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When the Civil War erupted, the new medium of photography had only been in existence for a little over twenty years. The daguerreotype had emerged as the most common early photographic type, but each image was unique (a positive image rather than a negative) and proved to be a challenge to reproduce. Most of the Civil War photographers were accustomed to working with daguerreotypes; one scholar notes that “the roots of Civil War photography came out of the daguerreian era and coursed through the lives of the men who made the pictures” (Zeller 5).
By 1861, however, many photographers were using a different process, which involved the use of collodion-on-glass (wet-plate) negatives. This technique was laborious and required more than one photographer working in a mobile darkroom wagon. The process involved mixing hazardous chemicals and pouring them on a glass plate. After the chemicals had evaporated, the glass plate was immersed (in darkness) in a special solution. The plate was then ready for insertion in the camera. After the exposure of the plate, it was rushed to the darkroom to be developed. Needless to say, this was a challenging and delicate process to undertake within a dangerous war zone. Despite the arduous process of creating prints from negatives, most of the Civil War photographers recognized that this new technology could be used as a “new and powerful tool to be placed in the service of history” (Zeller 2).
A number of photographers established or solidified their reputations during the Civil War, most notably Matthew Brady, Alexander Gardner, and Timothy O’Sullivan. Brady is probably the most well-known, and inextricably linked to the genre of Civil War photography, but he was criticized for taking credit for photographs that he himself did not actually shoot. He employed a cadre of photographic assistants, many of whom eventually left his studio and ventured out on their own. Rather than operating as a full-time photographer himself, Brady might better be described as the “project manager” in his efforts to capture images of the Civil War. He has frequently been quoted as stating that a “spirit” in him said “’go’, and I went.” In all, Brady and his assistants were responsible for the creation of about 10,000 negatives. The entire enterprise left him in poor financial straits after the war, and upon Brady’s death, his important contribution to the history of photography was not widely recognized. His negatives were eventually purchased by the United States government and are maintained at the Library of Congress and National Archives.
Both Gardner and O’Sullivan had worked in Brady’s studio, but later set out on their own. Before the war, Gardner had managed Brady’s gallery in Washington, D.C., but then left to enter the business of creating and selling carte de visites, small photographic portraits that were used as calling cards. He later opened a studio in Washington, D.C, in direct competition with Brady. Gardner was the official photographer of the Army of the Potomac, and after the war published the Photographic Sketch Book of the Civil War. The work included 100 albumen silver prints. Gardner did not fail to state the names of the eleven photographers who contributed to the work. One scholar has called this work a major document in the history of American photography, and notes that it evidenced “an advanced understanding of the principles of the photoessay” (William Stapp quoted in Fulton’s Eyes of Time).
O’Sullivan worked as one of Brady’s assistants during the Battle of Gettysburg, and later partnered with Gardner when he was assigned to the Army of the Potomac. He worked for four years in the field, and photographed hospitals, bridges, battlefields, and encampments. His photographs of the Battle of Gettysburg were provocative and significant, but at the time, they were attributed to Brady, as O’Sullivan was still associated with Brady’s studio at that point.
Civil War photography did not capture action-packed battle scenes, but instead pictured camp life, strategic sites, preparations for action or retreat, and most famously, grisly post-battle scenes of death. The photographers were authorized by the federal government to accompany Federal troops during the war and capture such images, but some of the photographs inevitably caused a sensation. By 1861, photographers had the means of mass marketing their images through mail order catalogues and dealers. Some of the photographs were published and sold as prints, and advertised for sale in catalogues. Other photographs were used as inspirations for lithographs or wood engravings in periodicals.
The Civil War images selected in this TEVA unit are all parts of the collections of the Tennessee State Library and Archives. They include numerous carte de visites, tintypes and a stereograph, as well as numerous positive photographic prints. A significant number of the images picture soldiers stationed in Middle or East Tennessee. Several others feature train depots or other sites important to the duties of the U.S. Quartermaster. The majority of the images picture Federal soldiers, but there are several examples of Confederates, including the photographs of Arthur Willis Closter and Elijah Anderson.
Several of the photographs deserve special attention, such as the tintype of Fred Claybrook from 1861. It is noted next to the photograph that he died at Hoover’s Gap while leading his regiment to battle. Another tintype features George S. Nichols after he lost his eye during the Battle of Shiloh. These kinds of items would have been cherished family photographs that would not have been widely viewed outside of the family. In contrast, some of the carte de visites in this collection, such as the image of Brigadier General Simon Bolivar Buckner, would have been more widely available. Other images served a more specific purpose of documenting various aspects of the Civil War.
Davis, William C. The Civil War in Photographs. London: Seven Oaks: 2007.
Davis, William C., ed. The Embattled Confederacy. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1982.
Frassanito, William A. Antietam: The Photographic Legacy of America’s Bloodiest Day. New York: Scribner, 1978.
Fulton, Marianne. Eyes of Time: Photojournalism in America. Boston: Little Brown and Company, 1988.
Gardner, Alexander. Gardner’s Photographic Sketch Book of the War. Washington, D.C.: Philip & Solomons, 1865, 1866.
Gardner, Alexander. Photographic Sketchbook of the War. New York: Dover Publications, 1959.
Katz, D. Mark. Witness to in Era: The Life and Photographs of Alexander Gardner. New York: Viking Studio Books, 1990.
Kelbaugh, Ross J. Introduction to Civil War Photography. Gettysburg, PA: Thomas Publications, 1991.
Russell, Andrew J. Russell’s Civil War Photographs. New York: Dover Publications, 1982.
Savaw, Theodore P. Brady’s Civil War Journal: Photographing the War, 1861-1865. New York: Skyhorse Publishing, 2008.
Zeller, Bob. The Blue and Gray in Black and White: A History of Civil War Photography. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2005.
Zeller, Bob. History in 3-D: The Civil War in Depth. San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1997.
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Did you know that most AVR chips have a type of hardware exclusive OR (XOR) option when it comes to the logic levels of the output pins? If you look in the datasheet (the image above is a screenshot from an ATtiny13 datasheet) you’ll find a section on Toggling the Pin. It turns out that if you set a PORT as an output, writing logic one to the corresponding PIN register will toggle the logic levels of that out. This is really easy to overlook if you’re writing in C, but I’ve been working on learning a bit of assembler language and found this to be very useful. Keep reading after the break and I’ll tell you how I happened upon this info and what it’s good for.
So first off, let’s talk about why this doesn’t matter very much if you’re writing in C code. Normally if you want to toggle some output pins you’ll just write a one-liner that XOR’s with a bitmask:
PORTB ^= 0xFF;
This is a bit of C shorthand (learn more about that from my tutorial series) that performs the XOR on the current output levels and writes the result back to the port. But the same thing can be done in hardware by writing the bitmask to the PINB register:
PINB = 0xFF;
You don’t really care, because it’s just one line of code. In fact it’s probably easier to XOR the PORTB because it makes more sense conceptually. But the compiler might end up using more cycles than if you had written to the PIN register.
I happened across this feature because I was blinking some LEDs as a way to learn assembler. I had this jumble of code in an Interrupt Service Routine:
ldi myReg, 0xFF in intReg, PORTB eor intReg, myReg out PORTB, intReg
It loads a bitmask into one register, loads in the current logic from PORTB to another register, performs an XOR of the two, and writes the result back to PORTB. This takes four cycles and requires two registers. Toggling bits is such a rudimentary operation I was surprised there wasn’t a command to XOR bits directly so I started searching around. I came across this article over at AVR Freaks which clued me into the bit toggle feature. Now I was able to reduce my assembler code as follows:
ldi intReg2, 0xFF ;temporarity use intReg2 as a bit mask out PINB, intReg2 ;writing to PINB effectivley does an Exclusive OR on PORTB
This results in the same toggling effect, but takes just two cycles and requires the use of only one register.
What I found most interesting is that no matter how much I use AVR chips, there ‘s never a shortage of surprises waiting to be found in the datasheet.
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Gross Profit is the different between the sale prices and the cost of buying or producing the goods. It is calculated as
Gross Profit = Revenue - Cost of Goods Sold
Gross Profit is the numerator in the calculation of Gross Margin:
= Gross Profit / Revenue
= (Revenue - Cost of Goods Sold) / Revenue
A positive Gross Profit is only the first step for a company to make a net profit. The gross profit needs to be big enough to also cover related labor, equipment, rental, marketing/advertising, research and development and a lot of other costs in selling the products.
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Deoxyribose, also known as D-Deoxyribose and 2-deoxyribose, is a pentose sugar (monosaccharide containing five carbon atoms) that is a key component of the nucleic acid deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). It is derived from the pentose sugar ribose. Deoxyribose has the chemical formula C5H10O4.
Deoxyribose is the sugar component of DNA, just as ribose serves that role in RNA (ribonucleic acid). Alternating with phosphate bases, deoxyribose forms the backbone of the DNA, binding to the nitrogenous bases adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine. In RNA, uracil is the base rather than thymine.
Deoxyribose is an aldopentose, which means a pentose sugar with an aldehyde functional group in position 1. An aldehyde group consists of a carbon atom that is bonded to a hydrogen atom and double-bonded to an oxygen atom (chemical formula O=CH-).
Deoxyribose is derived from ribose. Ribose forms a five-member ring composed of four carbon atoms and one oxygen atom. Hydroxyl (-OH) groups are attached to three of the carbons. The fourth carbon in the ring (one of the carbon atoms adjacent to the oxygen) is attached to the fifth carbon atom and a hydroxyl group. Deoxyribose is formed by the replacement of the hydroxyl group at the 2 position (the carbon furthest from the attached carbon) with hydrogen, leading to the net loss of an oxygen atom. Ribose has the chemical formula C5H10O5. Thus, deoxyribose has the chemical formula C5H10O4.
Due to the common C3 and C4 stereochemistry of D-ribose and D-arabinose, D-2-deoxyribose is also D-2-deoxyarabinose.
Deoxyribofuranose is an alternative name for the ring structure of deoxyribose. This alternative name merely refers to the fact that deoxyribose has a five membered ring consisting of four carbons and an oxygen and is more a structural description than a name.
Deoxyribose was discovered in 1929 by Phoebus Levene, who also discovered DNA that year, and found that DNA contained adenine, guanine, thymine, cytosine, deoxyribose, and a phosphate group. Levene had discovered ribose in 1909.
Biological Importance of Deoxyribose
Deoxyribose and ribose derivatives have an important role in biology. Among the most important derivatives are those with phosphate groups attached at the 5 position. Mono-, di-, and triphosphate forms are important, as well as 3-5 cyclic monophosphates. There also are diphosphate dimers called coenzymes that purines and pyrimidines form an important class of compounds with deoxyribose and ribose.
Nucleosides are structural subunits of nucleic acids, the macromolecules that convey genetic information in living cells. Nucleosides consist of a nitrogen-containing base bonded to a five-carbon (pentose) sugar. The sugar component is either deoxyribose or ribose. (“Deoxy” simply indicates that the sugar lacks an oxygen atom present in ribose, the parent compound.)
The nitrogen-containing base is typically a derivative of either purine or pyrimidine. The most common bases in nucleosides are:
One of the common bases is adenine (a purine derivative); coupled to ribose it is called adenosine; coupled to deoxyribose it is called deoxyadenosine.
A nucleotide is a chemical compound with three components: a nitrogen-containing base, a pentose (five-carbon) sugar (relatively simple carbohydrates), and one or more phosphate groups. Depending on their base sugar, nucleotides are therefore known as “deoxyribonucleotides” or “ribonucleotides.” Adenosine triphosphate, known as ATP, is the energy currency in the cell.
The nucleic acid DNA (which stands for deoxyribonucleic acid) is built of nucleotides with a deoxyribose sugar, whereas RNA (or ribonucleic acid) contains nucleotides composed of ribose sugars. As noted above, adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine are the purines and pyrmidines used in forming DNA, and uracil replaces thymine in RNA.
DNA in chromosomes forms very long helical structures containing two molecules with the backbones running in opposite directions on the outside of the helix and held together by hydrogen bonds between complementary nucleotide bases lying between the helical backbones. The lack of the 2′ hydroxyl group in DNA appears to allow the backbone the flexibility to assume the full conformation of the long double-helix, which involves not only the basic helix, but additional coiling necessary to fit these very long molecules into the very small volume of a cell nucleus.
2-Deoxyribose and ribose nucleotides are often found in unbranched 5′-3′polymers. (The convention is to put a ′, pronounced "prime," after the carbon numbers of the sugar, so that in nucleoside derivatives a name might include, for instance, the term "5′-monophosphate," meaning that the phosphate group is attached to the fifth carbon of the sugar, and not to the base.) In these 5′-3′ structures, the 3′carbon of one monomer unit is linked to a phosphate that is attached to the 5′ carbon of the next unit, and so on. These polymer chains often contain many millions of monomer units. Since long polymers have physical properties distinctly different from those of small molecules, they are called macromolecules. The sugar-phosphate-sugar chain is called the backbone of the polymer. One end of the backbone has a free 5′ phosphate, and the other end has a free 3′ OH group. The backbone structure is independent of which particular bases are attached to the individual sugars.
- Alberts, B., Bray, D., Lewis, J., Raff, M., Roberts, K., and Watson, J.D. Molecular Biology of the Cell. New York: Garland Publishing. 1989. ISBN 0824036956
- Doonan, S. Nucleic Acids. Great Britain: Royal Society of Chemistry. 2004. ISBN 0854044817
- Stryer, L. Biochemistry. New York: W.H. Freeman. 1988. ISBN 071671843X
New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:
Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.
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A few years ago my daughter began developing asthma-like symptoms brought on by reactions to pollen, cat dander, and other triggers. I can still remember the panic I felt in my chest the first time she ran to me wheezing and crying that she couldn’t breathe. Thankfully, her wheezing episodes are mild, have decreased over time, and she never received the ‘Asthma’ diagnosis.
Serious health events such as a severe asthma attack produce such a strong, albeit negative demand for health care that the patient often winds up in the ER. In this respect, asthma is unlike other chronic conditions with more deferred consequences (e.g. ‘diabesity’).
Clay Christensen wrote about this phenomenon in his book, “The Innovator’s Prescription”. Despite the significant behavioral change required (carrying inhalers, taking medication, tracking symptoms, following Asthma Action Plans), asthmatics and their caregivers have good reason to be engaged and compliant with treatment – immediate consequences (relief) to severe attack drive behavioral change (see figure).
A Growing Problem [a Growing Market]
In the US, the CDC reports that 1 in 12 people have asthma. There has also been an unexplained increase in rates among African American children – an almost 50% increase in the past decade.
[Note: Why are asthma rates soaring? Possible causes are not fully understood within the scientific community. The ‘hygiene hypothesis’ blames ultra-clean western societies that suppress the natural development of the immune system. Other research refutes the hygiene hypothesis and points to western lifestyles/obesity as culprits. There have also been more Asthma diagnoses due to improvement in diagnostic methods over the last few decades. Further reading on possible causes can be found at Scientific American.]
Given that asthma is a severe, chronic disease affecting a large percentage of the population, it is easy to make the case for investment in asthma-related products. The American Academy of Allergy Asthma and Immunology (AAAAI) estimates 300 million people worldwide are currently affected – almost 5% of the population, with incidence rates on the rise.
Segmenting the US asthma market by age provides a model to understand key engagement models:
- Asthma Moms are continually engaged in their child’s care. They oftentimes take information, tips, and questions to the blogosphere.
- Adolescents manage their condition with Mom’s guidance, though they are not as vigilant in adhering to treatment plans.
- Adult Asthmatics no longer have Mom looking over their shoulder, but are nonetheless motivated to keep symptoms at bay.
Devices to Monitor & Prevent Asthma Attacks
When my daughter was having frequent wheezing episodes, I would have found piece of mind in a technology that could detect and predict when she was going to have an attack… or at least warn of nearby environmental triggers.
Taking a quick look at the Apple App Store, there are almost 100 asthma-related Apps available. These range from free educational Apps to diary-style Apps that require data entry to track peak flow and symptoms. Do Asthma Moms, especially those whose children have low-severity asthma, really have the time and motivation to write asthma diaries? Not to mention adolescents and adult asthmatics?
One company, iSonea, is building technologies to avoid this tedious (and possibly erroneous) data entry. iSonea is currently making a big bet that consumer and provider appetite for asthma monitoring technologies will grow in the coming years.
iSonea is a recently restructured and re-branded company that has been developing proprietary acoustic respiratory monitoring (ARM) devices for years. These devices are equipped with sensors and software that detect acoustic markers such as wheezes, rhonchi and cough.
Note: iSonea was formerly KarmelSonix, a medical device company consisting of a joint partnership between Israel and Australia.
I had the opportunity to speak with the new CEO of iSonea, Michael Thomas, who sees iSonea transitioning from a device-centric company to one that is software-based (guarding the castle with already-acquired IP). In a future filled with Smartphones, iSonea will try to reach those 300 million asthma patients through mobile Apps rather than through proprietary, expensive devices.
Imaging breathing into your Smartphone, which will analyze and quantify your wheezing in the audio. Or, imagine your Smartphone setting off an alarm as it detects nearby environmental triggers, crowd-sourced in almost real time by nearby asthmatics.
iSonea is looking at the following revenue streams:
- App downloads and upgrades. The first version of their AsthmaSense™ App will be released in 2012 with a subscription service.
- Data. Anonymized patient data will be up for sale (iSonea is partnering with Qualcomm Life to get data out of devices and into the cloud). If a statistically significant number of asthmatics use the iSonea App, this data becomes valuable to a host of buyers.
- Ads. Products and services could be marketed to the user based on usage patterns. For example, coupons for therapy drugs could be displayed, etc. (This remains a sensitive area – iSonea needs to find the right amount and types of ads, if any)
Emerging Technologies to Engage Consumers
Another topic I discussed with Mr. Thomas and his VP of Marketing, Michael Cheney, was the issue of how to make the Smartphone App ‘sticky’, or compelling to use. All of us mobile-addicted folks know the feeling - when out of the blue your brain sends you a signal to take your phone out of your pocket and start slinging angry birds.
Will the healthcare space tolerate consumer engagement strategies that have shown success elsewhere? For example, can we social-ify and game-ify healthcare apps and expect higher user engagement? I remain hopeful that, treading carefully, healthcare apps that use social media and gamification strategies can indeed achieve higher engagement rates, especially among digital natives (youths). App developers are already starting to wade into these waters. One interesting example is the DiaPETic App, where users are rewarded via their pet avatar for sticking to a glucose testing plan, much like the popular children’s online game, webkinz.
Who knows, maybe iSonea’s App will indeed spread virally as users encourage their friends to start “playing along” with them as they manage their symptoms and avoid attacks. Engaging adolescents in this manner would especially be appealing to Asthma Moms, who could do with a little less stress in their lives. But iSonea will need to take their existing mHealth App a bit farther than they have to date to enable such viral attraction among adolescents.
Anyone Else Out There?
There is a surprising dearth of competitors to iSonea, which means that either iSonea is particularly early and/or the space is an especially risky one – with no worn paths to tread.
One company that may morph into a company more like iSonea is Asthmapolis.
Asthmapolis is based out of Madison, Wisconsin and founded by Dr David Van Sickle, formerly of the CDC. They manufacture GPS-enabled devices that attach to inhalers, tracking when and where an asthma puff was needed. Recently, Asthmapolis announced a partnership with Dignity Health (formerly Catholic Healthcare West) where doctors will monitor patients’ inhaler use via a mobile App.
Like iSonea, Asthmapolis will make asthma data available to patients and clinicians, and sell it to public health agencies and scientists. Asthmapolis is also developing mobile Apps to receive and display this data, but is not currently (or publicly mentioning) any intent to move beyond GPS-inhalers and towards Smartphone-based asthma monitoring, which is a little surprising in this day and age when just about anyone that is considering a mobile App, typically ahas a smartphone strategy associated with it.
How will iSonea (and Asthmapolis) defend their strategic positions if the market revs up and new competitors race to the honeypot? Will iSonea’s IP be strong enough? Will they have enough cash to hire good patent infringement lawyers?
Or, maybe this market will really be about the data and network effects. The service to garner the most momentum early on will become exponentially more valuable until the market tips. I wonder if Dr Van Sickle’s relationships with the CDC and medical researchers are strong enough so he has first dibs on selling data for population health management.
It will also be interesting to see when and where pharma will step in here (GlaxoSmithKline comes to mind). Better daily monitoring leads to improved medication compliance, which will help fill pharma coffers. I’m sure iSonea/Asthmapolis are already entertaining numerous solicitations for partnerships from Big Pharma.
Towards the Utopia of ACOs
The improved monitoring and prediction of asthma attacks definitely has a role to play in a post fee-for-service, ACO/PCMH world. No doubt these technologies will help shift the patient’s perceived role from passive recipient of care to a more empowered consumer of health, resulting in less ER visits, less readmissions, and ultimately lowered healthcare costs. The social/crowd sourcing component may prove to be especially valuable – with asthma sufferers steering clear of various dangerous locales where several “attacks” occurred. There is, of course the whole privacy debate and clearly, patients should be given an option as to whether or not they wish to have their data shared. More than likely, most will choose to share their anonymized data, but that should be their choice and not that of the vendor of such solutions.
Of course there is no guarantee that consumers will adopt these technologies en masse. Will this be a technology that consumers ‘pull’ rather than it being pushed on them by providers? Will they adopt without a physician’s order or feedback and without FDA approval? One remaining issue is how to monitor children who can’t be trusted to carry a smartphone – either they need to wear some form of (expensive) proprietary device or then again mobile platforms such as the Apple iTouch with a simple data plan may fill this gap.
On a personal level, I would nevertheless like to see asthma monitoring stand out as a poster child for remote monitoring success. If we can figure out a way to engage Asthma Moms, adolescents (with Social/Gamification strategies), and adult sufferers, then moving on to other chronic conditions on Dr. Christenson’s 2×2 matrix will begin to look more achievable.
Just this morning my daughter told me that she had trouble breathing last night. I look forward to the day when instead of me learning of her symptoms after-the-fact, a phone can wake me up in the middle of the night to warn me to check on her immediately.
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There is little doubt that we as a society have become more conscious of the impact we make on the world around us and the need to protect it. This brings us to the subject of biodegradable products.
When you are shopping for products, you tend to see a lot of different claims on products. If you are environmentally conscious, you probably keep an eye out for environmentally friendly products. Once such claim that is commonly made on products is that they are biodegradable. Well, what does biodegradable mean?
Biodegradable material is that which can be naturally broken down into organic components. The process can work in two ways. With aerobic degrading, the materials are broken down by bacteria in an oxygen environment. As you might guess, anaerobic degradation is the second method and does not require an oxygen rich environment. To satisfy this component, the materials comprising the product usually need to be organic to begin with, but not always.
Society is a beautiful thing. When a society shows an interest in some subject, businesses hustle to provide products in that gap. If you doubt this, look no further than hybrid cars. When a swath of society started showing interest in cars that were more fuel efficient and less harmful for the environment, every car manufacturer started producing hybrid cars. In perhaps the ultimate irony, there are now hybrid SUVs! Well, society has shown the same interest in biodegradable products, and the business industry has reacted.
Plastic products are all around us. Classic plastic products, however, are hardly biodegradable. The hall of shame in this regard is the plastic used to hold six packs of beer and soft drinks together. It takes 450 years on average for this convenience packaging to break down. 450 years! This is hardly good news for the plastic industry, so it has come up with something new that it likes to claim is biodegradable.
Bioplastics are the new craze in the plastic industry. Bioplastic is produced from the components of organic materials such as soy oil and corn starch. The goal with bioplastics is to produce a plastic that is… Well, biodegradable. The technology is fairly new, so nobody is really sure how well it degrades. It is generally considered to be superior to traditional plastic, but that isn’t really saying much given the 450 year life span of plastic six pack holders. The real question is how long will it take for the bioplastics to degrade? While there are certainly a lot of claims, independent studies have not yet produced definitive results.
From a practical perspective, you need to be careful about buying products that claim to be biodegradable. Technically, everything will eventually break down. Much like many over inflated supplement claims, may supposed biodegradable products may not deliver what they infer.
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Muslims Who Believe the Bible
Muslim Esteem for Scripture and Prophets
Most Muslims are taught the basic doctrines of Islam, namely that they should believe in God, the day of judgment, angels, prophets, and the Scriptures (or else eternal fire awaits them). They are taught that the four main books of Scripture are the Taurt of Moses (the Torah or Old Testament), the Zabr of David (the Psalms), the Injl of Jesus (the Gospel or New Testament), and the Qur’n (in addition to the writings of Abraham and other prophets). The Qur’an itself commands Muslims to profess faith in the Scriptures that God revealed to Jesus and the prophets (l ‘Imrn 3:84; cf. Al-Baqara 2:285). Given the importance of believing in these books, it is not surprising that most Muslims can readily name all four. Compare this with the fact that “only half of American adults can name even one of the four gospels” (Prothero 2007). But the average Muslim’s “faith” in the Torah, Psalms, and Gospel lacks substance, because they have little or no knowledge of the content of these books. This lack of knowledge is all the more serious given the warning in the Qur’an that those who reject the guidance and verses of the Torah and the Gospel will face the severest punishment (l ‘Imrn 3:3–4). In fact, the Qur’an often says that its purpose is to confirm the previous Scriptures, and in that way it points the reader to the Scriptures that are being confirmed (e.g., Al-Baqara 2:97; Al-M’ida 5:46; Ynus 10:37; Ysuf 12:111).
Muslims use the term “prophets” to designate people whom God used to call people to faith and repentance, whether by word or example. They describe many of the famous figures in the Bible as prophets: Adam, Enoch, Noah, Job, Lot, Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Moses, Aaron, David, Solomon, Elijah, Elisha, Jonah, Ezekiel, Zechariah, John the Baptist, and Jesus the Messiah, but they know very little about most of them. The Qur’an mentions many of them as examples to be remembered and followed, and it clearly assumes the listeners are familiar with their stories from the previous books. In Sd 38:42, for example, the reader is told to “remember Job,” who was “afflicted by Satan” and “cried to his Lord.” Job’s story is mentioned again in Al-’Anbiy’ 21:83–84 as something to be remembered, but the story itself is not recounted in the Qur’an. Similarly the Qur’an makes mention of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, and the twelve tribes, without clearly describing how they are related to one another; it assumes the reader is familiar with them from the previous books. The Qur’an mentions the disciples of Jesus, but says little to explain who they were. In fact, the Qur’an not only assumes a familiarity with many of the people, stories and themes of the Bible, it refers the bewildered listener to those who study the Bible:
If thou wert in doubt as to what We have revealed unto thee, then ask those who have been reading the Book from before thee (Ynus 10:94, Yusuf Ali’s translation)
Bible Study by Open-minded Muslims
Encouraged by this guidance from the Qur’an itself, and by the requirement to believe in all of the Scriptures and prophets, a number of Muslims are motivated to read portions of the Old and New Testaments, often in a group. They encourage one another, saying, “There are four books of God, but we are familiar with only one of them; let’s study the others together.” When they do, they are often delighted to find the information they needed to understand the many biblical allusions in the Qur’an. They also find that the narratives in the Old Testament are full of historical detail, and they see that the prophets were confirmed by many miracles from God. They gain new insights into God and his goodness and holiness, mankind and its fall into sinfulness and death, the creation and its corrupted goodness, and the promises of God’s salvation through a Savior-King, the Messiah, who ushers in an eternal Kingdom established by God.
It is good to start with Old Testament passages. Many say, “I never understood the New Testament until I read the Old Testament.” But when they read the four witnesses to the Gospel in the light of the Torah, they understand and respect the fact that Jesus was truly sinless, that he sacrificed his life in obedience to the plan of God, that he rose from the dead, triumphant over death, sin, and hell, and that he ascended into heaven. Reading Acts, they see that Jesus is active in the world as Lord and Savior of all, guiding, empowering, and protecting his followers as they proclaim his Kingdom to the nations. Then there is Romans. One well-educated Muslim woman said to me recently, “It was not until I had read Romans that I understood the significance of the Gospels.” Then there is Revelation, which is one of the most popular books, because it speaks to them like their dreams do and describes the return of Jesus and the age to come. Woodberry’s (2007: 27) observation about them is that “as they study the Bible and meet with other disciples of Jesus, these two resources become increasingly important in their spiritual growth.”
Reading the Gospel helps them to interpret the Qur’an. For example, most Muslim scholars interpret the vague verse at Al-Nis’ 4:157 to say that Jesus was not really crucified, but it just seemed that way. But a minority of Muslim scholars note that l ‘Imrn 3:55 and Maryam 19:33 say that Jesus was sent to die and then rise to God, and so they interpret Al-Nis’ 4:157 differently, saying that the Jews killed Jesus’ body but not his spirit. Ayoub (1980), for example, says that “the denial of killing of Jesus is a denial of the power of men to vanquish and destroy the divine Word, which is forever victorious.” When Muslims read the graphic and detailed accounts of the death and resurrection of Jesus, and see that it was a fulfillment of what the prophets foretold and in accord with God’s plan of salvation, they find grounds to agree with the minority opinion. By believing the Bible and letting it be their guide to the interpretation of the Qur’an, they become rooted in the Bible, and we could call them “biblical” or at least “sub-biblical” Muslims. In their opinion, however, they are simply being better Muslims by submitting to all of God’s books and prophets. (The word “Muslim” means one who submits to the rule of God.)
Biblical Themes that Appeal to Muslims
Open-minded Muslims find much in the Bible that is good news:
- God’s goodness, love, reliability, and care for his servants.
- God’s guidance of history towards good ends as he works through events to oppose evil, to train his servants in righteousness and truth, and to fulfill his good purposes for his people.
- The portrait of Jesus himself: his kindness, devotion, wisdom, power, self-sacrifice and ongoing reign as Savior and King.
- The love and forgiveness exhibited by true followers of Jesus.
- The offer of personal forgiveness and acceptance by God.
- The offer of assured and complete salvation from hell and acceptance into God’s kingdom.
- The offer of a personal relationship with the Lord, fully realized in the next life.
- The offer of inner cleansing and renewal through God’s Holy Spirit.
- The offer and example of grace to live a godly life through the strengthening and guidance of the Holy Spirit.
- Power to resist and repel Satan and evil spirits in Jesus’ name.
They are surprised and challenged by the divine characteristics exhibited by Jesus: He issues commandments, controls nature, creates matter from nothing, commands spirits, restores the dead to life, reveals the thoughts of others, forgives sins, and bestows eternal life.
Muslims Who Believe in the Lord Jesus Christ
As Muslims ponder these mysteries and pray for guidance, it is not uncommon for them to have a dream or vision that confirms the Scriptures and calls them to follow Jesus the Messiah as their Lord and Savior. Thus they become what we could call “Messianic Muslims.” In their own opinion, however, they are simply being better Muslims by submitting to the Messiah whom God sent to guide and save them.
John Travis (1998) classified Muslim believers of this sort as “C5” and “C6,” where C5 groups were open about their study of the Bible and their faith in the Messiah, and C6 believers kept their faith private. In situations where C5 groups are expanding and multiplying across a network of social relationships, they have been described as “insider movements.” In the groups that Travis described, the Muslims rejected or reinterpreted traditional doctrines that were incompatible with the Bible. Woodberry (2007: 24) has studied one rapidly growing movement for many years, and he notes that these Muslims follow Jesus and “believe what the Bible teaches even where it differs from the Qur’an” (as commonly interpreted). It is a cause for rejoicing that Muslims are studying the Torah, Psalms, and Gospels and are becoming disciples of Jesus Christ.
Obstacles that Hinder Muslims from Studying the Bible
Several things discourage Muslims from reading the Bible. One is the Muslim belief that Jews and Christians have distorted these books, based on statements in the Qur’an (2:59, 75; 3:78; 4:46; 5:13). Muslim scholars disagree, however, whether this corruption involves the text of the Bible itself, which raises theological problems for them, or whether it refers to erroneous interpretations by Jews and Christians, which is what the Qur’an seems to say. Muslim readers take heart, however, from the sayings of Jesus that his words will never pass away (Mark 13:3; cf. Matt. 5:18 re the Torah).
Many Muslims fear that the Injl has been altered to teach people to worship three gods: Allah, Mary, and Jesus. They find relief from this worry in Mark 12:28–30, where the greatest commandment involves affirmation of the oneness of God and a commitment to love him totally.
They also fear terms like “sons of God”, because many have been indoctrinated since childhood, on the basis of the curse in At-Tawba 9:30, that if they say or consent to any statement that someone is an offspring of God, then God will damn and destroy them. They regard the term itself as an earth-shaking insult to God, because it implies that God had sexual union with a woman in order to get children (see Al-’An‘m 6:101; Maryam 19:35, 88–92). (For discussion, see Brown 2005a-b and Brown 2007.)
Finally, Muslims fear that Bible study, especially if done with a Christian, could be an effort to get them to deny their own Muslim heritage and join a church, usually at the cost of being expelled from their family or community. John is a Christian who has been living in Southeast Asia for many years. He and his wife like to read the Bible with a few Muslim friends, sometimes including one or two who have already become followers of Jesus the Messiah. Most of their friends and neighbors, however, declined their invitations to join them, in spite of their assurances that they were not proselytizing them. John and his family left the country for six months. When they returned, they found that one of their believing friends had started a weekly Bible study group, and this had grown to the extent that several different groups were now meeting in the area, each on a different day of the week. Teachers of Islam from two different schools have now become followers of Jesus as a result of the witness of these groups. The main attractions are the transformed lives of those who have been studying the Gospels, the stories of the prophets, the gripping encounter with Jesus Christ in the Gospels, and the fact that God now answers many of their prayers. When John asked one of the participants why he would not participate in a Bible study with him earlier, he explained the reason:
You are a Christian, and we thought your invitations were a scheme to get us into a church some day. But while you were away, we saw that Muslims were studying the Bible themselves, without going to a church or becoming apostates, and we felt safe joining them.
So John kept his distance from the Bible study groups, not wishing to interfere.
This fear of apostasy is amplified by socioreligious factors. From a cultural and sociological perspective, Islam, Judaism, Buddhism, Hinduism, Christianity and their subdivisions constitute social groups, each of which has distinctive “boundary-marker” customs that are shared within the group but not outside. Muslims view Islam as a complete culture, with its own historical heritage, art forms, greetings, holidays, books, customs, ethics, politics, values, and beliefs. They view Christianity the same way, not as a relationship to God through Christ but as a contrasting socioreligious grouping, with its own historical heritage, art forms, greetings, holidays, books, customs, ethics, politics, values, and beliefs. And indeed, Christianity in its various forms does exist in the world as a collection of closely related socioreligious groups, such as Roman Catholic, Orthodox (of various sorts), Protestant, and within that Evangelical, etc. So although the Qur’an guides people to the Bible, Muslims typically identify the Bible as belonging to the Christian socioreligious group rather than to themselves. This discourages them from reading the biblical books, especially if they come from overtly Christian publishers, bookshops, websites, or radio stations.
If a Christian invites a Muslim to study the Bible with him, the Muslim often becomes suspicious of the Christian’s motives, thinking he wants to draw him away from the socioreligious community of his birth and “win” him to a “Christian” socioreligious identity. This is especially the case if the Christian wants the Muslim to read the Gospel of Jesus, because Muslims tend to view Jesus as belonging primarily to the Christians, in spite of Muslim traditions that affirm him. Indeed, both parties might view the matter as a contest between members of competing socioreligious groups. These exclusivist attitudes cause socioreligious boundaries to be one of the chief obstacles hindering Muslims from engaging with the Bible and with the claims of Christ. On the other hand, there are other Christians who view the “Great Commission” as a call to “make disciples of all nations” rather than to convert them to their own socioreligious group. Muslims find such Christians less threatening to their social identity, and they are more receptive to studying the Bible with them. By respecting the socioreligious identity and heritage of Muslims, these Christians lower some of the boundaries and remove these obstacles.
Nevertheless, for a Bible study to develop into a “back-to-the-Bible” movement among Muslims, the Muslims need to be meeting to study the Bible on their own, inside their own community, without the presence of non-Muslim outsiders.
The Great Commission: Christian Religion or Discipleship to Christ?
Drawing on mathematics and philosophy, Paul Hiebert (1994) distinguished these two missiological viewpoints in terms of “bounded sets” versus “centered sets.” Hiebert applies this to believers in Jesus Christ. Bounded-set Christians define themselves as people who meet the boundary criteria of assenting to the same traditional creeds and religious practices (e.g., worship services on Sundays in a church building). As Hiebert notes, people with this view work hard to maintain conformity to these boundary markers and reject non-conformists as non-Christians or heretics. Centered-set Christians define themselves in proximity to the central exemplar, which is the ideal follower of Christ, a model provided by Jesus himself. So their chief concern is fostering greater conformity to this model. Another way to put this is that traditional bounded-set Christians define themselves in terms of a recognizable socioreligious category, whereas centered-set Christians define themselves in terms of discipleship to Jesus Christ. This corresponds to the distinction Charles Kraft has made between “cultural Christianity” and “essential Christianity,” where the latter consists of allegiance to Jesus Christ. Hiebert’s point was that the New Testament presents a centered-set view of mission and holiness, in which the task of mission is to call and disciple people to Christ rather than promote a particular religious tradition in opposition to all others.
This difference leads to misunderstandings and conflicts in missiology. Some missionaries see their task as assisting the expansion and strength of their boundary-defined socioreligious group while others see their task as assisting the growth of God’s Christ-centered Kingdom. While both groups can speak in support of contextualization, they are contextualizing different things. One group is seeking to contextualize their brand of Christian religion, while the other is seeking to contextualize collective discipleship to Christ. So each sees the other as deficient and sometimes as threatening. Personally, I think there is a place for both in God’s plan, but the bounded-set approach often leads to conflict and recrimination between socioreligious groups and to suffering and shame within families. Even extracted, long-standing converts feel the pain of this competitive socioreligious approach. Mary has been a believer for seven years and is known as a convert. Yet she is hurt when Christians speak disdainfully of Muhammad and Islam. She feels they are insulting her culture and its most important historical icon. “Jack” is another convert. He works for a bounded-set mission that constantly denigrates Islam in their publications and broadcasts. He wants to see his people come to faith in Christ, but because of his work with this mission he says, “I feel like a traitor to my people.” “Joseph” converted over thirty years ago and even managed to change his legal religious identity to “Christian.” But because of his apostasy from the Muslim community, his highly respected family lost their position and their honor, to the extent that they could not find husbands for their daughters or good jobs for their sons. After thirty years Joseph returned and apologized to them for all the heartbreak and disgrace he caused them, saying he should have remained in his family and community as a Bible-believing Muslim who follows Jesus as his Lord and Savior.
Biblical and Sub-Biblical Muslims
In any movement to Christ, it takes time for people’s worldviews to conform to what is taught in Scripture, as God leads them into truth through his Holy Spirit. What is important is that they are moving towards the center, towards greater conformity with a biblical worldview. Until that process has matured, their worldviews (beliefs and values) are likely to be sub-biblical. That is true of all kinds of movements, so we need to distinguish between biblical C1/2/3/4/5/6 and sub-biblical C1/2/3/4/5/6. It would be less than God’s best, however, for belivers to remain with a sub-biblical worldview, such as one finds in liberal churches (which are usually C1 or C2), Mormons, and the like. So if there is anything one can do to encourage their maturation towards biblical worldviews, then it would seem desirable to do so.
The question, then, is which beliefs, values and practices are incompatible with the Bible? A related question is what role do outsiders have in deciding this issue? Some have taken the role of denouncing insider movements as syncretistic, because they remain within the boundaries of a Muslim socioreligious category and fail to match all the boundary criteria for a “Christian” socioreligious category. This bounded-set approach, however, is unsympathetic and ultimately unhelpful. Scott Moreau (2000: 924) offers the following guidance. First he defines syncretism as “the replacement or dilution of the essential truths of the gospel through the incorporation of non-Christian elements.” Then he provides the following guidelines for identifying them:
Because of the convoluted nature of culture, the declaration of syncretism in a particular setting cannot be simply left in the hands of expatriate missionaries. The local community must be empowered to biblically evaluate their own practices and teachings. Missionaries must learn to trust that indigenous peoples are able to discern God’s leading and trust God to develop and maintain biblically founded and culturally relevant Faith and Praxis in each local context. Finally, Christians of every culture must engage in genuine partnership with Christians of other cultures, since often the outsider’s help is needed to enable local believers, blinded by culture and familiarity, to see that which contravenes scriptural adherence to the first commandment.
As he points out, the outsiders can give their perspective, but it is the responsibility (before God) of the local disciples of Christ “to biblically evaluate their own practices and teachings.” Hiebert (1987) offers some general guidelines on how they can do that well. These guidelines, however, are unsatisfactory for bounded-set missionaries, because they view a mixture of socioreligious boundary criteria to be a form of syncretism (regardless of the believer’s actual beliefs and values). Even phrases like “Messianic Muslim” and “Biblical Muslim” seem oxymoronic and syncretistic to them.
In the article on page 16 I relate the story of Brother Jacob. Jesus appeared to the leader of a large Sufi sect and sent him to a distant house where he had never been, to meet Brother Jacob whom he had never heard of, with the assurance of Christ that Brother Jacob would show him the way of salvation. Brother Jacob was (and is) the leader of a large insider movement, but he had kept a very low profile. At the time of this event there were many missionaries in the country, and there were a number of C2, C3, and C4 churches that they had started. Jesus didn’t send the Sufi leader to any of them. Jesus sent him to Brother Jacob, the C5 leader, and God started another insider movement through him and the Sufi leader. That does not mean that Jesus disapproves of C3 or C4; but it does demonstrate that he works in a variety of ways, and that one of those ways is C5. We would do well then to support them all, insofar as Jesus is guiding them in this way, and let Jesus lead them into the future he has for them, a future that we cannot yet see.
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The Psalms have a wonderful capacity to capture the reality of our human experience. They express the emotions, personal feelings, attitudes, gratitude, and interests of the average individual. One reason people love the Psalms is that we can each usually identify the Psalms with our own experiences. “In every experience of our own, no matter how deep the pain or how great the frustration or how exhilarating the joy, we can find psalms which echo our inmost being, psalms which God uses to bring comfort or to confirm release.”1
The Psalms, like the other wisdom literature of the Old Testament (Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes), is Hebrew poetry. Unlike English poetry, which emphasizes rhyme and meter, Hebrew poetry relies on other characteristics for its impact like parallelism and figures of speech.
English verse manipulates sound, and emphasizes rhyme and meter. Hebrew poetry repeats and rearranges thoughts rather than sounds. There are several types of parallel arrangement of thoughts, with the first three listed below being the most basic.
(1) Synonymous—the same thought of the first line is basically repeated in different words in the second line (2:4; 3:1; 7:17).
(2) Antithetical—the thought of the first line is emphasized by a contrasting thought in the second line (1:6; 34:10). They are often identified with “but.”
(3) Synthetic—the second line explains or further develops the idea of the first line (1:3; 95:3).
(4) Climactic—The second line repeats with the exception of the last terms (29:1).
(5) Emblematic—One line conveys the main point, the second line illuminates it by an image (42:1; 23:1).
Like the Hebrew language itself, Hebrew poetry uses vivid images, similes, and metaphors to communicate thoughts and feelings.
While praise and prayer characterize the Psalms as a whole, they may be categorized as: Praise (33, 103, 139), Historical (68, 78, 105, 106), Relational (8, 16, 20, 23, 55), Imprecatory (35, 69, 109, 137), Penitential (6, 32, 51, 102, 130, 143), and Messianic (2, 8, 16, 22, 40, 45, 69, 72, 89, 102, 109-110).
This first Psalm stands as a kind of introduction to the rest of the Psalms. Its subject matter is very general and basic, but it touches on two subjects that continually occur throughout the Psalms. It declares the blessedness of the righteous and the misery and future of the wicked.
Man’s spiritual life is set forth negatively and positively, inwardly and externally, figuratively and literally. Above all else, it summarizes all that is to follow in the rest of the Psalms, and, for that matter, in the rest of Scripture.
It presents two ways of life: the way of the righteous and the way of the wicked. However, the key subject is the centrality of God’s Word to the life and fruitfulness of the righteous who truly love His Word. Two great thrusts flow out of this: (a) the importance and absolute necessity of the Scripture, and (b) the changed character, stability, and fruitfulness it promises to those who make Scripture the core of their lives.
Note how this Psalm drives home its truth by the use of contrasts.
(1) There is the way of the godly and their blessedness in contrast to the way of the ungodly (1:1-6).
(2) The way of the godly is set forth by way of a contrast: negatively, what the godly do not do (1:1), and positively, what the godly do (1:2).
