may have an MRI to diagnose a condition or look for internal injuries. MRIs can look at any body part, from your head to your toes. MRIs can also be used to see if medication or treatment is working. MRIs can be harmful if you have metal inside your body, such as joint replacements or a pacemaker. Make sure your doctor knows of any internal metal before the test. A contrast dye may be used to enhance some images. Some people may have a bad reaction to this dye. Talk to your doctor about any allergies you have or if you have liver or kidney problems. Liver and kidney problems may make it difficult for your body to get rid of the contrast. What to Expect Prior to Test Follow your doctors instructions regarding eating and drinking before the test. This will depend on what part of the body is being examined. At the MRI center: Your doctor may give you a medicine to calm you if you are anxious about the test. If your doctor prescribes a sedative you will need to arrange for a ride home. Be sure to follow your doctor's instructions on when to take the sedative. It may need to be taken 1-2 hours before the exam. You will be asked about the following: - Medical and surgical history - Other conditions that you may have—If your MRI involves contrast material, your doctor will ask about the health of your kidneys. There is a risk of complications in people who have kidney disease and receive contrast material. You will be asked if you have something in your body that would interfere with the MRI, such as: - Pacemaker or implantable defibrillator. - Ear implant. - Metal fragments in your eyes or in any other part of your body. Be sure to tell your doctor if your work involves metal filings or particles. - Implanted port device, such as an insulin pump. - Metal plate, pins, screws, or surgical staples. - Metal clips from aneurysm repair. - Retained bullets. - Any other large metal objects in your body. Tooth filling and braces are usually fine. - You will be asked to remove any metal objects such as, jewelry, hearing aids, or glasses. - You will also be asked to remove all medicine skin patches, such as Duragesic patch. They may contain metal elements and cause skin burns. - An x-ray may be taken to check for any metal objects in your body. You may be: - Given ear plugs or headphones. The MRI machine makes a loud banging noise. - Given an injection of contrast dye into your vein. - Allowed to have a family member or friend with you during the test. Description of Test If a contrast dye is used, a small IV needle is inserted into your hand or arm. You will lie very still on a sliding table. Depending on your condition, you may have monitors to track your pulse, heart rate, and breathing. The table will slide into a narrow, enclosed cylinder. In some machines, the sides are open, so you can look out into the room. The technician will leave the room. Through the intercom, the technician will give you directions. You can talk to the technician through this intercom as well. The technician will take the pictures. When the exam is done, you will slide out of the machine. If you have an IV needle, it will be removed. If you are claustrophobic or unable to lie on a flat table, there are open MRI machines available. They allow you to have the test done without being put in a narrow cylinder. There are also MRI machines that allow a patient to be in a sitting position. This may be important for patients with concerns, like a painful back. You will be asked to wait at the facility while the images are examined. The technician may need more images. If you took a sedative, do not drive, operate machinery, or make important decisions until it wears off completely. If you are breastfeeding and receive a contrast dye, you and your doctor should discuss when you should resume breastfeeding. Information available has not found any ill effects to the baby of a breastfeeding mother who has had contrast dye. How Long Will It Take? Will It Hurt? The exam is painless. If you have dye injected, there may be stinging when the IV needle is inserted. You may also feel a slight cooling sensation as the dye is injected. After the exam, a radiologist will analyze the images and send a report to your doctor. Your doctor will talk to you about the results and any further tests or treatment. Call Your Doctor After the test, call your doctor if any of the following occurs: - Worsening of symptoms - Any allergic or abnormal symptoms, like getting a rash or swelling if you were injected with contrast dye - Reviewer: Brian Randall, MD - Review Date: 02/2013 - - Update Date: 03/27/2013 -	<urn:uuid:acbe3154-b878-4166-a707-dc409686adf9>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://largomedical.com/your-health/?/14845/Imaging--magnetic-resonance	2013-05-24T22:50:35Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.921815	1,070
Nov. 15, 1999 Clouds contain disproportionately large quantities of large and small water droplets, something which meteorologists were hitherto unable to explain. Dutch researchers now think they have discovered the reason: within areas of air turbulence there are spiral patterns a few centimetres in size, which may also explain why clouds produce rain. These are the results of calculations by a research team from Delft University of Technology (TUD) using the NWO’s CRAY C90 supercomputer at the Academic Computation Centre in Amsterdam (SARA). The project was financed by the NWO’s Council for Geosphere and Biosphere Sciences. The Delft researchers calculated how hundreds of thousands of water droplets contained in about one litre of cloud move and grow. During this process, it would seem that tubular-shaped vortices a few centimetres in size are formed and that these force the droplets outwards by centrifugal force, so that they congregate at the edge. For rain to be precipitated, approximately one in every million droplets needs to acquire a diameter greater them 20 micrometers, which it does by colliding with other droplets. A chain reaction then takes place. Previous meteorological calculations had not considered the effect of small-scale areas of turbulence. In theory, this process should take more than three hours before clouds become "ripe" enough to release rain, whereas in actual fact it takes only half an hour or so. It would seem that the turbulence causes small droplets to collide more frequently than expected. Moreover, hardly any droplets are present at the centre of each area of turbulence, so that the air there remains extremely supersaturated. This may mean that air which is higher than about one hundred metres above the bottom of a cloud also becomes so supersaturated with water vapour that droplets are created. Meteorologists had up to now considered this to be impossible. A cloud is a rising bubble of moist air in which the temperature drops as a result of expansion. This causes the air to become supersaturated with water. The water vapour then condenses on particles, such as aerosols, with a radius of less than a micrometer. Such dust particles are present in abundance. Just how many small droplets develop depends on the level of supersaturation of the air. Insight into how water droplets form is not only important in predicting the weather but also so as to understand the chemical reactions in the atmosphere and the absorption and reflection of solar radiation. These processes in fact frequently take place in or at the edge of water droplets. Other social bookmarking and sharing tools: Note: Materials may be edited for content and length. For further information, please contact the source cited above. Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.	<urn:uuid:04fd005f-9319-4abb-8d0c-f823c71337e5>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/1999/11/991115070519.htm	2013-06-20T09:03:52Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368711005985/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516133005-00051-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.952929	576
Vaccination makes perfect Diseases rarely seen return as some parents avoid jabs for their kids. Irresponsible and unscientific reports published in the past few years have linked vaccinating children with the outbreak of various diseases. The reports spoke of children who were immunized and after a certain period - days, months, years - were diagnosed with a disease such as cerebral palsy, autism, multiple sclerosis and diabetes. A link in time between a vaccination and the outbreak of a disease is not necessarily a causative relationship. Solid logic shows that if 90 percent of children in Israel are vaccinated, 90 percent of the diseases that appear in the future will appear among children who have been vaccinated. Some 90 percent of the children who will be hurt in road accidents will also probably be children who were vaccinated in the past. How is it possible to know whether there is a causative link between vaccination and a complication or disease? There are scientific tools for doing this test; for example, a controlled scientific comparison of the rates of illness among children who have been vaccinated and those who have not. Repeated and independent scientific tests that have been carried out have entirely rejected any connection between vaccinations and permanent or prolonged illnesses. Success proves dangerous It can be said that the great enemy of vaccinations is their huge success since the public, and even some doctors, have not been exposed to diseases such as polio, tetanus or diphtheria. Since these diseases are not well known, there are people who doubt that there is any need to offer vaccinations against them. However, diseases have not disappeared from the face of the earth. The germs or viruses that cause them still exist in various regions. The world is a global village and the movement of people across the globe is more frequent now than at any other time in the past. Along with the people, diseases are transmitted as well. The vaccination against smallpox was stopped when the disease was wiped out and the oral vaccination against polio has been stopped in the wake of the drop in morbidity. When additional infections are wiped out, the vaccinations to prevent their spread will probably be dropped, too. An example of the effectiveness of vaccinations can be seen in the case of measles. The vaccination is effective in preventing morbidity that is caused by the virus, and with its aid the number of deaths in the world has been reduced, with most deaths today being found in developing countries; the number dropped from 750,000 deaths in the year 2000 to 197,000 in 2007. But while the death rate from measles was cut by 74 percent, the disease still exists. At the same time, incorrect reports about a possible connection between the vaccination and various diseases (a link in time) have led to a significant decrease in the rates of vaccination against measles in the western world. The results were not slow in coming. In the years 2006 and 2007, there was a sharp increase in cases of measles in countries like Britain, Ireland, France, Germany, Switzerland, and the United States. There were also reports of isolated cases of death and of infected people who developed complications. An outbreak of measles in Switzerland even led to doubts about whether to hold the European football championships in that country last summer. In Israel too there was an outbreak of the virus among a population that had a low level of vaccination against measles. This outbreak was triggered when a tourist who was ill with measles came to a wedding in Israel in July 2007 and infected many of those present. Within about one year, there were 1,423 cases of measles as compared with 11 cases in 2006 and not even one case in 2005. There were a large number of hospitalizations among those infected and the life of one little boy was in serious danger. He was saved from death after being attached to a heart-lung respirator. Efforts on the part of health authorities and vaccination campaigns has resulted in a decrease in morbidity from that disease. Intestines, lungs and cervix The non-scientific criticism of vaccinations has not stopped the momentum of those who are developing them and new vaccinations have recently been developed that are safer and more effective. Medical bodies recommend these vaccinations that are gradually about to become routine in Israel. The vaccinations are not cheap but they are provided at a discount to people who have supplementary insurance. The three vaccinations include: b The Rota virus vaccination. The virus is the most common cause of intestinal viruses among small children and its symptoms are fever, vomiting and diarrhea. These lead to a loss of fluids and to dehydration and sometimes require hospitalization and administering fluids and salts intravenously. This virus leads to some 4,000 hospitalizations annually in Israel (some 14,000 days of hospitalization). The infection appears mainly during the winter months and currently the children's wards in the hospitals are flooded with babies suffering from this infection. The vaccination is given to babies by mouth and is able to almost completely prevent hospitalization from the virus. b The vaccination against pneumococcal diseases. This is the most common cause of pneumonia, meningitis, sepsis and so forth. A vaccine against seven strains of the germ has been approved in Israel but is routinely given only to children at risk. The vaccine is recommended for all children and is given via injection starting at the age of two months. b The human papilloma virus (HPV) vaccination. This virus causes a prolonged infection, pre-cancerous damage and cancer of the cervix. In Israel some 160 women are diagnosed every year with cervical cancer and approximately 70 of them die. Innovative vaccines have been developed against the strains of this virus and they are given via injection and recommended for girls and young women. The writer is head of Pediatric Department A. and an expert in infectious diseases at Schneider Children's Medical Center in Petah Tikva. He is also a member of the medical faculty at Tel Aviv University.	<urn:uuid:95ce8d8d-012e-4460-b843-51a9bfacb28f>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/features/vaccination-makes-perfect-1.260011	2013-06-19T06:05:21Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00003-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.978819	1,199
History Quiz: Talley Beatty 1. Who was Talley Beatty’s first dance teacher? 2. Beatty’s choreographic genius was transforming experiences of _____ _____into brilliant physical expressions of the _____ _____. 3. True or False: Beatty rejected ballet for Afro-Caribbean and modern dance. 4. What is the name of the first dance that Beatty created for his company? 5. What part of that work has been deemed a masterpiece? 6. Name the artist who said, “If you haven’t studied at least four techniques, you’ll never get through one of Beatty’s ballets.” 7. Which company preserves the most of Beatty’s works? 8. According to New York Times senior dance critic Anna Kisselgoff, Beatty was “one of America’s _____ and most _____ choreographers.” 9. True or False: Beatty was a perfectionist taskmaster who was known for his temper. 10. Explain the signature elements found in a Beatty piece. 1. Katherine Dunham; 2. Social injustice; human spirit; 3. False; 4. Southern Landscape; 5. “Mourner’s Bench”; 6. Judith Jamison; 7. Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater; 8. Best; underrated; 9. True; 10. Observations of the harshness of life, and the absence of specific plot or characters. Photo courtesy of the Dance Magazine Archives.	<urn:uuid:759f75b6-f8b7-49ed-bd94-70fa1b608612>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.dance-teacher.com/2011/02/history-quiz-talley-beatty/	2013-05-18T08:47:33Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381630/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00051-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.876266	334
Experts consider Spain to be at high risk of tsunamis. There is however, no emergency protocol or tsunami warning system in place. An international meeting of 80 representatives from over 40 countries held last week in Santander revealed that if an earthquake like the one that struck Cadiz in 1755 (of magnitude 9 and triggered a tsunami that killed 15,000 people) would occur again today, the death toll would be similar to that of the tsunami in Indonesia in 2004 (300,000 deaths and 1,500,000 homeless). The Mediterranean areas most at risk include Malaga, Granada, Almeria, Murcia and the Balearic Islands. If a tsunami would form in the north of Algeria, it would take less than 30 minutes for most of the Costa del Sol to be affected by the waves. Recent studies show that Almeria, Murcia and many localities in the Balearic Islands, would be flooded with a tsunami of only 3 meters.	<urn:uuid:b68af7f3-3c0d-483e-a354-ac30dae142ee>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.spanishnews.es/20111128-spain-high-tsunami-risk/id=3684/	2013-05-25T06:06:52Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705559639/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115919-00050-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.946051	199
The Great Circle, formerly known as Mound Builders State Memorial, is located a couple miles south and west of th e original town limits of Newark, Ohio. Surrounded by what was once a forest followed by wood lots followed by corn fields, the Great Circle is now encircled by neighborhoods, shopping centers, busy thoroughfares and all the other trappings of modern life. The Great Circle is 1200 feet in diameter and is extremely close to being exactly round according to Pi times the diameter. The earthen embankment wall is 10’ – 12’ high and is complimented by an interior ditch or moat of like dimensions in sort of a positive and negative space arrangement. There is nothing to indicate that the moat ever held water and even in times of persistent, hea vy rain the accumulation of water in the so-called moat is negligible. The interior of the circle is acces sed through a gate/causeway formed by the turn-out of two short sections of the wall and moat on the northeast side as see n on the left. Compare this view with the rendering below it sketched by Benson J. Lossing in the 1850′s and appearing in his Pictorial Field-Book to the War of 1812. The interior of the circle is mostly level and contains approximately 30 acres. How large an area is this? Think of it in this way. Something as massive as the Ohio State University football stadium would easily fit within the circle as evidenced in the image of the stadium below with the circumference of the Great Circle superimposed around it! The Druids could have constructed Stone Henge eight times over inside the circle, leaving plenty of room to spare. I am often struck not so much by how or why they built the Great Circle as much as I am by how they ever conceived of such a structure! At the center point of the circle is a low, multi-lobed rise referred to as the Eagle Mound, likely b ecause of the abstract manner in which it resembles an eagle with its wings spread (right). Archaeological excavations conducted there in the 1928 by Emerson Greenman revealed that the mound contained no burials but, in true Hopewell style, the mound had been constructed over the remains of a large, rectangular, multi-post house and screening fence arranged in a “T” shaped manner. The mound’s eagle shape was most likely an artifact of how the remains of the structures were covered with earth although this does not mean that the final shape of the mound wasn’t itself refined and stylized, also a distinct Hopewell trait. Did the structure ar rangement dictate the shape of the mound or was the mound constructed in a way to not only cover the structural remains but to express or convey other meanings as well. It’s sort of like what came first, the chicken (or eagle) or the egg. That being s aid it is interesting to note that a similar design is found as an engraved decoration on a small, pierced stone tablet from the Tremper Mound seen left. The tablet (A125/150), also referred to as a gorget, is rather thick and loaf shaped and made from high grade black Ohio shale. It was among the several hundred items recovered from the main artifact cache by William C. Mills during his 1915 excavations at Tremper. The lobed design is deeply incised with cross-hatched lines and accompanied by four smaller engraved and cross-hatched coma-shaped designs themselves reminiscent of a series of copper cut-outs recovered from the Hopewell Mound Group by Warren Moorehead. The designs are regularly spaced in what appears to be an intentional pattern. Perhaps in the end there is more to the “eagle” design than meets the eye. The first published map of the Newark Earthworks was included in Caleb Atwater’s A Description of the Antiquities Discovered in Ohio and other Western States (left) issued by the American Antiquarian Society in 1820. Atwater’s work was reviewed and favorably commented on by no less a person than Thomas Jefferson who, among his many interests, was an early advocate of the scientific study of North A . In 1848 Charles Whittles ey’s survey of the Newark Earthworks (right) was published by the Smithsonian Institute in Squire and Davis’ Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley , the initial publication of the Smithsonian in its “Contributions to Knowledge” series. Even after a century and a half, Ancient Monuments is still acknowledged as the ‘bible” of mound archaeology in North America. There were in addition to these several other surveys completed throughout the remainder of the 19th Century. In the early 1860′s Licking County Surveyor David Wyrick produced a highly detailed map of the Newark Earthworks about the same time as did brothers James and Charles Salisbury residents of Newark and early practitioners of scientific archaeology. In 1894 Cyrus Thomas and James D. Middleton of the Bureau of American Ethnology published their 1888 survey of the Newark works in the monumental “Report on the Mound Explorations of the Bureau of American Ethnology” appearing in the BAE’s 12th Annual Report. Thomas’ and Middleton’s treatise was considered to be the final word in the debunking of the previously common theory that the Moundbuilders were a seperate lost race rather than the ancestors of the Native Americans. In 1853 the Great Circle was purchased by the Licking County Agricultural Society and for the next several decades was home to the Licking County Fair and occasionally the Ohio State Fair. At least locally the Great Circle was referred to as the “Old Fort”, perhaps in a passing allusion to the arcane notion that it was a place of refuge and defence for the Moundbuilder Race in their great showdown with the American Indians. It would seem that the allure of the “Old Fort” as the site of annual agricultural celebration became as much a part of the event as the fair itself. The image on the right is of a late 19th century twin panel lithograph of the Fairgrounds Circle replete with idealized renderings of the fairgrounds buildings and local scenery. The upper register shows the Fairgrounds Circle from the eastern or gateway side with it’s substantial out buildings and well manicured lawns. The lower register shows the embankment from directly opposite the gateway with the horse s coursing around the interior of the earthwork as the throngs of race fans cheer on their favorite steed. In the lower right margin it reads “sketched on site by H.P. Whinnery”. The image detail below it shows what might very well be Mr. Whinnery himself sitting on a stump, sketching a picture of him sketching a picture of the horse race. All this was enough to cause the director of the BAE, W. H. Holmes, to warn ominously that “if the present use of the Great Circle as a fair grounds is not discontinued, a few generations will witness its practical demolition”. For a variety of reasons Holmes’ warning seemed to fall on deaf ears as the extreme use of the site would continue unabated well into the 20th century. Between 1896 and 1924 R. C. Lingafelter operated an amusement park enterprise at the Great Circle known as Idlewilde Park, sort of a forerunner of the Kings Island/Cedar Point theme parks of today. According to the advertising broadside below Idlewilde Park attractions included a swit ch back railroad (a very early roller coaster) as well as a Ferris Wheel, a dan ce pavilion, shooting galleries and other amenities and amusements of the day. Below is an image of Idlewilde Park’s ornate main entrance facing the east circa 1900. It was located immediately in front of the earthwork’s gateway entrance about where the site’s museum is located. Note the fine Victorian fashions. Apparently Idlewilde Park was the place to see and be seen! Eat your heart out Paris Hilton. Idlewilde Park ’s star began to fade about the time of the First World War as the popularity of nearby Buckeye Lake Amusement Park increased. Idlewilde Park finally closed it’s gates in 1924. The Licking County Fair like so many other things began to fall on hard times with the onset of the Depression years. The last Licking County Fair to be held at the Great Circle was in 1933. To be continued…	<urn:uuid:7e071b9b-360f-44c0-bc86-b7b0a900cc95>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://ohiohistory.wordpress.com/2008/11/18/a-view-within-the-circle/	2013-05-21T11:08:33Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699899882/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102459-00052-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.972194	1,804
Search for native plants by scientific name, common name or family. If you are not sure what you are looking for, try the Combination Search or our Recommended Species lists. Search native plant database: Flaigg, Norman G. Quercus fusiformis Small Escarpment live oak, Plateau live oak, Texas live oak, Scrub live oak, Hill country live oak, Plateau oak Synonyms: Quercus virginiana var. fusiformis USDA Symbol: qufu USDA Native Status: Native to U.S. Plateau oak or Escarpment live oak is a thicket-forming shrub or large, spreading tree that is nearly identical in appearance to, and considered much hardier than, Q. virginiana. A short, tapering trunk supports picturesquely gnarled branches and limbs that over time will spread horizontally a great distance from the main trunk. It can reach a height of 20-40 ft. Leaves are evergreen, firm textured, ovate to elliptic, 1 to 3 inches long; usually without lobes except on young plants and rootsprouts, then with pointed lobes. The leaves are generally slightly smaller than those of Q. virginiana. Acorns 3/4 to 1 inch long, rather elongate. Unlike Coastal live oak, acorns are spindle-shaped (fusiform), narrowed at the base. Ranging from the Glass Mountains and Arbuckle Mountains of southern Oklahoma south through the center of Texas to the mountains of Coahuila, Tamaulipas, and Nuevo Leon in Mexico, Quercus fusiformis is the common live oak used in landscaping and found in the wild in central Texas. It is more drought-tolerant and cold-hardy than Q. virginiana, which it is sometimes considered a variety of. Like Q. virginiana, its magnificent, stately form has endeared it to generations of residents and it remains popular to this day. Also like Q. virginiana, it is susceptible to live oak wilt and live oak decline when stressed by drought, so care must be taken to protect it from injury both aboveground and below ground to prevent infection. The largest known Texas live oak grows in Real Plant CharacteristicsDuration: Perennial Habit: Tree Leaf Retention: Semi-evergreen Leaf Arrangement: Alternate Leaf Complexity: Simple Leaf Shape: Elliptic , Ovate Leaf Venation: Pinnate Leaf Margin: Entire Leaf Apex: Acute , Obtuse Leaf Base: Cordate , Rounded , Truncate Leaf Texture: Leathery Breeding System: , Monoecious Inflorescence: Catkin Fruit Type: Nut Size Notes: 20-40 ft tall Leaf: Upper surface a glossy light to dark green, grayish- green beneath with dense pubescent bloom that rubs off. Flower: Flowers 2-3 inches long Acorns annual; peduncle 1⁄8 - 11⁄8 inches (3 - 29 mm) supporting 1 - 5 nuts, cup has narrow base, light gray scales with reddish-tips may be smooth or pubescent encloses 1⁄4 - 1⁄2 of nut; dark brown, narrow and oblong nut with light brown stripes, 5⁄8 - 1 inch (16 - 25 mm) long. Size Class: 12-36 ft. , 36-72 ft. Bloom InformationBloom Color: Yellow Bloom Time: Mar , Apr , May OK , TX Native Distribution: Limited to southern Oklahoma, Texas between the Brazos and Pecos rivers, and the mountains of northeastern Mexico (Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, and Tamaulipas). Native Habitat: Savannahs, rocky hills, & uplands with limestone or calcareous loam soils. USDA Native Status: L48(N) Growing ConditionsWater Use: Low Light Requirement: Sun , Part Shade Soil Moisture: Dry Drought Tolerance: High Cold Tolerant: yes Heat Tolerant: yes Soil Description: Rocky, sandy, clay, or loam soils, usually calcareous, including caliche, but also in slightly acidic sands Conditions Comments: Those from southern Oklahoma are the most cold-hardy, surviving temperatures as low as -20 degrees F. Attractive Use Wildlife: It provides cover and nesting sites for birds and small mammals. Its acorns feed birds and mammals. Conspicuous Flowers: Birds , Butterflies Larval Host: Hairstreak, Horaces Duskywing Butterflies and Moths of North America (BAMONA) is a larval host and/or nectar source for: PropagationPropagation Material: Seeds Description: Oaks are most often propagated from seed. No pretreatment is necessary. Plant immediately – outdoors or in deep containers to accommodate long initial taproot. Protect outdoor beds with wire mesh to deter rodent predation. Seed Collection: Best quality acorns are picked or shaken from the tree. Collect when color has changed to brown. Best if sown immediately as acorns lose viability quickly in storage. Seed Treatment: Short-term storage in moist, shaded saw dust or sand. Acorns to be sown immediately can be soaked in hot water for 15 min. to prevent weevil infestation. Stored seed should be fumigated with methyl bromide. Commercially Avail: yes Maintenance: Susceptible to oak wilt, so check regularly for injury to trunk and branches and treat injured areas immediately to prevent infection. Mr. Smarty Plants says Native trees for cemetery plot in Karnes County, TX April 08, 2007 I'm looking for a tree for a cemetery plot in Karnes County at Pana Maria. There will be someone to regularly water it. I understand live oak and pecan are native to the area. I assume these would... view the full question and answer Fast growing native trees for Austin June 15, 2006 What are your suggestions for a fast growing native tree that will do well in the clay soils of North Central Austin? I just had a 30 foot hackberry tree fall and would like to restore some shade to m... view the full question and answer Invasive, non-native Paulownia May 03, 2006 Hi. We would like to plant a fast growing tree that will provide shade for our house. What do you think of the Paulownia tree (Empress Tree) as a possibility for the Austin area? If this is not a g... view the full question and answer From the National Organizations Directory According to the species list provided by Affiliate Organizations, this plant is either on display or available from the following: Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center - Austin, TXSibley Nature Center - Midland, TXBrackenridge Field Laboratory - Austin, TXPatsy Glenn Refuge - Wimberley, TXNative Plant Society of Texas - Fredericksburg, TXNueces River Authority - Uvalde, TXTexas Parks and Wildlife Department - Austin, TXNPSOT - Fredericksburg Chapter - Fredericksburg, TXNPSOT - Austin Chapter - Austin, TXNational Butterfly Center - Mission, TXJacob's Well Natural Area - Wimberley, TX Bibref 766 - Dale Groom's Texas Gardening Guide (2002) Groom, D. Bibref 1186 - Field Guide to Moths of Eastern North America (2005) Covell, C.V., Jr. Bibref 1134 - Field Guide to Native Oak Species of Eastern North America (2003) Stein, John D. and Denise Binion Bibref 1185 - Field Guide to Western Butterflies (Peterson Field Guides) (1999) Opler, P.A. and A.B. Wright Bibref 946 - Gardening with Prairie Plants: How to Create Beautiful Native Landscapes (2002) Wasowski, Sally Bibref 481 - How to Grow Native Plants of Texas and the Southwest: Revised and Updated Edition (2001) Nokes, J. Bibref 355 - Landscaping with Native Plants of Texas and the Southwest (1991) Miller, G. O. Bibref 354 - Native & Naturalized Woody Plants of Austin & the Hill Country (1981) Lynch, D. Bibref 318 - Native Texas Plants: Landscaping Region by Region (2002) Wasowski, S. & A. Wasowski Bibref 281 - Shinners & Mahler's Illustrated Flora of North Central Texas (1999) Diggs, G. M.; B. L. Lipscomb; B. O'Kennon; W. F... Bibref 291 - Texas Wildscapes: Gardening for Wildlife (1999) Damude, N. & K.C. Bender Bibref 297 - Trees of Central Texas (1984) Vines, Robert A. Search More Titles in Bibliography Recommended Species Lists Find native plant species by state. Each list contains commercially available species suitable for gardens and planned landscapes. Once you have selected a collection, you can browse the collection or search within it using the combination search. View Recommended Species page Record Modified: 2011-09-25 Research By: TWC Staff, GDG	<urn:uuid:02f12445-48e6-46c3-b921-1c979c986086>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://wildflower.org/plants/result.php?id_plant=qufu	2013-05-20T12:37:36Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698958430/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516100918-00001-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.854775	2,025