(3) Then there is the contrast between the results of the two ways of life; the godly are stable and fruitful, but the ungodly are unstable and face sure judgment. Here is a contrast between character and destiny.
Psalm one is a wisdom Psalm. There are praise Psalms, lament Psalms, and enthronement Psalms and all contain wisdom, of course, but as an introduction and door to the rest of the Psalms, this Psalm declares in just a few words some of the most basic but profound truths and propositions of the Bible.
In essence, God says there are two ways of life open to us: one means blessedness, happiness, and fruitfulness, but the other means cursedness, unhappiness, and judgment. The choice is ours. Blessedness is a choice, but to be blessed, one must by faith obey the conditions; he must pursue the way of blessedness as described in this Psalm.
1 How blessed is the man who does not walk in the counsel of the wicked, Nor stand in the path of sinners, Nor sit in the seat of scoffers! 2 But his delight is in the law of the LORD, And in His law he meditates day and night. 3 And he will be like a tree firmly planted by streams of water, Which yields its fruit in its season, And its leaf does not wither; And in whatever he does, he prospers.
By position and context, the Hebrew is exclamatory. It means, “Oh, the blessedness.” It stresses this as a fact to those who fulfill the conditions or proposition of the passage.
“Blessed” is plural in the Hebrew and literally means, “Oh the blessednesses, or the blessings.” It is an intensive plural and is designed to emphasize the multiplicity of blessings and happiness to those who fulfill the requirements marked out in this Psalm. We might paraphrase, “Oh how very, very happy is the one who …”
The Hebrew word for “blessing” is a^shr?. Interestingly, it comes from a word which means “to go straight, go forward, advance, set right.” The root verb (a`sh~r) means: (a) to “proceed, advance in the way of understanding” (Prov. 9:6b), (b) “do not proceed in the way of evil men” (Prov. 4:14), and (c) in Isaiah 1:17 it is used of correcting false rulers so they will go straight through learning and advancing in the Word.
Blessing comes from growth in the plan of God through fellowship with Him and through the Word of God. While believers have a heavenly position and an eternal inheritance secured by the work of Jesus Christ, the experience of their blessings, the increase of their capacity to appreciate the Lord, and their capacity for happiness is directly proportional to their knowledge and application of the Word. This must not be understood in the sense of legalistic obedience to a set of rules and principles, like a prescription or a formula, but in the sense of an obedience of faith that such a life brings to the one who believes the concepts of this passage.
This is a beatitude. A beatitude pronounces blessing upon a certain group of people. It is not, however, an unconditional pronouncement, nor a pronouncement of bliss or a life without problems. It is conditional and this is strongly stressed. Note, “how blessed is the man who …” The article specifies a certain kind of man, “the man who obeys the actions of this passage.”
By the sound of the words, the Hebrew has a play on these words which drive this home. “Who” is the Hebrew relative pronoun, a&sh#r. “Blessed” is the Hebrew noun, a~shr?. Now listen to the sound of the text in Hebrew, a~shr? h~a’sh a&sh#r. “Blessed is the man who.” “Who” is a function word which introduces us to the person who is so blessed, one who has the qualities of life which lead to blessedness.
Remember this is God’s Word and every jot and every tittle are important. Blessing is pronounced, but only on those who comply with certain divine demands or spiritual qualities. But what are these in general?
The passage is not speaking about complying with a system of works or self-righteous pharisaism, nor complying with a special formula so one may then experience blessedness. Instead, a beautitude promises blessing to those whose lives are characterized by certain qualities as the outcome of faith and relationship with God. The principle is that certain things corrupt, they tear down and destroy. Other things build, develop, make fruitful, and give the capacity and means for happiness through trust and fellowship with God. This is the message of this Psalm. Now, what are those things?
There are three things the man who is blessed must avoid. But let’s first note how the author develops this because it is so instructive and is a warning in itself. As it is presented, it demonstrates the process of retrogression, which always occurs when men are not advancing in God’s words and way of life. We never stand still! Verse one portrays this truth in three degrees of degeneration, each a little more permanent, settled, and embedded into one’s life.
(1) There are three degrees of habit or conduct: walk / stand / sit.
(2) There are three degrees of openness, fellowship, or involvement in evil: counsel / path / seat.
(3) There are three degrees of evil that result: wicked / sinners / scoffers.
In each of these there is regression from God’s way and progression into sin and Satan’s way. It warns us how man is prone to turn aside little by little and become more and more entangled in the web of sin. He is easily influenced by the way of the world in its attitudes and actions, for actions follow attitudes.
Let’s look at each of these three negative statements in their three-fold breakdown:
“Does not walk.” “Walk” is the Hebrew h`l^K which metaphorically means, “to go along with, follow a course of action,” or “to live, follow a way of life.” It has the idea of “go along with, use, follow.” The tense is decisive, he is one who has chosen not to follow this path.
“In the counsel.” “Counsel” is the Hebrew u@s>h which means, “purpose, plan, resolution of the will,” or “deliberation, viewpoint, way of thinking.” It refers to a mental attitude, a state of mind, or viewpoint that determines the decisions that we make. “As a man thinketh in his heart, so is he.” The man of blessedness is one who has determined to walk by the whole counsel of the Word, not by his emotions, experience, tradition, by popular opinion or by what is politically correct.
“Of the wicked.” “Of” is a genitive of source, i.e., counsel from those who are wicked, from those who want nothing to do with God’s way. This is the kind of counsel that we must avoid.
“Wicked” is a Hebrew word (r`sh`u) which has as its root idea, “to be loose, unstable.” This word carries two ideas. First, it means to be loose with reference to morals. It means immoral and without godly restraint or controls. It also means ungodly, godless, or negative toward God, loose from God, without Him as an anchor or controlling factor. It refers to those who are guided and controlled by their own desires, emotions, impulses of the mind and flesh rather than by the Word and the Holy Spirit.
“Stand” is the Hebrew u`m~D. It means “to stop, to be firm.” From merely walking in their counsel, one becomes more confirmed in the way of the wicked, more involved and influenced. It connotes movement toward the formation of habits or patterns.
“In the path.” “Path” is the Hebrew word D#r#K and means, “a way, course of action, journey, manner, work.” It refers to one’s conduct, behavior patterns, habits and responses. Here we see patterns forming and becoming entrenched. From thinking like the world we begin to act like the world.
“Of sinners.” “Sinners” is the Hebrew j^ff`a. It was an archery term and meant “to fall short, miss the mark.” The mark is the will and plan of God as revealed in Scripture. Sin is the transgression of the Law. It is whatever misses the will of God for man doctrinally or morally. We are all sinners. We all miss the mark, and none of us are perfect nor will we ever be perfect in this life. This is why Christ had to die for our sin so we might have His righteousness. But “sinners” here refers to those who have deliberately chosen a way of life, a path contrary to the plan of God as revealed in the Word of God. The man of blessedness chooses to direct his life by God’s plan according to His inspired and inerrant Word.
“Nor sit.” Literally this can be translated, “in the seat of scorners, he has not sat.” “Sit” is the Hebrew word y`sh~B meaning “to sit, dwell, remain, abide.” It emphasizes a thoroughly settled state or condition—settled down, comfortable, content with the world with its patterns entrenched in our lives. I’m afraid this is the state of the majority—even of the majority of the church. Past Gallop poles which compared the churched and unchurched showed there was basically no difference in the way they lived their lives. Many people in the church today are comfortable with their religion; they are merely playing at church. They are not advancing in their life with Christ, but are materialistic, earthly-oriented, living as earthdwellers and not sojourners.
“In the seat.” “Seat” is the Hebrew word mosh`B. It means: (a) a seat, a place of sitting, or (b) an assembly where many are gathered together to sit and make deals or have close associations. The point is, when you sit in someone’s seat, according to the idiom, you act like or become what they are. You are viewed as in a confederacy with them.
“Of scoffers.” “Scoffers” is the Hebrew word l’s. It means “to mock, deride, ridicule, scoff.” Grammatically, it is a participle of habitual action. It refers to one who is actively engaged in putting down the things of God and His Word. But please note that scoffing can occur by declaration of words or by declaration of a way of life that scorns the moral absolutes of Scripture and its way of life.
From this retrogressive process, it is easy to see that people simply do not remain passive about God. We can’t. Passivity toward God and His Word leads to activity in sin and finally to overt activity against God. That is a law of life.
How do people scoff at the Word of God? (a) By blatant ridicule or rejection. But there are other ways. (b) By indifference. We think we have better things to do with our time. (c) By substituting one’s own ideas, experiences, emotions, feelings, or traditions for the Word and its principles. (d) By listening to the Word proclaimed, but then ignoring it. In essence we scoff at the Word when we fail to obey it and order our lives accordingly (cf. Prov. 1:22 with 29-33).
These verses pose a warning to us. They teach us how little by little we can step out of the place of blessedness and into the place of misery and cursing with horrible consequences.
First, we can begin to think with the viewpoint of the wicked. Compare Lot in Genesis 13:10f. He chose according to the viewpoint of the wicked.
Then we can quite naturally begin to behave like sinners, acting more and more like the world. Compare Lot in Genesis 13:11. He “journeyed eastward,” walking in the way of sinners.
We can then too easily become an associate of those who scoff at God’s plan and ignore His counsel. Again compare Lot in Genesis 13:12-13; 19:1.
Note how these three verses in Ephesians parallel Psalm 1:1:
17 This I say therefore, and affirm together with the Lord, that you walk no longer just as the Gentiles also walk, in the futility of their mind,
who does not walk in the counsel of the wicked,
18 being darkened in their understanding, excluded from the life of God, because of the ignorance that is in them, because of the hardness of their heart;
Nor stand in the path of sinners,
19 and they, having become callous, have given themselves over to sensuality, for the practice of every kind of impurity with greediness.
Nor sit in the seat of scoffers!
So, how can we avoid this? Psalm 1:2 is our answer! The man who experiences great blessing is one who has a love affair with God’s Word. He/she is a person of the Scriptures. I would emphasize how remarkable this is. Note that that quality which characterizes the life of the blessed above everything else which could be mentioned is one’s relationship to the Word of God (Ps. 138:2).
Psalm 1 is an introductory Psalm, a kind of gateway to the rest, where all kinds of qualities are mentioned. Yet, this is the one quality which is of single importance. Why? Because here is the root, everything else is the fruit, i.e., the result of one living close to God by living in His eternal, infallible, sure, true and tried Word. This emphasis is borne out throughout Scripture (cf. Luke 11:27-28; 16:17).
The church is not a social club, a welfare organization, a religious or a ritualistic institution. It is a spiritual body, an organism of living people whose lives are nurtured and sustained through the teaching of God’s Word (Amos 8:11-12, 2 Tim. 4:1-4). According to Scripture, everything in the church is to flow from and around this emphasis and activity. Its organization, its fellowship, its works, testimony, witness, and giving. This does not deny the ministry and work of the Holy Spirit or other valid functions of the church like music, but central to everything is the Word (Jam. 1:19f).
“But” is K’a]m in the Hebrew text. If this is translated as a conditional clause, “but if,” then verse three gives the conclusion and promise. But it may also be taken as a strong contrast, i.e., “but rather.” Because of the construction of verse 1 with the emphasis on the negative, it introduces the reader to a strong contrast showing positively what the man of blessing does in contrast to verse 1, what he does not do.
“But his delight is in …” This statement is emphatic in two ways: by the fact it is a nominal clause (no finite verb), and by the word order. For the sake of emphasis, the Hebrew word order reads, “but rather, in the Law of the Lord (is) his delight.” God’s emphasis is on His word, that which is to be the object of our delight
“Delight” is the Hebrew word j@Px. The basic meaning is obvious, but let’s dig a little deeper to see exactly what this means. It came from an Arabic verb (a sister language) which meant “to be mindful of, attentive to,” and so it came to mean, “keep, protect.” When something delights us, we become preoccupied with it and we tend to protect and guard it. Gesenius, the great lexicographer, says it originally meant “to bend, incline toward,” so it includes the ideas of “desire, pleasure, inclination, satisfaction.” It is a term for positive volition.
The Theological Word Book of the Old Testament points out this word may be used for that which a person wishes strongly to do or have.2 It means “to feel great favor toward something.” The emphasis of this word is that the desire is caused in the subject by the intrinsic qualities that are found in the object desired (cf. Isa. 54:12, “precious, delightful stones,” and Mal. 3:12, “delightful land”). The Hebrew verb form of this noun is used several times of a man taking pleasure or finding delight in the woman he loves. In the Old Testament, Israel was viewed as the wife of yahweh and in the New Testament the church is the bride of Jesus Christ. The written Word is God’s love letter to us and we are to have a love affair with God through His Word. Just as one would read the love letters of his or her sweetheart, so are we to read and study God’s Word with the same delight.
The word “delight” was also used of that in which one takes delight as in one’s business, pursuits, or affairs of life. Compare: Isaiah 53:10-11 (“the good pleasure,” i.e., the purpose, business, cause); Isaiah 58:13 (“your own pleasure,” i.e., business, affairs); and Proverbs 31:13 (“and works at the ‘business of her hands’”).3 The principle is that the study of God’s Word is to be one of the key purposes and affairs in our life in which we delight and to which we give careful attention.
“In the law of the Lord.” This is the object of our delight. The law, of course, refers to the Word of God. “Law” is torah (tor> or Tor`H) meaning “law, teaching, instruction.” So tor> means direction, instruction, but also law, because it contains the authoritative principles and instructions which are to guide men’s lives.
“Of the Lord.” yahweh is a genitive of source, i.e., the law or Scripture which comes from the LORD. This draws our attention to the doctrine of bibliology or the doctrines of revelation, inspiration, preservation, collection and canonization of the Bible, and illumination (2 Tim. 3:16 and 2 Pet. 1:21). If you are interested there is a thorough study on this subject entitled, Bibliology: The Doctrine of the Written Word available on the Biblical Studies Foundation web site at www.bible.org in the theology section.
One of the reasons Scripture is a delight, like honey in the honey comb, is because it is truth. It is accurate, reliable and actively powerful (Ps. 19:7-9; Prov. 3:13-15, verse 15 uses the verb form of our word “delight”).
“Day and night” is an idiom which means “constantly, consistently, and regularly.” This means the man of blessedness is occupied with God’s Word. It is on his mind and in his heart at all times in every situation and area of life (2 Cor. 10:4-5).
“He meditates” is an imperfect tense of habitual action. The verb is h`G> or H`G`H which literally means “to moan, growl, utter, speak, muse, think, and plan” (cf. 2:1b where it means, “devise”). This is a comprehensive term for the study and application of the Word to one’s life. It involves thinking about what Scripture means and how, when, and where it should be applied. Included with this would be reading, hearing, study, and memorizing so one can accurately think about Scripture and apply it.
Please note, this is a promise from God and a well established fact of life. A Bible that is worn and falling apart from use usually belongs to someone who isn’t.
Being like a tree is of course a metaphor, a picture. But what does this picture teach us?
(1) A tree has deep roots and is usually very sturdy, especially when compared to a tumble weed. A tree portrays stability and the capacity to withstand the storms of life (Jer. 17:5-8). It’s the picture of mental, emotional, and spiritual stability in every kind of situation (see Phil. 4:11f).
(2) It also pictures the concept of growth and time. As it takes time to produce a huge sprawling oak, so it takes time to grow and mature in the Word. The problem, especially in our ‘instant tea’ society, we want and expect an overnight transformation and change. But true spiritual strength comes from a long-term, established relationship with God in his Word (Hebrew 5:11ff; 1 Pet. 2:2; 2 Pet. 3:18).
(3) It also pictures ministry. If a tree is a fruit tree, it gives fruit. If it is an oak, it gives shade. God has given us His Word that we might become fruitful trees in His service and in ministry to others.
2 Timothy 3:16-17. All Scripture is inspired by God and profitable for teaching, for reproof, for correction, for training in righteousness; that the man of God may be adequate, equipped for every good work.
“Planted” is a participle of the Hebrew verb sh`t~l. This verb actually means “to transplant,” not merely “plant.” This is rich and significant. “To plant” means to cause to take root, to become firmly established for the purpose of stability, nutrition (food and water), growth, and eventually production.
“To transplant” includes the above, of course, but it also includes taking a plant out of one environment and placing it into another which is more conducive to production, growth, and stability. Like taking wild trees growing in barren and desert-like conditions and carefully transplanting them in rich prepared soil by streams of water.
There is very significant application we need to note here: Before we were saved we were in Adam, dead in sin, but God in His grace has transplanted us into Jesus Christ. He has taken us out of Satan’s domain of darkness and placed us into the kingdom of His dear Son (Rom. 6:4f; 1 Cor. 1:30; Col. 1:13). With this new position also comes new provision and resources of life—the Holy Spirit and the Word—both of which are likened to streams of living water (John 7:37-39; Ps. 1:3; Jer. 1:8).
“Transplanted” is a passive participle. The passive voice is the voice of grace. But we must, in the practical application of this, personally respond to His plan. We must choose to live not in the counsel of the ungodly (as verse 2 shows us), but live by the streams of water, the Word and God’s provision for learning it. This means value choices! In New Testament terms this means: (a) daily time with the Lord (Hebrew 3:7), and (b) weekly times of assembling together with other believers (Hebrew 10:24-25). The participle stresses continual action. This is to be our habit, and it will be if we obey verse 2 and God’s commands.
“By streams of water” continues to paint this picture for us. “Streams” is P#l#G from P*l^G and means “to divide, split.” The word was used of cutting a water channel for irrigation, or of the land divided by rivers, ravines, and streams. Our word P#l#G refers to canals or water courses provided for irrigation.
By way of application, God has provided the inspired word, the canon of Scripture and gifted teachers of the Word. In Old Testament times there were the prophets and teaching priests; there was even a school of the prophets led by Elijah and Elisha. In New Testament times we have pastors or elders who are to teach as well as other teachers (Eph. 4:11-12). It is the believer’s responsibility to respond to God’s provision and to plant themselves regularly in a seat where they can drink from these water resources.
Note again the recurring biblical principle: First the root, then fruit. First the word with obedience and application, and then there is production. (Note the fruit-bearing power of the gospel in Colossians 1:5b-7; 2:6, and then note the emphasis in verses 9f on the need of prayer.)
“Which yields” is n`T^n, “to give.” The verb is the imperfect tense, which stresses continual action, or even that which, given the inherent power of Scripture, is always true as a general rule of life. As 1 Thessalonians 2:13 reminds us, constantly living in the Word should result in continued fruitfulness if there has been an open ear to hear what God is saying. How much fruit each tree yields depends on several factors:
(3) One’s particular gifts (1 Pet. 4:10-12).
(4) God’s own special blessing and use of our gifts (1 Cor. 3:6-7).
Each tree is to have some fruit. Fruit is a proof of the root, i.e., where one is dwelling (in truth or error) (cf. Matt. 12:33-34). There are several categories of fruit: (a) The character of Jesus Christ (Gal. 5:22-23, 16); (b) the exercise of our spiritual gifts in Christian service (1 Pet. 4:10-11; Rom. 12:3f), including exhortation, giving, showing mercy, helping; and (c) witnessing and leading people to Christ (cf. John 15:16 with verse 27).
“In its season” is literally “in its time,” i.e., at the proper, suitable time (Ps. 104:27). As far as the believer’s fruitfulness is concerned, this means studying and becoming prepared to serve in special ways according to one’s gifts and God’s timing (compare Moses, Paul and Christ). It also means being prepared to bear fruit when opportunity knocks (2 Tim. 4:2).
This is a picture of vitality, of being green, healthy plants in spite of conditions. A plant which is planted by streams of water has the capacity to endure (Jer. 17). It is the principle of living life independently of the details of life for one’s happiness (Phil. 4:11-13).
Literally, we may translate, “in all that he may do he continually or repeatedly prospers.” “Prospers” is the Hebrew x`l@~j, “prosper, succeed, be profitable.” The root means to accomplish satisfactorily what is intended.4 Real prosperity results from the work of God in the life of one who meditates on His Word. But does God really mean this? Of course, but this is not a blank check to be filled in as we want. The man of blessedness prospers first because he always seeks to operate in the framework of God’s will according to God’s values and purposes. As one who delights and meditates in the Word, Scripture is consulted and used as a guide for whatever he does (Prov. 3:5-6). He also prospers because, as such a man, he uses Scripture as a guide for how he does what he does. He operates in the sphere of God’s enablement, supply, and direction (Ps. 37:3-5).
This does not mean there is never adversity or failure. God often engineers failure as mirrors of reproof and instruments of growth. Sometimes God has to engineer failure and pressures before He can bring about success—His kind of success—in our lives. And sometimes God allows severe suffering for other reasons as He did with Job.
Compare Psalm 37:6 and note the kind of prosperity God primarily has in mind (spiritual prosperity, discernment, and godly character). By-in-large, people of the Word will gain the capacity to be wise and stable in areas such as their business or the office which could mean promotions or higher profits. But it could also mean persecution as one takes a stand for righteousness or refuses to compromise or do the things employees are sometimes asked to do that go against the righteous principles of Scripture.
It could also mean the capacity to be healthier in general, since a joyful heart is good medicine and since godliness may produce the discipline needed to eat wisely and exercise regularly. The main thing is we must judge prosperity not by physical wealth or even physical health, but primarily by spiritual growth and capacity for life with people and in service to God.
4 The wicked are not so, But they are like chaff which the wind drives away. 5 Therefore the wicked will not stand in the judgment, Nor sinners in the assembly of the righteous. 6 For the LORD knows the way of the righteous, But the way of the wicked will perish.
With verse 4 we come to a very strong contrast. The way of the righteous is contrasted with the way of the unrighteous. In the original Hebrew text, this contrast is strongly emphasized by the lack of a connective between these sections called asyndeton, and by the word order. Literally, “not so, the wicked.” This is an emphatic denial; the way of the wicked is nothing like the way of the righteous. They have completely different sources for living, different purposes, different character, and very different results both temporally and eternally.
The primary emphasis here is to the unbeliever, but there are definite applications to the believer both for this life and for eternity. Scripture teaches that the believer, if he continues on in a life of carnality, can begin to look like the wicked (1 Cor. 3:3), and though he is saved, he will experience serious consequences as we shall see in the material below.
Literally “not so the wicked.” There are two different negatives in the Hebrew and each expresses a very different idea. There is loa, which expresses absolute emphatic negation. Then there is a~l, which expresses subjective or relative negation with an appeal to the will. Verse 4 uses loa, the negative particle of absolute negation. This verse flatly and absolutely denies any correspondence of the characteristics and life of the wicked with the righteous.
“So” is the Hebrew K@n, an adverb of quality. The wicked are not in any way like the righteous or the man of blessedness of verses 1-3 in the quality, character, or constitution of their lives.
“The wicked.” This is a key word in the Psalms. In our passage it occurs four times (verses 1, 4, 5, and 6). This is the primary word by which the Psalmist describes the unrighteous. The Hebrew word is r`sh`u. We saw in verse 1 that one of the basic ideas of this word was to be loose or unstable, and so it means to be loose ethically. But loose morals occur only because one was first negative to God; loose from Him, cut loose and excluded from a life with God and the control and stability that God brings into the lives of men when they have fellowship with Him. But there is more. Included in this word is the idea of restless activity. It refers to a restless, unquiet condition which, in its agitation and unquieted passions, runs from one thing to another seeking happiness and peace, often at the hurt of others.
Isaiah 57:20-21 But the wicked are like the tossing sea, which cannot rest, whose waves cast up mire and mud. “There is no peace,” says my God, “for the wicked.”
This Hebrew word graphically portrays the restlessness within those who are out of touch with God, whose hope and trust is not on the Lord, and who, in their unsatisfied and agitated state, are propelled forward in a search for whatever it is they think will give peace, satisfaction, security, and significance (cf. Eph. 4:17f).
A study of the word r`sh`u (used well over 255 times in the Old Testament) finds that one of the key characteristics of the wicked is this looseness from God. It portrays apathy and negative volition to God and His Word. This results in moral instability which is the fruit of the root problem, a failure to care about God. Note the contrast seen with verse 2 “but his delight is in the law of the Lord … not so the wicked” (cf. Psa. 10:3-5; 119:53 with 54 and 119:155 with 165). The issue is simply that spiritual deliverance and real happiness must always escape the wicked because of their negative volition to God and His precious Word. So how does the wicked forsake his wicked way? By turning to God and His infinite Word (Isaiah 55:7-11).
The key characteristics of the wicked are two-fold and stand to each other as root to fruit:
(1) Root: Forsakes God, negative to God and His Word with the result he is uncontrolled (Prov. 29:18).
The word r`sh`u (wicked or unrighteous) is contrasted regularly with x#D#q (righteous or righteousness).
These words contrast two lifestyles: (a) The righteous cling to God, love His Word, and as a result are restrained, stable, upright, and just. (b) The wicked forsake God, ignore His Word, and as a result are unrestrained, oppressive, and unjust. This is the point of Proverbs 29:18, “Where there is no revelation, the people cast off restraint; but blessed is he who keeps the law.”
These words also contrast the results of these different lifestyles: (a) The righteous are stable, fruitful, and will be rewarded. (b) The wicked are unstable, unfruitful, and will be judged.
The wicked run the gamut from those who have no room for God (Psalm 10:4), to the religious type who gives only lip service to spiritual things (Psalm 50:16ff). But in all cases, there is no real love for God, belief in His Word, or desire for fellowship with God.
The conjunction “but” is a strengthened form in the Hebrew text and is somewhat emphatic. It draws our attention to the difference between the righteous and wicked.
“Like chaff.” “Chaff” is the Hebrew word mox. Chaff is the seed covering and the debris separated from the grain or seed in threshing. Unlike the grain or actual seed, it has no body or substance and is blown about by the wind, always unstable. It is that which is worthless, of no value. It draws the reader’s attention to both the uselessness of the wicked and to the ease with which God deals with them, like the wind that so easily picks up the chaff and blows it away.
Like chaff, the wicked will be separated from the grain in judgment (vs. 5). For a similar idea compare the wheat and tares (Matt. 13:24-42). The unrighteous are ultimately worthless to God and generally worthless to society since they corrupt and feed on others. Primarily they are unstable, blown about from pillar to post because they have no spiritual roots in the Word of God (cf. Eph. 4:14; Jer. 17:6).
While genuine believers cannot lose their salvation, there is the danger of living like the unrighteous (the wicked) in carnal indifference, perhaps very religious, but out of fellowship with God. The church in Corinth is an illustration of this. Paul warned them that in their state of carnality and failure to grow, they were walking like mere men (1 Cor. 3:1-4). Such believers may act like the wicked in many ways. In their carnality they become unrestrained and impoverished in their spiritual lives. If this continues, it will mean severe discipline in this life followed by forfeiture of rewards in heaven, like chaff which the wind drives away (1 Cor. 3:12f).
As to this life, the wicked, those who walk independently of God (believers or unbelievers), are driven about by the false counsel of the world, by satanic and human viewpoint (Eph. 4:14), by the lust patterns of their own hearts (Eph. 4:17f), and by the pressures or problems of life for which they have no answer. Note that in Ephesians 4:14 the apostle is writing to believers regarding the need to grow in Christ lest they become unstable, tossed about by the waves of man’s ideas about life. Then in 4:17-19 he warns Christians against living like the unbelieving world in the futility of their minds, minds that are not being nourished by the water of God’s Word.
But the primary focus of this text is on the future judgment. The wicked will not be able to stand before God’s judgment (verse 5), but will be driven out, away from God and believers (see Rev. 20:11-15; 21:6-8). Note the parallel here. As the wicked are driven about in life because they do not have the Lord and His righteousness, so they will be driven away from Him in the day of judgment because they lack His gift of righteousness through Jesus Christ.
“Will not stand.” The verb here is qWm, “rise, arise, stand.” It looks at standing as the result of rising up. The idea in this context is that of ability to withstand or endure the judgment of God. Unbelievers will face God at the great white throne judgment but will not be able to stand its test (Matt. 22:11-13). Only those (both Jews and Gentiles) who have the robe of Christ’s righteousness because of their faith in Christ can stand before God’s throne.
In the progress of revelation, the Old Testament does not give us the details of the last judgments as does the New Testament. The Old Testament spoke of the time of the Tribulation (the time of Jacob’s trouble or Daniel’s 70th week), of a last judgment, and of the gathering of the righteous before God. But for the complete picture we need New Testament revelation. There are five future judgments with regard to mankind:
(1) The Judgment Seat of Christ, the Bema. The judgment of the Bema follows the rapture. It involves only the church, the body of Christ. It is an examination for rewards or loss of rewards in heaven, i.e., forfeiture of privileges of service (Rom. 8:1; John 5:24; Rom. 14:10-11; 1 Cor. 3:11-15; 2 Cor. 5:9-10).
(2) Tribulation Judgments: Also known as Jacob’s trouble and Daniel’s 70th week. (Rev. 6-19; 1 Thess. 5:1-11; 2 Thess. 2:1-12; Matt. 24; Isa. 24). The Tribulation begins after the rapture, thus it begins only with unbelievers. The purpose of the Tribulation judgments is to purge out the rebels and bring Israel to the Messiah.
(3) Judgment of living Jews (Matt. 25:1-30). This judgment comes at the end of the Tribulation and is carried out by Christ on earth. Unbelievers are separated from believers and the believers go into the Millennium.
(4) Judgment of living Gentiles (Mat. 25:31-46). This judgment also comes at the end of the Tribulation and is carried out by Christ on earth. Unbelievers are separated from believers and the believers go into the Millennium.
(5) The Great White Throne Judgment (Rev. 20). This refers to the judgment of all unbelieving dead or those raised in the resurrection for judgment (see John 5:29). It follows the thousand-year reign of Christ and pertains only to unbelievers. Because they do not have Christ’s righteousness, they are cast into the lake of fire.
For a detailed study on the judgments, see The Doctrine of the Judgments under New Testament, Topical Studies, on the Biblical Studies Foundation web site at www.bible.org.
The wicked (unbelievers) can’t stand at the judgment and are separated and cast out because they are found without God’s righteousness.
As a result of God’s judgment at the Great White Throne, sinners, those without the righteousness of Christ, will be excluded from the eternal blessings of God’s presence to be enjoyed by all those who stand in relation to God by faith in Christ. For the Old Testament saint, salvation was by faith in God’s covenant with Israel as it looked forward to the coming Messiah and His death as proclaimed in the sacrificial system of the Law (cf. Luke 1:71-73; Acts 3:25; Rom. 11:25-27; 3:21f; 4:1f). For the New Testament saint, salvation is by faith alone in the accomplishment of Christ’s finished work as proclaimed in the New Covenant, which is a fulfillment of the promises of the Old (cf. Eph. 2:8-9; Mark 14:24; Luke 22:20; Heb. 7:22f; 8:6f; Heb. 9:1-22).
“Knows” does not mean simply to have knowledge of something. It is often used in Scripture in a protective sense and refers to God’s providential care and love, which includes the eternal security of believers and His divine provision. It means that God looks out for the righteous. The NIV even translates this, “The Lord watches over …” But ultimately, the issue here is the basis of God’s judgment.
The basis for this judgment is the Lord’s knowledge. The first half of the verse, The Lord watches over (lit., “knows”) the way of the righteous, is best understood by the antithetical parallelism, the way of the wicked will perish. Salvation in the day of judgment is equated with being known by the Lord (cf. Matt. 7:23).5
One is reminded of Paul’s statement in 2 Timothy 2:19-20.
19 Nevertheless, the firm foundation of God stands, having this seal, “The Lord knows those who are His,” and, “Let everyone who names the name of the Lord abstain from wickedness.” 20 Now in a large house there are not only gold and silver vessels, but also vessels of wood and of earthenware, and some to honor and some to dishonor.
“Way” refers to life’s course or path. The point is, our path or course is fully known by the Lord and He cares for us with God’s loving and providential care as a father his child and like the vinedresser cares for His vineyard (Ps. 103:13; Matt. 6:32; John 15:1f). For the righteous (believers in Christ), there is God’s pre-vision, and so also God’s pro-vision so that even when they fail and sin, God has foreknown us and provided for us in the complete and finished work of Jesus Christ. The Apostle Paul emphatically teaches us that nothing can separate us from the love of God which is anchored in Christ (Rom. 8:28-29, 38-39). The righteous cannot perish because they are in both the hand of the Father and in the hand of His Son, the Lord Jesus (John 10:28-30). But, as the next part of the verse warns, if their way of life is one of carnality, it will be futile and will perish by the loss of rewards.
The wicked are earthdwellers, those bent on getting all the gusto they can out of this life with little or no concern for God and eternity. By-in-large, the wicked live primarily for this life. Their way (even when religious) is the way of man, the flesh, and cannot stand before the righteousness of God. They fall short. Their way of life gains them nothing with God, so it too will perish. Ultimately this means the lake of fire for the unbeliever.
But since Christians too can live like mere men, like the wicked to some degree, Scripture exhorts us to live as sojourners, as aliens who seek to lay up treasures in heaven where neither moth nor rust destroys (1 Pet. 1:17; 2:11; Matt. 6:19-24). Exhortations like these in the New Testament would be meaningless unless this were a real possibility. Thus, a life lived for treasures on earth will perish, that is, it will result in the loss of rewards as well as bring dishonor to the Savior who purchased us from our sin. Since this is true, should we not pursue the way of blessedness both for now (God’s glory and spiritual stability in this life) and eternity (God’s glory and eternal rewards)?
The way of the wicked perishes because it is left to itself. The way of the wicked perishes because they have left God out and even their temporal life loses real meaning and value. Rejection of Christ and His Word means no provision for eternity. When it involves indifference to heavenly treasure as believers, it means loss of rewards and a failure to use this life as partners with Him in His life and enterprise on earth. However, the believer, who is kept by the power of God, will be in eternity with the Lord.
As one reflects back on this wonderful introductory Psalm, it is clear that the central issue is God’s awesome and holy Word, the Scripture. The man (or woman) of blessedness and spiritual stability is one whose life is built on and bathed in the Scripture. But why? How can the Bible have such a stabilizing affect on a person’s life? Because of the nature of the Bible as God’s inspired, inerrant, and infallible Word to man, and because of its total sufficiency to meet every need of a person’s soul. This is the emphasis and declaration of David in Psalm 19:7-11. David shows us that the Scripture, when known and applied, can restore a sin-damaged and distraught soul, give spiritual wisdom, bring joy to the downcast, and provide spiritual discernment. In other words, as Peter teaches us in 2 Peter 1:3, it contains all that man needs for life and godliness, or about truth and righteousness.
What is it, then, that the church needs? It needs the Bible! What is it that pastors and elders ought to be doing? They need to be preaching and teaching the Scripture. What did Paul tell his young coworker in the faith? First, he told him, “Until I come, give attention to the public reading of Scripture, to exhortation and teaching” (1 Tim. 4:13). Later he wrote, “preach the word; be ready in season and out of season; reprove, rebuke, exhort with great patience and instruction,” and then he quickly warned, “For the time will come when they will not endure sound doctrine; but wanting to have their ears tickled, they will accumulate for themselves teachers in accordance to their own desires; and will turn away their ears from the truth, and will turn aside to myths” (2 Tim. 4:2-3).
Where is the church, indeed, even the evangelical church today? It has turned aside from the Word as its authority and sufficient source for life and godliness. And what does the church look like today? Well, it certainly does not look like a tree planted by streams of water which yields its fruit in its season. While eating lunch, my wife and I occasionally listen to a well-known talk show host who takes questions from those who call in for counsel with their perplexing moral dilemmas. But the thing that never ceases to amaze me is the mess people can get their lives in. Some of these profess to be Christians, and I don’t doubt that many of them are. What’s also clear is that they have not been ordering their lives by the Word. Have these people been going to church? For many of them the answer is yes, but their time in church did nothing to build them in the Scripture.
The research efforts of Gallup, Barna, and Hunter all indicate that evangelicals are, for the most part, as secular in their orientation as non-Christians. The data reveals, among other things, an astounding degree of theological illiteracy: 84 percent of those who claim the evangelical label embrace the notion that in salvation God helps those who help themselves, 77 percent believe that human beings are basically good and that good people go to heaven regardless of their relationship to Christ, while more than half of those surveyed affirmed self-fulfillment as their first priority. An equal number had a difficult time accepting the concept of absolute truth. I fear that this may be only the tip of a massive iceberg.6
In plain and simple terms, the forces of our modern society have replaced the centrality and priority of the preaching and teaching of the Scripture. In its place has come (a) shorter and shorter topical sermons aimed more at self-fulfillment than biblical exposition, (b) pop-psychology, (c) entertainment in the form of drama and music, (d) more and more emphasis on music that gives an emotional bang for the sake of the emotions rather than music that focuses the heart on the person and work of God, i.e., sound biblical truth that may then stir the soul. Essentially, the services are man-centered rather than Bible-centered and God-centered.
As I observe much of the church today, at first glance it looks like wheat, but on closer observation, it is often more like the chaff that the wind drives about with every wind of the various doctrines of man and the modernity of our secular society. My dear friends, make the powerful Word the foundation of your life and ministry and get involved in ministries where the Word is truly the heart and soul of that church.
Let me close with this interesting illustration of the power of the Word.
George Whitefield, the great eighteenth-century evangelist, was hounded by a group of detractors who called themselves the “Hell-fire Club.” They derided his work and mocked him. On one occasion one of them, a man named Thorpe, was mimicking Whitefield to his cronies, delivering his sermon with brilliant accuracy, perfectly imitating his tone and facial expressions, when he himself was so pierced that he sat down and was converted on the spot.7
Hebrews 4:12 For the word of God is living and active and sharper than any two-edged sword, and piercing as far as the division of soul and spirit, of both joints and marrow, and able to judge the thoughts and intentions of the heart.
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The Picts were master craftspeople. They created many intricately carved symbol stones. People at the time would have understood the symbols and figures carved on the stones. Their meanings have been lost over the centuries. Today there is much debate about the meaning of some Pictish symbols.
Early symbol stones were rough, undressed boulders; later stones were carefully shaped and dressed.
The earliest stones show incised animals and geometric shapes unique to Pictish culture like the crescent and v-rod, the double disc and the serpent and z-rod.
Later stones were sculpted in relief, allowing the elaborate designs to stand out from the background. Designs include incised Christian crosses and biblical scenes.
Some Pictish stones have written inscriptions. Pictish letters - called 'ogam' - had no curves, so were well suited for carving on stone. The language the Picts spoke has been lost.
More than 250 symbol stones have survived. They are monuments to the skills of Pictish artists and sculptors, but their meanings are still mysterious.
Click on the image to view a larger version.
Listen to Veni Redemptor, a 5th-century hymn by Ambrosius, Bishop of Milan, played on the Pictish harp.
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Printer friendly version
Nerve cells grow on nanocellulose
19 March 2012
Chalmers University of Technology
Researchers from Chalmers and the University of Gothenburg have shown that nanocellulose stimulates the formation of neural networks. This is the first step toward creating a three-dimensional model of the brain. Such a model could elevate brain research to totally new levels, with regard to Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease, for example.
Over a period of two years the research group has been trying to get human nerve cells to grow on nanocellulose.
“This has been a great challenge,” says Paul Gatenholm, Professor of Biopolymer Technology at Chalmers.‟Until recently the cells were dying after a while, since we weren’t able to get them to adhere to the scaffold. But after many experiments we discovered a method to get them to attach to the scaffold by making it more positively charged. Now we have a stable method for cultivating nerve cells on nanocellulose.”
When the nerve cells finally attached to the scaffold they began to develop and generate contacts with one another, so-called synapses. A neural network of hundreds of cells was produced. The researchers can now use electrical impulses and chemical signal substances to generate nerve impulses, that spread through the network in much the same way as they do in the brain. They can also study how nerve cells react with other molecules, such as pharmaceuticals.
The researchers are trying to develop ‟artificial brains”, which may open entirely new possibilities in brain research and health care, and eventually may lead to the development of biocomputers. Initially the group wants to investigate destruction of synapses between nerve cells, which is one of the earliest signs of Alzheimer’s disease. For example, they would like to cultivate nerve cells and study how cells react to the patients' spinal fluid.
In the future this method may be useful for testing various pharmaceutical candidates that could slow down the destruction of synapses. In addition, it could provide a better alternative to experiments on animals within the field of brain research in general.
The ability to cultivate nerve cells on nanocellulose is an important step ahead since there are many advantages to the material.
‟Pores can be created in nanocellulose, which allows nerve cells to grow in a three-dimensional matrix. This makes it extra comfortable for the cells and creates a realistic cultivation environment that is more like a real brain compared with a three-dimensional cell cultivation well,” says Paul Gatenholm.
Paul Gatenholm says that there are a number of new biomedical applications for nanocellulose. He is currently also leading other projects that use the material, for example a project where researchers are using nanocellulose to develop cartilage to create artificial outer ears. His research group has previously developed artificial blood vessels made of nanocellulose, which are being evaluated in pre-clinical studies.
Research on new application areas for nanocellulose is of major strategic significance for Sweden. Several projects are financed by the Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation and being conducted in collaboration between Chalmers and KTH within the Wallenberg Wood Science Center, WWSC.
Facts about nanocellulose:
Nanocellulose is a material that consists of nanosized cellulose fibers. Typical dimensions are widths of 5 to 20 nanometers and lengths of up to 2,000 nanometers. Nanocellulose can be produced by bacteria that spin a close-meshed structure of cellulose fibers. It can also be isolated from wood pulp through processing in a high-pressure homogenizer.
Caption: Nerve cells growing on a three-dimensional nanocellulose scaffold. One of the applications the research group would like to study is destruction of synapses between nerve cells, which is one of the earliest signs of Alzheimer’s disease. Synapses are the connections between nerve cells. In the image, the functioning synapses are yellow and the red spots show where synapses have been destroyed. Illustration: Philip Krantz, Chalmers
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Each year, nearly 7 million children die before reaching their fifth birthdays, according to the World Health Organization. More than half of these deaths are caused by conditions that are preventable or treatable, including pneumonia, diarrhea, malaria, measles, and malnutrition. To put it bluntly, every day 20,000 children are killed by conditions that could be prevented or cured with simple, affordable remedies—vaccinations, bed nets, food, clean drinking water, and antibiotics.
PIH strives to eliminate this unnecessary suffering and death by providing free comprehensive health care for children and their families and by working to ensure that children have access to the basic rights—vaccinations, health care, education—that are key to a healthy, productive life.
Preventing the transmission of HIV to infants
Each day, about 1,000 infants are born with HIV, the vast majority of whom reside in poor countries. Most of these infants could be protected from HIV infection through effective HIV testing and treatment for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV (PMTCT). These interventions have nearly eliminated mother-to-child transmission in wealthy countries, UNAIDS reports.
In Haiti, PIH began offering PMTCT and HIV counseling to pregnant mothers in 1995, just one year after it became available in the United States. PIH’s HIV Equity Initiative has provided antiretroviral therapy (ART) free of charge for thousands of Haitian children living with HIV since 2000. HIV care for children is fully integrated into other basic health services, also provided at no cost. In 2005, PIH began implementing this model first in Rwanda and later Malawi and Lesotho.
Creating access to health and education
In Peru, PIH’s Socios En Salud Sucursal program serves children in the deeply impoverished communities of Carabayllo in northern Lima. The program targets both health and education for children living in the Carabayllo slums.
To improve health, PIH manages community health posts where staff promote health, prevent the spread of disease, and provide primary health care. These activities address issues of gender, equity, community participation, and social empowerment that have a significant effect on health. PIH’s education activities aim to organize the community to promote the rights of children and adolescents. PIH identifies community leaders who follow children in their education, providing support to families that helps address social barriers that prevent many children from completing their education.
In Haiti, PIH supports 39 community primary schools and 25 accelerated learning centers for children who had not previously been enrolled in primary school. In total, these schools educated about 8,000 students in 2011. These primary and secondary students have performed exceedingly well on national exams, achieving a 91 percent pass rate in 2012.
To improve attendance and achievement at schools throughout the rural Central Plateau district, PIH also provides hot lunches at 125 schools, reaching 18,000 students each day. Because Haiti’s school system requires that students wear closed-toe shoes to class, PIH partnered with TOMS Shoes to distribute more than 70,000 pairs of shoes to local school children from 2010 to 2012. All of these programs address key barriers to education for poor children to help break them out of the cycle of poverty and disease.
With many other child-centered programs in the poor communities where PIH works, we offer children the same essential rights and services that have virtually eliminated deaths from common childhood ailments in rich countries.