On This Day - 6 September 1916 Theatre definitions: Western Front comprises the Franco-German-Belgian front and any military action in Great Britain, Switzerland, Scandinavia and Holland. Eastern Front comprises the German-Russian, Austro-Russian and Austro-Romanian fronts. Southern Front comprises the Austro-Italian and Balkan (including Bulgaro-Romanian) fronts, and Dardanelles. Asiatic and Egyptian Theatres comprises Egypt, Tripoli, the Sudan, Asia Minor (including Transcaucasia), Arabia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Persia, Afghanistan, Turkestan, China, India, etc. Naval and Overseas Operations comprises operations on the seas (except where carried out in combination with troops on land) and in Colonial and Overseas theatres, America, etc. Political, etc. comprises political and internal events in all countries, including Notes, speeches, diplomatic, financial, economic and domestic matters. Source: Chronology of the War (1914-18, London; copyright expired) Somme front: British gain Leuze Wood. South-west of Barleux and south of Belloy, Generals von Stein and Kirchbach make ten attempts against the French, all hopelessly beaten by "75's" and "105" guns. Capture of Guillemont and advance to Ginchy completed. Asiatic and Egyptian Theatres Mazar (Sinai Peninsula), British airmen raid camps, supply depots and camel lines, good results. Naval and Overseas Operations British checked north of Kissaki (Uluguru Mountains). Birmingham: Trades Union Congress insists on restoration of Trade Union customs and practices after the war. New Zealand: Bill passed for Compulsory military service; recruitment stimulated. Simla: Viceroy's important speech, re: supply of labour to Colonies, and record of India's great services during the War.	<urn:uuid:83ad11a2-3bfe-4dea-93e7-195a19de3a49>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://firstworldwar.com/onthisday/1916_09_06.htm	2013-05-22T22:26:47Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368702452567/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516110732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.873714	406
See Deleting and killing text. Delete the character to the left of the cursor. Delete the current character. Kill text from the cursor to the end of the line. To delete a whole line (that is, text and newline), type twice at the start of the line.	<urn:uuid:081edd25-ae71-4278-a544-67d8cab2ed88>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.lispworks.com/documentation/lw51/EDUG-W/html/eduser-w-29.htm	2013-05-23T19:40:01Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703728865/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112848-00052-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.910232	62
Flavorful Ways to Get Flavonoids—and Live Longer in the Process What are flavonoids? Flavonoids are compounds found in many foods, including fruits, vegetables, legumes, grain fiber such as in bran, tea, wine, nuts, seeds, herbs, and spices. Many flavonoids are strong antioxidants, which are believed to prevent atherosclerosis by reducing damage to the cells that line the blood vessels. Some flavonoids have other beneficial properties, including anti-inflammatory effects and clot prevention. The report used data from the Iowa Women’s Health Study, in which more than 34,000 postmenopausal women between 55 and 69 years old answered questionnaires about diet and other factors related to cardiac risk and stroke risk. The women’s diets were analyzed for total flavonoid content as well as for seven specific types of flavonoids: Anthocyanidins—found in blueberries, raspberries, and red wine Flavanones—found in oranges, grapefruit, and lemons Flavones—found in parsley and celery The women whose diets contained high amounts of anthocyanidins were less likely to die from cardiovascular diseases, coronary heart disease, and from any other cause than those who got little or didn’t get any. Flavanone intake was linked to lower risk of death due to coronary heart disease, and flavone intake to lower risk of death for any reason. Get more in your meals Specific foods reduced risk of death from heart disease, stroke, and all causes. Try some of the following suggestions to get more of these foods in your diet: Eating bran, apples, pears, strawberries, red wine, and chocolate protected the women against death from cardiovascular disease. Eating apples, pears, red wine, and grapefruit protected them against death from coronary heart disease. Adding bran to food prevented death from stroke. Recipes to try—Granola on the Go Chocolate, though the effect was small, was found to prevent cardiovascular disease-related deaths. The study’s authors speculated that, as information about food make-up becomes more precise, we will learn more about the effects of specific food compounds on health and disease. In the meantime, tasty ways to work in more flavonoids abound. Enjoy! (Am J Public Health 2006;96:1815–20)	<urn:uuid:fabe430d-ea66-4852-8550-62a38749d98a>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.pccnaturalmarkets.com/health/feature/flavorful-ways-to-get-flavonoids-and-live-longer-in-the-process/~default	2013-05-23T04:33:57Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368702810651/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516111330-00052-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.958007	508
Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS) is a potentially fatal respiratory illness caused by a virus found in the saliva, urine, and droppings of some rodents. People can become infected with the virus by breathing contaminated dust; handling infected rodent saliva, urine, or droppings; or being bitten by an infected rodent. Fever, fatigue, and muscle aches develop about 2 to 3 weeks after being exposed to the virus. A few days later, coughing and shortness of breath become severe as fluid builds up in the lungs (pulmonary edema). HPS is diagnosed with laboratory tests. Early treatment for hantavirus pulmonary syndrome is important for survival. Treatment includes supportive care for breathing and prevention of shock. HPS can be prevented by avoiding contact with rodents and their droppings. eMedicineHealth Medical Reference from Healthwise To learn more visit Healthwise.org © 1995-2012 Healthwise, Incorporated. Healthwise, Healthwise for every health decision, and the Healthwise logo are trademarks of Healthwise, Incorporated. Find out what women really need. Most Popular Topics Pill Identifier on RxList - quick, easy, Find a Local Pharmacy - including 24 hour, pharmacies	<urn:uuid:6462b262-c5c2-4e1a-92db-a7ccc2d95cfd>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.emedicinehealth.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=133650&ref=128800	2013-05-27T02:56:00Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706890813/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516122130-00052-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.923103	264
Submitted by Milica on Tue, 2013-05-07 07:02 Historians and craftsmen have long pondered the absolute regularity of Viking jewelry made from twisted rods of gold and silver, but a new theory by Kasper Olsen and Jakob Bohr at the Technical University of Denmark may have solved the puzzle: mathematics. Submitted by Milica on Fri, 2013-05-03 16:43 Those interested in Nordic culture, especially when it comes to brewing, may want to take a look at a scholarly article by Christie L. Ward entitled Norse Drinking Traditions, delivered to the Alexandrian Company Symposium on Food and Festival in the Middle Ages. The paper is available to read or download on Scribd, the digital book and document website. Submitted by Milica on Sun, 2013-04-21 08:20 While the image of the Vikings has been rehabilitated in the past few years, showing them as peaceful farmers and artisans, some evidence of cruel and bloodthirsty behavior does exist. In Smithsonian's blog Past Imperfect, Mike Dash looks at the more brutal side of the Norsemen, and the fact of torture such as the "blood eagle." Submitted by Milica on Sun, 2013-04-14 13:09 Experts have long speculated that a Norse Solarsteinn, or sunstone, was used to help Viking mariners find their way west through cloudy weather, and the discovery of such an artifact on a sunken, 16th century English warship may prove it. Submitted by Milica on Sat, 2013-04-06 13:40 Archaeologists have long known that Vikings loved their ale, but, according to Merryn and Graham Dineley, the experts have seldom considered just where the ale was brewed. Now, a new study speculates that stone structures in Britain, once believed to be bathhouses, might actually have been brewhouses. Submitted by Alys Katharine on Wed, 2013-04-03 17:31 Low water in Stockholm's harbor reveals the outline of two sunken warships believed to be from the 17th century. Submitted by Milica on Sun, 2013-03-31 11:05 Everyone knows that the Vikings were dirty louts in helmets with horns -- at least that is what Danish Facebook readers thought in a recent survey by ScienceNordic’s Danish partner site, videnskab.dk. ScienceNordic debunks the myths about Viking appearance on a webpage entitled What Vikings really looked like. Submitted by Alys Katharine on Mon, 2013-03-25 20:03 A greenish-brown wool tunic was uncovered when a glacier in south Norway began retreating. Submitted by Milica on Sat, 2013-03-23 16:16 In December 2012, metal detector enthusiast Morten Skovsby got lucky near the village of Hårby, Denmark. His detector hit on a thumb-sized silver figurine depicting a Valkyrie, the only known 3D Viking representation of the battle maiden. (photos) Submitted by Milica on Sun, 2013-03-10 22:15 The Annual IMR Postgraduate Conference at the University of Nottingham in England is calling for papers to be presented at its conference to be held July 5, 2013. The deadline for submission is April 1, 2013 Submitted by Milica on Fri, 2013-03-01 10:35 On March 3, 2013, Vikings will sail onto television screens in a "nine-part drama series from Michael Hirst, creator of The Tudors." The series will focus on the exploits of Ragnar Lothbrok and his followers, complete with "dynamic displays of superherolike derring-do and physical stamina." Submitted by gijchar on Mon, 2013-02-18 20:41 How To Forge A Helmet is a step-by-step guide for making your own Viking-Age Spangenhelm. It is a Kindle Book on Amazon, written by Armourer Joe Piela aka Gijchar of The Lonely Mountain Forge. Approximately 24 pages long, this book is illustrated with 19 photos, including 1 of the pattern used to make the helmet. Submitted by Milica on Sun, 2013-02-10 12:57 Travelers in northern Norway were inconvenienced recently when a truckload of burning cheese closed the Brattli Tunnel at Tysfjord. The fire continued for five days, releasing toxic gases, and making clearing the tunnel hazardous. Submitted by Milica on Thu, 2013-02-07 12:10 “To assume that Viking men were ranked above women is to impose modern values on the past, which would be misleading,” cautions Marianne Moen one of the organizers of the Viking Worlds Conference, to be held in March 2013. Submitted by Milica on Sun, 2013-02-03 10:01 Those interested in Icelandic and Scandanavian textiles will want to watch a video featuring archaeologist and textile expert Michele Hayeur Smith presenting at the Anthropology Distinguished Lecture at Bridgewater State University. Submitted by Milica on Mon, 2013-01-28 17:07 The Roskilde 6, the largest Viking long ship ever found, is traveling to England, not to loot and pillage, but to educate, 1,000 years after it carried troops for King Canute of Denmark. The warship wil be displayed by the British Museum in 2014. Submitted by Milica on Wed, 2013-01-23 11:42 A recent study by a team of Danish-Canadian scientists rules out cold weather as the reason that the Vikings abandoned their settlements in Greenland in the 15th century. When cold destroyed crops, say the experts, the settlers just changed their diets to seal meat. Submitted by Milica on Tue, 2013-01-15 11:13 In the 13th century, Scotland was divided between the Scots on the mainland and the Vikings of the western islands. The struggle that followed brought an end to Viking rule in the country. A new BBC Two program looks at The Last Battle of the Vikings. Submitted by Milica on Thu, 2012-12-27 15:39 One of the theories about the demise of Viking settlers on Greenland was that the Norse were unable to adapt to the island's harsh climate, but Danish and Canadian researchers believe that was not the cause. Submitted by Milica on Sat, 2012-12-22 19:05 Much of the Norse mythology we recognize today comes courtesy of the writing of 13th century Icelandic chieftain Snorri Sturluson. Nancy Marie Brown takes a look at Snorri on her blog God of Wednesday. Submitted by Milica on Mon, 2012-12-17 17:10 Scandinavian museums proudly display artifacts plundered throughout Europe by the Vikings, but now some museum curators ask if these stolen treasures should be returned to their original countries. Submitted by Milica on Wed, 2012-12-12 10:32 On an island in a small river in Norway's Nord-Trøndelag County, archaeologists have discovered a 14th-century copper smeltery. “This is the first evidence that copper was produced from copper ore in Norway during the Middle Ages,” says Associate Professor Lars F. Stenvik, at the Museum of Natural History and Archaeology in Trondheim. Submitted by Milica on Tue, 2012-12-04 13:30 Unlike Hollywood's version of sword fighting, based on fencing, the true Viking fighting style was close in and vigorous. In a short video posted on the Discovery website, a father and son team of professional fight choreographers shows how it was really done. Submitted by Milica on Sat, 2012-12-01 14:18 At a conference in October 2012, archaeologist Patricia Sutherland announced that new evidence has been found of a Viking outpost on Canada's Baffin Island. Submitted by Milica on Mon, 2012-11-26 15:24 Game creator Gregor Vuga reports that he is developing a roleplaying game focusing on the lives of Icelandic settlers in the 10th century CE. Sagas of the Icelanders is an independent endeavor funded by private contributions. A short video explains the project. Submitted by Milica on Tue, 2012-11-13 16:26 Dr Tarrin Wills, from the Centre for Scandinavian Studies, believes that Vikings used their understanding of human psychology to "profile" possible trouble-makers. He recently presented his research at the British Science Festival. Submitted by Milica on Tue, 2012-11-06 19:45 A recent program in the PBS NOVA series explores Secrets of the Viking Sword. The 53-minute program is available to download and view from the NOVA website. Submitted by Milica on Fri, 2012-10-26 18:14 Tavern Tourney / A DAY IN VALHALLA December 8, 2012. Site: Chuparosa Park, 2400 S. Dobson Rd., Chandler, AZ, 85244 which is on Dobson, south of Germann. Submitted by Sabine Berard on Wed, 2012-10-24 12:40 Artifacts from an excavation on Baffin Island, Canada have yielded evidence that the Vikings may have had a settlement there in the 14th century. Evidence includes traces of bronze, European-style stonework and tools, Old World rat pelts, and yarn similar to that made in Greenland at the same time. Submitted by Milica on Fri, 2012-10-19 23:42 There are documents a plenty on how the Vikings influenced the culture of England, but a new study looks at ways that Danish Norse were influenced by the English they conquered. According to Ph.D candidate Marie Bønløkke Spejlborg, it was the English who inspired Danes to organise themselves into cities."	<urn:uuid:08c1ccec-73e2-41d4-8835-deed7958d342>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.scatoday.net/taxonomy/term/101	2013-05-26T02:59:33Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00053-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.945031	2,083
This interferogram of the magnitude 7.2 Baja California earthquake of April 4, 2010, overlaid atop a Google Earth image of California's Coachella Valley - Salton Sea region, was produced by the UAVSAR synthetic aperture radar aboard NASA's Gulfstream III research aircraft. NASA Dryden is evaluating earthquake warning seismometers developed by Seismic Warning Systems, Inc., to determine if sonic booms could cause false alarms. (NASA/JPL/USGS/Google) SonicBREWS: Brewing Up an Earthquake Warning System NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center and Seismic Warning Systems, Inc., are evaluating the company’s QuakeGuard™ earthquake warning system to determine if sonic booms cause the devices to register false alarms. Under a NASA Space Act agreement, the company has installed two of their QuakeGuard™ warning seismometers at NASA Dryden. The system is in test mode, not warning mode. The devices were installed in Dryden's main office building, spaced about 100 feet apart and tied into the building’s foundation. Vertical accelerometers in the devices, using the company’s proprietary algorithms, are designed to detect precursor or “P” waves that travel ahead of the primary, destructive “S” shockwaves of earthquakes. So far, normal sonic booms are not causing the system to generate false alarms. But Dryden, in an effort dubbed SonicBREWS, or Sonic Boom Resistant Earthquake Warning System, is going to put the system to the test during three flights that will have F/A-18 aircraft dive to place sonic boom shockwaves directly on the building, thereby better mimicking the P waves. Such a system is currently installed in California’s Coachella Valley, with warning devices installed in several schools and fire stations. The system worked during one of California’s most recently felt quakes, the 7.2-magnitude Baja California earthquake that occurred on April 4, 2010, the strongest in the region in 18 years. The earthquake was larger than the devastating 7.0 Haiti earthquake last January. The QuakeGuard™ system successfully detected the Baja quake’s P wave 90 seconds before the arrival of the quake’s S waves and set off alarms that included the automatic raising of local fire station doors that are integrated into the system. During earthquakes, fire station doors are frequently jammed shut, interfering with local fire department response to the events. Depending on the geographic distance from an earthquake epicenter, officials estimate such warning systems could provide up to five minutes warning prior to the arrival of a distant quake, but only seconds for a device located near the epicenter. Though 90 seconds may sound like little warning, even less time is enough time for people to duck-and-cover, for automated valves on gas company pipes to shut off gas, and for fire station doors to open, etc. Plans are in formulation for installation of such a system in the Lancaster – Palmdale area in Southern California, which lies adjacent to the San Andreas Fault about 70 miles northeast of Los Angeles. Due to the frequency of sonic booms in that area from flight test aircraft operating out of nearby Edwards Air Fore Base, Seismic Warning Systems needs to see whether sonic booms need to be filtered out of the system. Additionally, Dryden is working with Seismic Warning Systems on a white paper study of the technology and the effects of sonic booms, or the lack thereof, on it's capabilities. NASA Dryden Public Affairs	<urn:uuid:76ab6b97-51bb-4a32-8603-13ad68833656>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/Features/SonicBREWS.html	2013-05-20T11:30:54Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698924319/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516100844-00052-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.924949	728
Earlier this year, we had the privilege of reviewing Talking Fingers: Read, Write, & Type. My girls loved it, and I was amazed as I watched them learn to type and practice their phonics at the same time. After our great experience with Talking Fingers, it was exiting to learn that we would also be reviewing the sequel, Word Qwerty – Foundations for Reading and Writing Fluency! Word Qwerty is designed for 7-9 year olds as the next step following Read, Write, & Type. After completing the Read, Write, & Type program, most students will be able to read and type words that they can say. They may, however, still struggle with how to spell the words. That is where Word Qwerty comes in. According to the Talking Fingers website: The overall purpose of Wordy Qwerty: Foundations for Reading and Writing Fluency, is to improve phonological and morphological sensitivity, to develop a deeper understanding of how words are constructed in English, and to provide reading and writing activities with helpful feedback, in order to increase fluency and comprehension in reading and writing. Word Qwerty’s 20 lessons contain six steps: 1. Patterns – The students create two word lists by noticing spelling differences in words. 2. Karaoke – Each lesson has a song to teach one of the 20 basic spelling rules covered in the program. 3. Recycler – This game teaches the different vowel combinations that can make the same sound, and teaches students to distinguish between real words and non-words. 4. Pop-a-Word – In this activity, the students are given a four word phrase. They must then pop balloons with the correct words. 5. Write Stories – In these 8-line rhyming stories, the student is given one line and then they must listen to the next line and type it. This gives practical application of the spelling rules they have just learned. 6. Read Stories – As the students read the story, they have to choose the correct word that fits, giving them great reading comprehension practice. Word Qwerty is a great continuation of the foundation laid in Read, Write, and Type. I would definitely recommend it! Completion of Read, Write and Type prior to Word Qwerty is not mandatory, but it would definitely make things easier (particularly in the area of typing). Word Qwerty is available for purchase from the Talking Fingers website. - Mac: OS9 with CarbonLib or OSX - Windows: 98, SE, 2000, XP It also requires QuickTime 6 (included) or greater. You can purchase the CD version package for just $35. It includes: the program CD, the program guide in a 3-ring binder, and an audio CD of the 20 songs included in the program.The CD products are not compatible with Windows 7 or Mac OS 10.6. Word Qwerty is also available through online subscription. All home online subscriptions are for five years. The prices are: 1 student – $25, 2 students – $40, 3 students – $52.50, 4 students – $60, and 5 students – $71.25. Other members of the TOS Crew had the opportunity to review Word Qwerty as well. You can read about their experiences at the TOS Homeschool Crew Blog. Disclosure: I received the online version of Word Qwerty free of charge for the purpose of this review. No other compensation was received, and the opinions stated are my own.	<urn:uuid:641049ec-99b7-4899-89eb-eee5ea862d7f>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.homeschooljava.com/2011/05/20/talking-fingers-word-qwerty-tos-crew-review/	2013-05-18T08:18:49Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381630/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00001-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.954803	740
Health Infrastructure The organization of health services in a malarious area must be known in order to determine the feasibility of potential anti-malarial measures. The national health budget—both the amount available for malaria control and the relative importance assigned to health—must be known for appropriate planning to proceed and for affordable interventions to be selected. The status of health services must be critically evaluated in terms of distribution, efficiency, and effectiveness. The characteristics and orientation, whether vertical or horizontal, of the national malaria control program, as well as its strengths and weaknesses, must be understood. The effects of malaria control measures already undertaken should be known, and the adequacy of funding, availability of drugs and insecticides, level of competence among program planners, and quality of the field staff must be assessed. In many areas, nongovernmental services can be more important than those provided by government facilities. Hospitals and district health clinics, organized and supported by religious missions, may have a greater impact on the health of the local populations than do programs administered by impoverished governments. In certain societies, traditional healers may play a major role in treating malaria patients and referring them to organized medical facilities. Private health care, whether provided by clinics and hospitals, moon-lighting governmental health staff, traditional healers, private pharmacists, medical “quacks,” or drug sections of markets, are often more important for the delivery of health care at the local level than are organized governmental services. The impact of these alternatives must be understood and exploited during the planning and implementation of malaria control activities. Availability and Effectiveness of Antimalarial Drugs The efficacy of anti-malarial drugs depends in part on cost, availability, acceptability to the local population, and patterns of parasite resistance. Highly effective drugs may be so expensive that neither patients nor control programs can afford them. A course of mefloquine, for example, may cost 25 times as much as a course of chloroquine. Programs that have been designed to use chloroquine may not be able to adapt to the use of a new, more expensive drug. Patients unable to buy a full course of medication may purchase only one or two tablets, making the treatment ineffective. If the practice is widespread enough, it may contribute to the selection of parasite populations resistant to the drug. If, because of cost, corruption, or disorganization, a program is unable to make effective drugs available to the population it serves, mortality, particularly among children in Africa, is bound to be high.	<urn:uuid:a306ffba-1cfc-4cf6-8b8b-8968c2be2586>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=1812&page=225	2013-06-19T12:48:59Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00001-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.942218	509
Cascading Importance: Wolves, Yellowstone, and the World Beyond. A talk with William Ripple. Jonathan Batchelor Winter 2013. Large Predators and Ecological Health WAMC Northeast Public Radio August 23. Top Predators Protect Forests The Wildlife Professional Summer 2012. Cougars Encourage Lizards in Zion Year of the Lizard News July 2012. Predators and Plants Science Update April 26. Herbivores take toll on ecosystem The Register Guard April 10. Loss of predators affecting ecosystem health OSU Press Release April 9. Wolves to the Rescue Defenders of Wildlife Defenders Magazine Winter 2012. Wolves help Yellowstone, researchers say Local 10, CNN January 5, 2012. How Wolves Are Saving Trees in Yellowstone Good Environment January 4, 2012. Study says that with more wolves and fewer elk, trees rebounding in portions of Yellowstone The Washington Post January 3, 2012. Yellowstone transformed 15 years after the return of wolves OSU Press Release Dec 21, 2011. Lopped Off Science News November 2011. The Crucial Role of Predators: A New Perspective on Ecology Yale Environment 360 September 15, 2011. For Want of a Wolf, the Lynx Was Lost? Science Magazine September 9, 2011. Red wolf comeback in N.C. helps other animals thrive The Charlotte Observer August 13, 2011. The case for large predators The Oregonian July 23, 2011. Study tracks effects of declining predator numbers The Register-Guard July 17, 2011. Loss of top predators causes chaos, including fires and disease The Vancouver Sun July 15, 2011. Loss of large predators disrupting multiple plant, animal and human ecosystems OSU Press Release July 14, 2011. Loss of Top Predators Has Far-Reaching Effects PBS Newshour July 14, 2011. Oregon State researchers: Predators Important To Ecosystems OPB Earthfix July 14, 2011. Using Wolves and Other Predators to Restore Western Ecosystems Eugene Natural History Society November 2010. Sharks and Wolves: Predator, Prey Interactions Similar on Land and in Oceans US News Nov. 15, 2010. New Theory for Megafaunal Extinction American Archaeology Fall 2010. New theory on what killed off the woolly mammoths Science Fair, USA Today July 2, 2010. Study probes role of key predators in ecosystem disruption Corvallis Gazette-Times July 1, 2010. Ripple Marks: The Story Behind the Story Oceanography June, 2010. Destination Science 2010: The reintroduction of wolves has helped bring a severely damaged ecosystem back from the brink Discover Magazine April, 2010. Mess O' Predators The Discovery Files January 20, 2010. Top predators' decline disrupts ecosystems, says study The Epoch Times October 14-20, 2009. Ripple receives Spirit of Defenders Award for Science The Barometer October 7, 2009. Wolves, jaguars are out, coyotes, foxes are in: New global study The Arizona Daily Star - Blogging in the desert October 2, 2009. Decline in big predators wreaking havoc on ecosystems, OSU researchers say The Oregonian October 1, 2009. Where Tasty Morsels Fear to Tread The New York Times: The Wild Side September 29, 2009. Wolves to the Rescue in Scotland ScienceNOW Daily News (Science Magazine) July 22, 2009. Can wolves restore an ecosystem? Seattle Times January 25, 2009. Wolf Loss and Ecosystem Disruption at Olympic National Park Island Geoscience Fall 2008. The Silence of the Wild William Stolzenburg essay, Powell's Books 2008. Century without the wolf The Oregonian July 30, 2008. Monitoring cougar in Yosemite Valley Difficult San Mateo County Times June 22, 2008. Lack of predators harms wild lands San Mateo County Times June 21, 2008. Cougar decline resuls in critical changes to Yosemite ecosystem Land Letter - E&E Publishing Service May 8, 2008. Yosemite: Protected but Not Preserved. Science Magazine May 2, 2008. How humans, vanishing cougars changed Yosemite San Francisco Chronicle May 2, 2008. Wolves and Elk Shape Aspen Forests CurrentResults.com 2007. Return of the Wolves. Weekly Reader December 2007. Oregon State is No. 1 in conservation biology. The Oregonian via OregonLive.com September 6, 2007. Yellowstone's Wolves Save Its Aspens. The New York Times August 5, 2007. Presence Of Wolves Allows Aspen Recovery In Yellowstone. Science Daily (ScienceDaily.com) July 31, 2007. Apsens Return to Yellowstone, With Help From Some Wolves. www.sciencemag.org July 27, 2007. Yellowstone trees get help from wolves. MSNBC.com July 27, 2007. It All Falls Down: A plummeting cougar population alters the ecosystem at Zion National Park. Smithsonian Magazine/Smithsonian.com December, 2006. Cougar Predation Key To Ecosystem Health. ScienceDaily.com / University of Toronto October 25, 2006. The Ecology of Fear. emagazine.com March 2006. Hunting Habits of Yellowstone Wolves Change Ecological Balance in Park. The New York Times Oct. 18, 2005. Episode 3 "Predators", Strange Days on Planet Earth. National Geographic April 2005. Ecological changes linked to wolves. The Seattle Times Jan. 12, 2005. Mystery in Yellowstone: wolves, wapiti, and the case of the disappearing aspen. Notable Notes, Oregon State University 2004. A Top Predator Roars Back. On Earth Summer 2004. Research Shows Wolves Play Key Role in Ecosystems. ABC News Dec. 15, 2004. Who's Afraid of the Big Bad Wolf? The Yellowstone Wolves Controversy. Journal of Young Investigators Nov. 2004. Lessons from the Wolf. Scientific American Jun. 2004. Wolves linked to vegetation improvements. Wyoming Tribune-Eagle Mar. 18, 2004. Endangered Wolves Make a Comeback. National Public Radio Feb. 20, 2004. Wolves' Leftovers Are Yellowstone's Gain, Study Says. National Geographic News Dec. 4, 2003. Wolves enhance biodiversity in Yellowstone, report says. Oregonian Oct. 29, 2003. Wolves linked to tree recovery. Billings Gazette Oct 29, 2003. A top dog takes over. National Wildlife Federation Oct./Nov. 2003. OSU student maps L&C wildlife observations. Corvallis Gazette-Times Mar. 28, 2003. Aspens wither without wolves. Herald and News Nov. 19, 2000. Observatory: Fates of wolf and aspen. New York Times Sep. 26, 2000. Quiet Decline: Fewer wolves and wildfires may have led to aspen's decline. ABC News Sep. 21, 2000. Support for the Leopold site is provided by: Dept. of Forest Resources, OSU, 280 Peavy Hall, Corvallis, OR 97331. phone: 541-737-4951 \| fax: 541-737-3049 Copyright 2003, Oregon State University \| Disclaimer.	<urn:uuid:8d55d791-f938-4846-9347-17c697c329a0>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.cof.orst.edu/cascades/news-articles.php	2013-05-24T15:29:46Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.817518	1,508
At the beginning of the study period, Southern Africa (South Africa, Botswana, Namibia, Zimbabwe, Lesotho, Swaziland) was inhabited by Khoisan peoples. By CE 1000, however, Bantu-speaking, iron-working, cattle-herding agriculturists had settled the region as far south as the Fish River, assimilating the native Khoisans. (Evidence for this contact is the retention of Khoisan clicks in many of the Bantu languages of the region.) The Kalahari Desert and the Cape Province, being poorly suited to Bantu-style agriculture, remained the domain of Khoisan nomads. Thus, if your ancestors were in southern Africa in CE 1490, it is safe to assume that their ancestors were also farther north in central and east Africa in earlier periods. Although southern Africa has hosted many powerful kingdoms (such as the Rozvi Empire of Zimbabwe) and its people are highly mobile, we will limit our attention the really significant migrations. Seventeenth to eighteenth centuries - Dutch settlement : The first historic mass migration was prompted by the settlement of the Dutch at the Cape of Good Hope. Originally, this settlement was for the reprovisioning of Dutch ships bound for the Far East. Dutch agents traded with local Khoisan herders. When the herders were unwilling to trade as many animals as the Dutch needed, the latter responded by: As soon as they arrived, the Dutch began marrying or otherwise fathering children with Khoisan women - the origin of the "colored" (i.e. mixed race) South Africans of the apartheid era. The Dutch were accompanied by slaves from West Africa and Angola. Thus, if your ancestors were South African "coloreds" in CE 1900 or 1800, their ancestors would have lived both in the Cape region, coastal west Africa, Angola, and in the Netherlands in CE 1490. Early Eighteenth century - the Dutch meet the Bantus : The Dutch adapted well to the demands of semi-nomadic pastoralism, developing a mobile farming and herding Trekboer culture largely independent from the administration of the Cape colony and that competed with, but was rather similar to the cultures of the Xhosa people (Bantu pioneers) east of the Fish River. Indeed, some of the first contacts between Dutch and Xhosas seem to have been amorous, with pioneer trekboers marrying into and assimilating with Xhosa culture. It didn't last, however, as the two groups competed for the best farmland in a series of indecisive wars that lasted into the nineteenth century. By this point, the Dutch colonists were served by slaves taken from Khoisan and Bantu peoples. The inevitable result of the sexual aspects of slavery - more mixed race babies. Early nineteenth century - "crushing" and "scattering": The consolidation of the Zulu kingdom resulted in a series of epic migrations alternately called the Mfecane ("crushing") or Difaqane ("scattering") depending on whether your people were taking it or dishing it out. It all started when the Nguni tribes of KwaZulu-Natal become the Zulu state: The Zulu state emerged from a series of epic struggles of two major clans - the Ndwandwes and the Mthethwas (helped by their junior allies, the Zulus). In this conflict the Mthethwas were defeated and dispersed, but regrouped under the brilliant leadership of Shaka, chief of the minor Zulu clan. The Zulus, taking up the Mthethwa cause, defeated the Ndwandwes and founded their powerful expansionist kingdom. (This was an incredible victory that places Shaka up there with history's most brilliant military leaders. At the time, Shaka's regiments probably contained the best disciplined soldiers in the world. Read about it some day.) The demographic results: Late nineteenth century - colonialism: The discovery of the mineral wealth of northern South Africa caused the British to take the region more seriously, defeating and colonizing the Zulu kingdom and annexing the Boer republics. The mining industry completely transformed the region by: Zimbabwe and Zambia, in turn, became the focus of mining companies with similar results. In other parts of southern Africa, colonialism followed the form established in East and Central Africa, with Namibia becoming a German colony and Botswana and Swaziland British. Unlike with preindustrial settlers and locals, intermarriage between colonial officials and locals was rare but not completely unheard of. Your family folklore and the evidence of your senses will inform you.	<urn:uuid:68bff8c0-ebf7-4ba6-bfc5-8c243595846a>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.geol.umd.edu/~jmerck/eltsite/reading/pershist/safrica.html	2013-06-19T14:19:18Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00002-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.969589	956
The Creation Wiki is now operating on a new and improved server. African bush elephant From CreationWiki, the encyclopedia of creation science \|African bush elephant\| The African bush elephant is the larger of the two species of African elephants. They are the largest living terrestrial animal on the earth. The average of their weight is 15,000 to 22,000 lbs, their length is 20 feet, and their height is 10 feet. They move at about 4 mph, but if they need to hurry, than their speed is about to 25 mph. African bush elephant are always in a group. Today, in Africa, people kill the elephant so the African bush elephant population dropped 300,000 to 10,000. The African bush elephant is the largest living terrestrial animal on earth. This elephant characterized is largest head and neck is high; big ears that can cover their shoulders; a huge and muscular trunk; two tusks that are well developed in both female and male; and short tail. They have gray but little brownish skin, and its wrinkled all over. Also they have four nails in frontfeet and three in hindfeet. The African bush elephant length is 19.7 to 24 feet(6-7.3 meters), height is 9.8 to 11.5 feet (3-3.5 meters) at the shoulder, and a weight is 15,000 to 22,000 pound (7,000-10,000 kg) They move at 4 mph (6 km/h), but if they feel scared or upset they can run by 25 mph (40 km/h). They use communication by seismic vibrations at infrasound frequencies. However, the largest one lives in Angola in 1955, weight was 27,000 lbs, 13.8 feet high. This one is now in the National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C. The female elephant is tend to get pregnant at the age of 9 to 12. They can reproduce until 55 to 60 years old. Their pregnancy period is about 22 months(630-660 days), this is the longest pregnancy period of any mammal. The average labor is 11 hours, At the birth, the elephants weight is around 200 to 250 pounds(90-115 kg), then they gain 2 to 2.5 lbs(1kg) a day. The mother protect the young baby elephants with the other adult females, and baby elephants are raise by part of the family group. Most African elephants live in the east forests of central and south Africa. They live in groups, and the group is made of females and calves. The males are driven out of the group when they reach puberty and live in bachelor herds. Mature males are solitary and only join a family unit to mate. African elephants are vegetarian. They eat grass, fruit, flowers, and branches. They use their trunk to grab the food and put it in their mouths. The San Diego Zoo has a program that helps elephants in Swaziland. In 2008, Kenya made a conservation program of African bush elephant. Reason that Kenya made this program is because, elephants need a large area to live, but in Kenya the elephants have loss their land, because of settlements. So they try to help the elephants. In 2006, people killed over 100 elephants, and carried out during the late spring and summer of 2006, in the vicinity of Zakouma National Park. Because of this, elephant population was 300,000 in 1970, to 10,000 today. The government has proven insufficient to stop the poaching. - The Nature Conservancy by Robert Hardholt. - Animal Corner by Corner MJB - Wikipedia by Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia	<urn:uuid:f8c3d045-00a6-43c4-9fc5-51ef33465636>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.creationwiki.org/African_bush_elephant	2013-05-20T12:23:20Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698924319/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516100844-00051-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.945531	754
Jews and Judaism in China have had a long history arrived during the mid Han Dynasty, or even as early as 231 BCE during the trade caravans and spice trade. Jewish settlers are documented in China as early as the 7th or 8th century CE, Relatively isolated communities developed through the Tang and Song Dynasties (7-12th cent. CE) all the way through the Qing Dynasty (19th cent.), most notably in the Kaifeng Jews (the term “Chinese Jews” is often used in a restricted sense to refer to these communities). By the time of the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, few if any native Chinese Jews were known to have maintained the practice of their religion and culture. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, however, some international Jewish groups have helped Chinese Jews rediscover their heritage. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, Jewish immigrants from around the world arrived with Western commercial influences, particularly in the commercial centers of Shanghai and Hong Kong, which was for a time a British colony. Tens of thousands of Jewish refugees escaping from the 1917 Russian Revolution and the Holocaust in Europe were to find sanctuary in China in successive decades. China’s Jewish communities have been ethnically diverse ranging from the Jews of Kaifeng and other places during the history of Imperial China, who, it is reported, came to be more or less totally assimilated into Chinese culture, to 19th and 20th century Baghdadis, to Indians, to Ashkenazi Jews from Europe. The presence of a community of Jewish immigrants in China is consistent with the history of the Jewish people during the first and second millennia CE, which saw them disperse and settle throughout the Eurasian landmass, with an especial concentration throughout central Asia. By the ninth century, ibn Khordadbeh noted the travels of Jewish merchants called Radhanites, whose trade took them to China via The Silk Road through Central Asia and India. During the period of international opening and quasi-colonialism, the first group to settle in China were Jews who arrived in China under British protection following the First Opium War. Many of these Jews were of Indian or Iraqi origin, due to British colonialism in these regions. The second community came in the first decades of the 20th century when many Jews arrived in Hong Kong and Shanghai during those cities’ periods of economic expansion. Many more arrived as refugees from the Russian Revolution of 1917. A surge of Jews and Jewish families was to arrive in the late 1930s and 1940s, for the purpose of seeking refuge from the Holocaust in Europe and were predominantly of European origin. Shanghai was notable for its volume of Jewish refugees, most of whom left after the war, the rest relocating prior to or immediately after the establishment of the People’s Republic of China. Over the centuries, the Kaifeng community came to be virtually indistinguishable from the Chinese population and is not recognized by the Chinese government as a separate ethnic minority. This is as a result of having adopted many Han Chinese customs including patrilineal descent, as well as extensive intermarriage with the local population. Since their religious practices are functionally extinct, they are not eligible for expedited immigration to Israel under the Law of Return unless they explicitly convert. It has been asserted by some that the Jews that have historically resided in various places in China originated with the Lost Ten Tribes of the exiled ancient Kingdom of Israel who relocated to the areas of present-day China. Traces of some ancient Jewish rituals have been observed in some places. One well-known group was the Kaifeng Jews, who are purported to have traveled from Persia to India during the mid-Han Dynasty and later migrated from the Muslim-inhabited regions of northwestern China (modern day Gansu province) to Henan province during the early Northern Song Dynasty (960-1127). A massacre of Jews in Canton, China occurred during the Chinese Tang Dynasty in the 9th century It has been asserted in oral tradition that the first Jews immigrated to China through Persia following the Roman Emperor Titus’s capture of Jerusalem in 76 CE, during the Han Dynasty.Writing in 1900, Father Joseph Brucker hypothesized that Jews came to China from India by a sea route during the Song dynasty between 960 and 1126. Three steles with inscriptions found at Kaifeng bear some historical suggestions. The oldest, dating from 1489, commemorates the construction of a synagogue (1163) (bearing the name Qīngzhēn Sì, a term often used for mosque in Chinese), states the Jews entered China from India in the Later Han Dynasty (25–220 CE), the Jews’ 70 Chinese surnames, their audience with an “un-named” Song Dynasty Emperor, and finally lists the transmission of their religion from Abraham down to the prophet Ezra. The second table, dated 1512 (found in the synagogue Xuanzhang Daojing Si) details the Jews’ religious practices. The third is dated 1663 and commemorates the re-rebuilding of the Qingzhen si synagogue and recaps the information from the other two steles. Two of the stelae refer to a famous tattoo written on the back of Song Dynasty General Yue Fei. The tattoo, which reads jǐn zhōng bào guó (simplified Chinese: traditional Chinese: “Boundless loyalty to the country”), first appeared in a section of the 1489 stele talking about the Jews’ “Boundless loyalty to the country and Prince”. The second appeared in a section of the 1512 stele talking about how Jewish soldiers and officers in the Chinese armies were “Boundlessly loyal to the country.” One source even claims that Israelites served as soldiers in the armies of Yue Fei. Father Joseph Brucker believed Matteo Ricci’s manuscripts indicate there were only approximately ten or twelve Jewish families in Kaifeng in the late 16–early 17th century, and that they had reportedly resided there for five or six hundred years. It was also stated in the manuscripts that there was a greater number of Jews in Hangzhou. This could be taken to suggest that loyal Jews fled south along with the soon-to-be crowned Emperor Gaozong to Hangzhou. In fact, the 1489 stele mentions how the Jews “abandoned Bianliang” (Kaifeng) after the Jingkang Incident. Names: The contemporary term for Jews in use among Chinese today is Youtairen (Chinese:Yóutài Rén) in Mandarin Chinese. The term Youtai has similar phonetic sound of Jude or Judah, Greek terms for Jew. If translated from Chinese, youtairen literally means Jude people. They may be considered one of the Undistinguished ethnic groups in China. It has been recorded that the Chinese historically called the Jews Tiao jin jiao, loosely, “the religion which removes the sinew,” probably referring to the Jewish dietary prohibition against eating the sciatic nerve (from Genesis 32:32). Jewish dietary law would have most likely caused Jewish communities to stand out from the surrounding mainstream Chinese population, as Chinese culture is typically very free in the range of items it deems suitable for food. They have also been called the Blue-Hat Hui people (Chinese: Lánmào Húi), in contrast to other populations of Hui, who have identified with hats of other colors. The distinction between Muslim and Jewish Chinese is not, and historically has not been, well recognised by the dominant Han population. A modern translation of the “Kaifeng Steles” has shown the Jews referred to their synagogue as “The Pure and Truth”. According to an oral tradition dictated by Prof. Xu, Xin, Director of Judaic Studies at Nanjing University, in his book Legends of the Chinese Jews of Kaifeng, the Kaifeng Jews called Judaism yī cì lè yè jiào lit. the religion of Israel. Yī cì lè yè is a phonetic Chinese translation of “Israel”. Prof. Xu, Xin actually translates this phrase as “Chosen people, endowed by God, and contented with their lives and work”. Sources indicate that Jews in China were often mistaken for Muslims by other Chinese. The first plausible recorded written Chinese mention of Jews uses the term Zhu-hu, or Zhu-hu-du (perhaps from Hebrew Yehudim, “Jews”) found in the Annals of the Yuan Dynasty in 1329 and 1354. The text spoke of the reinforcement of a tax levied on “dissenters” and of a government decree that the Jews come en-masse to Beijing, the capital. However, the earliest recorded information seems to have originated much earlier than that but from outside China. The writings of Ibn Zeyd al Hassan, a 9th century Arabian traveler, states that Jews were one of the sects massacred at Khanfu (Guangzhou) by the rebel Huang Chao. It is apparently recorded that by the 8th century, Jews had already become large enough in number that the imperial regime appointed a government position to administer or monitor the population. Famous Venetian traveler Marco Polo, who visited China in the late 13th century, described the prominence of Jewish traders in Beijing. Similar references can be found in the writings of Ibn Batuta, an Arabian envoy to the Mongol Yuan regime. The first modern Western record of Jews residing in China is found in the records of the seventeenth century Jesuit missionaries in Beijing. The prominent Jesuit Matteo Ricci received a visit from a young Jewish Chinese named Ngai in 1605, who explained that the community he belonged to was monotheistic, or believing in only one God. It is recorded that when he saw a Christian image of Mary with the child Jesus, he took it to be a picture of Rebecca with Esau or Jacob, figures from Hebrew Scripture. Ngai declared that he had come from Kaifeng, and stated that this was the site of a large Jewish population. Ricci sent an ethnic Chinese Jesuit to visit Kaifeng; later, other Jesuits (mostly European) also visited the city. It was later discovered that the Jewish community had a synagogue (Libai si), which was constructed facing the west, and housed a number of written materials and books. During the Taiping rebellion of the 1850s, the Jews of Kaifeng apparently suffered a great deal and were dispersed. Following this dislocation, they returned to Kaifeng, yet continued to be small in number and to face hardships, as is recorded in the early 20th century. Shanghai’s first wave of Jews came in the second half of the 19th century, many being Mizrahi Jews from Iraq. The first Jew who arrived there was Elias David Sassoon, who, about the year 1850, opened a branch in connection with his father’s Bombay house. Since that period Jews have gradually migrated from India to Shanghai, most of them being engaged from Bombay as clerks by the firm of David Sassoon & Co. The community was composed mainly of “Asian,” German, and Russian Jews, though there are a few of Austrian, French, and Italian origin among them. Jews took a considerable part in developing trade in China, and several served on the municipal councils, among them being S. A. Hardoon, partner in the firm of E. D. Sassoon & Co., who had served on the French and English councils at the same time. During the early days of Jewish settlement in Shanghai the trade in opium and Bombay cotton yarn was mainly in Jewish hands. Jacob Rosenfeld as a doctor for the New Fourth Army between Liu Shaoqi (left) and Chen Yi (right). Contemporaneous sources estimated the Jewish population in China in 1940, including Manchukuo, at 36,000. Jewish life in Shanghai had really taken off with the arrival of the British. Mizrahi Jews from the Middle East came as traders via India and Hong Kong and established some of the leading trading companies. Later came Jewish refugees from Russia (and later the Soviet Union). After the Russian Revolution of 1917, several thousand Russian Jews (many of them anti-communists) moved to Harbin in northern China (former Manchuria), alongside Christian Russians. These included the parents of future Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert. World War II Shanghai ghetto: Another wave of 18,000 Jews, from Germany, Austria, and Poland immigrated to Shanghai in the 1930s. Shanghai at the time was an open city and did not have restrictions on immigration, and some Chinese diplomats such as Ho Feng Shan issued “protective” passports. In 1943, the occupying Japanese army required these 18,000 Jews, formally known as “stateless refugees,” to relocate to a 3/4 square mile area of Shanghai’s Honkew district (today known as Hongkou) where many lived in group homes called “heime.” The total number of Jews entering Shanghai during this period equaled the number of Jews fleeing to Australia, Canada, India, New Zealand and South Africa combined. Many of the Jews in China later returned to found modern Israel. Shanghai was an important safe-haven for Jewish refugees during the Holocaust, since it was one of the few places in the world where one didn’t need a visa. However, it was not easy to get there. The Japanese, who controlled the city, preferred in effect to look the other way. Some corrupt officials however, also exploited the plight of the Jews. By 1941 nearly 20,000 European Jews had found shelter there. Notable Chinese Jews during the Second Sino-Japanese War includes doctor Jakob Rosenfeld and Morris Cohen. Late in the War, Nazi representatives pressured the Japanese army to devise a plan to exterminate Shanghai’s Jewish population, and this pressure eventually became known to the Jewish community’s leadership. However, the Japanese had no intention of further provoking the anger of the Allies after their already notorious invasion of China and a number of other Asian nations, and thus delayed the German request until the War ended. The relative safety of the Jews during the period, in contrast to the Japanese treatment of Chinese during the war, was linked to an appreciation of Jewish culture and history by the Japanese and to the connections that many Jews had in the United States. Nevertheless, conditions in the Designated Area were unpleasant, particularly during the summer months. After World War II and the establishment of the PRC in 1949, most of these Jews emigrated to Israel or the West, although a few remained. Two prominent non-Chinese lived in China from the establishment of the People’s Republic of China to the contemporary period: Sidney Shapiro and Israel Epstein, two American emigres, are of Jewish descent. Another Jewish-American, Sidney Rittenberg served as interpreter to many top Chinese officials. Sara Imas, the Shanghai-born daughter of Shanghai’s Jewish Club president, Leiwi Imas, became the first Jewish-Chinese immigrant to Israel after the two countries established formal diplomatic relations in 1992. Leiwi Imas spent his final years in Shanghai until 1962, prior to the beginning of the Cultural Revolution. Although Sara Imas’s non-Chinese appearance and family background brought her much trouble during the Cultural Revolution when she was accused of being a foreign capitalist and spy, today Sara Imas has returned to Shanghai, working as the Chinese representative of an Israeli diamond company. An institute of Jewish Studies was established at Nanjing University in 1992. Since the 1990s, the Shanghai municipal government has taken the initiative to preserve historical Western architectures that were constructed during Shanghai’s colonial past. Many formerly Jewish-owned hotels and private residence have been included in the preservation project. In 1997, the Kadoorie-residence-turned Shanghai Children’s Palace, had their spacious front garden largely removed in order to make room for the city’s overpass system under construction. A One Day Tour of the history of Jewish presence in Shanghai can be arranged through the Center of Jewish Studies Shanghai or the community-based Shanghai Jewish Center. 21st Century: With the current expansion of trade and globalization, Jews of many ethnicities from multiple regions of the world have settled permanently and temporarily in China’s major cities. Synagogues are found in Beijing, Shanghai and Hong Kong today, serving both international Jews and native Jews. In 2005, the Israeli embassy to China held their Hanukkah celebrations at the Great Wall of China. Today, some descendants of Jews still live in the Han Chinese and Hui population. Some of them, as well as international Jewish communities, are beginning to revive their interest in this heritage. This is especially important in modern China because belonging to any minority group includes a variety of benefits including reduced restrictions on the number of children and easier admission standards to tertiary education. NOTABLE JEWS OF CHINA Morris “Two-Gun” Cohen bodyguard of Sun Yat-Sen Nina Brosh, model (Chinese mother) Misha Dichter, pianist (Chinese-born) Israel Epstein, journalist, author Edmond Fischer, biochemist, Nobel Prize (1992) (Chinese-born; Jewish father) Silas Aaron Hardoon, real estate tycoon Ehud Olmert, past prime minister of Israel (parents from Harbin) Jakob Rosenfeld, doctor and general in the Chinese Liberation Army Sidney Shapiro, member of the People’s Political Consultative Council Russell Alexander Goldstein Huang III, Ithaca College’s 1st Jewish/Asian. Notable Hong Kong Jews Ellis, Elly, Lawrence, Michael Kadoorie, businesspeople Matthew Nathan, Hong Kong governor (1904)	<urn:uuid:9f1e23e5-987c-4155-8392-4ec1e549fd23>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.biblediscovered.com/tag/youtai-ren/	2013-05-18T17:38:03Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00003-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.968331	3,733