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Place de l'Etoille; Right Bank; Paris; Ile de France; France; Europe; detail; column; Arc de Triomphe; names; inscribed; Napoleon; Grande Armée; Marshals; Generals; inscription; inscribe; monument; victory; triumph; marshal; general;
Detail of column on the Arc de Triomphe in Place de l'Etoille, Right Bank, Paris, Ile de France, France, Europe, shows the names of Napoleon's Grande Armée Marshals and Generals.
USA; Mexico; salt; pans; pan; satellite; Americas; White Sands National Monument; Rocky Mountains; New Mexico; ancient; landscapes; Pleistocene; Ice Age, Chihuahuan Desert, Mexican, White Sands National Monument, sand, sands, desert, deserts, Chihuahuan, border, American, America, basin, water, US, National Park, national, parks, dunes, satellite, space, Earth,
EARTH USA/Mexico -- Jul 2009 -- At the northern end of the Chihuahuan Desert, which stretches from the southwestern United States into northern Mexico, sits a field of gleaming white sands that form otherworldly dunes. The sands sprawl over some 715 square kilometers (275 miles) of south-central New Mexico. About 40 percent of the area falls within the White Sands National Monument, managed by the US National Park Service. The Advanced Land Imager (ALI) onboard NASA?s Earth Observing-1 (EO-1) satellite captured this photo-like image of part of the White Sands National Monument. This image shows part of the southeastern portion of the park. The dunes shown in this image are advancing toward the northeast, and the brilliant white sands contrast with darker soils. The sands of White Sands National Monument are formed from gypsum, a soft mineral often left behind when water bodies evaporate. Waters flowing into the basin holding White Sands National Monument, however, found no outlet and evaporated. Over many years, gypsum crystals deposited in this basin were subjected to freezing, thawing, and wind, and broke down into tiny grains. The massive collection of gypsum dunes in New Mexico results from changes in ancient landscapes that started before the time of the dinosaurs. Some 250 million years ago, what is now New Mexico was covered by a shallow sea, but the sea?s level eventually fell as the area began to dry. Thick layers of gypsum settled onto the old sea floor. About 70 million years
Paris, Ile de France, France, Europe, Île-de-France, Left Bank, Rive Gauche, 6th arrondissement, 6ieme arrondissement, Saint Germain, Saint Germain des Pres, St Germain, St Germain des Pres, Rue de Seine, walls, wall, facade, trellis, trellised, environment, ecological, ecology, ecosystem, plants, plant, trees, tree, deciduous, community, urban, cities, city, city center
Trellised wall on Rue de Seine in Paris, Ile de France, France, Europe.
Bastille July Column, monument, Paris, Bastille place, Revolution dE Juillet, 1830, trois jours, three days, commemorate the Trois Glorieuses, la place DE la Bastille, Génie DE la Liberté, King Louis-Philippe, Tourist, Tourists, music, France, Historical , Hector Berlioz, Stormy sky , gold, golden, Streetscape
Genie de la liberte on the July column Bastille Paris
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|2002-05-09, Rev. 2002-06-03. © 2002 Garrett D. Euler|
The correct definition of bolt and screw is as follows.
|Bolts are defined as headed fasteners having external threads that meet an exacting, uniform bolt thread specification (such as M, MJ, UN, UNR, and UNJ) such that they can accept a nontapered nut. Screws are defined as headed, externally-threaded fasteners that do not meet the above definition of bolts.|
Because various organizations have thoroughly confused everyone regarding this simple definition, the remainder of this article dispels several myths and discusses the full rationale explaining the above, correct definition.
(1) Several dictionaries, Machinery's Handbook, part specification sheets, military specifications, bolt manufacturers, and vendor catalogs are wrong and have botched the above, unambiguous definition. Their definitions of bolt versus screw are arbitrary, random, ambiguous, nondefinitive, and do not align with common sense. Having "credible" sources such as Machinery's Handbook, ASME, ISO, and military specification sheets misusing and arbitrarily misdefining the words throws the whole world off. Then eventually most dictionary authors follow suit and copy some arbitrary version of the incorrect definitions floating about. All of these incorrect definitions and misuses, no matter how credible the source may otherwise seem, should be completely ignored. It should be apparent to you that technical definitions that make no sense are not credible.
(2) Another major confusion factor is the fact that bolt threads are sometimes generically referred to as "screw" threads in specifications, even though they are actually bolt threads, in an attempt to generically refer to the threads themselves, whether internal or external and regardless of which part they exist in. Words can have more than one definition, and this particular usage of the word "screw" is an attempt to describe helical threads simply in reference to the act of screwing. Using the word "screw" when "screwing" is meant does not cause a bolt, whose threads meet the specification of bolt threads, to be suddenly metamorphosed into a screw. If the threads meet the specification of bolt threads, such that they can accept a nut (regardless of whether you install a nut or not), then the threads themselves would more aptly be called "bolt threads" in the specifications, instead of "screw threads," to dispel confusion, as the nut is no more a screw, by the strict definition, than a bolt is a screw.
(3) Let us get the record corrected with the previously-stated, correct definition, which stands unaffected by several other factors. And let us now, by stating the correct facts, dispel several myths that have no affect upon the above definition.
The extent to which the shank of a fastener is threaded, whether fully or partially, does not affect the above definition in any way. Bolts can come fully or partially threaded, as do screws.
Whether or not a nut is installed does not affect the above definition in any way. Common sense tells you a bolt is not suddenly metamorphosed into a screw each time you extract the nut (if you chose to install a nut instead of using the bolt in a threaded hole, insert, or nutplate); nor is it suddenly transformed into a screw each time you choose to not use the bolt but just let it sit there on a table unused.
Bolts are untapered. Screws are often tapered but can also be untapered.
Screws always cut their own internal threads when initially installed, as there is generally no tool meeting the arbitrary specification of their threads to tap out the internal threads beforehand. Conversely, however, it is possible for a bolt to be self-tapping. The only criterion in regard to the bolt versus screw definition is whether or not the self-tapping fastener, non-cutting threads meet the strict specification of bolt threads, meaning they can be correctly mated with a nut.
The type or size of head on a fastener does not affect the above definition in any way. Bolts come with almost every imaginable head; screws do also, including hexagonal. Likewise, the configuration of the driving (or holding) tool surfaces in the head, whether internal or external surfaces, does not affect the above definition in any way.
The fastener nominal diameter does not affect the above definition in any way. Bolts do not suddenly and mysteriously no longer accept nuts just because they become small, miniature, or micro.
The term "machine screw" is a misnomer. A bolt, clearly having bolt threads, is not suddenly metamorphosed into a screw just because someone arbitrarily misnamed it in a specification, book, organization, or industry.
Whether or not specifications incorrectly or loosely refer to bolt and nut threads as "screw threads," or even erroneously refer to bolts as "screws," does not suddenly transform the bolt into a screw. The inability of the technician who drafted the specification to master or understand language, grammar, measurement systems, coherent, unambiguous, internationally-standard units of measure, correct mathematical expressions, etc., does not mean the coherent engineers are suddenly thrown into an abyss without coherent definitions. Intelligent engineers must be able to sort out the technical facts from among the fiction and typos. Whenever someone has botched definitions, world class organizations such as ISO and IEEE need to step up to the plate and redirect the incoherent, aimless, arbitrary, lower-level entities. All of these incorrect definitions and misuses of the word "screw" should be completely ignored, as there is no need to continue to copy past mistakes and propagate confusion. The previously-stated, correct definition should be used in new specifications, standards, and publications.
|Return to Structural Analysis Reference Library.||© 2002 Garrett D. Euler|
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John Calvin was born in 1509. He died in 1564. John Calvin was the son of a lawyer. He was born in Noyon, Picardy and was therefore a Frenchman. Calvin developed a love for scholarship and literature.
In 1523 he went to the University of Paris where he studied theology.
To maintain himself while a student, Calvin secured a small chaplaincy attached to Noyon Cathedral.
In 1528 he went to Orleans to study Law, and one year later Calvin went to Bourges also to study Law.
Calvin was pressurised by his father to study Law but in 1531 his father died giving Calvin the freedom to resume his religious studies.
In the same year that his father died, Calvin went to the College de France in Paris to study Greek. This college was noted for its Humanistic approach to learning. In fact, all the colleges that Calvin attended had Humanistic leanings and it was only natural that this influenced Calvin. He became an admirer of Erasmus.
At some point between 1528 and 1533 he experienced a
"sudden conversion" and grasped Protestantism. "God subdued my
soul to docility by a sudden conversion" was how Calvin described this
Many historians look on the time from 1531 to 1533 as being the key time as this was the first time that he had been free from his father’s ‘shackles’. Calvin was highly critical of the abuses in the French Catholic church but he never doubted that he was God’s chosen instrument in the spiritual regeneration of the world.
At this time in France his ideas would have been heretical especially after the Day of the Placards incident when Francis I felt personally threatened by the Protestants and joined with the Sorbonne and the Parlément of Paris to hunt out heretics. Calvin lived at a dangerous time for heretics and in 1533 he fled Paris. In the following year 24 heretics were burned at the stake. For three years (1533 to 1536) he roamed France, Italy and Switzerland.
In 1536 the first edition of "Institutes of the Christian Religion" was published in Basle. It was revised on a number of occasions and the final edition was published in 1559. This book was a clear explanation of his religious beliefs. The later versions expanded on how his church should be organised.
In July 1536, Calvin went to Geneva which became the centre of his work. He had been trying to go to Strasbourg but the spread of the Habsburg-Valois Wars made him detour to Geneva where a fiery Protestant called Guillaume Farel persuaded him to stay.
Geneva was a French-speaking Swiss city. At the time of Calvin’s arrival the city was struggling to achieve independence against two authorities who were trying to exercise control over Geneva. The first was the Dukes of Savoy and the second was the Bishop of Geneva. Geneva was not yet part of Switzerland (not until 1815) and the city allied with the cantons of Bern and Fribourg against Savoy. The bishop fled Geneva and Savoy was defeated in 1535.
In May 1536 the city adopted religious reform:
1) monasteries were dissolved
2) Mass was abolished
3) Papal authority renounced
But within Geneva itself a struggle took place between those who wanted mild reform (such as no compulsory church attendance) and those who demanded radical reform such as Calvin and Farel. The split was deeper than this however. The mild reformers were called the Libertines and they wanted magistrates firmly in control of the clergy. Calvin wanted a city controlled by the clergy - a theocracy. In 1538, the Libertines won the day and Farel and Calvin fled the city and went to Strasbourg.
From 1538 to 1541 Calvin stayed in Strasbourg. Here he learned a lot about the ideas of Martin Bucer; a moderate Protestant reformer from Germany. Calvin was especially interested in Bucer’s ideas on ecclesiastical organisation.
In 1540 Calvin attended a Catholic/Protestant conference at Hagenau and in the following year he attended similar conferences at Worms and Regensburg.
In September 1541 Calvin returned to Geneva after the Libertines had fallen from power in 1540. It took Calvin 14 years before he could fully impose his version of liturgy, doctrine, organisation of the church and moral behaviour.
Calvin’s services were plain and simple. He placed great importance on the sermon. His sermons were very logical and learned. Though he himself liked music, he distrusted its use in religious services believing that it distracted people from the matter in hand - the worship and the seeking knowledge of God. Musical instruments were banned from churches - though congregational singing was permitted and this proved to be both popular and an effective way of ‘spreading’ the message. All matters relating to worship came from the Scriptures - so psalms took the place of hymns in services.
In 1541, added by the city council, Calvin drew up the Ecclesiastical Ordinances. He rejected the organisation of the Medieval Church as contrary to the New Testament. He wanted a church modelled on the church in Apostolic times. There were to be no bishops. All ministers were equal. They had to preach, administer the sacraments and look after the spiritual welfare of the people. Moral discipline was also upheld by the ministers - but they were helped by the elders.
The elders were civilian (laymen) who lived within the congregation and who were elected by the city council. Calvin was not keen on this but it provided a link between the Church and state. The elders and deacons (also laymen who looked after the relief of the poor were subject to popular appointment and in that respect they introduced an important element of democracy into the church. All officers in the church belonged to the consistory and if there was a power struggle between the ministers and the laymen the outcome of that power struggle determined whether the church became Erastian (i.e. followed the way Erasmus wished a church to go) or the state would become theocratic i.e. the church controlled all aspects of life. Eventually Geneva became theocratic.
Calvin was a strong believer in behaving as God wished. Immorality was severely condemned but to begin with the consistory was not an effective body. It only started to be so when the number of appointed ministers was greater than the elders. Also in 1555, the city council gave the consistory the right to excommunicate offenders. Only after this date was a strict moral code imposed and every sin was made a crime e.g. no work or pleasure on a Sunday; no extravagance in dress. If you were excommunicated you were banished from the city. Blasphemy could be punished by death; lewd singing could be punished by your tongue being pierced.
Calvin believed that the church and state should be separate but the consistory tried moral and religious offenders. Two members of the consistory, accompanied by a minister, visited every parish to see that all was well and that people could see that they were being checked on. The state had to obey the teachings of the church, according to Calvin, and once he had managed to ensure this power, he felt confident enough to shut down taverns - though this was actually done by magistrates - and replace them with "evangelical refreshment places" where you could drink alcohol but this was accompanied by Bible readings. Meals (in public) were preceded by the saying of grace. Not surprisingly these were far from popular and even Calvin recognised that he had gone too far and the taverns were re-opened with due speed!!
Was Calvin totally supported in Geneva? It must be remembered that he was introducing a very disciplined code to the city and that this code effectively controlled peoples lives. There were those who opposed Calvin and he was never totally secure until he had the support of Geneva’s most important families. These 1,500 men had a right to elect the city council which governed the city’s 13,000 people. Many felt angered that their privacy was being trespassed on and though a moral code to maintain standards was accepted, Calvin saw it going all the way so that everybody in the city was affected - a view not shared by everyone. This changed in favour of Calvin when a Spanish scholar called Michael Servetus came to Geneva in 1553. He questioned the validity of the Trinity which is central to all Christianity. The Libertines sided with Servetus to ‘get’ at Calvin and but his trial and burning as a heretic gave Calvin the opportunity to target the Libertines who fled Geneva. In May 1555, the Libertines attempted a take-over of Geneva which was a disaster. The ringleaders were caught and executed and this success further strengthened Calvin’s hand.
What were Calvin’s beliefs ?
Calvinism was based around the absolute power and supremacy of God.
The world was created so that Mankind might get to know Him. Calvin believed that Man was sinful and could only approach God through faith in Christ - not through Mass and pilgrimages.
Calvin believed that the New Testament and baptism and the Eucharist had been created to provide Man with continual divine guidance when seeking faith.
In Calvin’s view, Man, who is corrupt, is confronted by the omnipotent (all powerful) and omnipresent (present everywhere) God who before the world began predestined some for eternal salvation (the Elect) while the others would suffer everlasting damnation (the Reprobates).
The chosen few were saved by the operation of divine grace which cannot be challenged and cannot be earned by Man’s merits. You might have lead what you might have considered a perfectly good life that was true to God but if you were a reprobate you remained one because for all your qualities you were inherently corrupt and God would know this even if you did not. However, a reprobate by behaving decently could achieve an inner conviction of salvation. An Elect could never fall from grace.
However, God remained the judge and lawgiver of men. Predestination remained a vital belief in Calvinism.
|"We call predestination God’s eternal decree, by which He determined what He willed to become of each man. For all are not created in equal condition; rather, eternal life is ordained for some, eternal damnation for others." (Institutes)|
Calvin and Europe
Calvinism was a belief that was dependent on the strength of the individual. You controlled your own goodness on Earth and this depended on the strength of your inner conviction. This was a personal belief not dependent on the whims of an individual pope or relics, indulgences etc. You may have been a reprobate in the eyes of God but you would not know this and so a person would lead a life for God to fully know him.
Geneva became the most influential city in the Protestant movement. It represented the city where religion had been most truly reformed and changed for the better. John Knox, the Scottish Protestant leader, called Geneva "the most perfect school of Christ." Geneva’s impact on Europe was huge for two reasons :Calvin did not want his belief to be restricted to just one area and he did not want Geneva to become a refuge for fleeing Protestants. The city was to be the heart that pumped Calvinism to all of Europe. This spread was to be based on a new educational system which was established in Geneva. Both primary and secondary schools were created and in 1559 the Academy was established which was to become the University of Geneva.
Geneva was/is French speaking and Calvin spoke French. It was expected that many French Huguenots (Calvinists in France were known as Huguenots) would head for the university to train as missionaries. This was the main task of the university. In 1559 it had 162 students. In 1564, it had over 1500 students. Most of these were foreign. Calvin had some luck with his teaching staff as there had been a dispute over the level of pay at Lausanne University and many of the teaching staff there simply transferred to Geneva as the pay was better and the financial structure of the university was on a stronger footing. After their course at Geneva, the missionaries were given a French-speaking congregation in Switzerland where they could perfect their skills before moving on to France itself. The ease with which ministers could get into France was a bonus for Calvin. However, the size of the country was to be both a help and a hindrance to Calvinists.
The first Huguenot (Calvinist) ministers arrived in France in 1553. By 1563, there were nearly 90 Huguenots in France and the speed of its spread surprised even Calvin.
Henry II of France was a strong catholic and he had established a body called the Chambre Ardente in 1547 to monitor and hunt out ‘heresy’ in France. It was not a success and was disbanded in 1550. Whereas his father (Francis I) had used Protestantism to help advance his power against the Parlement de Paris, Henry had no wish to have any association with Protestants whatsoever.
In 1555 the first Huguenot congregation to have a permanent minister was established in Paris. By 1558, this congregation was worshipping in the open guarded by armed sympathisers.
In 1559, the first synod (national council) was held in Paris. 72 local congregations were represented by the elders from each congregation. In some regions of France travelling ministers had to be used but this was never a major problem as the organisation of the church was so tight. Many Huguenot communities were near each other so communication was never really a problem. Educated merchants were drawn to Calvinism. This occurred probably as a result of the impact of the Renaissance and as a reaction to the rigidity of the catholic Church.
A number of noble families converted to Calvinism though there is not one common link to explain their conversion. Each family had its own individual reason. Ironically one of these reasons may have been patriotic. Catholicism was linked to Rome and since the Concordat of Bologna, the French had always linked their religion to national causes. By associating yourself with Calvinism, you would be expressing your belief that France should have no links to Italy.
The Huguenots were concentrated on the coast mainly in the west (La Rochelle) and in the south-east. They develop their own cavalry force and openly worshipped in their own churches. The sheer size of France aided them in the respect that the royal government in Paris found it difficult enough to assert its authority generally. The strict organisation of the Huguenots made any attempt by the authorities to crush them very difficult. Added to this was the simple fact that la Rochelle was a long way from Paris.
By 1561, there were 2150 Huguenot churches in France and Calvinists were estimated to be about 10% of the population - about 1 million people. It has to be remembered that the first Calvinist ministers only got to France in 1553. Calvinism within France became a large minority religion.
Calvin made important gains in this state. Ministers first arrived here in the 1550’s aided by Huguenot preachers who were fleeing from France. They made slow progress at first. Why ?
Lutheranism had already taken root as had Anabaptism so Calvinism was seen as another protest religion in a ever crowded field. There was also a lot of persecution in general against Protestants. In 1524, Charles V had introduced his own Inquisition to the region and in 1529 and 1531 new edicts were introduced ordering death to anyone who was found guilty of being a Lutheran or simply sheltered them or help Lutherans spread their beliefs.
In 1550 Charles V removed the authority of city councils to try heretics. It was his belief that city magistrates were too lenient and that the provincial courts which took over this duty would have far greater control than the city magistrates.
These measures did check the spread of Protestantism but Calvinism was the most successful of the three and the best equipped to survive. Why ?
Its system of non-religious governments by elders allowed it to operate regardless of the authorities. The Anabaptists were too reliant on the role of the individual as opposed to strength in numbers and organisation while the Lutherans were poorly organised and more open to attack from the authorities.
By 1560, Calvinism had not spread far because the authorities were very active against it. In total, Protestantism accounted for 5% of the whole population in the Netherlands of which the Calvinists were just a small part. No noble men appeared to be interested as they were too concerned with their political power and economic well being. Their knew that the Catholic Church was corrupt but they found the Calvinists far too authoritarian as the church told you what you could do and what you could not. Most Calvinists were from Antwerp, Ghent and regions near Germany.
Calvinism developed into a popular movement in NW Rhineland and Westphalia - both neighbours of the Netherlands. These were the only areas to convert. In 1562, Frederick III modelled churches in his territory on the Calvinist model which was contrary to the 1555 Religious Settlement of Augsburg which stated that churches could only be Catholic or Lutheran. Heidelburg became a leading intellectual centre but the spread elsewhere was very limited due to Lutheranism and the input of Calvinism into Germany served to disunite the Protestant movement and help the Catholic Church in the Counter-Reformation. John Sigismund of Brandenburg was to convert at a later date and his state followed.
The western area of Poland was German speaking which had helped Luther. However, Poland had a history of nationalism and a desire to be independent and this did not help Luther who had not spent time organising his church. Calvinism first reached Poland in 1550 and the nobles latched on to the idea of using the civilian population - and giving them some power in their religious rights - as a lever to expand their own power. Two leading nobles (Prince Radziwill the Black and John a Lasco) actively helped the spread of Calvinism as did two kings (Stephen II and Stephen Bathory). Regardless of this, Calvinism did not spread far. Why ?
Most Poles did not speak German and therefore language remained a major stumbling block as most Calvinist preachers did not speak Polish and could not communicate with the population. Another problem was that numerous Protestant religions already existed in Poland (Bohemian Brethren, Anabaptists, Unitarians etc.) and those who might be won away from the Catholic Church had already been so.
In 1573 in the Confederation of Warsaw, both Catholics and Protestants agreed to make religious toleration part of the constitution to be sworn by each succeeding king. But the division among the Protestants meant that the Catholic Church dominated the country and her nickname at this time was the "Spain of the north".
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Weight Room No Longer Off-Limits to Kids
Strength training is an important part of physical conditioning for adults, along with aerobic exercise and stretching for flexibility. But what can—or should—kids do when it comes to strength training?
Although pediatric experts once thought that children should not train with weights, that attitude has changed. The American Academy of Pediatrics and the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) now say that strength training is fine for kids, as long as they are supervised and don't try to lift too much weight.
Strength training, when done properly, builds muscle strength, improves athletic performance and can help young athletes avoid injuries. It also builds bone density, strengthens ligaments and tendons, and can help a child who is overweight lose extra pounds.
A child who is strength training can use free weights, his or her own body weight, fitness machines, or devices such as elastic bands.
Unlike weight lifting and power lifting, which are competitive sports that emphasize lifting heavy weights, strength training focuses on using lighter weights through many repetitions. Children should be discouraged from engaging in weight lifting or power lifting, the ACSM says. Children also should avoid bodybuilding, which focuses on building muscle mass, because their muscles will not increase in size until after puberty.
A child of 5 or 6 may be able to do exercises that use the body's own weight, such as push-ups and sit-ups. These should be introduced only when the child is old enough to follow directions and use proper form. A child of 7 or 8 may be old enough to use free weights, as long as he or she knows to be careful with them and lifts them safely under supervision.
A general rule about readiness for strength training says that when a child is old enough to participate in organized sports, then he or she probably is also old enough to begin training with weights.
A key part of any strength training program for children is enjoyment. Kids should have fun doing the exercises, should be given breaks in between the exercises, as well as time to warm up and cool down.
One reason that doctors discouraged children from lifting weights in the past was a concern that kids' growing bones would be damaged. The incidence of growth plate fractures have not been reported in programs designed by experts with appropriate supervision.
Going by the guidelines
The ACSM offers these suggestions for a safe strength training program for children:
Although the long-term goals of a strength training program may be performance enhancement and injury reduction, the primary focus should be skill development and having fun.
Strength training can be done two to three times a week, but with at least one day of rest between sessions.
The program should include all major muscle groups and go through a full range of motion.
Each session should begin with a warm-up and end with a cool-down.
A typical program might have one set of 10 to 15 repetitions for six to eight different exercises.
A trainer or coach should be present at each session to ensure that the child is following proper form and to act as a spotter.
The workouts should be varied so the child doesn't become bored with the same drill of exercises each time.
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2013-06-20T09:10:57Z
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Like sea stars, brittle stars and basket stars have (in most species) five arms (which in some species are highly branched). But the arms of brittle stars and basket stars differ from those of star fish in that their central disk is easily distinguished from their arms (in starfish, the arms blend with the central disk such that it is difficult to see exactly where the two meet).
Brittle stars are so named because their arms can only move side to side and not up and down. If their arm is forced either up or down, it breaks. The lateral arm movements used by brittle stars and basket stars enables them to crawl across the substrate or cling to surfaces. There are about 2000 species of brittle stars and basket stars and they exhibit a range of feeding methods from filter feeding to scavenging to predation.
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Stories to tell about cultural heritage
Several years ago, while traveling in the United Kingdom, I had the opportunity to test a long-held question of mine. Depending on the interpreter, how differently can cultural heritage be interpreted? While at a castle in Cardiff, Wales, I decided to find out by following the same one-hour tour led by two different guides.
Indeed, it was like two different stories. I assume they used the same basic guidebook with identical facts about the castle’s architecture, history, people and events, but while one offered a lecture, the other guide presented a compelling drama.
At another ancient place, the interpreter was very creative and fun. He assigned the participants to play historic characters at the site of a tragedy. One member of our group played the city mayor, who had a beautiful daughter. Another man played her courtier. Ultimately, everyone’s character died in a (simulated) scene of terrible bloodshed. From my vantage point, it was impressive but hard to take seriously.
``Heritage interpretation” refers to conveying information about, or explaining, the nature, significance and purpose of historical, natural or cultural resources, objects, sites and phenomena using personal or non-personal methods.
The revered ``Father of Heritage Interpretation,” Freeman Tilden, defined interpretation as "any communication process designed to reveal meanings and relationships of cultural and natural heritage to the public, through first-hand involvement with an object, artifact, landscape or site."
Koreans, however, rarely understand the English term. Almost invariably, the term reminds people of a verbal translator. And yet, the Korean translation is now widely used and has evolved to include terms like ``cultural interpreter,” ``tourism interpreter,” ``forest interpreter,” ``village interpreter” and even ``herb interpreter.”
I founded the Korea Heritage Education Institute with some colleagues in 2010. Among our goals are the digitization of cultural heritage content and the popularization and globalization of interpretation. By popularization, we want to bring alive the stories of ordinary people’s lives found in history textbooks. Through globalization, we hope to make the entire presentation mutually respectful and easier to understand.
Translating Korean heritage interpretation into English is a difficult and sometimes impossible process. Imagine the challenge of turning a dry history textbook into an entertaining, easy-to-understand story for an ordinary (sometimes uninterested) foreign audience.
What's more, English language interpretation in Korea runs into many issues. Chief among them is Romanization. Is the main palace of the Joseon Kingdom, ``Gyeongbokgung” or ``Gyeongbok Palace?” Is Seoul Fortress’s main southern entrance Romanized as ``Great South Gate,” ``Sungnyemun” or ``Sungnye Gate?”
Of course, there are also differences in values, ways of presentation and a myriad of language issues. For example, how much significance does a former king have in defining Korea’s cultural heritage? Today, a place where he stopped briefly while fleeing from a 16th century Japanese invasion is typically considered a ``sacred” place. Is it really so meaningful? Would it also be significant if he picked up two beautiful girls as his concubines during his short sojourn? Once upon a time, the king’s every act was deemed holy, but no more.
``Atrocity interpretation” is another tricky issue. How should historic antagonisms be conveyed to visitors? How do we describe the brutal murder of Empress Myeongseong in 1895 by the Japanese? How do we explain the tragic story of Princess Deoghye, daughter of Emperor Gojong (r. 1863-1897), who was coerced to live in Japan and marry a grandson of the ruler of Tsushima, a small island that lies just 49 kilometers from Busan? Ultimately, we risk instilling antagonism onto our next generation. In the case of Dokdo, I imagine Japanese youngsters on the other side of the East Sea, who may think that Korea is occupying their land, despite never having fought a war to occupy the rocky islets.
Even if these questions are answered, new ones will inevitably arise. For example, a history professor at the University of Pennsylvania in the U.S. analyzed some of the problems of Korean-made educational videos. Specifically, he selected episodes of the popular, KBS-produced series, Yŏksa sŭp’esyŏl (“History Special”), for the Korea Foundation, which included English subtitles.
He writes, ``Effective presentation of such content to an English-language viewership depends heavily on the quality of English subtitles. The episode offers generally good English-language access to its verbal content though some translations clearly reveal that the production team had not consulted someone familiar with standard translated Korean studies terminology.”
He continued, ``The solution may be in finding greater balance, objectivity, and context so that English-language viewers would find the content more appealing and interpretations more persuasive. This could entail, among others, interviewing more non-Korean scholars, consulting English-speaking experts during the production, and even using non-Korean directors and producers.”
The professor’s remarks suggest something important about heritage interpretation. Namely, that accurate and technically proficient content alone is insufficient. For example, he says that foreign experts may be necessary to convey an international consensus on Korean history for foreign viewers. Perhaps, but it makes me wonder. Would he also recommend using Korean scholars to provide context and objectivity about American and European history for Korean viewers?
The writer is the chairwoman of the Korea Heritage Education Institute (K*Heritage). Her email address is Heritagekorea21@gmail.com.
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TB kills almost 2 million people a year worldwide, and is increasingly becoming resistant to the antibiotics used to treat it, but there are few new drugs in the pipeline. Doxycycline was introduced in 1967 and is used to treat a wide range of bacterial infections, but until now has not been recognized as effective against TB. The new study, published in the American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, suggests that doxycycline might stop the bacteria from growing and also prevent the disease from damaging the lungs.
Last year, researchers at Imperial College London discovered that TB increases the production of an enzyme called MMP-1, and that this enzyme is responsible for destroying lung tissue.
Now they have found that doxycycline suppresses the production of the tissue-destroying enzyme in TB-infected human cells. They also found that doxycycline directly inhibits the growth of the bacteria in guinea pigs – a surprising result since the drug has been widely used as an antibiotic for over 40 years but has not been considered effective against TB.
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2013-05-25T13:43:00Z
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The following Saber Exercise, prepared by Second Lieutenant George S. Patton, Jr., Fifteenth Cavalry, Master of the Sword at the Mounted Service School, and revised by the Cavalry Board, is approved and issued for the information and government of the Regular Army and the Organized Militia of the United States.
1. For military purposes the nomenclature of the saber is as follows; Blade and hilt.
The blade is divided into the forté, the 18 inches nearest the hilt; and the point, the rest of the blade. The saber, Model 1913, is two-edged. All the front edge, and half the back edge, is sharp, so that it may be more easily withdrawn from a body, and also, on rare occasions, used to cut. Throughout the text the word edge when used alone will mean front edge.
The hilt is divided into the guard, which protects the hand; the grip, which the hand holds, and the pommel, the lower end of the grip, used to strike with in close fight.
2. The saber is solely a weapon of offense and is used in conjunction with the other offensive weapon, the horse, In all the training, the idea of speed must be conserved. No direct parries are taught, because at the completion of a parry the enemy is already beyond reach of an attack. The surest parry is a disabled opponent.
In the charge and in the melee, the trooper must remember that on the speed of his horse in attack, and on his own offensive spirit, rest nine-tenths of his chances of success.
3. Instruction is divided into: Instruction on foot, and Instruction mounted.
Instruction on foot teaches the mechanism of the use of the saber without embarrassing the trooper with the control of a horse. It's chief purpose is to increase the reach, teach accuracy and quickness, and above all, to make the thrust instinctive.
4. (a) The normal guard; the other guards (four). Practice in assuming the various guards.
(b) The five points (thrusts). Practice in pointing.
(c) Thrusts of precision against instructor.
(d) Increase of distance so as to cause the trooper to take the lunge naturally.
(e) The lung at the right moment.
(f) Exercises to develop the initiative of the trooper.
(g) Replying to attack.
(h) Combat exercises.
(i) Instruction in parrying the lance.
After the trooper, using the exercise saber, has mastered (a) to (d), the last part of the instruction each day should be with the regulation saber, making points and lunges at command, thus developing the muscles and making the trooper familiar with his weapon.
5. Grasping the saber. Grasp the grip with all the fingers of the hand, the thumb extending along the back of the grip so as to occupy the lower half of the thumb groove, i.e., the part nearest the pommel. If the thumb occupies the entire groove it will be so near the guard that it may be bruised if the point encounters a strong resistance.
(a) The guards.
6. The normal guard, or guard to the right front. At the command GUARD, carry the right foot about 24 inches to the right and bend the knees to simulate the position mounted. Incline the body to the front from the waist (not the hips). Let the blade fall to the front to a position near the horizontal, elbow well away from the body, forearm and saber forming one straight line, edge of the blade to the right, point at height of adversary's breast, at the same time placing the left hand, closed, 6 inches in front of the belt buckle to simulate the position of the bridle hand. This is the position of guard, dismounted. It is usually taught from the carry, but may be assumed from any position at the command guard. The other guard positions are taught from the normal guard.
In all guards, lunges, etc., the left hand should be kept steady and in place to as to form the habit of not jerking the horse's mouth when exercising mounted.
7. 1. Left front, 2. GUARD. Carry the right hand to the left so that it is above and slightly in front of the left hand. The saber is held as before except that the wrist is bent slightly to the right so as to decrease the angle between the blade and the neck of the horse. If the wrist is not bent the blade points too much to the left.
In all movements of the saber from one side to the other raise the saber slightly when passing over the horse's head so as not to scare him. This movement should be insisted on dismounted so as to form the habit.
8. 1. Right, 2. GUARD. Carry the hand, elbow bent and well away from the body, 90 degrees to the right, forearm and blade nearly horizontal and pointing to the right, point at height of breast of adversary, edge to the rear, finger nails down, head and eyes to the right or in the direction of the point; at the same time straighten the body on the hips so that, if mounted, the trooper would be sitting erect.
9. 1. Left, 2. GUARD. Carry the hand in front of the left breast, fingernails down, elbow well away from the body, forearm and blade nearly horizontal and pointing to the left, point at height of adversary, edge to the front, head and eyes in the direction of the point; at the same time straighten the body on the hips so that, if mounted, the trooper would sit erect.
10. 1. Right rear, 2. GUARD. Carry the hand well to the right rear, fingernails down, blade pointing downward making an angle of about 45 degrees with the ground, body erect and twisted to the right rear at the waist, head and eyes in the direction of the point.
11. In teaching the guards, as in all subsequent instruction, care must be exercised not to teach the movements "by the numbers," as it has been in great measure due to this tendency that, with the former regulations, the idea of the saber as a weapon largely disappeared from the mind of the trooper.
The manual of the saber (that is, the carry, present, etc.) is the only part that should be exact. The guards, lunges, etc., with the saber are to it what range practice is to the rifle. Results are what count, not useless uniformity at drill. This does not mean that details should be slighted, but it does mean that there should be no idea of cadence.
When the various positions of guard, as taught from the normal guard, have been mastered, they should be taken from any guard, from rest, or from any position whatever at the appropriate command.
(b) The points.
12. Being on guard: 1. Right front, 2. POINT. Without moving the body extend the saber in the direction in which it is pointing with maximum force and rapidity, rotating the wrist slightly to the left at the same time, so that edge will be up and to the right; resume the guard at once. In drawing back the hand, rotate the wrist to the right until the fingernails are up; when the guard is reached, turn the fingernails down and resume guard as prescribed. The object of this rotation is to give a more secure hold in withdrawing the saber from a body. It must be insisted upon at all times in points and lunges to the right front and in charge saber.
13. Being on guard to the left front: 1. Left front, 2. POINT. Extend the saber in the direction in which it is pointing with maximum force and rapidity, rotating the hand to the left so that the edge of the blade is up; twist the body slightly to the left at the waist; resume the guard at once. Care must be taken not to move the bridle hand.
14. Being on guard to the right: 1. Right, 2. POINT. Without moving the body, extend the saber to the right with maximum force and rapidity; resume the guard at once.
15. Being on guard to the left: 1. Left, 2. POINT. Extend the saber in the direction in which it is pointing with maximum force and rapidity, rotating the wrist to the rear so that the edge of the extended blade will be up; twist the body slightly to the left at the waist; resume the guard at once. Do not derange the bridle hand.
16. Being on guard to the right rear: 1. Right rear, 2. POINT. Raise the hand until the forearm and blade are nearly horizontal; then extend the arm to the right rear with maximum force and rapidity, rotating the wrist to the right at the same time, so that when the full extension is reached toe fingernails will be up and the edge of the blade to the right; resume the guard at once.
A momentary pause at the horizontal position is necessary in order to get the saber in the desired direction.
17. The points are explained from their respective guards for simplicity. When they have been mastered they should be executed from any other guard as well as from the appropriate one; also two or more points should be made at one command. Examples, being in any guard: 1. Right front and left front; or, 1. Right front and right, or etc., 2. POINT. Point in the directions named with the utmost rapidity and then return to the guard from which the movement started. Or, being in any guard: 1. Right front (left front, or right), 2. Two times, 3. POINT. Point twice in the direction named and resume the guard from which the movement started.
Example of going from one guard to a different point: Being on guard to the left front, 1. Right front, 2. POINT. Lift the saber so as not to strike the horse's head and execute right front point, merely sliding through the normal guard and returning from the extension to the left front guard by the shortest line.
In all the points the eye follows the point.
(c) Thrusts of precision.
18. The trooper uses an exercise saber. The instructor wearing a plastron and mask, but without a saber, approaches him on his right front and causes him to take the position of guard. The instructor verifies the position accurately and in the same way causes him to take the other four guards. He next moves around the trooper, causing the latter to follow him with his point, thus passing naturally from one guard to another.
In this and in all succeeding exercises where men oppose each other dismounted, care must be taken that they do not exactly face each other when practicing combat to the front. If mounted this would be impossible as horses will not run into each other head-on if they can avoid it. Hence if "A," facing north, is attacked by "B," to the right front, "B" will face south, and a zone of indefinite length running from north to south and at least one foot wide will separate, at all times, the lines of advance of the right feet of the combatants.
If "A" is attacked by "B" to the right, they would face as above, but the separating zone would be wider and "B" would be opposite "A."
Similar conventions must be maintained in attacks from left front and left, and from the right rear.
Conditions where men cross each other diagonally will arise in combat and may be practiced mounted; but, dismounted, they cannot be even approximately represented.
Also, in combat troopers should ride down opponents, striking them head-on in the flank, but this cannot be practiced.
When the trooper has gone through all the guards accurately the instructor will begin at the right front, placing himself in the position described and at such a distance the trooper may reach him easily. He will indicate with his finger various places on his body, give the command POINT, and cause the trooper to point rapidly at them and resume the guard quickly each time. He will not advance to a new guard until the trooper is accurate in the one he is in.
This same practice should be carried on with the service sabers against a bag of bran or sand fixed at the height of a man's chest, the instructor using a wire circle 3 inches in diameter on the end of a stick to indicate the spot and cause the trooper to point through it.
(d) Practice with increased distance.
19. When the trooper is accurate at (c) the instructor directs him to take the position of guard and to point at him, gradually increasing the distance to that the trooper must lean farther and farther to the front to touch him.
As the trooper extends his arm and body to the utmost he should rotate his hand to the left so that when fully extended the edge of the saber will be up and the fingernails to the right. The blade should be at the height of the eye, the line of sight parallel to the direction of the blade. The body should be bent forward so as to be nearly horizontal, the trooper making every effort to reach as far to the front as possible.
This is the position of Lunge to the right front, also the position of Charge Saber.
20. Being at any guard: 1. To the right front, 2. LUNGE. The above position is taken, making the extension with maximum force and rapidity and returning to the guard at once.
At the command: 1. Charge, 2. SABER, the above position is taken and held until changed by some appropriate command, such as: Guard, Carry Saber, etc. In returning to any guard or other position from the right front lunge or charge saber, the same rotation of the wrist to the right is made as in returning from the right front point.
21. The instructor now causes the extension to the left front to be taken in the same way. When the extension is completed, the blade should be at the height of the eye and parallel to the line of sight, the edge of the blade up and slightly to the left; the body bent well to the left front so as to be nearly horizontal, left shoulder carried forcibly to the rear so as to be covered by the extended saber. It is taken from any guard at the command: l. To the left front, 2. LUNGE.
22. The instructor causes the lunges to the right and left to be taken in the same way. These two lunges differ only from the corresponding points in having the foot on the side away from the lunge lifted slightly, so as to give the maximum reach, and the foot on the side of the lunge turned slightly out as would naturally be the case in the same lunge mounted. They are taken from any guard at the command: 1. To the right (left), 2. LUNGE.
23. The lunge to the right rear cannot be taken gradually on foot. Being at the right rear guard: 1. To the right rear, 2. LUNGE. Cause the trooper to raise the forearm and blade to the horizontal, as in the right rear point, and then to extend the saber forcibly to the rear, rotating the hand during the extension, so that at it's completion, fingernails will be up and edge to the right (outside); and at the same time keep the eyes to the rear and bend the body vigorously to the rear from the hips. This lunge may be executed from any guard after it is mastered.
(e) The lunge at the right moment.
24. In the charge the trooper is merely a projectile, the saber it's point. He is a unit in a line rushing on the enemy with the one idea of riding him down and transfixing him with his rigid saber, held at the position of charge saber. In the mêlée, the trooper still goes at speed, riding down his opponent, but here the ranks are broken, and both he and his opponent have more room. In this case should he maintain the position of charge saber, he would have less control of his horse and might easily be attacked from either flank or from the rear, and he would be helpless except against attack in front. Hence, he takes the position of guard toward his nearest enemy, crouching slightly in his saddle and alive to all possible attacks. In this alert position he gallops on his adversary and makes a lunge to the right front or left front when he estimates that the point of his saber will reach it's full extension about 6 inches before touching the breast of his adversary. If the trooper does this accurately his enemy will have no time to parry and the speed of approach of the two horses will instantly transfix him. This is called the thrust at the right moment.
25. In teaching this the trooper and instructor face each other at the guard to the right (left) front. The instructor causes the trooper to lunge at him at command: First, too soon, thus losing the advantage of his alert position by lunging at too early a moment; then too late, thus sacrificing his reach and running the danger of letting his adversary beat him to the touch; then at the right moment, so that the saber will reach the extended position when the instructor is about 6 inches from it's point. When the trooper understands what the right moment is, the practice should be continued with the trooper using his own judgment as to when to lunge. This exercise should be practiced to the right front and left front, and much less frequently to the right rear, in the following sequence: Trooper stationary, instructor walking; trooper stationary, instructor at double time; trooper walking, instructor stationary; trooper at double time, instructor stationary; both walking; and both at double time. This exercise is very important.
(f) Exercises to develop initiative.
26. As the trooper is unaccustomed to the use of the saber, should he fail to touch on his first attempt, he will often stay in the position of lunge staring at his enemy while the latter either sticks him or escapes. To overcome this tendency and to develop initiative, commence as in the exercise of the lunge to the right moment, but have the instructor avoid the first lunge by ducking, swaying his body, or suddenly changing his direction and continuing his course either toward or past the trooper. The latter must immediately resume the guard and instantly lunge or point at his adversary in new directions until he has touched him or until he is out of reach. No matter how often he may have to try, he must come to a guard after each attempt, to assure an accurate aim and sufficient "punch" to stick his opponent. In this case the necessity of the lunges to the right and left becomes apparent.
These exercises are important and should be practiced in the same sequence as under (e).
(g) Replying to attack.
27. Up to this point the instructor has not carried a saber. In order to five the trooper confidence and to teach him to disregard everything and lunge at the body of his adversary, the instructor now takes a saber and causes the trooper to reply to attacks.
The trooper comes on guard to the right (left) front; the instructor attacks him, making faulty attacks, such as cuts, high points, low points, or inaccurate points. To all of these he causes the trooper to reply with a lunge at the right moment, disregarding the saber of the instructor and fixing his full attention on touching him in the body with his point. Should he in so doing encounter the saber of the instructor, he will, simply by the power of his extension, force it to the outside and go on to the touch.
28. In this exercise two things require special attention:
1st; it is a serious error to seek the blade of the adversary instead of disregarding it and seeking the touch, brushing the blade aside as a secondary consideration should it interfere. There is a strong tendency toward this seeking of the blade among men who have fenced under the old rules. It must be prohibited. On foot, at the walk, it is quite possible to make this sort of a parry and still have time to touch; but, mounted, at a gallop, a man who seeks the blade of his foe and parries it may escape uninjured, but so will the other man. The speed of the horses is such that the enemy will be out of reach before the trooper can make an effective lunge at him, whereas if he disregards the other's saber and lunges at his body, he will, in so doing, force his adversary's saber aside and transfix him. Moreover, the very idea of seeking the saber so as to parry it is taking a defensive frame of mind and is contrary to offensive cavalry spirit.
2nd; The instructor who attacks with the cut must carefully avoid hitting the trooper after he had himself been touched. With the exercise saber the touch with the point is hardly perceptible and would not weaken the instructor's cut. In combat, however, the difference in time between a touch with the point and a cut with the adverse edge will usually be sufficient for the spasmodic contraction caused by the entrance of the point to render the cut ineffective. If the instructor disregards this fact, he will get the trooper to parrying, and spoil him as an offensive swordsman. The same is true if the instructor, taking advantage of his superior skill, continually touches the trooper with the point; he will ruin his confidence. These exercises are to instruct the man, not to glorify the instructor. They should be carried on in the same sequence as the exercises under (e) and (f).
(h) Combat exercises.
29. In teaching the combat dismounted, every effort must be made to preserve the idea of combat mounted. The troopers must move either on straight lines or large curves; and they must never halt during an attack.
In dismounted work it is not permitted to give any of the exercises of attack or of combat from the position of charge saber, for the charge is an extended position deriving all it's great effect from the momentum of the horse. On foot it is impossible to impart this momentum, hence the use of the charging position dismounted would produce incorrect ideas. The position of charge saber should be learned accurately on foot; and then, when mounted exercises are begun, the charge assumes it's true place and should be practiced as much as all the guard positions combined. This must be carefully noted or else, the charge being less interesting, will be slighted.
30. First Exercise. Place the trooper on guard. Place around him three assistant instructors, one to the right front, one to the left front, and one to the right rear, each at a distance of 25 feet from the trooper (fig. 2).
The instructor takes his place to the left rear where the trooper cannot see him. He then signals for first one and then another of the assistants to attack the trooper, indicating by a prearranged signal whether they are to use a cut or a thrust.
The trooper replies in all cases with a lunge at the right moment, care being taken that he does not shorten his extension. As the trooper becomes accustomed to rapid changes of guard the instructor may decrease the intervals between attacks and cause the assistants to attack at double time.
In order to preserve the trooper's confidence, the attacks of the assistants should usually be faulty, especially at first. The attacks must never be so difficult or rapid that the trooper cannot reply to them, as this is a situation that could not occur in combat owing to the unruliness of excited horses, and to represent it on foot would destroy the trooper's confidence. The men acting as assistants must either be trained assistants or, if such are not available, trustworthy noncommissioned officers who will enter into the spirit of the exercise.
31. Second Exercise. Place the trooper on guard. Place two columns of assistants to face him, the head of one column to his right front, the other to his left front (fig. 3).
At the command of the instructor the two columns advance on the trooper at the gait indicated (slow walk, fast walk, or double time), keeping their relative positions and attacking the trooper successively with various attacks.
These attacks may be prearranged by the instructor at first, and later left to the discretion of the assistants. The trooper in all cases replies to the attacks with lunges at the right moment either to the right or left front. Care must be taken that the assistants do not get out of position so that two attack at once. They must stay as in the diagram so as to attack successively. The same cautions apply to this as to the first exercise. Later the exercise should be conducted in the same sequence as under (e) and (f).
(i) Parrying the lance
32. In attacking a lancer, rapid approach is even more important than against a swordsman. The only moment of danger is when the point of the lance comes within the first reach of the fully extended saber. If, at that moment, the swordsman lunges, forcing the lance to the outside, he is safe and the lancer is at his mercy. The same is true of the charging position, which is a lunge, but as the effect cannot be seen dismounted, it will be explained mounted.
To teach the swordsman to meet a lancer, place the trooper on guard and have a graduate instructor armed with a dummy lance approach him from the right front. As soon as the point of the lance comes within the utmost limit of his reach the trooper should lunge to the front, forcing the lance to the outside and, letting his saber slide the length of the shaft, aim at the body of the lancer. The same exercise is repeated to the left front. A lancer has more control of his weapon to the left front, hence whenever possible he should be attacked on his right front. Exercises with the lance should be taught only by graduate instructors trained in it's use.
33. There is no guard taught to the left rear, for if a trooper is attacked from that direction his arm is in the position giving the least reach, while his opponent has the longest reach possible. Hence, whenever attacked from the left rear, incline slightly to the left, then circle to the right on a large radius so as to bring the pursuer to the right rear or right. A trooper should occasionally be attacked from the left rear and then always be required to circle as described. He should attack instructors on their left rear so as to fully appreciate the advantages of that position. Against a lancer the case is different. His left rear is a much stronger position for him than his right rear, so he should be attacked on his right rear.
General Plan of Mounted Instruction.
34. (a) Without arms, and then with arms, at a halt, require the troopers to take all the positions of guard and to make all the lunges, extending slowly.
(b) Make lunges from various guards at command at the walk, trot, and school gallop. Conduct the exercises near dummies to accustom the horses to them.
(c) Accustom the horses to the sight and sound of sabers.
(d) Pass among dummies with sabers.
(e) Preliminary work against dummies.
(f) Varied work against dummies.
(g) Exercise in pursuit.
(h) Exercises in combat.
Application of General Plan of Mounted Instruction.
35. Being mounted and in any position: GUARD. Instantly assume the position of guard as explained in the instruction dismounted, drawing the saber if not already drawn.
Being mounted and in any position: CHARGE SABER. Assume and hold the position of lunge to the right front, at the same time taking the gallop straight to the front unless some other gait and direction are indicated. At the command guard, resume the normal guard. In returning to the guard from charge saber or from the lunge to the right front, the rotation of the wrist to the right is as described in point to the right front. When at charge saber and difficult going is encountered, resume the guard, taking charge saber again when the ground permits.
Never jerk the horse's mouth while making any of the movements with the saber.
(a). Exercises without arms; exercises with arms, at a halt.
36. The troopers being mounted, without arms, and then with arms, in any suitable extended formation at a halt, cause them to take the various guards they have learned dismounted, using the same commands. The general principles of the dismounted instruction apply.
GUARD. Thrust the feet home in the stirrups and crouch slightly in the saddle, bending forward from the waist. The left hand, near the base of the neck, grasps the reins so as to feel the horse's mouth. Otherwise as explained dismounted.
1. Left front, 2. GUARD. Make the change of guard as described dismounted.
1. Right (or left), 2. GUARD. The toe on the side of the guard naturally turns out a little, otherwise the position is as described dismounted.
1. Right rear, 2. GUARD. The right hand, nails down, is rested on the cantle near the center, or may be held in the air near this position; otherwise as explained dismounted. This guard will only be taken in cases of emergency. It is always preferable to circle and receive the attacker on the right or right front.
37. The points and lunges are executed as has been explained dismounted. Care must be taken that the legs remain in place and do not fly to the rear. In making the extension in the lunges to the front and in charge saber, the left hand supports part of the weight on the neck of the horse, and the left forearm rests on the horse's left shoulder.
The positions are simple and natural and can be best understood by consulting the figures.
The lunges should be made very slowly at first, so as not to frighten the horses; when the horses have become accustomed to the movements, snap and vigor must be insisted on.
When using the lunge to the rear in combat, the only way for the man in front to reach his pursuer suddenly to attack him, is to check his horse quickly at the moment of making his lunge to the rear. To do this he closes his legs forcibly behind the girth and increases the pull on the reins, momentarily supporting his weight by them as he lunges and resumes the guard.
At drill, however, the trooper does not make this sudden half halt, on account of the danger of punishing the horse's mouth, but on executing the lunge to the rear allows the reins to slip through the fingers of the left hand, supporting himself by these fingers on the pommel of the saddle.
(b) Guards, points, and lunges at the various gaits.
38. When lunges are first made on a horse he will frequently swerve from his course or change his gait. These tendencies must be overcome.
Place the troopers in formations such as columns of troopers on a circle or on the track with a distance of two horse lengths between horses. Or, being in column of troopers on the track, as the head of the column crosses the short end of the rectangle, have the leading three or four troopers move by the flank straight down the length of the rectangle, each succeeding three or four to follow the first.
Being in such formation commence at the walk and cause the troopers to execute guards, points, lunges, and charge saber at command. See that full and accurate extensions are made and that horses do not change gait or direction. Do not increase gait until troopers and horses go well. Combat the tendency to make only partial extensions. Have charge saber held for considerable periods. The work should be carried on in the vicinity of dummies so that the horses may gradually become used to them.
(c) To accustom the horse to the saber.
39. When handling horses that have not become used to the sight of the saber at drill, it is best to use the exercise saber. Let the trooper carry it and execute the movements under (b) at a walk.
Arrange the troopers with intervals in two parallel lines and cause them to advance as if to pass through the intervals, first at guard and later at charge saber. When the troopers are opposite each other have them halt and raise their sabers, all the while soothing their horses; then resume the guard and continue the march.
When the horses cease being excited, have the troopers strike the flats of their exercise sabers together as they halt opposite each other, and then pass on. Later, strike sabers without halting.
Place the troopers on concentric circles on opposite hands and have them strike the flats of their sabers as they pass.
Finally, lines of troopers with intervals should pass through each other at a gallop, striking their exercise sabers as they pass, exciting the horses as little as possible.
(d) Passing among dummies.
40. Dummies should be movable and not always set up in the same place.
Arrange five or six dummies on a rectangle at varied intervals. Have the instructor on a trained horse lead the column of troopers through the dummies at all gaits. When the horses go fairly well, the troopers should begin thrusting at the dummies and striking their sabers against the supports. Put the nervous horses at the rear of the column.
(e) Preliminary work against dummies.
41. Place the dummies in a row with about 10 yard intervals. Have the troopers attack them to the right front in the position of charge saber, at the walk, trot, and school gallop. Insist that the trooper does not flinch, but keeps his full extension until the point has entered the dummy, and the instantly withdraws it and assumes guard with the rotation to the right described in point to the right front. When the trooper is proficient, place a second row of dummies 10 yards behind the first and cause the troopers to attack the first row as before and the second from guard. In the second attack be sure that they make full lunges at the right moment and not too late, as is the usual tendency. After both attacks the guard must be instantly resumed.
There is no trouble in withdrawing the saber from dummies in lunges to the right and left. After charge saber or lunge to the right front, the saber will usually have penetrated deeply. The trooper in withdrawing it should give a decided pull to the rear as he rotates his wrist to the right. This does not remove the saber, but the movement tightens the muscles of the forearm and prevents the wrist from bending and being hurt. There must be no thought of withdrawing the saber until it has gone well home in the dummy.
After lunge to the left front there is a tendency to let the hand come over the head in withdrawing the saber. This is dangerous, as a slip may cut the face. As soon as the blade has gone well home force the hand down, keeping the elbow stiff, straighten the body to the guard position, at the same time the back of the hand will come against the body near the belt and the movement of the horse will easily withdraw the saber.
Place a hurdle or low fence so as to form a barrier between the trooper and the dummy and about 5 feet from the dummy. Cause the trooper at guard to pass this on his right hand and lunge to the right as he passes, then turn and taking guard to the left front, lunge to the left front as he passes. The only use of the barrier is to keep the troopers from riding too close to the dummy; if this can be done without the barrier, the latter may be omitted.
(f) Varied work against dummies.
42. The preceding exercises should be practiced until the trooper has accuracy and confidence. As the charge is the chief feature of combat, the first dummy should always be attacked from the charge saber. If a trooper gets careless or flinches, he must go back to (e).
The object of the following exercises is to simulate combat, to develop bold riding, and increase confidence. The exercises given below are examples of what may be done; the difficulty must be proportionate to the ability of the trooper as a horseman.
It must be remembered that in all attacks against a dummy from charge saber, the trooper is supposed to be in the front rank of a line charging in close order. His horse is jammed in the press of horses and can only move to the front. If a horse at drill continually avoids a dummy when his rider is at the charge, he should be put in a chute or in some other way made to move straight to the front. When the dummies are attacked from a guard position the trooper is supposed to be in a melee or in line in extended formation. When attacking from guard to the right front or left front the lunge must always be at the right moment; there must be no short lunges or poking. The saber is fully extended in time for the speed of the horse to do the penetrating. In lunges or points to the right or left it is, on the other hand, the power of the man, not the speed of the horse, which causes penetration. Against infantry in line use the charge saber and accentuate the leaning to the front. Against broken infantry or men lying down attack from the guard.
First example. Attack No. 1 at charge saber, then, still keeping the gallop, attack the other four dummies in any suitable order as long as two are attacked to the right or right front and two to the left or left front.
Second example. Attack dummy No.1 at charge saber, No.2 with a lunge to the left front, No. 3 with a lunge to the left, No. 4 with a lunge to the right, No. 5 with a lunge to the left front, and No. 6 (a prone figure) with a lunge to the right front low.
Third Example. Jump the hurdle at the guard, attack dummy No.1 at charge saber, No. with a lunge to the right; jump the second hurdle at the guard, attacking No. 3 to the left while in the air; take a broad jump, or two hurdles fixed to simulate one, and attack No. 4 to the right front in the air.
These examples can be practiced either in a hall or on the drill ground. In addition, dummies may be made of sacks filled with straw and either tied to posts or hung from trees and placed on varied ground. Dummies must always be attacked at the gallop and hence not placed where this gait is impossible.
(g) Exercise in pursuit.
43. This exercise should be carried on in a riding hall, or in some place with clearly marked limits, so that the pursued will have to stay within these limits and hence dodge. Besides being an exercise in riding and handling the horse, it is also most excellent in teaching a man to keep his left rear guard covered.
Example. Fasten a knot of ribbon or paper to the left shoulder of a trooper. Give him a start of a few yards and then have a second man pursue him and try to snatch the ribbon. If, at the end of two minutes, the ribbon is still secure, send out a second man and let the two continue the chase for an additional minute. Obstacles should be placed to aid the trooper in dodging, and at the same time practice him in jumping.
(h) Exercise in combat.
44. Only troopers who have shown marked proficiency in all the previous exercises, and who in addition have sufficient intelligence and discipline to abide absolutely by the rules, should be allowed to participate in this exercise. And even with these precautions the exercise has such a tendency to make men slow up and to frighten horses that it should not be frequently indulged in, and never without an officer as judge.
Individual Combat. Place two troopers armed with masks and exercise sabers facing each other at a distance of 50 yards. At a signal they approach each other at the gallop in the position of guard. Each tries to touch. When one touch is made, or at the end of 30 seconds if no touch is made, a signal is given and the bout stopped. If the bout is part of a competition the scoring is as follows:
Plus one for the man making the touch.
Minus one for the man touched.
If both touches occur at the same moment the man who in the opinion of the judge makes the most serious touch is given plus one and the other man minus one.
If in the above case both touches are of equal value each man is given zero.
If no touch is made in the time allowed each is given minus one.
When one man clearly runs away and the other is unable to catch him, the man who runs is given minus one, the other zero.
Each organization must enter the same number of contestants; the one with the largest algebraic sum at the end wins. Or the combat can be to determine individual championship, in which case each contestant must fight every other contestant; the one losing the smallest number of bouts wins. If several lose the same number they must fight off the tie.
Combat by Groups. Place two groups of four troopers each in line with 6 yard intervals facing each other 50 yards apart. At a signal the troopers gallop toward each other in the position of guard, each trooper passing to the right of the one facing him. When the lines have passed the troopers turn about individually and attack any one of the opponents they please. The signal is given and the bout stops when all the members of one group have been touched, or at the end of one minute.
The following rules must be observed:
1. A man who is fairly touched must hold up his saber and gallop from the enclosure.
2. A man must not touch another if he himself is touched.
3. A man striking his own or another horse is counted as touched.
4. A man using the edge is counted as touched.
5. A man going slower than a gallop or who is forced from the enclosure is counted as touched.
6. A man guilty of dangerous riding is counted as touched.
7. The individual combat should be conducted in some sort of marked off space 50 yards square; the combat by groups in a similar enclosure.
The above seven rules apply to both individual combat and combat by groups.
If the combat by groups is part of a competition the following rules for scoring hold:
That side wins which has the most men left at the end of a minute. It is scored plus one, the losing side minus one.
If each side loses the same number of men, the one first losing them is scored minus one and the other plus one.
If each side loses the same number in the same time, each is given zero.
If a man fails to admit a touch, his side is given minus one.
If neither side loses a man, each is given minus one.
The groups are not allowed to charge each other as, to avoid accidents, they would have to pull up or charge with intervals; in neither case could the effect of the charge demonstrated.
Construction of dummies.
45. As nearly all the mounted work with the saber is carried on against dummies it is necessary to have suitable ones. The resistance should be approximate that offered by a human body, and the dummy should be constructed so as to give way in about the same manner as a human body in combat, without hurting the trooper or frightening his horse.
A dummy constructed on the following lines seems to answer the purpose. It can be made out of old material, at small cost, by anyone who can use tools.
The dummy itself is a cylinder of burlap or sacking 10 inches in diameter and 20 inches long. The upper end may be fastened with a string or sewed. The lower end is tacked to the frustum of a right cone 10 inches in diameter at the upper section and 6 or 7 inches at the lower. The frustum is from 3 to 4 inches thick. The sack or cylinder of burlap is stuffed as tightly as possible with straw. A strip of leather nailed around the bottom of the sack where it joins the wooden base keeps the burlap from tearing out.
The wooden support is made as shown in the diagram. The basin at the top in which the dummy moves is made by cutting holes of suitable diameter in two or three 1-inch boards and nailing them together. The diameter of the basin should be 3 inches greater than that of the base of the dummy.
The weight, a bag of sand, should weigh about 40 pounds. It can be changed to vary the stiffness of the dummy.
The weight should hang low in the support to make it more stable.
When the dummy is used outside, iron pins with L-shaped heads may be driven into the ground with the projection over the support to prevent it from being knocked down. In the hall it will occasionally be upset. The supports cannot be made longer or the horses will step on them.
An ordinary sack filled with straw makes a good prone dummy. An old blouse and breeches should be put on it to accustom the horses to go steadily among men.
Rings or other targets which offer no resistance to the saber should not be used. Dummies made by suspending sacks from above are unsatisfactory as they swing up instead of down when struck.
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Dec. 4, 2012 Fertility tests frequently reveal that males have problems with the quality of their sperm. The problems often relate to sperm senescence, which is a reduction in quality with age. Sperm senescence can arise either before or after the DNA in the sperm cells is produced by a process known as meiosis. So-called "pre-meiotic" senescence results from accumulated damage in the germline cells with increasing age and results in older males having sperm of lower quality. Post-meiotic senescence occurs after the sperm cells have been produced, either during storage of sperm by the male or after ejaculation and before they fertilize the eggs.
There is previous evidence that various kinds of sperm senescence occur in insects, in some domestic animals (birds and mammals) and even in humans but the studies have generally been carried out under fairly artificial conditions and so it is not clear how they relate to wild animals -- or to the general human population. These objections have been overcome in the latest work of Attila Hettyey and colleagues at the Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna (Vetmeduni), together with Balázs Vági in Budapest, Hungary, where Hettyey himself is now working.
The researchers investigated the common toad, an interesting model system as it is known to produce all its sperm before the start of the breeding season. They found that male toads that re-entered hibernation at the start of the breeding season, i.e. that lowered their metabolic rates after producing sperm, stored sperm of significantly higher motility than males kept under pseudo-natural conditions without females throughout the entire breeding season. The result means that slowing the normal rate of general physiological processes reduced the normal rate of sperm aging within the toad's testicles. This constitutes the first evidence for post-meiotic intra-testicular sperm senescence in a wild vertebrate. A further surprising result was that in males kept under pseudo-natural conditions, sperm motility was related to the number of matings a male achieved, with the presence of females or the occurrence of matings having a positive effect on the quality of stored sperm. This suggests that post-meiotic intra-testicular sperm senescence does not occur at a fixed rate but may be modulated by external factors, such as temperature and number of matings.
In summary, the scientists at the Vetmeduni have shown that sperm senescence occurs while sperm are stored in the testicles of animals living under essentially "natural" conditions. They also suggest that the rate of sperm senescence can be slowed if males mate more frequently. For animals that produce sperm continuously, such as man, the implications seem to be that more frequent ejaculations serve both to remove older and thus less viable sperm as well as to reduce the damage to sperm cells during storage. The senior author on the PLoS ONE paper, Richard Wagner, is keen to speculate on the importance of the results. "We do not yet know how general post-meiotic sperm senescence is in wild animals, or man. But if it turns out to be widespread, it will be fascinating to see how it affects reproductive behaviour." As Hettyey says, "Females may try to avoid males with damaged sperm while males may choose particular environments that slow sperm senescence and may attempt to shorten periods of sexual rest by also accepting matings with low-quality females or by discharging aged sperm."
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- Attila Hettyey, Balázs Vági, Dustin J. Penn, Herbert Hoi, Richard H. Wagner. Post-Meiotic Intra-Testicular Sperm Senescence in a Wild Vertebrate. PLoS ONE, 2012; 7 (12): e50820 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0050820
Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.
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http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/12/121204081142.htm?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+sciencedaily%2Fplants_animals+%28ScienceDaily%3A+Plants+%26+Animals+News%29
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2013-06-19T12:46:56Z
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en
| 0.947979
| 850
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What is RFID?
Frequency Identification (RFID) is
a generic term that is used to describe a system that
transmits the “identity” (in the form of a
unique serial number) of an object or person wirelessly,
using radio waves. RFID is typically grouped under the
broad category of automatic identification technologies.
Auto-ID technologies include bar codes, optical character
readers and some biometric technologies, such as retinal
scans. The auto-ID technologies have been used to reduce
the amount of time and labor needed to input data manually
and to improve data accuracy.
RFID is designed to enable readers to capture data on
tags and transmit it to a computer system-without needing
a person involved. A typical RFID tag consists of a microchip
attached to a radio antenna mounted on a substrate. These
“chips” can store large amounts of data on
a product or shipment such as date of manufacturing, destination,
sell by date, color, and quantity.
To retrieve the data stored on an RFID tag, you need a
reader. A typical reader is a device that has one or more
antennas that emit radio waves and receive signals back
from the tag. The reader then passes the information in
digital form to a computer.
Undoubtedly, RFID still has obstacles in its path since
it depends on the surroundings for the ultimate performance
of any system. But with lower tag costs, advancements
in reader, transceiver and antenna technology, RFID is
becoming more attractive in certain applications for the
ROI (return on investment) it will provide long term.
So, Barcode or RFID?
Integrated Barcode Technology can provide a total analysis
of your requirements and recommend the very best solution
for maximum ROI regarding your application from the site
survey to system definition, hardware acquisition, software,
tags, installation and maintenance of either barcode or
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Two new studies published in the online issue of Neurology, the medical journal of the American Academy of Neurology, suggest that a person's memory declines at a faster rate in the last two-and-a-half years of life than at any other time after memory problems first begin.
The second study shows that keeping mentally fit through board games or reading may be the best way to preserve memory during late life. Both studies were conducted by researchers at Rush University Medical Center.
How the study was done
"In our first study, we used the end of life as a reference point for research on memory decline rather than birth or the start of the study," said study author Robert S. Wilson, PhD, study author and neuropathology at Rush University Medical Center in Chicago.
For the study, 174 Catholic priests, nuns and monks without memory problems had their memory tested yearly for six to 15 years before death. After death, scientists examined their brains for hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease called plaques and tangles.
The study found that at an average of about two-and-a-half years before death, different memory and thinking abilities tended to decline together at rates that were 8 to 17 times faster than before this terminal period. Higher levels of plaques and tangles were linked to an earlier onset of this terminal period but not to rate of memory decline during it.
Playing games best for memory
The second study, also conducted by Wilson, showed that keeping mentally fit through board games or reading may be the best way to preserve memory during late life.
The study, which focused on mental activities, involved 1,076 people with an average age of 80 who were free of dementia. Participants underwent yearly memory exams for about five years. They reported how often they read the newspaper, wrote letters, visited a library and played board games such as chess or checkers. Frequency of these mental activities was rated on a scale of one to five, one meaning once a year or less and five representing every day or almost every day.
"The results suggest a cause and effect relationship: that being mentally active leads to better cognitive health in old age," said Wilson.
The results showed that people's participation in mentally stimulating activities and their mental functioning declined at similar rates over the years. The researchers also found that they could predict participants' level of cognitive functioning by looking at their level of mental activity the year before but that level of cognitive functioning did not predict later mental activity.
(EurekAlert, March 2012)
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http://www.health24.com/Medical/Alzheimers/News/Memory-declines-faster-in-last-2-years-20120721
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2013-06-18T04:34:12Z
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| 0.975824
| 513
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Parents, teachers and care providers of children are likely to be increasingly aware of a term known as cyberbullying. Cyberbullying has become a comparably common term in the modern press and media, with a number of disturbing cases leading to the suicides of teenagers and children.
Definition. According to Stop Cyberbullying, cyberbullying occurs when a child, preteen or teen is bullied using the Internet, any interactive or digital technology, or a mobile phone. The term bullying covers a broad spectrum of different behaviors and includes harassing, threatening, embarrassing or humiliating somebody. Cyberbullying always involves a minor on both sides. When adults are involved in this kind of problem, it is known as cyber-harassment or cyberstalking.
Scale of the problem. Cyberbullying is seldom a one-time issue. Many children are victims of prolonged, intensive, relentless cyberbullying. Cyberbullying behavior takes many forms and is only limited to the willingness and imagination of the bully, as well as the availability of digital technology. Modern technologies make it much easier for cyberbullies to invade a child's personal space and to remain relatively anonymous. Children and teenagers have killed each other and committed suicide as a result of cyberbullying.
Punishment under law. Cyberbullying can often be difficult to prove, and the perceived risk of making things worse, or not getting support, means that children often decide not to report the issue. This type of behavior can, however, become a misdemeanor charge or could result in a charge of juvenile delinquency. Once a bully's parents become involved, however, things normally do not go this far.
Dealing with cyberbullying. Cyberbullying can be very difficult to stop, and it relies on the willingness of children to report problems. Various programs have been introduced to help this, including school education campaigns and websites for anonymously reporting problems. Outside school, parents can help by ensuring that they encourage children to tell them if they are being bullied in this way, and by ensuring that children understand the implications of their own actions. One method is to teach children to think carefully about what they say and how they say it. Parental support is critical in the success of these campaigns.
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2013-05-20T02:42:53Z
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en
| 0.971165
| 451
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The Bronzed Cowbird (once known as the Red-eyed Cowbird), Molothrus aeneus, is a small icterid.
It breeds from the southern U.S. states of California, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, and Louisiana south through Central America to Panama. An isolated population on the Caribbean coast of Colombia is sometimes treated as a separate species, the Bronze-brown Cowbird (M. armenti).
The male Bronzed Cowbird is 20 cm long and weighs 68 g, with green-bronze glossed black plumage and red eyes. The female is 18.5 cm long and weighs 56 g. She is duller black above and browner below. Young birds are like the female but have grey feather fringes.
Like all cowbirds, this bird is a brood parasite: it lays its eggs in the nests of other birds. The young cowbird is fed by the host parents at the expense of their own young. Hosts include Prevost's Ground-Sparrow and Yellow-throated Brush Finch.
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http://kristileigh87.blogspot.com/2012/05/bronzed-cowbird.html
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2013-06-19T06:21:32Z
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| 0.954559
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The beginning: Ship docks in Honolulu
Jan. 17, 1903 The SS Gaelic docks in Honolulu with 102 Korean immigrants aboard. Records show 16 Koreans had come individually by 1902, but this date marks the beginning of the first wave of Korean immigration to Hawai'i and the Mainland. The group includes families and single and married men coming to work on the sugar plantations.
Korean church established
November 1904 The Methodist Episcopal sect holds its first religious service on River Street.The Korean Methodist Episcopal Church (eventually Christ United Methodist Church) is established the following year.
Japan takes over; immigration halts
July 9, 1905 President Theodore Roosevelt convenes the Portsmouth Peace Conference after the Russo-Japanese War to settle territory claims in Asia. The settlement enables Japan to declare a protectorate over Korea. Korean immigration to Hawai'i is halted.
Liberation group organizes
1907 The United Korean Association is formed to support Koreans' goal to liberate the homeland. It merges with a San Francisco group in 1909 to form Kuk Min Hur, or the Korean National Association (KNA).
|After 1910, Korean passports were issued by the Japanese Imperial government.
University of Hawai'i
Japan annexes Korea; tensions mount
1910 Japan annexes Korea.Tension grows between Koreans and Japanese in Hawai'i. By this date, about 1,000 immigrants had returned to Korea, many ill and going home to die. But after annexation, with the immigration ban lifted, more Koreans leave their homeland, especially wives and children of laborers.
Syngman Rhee emerges as leader
1912-1913 Korean patriot Young Man Pak arrives in 1912, followed the next year by Syngman Rhee. Rhee eventually founds the Korean Christian Church, leads the Dongji Hoi a nationalist political organization and engages in other political and educational initiatives.
Brigade forms in 'Ahuimanu
Aug. 29, 1914 Pak forms the Korean National Brigade, made up of officer cadets pledged to Korean independence who train at a base in 'Ahuimanu.
|Picture brides arrived in the greatest numbers between 1913 and 1919.
William Lee photo
'Picture brides' arrive in Hawai'i
1913-1919 These are the peak years for Korean "picture brides" arriving in Hawai'i. World War I also enables Koreans to prosper in tailoring and laundry businesses, serving soldiers. By July 1918, Korean enlistment in the U.S. Army totals 163 men.
Exiled leaders form government
1919-1920 The push to reclaim Korea peaks with a declaration of independence after the death of King Kojong in 1919. A provisional Korean government forms from Korean leaders exiled in Shanghai. Koreans in Hawai'i buy bonds to support the government. Rhee is elected president and goes to Shanghai in 1920.
Korean Christian Church opens
1923 A newly organized Korean Christian Church opens on Liliha Street. Membership swells with the arrival of new picture brides whose transition to Hawai'i is eased by missions on the Neighbor Islands. Other newcomers join the Methodist Episcopal churches. New U.S. directives issue certificates to children born here, supporting their desire to be considered American.
|Korean immigrant Won Soo Lee works in a pineapple field in 1915.
Center for Korean Studies photo
'Korea Town' booms in Wahiawa
1925-1930 Wahiawa becomes a "Korea Town," with Schofield Barracks adding varied employment opportunities to plantation jobs. The Korean American Club is formed in 1925.
Kim chee grows in popularity
1939 Joe Kim begins to manufacture and market kim chee on O'ahu under the Diamond Kim Chee label; on the Big Island, Hannah Kim Liu opens the Kohala Kim Chee business at about the same time. This popularizes the Korean cabbage relish, previously unknown beyond Korean family tables.
World War II casts suspicions
1941-1945 World War II complicates lives for foreign-born Koreans who had Japanese passports. During the war, 1,200 Korean prisoners of war are interned near Wheeler Field. Korean-American soldiers are assigned to guard them.
Cultural center building bought
1947 The KNA buys its headquarters in Pu'unui; the building today is known as the Korean Cultural Center of Hawai'i.
Rhee becomes president
1948-1949 Rhee is elected president of the Republic of Korea, an office he holds until his ouster in 1960, when he flees to Hawai'i in exile. The first Korean consulate opens in April 1949. Rhee is elected president of the Republic of Korea, an office he holds until his ouster in 1960, when he flees to Hawai'i in exile. The first Korean consulate opens in April 1949. Rhee is elected president of the Republic of Korea, an office he holds until his ouster in 1960, when he flees to Hawai'i in exile. The first Korean Consulate opens in April 1949.
|Master Sgt. George Owen, right, sits with two Chinese prisoners during the Korean War.
George Owen photo
Soldiers serve in Korean War
1950-1953 The Korean War connects Korean-American soldiers with their ancestral homeland; they serve in intelligence units and elsewhere. War brides in Hawai'i actively preserve Korean culture.
More newcomers settle here
1965-1980 Revision of immigration laws spurs a new wave of Koreans settling in Hawai'i. The Center for Korean Studies opens in 1973.
|The Center for Korean Studies opened at the University of Hawai'i at Manoa in 1973.
Center for Korean Studies photo
Cultural awareness increases
1980-present Immigration continues, resulting in a population of 23,537 Koreans in Hawai'i, according to the 2000 census. The growth spurs the establishment of more than 100 Korean Christian and Buddhist communities. The Center for Korean Studies embarks on a program in 2000 to broaden the teaching of Korean history and culture.
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2013-05-24T22:45:00Z
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en
| 0.931704
| 1,237
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Malheur Cave, 13 miles east of Princeton, is 3,000 feet long, and the height varies from 8 feet near the entrance to a maximum of 20 feet far back in the cave. An underground lake fills the lower end of the cave, and fluctuation can cause the water to raise within 1,000 feet of the entrance.
The Masons, Robert Burns Masonic Lodge No. 97, used this cave extensively for ceremonies and other functions. The curious come on a year-round basic, the kids for fun, the scientists for answers to long-time questions, and the cavers, just to meet or visit an old friend. The Masons own the cave, but have left it open to whoever wishes to cool off on a hot summer day, explore its many wonders and paddle its waters, just as it was done decades ago
After passing under the low, arching entrance, the passage opens to a wide expanse of level dirt floor. The walking passage eventually reaches two rows of wooden beachers used by the Masons. After passing the cement platform, the passage begins to get more muddy and filled with boulders of breakdown from the ceiling. The point where the passage turns to water depends on the time of year and the level of the adjacent reservoir. Beneath the waters is a submerged boat and soon the waters reach to the ceiling of the passage. Divers have plumbed to the end of the cave.
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http://oregoncaves4u.com/Malheur%20Cave.html
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2013-05-22T07:41:10Z
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| 0.924103
| 291
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Research is clear that there is an inextricable link between students' emotional and mental health and their ability to learn. A student is not able to benefit from the educational program if the student is suicidal or if the student is preoccupied by concerns about someone who may be thinking about suicide. Few events have greater impact than suicide upon students, parents, and staff. The Student Services and Alternative Programs Branch staff is committed to providing technical assistance about effective youth suicide prevention, intervention, and postvention (i.e., support and assistance for those affected by a completed suicide.)
Suicide continues to be a leading cause of death in the United States and in Maryland. According to the Federal Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, suicide continues to be the third leading cause of death for youth in the United States and in Maryland. During 2004, Maryland lost 86 youth due to suicide. The results of the 2005 Maryland Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS) indicate that more than one in ten Maryland high school students reported making a plan to commit suicide in the past twelve moths. The data demonstrate the importance of the statewide Youth Suicide Prevention School Program established in the Annotated Code of Maryland §7-503.
The Maryland program establishes a shared responsibility between educational programs at the State and local levels and community suicide prevention and crisis center agencies. The statewide program includes:
- Classroom instruction about warning signs of suicide and suicide prevention strategies
- Maryland Youth Crisis Hotline at 1-800-422-0009 and local suicide and crisis hotlines
- Suicide intervention and postvention
- Data collection
- Teacher training
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2013-06-19T06:03:16Z
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en
| 0.932248
| 325
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Born Jul 10 1936
Process for Producing Biologically Functional Molecular Chimeras
Patent Number 4,237,224
Herb Boyer was with the University of California, San Francisco when he began investigating DNA with Stan Cohen. Their experiments marked the beginning of genetic engineering and launched the multi-billion dollar biotechnology industry. By early 1973, Boyer and Cohen determined that they were able to add genes from an organism to a simple cell; the genes would then replicate in the cell. Their recombinant DNA patents generated over $250 million in royalties before expiring. Recombinant DNA technology is considered the most significant achievement in molecular biology since Watson & Crick's work in 1953. After working with Cohen, Boyer joined forces with venture capitalist Robert Swanson to create the biotechnology firm Genentech, Inc.
Genetic engineering has created a new medical and scientific world; Cohen and Boyer’s discovery made it possible to map the human genome as well as produce synthetic insulin and genetically modified food (GM foods).
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http://invent.org/hall_of_fame/163.html
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2013-06-18T22:24:59Z
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en
| 0.917142
| 209
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Scientists of the Soil
In the 1930s, TVA turned selected farmers into instant experts on erosion control and asked them to pass the idea along to their neighbors. Before long, agriculture in the TVA region was on the road to recovery.
Most residents of the Tennessee Valley region are proud of the region’s lush beauty. Few of us can remember a time when much of our land could horrify visitors, when big stretches of it weren’t green, but brown and dry. Most of us are too young to remember how decisive action by TVA redeemed the region's farmland in the 1930s and ’40s.
By the time TVA was founded in 1933, fertile topsoil had disappeared from more than a million acres in the region. What was left was dry clay, often tortured into weird humps and gullies, useless even for growing most weeds. The region’s chief cash crops — cotton, corn, tobacco — had drained the soil of its nutrients.
Worse, traditional agriculture, which often involved planting on hillsides and letting fields lie bare through the winter, left topsoil vulnerable to the weather. The rain that sustained crops also carried the soil away. Farm yields were lower every year. Many farmers assumed that it was just bad luck. Those who could moved on to land that hadn’t yet been spoiled.
Some people, like the French journalist Odette Keun, who spent several months in the TVA region in 1936, predicted a dire outcome if the nation didn’t deal with erosion effectively: “America is not a permanent country . . . she is on the way to join those decadent or dead parts of China, Mesopotamia, and Asia Minor, which were once opulent, and are now stripped forever of their fertility.”
Though it didn’t reach Dust Bowl proportions, erosion was indeed a serious problem in the TVA region. Hilly terrain and feast-or-famine rainfall patterns made for a dangerous combination. In the South, without the help of the deep frosts that protected bare land up North, the threat was especially severe. The National Emergency Council reported in 1935, “The South is losing more than $300 million in fertile topsoil every year.”
Several federal agencies went to work on the crisis in various parts of the country, but none was more effective than TVA. As a resource-management agency, TVA would have helped the region's farmers out of an environmental emergency anyway, but it had an additional urgent reason to stop erosion. Some of the topsoil was washing into the new TVA reservoirs across the region and clogging them up.
The flood control provided by the reservoirs TVA was building was a big help in itself, alleviating the erosion caused by spring floods. But as topsoil loss in the region approached disaster proportions, it began to be clear that the problem was too big for TVA alone to handle. The agency decided that if farmers could learn to save their own land — become scientists of the soil — there’d be more reason to hope that the problem could be solved.
It wouldn’t be easy to convince farmers that their land-management practices, many passed down over generations, were a major source of their distress. TVA organized meetings, lectures and “lantern-slides” about erosion in rural communities around the Valley region, but many of the region’s hard-bitten farmers would believe only what they could see with their own eyes and feel with their own sunburned hands.
So, in cooperation with state agricultural services, TVA helped set up thousands of demonstration farms across the region. By then, farmers had learned some respect for manufactured fertilizer, and TVA donated phosphate-based fertilizer to selected farmers who agreed to make certain changes in the way they used their land.
One was that now, rather than planting all their property with cash crops, they let some of it relax as grass, woodland, alfalfa-planted cow pasture, or fields of a leguminous cover crop like lespedeza. Another was that instead of planting up and down hillsides, they cut terraces into them, creating flat fields where water would soak in rather than run off. Finally, and most important, these demonstration farmers were required to show their neighbors what they were doing and what the results were.
In return, besides the fertilizer, they received free technical assistance: a corps of about 200 TVA experts fanned out across the TVA region, offering plans and advice. Sometimes they even got the help of work crews from the New Deal-era Civilian Conservation Corps, who replanted lost crops and dug drainage ditches to control the erosion gullies.
For many farmers, the best part of the deal was the part that wasn’t promised — increased crop yield. One success story was that of Doeckle Terpstra, a Dutch-born farmer-engineer who’d bought an old 250-acre dairy farm in the Powell Valley of southwestern Virginia back in the early 1920s.
For years Terpstra had managed to produce only about 40,000 pounds of milk annually. Then he became one of TVA’s demonstration farmers. After a decade or so of farming the new way, he was producing more than half a million pounds a year. Not all the improvement was that dramatic, but a survey of 100 demonstration farms in the French Broad region of western North Carolina turned up a 35 percent increase in crop yield.
“Science is something that comes naturally to American farmers,” remarked a 1947 TVA publication about the scheme’s success, “once they are given a chance to get into the game as active participants.”
Some older farmers, observing TVA’s methods, may have had the light of recognition in their eyes. There was once a bit of Tennessee folk wisdom: “A sloping field/A surface bare/A heavy rain/And the soil ain’t there.”
TVA agreed, but an anonymous poet in the agency added this stanza to describe one method used by the erosion-control program: “A sloping field/A clover cover/The water soaks in/Somehow or other.”
By 1938, TVA’s work was already beginning to pay off. “An airplane trip from Chattanooga to Muscle Shoals will still show many fields marked by spreading gullies,” said one contemporary report. “But the curving lines of terraces are already so numerous that they appear to be the chief characteristic of all the unforested land.”
TVA’s success in controlling erosion, described as “remarkable” in economist Joseph Ransmeier’s 1942 report on the agency’s multifaceted approach to the problems of the TVA region, bred similar programs around the country. By 1943, 19 states outside the Tennessee Valley region had used the demonstration-farm method of erosion control.
Today the TVA region is dependably green. It’s hard to imagine what a terrifying problem erosion was in the 1930s. Maybe our disbelief that things could ever have been that bad is the strongest testament of all to what TVA’s erosion-control efforts accomplished.
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| 0.972539
| 1,518
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8.3.3 Intercultural education
The official Polish educational system does not cover issues related to intercultural dialogue and multiculturalism. However, many smaller-scale initiatives are undertaken in this field (usually by NGOs and independent institutions). In 2002, the group Wielokulturowo.pl, which is a part of the KONTEKST society, carried out a cycle of meetings and workshops to sensitise students of particular schools in Warsaw to the issue of intercultural dialogue.
In many respects Poland seems to be a culturally homogenous country. However, the subject of interculturalism has been seriously neglected in national education. Still, being a part of the larger multicultural European community should encourage educational authorities to incorporate such topics in school curricula. Some elements of intercultural education have been introduced into teaching programmes in the regions which have a significant number of students with origins other than Polish. These programmes are mainly based on national and ethnic identity (as defined by law – see chapter 4.2.4) and do not address or draw attention to other aspects such as dialogue with new immigrant groups, actions aimed at combating xenophobia, racism and lack of tolerance, etc.
The question of interculturalism in arts and cultural education is pointedly connected with the issue of mobility. Schools and universities which participate in European programmes like Socrates etc., have made a notable contribution to the process of modernisation of Polish education. Activities concerning multilingualism, tolerance etc., as well as creative actions related to such issues become more and more popular among students from all types of educational institutions. The growing popularity of intercultural activities facilitates and increases the possibilities of gaining financial, technical and content related support from various institutions.
One can observe an increase of interest in intercultural issues among students and teachers.
For more information, see our Intercultural Dialogue section.
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At least 11 St. Lucia Racer snakes were spotted and tagged by a group of international scientists hunting for the snake in the Maria Islands reserve, which is part of St. Lucia and located about one kilometer (0.6 miles) south of the main island, according to the British-based Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust.
Overall, scientists estimate that 18 snakes live on the reserve, said Matthew Morton, Durrell's Eastern Caribbean program manager.
"In one sense it is a very worrying situation, with such a small population restricted to a single, tiny site," he said. "But in another sense, it's an opportunity ... It means that we still have a chance to save this species."
The non-venomous brown snake was declared extinct in 1936, but somebody later spotted one on the rocky reserve in 1973 and rare sightings have since been reported. Late last year, Durrell, with help from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and other groups, launched a search for the snake on the larger of the two Maria Islands.
A team of six scientists and several volunteers spent five months scouring the rocky outcrop where they found some snakes slithering around during the day, looking for lizards and frogs to eat. Once they captured the snakes, they implanted
Scientists also collected DNA samples, but the results on whether the snakes are genetically diverse won't be known for several months. Diversity is important because it would allow for a more successful breeding program, scientists say.
There's currently a lot of in-breeding on the 12-hectare (30-acre) islet where the snakes live, but scientists did not spot many deformities, which is encouraging, Morton said.
Brian Crother, a U.S.-based expert on Caribbean snakes who was not involved in the project, said he was excited about the finding.
"It provides us with another opportunity to preserve a piece of biodiversity that we thought we had lost forever," he said.
As a result of the scientists' findings, Durrell called the St. Lucia racer the world's rarest snake, but Crother and other scientists disputed the claim.
"I think saying 'rarest' is a good way to bring attention to a desperate situation, but whether it really is the rarest, I don't think you can say for sure," said Crother, interim biology department director at Southeastern Louisiana University.
Scientists are now trying to figure out the best way to save the snake, which is less than three feet (one meter) long and is known for being gentle and comfortable with human beings.