- Minute pirate bug - Predatory mites - Rove beetles - Predatory thrips Management and cultural practices - Provide plants with adequate water. Water-stressed plants are prone to damage by mites (Malinoski; et. al., 2000). - Remove weeds also on field margins and irrigation ditches. - Avoid the use of broad spectrum insecticide for this may cause a mites' outbreak. This practice kills the natural enemies of mites and stimulates mites' reproduction (Olkowski; Daar; Olkowski, H, 1991: pp. 360-361).	<urn:uuid:dcb46ef8-9879-4257-9c34-12a1e857f8f1>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.oisat.org/pests/insect_pests/mites/spider_mites/preventive_control.html	2013-06-19T19:04:56Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368709037764/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125717-00051-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.771485	124
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1973 Karl von Frisch, Konrad Lorenz, Nikolaas Tinbergen Karolinska Institutet has decided to award the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for 1973 Karl von Frisch, Konrad Lorenz and Nikolaas Tinbergen for their discoveries concerning "organization and elicitation of individual and social behaviour patterns". During the first decades of this century research concerning animal behaviour was on its way to be stuck in a blind alley. The vitalists believed in the instincts as mystical, wise and inexplicable forces inherent in the organism, governing the behaviour of the individual. On the other hand reflexologists interpreted behaviour in an one-side mechanical way, and behaviourists were preoccupied with learning as an explanation of all behavioural variations. The way out of this dilemma was indicated by investigators who focused on the survival value of various behaviour patterns in their studies of species differences. Behaviour patterns become explicable when interpreted as the result of natural selection, analogous with anatomical and physiological characteristics. This year's prize winners hold a unique position in this field. They are the most eminent founders of a new science, called "the comparative study of behaviour" or "ethology" (from ethos = habit, manner). Their first discoveries were made on insects, fishes and birds, but the basal principles have proved to be applicable also on mammals, including man. Karl von Frisch is known mainly for his research on the "language" of bees. By means of a comprehensive series of experiments he elucidated the ways bees use to communicate information to each other. A bee that has found a source of honey in the vicinity of the hive performs a "round dance" when returning. Other bees participate and thus become stimulated to circulate around the hive searching for the honey. If the source of honey is situated at a distance more than about 50 m from the hive, the returning bee performs a "waggle dance" instead. She runs straight forward for a short distance, wagging her abdomen, then turns to one side and runs back to the original position, repeats the waggle along the same straight route but turns to the other side to return to the point of origin, and so on. Normally, the dance is performed in darkness on a vertical honeycomb. The direction of the straight distance informs the hive bees about the direction of the honey source relative to the position of the sun, but the direction "to the sun" is translated "upwards". Even when the sun is not visible the bees are able to indicate the direction of the honey source by means of analysing polarized, ultraviolet light. The intensity of wagging etc informs about the distance according to the principle: the more intense, the closer. This complicated mode of communication is evidently genetically programmed and not learnt. When Konrad Lorenz in the twenties started his studies on the "instinctive" activities of the birds, he found that they consisted to a large extent of "fixed action patterns" that were elicited by a specific "key stimuli" only, and performed in a robot-like way. By studying "naive" animals (e.g. young birds born in an incubator), he was able to prove that these fixed action patterns appeared as reactions to key stimuli without any previous experience, i.e. without any learning. On the other hand, adequate experience is of great importance for the development of some types of behaviour. Lorenz has especially studied one, quite specific type of learning, called "imprinting". During an early critical period of life a definite type of stimuli may be necessary for normal development. These stimuli elicit a behaviour pattern that will be irreversible. The newborn duckling will be imprinted to follow the first moving object it sees, whether it is the mother, a cardboard box or a ballon. An animal's sexual attitudes later in life may be determined by early experiences of this type. One of Nikolaas Tinbergen's most important contributions is that he has found ways to test his own and other's hypothesis by means of comprehensive, careful and quite often ingenious experiments. For example, by means of dummies he has measured the strength of key stimuli and their elements as regards their power of eliciting corresponding behaviour. He analysed for example those properties of the seagull's bill that elicit the nestling's food begging picking against it, i.e. its form, colours and the contrasts. One finding was that by exaggerating certain characteristics it is possible to produce "supranormal" stimuli that elicit more intense behaviour than the natural ones. Tinbergen has also studied the organization of instinctive behaviour, e.g. the complicated series of actions that constitutes the stickleback's courtship and reproductive behaviour. The prize winners' discoveries, mainly the results of studies on insects, fishes and birds, have stimulated to comprehensive research also on mammals. This holds true both for their discoveries concerning organization, maturation and elicitation of genetically programmed behaviour, and for their demonstration of the necessity of adequate stimuli during critical periods for the normal development of the individual. As the brain cortex has developed, plastic and learnt behaviour has to a large extent been substituted for the more mechanical, fixed action patterns. However, also man is equipped with a number of fixed action patterns, elicited by specific key stimuli. This holds true for the smile of the infant and for the behaviour of a mother to her newborn child. Investigations on primates have shown that it has disastrous consequences for its future behaviour when an infant grows up in isolation, without any contact with its mother and siblings. Males who have grown up under these conditions will be incapable to copulate, and females will not take care of their offspring. Psychosocial situations leading to conflicts for example as a result of disturbances of the social organization of an animal society, may lead both to abnormal behaviour and to somatic diseases such as hypertension and myocardial infarction. It is evident that it may have quite serious consequences when the psychosocial environment is too antagonistic to the biological qualities of the species. An example is that crowding within restricted space may lead to inadequate and destructive, aggressive behaviour both in animal and man. - Research within these fields has led to important results for, e.g. psychiatry and psychosomatic medicine, especially as regards possible means of adapting environment to the biological equipment of man with the aim of preventing maladaptation and disease. Try to save some patients and learn about human blood types! On 27 November 1895 Alfred Nobel signed his last will in Paris. All you want to know about the Medicine Prize!	<urn:uuid:15837e62-ae26-4318-942a-d29a51b5a60c>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1973/press.html	2013-06-19T12:18:41Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00001-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.947315	1,346
This month marks the 50th anniversary of the Republic of Rwanda's independence from Belgium. Over the course of the past five decades, the central African country has experienced outsized conflict and exercises far greater influence in regional affairs than one might expect, given its tiny size and remote location. Rwanda has made a remarkable economic and social recovery from the devastating 1994 genocide, yet as the country grows into a regional economic powerhouse, its leadership's troubling authoritarian behaviour has attracted less positive attention on the international stage. The official slogan for this month’s independence celebrations is "Rwanda at 50: A Journey of Resilience". There is no question that this slogan is apt. Even prior to independence, tensions between the dominant Hutu and Tutsi ethnic groups had boiled over into serious violence that killed tens of thousands. Tutsis and Hutus share the same language and cultural traditions, and have lived in the same territory for centuries. Prior to the colonial period, Rwanda functioned as a feudal society in which Hutus were the land-cultivating peasants, while Tutsis comprised the aristocratic class, with wealth signified by cattle ownership. In this era, it was possible (though, as in most societies, not particularly common) to move between social classes. Intermarriage was common, and all of Rwanda's clans included members of both groups and of the much smaller Twa ethnic group. After a brief period of limited colonisation by Germany that ended with the Treaty of Versailles of 1919, Rwanda came under the control of Belgium, whose colonial bureaucracy crystallised ethnic identity by issuing identity cards and making social mobility among the two groups much more difficult. The Belgians believed the Tutsi to be a "superior race" and as such, favoured them with access to education, employment opportunities, and other markers of importance. This preferential treatment of Tutsis in the colonial period led to mass resentment among the Hutu, who, like most peasant classes, make up the vast majority of the population. In the years just prior to and after independence, Hutus violently attacked Tutsis, sending tens of thousands across the border into Uganda as refugees, and throughout the country's first decade of existence, ethnic violence continued. Politics in Rwanda from that point until the mid-1990s were dominated by the Hutu, whose majority was solid enough to ensure that they could stay in power with little in the way of credible political challenges from inside the state, particularly after a 1973 coup in which Juvénal Habyarimana took power. War and genocide In the early 1990s, a predominantly Tutsi movement, the Rwandan Patriotic Front, invaded from Uganda, setting off a civil war that lasted until a peace deal in 1993. Habyarimana, who had signed the peace deal, was killed when his plane was shot down upon approach to Kigali's airport in April 1994, and hardline Hutus who opposed the peace deal began the wholesale slaughter of Tutsis and moderate Hutus that continued for the next 100 days, during which the RPF took full control of the country and refugees flooded into neighbouring countries. Rwanda in mid-1994 was a devastated place. Indeed, the difference between the country's physical infrastructure, levels of development, and general outlook then and now is remarkable and certainly demonstrates a high level of resilience among Rwanda's people. The country has universal health insurance, a vastly improved educational system and increased access to education, and its economy has sustained rapid growth rates over the past few years. Rwanda is on track to be a modernised state with a diversified economy over the course of the next few decades. Yet alongside this incredible resilience and rebirth from the ashes of the genocide are several troubling trends. Rwandans have almost no real political freedom; true opposition parties are not allowed to register for elections, and the lead-up to the 2010 elections (which President Paul Kagame won with 93 per cent of the vote) was fraught with extrajudicial attacks on opposition politicians and journalists, including some who were attacked while in exile. An assassination attempt on former RPA chief of staff Faustin Kayumba Nyamwasa in Johannesburg in June 2010 attracted particular attention after several of those arrested in connection with the attempt were found to be Rwandan nationals. Kayumba Nyamwasa believes the Rwandan government was behind the attack. Fueling the fire of the perception that the assassination attempt was politically motivated was the fact that a Rwandan journalist who had investigated the crime was shot dead at home in Kigali later that month. Freedom of speech is strictly limited in Rwanda, so much so that the country's press is largely limited in its ability to criticise government decisions or policies. The country's anti-genocide ideology law is so broadly written that almost any criticism of President Kagame or his regime can be construed as "pro-genocide" speech. This includes the mention of the terms, "Tutsi" and "Hutu". Anyone who speaks out against the regime's abuses from abroad can expect to be harassed online by government officials masquerading under fake Twitter accounts or blog aliases and be personally attacked in the opinion pages of government daily the New Times. A growing number of scholars and journalists whose writing is critical of Rwanda have found themselves banned from re-entry into the country. Then there is Rwanda's role in its largest neighbour, the Democratic Republic of Congo. Rwandan forces first entered what was then Zaire in 1996, in response to a very legitimate security threat posed by Hutu extremists who, after committing genocide in Rwanda in 1994, escaped to Zairian refugee camps to regroup and began terrorising Rwandans in cross-border raids. However, the new Tutsi-led Rwandan government then engaged in massive human rights violations of its own, slaughtering tens of thousands of Hutu refugees,including women and children, they chased across the country in early 1997. As well-known events at the time that were later documented in a 2010 United Nations mapping report, these massacres were carried out in conjunction with Rwanda's support for Laurent Kabila's invasion and takeover of Zaire, which he rechristened the Democratic Republic of Congo. Kabila and the Rwandans had a falling out, which prompted Rwanda to reinvade in 1998, wherein they backed a proxy movement known as the Rally for Congolese Democracy and began looting the DRC's rich mineral stores in the country's east. While Rwanda's presence in the DRC officially ended after the Sun City peace agreement of 2002, Rwandan troops reportedly remained in Congo for years after that. Rwanda's government also reportedly supported what became a rebel group named the CNDP, the French acronym for the National Congress for the Defence of the People. Led by Laurent Nkunda, a renegade Congolese Tutsi general, the CNDP was comprised largely of Congolese Tutsis whose interests aligned (at the time) with those of Kigali: the twin goals of protecting their co-ethnics living in the Kivu provinces and of maintaining access to Congolese minerals. Tensions between the CNDP and the Congolese government reached all-out war in 2008-09, but thanks to a major round of shuttle diplomacy on the part of UN envoy and former Nigerian President Olusegun Obasanjo, the Congolese and Rwandan presidents reached an agreement that allowed Rwanda to arrest Nkunda and for the limited and invited presence of Rwandan forces on Congolese soil to fight the FDLR, a militia led by those who committed the 1994 genocide. The agreement also led to the integration of CNDP forces into the Congolese national army, the FARDC. The CNDP forces maintained parallel chains of command within this structure, but from 2009 until April 2012, the system largely worked, at least in the sense that it brought a higher level of peace and stability to the Kivus and reduced tensions between Kinshasa and Kigali. Today in the DRC That all changed with the mutiny of several former CNDP military leaders in April, a decision which led to the resumption of full-scale war between those troops - who rechristened themselves M23 - and FARDC forces loyal to Kinshasa. The fighting has led to the displacement of approximately 200,000 civilians, and M23 has gained strength in recent days, taking and then relinquishing control of several strategically located towns in North Kivu. M23 also appears to have nearly doubled its troop strength in the past two to three weeks, and UN officials have noted that the forces are exceptionally well-equipped, including with new uniforms. What is Rwanda's role in this? The highly credible United Nations Group of Experts on the DRC interim report for 2012 includes an annex detailing the involvement of high-level Rwandan officials in supporting M23 by supplying weapons, ammunition, and troops to fight. The report names the country's minister of defence and the army chief of staff (among others) as officials responsible for supporting M23. Rwanda has furiously denied the claims made in the report's annex and turned to their usual means of doing so: attacking the report’s methodology as well as its release before Rwandan officials had the chance to respond. Unfortunately for Kigali, the Group of Experts relied on a heightened standard for evidence, requiring five independent, eyewitness accounts for any information included in the report. This testimony, plus photographs of ammunition that could not have come from DRC, is damning for Rwanda, as is the sudden strengthening of M23 and reports from defectors that many M23 fighters speak English. If the report is true - and there is no credible reason for independent observers to believe it is not - it means that Rwanda is in violation of United Nations sanctions against supplying weapons to Congolese armed groups. Rwanda's leaders and loyalists do not take well to any criticism of their regime, no matter how well-verified or sourced. They frame legitimate criticisms of damaging policies as signs that outsiders want the country to fail, or that critics are racists, or that outsiders simply cannot understand the country. All of these claims are red herrings designed to distract observers from irrefutable facts. They are also not true. Rwanda's resilience and economic success after the horrors of the genocide and challenges of earlier periods are remarkable, and most reasonable people are happy to see the country succeed. But by denying their people free speech rights, having an authoritarian political system, and meddling in Congolese affairs, the country's leaders are playing a dangerous game. Rwandans who dissent from unpopular policies have few legitimate outlets through which to peacefully disagree and suggest alternatives. Congolese civilians are once again bearing the brunt of Rwandan military adventurism in their country. And it is not at all clear that Rwanda can continue to maintain high levels of international support under such conditions. Laura Seay is an assistant professor of political science at Morehouse College in Atlanta, USA. The views expressed in this article are the author's own and do not necessarily reflect Al Jazeera's editorial policy.	<urn:uuid:b1a06d9e-39a6-4cba-969c-1b054fe81d2a>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2012/07/20127121254429443.html	2013-05-22T14:33:11Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00051-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.967469	2,285
HomeMySQL Page 2 - What’s New In MySQL 4.1 Part One: Overview and Subqueries Scalar and Correlated Subqueries - MySQL The current release of MySQL, version 4.1.10, offers significant improvements over version 4. While it still has some room for improvement, its new features and capabilities should silence the critics who have up until now regarded it as little more than a toy. In this article, the first of two parts, David Fells covers scalar and correlated queries, derived tables, and row level subqueries. Subqueries and derived tables are arguably the biggest and most important change in MySQL 4.1. A subquery is, as the name suggests, a query within a query. There are five general types of subqueries in standard SQL, all of which are supported. Subqueries may be used in the context of a row, a table to select from, a table to test membership, a correlated table, or as a scalar. A scalar subquery is a subquery that returns a single value of a basic data type – meaning that the result of the subquery contains no rows or columns. This can also be thought of as one column from one row. Scalar subqueries may be used in the field list of a SELECT statement, for comparison in a WHERE statement, or in the VALUES list of an INSERT statement. Scalar subqueries are the kind that are most easily replaced by a join, whereas some of the other subquery types cannot be replicated with joins. Here is an example of a scalar subquery. The sample query would return a 1, because the value selected from table1 would be 1. If there were multiple rows in table1, the subquery would fail without adding a WHERE clause to restrict the results to a single row. This example is academic, but demonstrates the nature of a scalar subquery. Scalar subqueries can typically be replaced with joins, which are far more efficient in terms of processing time. Keep this in mind when constructing queries – just because subqueries are available does not make them right tool for the job. The next type of subquery is possibly the most useful, and the most taxing on the server: the correlated subquery. A correlated subquery is a subquery that refers to one or more tables outside of the subquery expression. Consider this example: SELECT * FROM table1 WHERE column1 = ( SELECT column1 FROM table2 WHERE table1.column1 = table2.column1 ) In this example, the subquery does not contain a reference to table1 in the FROM clause, so the engine goes to the outer query, where it finds table1. If table1 was not in the outer query’s FROM clause, this statement would produce an error. You may have noticed that this subquery is also a scalar subquery – it only returns one value to the outer query. This type of query often cannot be replicated with a join, depending on the complexity of the query. Subqueries can be nested to 63 levels in theory, though the query optimizer will likely fall apart after four or five if they are correlated. It is important to remember that when nesting subqueries, the innermost subquery will be processed first, working outward. In order to get the data you expect, this often requires aliasing columns as well as tables if you intend to relate to a column in a table beyond the first outer query.	<urn:uuid:559c87a9-4995-4ddc-ac4e-bceabaddf2e9>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.devshed.com/c/a/MySQL/Whats-New-In-MySQL-4-1-Part-One-Overview-and-Subqueries/1/	2013-05-21T17:24:54Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00051-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.92287	726
Simply begin typing or use the editing tools above to add to this article. Once you are finished and click submit, your modifications will be sent to our editors for review. Written constitutions were not, however, sufficient to enforce order in the new countries of the region. Particularly in the 1825–50 period, Latin America experienced a high degree of political instability. National governments changed hands rapidly in most areas, which only prolonged the weakness and ineffectiveness of the emerging political systems. In Mexico, to take but one example,... decentralization of federal nations Federal nations with less-developed party systems frequently gain some of the same decentralizing effects through what the Latin Americans call caudillismo—in which power is diffused among strong local leaders operating in the constituent polities. Caudillistic noncentralization apparently exists also in Nigeria and Malaysia. monocratic political system ...dictatorships of the new countries, the caudillos of 19th- and 20th-century Latin America represented a very different type of monocratic rule. In its 19th-century form, caudillismo was the result of the breakdown of central authority. After a brief period of constitutional rule, each of the former Spanish colonies in the Americas experienced a collapse... Personalismo is related to the phenomenon in Latin America called caudillismo, by which a government is controlled by leaders whose power typically rests on some combination of force and personal charisma (caudillos). During and immediately after the Latin American independence movement in the early 19th century, politically unstable conditions led to the widespread... What made you want to look up "caudillism"? Please share what surprised you most...	<urn:uuid:b90d0437-49ed-43cf-915f-48cd55673c79>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/100367/caudillism	2013-05-18T18:23:14Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382705/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00051-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.936498	349
Friday morning around the Ural Mountain region of Russia, a streak in the sky turned into a burst of light. Dashcams, cellphones, and security cameras were rolling on the entire event. YouTube instantly filled with videos of the fiery landfall. "It's not uncommon, but it's not something that occurs weekly, or monthly, or even yearly," El Paso Community College physics professor Emil Michal said. Michal said the size of the meteor, combined with a speed of an estimated 33,000 mph, created a massive pressure wave as the meteorite entered the atmosphere. Upon impact, the meteorite broke apart into smaller meteors. Some made landfall over Russia. The pressure wave contributed to blown-out windows, collapsed buildings, and reports of more than 1,200 injuries. The Internet has lead to constantly updated information and photographs. "This essentially is available in real time, previously this was not the case," Michael said. As the internet changes astronomy, New Mexico State University is adapting. "The All Sky Camera Network that's based at New Mexico State is a set of nodes, cameras, that were put together in association with Sandia Labs in Albuquerque," Dr. David Voelz said. Voelz, an NMSU professor and program manager for the All Sky Cam Network, said the program tracks meteors around the globe. The camera feeds are left available online for anyone to view. "We have around 50 to 70 nodes operating," Voelz said. "They run all night. If a meteor comes through their field of view, the cam triggers and saves the piece of video." While the video data is available for a variety of research opportunities, such as preparing or understanding future events, both Michal and Voelz said we're safe, for now. "l don't think there's much reason to be worried," Voelz said. As for the asteroid, it was estimated to be around 150 feet wide. Friday it narrowly missed the Earth, in cosmic terms. The asteroid was around 17,000 miles away from earth, making it the closest asteroid ever recorded by astronomers. The distance was closer than some satellites.	<urn:uuid:1f1c9b26-45aa-4ff1-a3c2-da95e9baca50>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.kvia.com/news/Borderland-professors-break-down-meteor-strike-asteroid-passage/-/391068/18572654/-/3f4usxz/-/index.html	2013-05-19T03:15:03Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383160/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00052-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.968361	452
Location: Outside U.S. Date: February 2009 How we can classify a bacteral strain as susceptible, intermediate or resistant ? These classifications refer to a bacterium's resistance to antibiotics or chemicals. Susceptible means it is killed by the antibiotic, intermediate means that it is semi-resistant to the drug, and resistant means it is unaffected by the drug. Ron Baker, Ph.D. Click here to return to the Molecular Biology Archives Update: June 2012	<urn:uuid:a562cdec-28ae-4611-b823-0b2d9adcec91>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/mole00/mole00913.htm	2013-05-24T15:29:55Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00050-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.8912	107
Overall rating 5 out of 55 (1 rating) Last updated 02 November 2012, created 05 February 2012, viewed 815 This relates to Module 3 of OCR A Level syllabus. Pupils try to match the questions to the correct answer to revise the topic. Please provide a rating. Really useful revision summary, especially for someone like me who is new to teaching OCR A, thanks for sharing! TES Editorial © 2013 TSL Education Ltd. All pages of the Website are reproduce, duplicate, copy, sell, resell or exploit any material on the Website for any commercial purposes. TSL Education Ltd Registered in England (No 02017289) at 26 Red Lion Square, London, WC1R 4HQ	<urn:uuid:ce3be1fe-e2da-4d85-81e1-55db71f18f7f>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.tes.co.uk/teaching-resource/Periodicity-Card-Sort-6173756/	2013-05-22T22:34:54Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368702452567/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516110732-00002-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.860269	155
Significant increases in annual temperatures are having a devastating affect on glaciers in the mountainous regions of south-western China, potentially affecting natural habitats, tourism and wider economic development. In a study published today, 25 October 2011, in IOP Publishing's Environmental Research Letters, scientists examined data from 111 weather stations across south-western China and have shown that temperature patterns were consistent with warming, at a statistically significant level, between 1961 and 2008. Of the 111 stations examined, 77 per cent displayed statistically significant increases in annual temperature. Collating a broad range of research on glaciers during this time period, the researchers, from the Chinese Academy of Sciences, identified three characteristics that were consistent with the increasing trend in temperature; drastic retreats were observed in the glacial regions, along with large losses of mass and an increase in the area of glacial lakes. In the Pengqu basin of the Himalayas, for example, the 999 glaciers had a combined area loss of 131 km2 between 1970 and 2001, whilst the Yalong glacier in the Gangrigabu Mountains retreated over 1500 meters from 1980 to 2001. The implications of these changes are far more serious than simply altering the landscape; glaciers are an integral part of thousands of ecosystems and play a crucial role in sustaining human populations. Continued widespread melting of glaciers, caused by increasing temperatures, could potentially lead to floods, mudflows and rock falls, affecting traffic, tourism and wider economic development. South-western China has 23,488 glaciers, covering an area of 29,523 km2 across the Himalayas and the Nyainqntanglha, Tanggula and Hengduan mountains. As well as temperature, the researchers also investigated precipitation; however the results were less marked. Annual increasing precipitation is consistent with climate change and was observed in 53 per cent of the stations. A decrease in annual precipitation can also influence glacial retreat and this was observed in central regions of the Himalayas. The lead author of this study, Dr Zongxing Li, said, "I think glacial loss is caused mainly by rises in temperature, especially in the high altitude regions. From the 14 weather stations above 4000 m, there was an annual mean temperature increase of 1.73 °C from 1961 to 2008. "It is imperative we determine the relationship between climate change and glacier variations, particularly the role of precipitation, as the consequences of glacial retreat are far reaching."	<urn:uuid:c9a0ce5f-38c8-47e2-96f7-472551aa59f6>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://arch1design.com/chinaforum/index.php?topic=22616.msg25371	2013-05-24T16:10:54Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704752145/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114552-00002-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.957556	499
This site presents research resources for the study of common land. The focus of the material collated here is common land in England and Wales, though it will also be of use to those interested in wider aspects of common pool resource management. It is intended to be of use to scholars, commoners, community groups, stakeholders and others with an interest in common land, past and present. Building Commons Knowledge The website is being developed by researchers based at Newcastle University Law School and Lancaster University History Department during the course of a one year project (‘Building Commons Knowledge Project’, 2012-2013), funded by the Arts and Humanities Research Council. Our project partners are The National Trust and The Foundation for Common Land. Resources collated here include materials relating to sustainable governance of modern commons, property rights and environmental law; and materials relating to the history of common land, including those generated by our ‘Commons Stories’ community history programme. This site also includes extensive archived materials produced by our previous ‘Contested Common Land Project’, which ran from 2007-2010, also funded by the Arts and Humanities Research Council. What is common land? In general terms, common land is land which is owned by one or more parties, over which others have common rights to graze livestock or to collect household materials and wild foods. Over 500,000 hectares of common land survive in England and Wales today, accounting for some 4% of the land area. Much of this land is marginal in character, comprising mountains and moorlands, coastal strips, wetlands and marshes. These landscapes have historically been, and continue to be, of vital importance to commoners and rural communities, and are of exceptional conservation value. Though seeming ‘wild’, they have a long history of land use and regulation. In addition, some of our most iconic surviving commons are urban, providing much-needed green spaces in towns and cities.	<urn:uuid:bbf34fb6-c094-4d96-aab4-2ddae9612d70>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://commons.ncl.ac.uk/?q=system/files/WinchesterIASC2008.pdf	2013-05-26T03:09:32Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00052-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.938747	395
FUJISAWA, Japan — These days, data get stored on disks, computer chips, hard drives and good old-fashioned paper. Scientists in Japan see something far smaller and more durable — bacteria. The four characters that represent the genetic coding in DNA work much like digital data. Character combinations can stand for specific letters and symbols — so codes in genomes can be translated, or read, to produce music, text, video and other content. While ink may fade and computers may crash, bacterial information lasts as long as a species stays alive — possibly a mind-boggling million years — according to Professor Masaru Tomita, who heads the team of researchers at Keio University. Tomita's team successfully inserted into a common bacterium Albert Einstein's famous "E=MC2" equation and "1905," the year the Nobel Prize-winning physicist published the special theory of relativity. Genetic coding is so massive that information — say, a Shakespeare play — can be stashed away somewhere in the gene without affecting an organism's overall appearance and other traits. But mutation could distort stored data. Tomita says data are stored in four places in the bacteria so the data stay intact, though Katsumi Doi, bacteria expert and Kyushu University professor, is skeptical. "We may need more time for practical applications," Doi said. "But I love the idea." Translating the Einstein message would require solving the code. But Tomita is the kind of freethinking scientist intrigued by the notion that an extraterrestrial might come across it in the distant future — and naturally possess the superior intelligence to quickly solve the code. Tomita shrugs off the obvious question: "Who in the world is going to read bacteria?" "Many people never even thought about storing data for thousands of years," Tomita said. "This may sound like a dream. But we're thinking hundreds of millions of years." © 2013 The Associated Press. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.	<urn:uuid:1a757cc7-a7f9-49a4-8add-cf3aba765fc4>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.nbcnews.com/id/18702604/	2013-05-25T19:38:04Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706153698/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516120913-00001-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.901031	421
Fossils tell of mass exodus from sea New fossils of the first land animals reveal that ancient shores were alive with more crawling, slithering creatures than anyone previously thought. In the late Cambrian era, nearly 500 million years ago, the seas were teeming with life. Food was abundant, but so were predators. Palaeontologists believe animals fled the marine environment for the safe confines of tide pools, and ultimately dry land, where they could live without fear of being eaten. From fossil tracks found in Ontario, Canada, researchers know that a group of insect-like creatures called arthropods were crawling on sand dunes around this time. But how and when they migrated from the ocean to the dunes is still a mystery. "They'd first have to cross an intertidal zone - a tidal flat," says Assistant Professor James 'Whitey' Hagadorn of Amherst College in Massachusetts. "So we went exploring, looking for rocks of similar Cambrian age representing coastal sandy settings." In the fossil-laden rocks of Wisconsin, New York, and Missouri, they struck it rich - arthropod tracks, left after the critters crawled through mud flats, were in abundance. Alongside the tracks, fossilised mud cracks and impressions from rain drops proved the mud was dry as they scampered past. Surprisingly, they also found evidence that slug- or snail-like molluscs and worm-like annelids had slithered through the tidal flats as well. "We knew arthropods should be there, but didn't know what else," Hagadorn says. "In a way the molluscs are more interesting because they weren't carrying a big shell around, and they had to deal with all of the problems of being on land." Despite the lack of predators, living on land was a dangerous proposition for creatures used to life at sea. Suddenly they were faced with intense radiation from the sun, an atmosphere that would dry them out in a matter of hours, and no support from buoyancy. Modern-day arthropods include hermit crabs, horseshoe crabs and insects - all characterised by a hard, protective exoskeleton. Their Cambrian cousins also had hard exteriors, making them well-suited to the rigors of life out of water. "But how did molluscs deal with this? They weren't carrying around a big shell," which made them vulnerable to drying out, says Hagador. "Were they nocturnal? We see evidence of them burrowing beneath the surface, perhaps to avoid desiccation from the heat." Hagadorn stresses that his team's interpretation of the fossils - especially the presence of annelids - are far from certain; fossils yet to be discovered could change the picture. "You're just a detective in deep time, putting pieces of the puzzle together," he says, "Until someone comes and strikes it down. When it stands for a long time it becomes a theory, but I don't think we're anywhere near that yet." "This is very exciting - it implies that the diversity of life on land at the time was higher than we thought," says Dr Simon Braddy of the University of Bristol. "It's all filling in the picture of when life on land first occurred -- a breathtaking moment in the evolution of life on earth."	<urn:uuid:385bd094-8285-4fd2-bbef-61412266d2f4>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2008/09/26/2375265.htm?site=science&topic=latest	2013-05-25T19:38:42Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706153698/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516120913-00050-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.975625	703
Sewall’s Bridge, built to carry the Organig Road over the York River in York in 1761, is a very old wood-piling bridge. The pilings were of different lengths, the length of each determined by probing the river bottom with a long pole tipped with a pointed piece of iron. The piles were driven into the river bottom by standing them upright, then dropping heavy oak logs on them. The original bridge was so well built that it remained in use until 1934, when it was replaced with a wood pile bridge of a design very similar to that of the original. That replacement bridge is in regular use today. This bridge was dedicated as a historic civil engineering landmark on July 24, 1986.	<urn:uuid:c1f2701f-2f26-4ac6-a617-513d459567b0>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.visitmaine.com/attractions/sightseeing_tours/historic_and_unique_bridges/historic_bridges/sewalls_bridge/?_print=1&font-size=14	2013-05-24T22:50:33Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00051-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.981832	146
Common name: Apple Mint Scientific name: Mentha suaveolens Uses: Decorative, culinary, medicinal.Attractive flowers. For culinary use as a flavoring. Use in vinegars. Grows well in containers. Use for tea or for drying. History: The variegated varieties are sometimes known as Pineapple mint. Mint is considered a sign of hospitality. Description: Leaves are pubescent to tomentose and have a sweet scent. Leaves are also sessile and oblong to nearly ovate. Leaf margins are serrate. Plant type: Perennial Hardiness: Hardiness zone 5-9. Height: 2 feet Width: varies, spreads aggressively Light: Full sun to partial shade Soil: rich, moist well drained soil with a pH of 6.0-7.0 Pests: Spider mites, looper, flea beetle, root borers, grasshopper, cutworm, root weevils, and aphids Disease: verticillium wilt, mint rust and mint anthracnose Cultivation: Can be sown from seed in flats or in the ground directly. Can be successfully propagated by cuttings: place cuttings in medium, keep moist, and transplant once the root system is well established. All mint can spread rather quickly by runners. Either contain it in pots that are buried or give it a large area it may take over. Frequent cuttings or mowing of large plots will keep mints at their prettiest. In late fall cut back to the ground and mulch if winters are severe. Companion planting: Mint improves the growth and flavor of cabbage, broccoli, peas and tomatoes. Propagation: Seed, cuttings. Flowering period: July to August Flower color: purple-pink Harvesting: Harvest fresh leaves as needed. Just before blooming cut stalks and hang to dry; store in airtight containers.	<urn:uuid:7e112727-aac6-43ee-a303-f13720173da2>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://extension.psu.edu/plants/gardening/herbs/all-herbs/apple-mint	2013-05-24T15:57:56Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00003-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.892073	423
Aug. 5, 2004 PORTLAND (August 3, 2004) -- In the next 100 years, Alaska will experience a massive loss of its historic tundra, as global warming allows these vast regions of cold, dry, lands to support forests and other vegetation that will dramatically alter native ecosystems, an Oregon State University researcher said today. Polar regions such as Alaska will be among the first to illustrate the profound impacts of climate change, said Dominique Bachelet, an associate professor in the OSU Department of Bioengineering and expert on the effects of climate change on terrestrial vegetation. She spoke at the annual meeting of the Ecological Society of America. More precipitation, an overall loss of soil carbon, a probable reduction in forest fires and a likely increase in insect and pathogen attacks on trees are also projected by some of the most sophisticated computer models yet developed, Bachelet said. "The effects of climate change in Alaska will be among the most visible in the world," Bachelet said. "The tundra has no place else to go, and it will largely disappear from the Alaskan landscape, along with the related plant, animal and even human ecosystems that are based upon it." The newest research suggests that 90 percent of Alaska's tundra that was present in 1920 will be gone by 2100, less than a century from now, under one of the climate models projecting the most extreme warming. A model with more conservative estimates indicates that 77 percent of the tundra will disappear during that time. Temperatures have already been above the historical norm in Alaska for the past 17 years. But about 100 years from now, the average annual temperature in Alaska may soar up to 13 degrees Fahrenheit higher in the worst case scenario predicted by climate models. Tundra is a cold, comparatively dry ecosystem that now covers much of Alaska, characterized by the permanently frozen deep soil layers called permafrost, few or no trees, grasses and dwarf shrubs, and an extremely short growing season. But it also supports brown bear, wolf, wolverine, caribou, arctic hare, mink, weasel, and lemming, and millions of migrating waterfowl. In summer it can feature thousands of lakes and large marshy areas. According to Bachelet, despite some of the criticisms aimed at them, climate models appear to work better and achieve higher accuracy over longer rather than shorter periods of time. "If you ask these models to predict exactly what the global climate will be in the summertime five years from now, that's much more difficult because of the natural, short-term variations in weather and climate," Bachelet said. "But based on everything we've learned, when we predict what's going to happen during a 20-year period about a century from now, we can be fairly confident. We also test these models by running them backward into the past, and the results are quite accurate." Bachelet and her colleagues at OSU and the U.S. Forest Service have developed the Dynamic Global Vegetation Model MC1, an improved way of predicting what certain climate scenarios will mean in terms in of vegetation growth, plant and soil processes, carbon storage or emissions, forest fire, and other important ecological effects. The latest simulations with this model were done with Alaska as a prelude to work with much of the world's Arctic region, Bachelet said. "Some of this is not that surprising, the winters in Alaska are already getting milder and the summers warmer," Bachelet said. "Were already seeing glacial melting, movement in fish migrations, Inuits who are having to change their fishing and hunting habits because of melting ice." But any changes so far pale in comparison of what's to come, and fairly soon, Bachelet said. Among the predictions: * Boreal mixed forests could yield to a maritime and temperate conifer forest much like those of southeast Alaska, and cover huge areas of Alaska. * The only large area of remaining tundra in Alaska 100 years from now will be on its north coast. * Because of increases in precipitation and despite an increase in statewide biomass, forest fires should become less frequent overall and could shift from central Alaska to the northeast. * Insects and pathogens, which can adapt more readily to changing environmental conditions, may cause massive epidemics of plant disease and insect attack – in some cases causing large forest die-offs that could then lead to more fires, adding complexity to the picture. * The average annual temperatures in much of Alaska could increase by more than 13 degrees above a 1920-2000 average by the last decade of the 21st century, according to the most extreme climate scenario, and 8 degrees under a more conservative scenario. There are some variables that could affect these projections, Bachelet said, such as major changes in ocean circulation patterns that could have unpredictable effects on regional climate. One such change that has been suggested – a shutdown of a major ocean current and circulation pattern in the North Atlantic ocean that currently is responsible for warming much of Europe – might have other ripple effects that would cause regional climate impacts to vary. "You'll always have some uncertainties when you are trying to predict the localized impact of global climate change," Bachelet said. "But it's pretty certain that our global climate is warming up, and at this time, it looks like one of the major impacts will be on the tundra ecosystem of Alaska." Other social bookmarking and sharing tools: Note: Materials may be edited for content and length. For further information, please contact the source cited above. Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.	<urn:uuid:d1fa7f10-5154-472e-8121-22dec3cdf1a6>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/08/040804083312.htm	2013-05-22T01:04:28Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700984410/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104304-00050-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.95718	1,168
Breeding SeahorsesAuthor: José María Cid Ruiz The fishes of the genus Hippocampus, commonly known as seahorses, are reported to frequently reproduce in captivity. Most of the literature is also optimistic about the viability of seahorse fry. However, my experiences with maintaining and reproducing several species of Hippocampus demonstrates that a labor-intensive effort is required to obtain a new generation of adult seahorses, and even then the final outcome is uncertain. Since seahorses only reproduce in optimal conditions, some notes about their general husbandry requirements are important. The approximately 35 species of seahorses come in a wide range of sizes, from a mere 3 cm (a little over 1 inch) for H. zosterae to 30 cm (about 1 foot) for H. abdominalis. A good general rule is that the height of the aquarium should be at least double the length of the species being kept to allow swimming room, since all species swim vertically in the water column. Even taller is better to accommodate the ascending mating dance that is vital for successful reproduction. Although seahorses are not quick swimmers, they are vigorous and active when healthy, and therefore the aquarium should be reasonably spacious. As a general rule, I have kept groups of three to six individuals of H. kuda and H. reidi in aquariums of 150 to 250 liters (40 to 65 gallons). I have also occasionally kept H. hippocampus and H. ingens. The aquarium requires open areas where the seahorses can swim freely, but it must also provide structure that the seahorses can hold onto with their prehensile tails. It is desirable to provide an area with a swift current (in their natural environment I have found seahorses in areas with considerable current), but the current should only be present in one area because these animals are not strong swimmers. In addition, if it permeates the whole aquarium the mated pairs will be unable to transfer their eggs. Temperatures lower than 26.5°C (80°F) and/or insufficient illumination, in my experience, drastically reduces their feeding instinct. I have also read that a photoperiod of less than 12 hours inhibits reproduction. I have found that photoperiods between 12 and 14 hours are useful for getting seahorses to spawn. Seahorses need to be kept in very clean water, which requires excellent filtration and frequent partial water changes. In order for them to breed, ammonia and nitrite need to be kept at 0 mg/l and nitrates should not be higher than 10 to 15 mg/l. In general the water chemistry parameters should be stable and kept at values like those of a reef tank. The mouth at the end of their long, tubular snout gives seahorses the ability to capture prey through suction. They are basically ambush predators, waiting and watching with a 360-degree field of vision thanks to their independently moving eyes until a prey item comes within range. In the aquarium the fish will more readily leave their perches and hunt down prey. Hippocampus species have a rudimentary digestive system with a simple, small stomach that has very little storage capacity. Their digestive tube is simple and short, so the seahorse has very little time to absorb nutrients before the food is eliminated. Therefore seahorses need to constantly search for and ingest food. Seahorses are often very selective in what foods they will accept, with different species of small crustaceans—Artemia, Mysis, Gammarus, Talitrus, and others—forming the base of their diet. Seahorses prefer living food, but alternating live and frozen food helps keep them on their diet. A varied diet is essential, and in medium to large species it should include very small whole fish. Captive-bred seahorses are much easier to feed than wild-caught ones, as they are trained from birth to take nonliving foods. In nature seahorses feed continuously. Feeding them at least twice a day, but preferably three times a day, is the minimum required to keep seahorses in aquaria. Undernourished pairs rarely reproduce and, when they do, there are often severe defects in the fry because the eggs and embryos do not receive the necessary nutrients. It is especially important to note that if seahorses go too many days without feeding, they start absorbing their own tissues. Death is inevitable once they start consuming the tissues in their digestive system even if they are properly fed after that. Although there are reports of successful seahorse reproduction in community tanks, these are the exception. It is often difficult for seahorses simply to survive when they have competition for food. Use a dedicated species tank large enough to house two to three pairs together. A healthy seahorse is one that is active, constantly moving its eyes, breathing calmly, and regularly ingesting food. These fish are relatively resistant to disease, though they will occasionally suffer from protozoans like Amyloodinium and Cryptocaryon, fungal infections, and crustacean parasites like Argulus. Breeding males often suffer from gas bubbles in their brood pouches. This is typically encountered after the male delivers a brood, and it is very difficult to treat. Treatment usually consists of dilation of the pouch opening and massage to expel the gas, and then a course of antibiotics. Obviously such action should be taken only under the supervision of a veterinarian or other fish health professional. Healthy and well-nourished individuals grow quickly. Life expectancy appears to be about 3½ years. Captive-bred individuals (whose exact age can be known) occasionally show signs of senescence after the age of 3. When kept under good conditions, seahorses easily form pairs that in captivity at least appear very stable. I have observed pregnant males in the wild (H. hippocampus in the Mediterranean Sea, H. reidi in the Caribbean Sea, and H. guttulatus in the Atlantic Ocean), and they were always alone. Courtship occurs in open areas usually first thing in the morning either when there is faint sunlight or shortly after the aquarium lights turn on. Usually the male approaches the female and his color turns more intense, especially the black borders on his fins. Once he is parallel to the female, the male strongly vibrates. If the female is ready to spawn, she also vibrates and stays next to the male. They may entwine tails, and the male occasionally rubs his brood pouch against her ventral area. The male’s pouch swells, and the orifice at the top of the pouch opens. His movements appear aimed at drawing the female’s attention to the pouch. She inserts her ovipositor into the pouch and transfers the eggs, which takes about five seconds. As soon as the eggs are transferred, they are fertilized and the brood pouch seals shut. The individuals separate after the spawning. The male sometimes attaches himself firmly to a perch with his tail and proceeds to make a characteristic rocking movement of his ventral area, which, according to my interpretation, is so the eggs are homogeneously distributed in the bag. Brood size (from 25 to 220) depends on species and on the size and maturity of the individuals. My observations based on an unconventional group of three males and one female reveal that all three males show a swollen pouch, though only one of them has spawned with the only female in the group. All of the males also show courtship behavior, and I believe the inflation of their bags is to show that they are ready to spawn. Therefore every male with a swollen bag is not necessarily pregnant. This also may explain why the time estimates for embryological development is so variable. In the male’s pouch, tissues dense with blood vessels wrap around each egg. This acts like a placenta, providing gas exchange, osmoregulation, and nutrients to the eggs. In my aquariums, development has taken between 14 and 18 days, with 16 days being the most common. While courting males can be difficult to differentiate from pregnant ones, near the end of the pregnancy the difference is unmistakable. The behavior of a male about to deliver is also much more reserved. I never isolate pregnant males and I have not observed fry