Morton said moving some snakes to St. Lucia's main island isn't an option because the mongoose, its biggest predator, lives there and will destroy the population. He said breeding the reptiles on other offshore islands is a possibility, but scientists have to determine whether there's an adequate food supply.
Frank Burbrink, a biology professor at the College of Staten Island who was not involved in the project, said the snakes should be bred in another place to ensure their future.
"You don't want to put your eggs in one very, very, very small basket," he said.
Morton said the trick is to ensure that people are aware of the snake's plight so they can help with their conservation.
But he acknowledged that could be difficult, noting: "These aren't whales or fluffy little animals that people like."
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Little things affect little minds—Benjamin Disraeli, former British Prime Minister
Boom Roasted! In addition to serving us with a right proper burn from the colonial motherland, Big Ben has also demonstrated a valuable lesson in the correct usage of an important word. No matter the size of their minds, writers often make the mistake of confusing effect and affect. Although both words are nearly homophones, they convey different meanings. To complicate matters, each word has multiple definitions as well. This might seem more difficult than getting a jury to acquit Jerry Sandusky, but it’s really not that tough to keep effect and affect straight. Let’s take a look at their most common meanings:
- A change resulting from a cause
- The lighting, sounds or imagery in entertainment productions
- A personal belonging
Example: Surprisingly, Rod Blagojevich’s peacocking did not have a positive effect on his trial verdict.
Example: The orgy of special effects in the Battleship trailer lets you remain confident that this movie will suck…also, Rihanna’s in it.
Example: The people on Hoarders sure do love their personal effects.
- To have an effect on
- To pretend to feel or have something, often in order to make an impression on others
Example: Adderall doesn’t affect me, because I abuse cocaine.
Example: Madonna affected a British accent, because she wanted to seem interesting.
A Tip to Tell the Difference
What’s an easy way to remember how to keep our affect and effect straight? Like the proud corporate titans of our ramshackle economy, we’re going to outsource this question. According to Grammar Girl, “The majority of the time you use affect with an a as a verb and effect with an e as a noun.” Review the definitions above and follow this rule, and you’ll be pleased with the effect on your writing.
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Good For Brain Development
Some parents may think it is undignified or detrimental, but babytalk is essential to the full development of a baby's brain, says a researcher at the University of Alberta.
Babytalk, the universal cooing that mothers and fathers do to get their babies' attention, is more important than we may have ever realized, says David Miall, professor of English at the U of A.
Babytalk helps infants to develop an understanding and appreciation of temporal arts, such as literature, music and dance, and depriving babies of the alliteration, assonance, and other poetic elements inherent in babytalk could hinder their ability to produce and appreciate these arts when they grow up, says Miall, whose research was published recently in the journal Human Nature -- An Interdisciplinary Biosocial Perspective.
"There has been little research done in this area. Most evolutionary psychologists believe babytalk is simply related to a desire to develop a baby's sense of attachment and affiliation, but we think it is much more significant than that," Miall says.
Miall and his research colleague, Ellen Dissanayake, base their views according to studies they did with a software program that Miall had developed to recognize patterns in poetry. Miall found that babytalk follows the same patterns often found in poetry that adults read.
"Babytalk is full of poetic features, such as metrics and phonetics," Miall says. "I was surprised by how systematic it is, and how it works to shape and direct attention."
Miall noticed, for example, that the sounds a parent makes when the baby is focusing on the parent come from the high-front part of the mouth, which indicates intimacy. Conversely, the sounds come from the low-back part of the mouth when the parent is trying to win the baby's attention.
"There is a lot of evidence to show that an infant's mind is enormously flexible and adaptive, and we feel that if a parent does not engage their baby with babytalk it would be a loss, both cognitively and emotionally, for the baby," Miall says.
Further, Miall contends that babytalk is evidence that humans' ability to produce and appreciate art is not simply a means to help the artist find sexual partners, as some evolutionary psychologists believe. Humans have adapted the means to produce and appreciate art as a way to, among other things, elevate, enrich and educate one another, and babytalk is an example of this, Miall says.
"Babytalk is an essential element of who and what we are," he adds. "And it shows that literary art is not simply an ornament created for sexual selection."
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Bees Put The Bop In Bebop!
Dancing is a human activity as old as humanity itself. We waltz; we tap dance; we do the old soft shoe; we even have been known to scoot a boot or two in a modern version of a rural favorite, the barnyard stomp. Human dances have been used as a tool of communication. For example, ritualistic dances of primitive peoples were often designed to send a message to the gods. The highly sophisticated art form of ballet is used to tell a story to the audience.
We humans aren't the only animals that dance, though. From birds to bugs, nature is full of dancing animals. Animal dances primarily are used to communicate within species. The dances send a message that a territory is occupied or that the dancer desires a mate
Of the many species of insects that communicate through dance, none is better known than the honey bee. The dance of the bees is used to share information about nectar sources. How this dance functions is one of the marvels of the insect world.
Honey bees transmit two important bits of information in their dance. One of the common patterns used by dancing bees is a figure eight. When the bee goes through the middle of the eight she waggles her abdomen from side to side. The dance is sometimes called the waggle dance after this habit. Bees can count, and the number of waggles tells the bees about how far away the nectar source is.
The orientation on the honey comb of the waggle part of the dance tells the direction of the nectar source from the hive. This information is based on the location of the sun in the sky. For instance, a nectar source directly toward the sun would translate into a dance where the waggle run is vertical on the comb. A patch of flowers away from the sun would result in a waggle dance downward on the comb. The dancing bees also share a taste of the nectar with other bees so they will know the type of flower they are seeking. The dance of the bees is a recruitment activity, with some bees following the steps of the returning forager until they have information necessary to find the flowers. Then the recruits take off to bring in a load of nectar, whereupon they will be the dancers, provided the nectar source continues to be a good one.
For sheer energy and intensity, the dance of the bees, in human terms, is certainly an upbeat kind of dance. Could it be that bees put the bop in the bebop long before the beboppers were bopping to that new jazz sound?
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||Overview of Science & Technology
Science and applied science courses provide opportunities for research and development work in many industries such as pharmaceutical, health sciences, biomedical, mining, engineering and manufacturing.
Science graduates are not limited to jobs in the chemistry, physics or biology fields, but also in the defence, aeronautics or finance industries.
Most science degrees allow students to complete fundamental modules in their first year, and specialise in a science course of their preference later in their science degrees, such as biology, microbiology or physics.
Studying Science & Technology
Science courses are primarily offered at higher education institutions, but there are selected Technical and Further Education (TAFE) institutions which provide foundation science classes for those who prefer to build up their knowledge of chemistry, biology, physics and mathematics.
Science students from a TAFE course can apply to undertake a science degree program upon the successful completion of the certificate course.
A general science degree is a three-year course, depending on the university and science course chosen. You can choose to specialise in a science major towards your final year in a general science degree, such as biological science, biomedical science or applied chemistry or physics.
Alternatively, students can study one science subject for the duration of their studies, such as a biology degree, physics degree or chemistry degree, or specialise further, for example with a marine biology degree.
Science graduates can opt for postgraduate study via coursework or research, leading to a Master of Science (MSc) or Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in science.
Some institutions may offer applied sciences courses; giving you the option to create a higher education science course that combines core sciences modules with inter-disciplinary units, such as business and communications.
Science students may be required to undertake work-placement programmes.
Careers in Science & Technology
A science degree does not constrain you to being in a scientific field nor limit you to a laboratory, research-based or science job.
While most science students do go on to become scientists after attaining their science degrees, depending on your specialisations, you can also choose to be a technologist, or research and development officer. You can also choose to work as a microbiologist in an agriculture firm, or a medical researcher in a biomedical or pharmaceutical company.
Science degrees are good training ground for a range of other career options, including in finance, business or management.
Skills needed in Science & Technology
You are expected to be strong in mathematics, language and problem solving, as your studies will involve calculations, analysis and logical reasoning.
Search for Science courses
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I am not much of an Excel hand; spending most of my time either in Microsoft Word or PowerPoint. My most regular use of Excel is as a tool to keep track of my schedule and to list what I am putting out on the web as a writer. So I can safely say that at least in my case, the enormous power that’s in this spreadsheet program lies latent. But it happens to all of us that sometimes some tasks, if not taken, get thrust upon us (just like greatness!).
So it was with me when I had to convert a delimited text data file to Excel and format it within the columns and rows. That’s a rough challenge for a guy who has a chronic fear of anything that resembles figures. The raw file that I had in my hand consisted of higgledy-piggledy blocks of text and numbers. My simple task was to make sense out of this jumble by importing it into Excel and sorting the data into columns and rows.
Thankfully, many web tutorials came to the rescue of my dead brain cells.
Delimited files are a simple way to store data and import or export it between various applications. Delimited in essence means, data that’s separated by specific delimiter characters. Common delimiters are tab, comma and semicolon.
Think of delimited files as the most basic file format that’s almost uniformly accepted by most spreadsheet and database programs. For those of us who don’t go down that road, a common example is the CSV (Comma Separated Value) files or Tab-separated files we come across in the Import Export wizards of email programs like Outlook and Gmail.
A delimited file is of no actual use unless it is converted into some form suitable for analysis and study. Microsoft makes it easy to convert a delimited file to a spreadsheet in three easy steps.
Let’s start with a text file with some data separated by commas.
To bring the data into Excel ““
- Open Excel and copy-paste the text contents into a spreadsheet. The contents take up one column and several rows.
- Click on the column header to select the entire column. Click on the Data tab in the ribbon and then Text to Columns in the Data Tools group.
- Clicking on the above command opens the Convert Text to Columns Wizard.
- Alternatively ““ You can directly import a text file into Excel. Excel handles file types – Text, Comma Separated Values and Printer Text File. Make sure to dropdown to All Files or Text Files in the File Open dialog while selecting the file to import. If Excel recognizes it to be a delimited file, it opens the Text Import Wizard which is similar to the Convert Text to Columns Wizard.
- In the second step, choose the Delimiter for you particular file (comma, in our case). For some other character, check Other and enter the character in the little field. The Data Preview window gives you an idea how the contents get separated into columnar data. Click on Next.
- In the final window, you get to set the data type for each column by selecting it in the preview. The default data format is General. Date and numeric values can also be handled here.
- Click on Finish to exit the wizard and get your neatly arranged spreadsheet.
In the Wizard, choose Delimited and click on Next.
It’s just three easy steps courtesy of a wizard. This simple utility gives us the ability to import delimited text files into Excel and apply its number crunching tools on it.
Liked this? We have other Excel tutorials to make an analyst out of you.
More articles about:
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In This Section
Texas Health Cleburne
Atrial fibrillation/flutter is a heart rhythm disorder (arrhythmia). It usually involves a rapid heart rate that is not regular.
Auricular fibrillation; A-fib
Causes, incidence, and risk factors:
Arrhythmias are caused by problems with the heart's normal electrical conduction system.
Normally, the four chambers of the heart (two atria and two ventricles) contract (squeeze) in an orderly way. When this happens, your heart is able to pump the blood your body needs without working any harder than it needs to.
The electrial impulse that signals your heart to contract begins in the sinoatrial node (also called the sinus node or SA node). This node is your heart's natural pacemaker.
- The signal leaves the SA node and travels through the two upper chambers (atria).
- Then the signal passes through another node (the AV node), and finally, through the lower chambers (ventricles).
In atrial fibrillation, the electrical impulse of the heart is not regular. The atria are contracting very quickly and not in a regular pattern. This makes the ventricles beat abnormally, leading to an irregular (and usually fast) pulse. As a result, the heart may be working harder and may no longer be able to pump enough blood.
In atrial flutter, the ventricles may beat very fast, but in a regular pattern.
If the atrial fibrillation/flutter is part of a condition called sick sinus syndrome, the sinus node may not work properly. The heart rate may alternate between slow and fast. As a result, there may not be enough blood to meet the needs of the body.
Atrial fibrillation can affect both men and women. It becomes more common with increasing age.
Causes of atrial fibrillation include:
You may not be aware that your heart is not beating in a normal pattern, especially if it has been occurring for some time.
Symptoms may include:
Note: Symptoms may begin or stop suddenly. This is because atrial fibrillation may stop or start on its own.
Signs and tests:
The health care provider may hear a fast heartbeat while listening to the heart with a stethoscope. The pulse may feel rapid, irregular, or both. The normal heart rate is 60 - 100, but in atrial fibrillation/flutter the heart rate may be 100 - 175. Blood pressure may be normal or low.
An ECG shows atrial fibrillation or atrial flutter. Continuous ambulatory cardiac monitoring -- Holter monitor (24 hour test) -- may be necessary because the condition often occurs at some times but not others (sporadic).
Tests to find underlying heart diseases may include:
In certain cases, atrial fibrillation may need emergency treatment to get the heart back into normal rhythm. This treatment may involve electrical cardioversion or intravenous (IV) drugs such as dofetilide, amiodarone, or ibutilide. Drugs are typically needed to keep the pulse from being too fast.
Daily medications taken by mouth are used in two different ways:
- To slow the irregular heartbeat. These medications may include beta-blockers, calcium channel blockers, and digitalis.
- To keep atrial fibrillation from coming back. These medications may work well in many people, but they can have serious side effects. Many patients may go back to atrial fibrillation even while taking these medications.
Blood thinners, such as heparin and warfarin (Coumadin) reduce the risk of a blood clot traveling in the body (such as a stroke). Because these drugs increase the chance of bleeding, not everyone will use them. Antiplatelet drugs such as aspirin or clopidogrel may also be prescribed. Your doctor will consider your age and other medical problems to decide which drug is best.
A procedure called radiofrequency ablation can be used to destroy areas in your heart that may be causing your heart rhythm problems. Cardiac ablation procedures are done in a hospital laboratory by specially trained staff. Reasons why ablation may be done include:
- When medicines are not controlling the symptoms, or are causing side effects
- When the condition will become dangerous if not treated
- As a possible cure for some patients with atrial flutter
Some patients may need the radiofrequency ablation done directly on an area of the heart called the AV junction. Ablation of the AV junction leads to complete heart block. This condition needs to be treated with a permanent pacemaker .
The disorder is usually controllable with treatment. Many people with atrial fibrillation do very well.
Atrial fibrillation tends to become a chronic condition, however. It may come back even wtih treatment.
- Fainting (syncope), if atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter cause the pulse to be too quick or slow
- Heart failure
- Stroke, if clots break off and travel to the brain (drugs that thin the blood such as heparin and warfarin can reduce the risk)
Calling your health care provider:
Call your health care provider if you have symptoms of atrial fibrillation or flutter.
Follow the health care provider's recommendations for treating underlying disorders. Avoid binge drinking.
Lafuente-Lafuente C, Mahé I, Extramiana F. Management of atrial fibrillation. BMJ. 2009;b5216.
Dobrev D, Nattel S. New antiarrhythmic drugs for treatment of atrial fibrillation. Lancet. 2010;375:1212-1223.
Crandall MA, Bradley DJ, Packer DL, Asirvatham SJ. Contemporary management of atrial fibrillation: update on anticoagulation and invasive management strategies. Mayo Clin Proc. 2009;84:643-662.
Fuster V, Rydén LE, Cannom DS, Crijns HJ, Curtis AB, Ellenbogen KA, et al. American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines; European Society of Cardiology Committee for Practice Guidelines; European Heart Rhythm Association; Heart Rhythm Society. ACC/AHA/ESC 2006 Guidelines for the Management of Patients with Atrial Fibrillation: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines and the European Society of Cardiology Committee for Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 2006;114:e257-e354.
Noheria A, Kumar A, Wylie JV Jr., Josephson ME. Catheter ablation vs. antiarrhythmic drug therapy for atrial fibrillation: a systematic review. Arch Intern Med. 2008;168:581-586.
|Review Date: 5/9/2010|
Reviewed By: Issam Mikati, MD, Associate Professor of Medicine, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL. Review provided by VeriMed Healthcare Network. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, A.D.A.M., Inc.
The information provided herein should not be used during any medical emergency or for the diagnosis or treatment of any medical condition. A licensed medical professional should be consulted for diagnosis and treatment of any and all medical conditions. Call 911 for all medical emergencies. Links to other sites are provided for information only -- they do not constitute endorsements of those other sites. © 1997-
A.D.A.M., Inc. Any duplication or distribution of the information contained herein is strictly prohibited.
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This short biography of Charles Darwin provides a brief overview of his personal life, but concentrates on presenting his main intellectual contributions, including, of course, the theory of evolution by means of natural selection.
Short Biography of Charles Darwin
Charles Darwin was born February 12, 1809, in the town of Shrewsbury, in the county of Shropshire in England, he died April 19, 1882, in the town of Down, in the county of Kent, England.
Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection is one of the most important scientific theories ever to have been discovered. Its importance arises from providing an explanation for the origin of species without having to posit a divine creator.
The theory of evolution came to Charles Darwin after a voyage of discovery comparable to those undertaken by Columbus or Magellan. But more of that later, for now we follow his biography in sequence and begin with his early life.
Charles Darwin's early life
In this biography we want to concentrate on Charles Darwin's ideas, so we will produce only a short account of his early life. Darwin had a very fortunate start to life by being born into a rich family. Unlike Michael Faraday, poverty and the necessity of earning a living were never to be his lot. Charles Darwin was the son of Robert Darwin, a rich society doctor, and Susannah Wedgwood, the daughter of the famous pottery industrialist Josiah Wedgwood. Darwin's other grandfather was the famous intellectual Erasmus Darwin. But being rich did not save Charles Darwin from the trials of the British public school system.
Charles Darwin hated the rote learning of Classics that was imposed on him at Shrewsbury public school between 1818 and 1825, and he was made fun of by teachers and pupils for his interest in chemistry. Somehow, Darwin managed to retain his fascination with science, and went up to Edinburgh to study medicine. But he was also interested in theology, and moved to Cambridge, to train as a clergyman. However, he spent much of his time at Cambridge frequenting society balls, picnics, country sports and gambling. Hardly pursuits befitting a man of the cloth, or, far that matter, a dedicated scientist. Fortunately, his disparate ways were curtailed by a change of circumstance that left him with nothing but science and exploration to fall back on for entertainment.
The Voyage of the Beagle
Charles Darwin's love of adventure, and a desire to escape the responsibilities of the church, led him to volunteer for the post of naturalist on the voyage of the Beagle at the age of 22. The expedition was to take five years, and Darwin was seasick for much of it. But he performed his responsibilities assiduously, and collected many specimens of insects, flowers and lizards in South America. His notebook, available in full online, was full of impressive detail and gives a good indication of his talent as a biologist.
After many adventures, including monkeys, earthquakes, giant fossils and volcanic eruptions, Charles Darwin and the Beagle arrived in the Galapagos. It had taken three and half years for the Beagle to reach these far-flung islands, lying hundreds of miles off the west coast of Chile. Their amazing variety of fauna and flora were to captivate Darwin for the rest of his life.
Darwin found all the sixty one Galapagos islands to be very strange. Besides the multitudinous variety of minutely differing species, the animals were amazingly docile. For instance, Darwin was able to saunter up to a hawk and touch it with his gun barrel. In exploring these magnificent islands Darwin became totally dedicated to the study of nature, and any other intellectual or professional pursuits now became very much less important to him. On returning to England, he declined any attempt by his father to force him into a career in the Anglican Church.
Charles Darwin back in England
On his return, Charles Darwin looked closely at the mockingbirds, tortoises, finches and other species he had studied in the Galapagos. He found it remarkable that different islands had similar, but quite distinct, species filling the same niche. These different species, he thought, could have evolved from a common ancestor.
Darwin also spotted similarities between Argentine fossils of giant, armour-plated megatheres and tiny, modern armadillos. These nudged him towards the idea of evolution in time, supplementing his observations of the different species in the Galapagos that had provided evidence for evolution through their separation in space.
For the rest of his life, Darwin was far from a gentleman of leisure. He spent his time supplementing the knowledge gained from the voyage of the Beagle with intense study, the writing of letters to experts, and the badgering of sailors and explorers for more information about strange creatures from distant lands.
Charles Darwin & Down House
Darwin even applied scientific analysis to the question of whether he should marry. This involved him making a list of pros and cons, and finally deciding marriage would be a good thing. He married his cousin Emma Wedgwood, and they retired to Down House (close to London) where Darwin became a recluse and used the house and grounds as a laboratory.
In Down House, the correspondence of Charles Darwin stretched to fourteen thousand letters. These mostly contained closely argued disputations with scientist friends like Thomas Huxley and Charles Lyall. But he also sought help from those involved in practical animal husbandry, like pigeon fanciers.
His children became objects of close study, and he compared their emotional reaction to those of monkeys in the local zoos. In the grounds, he bred pigeons, grew seeds, observed bees, tracked earthworms, and counted blades of grass. Like many great men, he spent a lot of time walking while contemplating the mysteries of universe. He even had a thinking path in the grounds of Down House.
It was in this "home brewed laboratory", after decades of work, that the theory of evolution by natural selection was given its final formulation.
Influences on Charles Darwin
Lamarck's Philosiophie Zoologique (1809) was a significant influence on Charles Darwin, but had major flaws. It was marred by the assumption that the Earth was only a few thousand years old, but its major error was assuming that characteristics acquired in a lifetime could be inherited.
Before Darwin, Robert Chambers suggested all creatures could have evolved from a simpler form. Like Darwin, he used fossil evidence to support his case. But he thought that new animals emerged through 'monstrous birth', so a sheep might give birth to a peacock. Darwin suggested he was lacking in observational evidence and scientific caution. The public scorn that Chambers suffered made Darwin wary of publishing until he had all his facts in order.
There were many other evolutionary theories. One, quoted in Origin as due to W. C. Wells, points out that livestock is improved by farmers selecting the fittest specimens. But it needed Darwin to extend this notion to suggest that evolution involved the natural selection of all species.
Darwin was forced into publication when he was sent an essay by Alfred Russell Wallace that proposed a theory of evolution identical to his own. He very generously agreed to a joint publication with Wallace, even though Darwin's work was far more substantial and had come about at an earlier date. But Wallace was the spur that shocked him into writing the Origin.
The book was a bestseller and caused a furore in intellectual circles. It had much support from the leading men of science, including Huxley and Lyall. But reactionary figures attempted to mount an opposition to it. At a meeting in 1860, Bishop Samuel Wilberforce asked Huxley on which side of the family he claimed descent from an ape. Huxley replied he would rather have an ape for a grandfather than a man who tried to obscure important scientific discussion through religious prejudice and false rhetoric.
Charles Darwin's social theories
Throughout the 1860s the theory of natural selection was applied to society. Wallace, a Socialist, thought it strengthened cooperation, but advocates of social Darwinism complained that modern civilization protected the “unfit”. Francis Galton suggested that stupidity and genius were inherited and that “eugenics” (sterilising the stupid!)
could improve humanity. Darwin capped these discussions with his book The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex
(1871). He discussed human origins from monkeys, which led to a spate of caricatures. But he added that natural selection of beauty and aesthetic preferences could account for the glory of the human races.
Some Darwinists were upset by the negative implications of "survival of the fittest". For instance, Wallace became a spiritualist, thinking that ghostly forces were moving humanity toward perfection. Darwin attended a séance with Galton and the novelist George Eliot in 1874 and was appalled at “such rubbish”. He later funded the prosecution of the medium Henry Slade.
In 1872 Darwin expanded the theory of evolution to give an account of the development of emotions. In The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals(1872) he showed the continuity of emotions and expressions between humans and animals.
Darwin the man
Throughout the 1870s, and 80s, at the height of his fame, Charles Darwin was ever thoughtful about his family, friends, colleagues and supposed competitors. He raised money to send his fatigued "bulldog",
T.H. Huxley, on holiday. His pestering led to the cash-strapped Wallace being added to the Civil List. The Harvard philosopher John Fiske, visited him in Down House
and found him “the dearest, sweetest, loveliest old grandpa that ever was.”
During this time Darwin composed an autobiography for his grandchildren, but not for publication. It stressed his dislike for many Christian myths, especially those involving eternal torment. But when people asked about his religious beliefs, he replied that he was an agnostic.
His final work, reflecting his modesty as much as his greatness, was The Formation of Vegetable Mould, Through the Action of Worms (1881). It gave an account of the transformation of vast landscapes by humble creatures, reflecting his own monumental transformation of the landscape of thought.
Charles Darwin died of a heart attack on April 19, 1882, and Galton pushed for the Royal Society to request a state funeral. This campaign was successful, and Darwin was buried in Westminster Abbey after Huxley had persuaded the church authorities that that an agnostic had a right to be buried there.
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David J. Scholl
Ford Motor Company
Providing a smooth, quiet environment for drivers and passengers is one of the many challenges faced by automobile manufacturers, and mathematical tools are required to meet this challenge. These tools are used both for modeling, to predict the performance of a specific design, and for data analysis, to assess the performance of real vehicles throughout their service lives. Techniques based on Fourier transforms, such as modal analysis and statistical energy analysis, have proven indispensable for both performance prediction and assessment. However, it is becoming increasingly clear, as these Fourier-based techniques mature, that there is an important class of sounds and vibrations for which the Fourier transform is simply not very useful. The archetype of this class is the rattle, which is a repetitive series of mechanical impacts between two or more objects. Rattle sounds are characterized by a low duty cycle (the time duration of the individual event is short relative to the period of silence between successive events) and the lack of a perceptible musical pitch (the resonant vibrations that result from the impacts are heavily damped). These two characteristics of rattles make them especially suited for analysis with wavelet transforms, since the individual wavelet basis vectors share these same properties. This is in contrast to humming or whistling sounds, which have a high duty cycle and a definite musical pitch, much like the sines and cosines that make up the Fourier basis. To illustrate the utility of this approach, a new technique for wavelet-based transient waveform visualization developed at Ford Research Laboratories will be discussed and applied to examples of realistic automotive rattle sounds. The "Industrial Problems" to be discussed arise in two different areas. First, there are some specific problems prompted by the waveform visualization algorithm mentioned earlier. Second, and more generally, there is the question of how far the analogy between the engineering applications of the Fourier Transform and the Wavelet Transform can be extended. The wavelet-based data visualization algorithm mentioned earlier is analogous to the calculation of Fourier-based energy spectral density. Do any of the many other Fourier-based engineering algorithms have wavelet-based analogs, still waiting to be discovered?
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The Evolution Deceit
The DNA data bank found in the cell nucleus is made up of nucleic acids expressed in shorthand form by the letters A, T, G and C. The molecules represented by these letters combine together in pairs, with each pair forming a rung in the DNA. Genes emerge through these rungs, one on top of the other. Every gene, part of the DNA molecule, controls a particular characteristic in the human body.
All the physical information regarding a living thing—from height to eye color, from the shape of the nose to blood group—is encoded in its genes. There are some 30,000 genes in the human DNA. Every gene consists of between 1,000 and 186,000 nucleotides, depending on the kind of protein it corresponds to, set out in a specific sequence. These genes contain some 30,000 codes controlling the production of these proteins. The information contained in these 30,000 genes represents just 3% of the total information in the DNA. The remaining 97% is still a mystery.
Genes are found inside chromosomes. The nucleus of every human cell (with the exception of reproductive cells) has 46 chromosomes. If each chromosome were compared to a volume and each gene to a page, there is enough information in one cell—which contains all the features of a human being—to fill a 46-volume encyclopedia. That encyclopedia is equivalent to 920 Encyclopedia Britannica volumes.
The letters in the DNA of every human being are arranged differently. That is why all the billions of people who have ever lived on Earth have been different from one another. The basic structure and functions of organs and limbs are the same in everyone. But everyone is specially created with such finely detailed differences. Even though each human being is the product of a single cell dividing, nobody looks exactly the same as anyone else.
All the organs in your body are constructed within the framework of a blueprint describes by the genes. For example, according to scientists, the skin is controlled by 2,559 genes, the brain by 29,930, the eye by 1,794, the salivary glands by 186, the heart by 6,216, the breast by 4,001, the lung by 11,581, the liver by 2,309, the intestines by 3,838, the skeletal muscle by 1,911 and blood cells by 22,092.
The secret behind your survival as a normal human being lies in the fact that the billions of letters in your cells’ 46-volume encyclopedia are all arranged flawlessly. It is of course impossible for these letters to organize and arrange themselves through their own consciousness and will. The genes we have compared to the pages of an encyclopedia, and their flawless arrangement that rules out the concept of chance, are proof of creation.
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Working With Others
- To gain a personal insight on how I relate to others.
- What behaviors I need to improve upon to become a better leader.
- To see how others view and perceive my personal behaviors.
This activity may be completed individuality or performed in a class environment. If the learner completes the questionnaire outside of the classroom, then the learner should discuss it with a couple of people who know him or her. If performed in a classroom environment, have the learners complete the questionnaire then divide the classroom into triads (groups of three) to discuss their answers. For personal questionnaire like this, triads are normally recommend as most people will feel more comfortable to have an honest discussion with a very small group than they would with a larger group.
Behaviors That Are Essential To Human Relations
Listed below are a number of behaviors that are essential to relating to others. Rate yourself on these behaviors, using the following scale:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Very Moderately Adequate Moderately Very Weak Weak Strong Strong
Note: a rating of 5 or higher means that you would considered yourself a resource person (if only minimally so). That is, in a relationship or group, you would be more of a giver rather than a receiver.
- ______ Feelings: I am not afraid to deal directly with emotion, rather it is my own or someone else. I allow myself to feel and give expressions to what I feel.
- ______ Initiative: In my relationships I act rather than react by going out and contacting others without waiting to be contacted.
- ______ Respect: I express that I am for others even if I do not necessarily approve of what they do.
- ______ Genuineness: I do not hide behind roles or facades. I let others know where I stand.
- ______ Concreteness: I am not vague when I speak to others. I do not beat around the bush in that I deal with concrete experience and behavior.
- ______ Immediacy: I deal openly and directly with others. I know where I stand with others and they know where they stand with me.
- ______ Empathy: I see the world through the eyes of others by listening to cues, both verbal and nonverbal, and I respond to these cues.
- ______ Confrontation: I challenge others with responsibly and with care. I do not use confrontation to punish.
- ______ Self-disclosure: I let others know the person inside, but I am not exhibitionistic. I am open without being a secret-reveler or secret-searcher.
- ______ Self-exploration: I examine my life style and behaviors and want others to help me to do so. I am open to change.
There are no correct or incorrect scores. This assessment simply shows you where you stand in your relations with others. Your goal should be to work on the lowest scores of the 10 behaviors to try to improve them. Also note your strong behaviors, they should be used to their full advantage; however, do not over use them.
Also, have one or two others rate you so that you can get an outside view of yourself as to whether you are projecting yourself to others as you believe you are.
This activity is based on the chapter, Diversity
Return to the Leadership Training and Development Outline
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Viewing Radio Waves (Interactive)
In this interactive activity adapted from NASA, learn about radio waves and how astronomers use them to study objects in space. Understand how radio waves are part of the electromagnetic spectrum and explore how the frequency, wavelength, and speed of a wave are related to each other. Investigate the differences between radio waves and sound waves and learn how astronomers use radio waves to create images. Compare optical and radio images of galaxies and nebulas.
10 Doggie Kisses by Todd Parr for Sesame Street (Counting to 10)
This is Todd Parr's (author and illustrator) second short film he has made for Sesame Street. Young learners will enjoy counting to 10 as the doggies kisses 10 different children. What a fun resource for the early childhood classroom. (0:46)
Students become familiar with lunar phases by locating and then graphing the Moon phase of their own birthdays. After listening and discussing lunar myths and legends they create their own Birthday Moon Stories.
Improve Your Acrylic Painting
This 3:43 long video shows Terry Harrison demonstrating simple exercises for watercolor and oil painting techniques using acrylics. It is a useful video with good tips
"Rainy Day" Song by the Milkshake Kids
Another fun fine animation by Sam Tillman. "Rainy Day" is a song from the Milkshake Kids. Students will learn about all the things you can do in the rain. This is a great resource to help build background knowledge about the weather and to help make real world connections between nature and the classroom. (1:42)
Duccio, The Virgin and Child, c. 1315
Duccio di Buoninsegna, The Virgin and Child with Saints Dominic and Aurea, c. 1315, tempera on wood, 42.5 x 34.5 cm (National Gallery, London). (3:43)
Convicts and the making of Australia: Grace Karskens
On Wednesday 15 May, Fellow of the Australian Academy of the Humanities and University of NSW historian, Associate Professor Grace Karskens, presented the ANU School of History 2012 Allan Martin lecture, Shifting the shape of Australian history: Convicts, the early colonial period and the making of Australia. Karskens' lecture questioned why Australian history still routinely quarantines our convict legacy and the early colonial period.
Professor David Shambaugh: China goes global, but only partially
In this video world-renowned China scholar Professor David Shambaugh examines China's place in a global world. Contrary to conventional wisdom, Shambaugh argues that China is not a superpower but rather a 'partial power'. Based on a five-year study which has culminated in his latest book, China goes global: the partial power, Shambaugh argues that rather than 'rising', China is 'spread' across the globe -- with a growing international footprint that is broad but not deep. David Shambaugh is a
Discovery Kids - Doki descubre como se hace el pan (en español)
La mascota de Discovery Kids, Doki, descubre cómo se convierte el trigo al pan. Buen video para niños en primaria. (.56)
12.158 Molecular Biogeochemistry (MIT)
This course covers all aspects of molecular biosignatures, such as their pathways of lipid biosynthesis, the distribution patterns of lipid biosynthetic pathways with regard to phylogeny and physiology, isotopic contents, occurrence in modern organisms and environments, diagenetic pathways, analytical techniques and the occurrence of molecular fossils through the geological record. Students analyze in depth the recent literature on chemical fossils. Lectures provide background on the subject mat
01.06.2012 – Langsam gesprochene Nachrichten
Trainiere dein Hörverstehen mit den Nachrichten der Deutschen Welle von Freitag – als Text und als verständlich gesprochene Audio-Datei. *** Bundesaußenminister Guido Westerwelle hat Russland aufgefordert, seine Haltung im Syrien-Konflikt zu überdenken. Westerwelle sagte der Zeitung "Die Welt", Russland komme eine Schlüsselrolle zu, um einen Flächenbrand in der gesamten Region zu verhindern. Das könne nur gelingen, wenn die internationale Gemeinschaft zusammenstehe. US-Außenminister
Redoxtitraties : Practicum In dit practicum bepaal je door middel van titratie:
In dit practicum bepaal je door middel van titratie:
Japanese Popular Culture, Spring 2003
This course examines Japanese popular culture as a way of understanding the changing character of media, capitalism, fan communities and culture. Topics include manga (comic books), hip-hop and other popular music in Japan, anime (Japanese animated films) and feature films, sports (sumo, soccer, baseball), and online communication. Emphasis will be on contemporary popular culture and theories of gender, sexuality, race, and the workings of power in global culture industries.
Great Gull Island
On the eastern edge of Long Island Sound, a small, rocky piece of land known as Great Gull Island houses the crumbling battlements of a U.S. Army fort and some 11,000 nesting pairs of Common and Roseate Terns. The American Museum of Natural History purchased the island in 1949 to preserve a breeding habitat for terns displaced from Long Island's beaches by increasing development. Project director Helen Hays has led the Museum's research efforts on Great Gull Island since 1969. Among the field
Interview with Annie Manuel, Tohono O’odham Potter
Lisa Falk, ASM director of education, talks with Annie Manuel, a potter from Hickiwan, Arizona, about her art. The interview took place at a Culture Craft Saturday program at Arizona State Museum, May 2007.
"What? Growing bugs is a real job? And it requires math?!" Organic
farmers depend on Jan Dietrick to supply them with good bugs that attack bad bugs. She depends on her knowledge of numbers to get the job done.This video explains what she does and why it is important. Running time 1:19 minutes
Free Tools to Help you Flip your Classroom
Florida Virtual School's Latest Venture
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The Creation Wiki is now operating on a new and improved server.
From CreationWiki, the encyclopedia of creation science
Cæsarea Maritima (Greek: Παράλιος Καισάρεια, Paralios Kaisareia), called Cæsarea Palæstina after 133 AD, was a city built on the shore on the Mediterranean Sea by Herod the Great about 25–13 BC. It was considered a magnificent jewel of the Roman Empire and was indeed the greatest engineering wonder of its time. Her beauty was to be a testament to the might and grandeur of Rome and built to honor Caesar Augustus. From massive stadiums and temples to Herod's promontory palace, Caesarea Maritima was constructed to rival the City of Zion and become the Roman "Jerusalem," and the Roman capital of Palestine for more than five hundred years.
In 500 BC the Persians gave the Sidonians all the coastline from Dor to Joppa in gratitude for use of their fleet in the Persian invasion of Greece. The Sidonians used this site as an anchorage for merchant ships on the trade route to Egypt, and this location slowly grew into an important coastal town. The city was originally called Straton's Tower after its alleged founder Straton, the king of Sidon. He built a lighthouse and fortifications around this small town in order to protect the port. This Phoenician city fell to Alexander Yannai in 96 BC and became part of the Hasmonean kingdom until Pompey conquered it in 63 BC. It was temporarily under the control of Cleopatra of Egypt, but then the city was returned to Roman emperor Augustus.
Augustus gave this city to Herod the Great in 30 BC, under whose control it achieved its greatest glory and splendor. Herod named it Caesarea Maritima after Caesar Augustus, and to identify it separately from Caesarea Palestine. Over the course of twelve years (22-10 BC), Herod the Great rebuilt most of Caesarea and, in 6 BC, it became the Roman capital of the Judean province. Caesarea Maritima remained the Roman capital of Palestine for the next five hundred years. The Roman governor of Judea lived in Caesarea, and the Roman legions for the province were also headquartered there. It became the site of the First Jewish Revolt (66-70 AD) that began after a massacre of 20,000 Jews, and the Second Jewish Revolt (132-135 AD). The persecution and executions of Jews, including famous Rabbi Akiva, also occurred in Caesarea. In the second century, Caesarea became the seat of a Christian bishop and an important center for Christian learning and study.
Caesarea was the last city in Palestine to fall during the Muslim invasion in 640 AD. After its fall and until the Crusades, this area was overall neglected and allowed to decay. Baldwin I captured Caesarea in 1101, and Saladin conquered the city in 1187. King Richard the Lion Heart of England retook Caesarea in 1191 and exiled all Muslims from the city. Louis IX of France rebuilt and fortified Caesarea from 1251-1252, and thirteen years later Baybars, the Egyptian sultan, captured and destroyed the whole city. It was left in ruins for the next five hundred years until 1878, when Ottoman Turks sent Bosnian Muslim refugees to live there. The tiny fishing village built by the Muslims was abandoned in 1948 during the War of Independence, and today has become an increasingly popular tourist attraction, resort town, and archaeological dig site.
Under Herod the Great, Caesarea was modeled after the common Roman city, containing a network of streets and square city blocks forming a massive grid. The city included the Temple of Augustus, Herod’s palace, and a marketplace/forum, as well as multiple public entertainment facilities.
One vital thing that Caesarea lacked was fresh water, being situated on the coast far from any springs or rivers. To solve this problem, a pair of aqueducts was built to the southern side of Mount Carmel to bring water into the city. The seven-mile long twin aqueducts were part of an extensive sewer and water system developed in Caesarea. The aqueducts were enlarged as the city grew and their precise engineering included arches and tunnels and used gravity to move the water into Caesarea's pools and fountains through a network of pipes. Inscriptions on the aqueducts indicate that their maintenance was conducted by the Second and Tenth Legions of the Roman army stationed in Caesarea.
Herod the Great’s theater was one of his earliest entertainment buildings and located in the southernmost part of Caesarea, facing out towards the Mediterranean Sea. This large facility contained six vaulted entrances (vomitoria) and six tiers of stone seats that could hold more than 5,000 people. There was also a rectangular, stone box in the central portion of the theater that was probably reserved for the governor. The orchestra section of the theater is 80 ft. in diameter and is semicircular, surrounding the stage portion. The original flooring was painted plaster with colored designs of animals and plants and imitations of stone tiles. The Herodian theater was completely reconstructed between 193-235 AD during the Severan dynasty. The new Imperial Theater included marble flooring instead of plaster and the orchestra portion was expanded into a full circle. This circular stage area was then used for nautical games. The Imperial Theater was in use until the end of the Byzantine era and then it was included within a fortress, complete with walls and towers.
The excavation of the Imperial Theater is the largest ever to take place in Israel. This archaeological find included the only known extrabiblical documentation of Pontius Pilate’s existence on a stone in a rebuilt staircase. The dig also unearthed fourteen different layers of plaster flooring. The theater is now restored and can host 3,800 spectators for outdoor performances.
Herod built his circus to host athletic competitions for the 192nd Olympiad in 9/10 BC. This entertainment included foot races, boxing, gladiator fights, chariot races, and battles with wild animals. The circus was constructed after the typical Roman circus, forming a U-shape with four to eight starting gates at one end for chariot races. Herod’s circus extended for almost 1,000 ft. and was approximately 170 ft. wide. The stands could hold 5,000 spectators and were separated from the arena by a large ditch. The circus also housed a shrine, which contained four marble human right feet. These offerings, especially of carved body parts, supposedly protected the strength, power, and well-being of the worshiper. Chariot races consisted of seven laps around the arena, the middle divider displaying an obelisk and two towers at each end. Herod’s circus was replaced by a larger circus in the 2nd Century BC, and a part of the old circus was converted into an amphitheater.
Caesarea’s natural harbor tended to silt up, and its currents were treacherous to navigate. To avoid these problems, Herod the Great had an artificial harbor constructed over a period of twelve years (21-33 BC) and named it Sebastos, after Caesar Augustus. Herod’s harbor consisted of an inner and outer harbor made up of breakwaters. These breakwaters were made from hydraulic concrete, and they formed concrete islands that, when connected, were 150-200 ft wide and could hold barrel-topped warehouses and provide mooring space for ships. The southern breakwater formed an arc into the sea for 1,800 ft. and the northern breakwater formed a straight dock wall for 750 ft. The resulting harbor was 40 acres, and among harbors in the eastern Mediterranean is considered second finest only to the great harbor of Alexandria in Egypt. The Caesarea harbor was as large as Athens’ port, Piraeus, and was close enough to Rome that the trip was a mere ten days. A lighthouse was placed on the end of the southern breakwater, marking the entrance, and its fires burned at all times; sandbars were marked by six impressive bronze statues. The incredible and complex construction of Caesarea’s harbor is considered by many scholars to be one of the most amazing accomplishments of the ancient world.
Caesarea’s significance in the Bible is found chiefly in Acts during the lifetime of the apostle Paul. Paul traveled through Caesarea when he first returned to Tarsus after becoming a Christian (Acts 9:28-29). The believer Philip journeyed to Caesarea after baptizing the Ethiopian eunuch in Acts 8:40. Peter baptized the Roman centurion Cornelius and his family stationed in Caesarea, beginning the ministry of salvation among the Gentiles. (Acts 10:24-48) Herod Agrippa, after allowing the people to idolize and praise him as a god, received God’s punishment and died from worms in Caesarea (Acts 12:19, 21-23). Paul’s missionary trips frequently ended in Caesarea’s large port and after his last journey, he stayed with Philip and the believers in Caesarea before going to Jerusalem (Acts 18:22, 21:8-16). Once imprisoned for his faith, Paul was sent to Caesarea and appeared before the governors Felix and Festus, as well as King Agrippa. Paul eventually appealed to Caesar after spending three years under house arrest in Caesarea. (Acts 23:23-26:32
A stone found in the excavation of Caesarea is the only extrabiblical proof of Pontius Pilate’s existence. It reads, “Pontius Pilate, the Prefect of Judea, has dedicated to the people of Caesarea a temple in honor of Tiberius."
Over the years, Caesarea became a center of Christian study and learning. In 231 AD, Origen, a leading Christian apologist and teacher, visited the city. During the Great Persecution (303-313 AD) by Emperor Diocletian, many Christians were also martyred in Caesarea. An extensive library was collected by Pamphilius in Caesarea, which was only surpassed by the famous library in Alexandria, Egypt. One of Pamphilius’s disciples, Eusebius, was the first geographer and historian of the Christian church, and his great work, the “Onomasticon,” has enabled archaeologists to locate many Biblical sites.
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Caesarea Maritima BibArch, February 13, 2009.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 Virtual Israel Experience: Caesarea The American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Walking in Their Sandals: Caesarea - Location Profile by Columbia International University's Distance Education & Media Development.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Caesarea - From Roman City to Crusader Fortress by Ministry of Foreign Affairs - The State of Israel. December 17, 2001.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Vegas on the Med: A Tour of Caesarea’s Entertainment District by Yosef Porath. Biblical Archaeology Review. September/October 2004 (Vol 30, No 5): 24-35.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Caesarea Maritima by PBS.org.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 “Building Power - The Politics of Architecture”. by Kenneth G. Holum. Biblical Archaeology Review. September/October 2004 (Vol 30, No 5): 36-45,57.