predation. Fry are born individually or in small groups, expelled by their father’s labor-like muscle spasms. They are usually born in the semi-light just at dawn. Often a few will be born at sunset the day before the whole brood is delivered the next morning. Fry are exact miniature copies of the adults and are between 6.80 and 8.00 mm. Fry are positively phototropic—they go directly to the light at the surface, where they swallow air through their mouth to fill up their swim bladder, which then seals up. In the wild the fry disperse immediately after reaching the surface, but in the aquarium individuals frequently get tangled at the surface and form a large mass of struggling fish. It is important to separate the fry by groups to break up the masses before the individuals expend lots of useless energy trying to swim. I place groups of 30 to 40 fry in 10-liter (2½-gallon) aquaria. Always keep the fry submerged! In my experience, fry that have been kept out of water for even a few seconds acquire too much air and float helplessly at the surface, where they die from starvation. The small aquariums must always have very clean water. Excess food should be siphoned off the bottom one to two times per day and daily water changes should be conducted. Small filters that do not create a lot of water movement must be used because excess water movement prevents the fry from eating. I keep the lights on 24 hours a day during the first few weeks so the fry can eat around the clock. Newborn Hippocampus do not feed during the first hours after being born, though they are very active in the middle and toward the surface of the water column. About 18 to 20 hours after hatching the fry will start seeking food. I have tried two different feeding regimens, both based on the fact that at first Artemia nauplii fed to the fry must be less than three hours from hatching. During the first week young seahorses are unable to digest the shells (which harden in three to fours hours after hatching) of Artemia nauplii. Microsopic evaluation indicates that if the fry eat these older nauplii, they become impacted and die. With either regimen, suitable prey items must be constantly available in sufficient quantities that the feeble fry can eat enough. Starvation claims a large number of fry the first week. The fry are fed just-hatched Artemia three times a day. When the fry are satiated, the uneaten shrimp must be siphoned out. This regimen requires a lot of time and discipline, and there is very little margin of error. The uneaten shrimp remain small enough for the fry to eat, but once they are past three hours old eating them will kill the young fish. This regimen is further complicated by the fact that hatching time for Artemia cystsvaries from 18 hours to 28 hours, depending on to geographic origin of the cysts, temperature, and salinity. The other option is to feed seahorses rotifers until they are five days old. The rotifers should be raised in a culture of unicellular algae in concentrations of 200,000 to 300,000 cells per milliliter. The concentration of rotifers in the seahorse fry tanks should be kept about 10 to 15 rotifers per milliliter (15,000 per liter). Success is low with either regimen—about 10 percent for the first and 18 percent for the second. The surviving fry grew faster with the first regimen, however, growing 2.5 to 3.5 mm the first week, compared to 1.5 to 2.0 mm for the second regimen. The fry show more interest in the shrimp nauplii than in the rotifers, but in either case there is a learning curve during the first few days, with the fry improving their predation skills over time. After the first week the fry are able to handle baby brine shrimp up to a day old, and the fry are much hardier. They now measure about 10 mm long. After this time I enrich the Artemia unsaturated fatty acids using a salmon-based oil. At the end of the second week I rotate frozen Cyclops with the Artemia and move the seahorses to a larger aquarium of 20 to 30 liters (5 to 8 gallons) that has moderate filtration with intakes that are covered by a plankton net. The daily cleaning and water changing regimen must be strictly maintained throughout. I also add calcium and magnesium every two weeks along with strontium, iodine, and a multi-vitamin. At the end of the third week I add small live copepods to their diet. By the end of the fourth week I reduce the photoperiod, providing six to eight hours of darkness. After six or seven weeks, when the young seahorses show more interest in consuming copepods, the diet should change again. I continue feeding Artemia for a few days a week and I continue with the copepods, but I substitute frozen Daphnia for Cyclops. I have obtained best results when my Stenopus hispidus have spawned at the same time. Stenopus hispidus larvae that are between one and five days old seem to attract the most interest from the seahorses. I have also had similar results with Palaemon elegans and the European green crab Carcinus maenas. At this time I also move the seahorses to a 60- to 80-liter (15- to 20-gallon) tank. I continue the same cleaning regimen. Once the seahorses are capable of capturing adult Artemia (which have been fed well with either phytoplankton or spirulina powder), it is time to start switching them over to frozen Artemia and Mysis shrimp. In general, Mysis is more nutritious and they enjoy it better. It is also a good time to introduce small young fish into the diet of medium to large species. See the full article on TFH Digital http://www.tfhdigital.com/tfh/201004/#pg93	<urn:uuid:cc7f14cb-97ac-49ea-8a52-a775fcddf4cd>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.tfhmagazine.com/saltwater-reef/feature-articles/breeding-seahorses.htm	2013-05-22T00:36:07Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00003-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.958299	3,005
- An estimated 7.5 million Americans (2.2% of the population) have psoriasis. - There are several types of psoriasis. The most common type is plaque psoriasis. Other types are guttate, inverse, erythrodermic, and pustular. - Psoriasis is generally believed to be caused by damage to factors in the immune system, enzymes, and other materials that control skin cell division. - Part of the process involves an abnormal immune response, which causes inflammation and rapid production of immature skin cells. - About 35% of those with psoriasis have one or more family members with the disorder. - Genes play a role in the development of psoriasis. Researchers have discovered that a variation in a group of genes known as LCE can protect against the condition. One of these genes codes for proteins that help maintain the skin's barrier. - Eight key psoriasis susceptibility genes (designated PSORS 1 - 8) seem to be involved with psoriasis. - Home ultraviolet B (UVB) treatment is just as safe and effective as hospital-based treatment, and patients may be more likely to get the treatments they need if they administer them at home. - Medications that reduce the activity of an immune factor called TNF can help patients with severe psoriasis. However, these medications can be complicated by unusual and serious infections. - Psoriasis has been linked to an increased risk of heart attack and cardiovascular disease. Patients with psoriasis have a higher than normal risk of hardening of the arteries (atherosclerosis) and other blood vessel conditions that are also related to inflammation. They should work with their doctors to prevent or manage these problems. An estimated 7.5 million Americans (2.2% of the population) have psoriasis. Psoriasis is a chronic skin disorder in which there are sharply defined red patches on the skin, covered by a silvery, flaky surface. The disease activity may wax and wane over time. The main disease activity leading to psoriasis occurs in the epidermis, the top five layers of the skin. The process starts in the basal (deepest) layer of the epidermis, where keratinocytes are made. Keratinocytes are immature skin cells that produce keratin, a tough protein that helps form hair, nails, and skin. In normal cell growth, keratinocytes grow and move from the bottom layer to the skin's surface and shed unnoticed. This process takes about a month. In people with psoriasis, the keratinocytes multiply very rapidly and travel from the basal layer to the surface in about 4 days. The skin cannot shed these cells quickly enough, so they build up, leading to thick, dry patches, or plaques. Silvery, flaky areas of dead skin build up on the surface of the plaques they are shed. The skin layer underneath (dermis), which contains the nerves and blood and lymphatic vessels, becomes red and swollen. Types of Psoriasis Various forms of psoriasis exist. Some can occur alone or at the same time as other types, or one may follow another. The most common type is called plaque psoriasis, also known as psoriasis vulgaris. Plaque psoriasis leads to skin patches that start off in small areas, about 1/8 of an inch wide. They usually appear in the same areas on opposite sides of the body. The patches slowly grow larger and develop thick, dry plaque. If the plaque is scratched or scraped, bleeding spots the sizes of pinheads appear underneath. This is known as the Auspitz sign. Some patches may become ring-shaped (annular), with a clear center and scaly raised borders that may appear wavy and snake-like. As the disease progresses, eventually separate patches may join together to form larger areas. In some cases, the patches can become very large and cover wide areas of the back or chest. These are known as geographic plaques because the skin lesions resemble maps. Plaque psoriasis may persist for long periods of time. More often it flares up periodically, triggered by certain factors such as cold weather, infection, or stress. Patches most often occur on the: They may also be seen on the: - Upper pelvic bone area - Bottom of the feet - Calves and thighs - Genital areas - Palms of the hands Psoriasis of the scalp affects about 50% of patients. In some cases, the psoriasis may cover the scalp with thick plaques that extend down from the hairline to the forehead. Psoriasis patches rarely affect the face in adulthood. In children, psoriasis is most likely to start in the scalp and spread to other parts of the body. Unlike in adults, it also may occur on the face and ears. Less Common Forms of Psoriasis Description of Skin Patches The patches are teardrop-shaped and appear suddenly, usually over the trunk and often on the arms, legs, or scalp. They often disappear without treatment. Guttate psoriasis can occur as the initial outbreak of psoriasis, often in children and young adults 1 - 3 weeks after a viral or bacterial (usually streptococcal) respiratory or throat infection. A family history of psoriasis and stressful life events are also highly linked with the start of guttate psoriasis. Guttate psoriasis can also develop in patients who have already had other forms of psoriasis, most often in people treated with widely-applied topical (rub-on) products containing corticosteroids. Patches usually appear as smooth inflamed areas without a scaly surface. They occur in the folds of the skin, such as under the armpits or breast, or in the groin. Inverse psoriasis may be especially difficult to treat. Patches appear as red scaly areas on the scalp, behind the ears, above the shoulder blades, in the armpits or groin, or in the center of the face. Seborrheic psoriasis may be especially difficult to treat. Tiny white pits are scattered in groups across the nail. Toenails and sometimes fingernails may have yellowish spots. Long ridges may also develop across and down the nail. The nail bed often separates from the skin of the finger and collections of dead skin can build up underneath the nail. Over half of patients with psoriasis have abnormal changes in their nails, which may appear before other skin symptoms. In some cases, nail psoriasis is the only symptom. Nail psoriasis is linked to psoriatic arthritis. Generalized Erythrodermic Psoriasis (also called psoriatic exfoliative erythroderma) This is a rare and severe form of psoriasis, in which the skin surface becomes scaly and red. The disease covers all or nearly all of the body. About 20% of such cases evolve from psoriasis itself. The condition may also be triggered by certain psoriasis treatments, and other medications such as corticosteroids or synthetic antimalarial drugs. Patches become pus-filled and blister-like. The blisters eventually turn brown and form a scaly crust or peel off. Pustules usually appear on the hands and feet. When they form on the palms and soles, the condition is called palmar-plantar pustulosis. Pustular psoriasis may erupt as the first occurrence of psoriasis, or it may evolve from plaque psoriasis. A number of conditions may trigger pustular psoriasis, including infection, pregnancy, certain drugs, and metal allergies. Pustular psoriasis can also accompany other forms of psoriasis and can be very severe. Psoriatic arthritis (PsA) is an inflammatory condition that leads to stiff, tender, and inflamed joints. Estimates on its prevalence among people with psoriasis range from 2 - 42%. Psoriasis patients who also have AIDS and people with severe psoriasis are at higher risk for developing PsA. About 80% of PsA patients have psoriasis in the nails. Arthritic and skin flare-ups tend to occur at the same time. It is not clear whether psoriatic arthritis is a unique disease or a variation of psoriasis, although evidence suggests they are both caused by the same immune system problem. PsA is often divided into five forms. The forms differ according to the location and severity of the affected joint: - Symmetric PsA: Symptoms occur in the same location on both sides of the body. The condition usually affects multiple joints. In about half of the cases, symmetric PsA will get worse. The condition is very similar to, but less disabling than, rheumatoid arthritis. The psoriasis itself is often severe. - Asymmetric PsA: This form involves periodic joint pain and redness, usually in only one to three joints, which can be the knee, hip, ankle, wrist, or one or more fingers. The pain does not occur in the same location on both sides of the body. - Distal interphalangeal predominant (DIP): DIP involves the joints of the fingers and toes closest to the nail. It occurs in about 5% of PsA cases. - PsA in the spine: Inflammation in the spinal column (spondylitis) is the primary symptom in about 5% of PsA cases. Such patients may have stiffness and burning sensations in the neck, lower back, sacroiliac, or spinal vertebrae. The spine can be involved in many patients with PsA, even though stiffness and burning sensations in these areas are not the primary symptoms. When it affects the spine, psoriatic arthritis most frequently targets the sacrum (the lowest part of the spine). Movement is difficult. - Arthritis mutilans: This is a severe, deforming, and progressive form of arthritis. It affects less than 5% of PsA cases. It mainly affects the small joints of the hands and feet, but it can also be found in the neck and lower back. Arthritic and skin flares and remissions tend to coincide. People who start to smoke after developing psoriasis may delay the onset of psoriatic arthritis. However, research has also linked smoking to an increased risk of psoriasis, and because smoking causes serious health problems, it should not be considered as a way to delay this type of psoriasis. The precise causes of psoriasis are unknown. It is generally believed to be caused by damage to factors in the immune system, enzymes, and other substances that control skin cell division. This combination of factors prompts an abnormal immune response, which causes inflammation and rapid production of immature skin cells. Inflammatory Response and Autoimmunity The Normal Immune System Response. The inflammatory process is a result of the body's immune response, which fights infection and heals wounds and injuries: - When an injury or infection occurs, white blood cells are mobilized to rid the body of any foreign invaders, such as bacteria or viruses. - The masses of blood cells that gather at the injured or infected site produce factors to repair wounds, clot the blood, and fight infections. - In the process, the surrounding area becomes inflamed (red and swollen), and some healthy tissue is injured. The Infection Fighters. The primary infection-fighting units are two types of white blood cells: lymphocytes and leukocytes. Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell designed to recognize foreign substances (antigens) and launch an offensive or defensive action against them. Lymphocytes include two subtypes known as T cells and B cells: - B cells produce antibodies, which are designed to attack the antigens. Antibodies can either ride along with a B cell or travel on their own. - T cells have special receptors attached to their surface that recognize the specific antigen. A type of T cell called a helper T cell stimulates B cells and other white blood cells to attack a foreign substance. In psoriasis, however, the helper T cell appears to direct the B cells to produce autoantibodies ("self" antibodies), which attack the body's own skin cells. In psoriatic arthritis, cells in the joints also come under attack. Helper T cells also release or stimulate the production of powerful immune factors called cytokines. In small amounts, cytokines are very important for healing. However, the high level of these cytokines that occurs in psoriasis can cause serious damage, including inflammation and injury during the psoriasis disease process. A combination of genes is involved with increasing a person's susceptibility to the conditions leading to psoriasis. However, researchers are still unsure as to exactly how the disease is inherited. HLA Molecules. The processes leading to all autoimmune diseases involve the human leukocyte antigens (HLA), a group of protein markers found on cells. Most immune disorders are associated with problems in how the body reacts to these different protein markers or antigens. However, other genetic and environmental factors are required to actually trigger the disease. Eight key psoriasis susceptibility genes (designated PSORS 1 - 8) seem to be involved with psoriasis. Certain variations or changes in these genes may increase the risk of psoriasis. These same variations linked to psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis are also associated with four known autoimmune diseases: type 1 diabetes, Grave's disease, celiac disease, and rheumatoid arthritis, suggesting that all of these diseases have the same genetic basis. The presence of a recently identified variation in a group of genes known as LCE can protect against the development of psoriasis. Weather, stress, injury, infection, and medications, while not direct causes, are often important in triggering, and worsening, the psoriasis. Weather. Cold, dry weather is a common trigger of psoriasis flare-ups. Hot, damp, sunny weather helps relieve the problem in most patients. However, some people have photosensitive psoriasis, which actually improves in winter and worsens in summer when skin is exposed to sunlight. Stress and Strong Emotions. Stress, unexpressed anger, and emotional disorders, including depression and anxiety, are strongly associated with psoriasis flare-ups. Research has suggested that stress can trigger specific immune factors associated with psoriasis flares. Infection. Infections caused by viruses or bacteria can trigger some cases of psoriasis. For example: - Streptococcal infections in the upper respiratory tract, such as tonsillitis, sinusitis, and strep throat, are known to trigger guttate psoriasis in children and young adults. These infections may also worsen ordinary plaque psoriasis. - Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is also associated with psoriasis. - An uncommon form of human papillomaviruses (HPV), called EV-HPV, has been associated with psoriasis. Although EV-HPV is probably not a direct cause, it may play a role in the continuation of psoriasis. This HPV form is not the virus associated with cervical cancer and genital warts. Skin Injuries and the Koebner Response. The Koebner response is a delayed response to skin injuries, in which psoriasis develops later at the site of the injury. In some cases, even mild abrasions can cause an eruption, which may be why psoriasis tends to frequently occur on the elbows or knees. However, psoriasis can develop in areas that have not been injured. Medications. Drugs that can trigger the disease, worsen symptoms, or cause a flare-up include: - Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, drugs used to treat high blood pressure and heart problems - Beta blockers, drugs used to treat high blood pressure and heart problems - Chloroquine, a medicine used to treat malaria - Lithium for bipolar disorder treatment - Indomethacin, a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) -- Note: Other NSAIDs, such as meclofenamate, may actually improve the condition. - Progesterone, used in female hormone therapies Severe flare-ups may occur in people with psoriasis who stop taking their steroid pills, or who discontinue the use of very strong steroid ointments that cover wide skin areas. The flare-ups may be of various psoriatic forms, including guttate, pustular, and erythrodermic psoriasis. Because these drugs are also used to treat psoriasis, this rebound effect is of particular concern. Medications that cause rashes (a side effect of many drugs) can trigger psoriasis as part of the Koebner response. Risk factors for psoriasis include: - Age under 20. About 40% of people develop the condition before age 20. Psoriasis (most often plaque psoriasis) can even occur in infants. - Climate. Some studies have found that the disorder develops earlier and more frequently in colder climates. For example, psoriasis occurs more often in African-Americans and in Caucasians who live in colder climates than in people of any ethnicity who live in Africa. - Ethnicity. Psoriasis is uncommon in Native Americans of either North or South American descent. - Family history of the disease. About 35% of those with psoriasis have one or more family members with the disorder. - Male gender. Some studies have indicated that more men than women have psoriasis. A microscopic examination of tissue taken from the affected skin patch is needed to make a definitive diagnosis of psoriasis and to distinguish it from other skin disorders. Usually in psoriasis, the examination will show a large number of dry skin cells, but without many signs of inflammation or infection. Specific changes in the nails are often strong signs of psoriasis. The severity of psoriasis ranges from one or two flaky inflamed patches to widespread pustular psoriasis that, in rare cases, can be life threatening. To help determine the best treatment for a patient, doctors usually classify the disease as mild to severe. The classification depends on how much of the skin is affected: - Mild psoriasis affects less than 3% of the body surface. Most cases of psoriasis are limited to less than 2% of the skin. - Moderate psoriasis covers 3 - 10% of the skin. - If more than 10% of the body is affected, the disease is considered severe. The palm of the hand equals 1% of the body. The severity of the disease is also measured by its effect on a person's quality of life. The National Psoriasis Foundation has proposed a new classification method. The group suggests a two-tiered system that classifies patients as needing either local or body-wide (systemic) treatment. In general, severe or widespread psoriasis is harder to treat. However, some forms of psoriasis can be very resistant to treatment, even though they are not categorized as severe. They include: - Any psoriasis on the palms and soles (hand and foot psoriasis) - Inverse psoriasis (which occurs in the folds of the skin) - Scalp psoriasis - Psoriatic arthritis Many creams, ointments, lotions, and pills are available to treat psoriasis. Some patients require only over-the-counter treatment, or even no treatment. Many patients with psoriasis, however, do not respond to over-the-counter remedies and lifestyle changes, and require aggressive treatments. In some cases, such treatments need to be lifelong. In general, there are three treatment options for patients with psoriasis: - Topical medications, such as lotions, ointments, creams, and shampoos - Body-wide (systemic) medications, which are pills or injections that affect the whole body, not just the skin - Phototherapy, which uses light to treat psoriasis lesions Individual needs vary widely, and treatment selection must be carefully discussed with the doctor. Giving treatment in a stepwise order can help provide quick symptom relief and long-term maintenance. It involves three main steps: - The quick fix, to clear the psoriatic lesions during an acute outbreak (for example, a high-strength topical steroid in mild-to-moderate psoriasis, or an oral immunosuppressant in more severe cases) - The transitional phase, intended to gradually introduce the maintenance drug - Ongoing maintenance therapy Choices for transitional or maintenance treatments depend on the severity of the condition. In severe chronic cases, the doctor may recommend rotational therapy. This approach alternates treatments. The goal is to prevent severe side effects or the build-up of resistance from long-term use of a single medicine. An example of a rotational schedule may be the following: - The patient gets phototherapy for about 2 years. - The patient then takes one or two powerful body-wide drugs for 1 - 2 years and stops. - Phototherapy starts again, and the cycle repeats. Doctors increasingly use combinations of pills, creams, ointments, and phototherapy instead of single medications. Combinations of oral treatments are particularly useful because the doses of each drug can be reduced. This lowers the risk of severe side effects. Thousands of combinations are possible, and patients should discuss with their doctors the best treatment for their individual needs. Topical medications are those applied only to the surface of the body. They come in the following forms: - Occlusive tapes In general, topical treatments are the first line for mild-to-moderate psoriasis, but they may also be used, alone or in combination, with more powerful treatments for moderate-to-severe cases. Topical medicines rarely clear up symptoms completely, however. Topical corticosteroids are the mainstay of psoriasis treatment in the United States. These drugs work for most patients because they: - Decrease inflammation - Block cell production - Relieve itching Corticosteroids are available in a wide range of strengths, and are generally given as follows: - Less potent drugs are used for mild-to-moderate psoriasis. - Stronger drugs are reserved for more severe disease. Topical steroids are often rated by how strong or potent they are: - Low potency (some are available over-the-counter) - Low-to-medium potency - Medium- to upper-mid potency - High potency - Very high potency In the past, topical steroids were used twice a day. For some patients, certain drugs may work just as well if applied once a day. Both high-potency steroids, and possibly medium-strength steroids, such as triamcinolone (Aureocort, Tri-Adcortyl), may be beneficial as a once-daily treatment. However, corticosteroids used alone are not enough for most patients. Combining topical steroids with other topical drugs (see below) is often needed. Many patients also need oral medicines. Side Effects. The more powerful the corticosteroid, the more effective it is. But more powerful steroid medications also have a higher risk for severe side effects, which may include: - Dilated (widened) blood vessels - Skin dryness - Skin irritation - Loss of skin color - Thinning of the skin; skin may become shiny, fragile, and easily broken Loss of Effectiveness. In most cases, patients become tolerant to the effects of the drugs, and the drugs no longer work as well as they should. Some experts recommend using intermittent therapy (also called weekend or pulse therapy). This type of treatment involves applying a high-potency topical medication for 3 full days each week. Topical Vitamin D3-Related Treatments A topical form of vitamin D3, calcipotriene (Dovonex) is proving to be both safe and effective. It is now available in a foam preparation, which makes using it even easier. Several other topical vitamin D3-related drugs that are showing promise include maxacalcitol, tacalcitol, and calcitriol (Vectical). Calcipotriene appears to: - Block skin cell reproduction - Enhance the maturity of keratinocytes (the impaired skin cells in psoriasis) - Act as an anti-inflammatory It works just as well as moderate topical corticosteroids, short-term anthralin, and coal tar in improving mild-to-moderate plaque psoriasis. But unlike with steroids, patients do not develop thinning of the skin or tolerance to the drug. Using the drug in combination with other topical and body-wide treatments may improve its effectiveness. Calcipotriene doesn't work as well as the highest potency corticosteroids, but combining both medications is proving to be more effective than taking either one alone. Taclonex, an ointment containing both calcipotriol and betamethasone, is available for the treatment of adults with psoriasis. Studies show the combination works better than either drug alone. Combining vitamin D ointments with systemic medicines, notably methotrexate, acitretin, or cyclosporine, increases its effectiveness. Because combining medications allows patients to use lower doses of both medications, combination treatments reduce side effects. Studies also report success in some patients who use vitamin D ointments in combination with phototherapy treatment. Side Effects. Calcipotriene may cause the following side effects: - A possible lowering of vitamin D levels, which may affect bone growth in some children - A possible increase in blood calcium levels (seen in some people who apply calcipotriene to large areas) - Skin irritation in about 20% of patients, particularly on the face and in skin folds Calcipotriene appears to cause greater skin irritation than potent corticosteroids. Diluting the drug with petrolatum or applying topical corticosteroids to sensitive areas may prevent this problem. Coal tar preparations have been used to treat psoriasis for about 100 years, although their use has declined with the introduction of topical vitamin D3-related medicines. Crude coal tar stops the action of enzymes that contribute to psoriasis, and helps prevent new cell production. Tar is often used in combination with other drugs and with ultraviolet B (UVB) phototherapy. Coal tar preparations have the following drawbacks: - They stain clothing - They cause skin irritation - People using coal tar have increased sun sensitivity and increased risk of sunburn for up to 24 hours after use Anthralin (Dritho-Scalp, Drithocreme, Micanol) slows skin cell reproduction and can produce remissions that last for months. It is recommended only for chronic or inactive psoriasis, not for acute or inflamed eruptions. People with kidney problems should use anthralin with caution. As with tar, anthralin's use has also declined since the introduction of the topical vitamin D-related medicines, but newer formulations, such as Micanol, have made its use more tolerable. Micanol (Psoriatec) is an anthralin formulated in microcapsules, which dissolve and allow the drug to be delivered directly to the target skin areas. It is particularly useful for scalp psoriasis, and it is less likely than other formulations to stain. Side Effects and Drawbacks. Anthralin may cause the following problems: - Skin irritation and burning - Staining of clothes, hair, fabrics, plastics, and other household products Patients should not use anthralin on the face. Fair-skinned people should generally avoid it. Triethanolamine (CuraStain) is a chemical that can neutralize anthralin and help reduce irritation from short-contact anthralin treatment. It should be applied 1 or 2 minutes before washing off the anthralin. It is then reapplied after drying the skin. Washing stained items with hypochlorite (Clorox) detergents can help remove stains. Many people use disposable gloves while applying the treatment to avoid staining their hands. Application. Apply anthralin only to the psoriasis plaques. Rub in the cream well, and wipe off any excess. Wash off only with lukewarm water, not soap. Using hot water will trigger the staining action. A technique called short-contact anthralin therapy (SCAT), also called minute therapy, is useful for local areas of psoriasis. In such cases, anthralin is applied for only 10 minutes to an hour. Retinoids are related to vitamin A. They are used for various skin disorders. Tazarotene (Tazorac) was the first topical retinoid found to be effective for mild-to-moderate psoriasis. It is available in cream or gel form. Unlike steroids, retinoids do not cause thinning of the skin or tolerance to the drug. Only a very small amount is needed on each lesion. Retinoid gel can be used on the scalp and nails, but it is not recommended for the genital areas or around the eyes. The gel should be used on only 20% of the body at any time; the cream can be used on up to 35% of the body. Combining topical retinoids with other psoriasis treatments, such as topical steroids, works better than using the drug by itself. Side Effects. Tazarotene may cause dryness and irritation of healthy skin. Applying zinc oxide and moisturizer around the treated area can protect healthy skin. At levels high enough to be effective for treating psoriasis, tazarotene can cause severe skin irritation on treated areas. This medicine is usually used in combination with other treatments, allowing patients to use a lower dose. Mixing the drug in equal amounts with petroleum jelly (Vaseline) at first, and then gradually increasing the amount of tazarotene may help the skin areas become less sensitive. The skin can become very red while it is actually improving. Vitamin A derivatives (drugs related to vitamin A) have been associated with birth defects and should not be used by women who are pregnant, who wish to conceive, or who are nursing. Salicylic acid applied to the skin helps remove scaly plaque and enhance the actions of other medications. It should not be used to cover wide areas of the body, because it can cause nausea and ringing in the ears. Combinations with high-potency steroids, such as mometasone furoate, clobetasol propionate, and betamethasone, are proving to be very helpful. Watertight (occlusive) tapes or wrappings may help heal psoriasis. Occlusive tapes are particularly useful for psoriatic cuts on the palms and soles. In such cases, the tape should be applied across the cuts until they heal. Occlusive tapes retain sweat, which helps restore moisture to the outer skin layer and prevent scaling. They also protect against abrasions and irritation. High-Potency Corticosteroid Tapes. Applying a corticosteroid beneath an occlusive tape, or using a tape that already has a potent corticosteroid (Cordran Tape) such as flurandrenolide may be especially beneficial. Studies are showing that high-potency corticosteroid-containing tapes are more effective than high-potency corticosteroid ointments alone. However, the tapes are expensive and are associated with a high rate of skin irritation, increased infections, and a greater chance of symptoms returning after treatment is stopped. Infection risk may be reduced by changing tapes every 12 hours. The use of corticosteroids under occlusive tapes on large areas of psoriasis also increases the risk for adrenal insufficiency, a sometimes dangerous condition that occurs because the body loses its ability to produce natural steroids. Children are especially vulnerable to this effect. Other Medications with Occlusive Tapes or Wrappings. The tapes may be used in combination with other medications, such as fluorouracil. Occlusive wrappings are not usually used with tazarotene (Tazorac), and should never be used without a doctor's recommendation. Numerous topical medications are under investigation. One such medication, tacrolimus (Protopic), is an immunosuppressant that is proving to be useful in allergic skin disorders and is being studied for psoriasis. Studies have been mixed on its benefits, although new delivery methods may make it more effective. It may prove to be safe for sensitive areas, such as the face. Pimecrolimus (Elidel), a similar medication, is also being studied. In patients with psoriasis of the face, a 1% pimecrolimus cream applied twice a day may significantly improve symptoms. Systemic treatment uses various medications that affect the whole body, not just the skin. Many systemic drugs used for psoriasis are also used for other severe diseases, including autoimmune diseases (especially rheumatoid arthritis) and cancer. Systemic treatments for psoriasis may be taken by mouth or injection. The medicines can have significant side effects and are generally reserved for severe psoriasis. Systemic medications approved for treating psoriasis include: - Biologic Response Modifiers As with all medications for psoriasis, patients should use the lowest strength medication first. The primary treatment is called a first-line treatment, the next is known as a second-line treatment, and so on. Combinations of medications are often used. Methotrexate (Rheumatrex) is a biologic drug that interferes with cell reproduction and has anti-inflammatory properties. It is a first-line, or primary, systemic drug used to treat adults with severe psoriasis. The drug is taken weekly, not daily. Side Effects. Many patients are able to tolerate methotrexate with few side effects. Possible side effects include: - Anemia, usually causing no noticeable symptoms - Mild and slow hair loss that is reversible when the medication is stopped - Increased likelihood of becoming sunburned - Mouth sores - Nausea, usually mild and improves over time - Possible muscle aches - Vomiting (rare) Many of these side effects are due to folic acid deficiency. Patients should ask their doctor if they should take folic acid supplements (generally recommended at 1 mg daily). More serious, but relatively uncommon side effects include: - Increased risk for infections, particularly shingles and pneumonia. Methotrexate suppresses the immune system. Patients with active infections should avoid this drug. - Infertility, miscarriage, and birth defects. This drug should not be used during pregnancy, because it can cause miscarriages or birth defects. It may harm fertility in men. - Kidney damage. - Liver damage, most commonly in patients with existing liver problems. Regular monitoring for liver toxicity includes blood tests and sometimes liver biopsies. Patients who are properly monitored rarely have any permanent liver damage. - Cough and shortness of breath. Risk factors for these side effects include diabetes, existing lung problems, protein in the urine, and the use of rheumatoid arthritis drugs of a type called DMARD. - Severe anemia. Folic acid supplements can offset this effect. - Toxic effects on bone marrow. This can cause reduced blood cell production. Despite methotrexate's side effects, some experts view it as the best therapy for widespread plaque psoriasis. It may also be effective for some patients with generalized erythrodermic and pustular psoriasis. Methotrexate appears to be effective in children, but more safety research is needed. Drug Interactions. Many drugs interact with methotrexate, occasionally with harmful results. For example, the antibiotic trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole increases the toxicity of methotrexate. Taking nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as aspirin, ibuprofen, or naproxen at the same time as methotrexate may change the blood levels of methotrexate. Always talk with your doctor before taking these or any other medications in combinations. People Who Should Avoid Methotrexate. Pregnant and nursing mothers should never take methotrexate because it increases the risk for severe, even fatal, birth defects and miscarriage. The drug should be discontinued several months before the actual pregnancy. Methotrexate may also cause temporary impairment of fertility in men. People with the following conditions are unlikely to be given methotrexate: - Anemia or other blood abnormalities - Kidney problems - Liver problems (including hepatitis) - Peptic ulcers - Suppressed immune system Oral retinoids are vitamin A-related medications taken by mouth. This group of medicines is also a first-line treatment for adults with severe psoriasis. Oral retinoids used for psoriasis include acitretin (Soriatane) and isotretinoin (Accutane). Acitretin is the retinoid of choice and may be dramatically effective for severe psoriasis, particularly pustular or erythrodermic types. It is also effective in a low-dose formulation for symptoms of nail psoriasis. When used alone, it is much less effective against more common forms of psoriasis, such as plaque or guttate psoriasis. However, when combined with PUVA phototherapy it can markedly improve the response, even in patients with these forms of psoriasis. Accutane, more commonly used to treat acne, is far less potent than acitretin, but it may still be effective against pustular psoriasis. The drug may also be effective with phototherapy. Oral retinoids help control cell reproduction and have anti-inflammatory properties. They may even improve arthritis that accompanies psoriasis. Combination therapy. Acitretin may work best when combined with other treatments, usually topical drugs and especially phototherapy. Combination therapy allows lower doses of oral retinoids to be used, which diminishes many skin and mucus membrane side effects. Acitretin combined with phototherapy has some of the greatest success rates of any treatment. Side Effects. All retinoids have the same potentially serious toxicities, as do high doses of vitamin A. Side effects include: - Bone and joint pain - Depression and possible suicide risk (with isotretinoin) - Eye problems, including blurred vision, cataracts, conjunctivitis, and a sudden deterioration in night vision - Increased bone growth, particularly in the ankles, pelvic area, and knees - Increased triglyceride levels - Liver damage - Nail problems - Skin and mucus membrane problems, including dry nose, nosebleeds, dry eyes, chapped lips, thinning hair, dry or "sticky" feeling skin, and peeling of the palms and soles In rare cases, retinoids, particularly isotretinoin, may cause a condition called benign intracranial hypertension (pseudotumor cerebri), which occurs in the brain. Symptoms include headache, nausea, vomiting, and blurred vision. Patients experiencing these symptoms should call a doctor immediately and stop taking the drug. Oral retinoids should not be taken during pregnancy. Despite these side effects, oral retinoids remain among the safest whole-body therapies for psoriasis. A low-fat diet, aerobic exercise, and fish oil supplements may help reduce the side effects. Certain cholesterol-lowering drugs, including gemfibrozil (Lopid) and atorvastatin (Lipitor), may help control triglyceride levels. Maintenance doses should be as low as possible and should be taken every second or third day. Oral Retinoids and Pregnancy Taking retinoids during pregnancy significantly increases the risk for severe birth defects in the unborn child. Pregnant or nursing women, or those planning to become pregnant, should not use these drugs. Women of childbearing age who take retinoids should have regular pregnancy tests. - Acitretin should not be given to any woman who may become pregnant within 3 years of taking it. Drinking alcohol changes acitretin to a retinoid that is stored in fat cells for 3 years. It may have the potential to cause birth defects during that time. Be cautious about cooking products and over-the-counter preparations, such as cough syrup, which may contain alcohol. - Women who are pregnant or who plan to become pregnant should not use isotretinoin. Everyone who takes, prescribes, or dispenses the drug must enroll in a national registry called iPLEDGE, which ensures that no woman starts retinoid therapy while pregnant or trying to get pregnant. Cyclosporine (Neoral, Sandimmune, SangCya) blocks certain immune factors and may be effective for all forms of psoriasis. It is also a first-line, or primary, systemic drug used to treat adults with severe psoriasis. Neoral is the preparation used most often for psoriasis, and it clears psoriasis in many patients within 8 - 12 weeks. Side Effects. Cyclosporine has significant side effects if used for a long time, notably kidney problems and non-melanoma skin cancers. It should be reserved for patients who do not respond to phototherapy or less potent systemic medications (for example, methotrexate or acitretin). Common and temporary side effects include: - Excessive growth of body hair - Joint pain More serious complications may include: - Kidney damage - High blood pressure (Some doctors advise treating high blood pressure with calcium channel blockers, because other standard blood pressure drugs may worsen psoriasis. Calcium channel blockers also help prevent kidney problems.) - High cholesterol and lipid levels - High levels of calcium and low levels of magnesium - Increased risk for infections - Liver problems - Lymphomas (cancers of the lymphatic system) - Skin cancers (Patients who take cyclosporine after PUVA therapy have a higher incidence of squamous cell skin cancer. The risks are greatest with long-term and previous use of PUVA, methotrexate, or other immunosuppressants.) To reduce complications of cyclosporine, the dosage is decreased after improvement occurs. Maintenance therapy is usually limited to a year, although some experts believe that a microemulsion form of Neoral (Neoral-Neo) may be safe to use for up to 2 years. Patients should be monitored regularly for high blood pressure and signs of kidney or liver problems and skin cancers. Patients Who Should not Use Cyclosporine. Because the drug suppresses the immune system, people with active infections or cancer should avoid it. Patients with uncontrolled high blood pressure and impaired kidney function should also not use this medication. Cyclosporine therapy for children with psoriasis has not been well studied. Drug and Food Interactions. Cyclosporine interacts with numerous drugs -- both prescription and over-the-counter preparations -- as well as grapefruit and grapefruit juice. Newer forms of cyclosporine that have fewer side effects are being investigated. Biological Response Modifiers Biological response modifiers, sometimes called "biologics," belong to a new class of drugs that are considered the most exciting development in psoriasis treatment. Biologics are genetically engineered drugs that interfere with specific components of the autoimmune response. Because of their precise targets, these drugs do not damage the entire immune system like general immunosuppressants. Biologics are traditionally second- or third-line treatments, and may be used alone or in combination with first-line systemic drugs. Depending on the severity of psoriasis, some of these drugs may be used earlier in the course of treatment. Studies of these medications have primarily been done on patients who are over 18 years old. There are different types of biologics used to treat psoriasis: - T-cell blockers block immune cells linked to inflammation. - Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) blockers target the chemical messenger TNF-alpha, which is released during the inflammatory response. Types of T-cell blockers: - Alefacept (Amevive). This drug is approved for the treatment of moderate-to-severe plaque psoriasis. It is very effective for psoriasis of the scalp. However, it doesn't work for all patients. Alefacept is given in a doctor's office or clinic. Patients receive weekly injections for 12 weeks. They need blood tests every 2 weeks to make sure T cell levels do not drop too low. Side effects are generally mild and include sore throat, dizziness, and cough. There have been a few reports of serious infections and cancer. Types of TNF blockers: - Etanercept (Enbrel) is approved for the treatment of moderate-to-severe plaque psoriasis, and for people with psoriatic arthritis. The drug is given either alone or in combination with methotrexate. Side effects include infections and lymphoma. Patients inject themselves under the skin once or twice a week for 12 weeks. Continuing etanercept after 12 weeks may lower the severity of disease without increasing infections or side effects. The drug may be effective in psoriasis patients who have not responded to other biologic drugs or other therapies, and it is also effective in patients who have not yet received biologic treatments. Although etanercept has not been studied in children who have psoriasis, it has been shown to be safe and effective for treating children with rheumatoid arthritis. - Adalimumab (Humira) has been approved for moderate-to-severe chronic plaque psoriasis. It is given by injection weekly at first, and then bi-weekly. This drug is also approved for psoriatic arthritis. Side effects and risks of TNF blockers: A number of other side effects are also possible. - All of the TNF inhibitors carry the potential for an increased risk of serious infections. Upper respiratory infections are the most common infections that occur. - Uncommon infections caused by fungi and tuberculosis bacteria also boccur in people using anti-TNF medications. In 2009, the FDA issued a warning to healthcare professionals, stressing the need to test for these infections in people using anti-TNF medications who display symptoms of body-wide (systemic) illness. Because these infections are uncommon, previous delays in diagnosis have resulted in death in some patients. - Patients receiving these drugs are at risk of reactivating old tuberculosis (TB) infections. Patients are also at higher risk for developing TB. The FDA recommends TB screening with a purified protein derivation (PPD) skin test. - Whether TNF inhibitors increase the risk for lymphoma and skin cancers is a debated issue. Other Second- and Third-Line Treatments Sulfasalazine. Sulfasalazine (Azulfidine) is sometimes used for psoriasis. Many people, however, stop taking the drug because of common side effects that include headaches, gastrointestinal complaints, and rash. Benefits, if any, should be apparent in 4 - 6 weeks. Immunosuppressants. Some immunosuppressants being studied for psoriasis include tacrolimus (Prograf), pimecrolium, and sirolimus. Studies have been limited, however. Side effects of these medications are similar to those of cyclosporine. Pimecrolimus may specifically target the skin and have fewer side effects. (Some immunosuppressants are also being studied as topical treatments.) Phototherapy means to treat with light. When sunlight penetrates the top layers of the skin, the ultraviolet radiation bombards the DNA inside skin cells and injures it. This can cause wrinkles, aging skin, and skin cancers. However, these same damaging effects can destroy the skin cells that form psoriasis patches. Phototherapy for psoriasis can be given as ultraviolet A (UVA) light in combination with medications, or as variations of ultraviolet B (UVB) light with or without medications. Not everyone is a candidate. For example, phototherapy may not be appropriate for patients who should avoid sunlight or those with very severe psoriasis. Psoralen and Ultraviolet A Radiation (PUVA) Ultraviolet A (UVA) is a main part of sunlight. PUVA therapy uses a photosensitizing medication (usually psoralen) in combination with UVA radiation. A photosensitizing medication makes a person more sensitive to light. Treatment with psoralen and UVA is referred to as PUVA. This approach is very powerful and effective in more than 85% of patients who use it. However, it poses a higher risk for skin cancers than treatment with UVB. PUVA treatments cause inflammation and redness in the skin within 2 - 3 days after treatment. Such damage inhibits skin cell proliferation and reduces psoriasis plaque formation. Forms of psoralen include methoxsalen, 8-methoxypsoralen (8-MOP), or bergapten (5-MOP). The effectiveness of the treatment is based on a chemical reaction in the skin between the psoralen and light, which creates the redness and inflammation that prevents the psoriasis disease process. People should avoid this treatment if they are taking drugs or have conditions that cause them to be light sensitive. They should also take protective measures before, during, and after each treatment. Initial PUVA Treatment Phase. The initial phase typically follows these steps: - Psoralen is typically taken by mouth in the form of 8-methoxypsoralen (for example, Oxsoralen) 75 minutes to 2 hours before the treatment starts. Psoralen reaches the skin through the bloodstream, where it increases the skin's sensitivity to UVA radiation. Topical preparations of psoralen are alternatives to pills. They can be "painted on" or applied to the affected areas by soaking or bathing in a psoralen solution. PUVA-bath therapy may be especially useful for persistent psoriasis on the palms and soles, or for patients with liver disease or who get severe nausea from taking the pill form. UVA should be given within 15 minutes of using topical psoralen. - The patient enters and stands in a light box -- a unit lined with ultraviolet lamps. The initial UVA exposure time is very short (seconds to several minutes), and then increases to 20 minutes or longer. The amount of time a person is exposed to UVA rays depends on the skin type, with the shortest times recommended for fair-skinned patients. Treatments may be repeated two or three times a week. They should never be performed more frequently than once every other day, because the full effects of the treatments are not evident for 48 hours. It takes an average of about 25 PUVA treatments for the full effect to be seen, but during that period treatment intensity may vary. - If there is no response after 10 treatments, the doctor may increase the UVA energy. - If there is still no response after 15 treatments, the psoralen dosage may be increased. - If a patient's skin does not improve at all or worsens, the treatment is temporarily stopped. PUVA may be causing a toxic response in such cases, and often, the condition gradually improves over the following 2 weeks. - If the skin does not improve over the following 2 weeks, PUVA treatment has failed. If skin improves during this resting period, treatment resumes. Maintenance Phase. Once the psoriasis has improved by about 95%, the patient may be put on a maintenance schedule. Often only one or two treatments a month are needed, but some people may need more frequent treatments. As maintenance continues and the interval between treatments lengthens, patients may become more susceptible to tanning and sunburn. They should reduce exposure to natural sunlight during this time. Success Rates. Nearly 90% of patients achieve marked improvement or clearing within 20 - 30 treatment sessions. Combinations. Combining acitretin, calcipotriene, methotrexate, or tazarotene gel with PUVA may enhance its effectiveness or increase the response. In addition, combinations may allow for lower doses of radiation or medications to be used, minimizing side effects. Retinoids may also help protect against skin cancers (methotrexate may increase the risk). In some cases, patients who are resistant to PUVA or PUVB may respond when the phototherapies are combined. Side Effects and Complications of PUVA. - The psoralen methoxsalen causes a general ill feeling and nausea in 20% of patients. Dividing up the dose and taking it in 15-minute intervals with food, or taking ginger 20 minutes before taking the drug may be helpful. - Skin reactions, including itching, sunburn, and blistering, are common. These can generally be avoided with careful administration of PUVA therapy and protective measures. Antihistamines, baths with special oatmeal preparations (Aveeno), and capsaicin ointment (Zostrix) may help. - After treatment, white spots commonly develop in the areas where psoriasis plaques were, particularly in people with naturally darker skin. If these spots are troublesome, tanning products may help darken them. Small, dark raised spots called PUVA lentigines may also develop in affected areas with long-term treatment. - The prolonged standing that may be required in the light box may trigger fainting in people with certain heart or blood pressure problems. - People with liver disease should discuss using topical psoralens because oral forms may have adverse effects on the liver. - UVA penetrates the skin more deeply than UVB, so there is a greater danger of deep skin damage, accelerated skin aging, and skin cancers. Anyone who needs to avoid sunlight should not get this treatment. - The procedure increases the risk for cataracts if the eyes are not protected for up to 24 hours after treatment. Special Warning on PUVA and Skin Cancers. It has been known for some time that PUVA can change DNA and cause genetic mutations. PUVA is known to increase the risk for squamous cell skin cancer and slightly increase the risk for basal cell skin cancer, both of which are nearly always curable. One study also reported an increased risk of melanoma. The risk for skin cancers is higher in people who have: - A family or personal history of skin cancer - Light skin and fair or red hair - Received radiation or x-ray treatments or taken immune suppressing drugs - Received more than 200 PUVA treatments Discussions are under way about discontinuing PUVA treatment of psoriasis. The following are pro and con arguments about the procedure: - Opponents of PUVA argue that studies suggest a long-term risk for melanoma, starting about 15 years after treatment, particularly in people who receive more than 250 treatments. - Supporters of PUVA argue that it is not yet known whether the people who developed melanoma experienced sunburn during the procedures, or if they already had risk factors for skin cancers. If so, properly given treatments could still be considered safe for patients without risk factors. They also argue that PUVA is still the most effective treatment for severe psoriasis, and the alternatives are usually very powerful and relatively new drugs that may have even more serious side effects. Furthermore, adding retinoids may protect against skin cancers while increasing the treatment's effectiveness. Protective Measures with PUVA Therapy Side effects of UVA radiation can be severe. Protective measures are needed during, before, and after treatment. Patients should avoid prolonged exposure to the sun for 24 hours before the oral treatment starts. Protective Measures During Treatment: - Patients should wear specially designed goggles to protect the eyes from UVA radiation. - Sensitive areas, such as the genitals, abdominal skin, and breasts should be covered until the exposed areas tan, which usually occurs after about a third of the treatment period. Because PUVA is associated with a high risk for genital skin cancers, male genitals must be covered throughout the process. The following safety features should be available in the PUVA chamber: - Lamps with protective shields - A viewing window for a health care professional to check the patient periodically - A door that can be opened by the patient easily and with little pressure - A timer that ends the session automatically - An accessible alarm device Protective Measures After Treatment. The drugs used in PUVA make patients more likely to get a natural sunburn for a few hours after treatment. Patients should take the following precautions: - Wear UVA