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Hi, cutie-pie! This little weirdo is a mouse lemur, one of two newly discovered in Madagascar through genetic analysis. Of course as soon as we realized they were alive, we had to declare them endangered, because as people all we goddamn do is slash and burn forests (or create the conditions in which slashing and burning forests is someone else’s only option for survival), but still, here they are. Sorry we’ve been fucking with your life before we even knew you existed, little Microcebus murinus.
Read more about our new lemur friends at Scientific American’s Running Ponies blog.
[photo by David Haring of the Duke Lemur Center via Running Ponies]
Welcome to the world, endangered limosa harlequin frog! You are the product of the very first scientific program to breed your species, because we selfish-jerk humans can’t stop wrecking your habitat and making you extinct.
To get the small amphibians to mate, researchers went to great lengths. They built a rock platform to mimic the underground caves in which the frogs breed, and piped in oxygen-rich water between 72 and 75 degrees Fahrenheit (22 and 24 degrees Celsius), according to a release from the Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute.
Young frogs only feed on algal mats coating rocks. So scientists with the Panama Amphibian Rescue and Conservation Project, which bred the frogs, also painted the rock platforms with spirulina algae and then let it dry. When placed inside the enclosure, the algae grew and fed the animals.
Gosh they’re tiny, aren’t they? They must lay the tiniest eggs. Ultimately the scientists breeding these itty-bitty amphibians plan to release them into the wild, though if we don’t work on repairing the places they live, the limosa harlequin frog may only survive in captivity.
[photo by Brian Gratwicke, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute via Live Science]
Dogs can recognize other dogs! Thanks, science! »
The researchers found that despite the huge diversity of dog breeds and non-dog species shown to these nine dogs, each one managed to successfully recognise which faces belonged to dogs and which faces didn’t. Whether it was the face of a big, shaggy dog or a tiny, sleek one, the dogs managed over a number of different trials to lump them all into the same category, away from any of the other species.
Following up on two studies on dogs’ ability to recognize pictures of other dogs, and humans (your dog totally knows your face!), researchers in France did a big experiment to see “whether dogs can recognise each other as a separate group, away from other animals, despite their incredible physical diversity.” Answer, per Becky Crew at Running Ponies blog: yes! They can tell other dogs are other dogs, no matter how different two breeds are.
“What’s left to do now is to figure out what physical characteristics the dogs were using to distinguish the pictured dogs from the other species.”
Animals are amazing! Are dogs secret geniuses, or have we just been arrogantly underestimating them for millennia? Probably both.
[Photo by saturday_flowers via Flickr]
Gut-check: The real paleo diet was mostly plants »
Rob Dunn has a guest blog at Scientific American this week that neatly summarizes the problem with all those Paleo Diet enthusiasts: Our actual, paleolithic ancestors ate very similarly to today’s simians, which is to say, mostly plants.
He says that the diets of living primates “are composed of fruits, nuts, leaves, insects, and sometimes the odd snack of a bird or a lizard,” and that even notoriously bloodthirsty chimpanzees’ diets are maybe 3 percent meat, tops. You know, almost exactly what they ate before some of them took a turn toward humanity millennia ago. The money quote, though, is here:
IF we want to return to our ancestral diets, we might reasonably eat what our ancestors spent the most time eating during the largest periods of the evolution of our guts. If that is the case, we need to be eating fruits, nuts, and vegetables—especially fungus-covered tropical leaves.
All those skinny white guys with old-timey facial hair can run around taking home-butchery classes and eating all of the pig, or whatever, but they can’t pretend it’s more “natural” than eating a plant-based diet. It’s just more violent.
To increase your knowledge and feelings of veg-superiority, go read Rob Dunn’s entire blog post. It’s terrific!
[Photo of a Temminck’s Red Colobus (taken in Gambia! A free monkey!) by Steve Garvia via Flickr]
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Animal Species:Longsnout Flathead, Thysanophrys chiltonae Schultz, 1966
The Longsnout Flathead has a long, spatulate snout. It occurs in tropical marine waters of the Indo-Pacific.
The Longsnout Flathead has a long, spatulate snout. It is mostly white with brown saddles on its back. There is brown mottling on the head and sides. The fins have brown or white spots.
The species grows to 23 cm in length.
It occurs in tropical marine waters of the Indo-Pacific. In Australia, the Longsnout Flathead is known from the northern to southern Great Barrier Reef, Queensland.
The map below shows the Australian distribution of the species based on public sightings and specimens in Australian Museums. Source: Atlas of Living Australia.
Distribution by collection data
- Myers, R.F. 1999. Micronesian Reef Fishes. Coral Graphics. Pp. 330.
- Randall, J.E., Allen, G.R. & R.C. Steene. 1997. Fishes of the Great Barrier Reef and Coral Sea. Crawford House Press. Pp. 557.
Mark McGrouther , Collection Manager, Ichthyology
Tags Platycephalidae, Fishes, Ichthyology, Longsnout Flathead, Thysanophrys chiltonae, tropical water, marine, spatulate snout, blotches/mottled, brown mottling, brown spots, white spots, dots/spots, 10 cm - 30 cm, Great Barrier Reef,
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This section contains documents created from scanned original files and other
documents that could not be made accessible to screen reader software. A "#"
symbol is used to denote such documents.
Definition, including calculation of the self inductance L for a solenoid and mention of the unit Henry for self inductance.
Using Faraday's Law to find the equation for current as a function of time in a circuit containing inductors and resistors.
Finding the equation for current in an LR circuit when the battery is removed, as well as equations for power and energy in an inductor.
Showing that a self-inductor will oppose the buildup of current using a circuit of light bulbs and a large inductor.
Using Faraday's Law to derive the equation for current in an LR circuit with an AC power supply, including the phase shift.
Hear the current reduction of high frequency audio due to a self-inductor. Cannot hear phase shift.
How the phase lag of the current due to self-inductance in a conductor makes magnetic levitation using an AC coil possible.
Levitating a conducting ring above a coil powered by an AC power supply.
Induced EMF and back EMF in solenoid; self-inductance definition and calculation; energy storage in inductors.
Definition; reciprocity theorem; transformers.
Intuitive RL circuit description; differential equation and solution for charging and discharging; time constant.
Oscillation in LC circuits; differential equation and solution; energy conservation.
Introduction of the phenomenon of mutual inductance, whereby the magnetic field produced by one coil induces a current in a nearby coil. Example of two concentric coplanar loops.
Introduces self inductance with examples of a solenoid and a toroid; relates mutual inductance to self inductance.
Derives the energy stored in an inductor, with an example of an ideal solenoid, and introduces energy density of the magnetic field.
Modifies Kirchhoff's Voltage Rule to include the induced EMF due to an inductor, and uses this rule to analyze rising and decaying currents in an RL circuit.
Description of current oscillations in circuits with inductors and capacitors; includes analogy to harmonic oscillations in a mass-spring system.
Enumerated procedure for calculating the self inductance of a loop.
Summary of Kirchoff's Voltage Law for circuits that contain inductors.
Write down equation for charge in an LC circuit, and find the time and stored energies when energy stored in the capacitor reaches its first maximum. Solution is included after problem.
Find the inductance of a wire coiled into the shape of two concentric solenoids. Solution is included after problem.
Find the total energy stored in the magnetic field in a toroid. Solution is included after problem.
Find the total energy stored in the magnetic field in a current-carrying wire. Solution is included after problem.
Find the mutual inductance of a system consisting of a rectangular conducting loop next to a long conducting wire. Solution is included after problem.
Find the initial and final currents through each resistor in a two-loop RL circuit. Solution is included after problem.
Find how the current through an inductor evolves in time, for a two-loop RL circuit. Solution is included after problem.
Characterize the behavior of an LC oscillator circuit by finding the oscillation frequency, maximum charge, maximum current and total energy. Solution is included after problem.
Questions about inductance (1-3), circuits involving inductors (4,6,7).
Find the inductance of a solenoid and the induced EMF when a changing current is applied.
Find the inductance of a cylindrical coil made by tightly wrapping a length of wire.
Show that inductors combine like resistors in series and in parallel; consider the effect of their mutual inductance.
An additional large resistance is suddenly added in series to a steady-state RL circuit: solve for the current and induced EMF of the inductor as a function of time.
Find the total energy stored and dissipated in an RL circuit when a battery is connected and then, much later, disconnected; estimate the time scale.
Derive the inductance of a solenoid and then calculate the inductance of the same solenoid when filled with an iron core.
A circuit with two switches is first configured as an RL circuit and then, much later, switched to be an LC oscillator; find the current and energy in the RL circuit and the maximum charge on the capacitor.
Find the magnetic field energy in a spinning charged cylindrical capacitor; also find the electric field energy when the charged cylindrical capacitor is at rest.
Guided questions to estimate the inductance of a conducting loop spinning like a generator in an external magnetic field.
Identify the behavior of current as switches close in one- and two-loop RL circuits.
How does the current in a driven electric motor change when the rotating loop is held still?
Identify how the charge and current in an LC circuit are behaving at specific moments in the oscillation.
Calculating magnetic field energy and self-inductance of a current-carrying wire.
3-part RL circuit problem; energy delivered and built up in circuit; time to current build-up.
Explaining the spark from disconnecting circuit; energy stored in L.
Finding current across an inductor and a resistor as switch is closed and long after switch is closed.
4-part problem; maximal currents across circuit elements for various driving frequencies.
Finding B-fields and mutual inductance of two concentric solenoids.
In ideal LC circuit, calculating Q(t) and volume of inductor given maximum field.
Finding current in LR circuit just after opening; graphing current change.
Calculating energy stored in LC circuit, Q(t) for capacitor, and energy in inductor; mechanical analogy.
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A third of people who are on maintenance hemodialysis eventually get infected with a chronic viral disease. Isn't this shocking?
The disease is usually Hepatitis C. Some people also get infected with Hepatitis B or HIV. Hepatitis C is a disease that affects the liver. 85% of people with Hepatitis C proceed to liver cirrhosis necessitating a liver transplant. As if losing your kidneys was not enough!
What is the primary reason behind this?
There is only one. Human error. Yes. Human error. A person who is already suffering with a chronic condition, who is dialysis dependent is handed another sentence. Simply due to the carelessness of an individual. This is so horrible. And the attitude of most professionals towards this in the dialysis industry is so callous that it can be only described as criminal. They simply do not realize, and for the most part, neither do many patients, what is happening here.
Once a dialyzor is infected with a virus such as Hepatitis C, there are more hurdles for a transplant. Most centers will prefer giving a kidney to a person who is negative (virus free) rather than someone who is positive. Even assuming that the person gets a kidney, the whole treatment after a transplant becomes all the more complex because the doctors have to keep in mind that the immunosuppression drugs can cause a flare up of the Hepatitis C virus causing further damage to the liver. Every decision needs to be taken keeping this in mind.
There are treatments available for Hepatitis C but the chances of success (eliminating the virus) are still quite low. Especially when you're on dialysis. This is because the virus is best treated with a combination of two drugs - pegylated interferon and ribavirin. The first actually reduces the viral load (number of virus copies per ml of blood) but the second actually helps keep it down. Ribavirin, however, causes severe anemia in people on dialysis. So, people on dialysis are treated only with pegylated interferon. This further reduces the chances of successfully treating the disease in the dialysis population.
(I am not trying to paint a dismal picture here. There are many people on dialysis who are successfully treated for Hepatitis C. So, if you're on dialysis and are positive, definitely consider treating it.)
The only point I am trying to make is that due to human error, many lives are being further spoilt. This is something that can easily be avoided. Units must follow stringent processes. There are a set of published guidelines by the Center for Disease Control that lay down the procedures to be followed and the precautions to take to prevent cross infections in dialysis units. All centers must actively follow these guidelines.
The problem with this infection is that you will know you have been infected only after a few weeks (sometimes months). So, no one can nail down why the infection happened and how. You can only guess. The disease itself is indolent. You don't see symptoms until many years. So, medical professionals take this fairly lightly. In young people, however, this is a really serious problem. Being diagnosed with kidney disease itself at a young age can be quite shattering. Having this additional cross to bear is totally unfair.
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Humberstone and Santa Laura works contain over 200 former saltpeter works where workers from Chile, Peru and Bolivia lived in company towns and forged a distinctive communal pampinos culture. That culture is manifest in their rich language, creativity, and solidarity, and, above all, in their pioneering struggle for social justice, which had a profound impact on social history. Situated in the remote Pampas, one of the driest deserts on Earth, thousands of pampinos lived and worked in this hostile environment for over 60 years, from 1880, to process the largest deposit of saltpeter in the world, producing the fertilizer sodium nitrate that was to transform agricultural lands in North and South America, and in Europe, and produce great wealth for Chile. Because of the vulnerability of the structures and the impact of a recent earthquake, the site was also placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger to help mobilize resources for its conservation.
planta de lixiviacion
Justification for Inscription
Criterion (ii): The development of the saltpeter industry reflects the combined knowledge, skills, technology, and financial investment of a diverse community of people who were brought together from around South America, and from Europe. The saltpeter industry became a huge cultural exchange complex where ideas were quickly absorbed and exploited. The two works represent this process.
Criterion (iii): The saltpeter mines and their associated company towns developed into an extensive and very distinct urban community with its own language, organisation, customs, and creative expressions, as well as displaying technical entrepreneurship. The two nominated works represent this distinctive culture.
Criterion (iv): The saltpeter mines in the north of Chile together became the largest producers of natural saltpeter in the world, transforming the Pampa and indirectly the agricultural lands that benefited from the fertilisers the works produced. The two works represent this transformation process.
The development of the saltpeter industry reflects the combined knowledge, skills, technology, and financial investment of a diverse community of people who were brought together from around South America and from Europe. The saltpeter industry became a huge cultural exchange complex where ideas were quickly absorbed and exploited. The two works represent this process. The saltpeter mines and their associated company towns developed into an extensive and very distinct urban community with its own language, organization, customs and creative expressions, as well as displaying technical entrepreneurship. The saltpeter mines in the north of Chile together became the largest producers of natural saltpeter in the world, transforming the Pampa and indirectly the agricultural lands that benefited from the fertilisers the works produced. The two works represent this transformation process and the distinctive culture that it produced.
The two abandoned saltpeter works lie in the Tamarugal Pampa and are 1.5 km apart, separated by Route A16. Saltpeter (sodium nitrate) deposits are found in an arid, desert altiplano in the far north of Chile, in the regions of Tarapacá and Antofagasta - the Pampa, which is one of the driest deserts in the world with virtually no annual rainfall, and large differences in temperature between day and night. The porous Pampa filters water coming down from the Andes Mountains. Near the coastal ridge, the water formed small lakes in the impermeable granite-like rock, giving rise to 'salt pans' as a result of the evaporation of water, and 'saltpeter' beds in fissures between the hard and softer rocks.
The mining of saltpeter began at the foot of the eastern edge of the Coastal Range, first for manufacturing explosives and then more profitably as a fertilizer that was exported around the world. Defying the extremes of climate, 200 works to mine and process the saltpeter, with towns to house the workers and railways to transport the powder to coast, were established in an intensive period of around 50 years from 1880. The huge extent of the deposits and the high grade and thickness of the saltpeter veins turned the Pampa into the main producer of natural nitrate in the world. During the 1920s, competition from synthetic nitrates in Europe led to the closure of many works and by 1933 most of the industry had come to an almost complete standstill. The Humberstone and Santa Laura Saltpeter works are two that have managed in part to survive the asset stripping that followed the decline of the nitrate industry. None of the buildings are now in use apart from some bathrooms that have been restored for the use of visitors and a reception building.
Together they represent the technical and social systems that created great wealth and prosperity for some and arduous, communal living for others. The Pampinos, those who live in the Pampa, are now seen as pioneers in the social struggle for better working conditions, and their distinctive and creative culture is celebrated in print and film. Source: UNESCO/CLT/WHC
From pre-Hispanic times indigenous peoples in the area, the Atacamenos and the Incas, used nitrate as a fertiliser, extracting and grinding the saltpeter and spreading it on fields.
The first Europeans used the saltpeter for explosives. The mineral was mined and sent on mules to Lima to be processed into gunpowder. Increase in demand for explosives in the late 18th century led to exploration of new fields in northern Chile and the discovery of the Tarapaca seams. At around the same time, a German scientist, Thadeus Haencke, discovered how to manufacture potassium nitrate. The first saltpeter works were opened in 1810. These were small-scale individual operators who extracted and crushed the material by hand, boiled it in simple vats and left it in the sun to evaporate. The first shipments were made to Great Britain in the 1820s and to the USA and France in the 1830s, all for use in explosives.
Its fertilising properties were discovered in Europe in the 1830s and demand started to soar as cereal production begun to spread to unexploited lands in USA, Argentina and Russia. The fertiliser also begun to be used for coffee in Brazil, Sugar in Cuba and the Dominican Republic. Chile became the main world producer of natural nitrate. What transformed the scale and scope of the works was a new processing technique developed by the Chilean Pedro Gamboni in 1853 for dissolving saltpeter. This encouraged owners to install fixed equipment: boilers, troughs etc and expand homes for workers. A second factor was improved transport: until the railways arrived in the second half of the 19th century, transport to the coast on packhorse mules limited the scale of the industry. The railways spread rapidly, funded by private investment: by 1905 there were 1,787 km of track and by 1913, 5,000 km.
In 1879 the so-called Saltpeter War involving Chile, Bolivia and Peru (who supported Bolivia) gave Chile dominance of the industry. The aftermath encouraged European investment and this in turn acted as a trigger for a surge in the nation's economy. By 1890 saltpeter accounted for 50% of the country's total revenue; by 1913 80% of all its exports.
The First World War brought terrible consequences for the saltpeter producers. The sea routes became unsafe and Germany, one of the largest importers, begun to develop its own saltpeter based on synthetic ammonia. However as European investors withdrew, Chilean participation increased. Nevertheless demand continued to decline and in spite of re-structuring, the creation of the Chilean Saltpeter Company (COSACH) split between state and private investors, and a new production system, which allowed the use of lower grade ore, the market did not improve and COSACH was wound up. By 1930s only 10% of the world's nitrate came from Chile and this had dropped to 3% by 1950s. COSACH's successor, COSATAN, which had a monopoly of saltpeter, survived until 1961. The Peruvian Nitrate Company built Humberstone saltpeter works, originally known as La Palma, in 1862. Until 1889, it was one of the biggest saltpeter-mines in Tarapacá zone with about 3,000 inhabitants. With the economic crisis that affected all the production of sodium nitrate, La Palma was shut down to be reopened in 1933 under the ownership of the COSACH and bearing the name by which it is known now, the Humberstone saltpeter work, in homage to chemical engineer Humberstone. Between 1933 and 1940 the operations were expanded, new buildings built around the Market Square and the population reached 3,700 people.
Santa Laura Work, built ten years after Humberstone in 1872 by the ‘Barra y Risco' Company, was smaller and had only 450 families in 1920. After facing successive crisis, it too was taken over by COSATAN.
In 1959 COSATAN was wound up and the two works closed finally. The works were auctioned in 1961. Both were bought by the same private individual for scrap. In order to avoid them being destroyed, the properties were declared national monuments in 1970. This has not stopped quite drastic deterioration, robberies and vandalism and some dismantling.
After the owner went bankrupt, in 1995 the properties came under the control of the ‘Ministerio de Bienes Nacionales' (National Assets Ministry) and they have assigned them for a period of thirty years to the Saltpeter Museum Corporation, a non-profit organization, which has taken over the management. Source: Advisory Body Evaluation
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The 50th Anniversary of Silent Spring: The Power of a Book
2nd floor, West Wing
October- December 2012
2012 marks the 50th anniversary of the publication of Silent Spring by Rachel Carson. This book, which created a huge stir when first published, was both praised and attacked but eventually held up as a classic and one of the most important works of the 20th century. Carson was the first to alert the public to the health and environmental dangers of widespread spraying of toxic pesticides, most notably DDT. The book is credited with leading to stricter regulation of pesticide use, eventual creation of the Environmental Protection Agency, and the beginning of the modern environmental movement.
Exhibit produced by Susan Kendall.
For a more in-depth exploration of Rachel Carson's book and legacy view the MSU Museum's exhibition Echoes of Silent Spring: 50 Years of Environmental Awareness, on display in the Heritage Gallery through Dec. 30, 2012, and attend the MSU Main Libraries' November 8 showing and discussion of the documentary Dying to Be Heard, the story of MSU professor Dr. George J. Wallace, who discovered a link between DDT and dying birds on the MSU campus.
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Chimpanzees and people already share much when it comes to our evolutionary history, and the latest research shows we have a similar appreciation for fairness as well.
A study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences reveals the first evidence for the trait, which scientists had previously thought was exclusive to higher-thinking Homo sapiens, in chimps. The common ancestral lineage of humans and chimps also means that the discovery could provide insight into how human behavior evolved.
Researchers at Emory University’s Yerkes National Primate Research Center and Georgia State University played “the ultimatum game” with chimpanzees to find out if chimps are sensitive to how rewards are divided up after collaborating to obtain them. Chimpanzees, like people, acted more equitably than selfishly when they had to work together to obtain food rewards.
(PHOTOS: Primatologist Jane Goodall)
That’s not a complete surprise, given what is already known about chimpanzee social structures. They are social and cooperative animals that work together to hunt, defend their territory and share food. Some studies suggest chimps even keep track of how frequently other chimpanzees support or help them. But while some past studies have suggested that chimpanzees might split shared bounty equitably, none have demonstrated a clear sense of fairness until now.
“We were surprised people hadn’t been able to show it experimentally before given all that anecdotal information that we have, from wild chimpanzees to chimps in captivity,” says Darby Proctor, the study’s first author.
In the study, researchers created a modified version of the ultimatum game, a classic test for studying fairness. When the experiment is performed with people, one participant is usually given money that he or she can divide up in any way with a second anonymous participant in another room. If the second participant accepts the offer, both go home happy, but if he or she rejects the offer, neither participant keeps the cash. It’s in the best interest of the first participant to play fair — if the participant acts too selfishly, he or she might not get anything at all.
(MORE: Animals: Chats with Chimpanzees)
Instead of money, the researchers used food to incentivize the chimps. But because chimpanzees have a difficult time making careful decisions when food is right before them, the scientists trained the animals on the symbolic meaning of tokens that represented different food scenarios. One token represented an equitable offer (the chimps get the same number of banana slices), while the other represented a selfish offer (the first chimp gets five banana slices, the second gets only one). The first chimpanzee would select a token to hand to its partner chimp, who could either redeem the reward by giving the token to the experimenter, or do nothing and refuse the offer. The tokens also made the game more like the human version: like money, the tokens are abstract items that have to be exchanged to realize their value.
In order to determine whether fairness was potentially driving the chimpanzees’ behavior, the scientists ran two versions in the game. In the first, the chimpanzees were trained to understand that their choice of tokens was strictly straightforward: If they chose the fair offer, each chimp would receive the same number of banana slices, and if they chose the unfair offer, the chooser would receive five banana slices and the partner would receive one. In this round, the chimps were almost uniformly selfish, choosing the unfair offer close to 90 percent of the time.
But when the ultimatum portion of the game began, and the number of banana slices depended on whether the receiving chimp cooperated, the animals chose the equitable offer around 70 percent of the time.
“The chimpanzees were clearly paying attention to what their partners’ outcomes were and adjusting their behavior depending on whether or not their partner could affect the outcome,” says Sarah Brosnan, the study’s senior author. “If their partner couldn’t do anything, they went ahead and took the option that gave them the most rewards. But if their partner had the potential to change the outcome, then they actually switched their behavior.”
The researchers then played the game with a group of 20 children between the ages of 2 and 7 who played for stickers — at those ages, children have only a limited appreciation of fairness, and likely still interpret fair play mostly in terms of immediate benefits or rewards, as the chimps did. So it wasn’t surprising that the children showed similar responses to the game that the chimpanzees did: exhibiting selfish behavior when the rewards were not dependent on sharing, and showing more generosity and a willingness to give up some stickers when the result depended on co-opting their partner to cooperate.
Proctor says a sense of fairness likely evolved alongside the ability to cooperate. Working together may have helped evolutionary ancestors achieve the most beneficial diet, and identifying when they were getting a fair deal possibly helped them recognize when such cooperation was worth the effort.
“It really opens the door to figuring out where in our evolutionary history and what sort of adaptive pressures led to this human sense of fairness,” Proctor says. “Now that we’ve seen it in one of our closest living relatives, it opens the door for us to look for it in other species as well.”
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A new study published by the Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment and the Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy shows that carbon pricing has the capacity to raise revenue in European countries and reduce their fiscal deficits more effectively than other taxes.
The new policy paper, entitled ”Less pain, more gain: the potential of carbon pricing reduce Europe’s fiscal deficits” and authored by Professor Michael Jacobs and several co-authors looked at a new analysis conducted by Vivid Economics of the potential impact of energy and carbon taxes, as well as the changes to the European Union Emissions Trading System. The paper outlines how energy and carbon taxes raise as much revenue as other forms of taxation while having the added benefit of enacting reductions of greenhouse gas emissions and causing less damage to economic growth.
The paper concludes: “Many European countries are running high annual fiscal deficits and have high debt liabilities, and are looking at options for raising tax revenues. While energy-carbon taxes have generally been considered to be instruments of environmental rather than fiscal policy, it is time to reconsider that view.”
Professor Jacobs’ analysis suggests that energy and carbon taxes are capable of having a smaller impact than other taxes, such as labour taxes, on gross domestic product (GDP) and employment.
For example, an energy tax package introduced in Spain which included an increase in duties on transport fuels has the capacity to raise more than 10 billion euros each year by 2020, while similar packages implemented in Poland and Hungary could generate approximately 5 million euros and 1 billion euros a year, respectively.
The paper points out that the evidence shows that energy and carbon taxes “currently play too small a role in the tax portfolio of many European countries.” It adds: “This evidence is not widely known, which perhaps is why energy-carbon taxes do not fulfil their potential role in fiscal strategy.”
It states: “Unlike the taxation of labour or consumption via VAT, there is an appropriate minimum level of energy taxation. This minimum reflects the costs energy consumption imposes on society. Those costs are primarily proportional to the carbon content of energy (more precisely, its contribution to global warming).”
The paper suggests: “It is crucially important for the future low-carbon competitiveness of the EU to get the taxation of the major fuel types – petrol and diesel – right. Currently, EU countries collect less revenue from diesel than they could, with negative implications for the fiscal balance.”
“The solution is to agree a collective increase in diesel tax rates. Of course, rates which have for so long remained differentiated cannot be raised overnight, because the public would not accept it. Yet, a gradual programme of alignment would be worthwhile for all countries and for each individually.”
Source: Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment
Image Source: Karsten Hitzschke (some rights reserved)
I'm a Christian, a nerd, a geek, a liberal left-winger, and believe that we're pretty quickly directing planet-Earth into hell in a handbasket! I work as Associate Editor for the Important Media Network and write for CleanTechnica and Planetsave. I also write for Fantasy Book Review (.co.uk), Amazing Stories, the Stabley Times and Medium. I love words with a passion, both creating them and reading them.
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Spinach is a great source of antioxidant vitamin C and bone-building vitamin K, as well as folic acid, carotenoids (like beta-carotene), and flavonoids. It also contains nitrates that are converted in the body to nitrites, which can lower the blood’s oxygen-carrying capacity and form carcinogenic compounds. Oxalates in spinach inhibit the absorption of minerals like calcium and magnesium and may contribute to the formation of calcium oxalate kidney stones, although most of the oxalate is not absorbed.
More reasons to go organic
Avoiding pesticides is one reason that people cite for choosing organically grown foods. But there are other benefits to eating organic, like the nutritional content of the food.
To see how organically grown spinach compares to conventionally grown varieties, researchers from the University of California at Davis compared levels of vitamin C, flavonoids, nitrate, and oxalate in 27 different spinach varieties from two farms in Washington State. One crop was grown using synthetic fertilizer, but no pesticides. The other crop was certified organically grown with no synthetic fertilizers or pesticides.
- All varieties of organically grown spinach had significantly higher levels of vitamin C and total flavonoids than conventionally grown varieties.
- Conventionally grown spinach had up to four times more nitrates than organically grown varieties.
Levels of oxalate were similar between the two growing conditions, however, “Organic spinach containing higher vitamin C and flavonoids but less nitrate content would be more health-promoting than the conventional counterpart,” the researchers commented.
Use your green for healthy greens
Some pesticides may affect the nervous and endocrine (hormonal) systems, while others may cause cancer. Children seem to be particularly sensitive to the effects of pesticides. Eating spinach raised conventionally but without pesticides, like the kind the researchers used in this study, would seem a reasonable choice if minimizing exposure is your primary goal. However, to be assured that your spinach has no pesticide residue, since that information is often not available, and to get the extra nutrients this study suggest it contains, spinach seems a wise use of your organic dollar.
(J Agric Food Chem 2012;60:3144-50)
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“I live on a big round ball
I never do dream I may fall
And even one day if I do
Well I'll jump up and smile back at you.
I don't even know where we are
They tell me we're circling a star
Well I'll take their word I don't know
But I'm dizzy so it may be so.”
Lyrics of “Defying Gravity” by Jimmy Buffett
We have been watching the skies for over 10,000 years and though our smarter ancestors could figure out the rhythms of the Sun, Moon and stars, they often though up some inventive reasons why things rose, moved across the sky and set below the horizon. Eventually, we figured out that we lived on a planet which both spun around, and moved in an orbit around the Sun. It was all a bit unsettling at first but over time we adapted to that bit of knowledge. Then, just as we thought we had it all figured out, astronomers, and astrophysicists figured out that everything in the universe was spinning and revolving around things. Rather than tackle the whole universe at once, we'll tackle why the Sun and planets in our Solar System are spinning.
Now, don't get too worked up (or in Jimmy Buffett's case, dizzy,) over this spinning business, because Earth's rotation makes our world a nice place to live. Rotation helps keep Earth's temperatures at a level we can live with, heating by the Sun during the day and cooling the temperatures at night. How fast does Earth spin? Surprisingly fast – over 1609 km/hr (about 1000 mi/hr) at the equator. That might sound pretty dizzying in itself, but keep in mind the Earth is pretty big, and even at that speed it still takes about 24 hours for us to make one complete turn on our axis.
We said that all the planets are spinning along with the Sun, so it's interesting to make a brief comparison with some of the other planets. Jupiter is the largest planet in the Solar System and is just over eleven times the diameter of the Earth. Not only is Jupiter the biggest planet in the Solar System, but it also has the shortest day, just over 10 hours! That works out to an average rotational speed of about 43,000 km/hr, (28,273 mi/hr). Next, look at Venus, almost exactly the same size as Earth, but spinning so slow it takes poor Venus 244 days just to make one rotation. Can you imagine a single day on Venus lasting 244 of our Earth days? In addition, Venus spins the opposite way of Earth.
So we've got planets spinning at different speeds and in different directions – but why do they spin at all? To understand this, we have to look back in time to when the Solar System first formed almost five billion years ago. Our Sun, planets and moons all formed from an immense cloud of gas and dust around a young Sun. The Sun's gravitational orbit caused the cloud to collapse and spin. The clumps of dust which began to collect in the cloud were also set spinning.
As the cloud began to flatten out, it began to spin faster as gravity made it smaller. The clumps also began to collapse on themselves, making them spin faster and faster. The law of physics which explains this is called the conservation of angular momentum. Another example of how this law works is an ice skater who spins faster as she pulls her arms in closer to her body.
For quite awhile, it was a really violent place in this early Solar System. The clumps of dust grew larger as they collided and gravity caused them to pull inward on themselves from all directions, which is how planets and some moons became round. Side-swipe collisions between objects would have made an object spin faster or slower and could have even changed an object's direction of spin. We think that a large object collided with the Earth making it spin even faster, making a day on the early Earth as short as six hours!
So now we know how the planets and other objects got spinning, but why do they continue spinning after almost five billion years? That's another physics thing – inertia. This law states that an object in motion will stay in motion unless something causes it to slow down. The planets keep spinning because in most cases there's very little to slow them down. Now Mercury is so close to the Sun, that the Sun's gravity is slowing little Mercury down.
We know that Earth's rotation is slowing at a rate of about one millisecond per year. That's not much, but about 70 million years ago, when the dinosaurs roamed Earth, a day was about 22 hours long. And millions of years in Earth's future, our day will be longer, around 26 hours per day, finally granting that wish to those folks who plead for more hours in a day! But it's not the Sun slowing Earth's spin down, but rather the interaction between Earth and Moon.
The Moon's gravity causes the ocean's tides to rise and fall The Sun also affects the tides, but because it is so much farther from us than the Moon, the Sun has less of an effect. While the Moon's gravity is pulling at us, it causes friction between the changing tides and the spinning Earth. The result is that the Earth's rotation slows down ever so much.
An interesting side note to this spin business is that the Moon's tidal pull, besides slowing Earth's rotation, is causing the Moon to move away from the Earth at a rate of one millimeter per year. In Earth's past – the Moon was closer and therefore appeared much larger in our skies, and far into our future the Moon will be much smaller in our skies. How nice that we live in a time when the Moon appears the same size as the Sun in our skies, making for great solar eclipses!
The thought of Earth's rotation slowing down begs the question of what will happen in the really far future of the Earth and Moon. Well billions of years from now the Moon will have moved much farther away and that constant pull of the Sun and Moon on the Earth will have ceased it's affect on the Earth's spin. It's quite likely that the Earth's rotation will slow to one rotation every 365 days, a condition we call synchronous rotation with the Sun. When this happens each half of the Earth will have permanent day or night all year.
If the Earth stopped spinning altogether, each half of the Earth would have half a year of daytime and half a year of night. This six months of day or night would cause temperatures to be far hotter or colder than they are now. Wind circulation would also change, circulating from the equator towards the poles rather than parallel to the equator. That might not sound too horrible, but the worst effect is the Van Allen radiation belts would likely disappear and that would mean no more protection from cosmic rays and other particles. That effect would be a dire threat to life on Earth.
Now of course, and thanks to the movie “The Day the Earth Stood Still” you might be curious as to what would really happen if the Earth really did suddenly stop spinning instead of slowing down gradually. Remember that our planet is spinning at about 1000 miles per hour. If our planet suddenly stopped rotating, the atmosphere would still be in motion at that speed. The winds would be worse than any hurricane you could imagine, sweeping away most everything on land, rocks, buildings and life forms. It's a very scary thought!
The ancient Egyptians saw a direct connection between life on Earth and the rhythmic order of the motions of the Sun, Moon and stars. We've applied physics and explained all those motions and we understand why planets spin, but there's eloquence in the ancient astronomer's basic ideas too.
Copyright © 1995 - 2008
Kathy Miles, Author, and Chuck Peters, Systems Administrator
URL reveals our email address after you solve a reCAPTCHA (image containing two words). cont...@starryskies.com
URL reveals our email address after you solve a reCAPTCHA (image containing two words).
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There is a new technology in the solar power industry you may have not yet heard of. New Energy Technologies have just unveiled their new solar window coating. The see-thru spray consists of the worlds smallest organic solar cells, and is easily applied to glass window surfaces without blocking the sunlight from your home or business.
Some of the highlights of this technology are:
- The solar cells in the spray are so small that they measure about a 1/4 the size of a grain of rice.
- The coating is very easy to apply and does not need costly vacuum or high temperature techniques but can instead be sprayed on at room temperature.
- The solar window coating conducts electricity from both natural light and does a much better job at generating electricity from artificial lighting. In fact it can generate up to ten fold the electricity from artificial light then traditional solar cells.
The aspect that really gets me excited aside from the ease of installation is the fact that it can generate quite a bit more power from artificial light then traditional PV cells. This is pretty cool because one of the disadvantages to today’s solar cells is it’s dependency on direct sunlight, this is a problem because it dictates where you need to place solar cells on your residence or business. What New Energy Technologies is proposing is that you will be able to use solar window coating on all of your glass windows and conduct energy from artificial light such as fluorescent as well, instead of just applying it to areas where there is direct sunlight.. How much energy and savings could be garnered from artificial light I am not quite sure about yet and will have to be seen, but the prospect non the less is interesting.
Unfortunately the companies website is a little vague on how the solar cells are actually able to do this, but it does state that in a scientific study:
“Under normal office lighting conditions, without the benefit of outside natural light from windows, New Energy’s ultra-small solar cells produced:
- Almost 2-fold greater output power density than monocrystalline silicon, an established commercial solar cell material;
- More than 8-fold greater output power density than copper-indium-selenide, known for its high optical absorption coefficients and versatile optical and electrical characteristics; and
- More than 10-fold greater output power density than flexible thin-film amorphous-silicon, a popular ‘second-generation’ solar thin-film material.”
So, we will have to see if the energy generated from artificial light is enough to be considered any value on it’s own, but as an additional source of energy combining with the energy generated from direct sunlight, along with the ease of use, solar window coating may be a strong contender. Time will tell, and we’ll keep you updated.
What do you think about Solar Window coating, breakthrough, or meh? Be sure to let us know.
Make sure you subscribe to our RSS feed so you can stay up to date when we post more information on renewable energy technology and thank you for visiting Solar Power Cost.
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A team led by MIT neuroscientists has developed a way to monitor how brain cells coordinate with each other to control specific behaviors, such as initiating movement or detecting an odor.
The researchers' new imaging technique, based on the detection of calcium ions in neurons, could help them map the brain circuits that perform such functions. It could also provide new insights into the origins of autism, obsessive-compulsive disorder and other psychiatric diseases says Guoping Feng, the James W. and Patricia Poitras Professor of Neuroscience and a member of the McGovern Institute for Brain Research at MIT.
Read more about the new technique at http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2012/neuron-imaging-calcium-1017.html
Melanie Gonick; Simulations/extra footage: McGovern Institute for Brain Research at MIT/Sputnik Animation
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Hitler with massive allied armies poised on the German eastern and western frontiers authorized Himler to form the Volkssturm (November 1944). Boys and old men were inducted to shore up Germany's crumbling defenses. The Soviets in the east gathered their forces for an all out attack on Berlin. The Western Allies had reducded the Bulge and solved their supply contraints (February 1945). Hitler prepared for the Allied on-slaught by issuing the "Nero Order" (March 19). For Germans that were still under the illusion that Hitler had any real interest in the the welfare of the German people, these actions make clear his total lack of concern. Hitler issued a series of orders designed to destroy the infrasture of Germany, creating a virtual wasteland. The Americans and British began to cross the Rhine, a forbidable challenge, but made easier by the capture of the Remagen Bridge in tact (March 7). The Allies rushed accross the Rhine and a few weeks later at many other sites with landing craft and pontoon bridges. This was followed by Operation Varsity a massive paratroop drop on the German side of the Rhine (March 24). Within weeks the Ruhr, Germany's industrial heartland was surround and huge numbers of Germans soldiers surrendered in the Ruhr pocket. The Rhine was the last significant geographic barrier. Allied forces then began a race accross Germany toward the Russians pressing west.
The NAZIs suffered a series of disatrous military debacles in mid-1944. Thec Allies took Rome (June 4, 1944). Two days later the Allies landed at Normandy (June 6, 1944). After D-Day the Allies crushed the German armies in France, although part of the army escped from the Falaise pocket, leaving their equipment behind. The Allied campaign was so overwealing that the Germand were unable to make a stand at the Seine leading to the liberation of Paris (August 25, 1944). Eisenhower annunces the mext day that the German 7th Army has been destroyed (August 26). Allied armies rolled through Paris in hot pursuit of the retreating Wehrmact. Mongomery and Patton argued for thrusts into Germany, but Eisenhower decided on a broad front campaign. [Chalfont, p. 258.] The success of the Allied campaign in France led to the liberation of Belgium and the southern Neterlands. It Also mean that the Allies were approaching the Reich's western frontiers (September 1944). The failure of Operation Market Garden meant that the Germans could prepare a stand at the Rhine. The situation on the Eastern Front was even more devestating. The Soviets launched an offensive to prevent the NAZIs from concentrating forces agaisdt the Normandy bridgehead. Operation Bagration was timed to begin on the same day the NAZIs invaded the Soviet Union (June 22) 3 years earlier. The target was the Wehrmcht's Army Group Central in Byelorussia. Bagration in many ways was a replay of Barbarossa, only in reverse. The Red Army in a massive 5 weeks campaigm suuceeded in moving the front line west to Warsaw, liberating much of Poland. Army Group Center was shatered. The Red Army completely destroyed 17 Wehrmacht divisions and heavily damaged the combat effectivness of more than 50 other German divisions. Army Group Central was shattered. It was the single greatest defeat suffered by the Wehrmacht in the War--worse them the disaster at Stalingrad. The Wehrmact sffered greater casualties than at Stalingrad. [Zaloga] Bagration not only smashed Army Group Central, but drove the Germans back into Poland. This meant the Red Army was also approaching the frontiers of the Reich.
Once the invasion had succeeded and the liberation of France in Progress, the Allied renewed the strategic bombing campaign with a unimaginable ferrocity. Eisenhower in prearation for the D-Day Landings and to support the beach head had authority over both RAF Bomber Command and the American 8th Air Force. Neither Harris or Spaatz appreciated their limitations on their operations. They wanted to as soon as possible resume the strategic aifr campaign against Germany which they both were convinced was the quickest way to end the War. German cities enjoyed a respite as the Allies prepared for D-Day and then the battle for France raged. After the liberation of France and with Allied armies moving through Belgium and approaching the bondary of the Reich, the fortified Western Wall, Eisenhower released them (September 14). More than half of the bombs that fell on Germany would fall in the next 6 months. German cities would be devestated and the goals of the stratstegic bombing campaign woukld be realized--the German capacity to make war would be destroyed.
Hitler and top NAZIs were deperate to stop the oncoming Allied Armies. Hitler was under no illusions of what would happened if Germany fell. Some of his associates like Himmler and Goering deluded themselves with the idea that negotiation might be possible, but they were well aware of their complicity of the enormous crimes committed in Germany's namre. with massive allied armies poised on the German eastern and western frontiers, Hitler authorized Himler to take two desperate measures, form a hone guard to defend the Reichb (the Volkssturm) and foirm a resistance group (the Wehrwolfs. Hitler had long ago lost confidence in his generals and was rapidly losing confidence in even his closest assoiciates. For both of these actions he turned to Himmler.
Hitler authorized Himmler to form the Volkssturm (November 1944). Boys like the youth here (figure 1) and old men were inducted for military service to shore up Germany's crumbling defenses. Hitler Youth boys, along with old men, were hastily trained, ill-equipped and not terribly well led were the major recruits for the Volkssturm in the closing months of the year. The HJ boys, however, went into battle with a fervor even beyond that of the Waffen SS. Many accounts exist of battle hardeneded Wehrmacht and and SS troops who met these boy soldiers on the way to battle. Their advise was almost often "Its over. Go home!" The boys, however,
armed with a few anti-tank weapons like Panzerfauts and perhaps a machinegun if one could be found, these Hitler Youth schoolboys went into battle. Often they performed amazingly well, even when given hopeless assignments. A book and movie addressing this is The Bridge. Many HJ boys, of course, did not survive. For many, their commiment to Hitler was absolute, even in the boys involved in the hopeless defense of Berlin (April-May 1945).
Hitler as the War began to go wrong for him developed the strategy of creating fortress cities--Festungen. The forces and civilians within these cities were ordered to stand and defend them at all costs, fighting to the death. It is unclear just how Hitler conceived this tactic. Stalin had used the tactic, often disaterously such as at Kiev (1941). But it had worked at the three key Soviet cities--Leningrad, Stalingrad, and Moscow. This aspect of the War is not as well known in the West as other aspects of the War, because it was primarily used in East in its more draconian implementation.
And Hitler abhored giving up territiry lost. Some believe hat his World war I experience in which he believed tht the German Army had never been defeafted all played a role in his decesion as well as his growing contempt for the generals advising tactical withdrawls. As a result, cities in both the East and West were selected as Festungen. The first Festugen were in the occupied area. The surrounded Stalingrad pocket was the first designated fortress city. The result of course was disaterous. Some Fortress Cities made sense. The best examples were the French ports which the Allies critically needed after D-Day. Most did not make sense. The best known frtress cities were those in eastern Germany during the last year of the War which Hitler ordered to resist the Red army drive west. Hitler had not yet accepted defeat, but was lucid enough to realize that desperate measures were needed. He hoped that buying time could enable the deployment od secret weapons or allow the alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviets to unravel. Some of the most important fortress cities were: Warsaw, Budapest, Kolberg, Königsberg, Küstrin, Danzig and Breslau. Some actually held out until Hitler committed suiside and the NAZIs surrendered (Breslau and Alderney). The great German advantage in the opening years of the War was the mobility at the heart of Blitzkrieg tactics. This resulted in the encirclement of major elements of the oppoing forces, most notably in the Soviet Union during Barbarossa (1941). The Wehrmacht gradually lost its mobility as vast mumbers of vehicle were destroyec in the East and fuel supplies becnme increasingly short. At the same time the Red Army receiving American Lend Lease tactics became increasingly mobile. The Festungen were in part a reaction to these shifting fortunes of war. But they essentially played into the Russian encirclement operations. The Soviets were able to cut off important German formations, essentially creating vast self-imposed POW camps. This is what happened in Courland. The Germans were isolted and without supplied essebntially neutralized. The Red army could thus press on west an deal with the defenders at their convenience.
Hitler concepotualized the Festungen as an economy of force measure. Some were manned by second-rate or immobile troops who would might have been lost in a withdrawl, especially retreats that Hitler often delayed until the last minute. The Red Army would then have to besige the Festungen. Festung Posen, for example, was surrounded and assaulted by Chuikov's Eighth Guards Army. Most were less strategically placed and more easily bypassed by the Red Army. And many soldiers were lost that could have been more effectively used in the defense of Belin which was to a substantial degree ws defend by youths and older men--the Volkstrum.
German propaganda thrumpted new secreat weapons that would defeat the Allies. There actually were such weapons and the Germans began to use them in 1944. It proved, however, too late to affect te course of the War. The V weapons were impressive technical achievements and terribly destructive, boy the V-1s and V-2s. The Allies had delayed these programs by the bombing of Peenemunde, the German missle development program. The first to be used was the V-1 unpiolted jet bombs, an early cruise missle. The British called them buzz bombs because of the destinctive sound of their ram jet engines. The Germans focused on London after the D-Day invasion. The Allies were able to find the launching ramps and attack them by air, but the Germans prefected easy to errect launchers. Many V-1s were also shot down by both ground artillery and Allied fighters. Had the German focused on the V-1, however, tey my hhave been able to disrupt the D-Day landings. After the Normandy breakout the Allies over run the launch sites. It was at this point the Germans began launching the V-2s. They were the first balistic missles ad even more frightening than the V-1s. Because they traveled faster than the speed of sound, there was no advanced warning--just a massive explosion. British press reports helped fool the Germans about targetting. While frightening and desructive, neither weapon seriously affected the Allied war effort. By late 1944, destroying London homes and shops was not going to prevent Allied armies from invading the Reich. The payloads were small and accurate targeting impossible. The jets introduced by the Germans could have had an significant impact on the War, but Hitler's interference both delayed development and prevented efficiet deployment. As a result, fespite massive commitment of resources, the much-vaunted German secreat weapons played no significant impact in the War, not even the air war over the Reich.
Allied armies had reached the borders of the Reich by late-1944. Hitler concentratted the last few German reserves for the Bulge offenive in the West. His generals had varied opinions. Some wanted to use thise reserves to stop or aeast slow down the Soviet juggernaught in the East. The failure of the Bulge offensive meant that by 1945 therecwere no longer any reserves and arms production was plummeting becaise of the allied statehgic bombing campaign. With reserves gone, the remaining German forces were badly outmanned and outgunned an all fronts. The Allied air strength and the lack of petrol mean that the Germans also had no capabllity to maneuvr. The Soviets had approached the borders of East Prussia at the end of 1944. The Western allies drove to cross the Rhine in Operation Market, but the British were unable to hold the rnem brudge over the Rhine. The Americans had reached the West Wall at about the same time, but supply problems meant that they were unable to mount a major offensive into the Reich. In the south the Germans stoped the Allies in the Po River Valley abd hrld them there during thge winter. With the new year the drives into the Reich befan in earest. In the East, the Soviets smashed into East Prussia and after taking Warsaw preoared for thge assault on Berlin. In the West, the Americans drove into the Rhineland in preparation for crossing the Rhine itself. In the south, the Americans and British finally crossed the Po and began the drive north toward Austria.
The Soviets in the east gathered their forces for an all out attack on Berlin. The battle for Berlin fought in April 1945 was one of the most horific engagements of World War II. Stalin ordered the Red Army to take Berlin. After the Americans seized the Remagen Bridge and crossed the Rhine, Stalin ordered the time tble speeded up and at the same time lied to Eisenhowser that he was preparing to take the German capital. Losses on both the German and Russian side were enormous. Russian losses were in part due to the fact that Stalin had
ordered that Berlin be seized bfore the Americans could reach it. Stalin's ordered resulted in a race to Berlin by Marshal Zukov and Koniev, both wanting the victor' laurels. It has always been wonderd why Stalin was so obsessed with Berlin and was willining to sacrifice so many Red Army soldiers to get to Berlin before the Americans. It has always been felt that it was primarily for the political value, to demonstrate the role of the Red Army in defeating the NAZIs. A British histoian argues that there was another important reason. Beria had learned of the American Manhattan Project to build an atomic bomb. Stalin as a rsult ordered a top secret Soviet atomic bomb project--Project Boradino. Located at Berlin was the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute, the center of the German atomic project. While the Germans were fa behind the Americans, the Russins obrained agreat deal of valuable information an 3 tons of uranium oxide. [Beavers] The Soviet conquest of Berlin proved to be a nightmare for the surviving women, almost all of whom were raped. It is estimated that 2 million German women were raped by Russians at the end of the War. Perhaps 0.2 million of those rapes took place in Berlin. The rapes included children, nuns, old ladies, and even Russian women brought to Germany to work as slave laborers. The Soviets denied the German civilian reports, but Soviet archieves leave no doubt as to what occurred. [Beavers]
Allied forces racing accross Germany moved toward the Russians pressing west. The Soviets launced their assault on Berlin (April 16). The Allies had fixed stop lines for their military forces along the Elbe and Mulde Rivers. The First Army was the first to meet up with the Soviets near the village of Torgau (April 25). Patton's Third Army moved into easterm Czechoslovakia. The British reached the Baltic, cutting off Denmark and the Jutland Peninsula.
The Wehrmacht by April 1945 was shatered and no longer able to offer effective resistance to the Allies. The Western Allies raced through Germany from the west during April 1945 as the Soviet Red Army surrounded Berlin. American and Soviet forces made the long anticipated link-up at the Elbe River on April 25. The Red Army fought a massive engagement to take Berlin. Hitler insisted that the SS and Wehrmacht forces in the city, reinforced by the Volkstrum (Hitler Youth boys and older men) fight so that he might live a few more days. As Red Army soldiers approached his bunker, Hitler shot himself and named Admiral Karl Doenietz as the new Führer. The last raid of the strategic bombing campaign took place on April 25 when the Skoda armament plant at Pilsen, Czechoslovakia were bombed. The American Air Corps began shifting to mercy missions. Flights were dispatched to feed civilians in northern Italy and the Netherlands who were near starvation. Priority was also given to evacuting prisonors of war (POWs). Doenitz ordered General Alfred Jodl to General Eisenhower' Headquarters--Allied Expeditionary Forces (SHAEF) detachment in Rheims to seek terms to end the fighting. Jodl signed the unconditional surrender of German forces on allfronts At 2:41 a.m. on May 7, which was to take effect on May 8 at 11:01 p.m. Thus NAZI Germany surrendered unconditionally, as President Roosevelt had insisted. Celebrations ensued throught Europe--except Germany. Ther were big official celebrations. There were also smaller neighborhood celebrations. In communities throughout britain there were outdoors banquets called block parties that were family celebrations (figure 1). For many of the children it mean that daddy would soon be headed home.
Many believe that after the NAZIs surrendered (May 1945) that all German resistance suddenly ceased. This was not the case. There were NAZI attempts as resistance and the Allies had to take measures to deal with the resistance from various German groups. The NAZIs in the closing months of the War organizated operations like the "Werewolves" to disrupt the occupation. Most of the Werewolves were Hitler Youth boys. There were incidents of Allied soldiers ambushed by Werewolf boys and incidents between Werewolf partisans and Allied forces in the closing days of the War. American soldiers leaflets detailing plans on how to undermine the occupation through sabotage and other measures. The NAZI resistance efforts proved ineffective. Given the level of support that the NAZIs built up, this seem rather surprising. The NAZI resistance effort failed for a variety of resons. One, the destruction as a result of the War changed the mind-set of many Germans. Two, relevations of NAZI war crimes also had a major impact on German thinking. Three, Germany was so devestated that the Germans were dependant on American food aid. Four, the nature of the Western Allied occupation did not generate resistance nd ill will. Five, the nature of Soviet behavior had the result of making the Americans look more like protectors than occupiers.
One paratooper received a letter from his mother in which she wrote, "Son, I want you to be merciful." He recalls thinking that an act of mercy could cost him his life. He was dropped with the 17th Airborn as part of Operation Varsity. Passing a farm house he heard noises from the cellar. Believing that German soldiers were there he prepared to throw a grenade in when he recalled his mother's letter. So instead he called out for the Germans to surender and come out with their hands up. There was silence. He called out again. Then an elderly woman appeared followed by another woman, and then four or five small children. Eventually 14 women and children came out of that cellar. [Kormann]
The United States along with Britain and France Japan oversaw an occupation with changed the nature of West German society. Most Germans readily admitted their country's responsibility for the War and ther honredous acts of the NAZI regime. The Allies instituted a thorough going denazification process, a process which continues to this day in Germany. The Allies also attacked the militarism of the old Prussian junker class which the united German state was built around in 1870. The Allies completely dismantled the NAZI regime and during military occupation reconstructed an entirely new political structure. In some ways the process was simplified by the NAZIs who although opposed to democracy had gone a great way toward the breaking down of class barriers and weakening the power of the Prussian junkers. The Germans were not without a tradition of democracy and parlimentary politics. Given the NAZIs success in dominating the German people and the thorouness of that domination, it seems perhaps surprising how readily the Germans adopted democracy. Perhaps the totality of the NAZI defeat and the spector of Soviet totalitarianism looming accross the border were major factors. What ever the reasons, the German took to political democracy and free-market economics. A relationship with America was forged in the Berlin Airlift (1948) and four decades of resistance to the Soviers and Warsaw pact. The results by all practical measures have been an overwealming success. Germany today is one of the most prosperous and democratic societies in the world. Germany unlike Japan was also occupied by the Soviet Union. The Soviet occupation policies in eastern Germany were very different than those persued in the wetern occupation zone. Austria was separated from Germany after the War and occupied by the Soviets and Western Allies.
Beavers, Anthony. The Fall of Berlin 1945.
Chalfont, Alun. Montgomery of Alamein (Atheneum: New York, 1976), 365p.
Fest, Joachim C. Hitler (Vintage Books: New York, 1974), 844p.
Kieser, Egbert. Tony Le Tissier, trans. Prussian Apocalypse: The Fall of Danzig (2011), 240p.
Kormann, John. "Mercy is its own reward," The Washington Post, May 28, 2004, p. W11.
Navigate the Boys' Historical Clothing Web Site:
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THE PEDIATRICIAN, in serving his adolescent patients, can profitably employ a knowledge of the individual differences which exist in the processes of sexual maturation.1 A recent editorial in The Journal of the American Medical Association emphasized this fact, concluding, "The pediatrician is in a strategic position to aid developing adolescents in understanding and evaluating their own development."2
It is certainly true that many of the psychologic tensions and inadequacies of the adolescent have a physical or physiologic basis, related to differentials which often exist in body size, sexual maturation and social or intellectual maturity.
There are widely accepted behavior expectations for children of differing degrees of physical maturity.... The body parts and characteristics and functional properties do not mature evenly.... The appearance of the adolescent, sometimes will not be in harmony with his physiological maturity; a mature appearing adolescent may have a child's tolerance for tobacco or alcohol,
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Translate trial | into French | into German | into Italian | into Spanish
Definition of trial
1a formal examination of evidence before a judge, and typically before a jury, in order to decide guilt in a case of criminal or civil proceedings:the newspaper accounts of the trial the editor was summoned to stand trial for libel 2a test of the performance, qualities, or suitability of someone or something:clinical trials must establish whether the new hip replacements are working an athletic contest to test the ability of players eligible for selection to a team.
) an event in which horses, dogs, or other animals compete or perform:horse trials
3a person, thing, or situation that tests a person’s endurance or forbearance:the trials and tribulations of married life
verb (trials, trialing, trialed ; Britishtrials, trialling, trialled)
1 [with object] test (something, especially a new product) to assess its suitability or performance:all seeds are carefully trialed in a variety of growing conditions 2 [no object] (of a horse, dog, or other animal) compete in trials:the pup trialed on Saturday
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http://oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/trial
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2013-05-24T22:50:18Z
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Below the poverty line
How UNICEF Philippines is helping children living and working on a garbage dump in Manila
Michelle, 16, lives in Payatas, alongside one of Metro Manila’s largest garbage dumps. Her mother, Esther, used to work selling street food by the roadside but has been unemployed since Tropical Storm Ondoy flooded their family home and destroyed her livelihood. Esther can’t afford to send Michelle or her siblings to school because of the cost of books, uniforms and transport. “It’s impossible to afford,” she says. “I have no work and no savings.”
In Payatas, a community of 200,000 people live alongside, and in many cases work on top of, the dump site. The main road through the slum settlement is lined with 24-hour ‘junk shops’ that buy plastic, metal, paper and glass by the kilo, for sale to massive recycling plants in southern China. The junk shops take all the profit and none of the risk, typically turning over millions of pesos a year, while paying the dump workers around 50 pesos a day.
Adults and children risk their lives every day scavenging the dump for the quantities of recyclable materials needed to make a living. The work is extremely dangerous. They are at risk of diseases such as respiratory infections, pneumonia, diarrhoea and tuberculosis. The dump itself is unstable and parts of it can collapse in heavy rain, burying workers and their homes beneath the garbage.
There are also dangers from the vehicles and machinery. Helen Estrada is Payatas Coordinator at UNICEF’s partner organisation Kokkyo Naki Kodomotachi. “The sister of one of our students died recently after being run over by a garbage truck,” she says. “The driver didn’t see her because she was so small. She was only nine years old.”
In the last year, things have got even worse for these children and their families. The global economic crisis has caused many of the Chinese recycling plants to close, reducing demand for the scrap materials. The junk shops have responded by slashing their prices by up to half. This means the children have to spend twice as long on the dump site and carry twice as much garbage up the hill to the junk shops, in order to earn the same meagre amount.
“Tin cans have gone down from 25 peso to 15 peso per kilo, plastic cups from 12 pesos to five pesos and clear plastic from two pesos to just one peso,” Helen says.
The living conditions are scarcely better than the working environment. Slum houses, often made of materials scavenged from the dump site, are crammed together right up to its edge. The garbage finds its way into the town, where it lines the streets and clogs the waterways. The settlement does have electricity but no running water or proper drainage. The smell of the garbage lingers over everything, getting into clothes and hair, so that even those children who are lucky enough to go to school face discrimination from their peers.
“Hard up families live in Payatas as an option to survive,” Jess Far, Child Protection Officer at UNICEF Philippines, says. “These are the poorest of the poor. They come to Manila from the provinces looking for a better life but they find that life is more difficult here than they expected. A lot of children in Payatas end up out of school because of poverty.”
UNICEF is supporting Kokkyo Naki Kodomotachi (KnK), a local NGO that provides alternative learning sessions for children whose parents can’t afford to send them to school. UNICEF provides training and materials for the teachers and school bags and T-shirts for the students.
KnK has two classrooms: one by the old dump site and one by the new, larger site. “This is partly to make it easier for the children to come to class from work but also because there are gang wars between rival factions working the two dump sites,” KnK Executive Director Agnes Gallardo-Quitoriano comments. One of the families KnK is supporting has a daughter with brain damage caused by a stray bullet from a gang-related shooting.
“I’ve been coming to the learning sessions for ten months,” Michelle says. “I liked reading the story of Gandhi because it made me realise that you have to strive to be able to reach your dreams. I’m very thankful to KNK for giving me the opportunity to complete my studies and to integrate with other students.”
There has been progress in recent years. Children who attend the alternative learning sessions regularly can now sit an exam and get a qualification which is recognised by the Department of Education as equivalent to either an elementary or high school diploma. However, the pass rate remains low at around 25 per cent.
In order to tackle some of the other problems in Payatas, KnK runs parenting effectiveness sessions in the local community. This includes awareness raising activities on health, education, hygiene and protection from abuse. “Staff and volunteers encourage parents to attend the seminars for them to better understand their responsibilities, support their children and motivate them to study,” Jess says.
After Tropical Storm Ondoy, Michelle stayed in a KnK evacuation centre, where she volunteered to help younger children affected by the disaster. She helped out with cooking and cleaning at the centre and was trained as a peer educator to assist in psychosocial support sessions, where children worked through their distressing experiences with arts and craft, music and play.
“I was frightened during the storm because I thought our house would collapse,” Michele says. “The current was very strong and our possessions were washed away or stolen. I was happy to come to the evacuation centre and take care of the other children. I would get up early in the morning to bathe the children, prepare their food and help with their activities during the day.”
“Many of the children’s homes were completely flooded,” Agnes adds. “They didn’t have clothes, food or soap but they were grateful for the peer educators. ‘We’re thankful we have older brothers and sisters to take care of us,’ they told me.”
The flood waters have now subsided from Michelle’s home and her family has moved back in. Her mother hopes to start work again soon and Michelle is planning to take the exam for her high school diploma equivalent. If she passes, she wants to work in catering to help support her family. “I’m inspired to study,” she says.
UNICEF’s work in the Philippines is based on upholding children’s rights, including the right to be educated, to be healthy and to a childhood. Together with KnK, UNICEF is offering the some of the children living below the poverty line in Payatas a way out of their current situation. But for too many others, life will continue to be a vicious circle of poverty, danger and desperation.
Find out more
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Cardinal Wolsey acquired a huge fortune in the years from 1515 to 1529. Wolsey’s wealth allowed him to live a lifestyle that to all intents was kingly. Wolsey had a number of homes and his wealth enabled him to purchase Hampton Court and York House (later the Palace of Westminster). Wolsey’s court rivalled that of Henry VIII.
A great deal of the cardinal’s energy was put into building up his wealth. By 1529, Wolsey was the richest man in the land after Henry VIII. However, such was the nature of his dealings, that much of this wealth was very well disguised and historians cannot give an accurate figure as to Wolsey’s income. It is thought that the next richest person in the land after Wolsey only had 10% of Wolsey’s income. Wolsey almost certainly had more disposable income than Henry, as the king was required to spend some of his income on specific things such as government. Wolsey had no such restrictions.
Wolsey’s income from form many sources. He was well paid for the posts that he held in government but in terms of his overall wealth, the income from being, for example, Lord Chancellor, was but a minor part of his total income. Most of his wealth came from areas that were hard to track down. The fees he charged in the ecclesiastical courts were a good source of income but it was Wolsey’s right to hand out ecclesiastical posts when they became vacant that made him his fortune. It was generally accepted that if someone was given a position in the Church, they had to pay for it – possibly as much as a year’s income. As no evidence exists for this, it is impossible to speculate just how much this accounted for. Certainly many Church positions became vacant over the course of the years and the probability is that they brought in a vast sum of money for Wolsey, with the more senior positions offering the best chance of more money.
Wolsey spent his money in a manner that showed all and sundry just how important the butcher’s son had become. He had four main palaces of which Hampton Court was the most famous and glorious. He spent prodigious amounts of money on these building projects to show people just how important he was. He also employed a great number of people. At the least, he had a court of 500 people and on great occasions like a banquet for a foreign visitor, it may have been double this. He gave very expensive gifts to foreign visitors in the hope that they would report his vast wealth back in mainland Europe. When he travelled abroad, he ensured that his staff wore the finest of clothes that he paid for. The only major problem Wolsey had – and money was not one of these – was ensuring that he did not outdo the king in the magnificence of his lifestyle. His hallmark when he travelled was two large silver crosses carried in front of him – one as Archbishop of York, the other as he was a ‘legatus a latere’ – the most senior of the Pope’s representatives. All this ostentation was to ensure that people knew his wealth. Wolsey equated public respect with wealth and if you were wealthy, people should know about it. It was this attitude to wealth and his very public display of it that led to him having many enemies
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First 360° panorama from NASA's Curiosity Mars rover
The first panoramic view is of the rover’s new home in Gale Crater.
August 9, 2012
Remarkable image sets from NASA’s Curiosity rover and Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRS) are continuing to develop the story of Curiosity’s landing and first days on Mars.
This Picasso-like self-portrait of NASA's Curiosity rover was taken by its Navigation cameras, located on the now-upright mast. Image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech
This is the first 360° panoramic view from NASA's Curiosity rover. Most of the tiles are small copies of the full-resolution images that have not been sent back to Earth yet. Two of the tiles near the center are full-resolution. Mount Sharp is to the right, and the north Gale Crater rim can be seen at center.
Photo by NASA/JPL-Caltech
This is the first 360° panorama in color of the Gale Crater landing site taken by NASA's Curiosity rover. The panorama was made from thumbnail versions of images taken by the Mast Camera. Scientists will be taking a closer look at several splotches in the foreground that appear gray. These areas show the effects of the descent stage's rocket engines blasting the ground.
Photo by NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS
The images from Curiosity’s just-activated navigation cameras (Navcams) include the rover’s first self-portrait, looking down at its deck from above. Another Navcam image set, in lower-resolution thumbnails, is the first 360° view of Curiosity’s new home in Gale Crater. Also downlinked were two higher-resolution Navcam shots providing the most detailed depiction to date of the surface adjacent to the rover.
“These Navcam images indicate that our powered descent stage did more than give us a great ride, it gave our science team an amazing freebie,” said John Grotzinger from the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena. “The thrust from the rockets actually dug a one-and-a-half-foot-long (0.5 meters) trench in the surface. It appears we can see martian bedrock on the bottom. Its depth below the surface is valuable data we can use going forward.”
Another image set, courtesy of the Context Camera (CTX) aboard NASA’s MRO, has pinpointed the final resting spots of the six 55-pound (25 kilograms) entry ballast masses. The tungsten masses impacted the martian surface at a high speed about 7.5 miles (12 kilometers) from Curiosity’s landing location.
Curiosity’s latest images are available here.
On August 8, the team deployed the 3.6-foot-tall (1.1m) camera mast, activated and gathered surface radiation data from the rover’s Radiation Assessment Detector, and concluded testing of the rover’s high-gain antenna.
Curiosity carries 10 science instruments with a total mass 15 times as large as the science payloads on NASA’s Mars rovers Spirit and Opportunity. Some of the tools, such as a laser-firing instrument for checking rocks’ elemental composition from a distance, are the first of their kind on Mars. Curiosity will use a drill and scoop, which are located at the end of its robotic arm, to gather soil and powdered samples of rock interiors, then sieve and parcel out these samples into the rover’s analytical laboratory instruments.
To handle this science toolkit, Curiosity is twice as long and five times as heavy as Spirit or Opportunity. The Gale Crater landing site places the rover within driving distance of layers of the crater’s interior mountain. Observations from orbit have identified clay and sulfate minerals in the lower layers, indicating a wet history.
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2013-06-20T01:58:47Z
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en
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| 816
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For people older than 60, the vaccine Zostavax was licensed by the FDA in 2006 to prevent shingles. Shingles is a disease caused by the varicella-zoster virus, the same virus that causes chicken pox. After an attack of chicken pox, the virus lies dormant in certain nerve tissue. As people age, it is possible for the virus to reappear in the form of shingles, which is estimated to affect two in every 10 people in their lifetime. Shingles is characterized by clusters of blisters, which develop on one side of the body. The blisters can cause severe pain that may last for weeks, months or years after the virus reappears. Studies showed that the vaccine reduced the occurrence of shingles between 50 and 64 percent.
Meningococcal conjugate vaccine (MCV4) should be given to all children at their 11- to 12-year-old doctor visit, as well as to unvaccinated adolescents when they enter high school (age 15) and unvaccinated college freshman living in dormitories.
Get checked and screened
Checkups and screening tests help find diseases or health problems early, when they're easier to treat and cure.
"Your doctor can help you decide which health screenings you should get and how often," says Ms. Trinité.
If you have a chronic condition, follow your health care provider's recommendations for regular checkups and screening exams; they are more important if you have a chronic condition.
Ask your health care provider if your screenings are up-to-date for blood pressure; cholesterol; diabetes; osteoporosis; and skin, breast, colorectal, cervical and prostate cancers. The AHRQ has a list of recommended screening tests for men and women.
Healthy adults also should see a dentist once or twice a year and an eye doctor every one to three years. Adults with dental disease or chronic conditions, or those at high risk for specific diseases should get more frequent exams, as recommended by their provider.
For the best preventive care, you also should talk with your provider openly regarding your health concerns.
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http://www.krdo.com/Practice-prevention-by-getting-screened-for-cancer/-/417342/18360288/-/item/1/-/15gsvvr/-/index.html
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2013-05-20T02:23:43Z
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| 443
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A new study has found that a virus could have the potential to destroy the bacteria that causes acne. The online journal mBio has released research that isolated P. acnes bacteriophages from the noses of 11 volunteers. This virus could kill the breakout-causing bacteria P. acnes.
“Phages are programmed to target and kill specific bacteria, so P. acnes phages will attack only P. acnes bacteria but not others,” lead study author Laura Merinelli told Medical Daily. “This trait suggests that they offer strong potential for targeted therapeutic use.”
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CC-MAIN-2013-20
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http://www.wellsphere.com/skin-beauty-article/could-an-acne-cure-be-on-the-way/1750123
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2013-05-19T03:16:05Z
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April 23, 2002
People who work full-time—35 hours or more per week—are far less likely to live in poverty than are others. However, almost 3.4 million who were in the labor force at least half of 2000 and usually worked in full-time jobs were classified as working poor.
There are three labor market problems experienced by these workers: Low earnings, unemployment, and involuntary part-time employment. Low earnings was the most common problem, with 73 percent of these workers facing it, either alone or in conjunction with other labor market problems. About 30 percent of the working poor experienced unemployment, either alone or in conjunction with other problems.
About 25 percent of full-time wage and salary workers classified among the working poor had experienced two or more of the primary labor market problems. The most common combinations were of low earnings and one of the others.
The data in this report are from the Current Population Survey. As defined in this report, the working poor are individuals who spent at least 27 weeks in the labor force (working or looking for work), but whose incomes fell below the official poverty level. For more information on the working poor, see A Profile of the Working Poor, 2000 (BLS Report 957).
Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, The Editor's Desk, Most full-timers among working poor have one labor market problem on the Internet at http://www.bls.gov/opub/ted/2002/apr/wk4/art02.htm (visited May 19, 2013).
This edition of Spotlight on Statistics examines labor productivity trends from 2000 through 2010 for selected industries and sectors within the nonfarm business sector of the U.S. economy. Read more »
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http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/print.pl/opub/ted/2002/apr/wk4/art02.htm
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First of a Series
Elements Necessary for Plants
The performance of your
plants is directly related to the degree of the
fertility of your soil. Like humans, plants require
certain elements to grow well and to remain healthy.
Below is a list of
elements essential for plant growth. On the right
are some sources from which plants may receive these
air and Water
Air and Soil
Soil and Fertilizers
Plants also contain
Cobalt (Co), Iodine (I), Selenium (Se) and Sodium (Na),
which are necessary to humans and animals which consume
the plants, but which do not seem to be necessary for
the survival of plants. Aluminum (Al) and Silicon
(Si) are also present in plants, but are not deemed
necessary for humans nor animals for their survival.
Required by Plants and Obtained From Soil and
Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), and Potassium (K)
Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg), and Sulfur (S)
Trace Elements: Boron (B), Chlorine (CI),
Copper (Cu), Iron (Fe), Manganese (Mn), Molybdenum (Mo),
and Zinc (Zn)
These Elements Do for Plants
Nitrogen (N) is
the main nutrient for strong, vigorous growth, good leaf
color, and photosynthesis. Plants that are almost
all leaf (such as lawn grasses) need plenty of nitrogen,
so the first number in fertilizers for lawns is
especially high because grass must continuously renew
itself after mowing. The higher the number, the
more nitrogen the fertilizer provides.
Phosphorous (P) promotes root development
which helps strengthen plants. It also increases
blooms on flowers and the ripening of seeds and fruit.
Lots of phosphorous is great for bulbs, perennials, and
newly planted trees and shrubs. They depend on strong
roots, so fertilizers meant for these plants often have
high middle numbers.
Potassium (K) improves the overall health of
plants. It helps them withstand very hot or cold
weather, defend against diseases, helps fruit formation,
photosynthesis, and the uptake of other nutrients.
Potassium works along with Nitrogen so if you add
nitrogen to the soil, it is important to add potassium
at the same time. Most soils already have some
potassium, so the third number in the fertilizer
analysis is usually smaller than the other two.
Fertilizers for some tropical plants, especially palms,
contain extra potassium because these plants have a
special need for it.
Calcium (Ca) is important for general plant
vigor and promotes good growth of young roots and
shoots. Calcium also helps to build cell walls.
Magnesium (Mg) helps regulate uptake of other
plant foods and aids in seed formation. As it is
contained in Chlorophyll, it is also important in the
dark green color of plants and for the ability of a
plant to manufacture food from sunlight.
Sulfur (S) helps maintain a dark green color
while encouraging more vigorous plant growth.
Sulfur is needed to manufacture Chlorophyll.
Boron (B) helps in
cell development and helps to regulate plant metabolism.
Chlorine (CI) is
involved in photosynthesis.
Copper (Cu) helps
plants to metabolize nitrogen.
Iron (Fe) assists
in the manufacture of chlorophyll and other biochemical
Manganese (Mn) is
needed for chlorophyll production.
helps plants to use nitrogen.
Zinc (Zn) is used
in development of enzymes and hormones. It is used
by the leaves and needed by legumes to form seeds.
Guide to Florida Gardening
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| 834
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It is difficult these days, when one disaster leads to the next, to keep track of statistics, whether it’s an earthquake or hurricane, wildfire or tsunami. The numbers of lives lost, buildings destroyed, homes flooded, etc., all tend to blur together.
In the nearly eight months since the 9.0 magnitude earthquake/tsunami rocked Japan in March, these are numbers we know for certain: Dead (15,813); injured (5,940); still missing (3,971).
But a more elusive if no less alarming stat was reported yesterday by the Institute for Radiological Protection and Nuclear Safety (IRSN): Based on figures gathered from a worldwide network of sensors, the leak of the Fukushima nuclear plant was the #1 single nuclear contamination of the ocean ever.
The threats to marine life and man will take a long time to accurately assess. Much of the most-dangerous caesium 137 that leaked into the Pacific is thought to have been diluted by ocean currents and pose “no discernible threat.” Yet at the same time it is said to be a “slow-decaying” element, taking 30 years to lose half of its radioactivity, so the potential for long-term harm is still strong.
Researchers at the Japanese government’s Meteorlogical Research Institute and Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry suggest another long-term disaster in the making, one not limited to Japan. They describe how the radioactivity leaked into the ocean is likely to live in the northern Pacific currents for the next 20 to 30 years, eventually circulating back to the coastline.
How big was the leak into the ocean? Twice what Japanese authorities had previously estimated and twice the concentration that made its way into the ocean during all of the atmospheric nuclear testing done around the globe in the 1960s.
The biggest contributor was not a direct leak into the ocean from the damaged reactors but as part of the fresh water that was pumped into them in an effort to cool them down. Though 82 percent of the polluting radioactivity entered the sea before April 8, there is still daily leakage into the ocean due to the continued runoff of contaminated water from around the damaged nuclear plant. The study also found large quantities of iodine 131 in the water, though suggested it poses little concern in that its half-life is just eight days.
The report mimics studies done soon after the Gulf oil spill in 2010, when it suggests the “long-lasting impact” of the radioactivity on marine life will be limited while at the same time admitting that the big, deep-water fish at the top of the food chain and filter-feeding mollusks are the most at-risk.
Similar to the Gulf spill too, since this is the biggest such spill in history, no one has real-life experience at judging just how harmful it may be to the marine ecosystem over time.
...since this is the biggest such spill in history, no one has real-life experience at judging just how harmful it may be to the marine ecosystem over time.
Japanese residents are clearly concerned about both the radioactivity leaked into the land and sea and its government’s forthrightness about the potential harms. On land, radiation hotspots continue to be identified even as government officials say they do not pose health risks. Yet many of the contaminated areas on land will need to be stripped of all topsoil and be uninhabitable for decades.
The Fukushima plant itself, say government spokesmen, is stable; critics warn that is an optimistic view, that the continued melting of cores and cracks in containment structures make for lots of unknowns.
One thing the Japanese government will confirm is that the size of the contaminated area, on both land and sea, “may increase in the future.”
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http://www.takepart.com/article/2011/10/28/fukushima-radioactive-ocean-leak-biggest-history
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2013-05-22T01:16:28Z
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Freedom of speech is protected in the First Amendment of the Bill of Rights and is guaranteed to all Americans. Since 1920, the ACLU has worked to preserve free speech.
> A Guide to Photographers' Rights
Freedom of speech, of the press, of association, of assembly and petition -- this set of guarantees, protected by the First Amendment, comprises what we refer to as freedom of expression. The Supreme Court has written that this freedom is "the matrix, the indispensable condition of nearly every other form of freedom." Without it, other fundamental rights, like the right to vote, would wither and die.
Make a Difference
Your support helps the ACLU defend free speech and a broad range of civil liberties.
The ACLU’s Project on Speech, Privacy, and Technology (SPT) is dedicated to protecting and expanding the First Amendment freedoms of expression, association, and inquiry; expanding the right to privacy and increasing the control that individuals have over their personal information; and ensuring that civil liberties are enhanced rather than compromised by new advances in science and technology. The project is currently working on a variety of issues, including political protest, freedom of expression online, privacy of electronic information, journalists’ rights, scientific freedom, and openness in the courts.
Spying on First Amendment Activity - State-by-State (2011 map): Law enforcement agencies across America continue to monitor and harass groups and individuals for doing little more than peacefully exercising their First Amendment rights. From the FBI to local police, U.S. law enforcement agencies have a long history of spying on American citizens and infiltrating or otherwise obstructing political activist groups.
Freedom of Expression (2005 resource): The nation's commitment to freedom of expression has been tested over and over again. Especially during times of national stress, like war abroad or social upheaval at home, people exercising their First Amendment rights have been censored, fined, even jailed. Those with unpopular political ideas have always borne the brunt of government repression. It was during WWI -- hardly ancient history -- that a person could be jailed just for giving out anti-war leaflets. Out of those early cases, modern First Amendment law evolved. Many struggles and many cases later, ours is the most speech-protective country in the world.
Policing Free Speech: Police Surveillance and Obstruction of First Amendment-Protected Activity (2010 PDF): A report on Police Surveillance and Obstruction of First Amendment-Protected Activity
Freedom of Expression - ACLU Position Paper (1997 resource): Early Americans enjoyed great freedom compared to citizens of other nations. Nevertheless, once in power, even the Constitution's framers were guilty of overstepping the First Amendment they had so recently adopted. In 1798, during the French-Indian War, Congress passed the Alien and Sedition Act, which made it a crime for anyone to publish "any false, scandalous and malicious writing" against the government. It was used by the then-dominant Federalist Party to prosecute prominent Republican newspaper editors during the late 18th century.
Freedom of Expression in the Arts and Entertainment (2002 resource)
ACLU Statement on Defending Free Speech of Unpopular Organizations (2000 press release)
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PyX — Example: axis/link.py
Linking one axis to another one
import math from pyx import * c = canvas.canvas() g1 = c.insert(graph.graphxy(width=8)) g1.plot(graph.data.function("y(x)=2*exp(-30*x)-exp(-3*x)", min=0, max=1)) g2 = c.insert(graph.graphxy(width=8, ypos=g1.height+0.5, x=graph.axis.linkedaxis(g1.axes["x"]))) g2.plot(graph.data.function("y(x)=cos(20*x)*exp(-2*x)")) c.writeEPSfile("link") c.writePDFfile("link")
When plotting two or more related graphs, you sometimes want to have identical axes. This example demonstrates how to achieve this goal in PyX using a
In order to arrange the two graphs, we first create a canvas
c, in which we insert the first graph
g1 (the lower panel in the output), which contains the graph of a function.
In the next graph
g2 (the upper panel in the output), we now refer to the x-axis of
g1. We do this by creating a
graph.axis.linkedaxis instance passing the x-axis of
g1 as the only argument. The latter is obtained from the axis dictionary
axes of the graph.
Note that for a linked axis, PyX automatically turns off the drawing of the axis labels, as you can see in the upper panel. If you do not like this behaviour, you have to pass a different axis painter to the
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2013-05-24T09:11:16Z
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|
A study in The Journal of Cell Biology shows how a transcription factor called STAT3 remains in the axon of nerve cells to help prevent neurodegeneration. The findings could pave the way for future drug therapies to slow nerve damage in patients with neurodegenerative diseases.
In Lou Gehrig's Disease (ALS) and other neurodegenerative diseases, nerve cells usually die in stages, with axons deteriorating first and the cells themselves perishing later. Axon degeneration may represent a turning point for patients, after which so much nerve damage has accumulated that treatments won't work. Researchers have tested several proteins for their ability to save axons. One of these molecules, CNTF, rescues axons in rodents and extends their lives. But it caused severe side effects in patients during clinical trials. "Acting on the same pathway but farther downstream could be an ideal way to improve the situation for motor neuron disease" and possibly for other neurodegenerative diseases, says senior author Michael Sendtner from the University of Wuerzburg in Germany.
A JCB study shows how the protein CNTF activates the transcription factor STAT3 (green), which lingers in the axon (blue) and helps stabilize microtubules by inhibiting a protein called stathmin (magenta). STAT3 and stathmin colocalize in axonal branch points (arrowheads) and growth cones (arrow).
To discover how CNTF works, Sendtner and his colleagues studied mice with a mutation that mimics ALS. The researchers found that CNTF not only prevented shrinkage of the rodents' motor neurons, it also reduced the number of swellings along the axon that are markers of degeneration. It is known that CNTF indirectly turns on the transcription factor STAT3, so the researchers wanted to determine if STAT3 is behind CNTF's protective powers. They tested whether CNTF helps motor neurons that lack STAT3 and discovered that, in the mutant mice, axons lacking STAT3 were half as long as those from a control group after CNTF treatment
Once it has been activated, STAT3 typically travels to the nucleus of the neuron to switch on genes. But the researchers were surprised to find that most of the axonal STAT3 did not move to the nucleus and instead had a local effect in the axon. Specifically, the team found that activated STAT3 inhibited stathmin, a protein that normally destabilizes microtubules. When the team removed stathmin in motor neurons from the mutant mice, the axons grew at the same rate as axons from normal mice but didn't elongate any faster after doses of CNTF. These results indicate that CNTF mainly stimulates axon growth by thwarting stathmin and suggests that drugs to block stathmin could slow neuron breakdown in patients with neurodegenerative diseases.
Local axonal function of STAT3 rescues axon degeneration in the pmn model of motoneuron disease. Selvaraj, B.T., et al. 2012. J. Cell Biol. doi:10.1083/jcb.201203109.
Rockfeller University Press
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CC-MAIN-2013-20
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http://www.sciguru.com/newsitem/15120/stay-home-transcription-factor-prevents-neurodegeneration
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2013-05-22T07:41:36Z
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|
Because they are typically deployed as close air support to ground forces, their role is tactical rather than strategic, operating at the front of the battle rather than against targets deeper in the enemy's rear. As such, they are often attached to and in the direct command and control structures of army units as opposed to air force units, though tactical air forces attached to army formations are still an organic part of the air force and ultimately under air-force command. A number of names have or are used for ground-attack aircraft: attack aircraft, fighter-bomber, tactical fighter, tank-buster, tactical bomber, strafer, strike aircraft etc. A light strike aircraft is another category, based on adapted trainers or other light aircraft.
The NATO reporting names for Soviet/Russian ground attack aircraft classified them as "fighters" instead of "bombers" possibly, because they were often only variants of fighter aircraft, but always similar in size, range and weapons to fighters.
Between the World Wars, as the United States embraced the role of global power with the United States Marine Corps as its preferred force for military intervention, marine aviation pioneered ground attack and close air support tactics in the Banana Wars. Marine Aviators pioneered the technique of dive bombing during interventions in Haiti and Nicaragua.
At the start of World War II engine power was scarce and aircraft had to be tailored to individual roles. Ground attack aircraft during this era were generally created for the role, one that was considered largely unimportant and therefore saw little development. Perhaps the only early-war aircraft in this niche was the Henschel Hs 123, a biplane. The Germans worked on a suitable replacement and eventually delivered the Henschel Hs 129, which featured a steel-armored cockpit and windows made of bulletproof glass. Only small numbers were built, however, as the Germans widely used the more flexible Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive-bomber in the ground attack role. A more famous example is the Soviet Ilyushin Il-2 Shturmovik, a light bomber that was adapted into the ground attack role with it armoured fuselage, powerful artillery and possibility of using air-to-ground missiles. More than 43,000 Ilyushin Il-2 were built through World War II. Stalin credited the Il-2 with winning the war.
As engine power improved, roughly doubling over the course of the war, even the average day fighter was more than capable enough to carry out the ground attack role, and some of the most successful designs were slight modifications of existing designs. One of the most successful of these was the RAF's Hawker Typhoons, although they deployed a variety of other aircraft due to changing availability. The Germans made a series of adapted versions of the Focke-Wulf Fw 190, the F and G series, serving roughly the same purpose. The same was true of the USAAF, who moved former front-line fighters into the ground attack role during the war, notably the P-38 Lightning and P-47 Thunderbolt, as newer aircraft took up the air superiority role.
While machine guns and cannon were sufficient against infantry and light vehicles, and one or two small bombs could be easily fitted to most fighters, for operations against tanks heavier weapons such as the 40 mm Vickers S gun or high explosive rockets (such as the RP-3 60 lb rocket) were needed. The former equipped the Hawker Hurricane to good effect in North Africa Campaign, the latter was used by many RAF aircraft among them the Typhoon. Both the US and Soviets also used a variety of rockets in this role. The Germans also deployed rockets, as well as the first cluster bombs.
In the immediate post war era the piston engined ground attack aircraft remained useful - Royal Navy Hawker Sea Fury fighters and the US Vought F4U Corsair and Douglas A-1 Skyraider operated in the Korea with the latter plane effective into the Vietnam conflict. The long loiter times of the piston powered planes gave an advantage over thirsty jet planes.
In most of the post-World War II era air forces have been increasingly reluctant to develop combat aircraft specifically for ground attack. Although close air support and interdiction remain crucial to the modern battlefield, attack aircraft are less glamorous than fighters, and both pilots and military planners have a certain well-cultivated contempt for 'mud-movers.' More practically, the extra cost of a dedicated ground attack aircraft is harder to justify as opposed to having multi-role aircraft.
In the late 1960s the US Air Force requested a dedicated air support plane that became the Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II. It eventually became a primarily anti-armor weapon with limited capability in the interdiction and tactical bombing role, and even in the anti-tank role it was met with mixed feelings. However, the A-10's performance during Operation Desert Storm negated these criticisms. Current US doctrine increasingly emphasizes the use of US Army helicopters for close air support and anti-tank missions. The Soviets' similar Sukhoi Su-25 (Frogfoot) found greater success in the flying artillery role, although it, too, shifted to anti-armor use in later versions and has largely been phased out in favor of 'fast mover' fighter-bomber versions of the MiG-29 and Su-27.
Examples of modern ground attack aircraft include the A-10 Thunderbolt II, Sukhoi Su-7, Sukhoi Su-17, Sukhoi Su-25 (Frogfoot), Nanchang Q-5. Ground attack has otherwise become the domain of converted trainers like the BAC Strikemaster, BAE Hawk, and Cessna A-37.
Under the Key West Agreement which governs the allocation of aircraft between the U.S. Army and the U.S. Air Force, fixed-wing ground-attack aircraft were generally allocated to the Air Force, while attack helicopters were generally allocated to the Army. The Army, wishing to have its own resources to support its troops in combat and faced with a lack of Air Force enthusiasm for the ground-attack role, developed the AH-64 Apache attack helicopter for ground-attack roles such as destroying enemy tanks and supporting troops in combat.