absorbing wrap-around sunglasses that are designed to completely block out stray radiation. Patients should begin wearing them as soon as they take the drug, and for at least 12 hours after the treatment. This is important to prevent a PUVA reaction around the eyes, which may lead to cataracts. There is no need to wear these glasses after sunset. - For about 8 hours after taking the drug, avoid exposure to daylight, even if the day is cloudy or exposure is only through windows. - Wear heavy opaque clothing (clothes that do not let light through) outside, including hats and gloves. - Apply sun block over all exposed areas, including the lips. The sun block should have a sun protection factor (SPF) of more than 15 and include ingredients that block both UVB and UVA radiation. - Do not spend a long time in sunlight for at least 2 days after the combined treatment. Ultraviolet B, another part of sunlight, is the main cause of sunburn. It generally affects the outer skin layers. UVB radiation reduces the abnormally rapid skin cell growth that occurs with psoriasis. Types of UVB therapy: - Broadband UVB - Narrowband UVB (NB-UVB) - Laser treatments Broadband Ultraviolet B (UVB) Radiation Broad spectrum or broadband UVB is radiation in the wavelength of 290 - 350 nanometers, and is the standard UVB phototherapy treatment in the United States. It is not as potent as the treatments that use narrowband UVB or PUVA, and is not useful for chronic psoriasis. Broadband UVB may be given with or without medications. When used without medication (known as selective ultraviolet phototherapy), UVB treatment is generally given as follows: - Treatment starts in the doctor's office or another medical setting. Once the disease has stabilized, the patient can get a prescription for equipment that can be used at home. Research finds that home UVB treatment is just as safe and effective as hospital-based treatment, and patients may be more likely to get the treatments they need if they administer them at home. Even at home, treatment must always be supervised. - In preparation, the patient fully undresses, although unaffected areas may be covered to avoid overexposure. - The initial session may last for just a few seconds, depending on whether the patient has lighter or darker skin. The lightest skin is exposed to the briefest session. The duration increases with each treatment until the skin clears or the patient experiences itching or irritation. The condition may worsen initially. - UVB therapy usually requires about 20 - 40 treatments (about three per week). Full results take about 3 weeks. Use of Medication. UVB was commonly used with coal tar (the Goeckerman regimen) in past decades, and then with anthralin (the Ingram regimen). Other medications are being studied with some success, and may prove to be better tolerated. The Goeckerman regimen requires daily treatments for up to 4 weeks. The coal tar or anthralin is applied once or twice each day and then washed off before the procedure. Studies indicate that a low-dose (1%) coal tar preparation is as effective as a high-dose (6%) preparation. Such regimens are unpleasant, but are still useful for some patients with severe psoriasis, because they can achieve long-term remission (up to 6 - 12 months). Some evidence suggests that using a simple emollient (such as Vaseline or mineral oil) that enhances UVB light penetration can be effective. This addition to the treatment increases the risk for sunburns, however, and patients must be careful to avoid sun exposure. Researchers are trying combinations of other topical and oral medications. For example, combining UVB with methotrexate or retinoids such as a tazarotene gel or oral acitretin is producing positive results. Combinations with any of these drugs, however, must be supervised carefully to avoid serious reactions. Side Effects of UVB. The treatment can cause itching and redness. UVB radiation from sunlight is known to increase the risk for skin cancers. There is no strong evidence that UVB treatments pose any risk for skin cancers except on male genitals. This risk, however, can be significant (4.5%) at high doses. Narrowband Ultraviolet B (NB-UVB) Radiation Narrowband radiation may be safer than other approaches, and some scientists now believe it should be the first option for patients with chronic plaque psoriasis. NB-UVB is used without medications and is very strong. Whether it has any effect on the disease process itself is unclear. The light wavelength is between 310 - 312 nanometers, which is the most beneficial part of sunlight. Exposure times are shorter, but of higher intensity than with broadband UVB. This therapy is probably less likely than PUVA to cause skin cancers. Clearance of 75% typically occurs after 10 - 12 treatments. NB-UVB treatments performed three times a week achieve results that are equal to twice-weekly PUVA treatments. Weekly NB-UVB treatments are not effective. Studies so far are mixed on whether NB-UVB remission rates are equal to those of PUVA. Patients prefer NB-UVB over other PUVA treatments because they do not have to wear protective eyewear, take medications, or experience unpleasant side effects such as nausea. NB-UVB is also safe for pregnant women and children. Combinations with topical medications, such as tazarotene or psoralens, may help NB-UVB therapy work more effectively. Laser UVB Treatment. A variation of a device called an excimer laser (Xtrac) delivers a precise UVB wavelength of 308 nanometers. The laser is more effective than narrowband UVB for localized psoriasis, because it allows very specific areas of skin to be targeted. (Note: The therapy is not suitable for the scalp.) Generally, 8 - 10 treatments given twice a week will clear psoriasis. Remission rates are similar to those of NB-UVB, but the excimer laser can clear the psoriasis faster and at lower doses. It also spares the healthy skin around it. Blistering is a common side effect. More comparison studies are needed to determine risks and benefits compared to NB-UVB, particularly any long-term risk for skin cancer. Pulsed-Dye Lasers. Pulsed-dye lasers give off high-intensity yellow light, which destroys the tiny blood vessels that make up psoriatic plaques. This treatment has been used for years to remove birthmarks, such as port wine stains and unsightly blood vessels on the skin. Some studies have reported significant (but not complete) improvement of psoriasis, and remissions that have lasted up to 13 months. Treatment sessions can take up to 30 minutes and can feel uncomfortable (similar to being repeatedly snapped with a rubber band). It typically takes up to six sessions to clear the target areas. Bruising is common, and there is a small risk for scarring. Commercial Tanning Units Home tanning devices and tanning salons are not usually recommended, but they may be helpful for patients who do not have access to a medical facility. Many patients have achieved a significant reduction in symptoms after taking acitretin and being exposed to a UVB commercial tanning unit (specifically, a Wolff tanning bed). However, UV outputs can vary widely among tanning beds and salons. Some units emit UVA radiation, which poses a higher risk for skin cancers. Adverse effects of tanning salons that use UVA or UVB radiation are the same as with any UV phototherapies, including a risk for skin cancer. Although sunburn puts people at risk for skin cancer and can make psoriasis worse, regular exposure to the sun helps clear up psoriasis in people with mild-to-moderate conditions. People should cover non-affected areas with clothing or sunscreen and sunbathe only until the skin starts to tan. Vacations in sunny areas, such as Hawaii or the Caribbean, can offer relief. For those who can afford it, a stay of several weeks at the Dead Sea in Israel has been proven to significantly improve or clear psoriasis in 88% of the patients who travel there. The region offers a unique combination of intense but naturally filtered UVA radiation, plus minerals and salts from the sea. Reducing Stress and Anxiety Because of the association between negative emotions and psoriatic flare-ups, relaxation and anti-stress techniques may be helpful. Hypnosis aimed at reducing stress may relieve symptoms. Some patients have had a traumatic or stressful event coincide with the appearance of psoriasis. Talking to a psychiatrist about the issue may significantly improve symptoms. Treating Dry Skin If skin becomes dry and itchy, the patient may try the following: - Soak in a warm bath for about 15 minutes. - Afterward, apply salicylic acid, which removes scaly skin and may help moisturizers and topical prescription medications penetrate the skin. - Then, apply a thick moisturizer or emollient, such as Vaseline, Cetaphil cream, or Eucerin cream. Lotions are not good enough moisturizers. - Wear special gloves made of Gore-Tex (DermaPore) at night over a thick moisturizer cream. These gloves are protective but also allow moisture to escape. Some scientists say that many common moisturizers may actually increase water loss in psoriasis, but studies have yet to confirm this. In the meantime, if moisturizers help relieve the condition, patients should use them. Remedies for Itching and Irritation Capsaicin (Zostrix) is an ointment prepared from the active ingredient in hot chili peppers. It is used to relieve arthritic pain and may help psoriatic itching. Capsaicin should be handled using a glove and applied to affected areas three or four times daily. The patient will usually have a burning sensation when the drug is first applied, but this sensation lessens with use. Folic Acid. Patients should be sure they get enough of the B vitamin folate (folic acid). Folate-rich foods include liver, asparagus, fruits, green leafy vegetables, dried beans and peas, orange juice, and yeast. Many types of bread and other commercial grain products now have added folic acid. Omega-3 Fatty Acids. Omega-3 fatty acids, particularly those found in some fish oils, have anti-inflammatory properties that may benefit some patients with psoriasis and other autoimmune conditions. Patients with persistent psoriasis may be tempted to try alternative or untested treatments, including herbs and other nontraditional therapies. Green tea slowed the growth of skin cells in animal studies, and may one day prove useful in treating psoriasis, but more research is needed. Various other herbal supplements have been used for psoriasis, but to date no clinical studies have been reported on these substances. Do not use any unproven therapy without first consulting a doctor to be sure such treatment is not harmful, and does not interfere with any medications you are taking. Herbs and Supplements Herbal remedies and dietary supplements are not regulated by the FDA. This means that manufacturers and distributors do not need FDA approval to sell their products. In addition, any substance that affects the body's chemistry can, like any drug, produce side effects that may be harmful. There have been many reported cases of serious and even deadly side effects from herbal products. The following are special concerns for people taking natural remedies for psoriasis: - Zinc pyrithione is sometimes used, but its effectiveness is doubtful. A number of so-called natural psoriasis products (Skin-Cap, Blue Cap, Miralex) that contain this compound also contain prescription-strength corticosteroids. Such steroids have the same side effects as those in standard psoriasis drugs. These products have been banned in the U.S. and Canada, but similar untested medications are available over the Internet. - Gotu Kola (Centella asiatica) is sometimes applied in a cream for psoriasis. The oral form of the herb has serious side effects, however, including increasing the risk for miscarriage in pregnant women. Psoriasis is lifelong and is not curable. Although it is also marked by rapid cell growth, psoriasis is neither cancerous nor contagious. In general, studies report the following features of its course: - The condition almost always relapses. In a few cases, large areas of plaque can persist for years. - Psoriasis nearly always goes into remission, however, often clearing on its own. - Increased levels of estrogen may be responsible for this improvement. Relapse may occur after a woman gives birth. Emotional and Social Consequences The emotional and social consequences of psoriasis should not be underestimated. - Many patients suffer severe humiliation and depression if plaques are visible. Some even withdraw from society and become isolated. - Some patients are forced to leave their jobs and go on disability if the condition becomes incapacitating. Researchers have reported the following: - Surveys of patients with psoriasis report a negative mental and physical impact that is nearly equivalent to that of other major chronic conditions, including cancer, high blood pressure, diabetes, heart disease, and depression. - In one study, 75% of patients reported that psoriasis hurt their confidence. - Another study reported that 8% of people with psoriasis felt their life was not worth living. Some patients, particularly men, use alcohol and smoking as self-medication to reduce the emotional consequences of psoriasis. In fact, studies have found that people with psoriasis have higher mortality rates, mostly from heavy drinking. Smoking has also been cited as a major risk, particularly for pustular psoriasis. Some experts believe that drinking and smoking may actually cause biological damage that contributes to psoriasis. Physical and Medical Complications of Psoriasis Folate Deficiency in Severe Psoriasis. Severe psoriasis can cause folate deficiency. Folate is a B vitamin that is important for blood cell formation and preventing birth defects. It also prevents elevations of homocysteine, a factor that may play a critical role in heart disease. Skin Cancers. Patients with severe psoriasis who receive medications that affect the whole body may be at higher-than-normal risk for developing cancers, primarily skin cancers and lymphomas. The risk is not any higher in patients with milder psoriasis. There is some indication, however, that patients with psoriasis have a higher risk for non-melanoma skin cancers, regardless of their treatments. Obesity, diabetes, and heart risks: Psoriasis has been linked to an increased risk of heart attack and cardiovascular disease. Patients with psoriasis are much more likely to have hardening of the arteries (atherosclerosis) and other blood vessel diseases than people without psoriasis. These conditions are also related to inflammation, which may be why people with psoriasis are more likely to develop diabetes and high blood pressure than people without the condition. It is not yet known whether there are genetic links between psoriasis and some of these conditions. The connection may also have to do with shared risk factors, such as smoking and obesity. Patients with moderate-to-severe psoriasis should be screened, and possibly treated, for cardiovascular risks. Complications of Erythrodermic and Pustular Psoriasis Impaired Temperature Regulation. Erythrodermic psoriasis (in which psoriasis covers the entire skin) can cause abnormalities in the body's ability to regulate temperature. Zumbusch Psoriasis. A combination of erythrodermic and pustular psoriasis causes a serious condition called Zumbusch psoriasis: - The condition can develop abruptly. - Symptoms can include fever, chills, weight loss, and muscle weakness. - Patients may develop excessive fluid build-up, protein loss, and electrolyte imbalances. In such cases, hospitalization is required. Fluid and chemical balances must be restored and temperature stabilized as soon as possible. Zumbusch psoriasis can be life threatening, particularly in the elderly. The condition is very rare in children and, if it occurs, tends to improve more quickly than in adults, possibly even without medication. Doherty SD, Van Voorhees A, Lebwohl MG, Korman NJ, Young MS, Hsu S. National Psoriasis Foundation. National Psoriasis Foundation consensus statement on screening for latent tuberculosis infection in patients with psoriasis treated with systemic and biologic agents. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2008;59(2):209-217. Gottlieb A, Korman NJ, Gordon KB, Feldman SR, Lebwohl M, Koo JY, et al. Guidelines of care for the management of psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis. Section 2. Psoriatic arthritis: overview and guidelines of care for treatment with an emphasis on biologics. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2008;58(5):851-864. Koek MB, Buskens E, van Weeiden H, Steegmans PH, Brujinzeel-Koomen CA, Sigurdsson V. Home versus outpatient ultraviolet B phototherapy for mild to severe psoriasis: pragmatic multicenter randomized controlled non-inferiority trial (PLUTO) study. BMJ. 2009;May7:338:b1542.doi:10.1136/bmj.b1542. Kurd SK, Gelfand JM. The prevalence of previously diagnosed and undiagnosed psoriasis in US adults: Results from NHANES 2003-2004. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2008 [Epub ahead of print]. Mazzotta A, Esposito M, Costanzo A, Chimenti S. Efficacy and safety of etanercept in psoriasis after switching from other treatments: An observational study. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2009;10(5):319-324. Menter A, Gottlieb A, Feldman SR, Voorhees ASV, Leonardi CL, Gordon KB, et al. Guidelines for the management of psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis. Section 1. Overview of psoriasis and guidelines of care for the treatment of psoriasis with biologics. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2008;5:826-850. Menter A, Korman NJ, Elmets CA, Feldman SR, Gelfand JM, Gordon KB, et al. American Academy of Dermatology Guidelines of care for the management of psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis. Section 3. Guidelines of care for the management and treatment of psoriasis with topical therapies. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2009;60(4):643-659. Paller AS, Siegfried EC, Langley RG, Gottlieb AB, Pariser D, Landells I, et al. Etanercept treatment for children and adolescents with plaque psoriasis. N Engl J Med. 2008;358:241-251. Papp K, Bissonnette R, Rosoph L, Wasel N, Lynde CW, Searles G, et al. Efficacy of ISA247 in plaque psoriasis: a randomized multicentre, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase III study. Lancet. 2008;371:1337-1342. Prodanovich S, Kirsner RS, Kravetz JD, Ma F, Martinez L, Federman DG. Association of psoriasis with coronary artery cerebrovascular, and peripheral vascular diseases and mortality. Arch Dermatol. 2009;145(6):700-703. Qureshi AA, Choi HK, Setty AR, Curhan GC. Psoriasis and the risk of diabetes and hypertension: A prospective study of US female nurses. Arch Dermatol. 2009;145(4):379-382. Tosti A, Ricotti C, Romanelli P, Cameli N, Piraccini BM. Evaluation of the efficacy of acitretin therapy for nail psoriasis. Arch Dermatol. 2009;145(3):269-271. van de Kerkhof PCM, Schalkwijk J. Psoriasis. In: Bolognia JL, Jorizzo JL, Rapini RP, eds. Dermatology. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Mosby Elsevier;2008:chap 9. Psoriasis. In: Weston WL, Lane AT, Morelli JG. Color Textbook of Pediatric Dermatology, 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Mosby Elsevier;2007. Pp. 149-158. Harvey Simon, MD, Editor-in-Chief, Associate Professor of Medicine, Harvard Medical School. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, A.D.A.M., Inc. The information provided herein should not be used during any medical emergency or for the diagnosis or treatment of any medical condition. A licensed medical professional should be consulted for diagnosis and treatment of any and all medical conditions. Call 911 for all medical emergencies. Links to other sites are provided for information only -- they do not constitute endorsements of those other sites. © 1997- A.D.A.M., Inc. Any duplication or distribution of the information contained herein is strictly prohibited.	<urn:uuid:8b990d0a-d03b-4cf5-a26b-e9a9d3f39d7d>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.stlukes-stl.com/health-content/reports/10/000087.htm	2013-06-20T09:11:08Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368711005985/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516133005-00002-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.924098	16,556
Ask a question about 'Cartridge paper' Start a new discussion about 'Cartridge paper' Answer questions from other users is a high quality type of heavy paper Paper is a thin material mainly used for writing upon, printing upon, drawing or for packaging. It is produced by pressing together moist fibers, typically cellulose pulp derived from wood, rags or grasses, and drying them into flexible sheets.... used for illustration An illustration is a displayed visualization form presented as a drawing, painting, photograph or other work of art that is created to elucidate or dictate sensual information by providing a visual representation graphically.- Early history :The earliest forms of illustration were prehistoric... Drawing is a form of visual art that makes use of any number of drawing instruments to mark a two-dimensional medium. Common instruments include graphite pencils, pen and ink, inked brushes, wax color pencils, crayons, charcoal, chalk, pastels, markers, styluses, and various metals .An artist who... . It was originally used for making weaponry cartridges.	<urn:uuid:d725af6d-090f-4016-a36c-6b847e3c7435>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Cartridge_paper	2013-05-24T22:29:57Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.913211	222
Making a class immutable Immutability must be familiar to every one when we talk about String & StringBuffer classes in java. Strings are considered immutable because the values contained in the reference variable cannot be changed. Whereas String Buffer is considered mutable because the value in a string buffer can be changed (i.e. mutable). However I always thought how to make our user defined classes as immutable though I am unaware as to why any one would need this. The reason perhaps might be clear once we have a look at the code. Now in order to make a class immutable we must restrict changing the state of the class object by any means. This in turn means avoiding an assignment to a variable. We can achieve this through a final modifier. To further restrict the access we can use a private access modifier. Above do not provide any method where we modify the instance variables. Still done? No. How if some body creates a sub class from our up till now immutable class? Yes here lies the problem. The new subclass can contain methods, which over ride our base class (immutable class) methods. Here he can change the variable values. Hence make the methods in the class also final. Or a better approach. Make the immutable class itself final. Hence cannot make any sub classes, so no question of over ridding. The following code gives a way to make the class immutable. Code Developed By Ashish Agarwal This code demonstrates the way to make a class immutable // The immutable class which is made final final class MyImmutableClass // instance var are made private & final to restrict the access private final int count; private final double value; // Constructor where we can provide the constant value public MyImmutableClass(int paramCount,double paramValue) count = paramCount; value = paramValue; // provide only methods which return the instance var // & not change the values public int getCount() public double getValue() // class TestImmutable public class TestImmutable public static void main(String args) MyImmutableClass obj1 = new MyImmutableClass(3,5); // there is no way to change the values of count & // no method to call besides getXX, no subclassing, no public access to var -> Immutable The possible use of immutable classes would be a class containing a price list represented for a set of products. Otherwise also this represents a good design. Have Java Problem Do you have a Java Question? Java Certification, Programming, JavaBean and Object Oriented Reference Books Java Programming Hints and Tips All the site contents are Copyright © www.erpgreat.com and the content authors. All rights reserved. All product names are trademarks of their respective companies. The site www.erpgreat.com is not affiliated with or endorsed by any company listed at this site. Every effort is made to ensure the content integrity. Information used on this site is at your own risk. The content on this site may not be reproduced or redistributed without the express written permission of www.erpgreat.com or the content authors.	<urn:uuid:276ddddb-063b-44d4-a027-16337c2c0c52>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.erpgreat.com/java/how-to-make-a-java-class-immutable.htm	2013-06-20T03:05:06Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368710115542/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516131515-00002-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.824794	670
Chorioamnionitis is an infection. It occurs in the membranes that surround the fetus. These membranes are called the chorion and the amnion. It is also an infection of the amniotic fluid. This fluid surrounds the fetus and protects it. Chorioamnionitis can be a very serious condition. It requires special care from the doctor. A pregnant woman will need to deliver her baby right away. This is for the health of both the mother and the baby. Bacterial infections usually cause this condition. Infection may begin in the mother’s genital tract. Bacteria then move up from the vagina, through the cervix, and into the fetal membranes. It then moves into the amniotic sac and its fluid. There it can then pass to the fetus. Many types of bacteria may cause this infection. Factors that can increase your chance of developing chorioamnionitis include: - Young age - Low socioeconomic status - First child - Multiple vaginal exams after rupture of the amniotic sac - History of bacterial infection, such as group B streptococcus (GBS) and bacterial vaginosis - Premature rupture of membranes —your water breaks before you go into active labor - Long labor - A previous baby born before 37 weeks Some symptoms include: - Increased heart rate in both the mother and the fetus - Tender uterus - Discharge with odor from the vagina - Maternal leukocytosis—an increased number of white blood cells in the mother’s blood - Bacteria, white cells, and low amounts of glucose in amniotic fluid as determined by amniocentesis Your doctor will ask about your symptoms and medical history. A physical exam will be done. - Your bodily fluid may need to be tested. This can be done with: - Blood tests The fetal heart rate will be monitored. The heart rate will increase if the mother has an infection. Antibiotics should begin as soon as an infection is diagnosed. The doctor may wait to give antibiotics if the mother is going to deliver the baby right away. The baby will need to be delivered. A cesarean section (C-section) may be needed if: - Vaginal delivery would take too long - Mother shows signs of worsening illness - Baby shows signs of distress - For the mother—Antibiotics will be delivered directly into the mother's veins by IV. Antibiotics will be continued until the mother is without a fever for 48 hours. - For the baby—After delivery, the baby will be monitored for infection. If needed, antibiotics will be given. To help reduce your chance of developing chorioamnionitis, take the following steps: - Attend regular prenatal check-ups. Call your doctor if you have any questions or concerns. - Get tested for GBS. This routine vaginal culture is done during your 35th-37th week. - Take steps to prevent bacterial vaginosis. For example, practice safe sex. Do not use douches or feminine sprays. - Tell your doctor right away if you have premature rupture of the membranes —water breaking before labor starts. - Reviewer: Andrea Chisholm, MD - Review Date: 03/2013 - - Update Date: 00/31/2013 -	<urn:uuid:36882794-4bcf-45d5-86ab-7bf9b303e3cf>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://portsmouthhospital.com/your-health/?/101295/Chorioamnionitis	2013-05-23T04:48:34Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368702810651/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516111330-00051-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.87937	700
We are delighted to be able to present these lesson plans with the kind permission of Oxfam. “Explore the life of Nelson Mandela and the differences between biography and autobiography with these materials for English and Literacy.” Although the lessons are originally designed to fit in with the English National Literacy Strategy for ages 10–11, the resources can easily be adapted to suit learners of English as a Second or Foreign Language. These two lesson plans are part of a larger group of resources, including a further 3 lesson plans, and information for implementing the content. The additional resources can be found on this page of the Oxfam website: http://www.oxfam.org.uk/education/resources/nelson_mandela/?55 Find Oxfam’s home page here: http://www.oxfam.org.uk/ Find Oxfam’s education home page here: http://www.oxfam.org.uk/education/ These lesson plans are reproduced from: http://www.oxfam.org.uk/education/resources/nelson_mandela/?55 with the permission of Oxfam GB, Oxfam House, John Smith Drive, Cowley, Oxford OX4 2JY, UK www.oxfam.org.uk/education. Oxfam GB does not necessarily endorse any text or activities that accompany the materials.	<urn:uuid:503171ff-f43a-428b-b6ee-aed8b9cd6006>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://thelanguagepoint.com/english_collections/show/Nelson%20Mandela	2013-05-22T07:26:50Z	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00051-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.877062	285

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