One concern involving the Apache arose when a unit of these helicopters was very slow to deploy during U.S. military involvement in Kosovo. The Apache, which is the main alternative for the same airborne anti-tank role in the U.S. military as the A-10, ended up performing more poorly than anticipated, while the A-10 performed well in anti-tank roles in the Gulf War and in Iraq. Indeed, in the 2003 Invasion of Iraq, a unit of AH-64 Apaches was severely mauled by the Republican Guard division, Hammurabi.
According to the Army Times, the Army is shifting its doctrine to favor ground-attack aircraft over attack helicopters for this role because ground-attack helicopters have proved to be highly vulnerable to small-arms fire. The U.S. Marines have noted similar problems.
Officially, the U.S. Air Force planned to replace the only dedicated ground-attack aircraft currently in U.S. service, the A-10, with its new "Joint Strike Fighter", the F-35 Lightning II. But, facing political concerns that the new fighters were not designed for the ground-attack role that had proven particularly useful in Iraq and Afghanistan, a plan to decommission the A-10 has been replaced with a plan to upgrade the existing aircraft with improved electronics extending the service life of the planes until as late as 2028. The U.S. Air Force has not commissioned any new designs for this role (in part, out of concern for the F-35 program).
The other major complication to planes of military forces to purchase new ground-attack aircraft is uncertainty over the degree to which manned fixed wing aircraft may be replaced by unmanned combat drones in this role, a possibility illustrated by the armed Predator drone which has been used in this capacity.
China Signs $2 Billion Deal To Buy Russian Fighter Jets; Aircraft to Strengthen Beijing's Ability to Attack Taiwan
Jul 20, 2001; China has signed a contract with a Russian aircraft manufacturer for another batch of ground-attack jets, Russian news reports...
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<urn:uuid:7d452b4c-98f3-4071-9be9-d49e2542e5f0>
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http://www.reference.com/browse/wiki/Ground-attack_aircraft
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2013-06-19T19:36:35Z
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Information literacy is commonly defined as "the ability to locate, evaluate, and efficiently use information" and is comprised of several components:
Students have to be able navigate the Libraries and our print and electronic information resources; they need to be able to evaluate, analyze, and synthesize information to come to conclusions; and they need to be familiar with computers and computer applications not only to find and retrieve information but also to communicate their findings.
Lifelong learning is also encouraged through the promotion of information literacy. Students develop an appreciation of how these skills will assist them in their future coursework and careers, along with developing an understanding of the impact information has on society and their lives.
Faculty and their College Librarian/Liaison can work together to provide opportunities for students to learn these skills. For example, librarians can assist with modifying assignments to incorporate research and the analysis of information. Class time can then be set aside for the librarian, faculty member, and students to explore appropriate research strategies and critical thinking issues.
At present there is no information literacy requirement here at Virginia Tech. To be sure that your students have the necessary skills to survive in this age of information overload, please contact your librarian to discuss integrating information literacy skills into your course curriculum.
Our primary tour option for individuals is a self-guided, audio tour option with a graded quiz that can be used to show attendance for classes that require participation or give extra credit.
The tour consists of 16 different information stops/points, accessible by using a device to scan a QR code. Once scanned using the camera in your mobile device and its built-in reader or a separate app, your device will play an audio track (with some photos/videos) explaining the different services that are offered in Newman Library and how our collections are organized. The audio track at each stop will direct you to the next stop, where you will scan the next QR code.
To take the tour you will either need to use a smartphone or tablet, have access to Virginia Tech’s wireless network (we recommend wireless over a cellular data network since several sections of the library get little to no cellular signal), and have headphones or earbuds to hear the narration. If you do not have a suitable device, then you can check out an iPad at the Circulation Desk. The Circulation staff will show you how to take the tour.
Sun: 9:00am - 10:00pm
Mon-Thu, 7:30am - 10:00pm
Fri: 7:30am - 8:00pm
Sat: 9:00am - 8:00pm
Sun: 1:00pm - 5:00pm
Mon-Fri: 8:00am - 5:00pm
Mon-Thu: 11:00am - 8:00pm
Fri: 11:00am - 6:30pm
Sat: 9:00am - 5:00pm
Mon-Thu: 8:00am - 6:00pm
Fri: 8:00am - 5:00pm
Sat: 1:00pm - 6:00pm
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2013-06-20T02:46:24Z
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STUART — The telephone, patented by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876, would eventually enable people to communicate with others in all parts of the world, but at first, the few subscribers, mostly the wealthy and businesses, were not sure what to say into the new voice connector.
Simply say hello
It had been an early practice for a caller to ring a bell, pause and then say “Are you there?” or “Are you ready to talk?” Thomas A. Edison suggested that one should simply say, “Hello” when the phone rang.
As more phone connections were created during the 1880s and 1890s, a new occupation was created. Calls needed to be connected manually from one subscriber to another.
A new career option
It became an almost exclusive new career for young, unmarried girls as telephone operators during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Females were considered to be patient and naturally more polite than males with a pleasant and appealing voice. Operators would be required to dress as ladies at all times with heels, hose, high necklines, low hemlines, little makeup and no exotic hairdos.
Hello, 'Hello Girls'
Thousands of women who were employed in this service were sometimes called "Hello Girls" although they never really said "Hello" when answering at the switchboard, but instead were instructed to say, “Number Please.”
Salaries for operators in 1900 averaged about $7 for a work week of 11 hours a day for six days; by the 1920s, the ladies worked six days a week, nine hours a day and every other Sunday for $7.50 a day. The job required concentration, some dexterity and it was no doubt uncomfortable sitting on a hard stool all day, having to even ask permission for restroom privileges.
Jacksonville was one of the first cities in Florida with phone service and a mere 32 subscribers in 1880. Soon after Stuart was incorporated in May 1914, the president of the West Palm Beach Telephone Co. announced the impending arrival of telephone service to the town, if at least 40 subscribers would sign up. The phone lines would run from Jupiter and Hobe Sound north to Stuart and cost the company approximately $1,000. The money for the undertaking was raised very quickly by selling company bonds for $100 each to Stuart businesses and residents.
Stuart gets phones
The first telephone office with a full switchboard was built on Avenue C (Akron Avenue). The route of the phone lines, on sturdy poles, was along Dixie Highway into Stuart and was completed by April 1915. The Stuart Drug Co. had the first pay phone in town where it cost 41 cents to talk for 3 minutes to someone in West Palm Beach. Residential phones cost $2 per month and several individuals not only had a phone at home, but another at a business location.
The manager and one of the first 'Hello Girls' for Stuart was Ethel Madsen. Her parents, John E. and Hattie Madsen, had lived in Eden, then in the Stuart area for years. (As students, Ethel and Merle Smith, being the only two graduates of the Stuart High School class of 1916, were the first to receive diplomas.)
In spite of the 40 pledges for phone subscribers, in the early months of operation, only 31 had actually been paid and installed. There were assorted phone companies for different locations (Jensen, Fort Pierce, Vero Beach) and the expansion of the phone system was slow. A few of the smaller companies had a simple switchboard in an operator’s home.
Manager get married
Stuart was fortunate in having a separate phone office from the beginning. Ethel's employment as a 'Hello Girl' ended in 1919 when she wed Robert Walter Edwards who worked in Stuart for the telephone company. As a married woman, she had to leave her position as an operator.
Telephone numbers for Stuart subscribers were at one time simple, consisting of only a few digits: Geiger Drug Company's number was 37, Stuart Lumber, 22 and St. Lucie Hotel, 32. It really wasn't even necessary to know the number; the caller just asked for the business or person and the 'Hello Girl,' who knew practically everyone, connected the parties. In fact, in some instances, the town being so small, she often knew, if the person wasn't home, where he / she was or could be reached and could even make that connection!
Southern Bell comes in
A major change, however, came in 1924 when the Atlanta-based Southern Bell Telephone Co. purchased the small local phone companies and introduced the newest innovations. Now instead of cranking the phone to get the 'Hello Girl' an individual just picked up the receiver and was automatically connected with the operator.
About that time, Stuart's telephone company relocated in the Woodmen of the World Hall on Third Street, occupying the entire first floor with emergency batteries and switching mechanisms for operation of the system. Even during storms or hurricanes, operators were on duty to handle calls as the old frame building no doubt shook from the winds.
But there was no warning for a devastating incident that occurred on April 27, 1955, at about 2:25 a.m. Dorothy Anderson was on duty in the early morning hours as three sticks of dynamite were tossed under the phone exchange building and exploded with tremendous force.
Moments before, Dorothy had walked to the front of the building to get a sweater and fortunately was not in the area of direct impact, which probably saved her life. The explosion blew out a six-foot gaping hole in the buckled flooring, damaged the switchboard, light fixtures, shattered glass and mutilated furniture; a kerosene stove was blasted into the ceiling.
It was determined that the attack was due to the ongoing telephone employee labor union strike which had begun in February 1955.
There had been other incidents in Florida at the time relating to the strike, but the Stuart bombing was the first to truly endanger life. Most of the Stuart employees had not gone on strike, including Dorothy, who had worked for the phone company 12 years and all were ready to return to work as soon as the repairs were completed.
Three years later, construction began on a new facility for the telephone company, directly across from Woodmen Hall. The concrete Southern Bell Exchange building would cost approximately $280,000, plus $606,000 for new equipment and $320,000 for lines and cables leading to the exchange. Growth in businesses and individuals needing phone service, from about 700 in 1947 to 3,300 in '58, necessitated the larger facility.
On March 1, 1959, the dial tone system (Number Five Cross-Bar) was initiated which also permitted direct distance dialing. A caller could 'dial' whomever, at any time, directly and even make long distance calls, without using an operator. With about 4,000 phones in Stuart in 1959, local customers rotary dialed AT(lantic) 7 and four other numbers to connect to another local phone; Stuart was one of just a few cities in Florida to have this new service.
Modern technology caused the phasing out of the manual switchboard and the once familiar friendly voice of the 'Hello Girls' politely requesting, “Number Please.”
By 1970, the area had 10,000 phone numbers ranging from 287-0000 to 287-9999, with the '283' exchange soon being needed to provide additional numbers. In 2010, there were 61 different exchanges covering all areas of Martin County. Although introduced to the public in the early 1960s, the touch tone phone wasn't generally accepted until the late '70s, a replacement for the rotary.
Phones are now wireless mini-computers, with cameras, GPS, texting and Internet capabilities. Some people even use them to actually talk to others. What would Ethel have thought of all these innovations?
Alice L. Luckhardt is a freelance historical researcher and writer, member of the Board of Directors for the Stuart Heritage Museum and researcher for the Elliott and House of Refuge. Greg Luckhardt, a native of Stuart and 1967 MCHS grad, is a former science teacher, retired businessman and member of Stuart Heritage Museum.
They can be contacted at: firstname.lastname@example.org
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News Flash! Our “peak” for American fitness AND health was over 100 years ago, so let’s learn from history and get to work improving!
Ironically, many of our “elite” athletes today cannot perform many of the routine fitness tasks performed in gymnasiums during the late 1800s and early 1900s which were peak years of the “Physical Culture” movement that largely influenced millions of Americans for decades. Need proof? Here’s just one example “after” we saw significant fitness decreased compared to the early 20th century standards…but please note! The real learning here is NOT the obvious “physical fitness” demonstrated in the video, but rather, it’s the backstory on exercise psychology and the “motivation” facilitated by Coach LeProtti. He even wrote a paper on the program called “The Motivation Factor” which is linked below.
Following WWII, there was growing concern about our decreasing fitness nationally. President Kennedy had grown up in a physical culture and greatly valued physical fitness. With JFK’s vision and support, we saw a short spike in national physical education programs again which faded significantly by the end of the 1960s and has continued to slide into what today has become a very unhealthy society. Back in the early sixties, there was a legendary program by physical educator and coach Mr. Stan LeProtti in Carmichael, CA at La Sierra High School. The “La Sierra System” was even featured in the January 1962 issue of Look Magazine. *(Full article linked below)
The La Sierra System was based on a color system based on achievement. The program did NOT use any machinery but only body weight, pull up bars, peg boards, ropes, etc. It was focused on strength, endurance, power, agility, and balance. This system was adopted by at least 200 schools across the United States and was promoted as “the” system to adopt nationwide. There were five levels: White (beginner), Red (intermediate), Blue (advanced), Purple (advanced-II), and Gold (physically gifted).
“Our program develops large groups of boys, instead of individuals. Boys like to be challenged to do hard things, as long as you are fair with them. It’s an aggressive approach to education, based on pride.”
-Stan LeProtti (1962)
The La Sierra System was revered nationally not just for physical education–but also for the other values this system stressed to young men such as maintaining minimum grade standards in PE, neatness, grooming, and citizenship.
Interestingly, upon researching La Sierra, I realized that my very own California high school had used the same system during the late 1970s! It was slightly modified into only four levels (Gray, White, Red, Red Satin), but what I can tell you “personally”–which parallels what I have read about Mr. LeProtti’s program, is that it was very motivating. In this program, boys would create fitness areas at home so they could practice and improve their ranks. In 1975, I came in at the very bottom of the fitness ranks. I was so mortified by my lack of physical prowess that I trained all summer long! By my sophomore year, I was at the second level and was on my way to the third level by my junior year, but they abandoned the program due to social pressures. Sadly, too many kids in the late 1970s could not perform the tests. We went from having to “increase standards” in 1962 to complete elimination at my high school by 1976. Therefore, we truly have been in a national regression in physical education for decades–not progression.
I can still remember how crushed I was because I wanted to achive my goal of getting to Level 3 Red. In comparison, the La Sierra program had to actually “raise” their standards because too many of the young men were passing the lower standards. What’s an example of their standards? In 1962, the minimum number of pull ups required to enter the Naval Academy was two–for the La Sierra “Blue” group, it was 13–remember that the Blue was only Level 3 out of 5 total. How many teen boys today can do 13 quality pull ups? Gasp! Precious few. In a typical year at LaSierra, over 40% of the boys were at the Blue level.
The La Sierra system only spent 15 minutes per day on the vigorous fitness conditioning part of their curriculum. Coach LeProtti must have studied history and knew that high-volume fitness with poor structure ultimately always fails. How could these kids get so fit in 15 minutes per day?!!! FOCUS. They focused on quality…and the rest was literally history. So much for the naysayers regarding a lack of time to exercise!
My point is that this program was HIGHLY MOTIVATING and extremely successful in hundreds of American schools. As a credentialed Physical Education teacher, I’m still working on my pull ups to this day while I think about my former high school color group PE program! I’m finally up to 12 pull ups and working towards improving my all-time best which was 15. At age 53, I’m almost up to the LaSierra “Blue” standards, so it can be done–if we work at it.
In a typical year at La Sierra, more than
40% of boys were at a Blue Level Rank!!!
Unfortunately, we did not continue this short-term progression for physical fitness in the 1960s, but we can learn from the past so we CAN create a future of fitness not just for American youth–but for our whole country!
Get Fit. Be Strong.
- “How American Can Get Physically Tough” (Look Magazine-January 1962)
- La Sierra High School Physical Education Video
- “The Motivation Factor” by Stan LeProtti for President’s Council on Physical Fitness & Sports
- *All photos actual students from La Sierra PE Program
- *Special thanks to Dr. Ed Thomas for his research contribution to this article.
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The following are recommended books for parents and educators.
A lot of parents struggle with the homework question. Children often think there is too much. Studies tell us though that our children do less homework than children in other countries. As new standards are implemented the homework problem becomes even more daunting. Homework can be a real struggle for students who find school difficult—especially for students with LD and/or ADHD. This guide offers basic strategies. In one sense this is nothing new. In another way, however, it makes the strategies concrete with step by step advice on how to solve the homework wars.
In Overcoming Underachieving two nationally recognized experts in children's school problems show you how to become your child's advocate, coach, and guide through the educational process. Using numerous case examples, they help you pinpoint your child's unique learning patterns and the problems that interfere with learning, behavior, and achievement. This information-packed book provides dozens of creative, parent-tested tools to help your child overcome difficulties with reading, math, handwriting, study skills, memorization, attention span, and many other problems that affect school success.
Proceeds from the sale of books purchased from our recommended books section can help support LD OnLine.
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(1 of 3)
Identify the major spaces located between the large and small intestines, their peritoneal reflections and the posterior abdominal wall. These spaces are known as the recesses or gutters.On the right side of the ascending colon, identify the right paracolic gutter. It forms an important communication between the hepatorenal (subhepatic) recess and pelvic cavity.
On the left side of the descending colon
Links and References:
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Reading is a critical skill for success in school and in life. Let’s create an easy to learn environment with high quality children’s age appropriate books, and help our children build a good reading habit!
Reading Comprehension for Third Graders
Students read and understand grade-level-appropriate material. They draw upon a variety of comprehension strategies as needed (e.g., generating and responding to essential questions, making predictions, comparing information from several sources).
The selections in Recommended Literature, Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve illustrate the quality and complexity of the materials to be read by students. In addition to their regular school reading, by grade four, students read one-half million words annually, including a good representation of grade-level-appropriate narrative and expository text (e.g., classic and contemporary literature, magazines, newspapers, online information).
In grade three, students make substantial progress toward this goal.
Structural Features of Informational Materials
1. Use titles, tables of contents, chapter headings, glossaries, and indexes to locate information in text.
Comprehension and Analysis of Grade-Level-Appropriate Text
2. Ask questions and support answers by connecting prior knowledge with literal information found in, and inferred from, the text.
3. Demonstrate comprehension by identifying answers in the text.
4. Recall major points in the text and make and modify predictions about forthcoming information.
5. Distinguish the main idea and supporting details in expository text.
6. Extract appropriate and significant information from the text, including problems and solutions.
7. Follow simple multiple-step written instructions (e.g., how to assemble a product or play a board game).
Books for Third Graders
Whitefoot: A Story from the Center of the World
When a flood of rain comes, a little mouse travels far outside of her world and her routines on a new journey of survival.
Ms. Wiz Spells Trouble
Their new teacher can do some very strange things, which makes school very interesting for the students, but creates problems for other teachers.
Series: Ms. Wiz
Bad Kitty Gets a Bath
Find out if kitty gets clean in this hilarious “how-to” chapter book with instructions on giving kitty a bath. The book includes safety advice. Make sure you have “a suit of armor, your doctor on speed dial, lots of plasma, and lots of bandages.”
Mercy Watson: Something Wonky This Way Comes
When the Watsons take their pet pig, Mercy, to see the movie “When Pigs Fly” at the drive-in, Mercy is much more interested in that heavenly smell of butter.
Series: Mercy Watson
Sassy: Little Sister Is Not My Name
Sassy Simone Sanford is nicknamed Little Sister and she is the youngest, smallest member of her family — and the last one in line for everything. She’s tired of being called Little Sister. She just wants to be Sassy with her one of a kind Sparkle Sack!
Miss Breakbone makes a mistake when she calls her class the Dunderheads. They soon team up and demonstrate their talents, much to the teacher’s dismay.
Make Way for Dyamonde Daniel
Dyamonde Daniel calls herself “a gem waiting to be discovered.” Follow Dyamonde in this story about a new school and how she finds a friend to replace Alisha, her old best friend.
Jade Dragon: A Story of Ancient China
Zhou usually loses the tournament to his twin brother, Cheng. His luck changes when he finds a small jade dragon.
Underpants On My Head
Underpants On My Head
Summer vacation at Gram’s is not very fun until Cleo’s family goes mountain hiking. Then they get caught in a snowstorm without hats, where the only thing left to use might be their… underwear!
Amazing Trail of Seymour Snail
Seymour Snail, who wants to be a great artist, takes a job in an art gallery. He is asked to slime envelopes and deliver a package.
These letters tell of the Wild West adventures of Grandfather and his dog Roo. Organized by the Great Lost Travel Agency, there is one funny disaster after another.
We Can’t All Be Rattlesnakes
Crusher, a gopher snake, is captured by a human child. Forced into the boy’s “zoo,” she does everything she can to escape.
A Coyote Solstice Tale
Coyote and his friends go shopping at the mall and they are happy with their selections. The problem is that wild forest animals do not know they have to pay for the things on their cart before they can leave the store.
Sensible Hare and The Case Of Carrots
Secret tunnels, train chases, villains’ hideouts, and bad guys in disguise…Sensible Hare is on the hunt for a missing suitcase of carrots.
Nana Cracks the Case
Nana is not a normal grandmother. She loves a bit of adventure. When Nana reads the want-ad for a detective job, she knows she is perfect for the job since she is sneaky and has lots of wigs.
Poodle and Hound
Two best friends, Poodle and Hound, have different likes but still understand and enjoy each other.
A mysterious beast with only two legs has been stealing oranges from the Mammoth Academy kitchen, and it is up to Oscar the mammoth to crack the case!
Chocolate Tree: A Mayan Folktale
The god Kukulkan brings happiness to the Mayan people with corn. His next mission: to share the divine food chocolate.
Third Grade Baby
Polly is the only third grader in her class who hasn’t lost a tooth, but losing one creates other problems.
How Oliver Olson Changed the World
Oliver’s parents do his homework for him … and he hates it! They control his whole life and won’t let him go on the super fun class sleepover. But when the imaginative Crystal is his partner on a school project, his parents are totally helpless.
Swamps of Sleethe: Poems From Beyond the Solar System
In these spooky space poems, you’ll tour planets of the universe you’d never want to visit, from Gazook where the cooks will put you into their soup, to Wonthoo, where the water shrinks you down to nothingness.
Day of the Black Blizzard
Dust was in their food. Dust was in their water. They breathed it in, and heard it whistle in the wind all night long. Nothing could stop it. On the plains, far from home, will Orry and Mildred survive the Day of the Black Blizzard?
Max has a new school and new bullies to deal with…fortunately, he also has Adventure Time when he can go on all kinds of escapades with his trusty dog without ever leaving his room!
Brenda Berman, Wedding Expert
Oh, no! Brenda’s Uncle Harry eloped and now she doesn’t get to wear her gold flower girl dress at the wedding. Will she ever forgive him and her new Aunt Florrie for ruining a special EVENT?
After we have done some research, we recommend the following books for third graders by Amazon’s review rankings.
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ShīʿiteArticle Free Pass
Shīʿite, Arabic Shīʿī, collective Shīʿah, member of the smaller of the two major branches of Islam, distinguished from the majority Sunnis.
Early in the history of Islam, the Shīʿites were a political faction (Arabic shīʿat ʿAlī, “party of ʿAlī”) that supported the power of ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib (the fourth caliph [khalīfah, successor of Muhammad]) and, later, of his descendants. Starting as a political faction, this group gradually developed into a religious movement, Shīʿism, which not only influenced Sunni Islam but also produced a number of important sects to which the term Shīʿah is applied.
The Prophet Muhammad died in ad 632 without an heir, none of his sons having survived to adulthood, and a broad consensus of those present at Medina nominated his longtime companion Abū Bakr as his successor. Abū Bakr died two years later and was succeeded in the caliphate by his assistant and adviser ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭab. When ʿUmar was assassinated by a disgruntled Persian slave in 644, ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān was selected by a committee to become the third caliph. ʿUthmān was killed by rebels in 656.
From the time of the first caliph, a number of those within the Muslim community felt that ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib, who was Muhammad’s first cousin and close confidant as well as his son-in-law and the father of Muhammad’s grandsons Ḥasan and al-Ḥusayn (by Muhammad’s daughter Fāṭimah), was the natural choice to succeed the Prophet. In 656 ʿAlī was raised to the caliphate, partly with the support of those who had murdered the third caliph, ʿUthmān.
ʿAlī never quite received the allegiance of all the Muslims, however, and, in an effort to consolidate power, he was forced to wage a series of campaigns in an insurrection that came to be known as the first fitnah (“trial”). ʿAlī’s main opponent was the Muslim governor of Syria, Muʿāwiyah ibn Abī Sufyān, who was a kinsman of the murdered ʿUthmān (both men were members of the Umayyad clan—founders of the Umayyad dynasty—whose leaders had been fierce adversaries of Muhammad before their conversion to Islam). The antagonism between ʿAlī and Muʿāwiyah culminated in the Battle of Ṣiffīn (657), a conflict that ʿAlī appeared to be winning until he agreed to Muʿāwiyah’s demand for arbitration. ʿAlī’s concession angered a large faction within his forces, and the malcontents soon seceded (and were henceforth known as the Khārijites, “Seceders”), which ultimately weakened ʿAlī’s position. ʿAlī was murdered by a Khārijite in 661.
Muʿāwiyah became the next generally acknowledged caliph, and for some time ʿAlī was officially cursed from the pulpits of Islam. However, many Muslims, especially those of the garrison cities of southern Iraq, hoped for a restoration of the ʿAlids (i.e., lineage of ʿAlī). ʿAlī’s son Ḥasan made a short-lived bid for the caliphate soon after his father’s death, but he met with no success and retired. Later al-Ḥusayn refused to recognize the legitimacy of Muʿāwiyah’s son and successor, Yazīd I, as caliph. The Muslims of Al-Kūfah in Iraq, ʿAlī’s former headquarters, invited al-Ḥusayn to come there and offered to support his bid for the caliphate. The broader Muslim community in Iraq generally failed to support al-Ḥusayn, however, and he and his small band of followers were cut down in 680 by Umayyad troops near the town of Karbalāʾ (the Battle of Karbalāʾ), which is now a pilgrimage destination in central Iraq for Shīʿites. (See also ʿĀshūrāʾ.)
Swearing vengeance against the triumphant Umayyad government, the remorseful residents of Al-Kūfah soon engaged in a series of unsuccessful insurrections against Umayyad rule. These were put down with great brutality, notably by the Umayyad provincial governor al-Ḥajjāj. In one such insurrection, the Shīʿite leader al-Mukhtār ibn Abī ʿUbayd al-Thaqafī put forward Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥanafiyyah, a son of ʿAlī from a wife other than Fāṭimah, as caliph. Such revolts tended to have a strong millenarian element, and, in the turbulent social and political circumstances of the late 7th and early 8th centuries, political differences slowly began to take on theological proportions. Extremist (ghulāt) groups began to proliferate, often attributing miraculous, even divine, status to ʿAlī and his family.
The people of Al-Kūfah ultimately gained support from other groups that opposed the status quo of the Umayyad dynasty. These included aristocratic Muslim families of Medina, pious men protesting what they considered too worldly an interpretation of Islam, and non-Arab Muslims (mawālī, “clients”), especially in Iraq, who demanded an equality denied them by the ruling Arabs.
The subsequent revolt, which ended in 750, finally put an end to Umayyad power; however, rather than an ʿAlid rising to the caliphate, the appointment went to a scion of another branch of the Prophet’s family, one descended from Muhammad’s uncle al-ʿAbbās. Under the ʿAbbāsid dynasty (750–1258), the theological, philosophical, and legal superstructure of what was to become the Sunni community developed and flourished. The insurrections of the Umayyad period died down, but a counterculture developed in the form of several diverse groups promoting Shīʿite candidates to leadership. One such group, the Zaydiyyah (named for Zayd ibn ʿAlī, a grandson of al-Ḥusayn), formulated its principles in the 9th century. The Zaydīs (members of the Zaydiyyah) demanded, sometimes with sword in hand, that the ruler be whichever descendant of Ḥasan or al-Ḥusayn (that is, the sons of ʿAlī by Fāṭimah) was proved qualified, at a given time, by his religious knowledge and his practical ability. Zaydī devotees set up several small states along the Caspian littoral in what is now northern Iran and in Yemen in southern Arabia, where Zaydī imams have since been spiritual leaders and where they ruled politically until 1962.
What made you want to look up "Shi'ite"? Please share what surprised you most...
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March is Red Cross Month. The American Red Cross plays a nationwide role in securing our nation’s blood supply. Every two seconds, someone in America needs blood. Think about donating blood this month, and you can help save someone in need.
Here are some guidelines to follow if you are thinking about giving blood:
- Be 17 years old
- Weigh at least 110 pounds
- Be healthy and not have a fever or cold
Some travel destinations can interfere with giving blood, so if you have vacationed recently talk with a Red Cross employee or visit the website to find more information.
Benefits of donating:
- You receive cookies, juice and sodas after you donate.
- One pint of blood can save up to three lives.
Even though you might not like needles, donating blood is a life-saving act. Consider donating blood and visit the Red Cross website for more information on donation centers and drives in your area.
Pictures from: DavidBerkowitz
Information from RedCross
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Organ Transplants Can Spread Cancer
DATE OF PUBLICATION: OCTOBER 2004
ASSOCIATED PRESS (no date)Five patients who developed skin cancer after an organ transplant may have received cancer seed cells from the donor. This was the finding of a team of researchers in Modena, Italy.
The cancer, Kaposis sarcoma, is caused by a virus that the body usually can eliminate. It has become associated with the AIDS epidemic because the virus affects people with weakened immune systems.
Kaposis sarcoma appears in about one out of every 200 transplant recipients, which is 400 to 500 times the rate of the general population.
It had been thought the virus was able to take hold in these patients because their immune systems were suppressed in order to prevent rejection of the new organ.
But that European research team has found evidence that, at least in some transplant patients, seed cells for the cancer tumors seem to have originated in the organ donor.
The findings of the team (led by Patrizia Barozzi and Mario Luppi of the University of Modena and Reggio Emilia in Modena, Italy) have been reported in medical journals.
The study shows that "tumor cells from the organ donor can contribute to one of the most frequent transplant-related malignancies," Patrick S. Moore of the University of Plattsburgh Cancer Institute commented. He was not part of the research team.
Several weeks earlier, Scottish physicians reported on two cases of patients developing melanoma (the skin cancer) from transplanted kidneys, even though the donor was successfully treated for the cancer many years earlier.
Transfer of cancer from a donated organ to a transplant patient is rare; and the chances of it happening long after the donor was treated for the condition is thought to be extremely unlikely.
In the cases involving Kaposis sarcoma, researchers studied eight patients, six women and two men, who received kidneys from male donors and who developed Kaposis sarcoma nine months to 40 months later.
In analyzing the cancer cells from the women, the researchers detected Y-chromosome DNA in four cases, indicating the cells originated with a man. There was no evidence of Y-chromosomes in the cancer in the other two women or in normal cells from any of the women. These facts are considered highly significant.
Using the DNA analysis of the cancer cells in the men, the researchers discovered that in one case the cancer DNA was related to that of the organ donor.
Kaposis sarcoma can be treated by reducing or ending the suppression of the patients immune system, allowing it to battle the cancer.
That also can mean the immune system will begin attacking the transplanted organ, causing it to be rejected.
Dr. Moore made note of the fact that the organ donors had no symptoms of Kaposis sarcoma. This suggests that they are infected with the cancer-causing virus, but that their bodies are able to destroy the cancer cells when they form.
However, once the infected organ is transplanted into a patient who has a weakened immune system, the cancer cells are able to grow and cause the disease.
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| 0.968722
| 649
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Nausea and Vomiting (Professional)
Prevention and control of nausea and vomiting (emesis) (N&V) are paramount in the treatment of cancer patients. N&V can result in serious metabolic derangements, nutritional depletion and anorexia, deterioration of patients' physical and mental status, esophageal tears, fractures, wound dehiscence, withdrawal from potentially useful and curative antineoplastic treatment, and degeneration of self-care and functional ability. (See Table 1 for criteria on grading severity.) Despite advances in pharmacologic and nonpharmacologic management, N&V remain two of the more distressing and feared side effects to cancer patients and their families, and incidence may be underestimated by physicians and nurses.[1,2,3,4,5]
In this summary, unless otherwise stated, evidence and practice issues as they relate to adults are discussed. The evidence and application to practice related to children may differ significantly from information related to adults. When specific information about the care of children is available, it is summarized under its own heading.
Nausea is a subjective phenomenon of an unpleasant, wavelike sensation experienced in the back of the throat and/or the epigastrium that may culminate in vomiting (emesis). Vomiting is the forceful expulsion of the contents of the stomach, duodenum, or jejunum through the oral cavity. Retching is gastric and esophageal movements of vomiting without expulsion of vomitus and is also referred to as dry heaves.
Various classifications of N&V have been used,[1,6] including acute, delayed, late or persistent, chronic, anticipatory, breakthrough, or refractory, as well as distinctions related to type of treatment (e.g., chemotherapy induced or radiation induced) and clinical course of disease (e.g., advanced or terminal disease).[7,8] Despite this variety, the most commonly described types of N&V are acute, delayed, and anticipatory chemotherapy-induced N&V and chronic N&V in advanced cancer patients. Although there are no standard definitions, the following are commonly used to classify the different types.
- Acute N&V: N&V experienced during the first 24-hour period after chemotherapy administration is considered acute N&V.
- Delayed (or late) N&V: N&V that occurs more than 24 hours after chemotherapy administration is considered delayed, or late, N&V. Delayed N&V is associated with cisplatin, cyclophosphamide, and other drugs (e.g., doxorubicin and ifosfamide) given at high doses or on 2 or more consecutive days.
- Anticipatory nausea and vomiting (ANV): ANV is nausea and/or vomiting that occurs prior to the beginning of a new cycle of chemotherapy in response to conditioned stimuli such as the smells, sights, and sounds of the treatment room. ANV is a classically conditioned response that typically occurs after three or four prior chemotherapy treatments, following which the person experienced acute or delayed N&V.
- Chronic N&V in advanced cancer patients: Chronic N&V in the advanced cancer patient is N&V associated with a variety of potential etiologies. A definitive understanding of cause is neither well known nor well researched, but potential causal factors include gastrointestinal, cranial, metabolic, drug-induced (e.g., morphine), cytotoxic chemotherapy, and radiation-induced mechanisms.
Table 1. National Cancer Institute's Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Events: N&Va
N&V = nausea and vomiting (emesis); TPN = total parenteral nutrition.
a Adapted from National Cancer Institute.
b Definition: A disorder characterized by a queasy sensation and/or the urge to vomit.
c Definition: A disorder characterized by the reflexive act of ejecting the contents of the stomach through the mouth.
|Nauseab||1||Loss of appetite without alteration in eating habits|
|2||Oral intake decreased without significant weight loss, dehydration, or malnutrition|
|3||Inadequate oral caloric or fluid intake; tube feeding, TPN, or hospitalization indicated|
|4||Grade not available|
|5||Grade not available|
|Vomitingc||1||1–2 episodes (separated by 5 min) in 24 h|
|2||3–5 episodes (separated by 5 min) in 24 h|
|3||=6 episodes (separated by 5 min) in 24 h; tube feeding, TPN, or hospitalization indicated|
|4||Life-threatening consequences; urgent intervention indicated|
- Wickham R: Nausea and vomiting. In: Yarbo CH, Frogge MH, Goodman M, eds.: Cancer Symptom Management. 2nd ed. Sudbury, Mass: Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 1999, pp 228-263.
- Coates A, Abraham S, Kaye SB, et al.: On the receiving end--patient perception of the side-effects of cancer chemotherapy. Eur J Cancer Clin Oncol 19 (2): 203-8, 1983.
- Craig JB, Powell BL: The management of nausea and vomiting in clinical oncology. Am J Med Sci 293 (1): 34-44, 1987.
- Passik SD, Kirsh KL, Rosenfeld B, et al.: The changeable nature of patients' fears regarding chemotherapy: implications for palliative care. J Pain Symptom Manage 21 (2): 113-20, 2001.
- Grunberg SM, Deuson RR, Mavros P, et al.: Incidence of chemotherapy-induced nausea and emesis after modern antiemetics. Cancer 100 (10): 2261-8, 2004.
- Pisters KM, Kris MG: Treatment-related nausea and vomiting. In: Berger A, Portenoy RK, Weissman DE, eds.: Principles and Practice of Supportive Oncology. Philadelphia, Pa: Lippincott-Raven Publishers, 1998, pp 165-199.
- Fallon BG: Nausea and vomiting unrelated to cancer treatment. In: Berger A, Portenoy RK, Weissman DE, eds.: Principles and Practice of Supportive Oncology. Philadelphia, Pa: Lippincott-Raven Publishers, 1998, pp 179-189.
- Allan SG: Nausea and vomiting. In: Doyle D, Hanks GW, MacDonald N, eds.: Oxford Textbook of Palliative Medicine. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1998, pp 282-290.
- Schwartzberg L: Chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting: state of the art in 2006. J Support Oncol 4 (2 Suppl 1): 3-8, 2006.
- National Cancer Institute.: Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Events (CTCAE), Version 4.0. Bethesda, Md: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, 2010. Available online. Last accessed June 17, 2011.
eMedicineHealth Public Information from the National Cancer Institute
This information is produced and provided by the National Cancer Institute (NCI). The information in this topic may have changed since it was written. For the most current information, contact the National Cancer Institute via the Internet web site at http://cancer.gov or call 1-800-4-CANCER
This information is not intended to replace the advice of a doctor. Healthwise disclaims any liability for the decisions you make based on this information.
Some material in CancerNet™ is from copyrighted publications of the respective copyright claimants. Users of CancerNet™ are referred to the publication data appearing in the bibliographic citations, as well as to the copyright notices appearing in the original publication, all of which are hereby incorporated by reference.
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|Earth Exploration Toolbook Chapter: Analyzing Wetlands|
The Ramsar Wetlands Data Gateway is a database containing information on protected international wetlands. In this activity, users search the database to find a wetland that they are interested in helping to protect. Using the database search capabilities, users select various wetland characteristics and generate a report on the sites that meet their search criteria. Then, they access an interactive map to view the locations and nearby features of the identified wetland sites. Next, they narrow the choices down to a single wetland that they would like to protect and gather further information about it. Finally, users prepare a brief report to persuade others of the value of protecting the site.
Intended for grade levels:
Type of resource:
Cost / Copyright:
Original, creative works created for the Earth Exploration Toolbook website remain the intellectual property of that program and may be used freely for any non-commercial, educational purpose with attribution to TERC, Carleton College, and the chapter author's affiliation. The metadata that makes up the EET Collection may be shared with the DLESE Discovery System, and may be used by third parties according to the DLESE Collections Accession Policy. The EET website was developed by the Science Education Resource Center (SERC) at Carleton College with funding from the National Science Foundation. Any views expressed in this website do not necessarily reflect the views of SERC, Carleton College or any of its sponsors or affiliates. We encourage the reuse and disemination of the material on this site for educational, noncommercial purposes as long as attribuition is retained. To this end the material on this site is offered under a Creative Commons license Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 1.0.
DLESE Catalog ID: SERC-EET-000-000-000-027
Resource contact / Creator / Publisher:
Author: Dr Robert R. Downs
Center for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN)
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The Ohio Historical Society boasts a collection of over five hundred Ohio Civil War flags. This exhibit will examine only a few of these incredible artifacts.
This exhibit recounts the creation of the Ohio Volunteer Infantry and the first thirteen regiments that formed.
Although the Abolition movement was strong in Ohio, not all Ohioans supported President Lincoln's decision to declare war on the seceding South. Two of Lincoln's biggest critics were the Knights of the Golden Circle and the Copperheads. This exhibit will examine their activities during and prior to the onset of the Civil War.
Ohio women participated in the war effort in many ways. While many women picked up the slack on the home front, others became nurses on the battlefields. There are even some cases of women who became spies or dressed as men to fight alongside their fathers, brothers and husbands.
Ohio politics and politicians influenced the rise and the course of the Civil War. This exhibit examines key politicians and electoral races that illustrate Ohio's importance in the war effort.
Even though there is a relative silence in conventional history books regarding African Americans' activity during the Civil War, they were far from sitting idle while their fate was held in the balance. This exhibit examines the contributions made by Ohio African Americans to the Union war effort.
Before the Civil War, the United States had a large Irish population. When the war broke out, many of the Irish immigrants and Irish-Americans joined the Union. Learn why they chose to fight and how they impacted the progression of the war.
This online exhibit was adapted from Dr. Dennis Keating's article for the Cleveland Civil War Round Table. The original article can be found here: http://clevelandcivilwarroundtable.com/articles/society/irish.htm
Professor Thaddeus Lowe was an inventor and aeronaut. After a ballooning mishap, Lowe realized the military potential of having a birds eye view of the enemy and used his fleet of War Balloons to spy on the military movements of the Confederacy. He is often called the Father of the U.S. Air Force because of the integral role that he played in introducing the military to the benefits of aviation. In later years Professor Lowe passed his love and reverance of aviation onto his granddaughter; famed aviatrix Pancho Barnes, who was a stunt pilot and member of the Ninety-Nines, an international organization of women pilots.
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As the U.S. Department of Energy's first-of-its-scale project in carbon burial launches, interest in carbon burial and sequestration is at an all time high. Many nations wish that there was an alternative to traditional emissions cuts, which can hinder growth, and could reduce their net contribution to atmospheric carbon.
Carbon sequestration could provide just such a solution. By burying the substance in underground cavities or in carbon rich soils in swamps or other sites, the net contribution of a country to emissions can be reduced. And while many in the environmental community no longer like the idea, pointing out that such deposits could be easily released and don't solve the overall problem, the movement to adopt carbon sequestration still has powerful supporters.
Drilling began this week in Illinois on the DoE project, which will bury one million metric tons of carbon dioxide into the ground by 2012. The project is the first of its scale in the U.S., and while still small compared to total U.S. emissions has the potential to grow much bigger. Illinois, Indiana, and Kentucky have enough underground space to store approximately 100 billion tons of CO2, enough to completely negate 25 years of emissions at the current rate, if fully filled.
Robert Finley, the manager of the current project states, "This is going to be a large-scale injection of 1 million metric tons, one of the largest injections to date in the U.S."
While Mr. Finley is enthusiastic about the project, others aren't. The Bush administration last year canceled funding for an even bigger carbon sequestration project, FutureGen, citing concerns about the practice. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, typically a strong voice in support of emissions control, has sided with the utilities for once in vocally opposing carbon burial. It has released studies indicating 30 percent of the energy from a coal burning plant would be wasted trying to capture the carbon dioxide from the flue gas.
One thing that could give supporters of burial a boost though is new carbon-specific filtering materials produced in labs like Omar Yaghi's at UCLA and at Georgia Tech under Chris Jones. These materials may potentially make capture much cheaper and more efficient, making storage the only remaining challenge.
John Litynski, who works in the fossil-fuel-centered National Energy Technology Laboratory's Sequestration Division, believes storage should be easy as pie for the U.S. He states, "What we found in the U.S. with the research that we've done over the last 10 years is that there is a significant potential to store CO2 ... in these very large reservoirs that are underground."
However, many of these reservoirs are deeper underground that existing sequestration projects have reached. That's why the deep reaching Illinois project, which drills into the Mt. Simon sandstone, is such a critical test bed. Scientists will, for the first time, be able to observe what happens when they pump compressed carbon dioxide 6,500 feet below the surface. Describes Mr. Litynski, "We have numbers for what we think the capacity is in the U.S., but the only way to prove that is to actually drill a well."
The Illinois project will pump carbon dioxide produced by ethanol fermentation underground. Archer Daniels Midland provided land for the site. Even with these concessions, the project will cost over $84M USD, thanks to the high cost of drilling.
At a recent speech Mr. Litynski was challenged by an audience member who pointed out that 10,000 projects of the scale of the Illinois one would be needed to offset current emissions. Mr. Litynski refused to back down from his support of the concept, though, dodging the question and stating, "From my point of view as someone working in this field ... the political rhetoric gets to the point where it's all supposed to be solar or wind or coal or natural gas (versus sequestration). The reality for the situation is that we need all of these technologies."
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Bats Use Magnetic "Compasses" to Navigate, Study Says
for National Geographic News
|December 6, 2006|
Some bats find their way home using an internal "compass" that senses Earth's magnetic field—similar to those believed to be used by migrating birds—researchers say.
Princeton University biologist Richard Holland in New Jersey and colleagues found that exposure to artificial magnetic fields confused such bats, causing them to fly in the wrong direction.
The finding, reported in tomorrow's issue of the journal Nature, is the first of its kind in bats and helps fill in a gap in scientists' understanding of how the animals navigate. (Related photo: Bat Has Longest Tongue of Any Mammal [December 6, 2006].)
Night-flying bats are famous for their use of echolocation—bouncing sound waves off objects at fairly close range. Echolocation helps bats locate insect prey and steer around objects such as trees and buildings.
The new study suggests that a magnetic sense may help bats navigate over longer distances, such as when returning to nightly roost sites. (Related photos: "Bat Patrol" in National Geographic Magazine.)
Holland theorizes that the bats, like some birds, also use sunset as a directional marker. This may let the animals fine-tune their internal compasses and adjust for the difference between magnetic and true north.
"It is interesting that our bats, which usually fly only a few miles, appear to use the same mechanism as migratory birds that fly thousands of miles," Holland said.
As the World Turns
Holland's group fitted big brown bats with lightweight radio transmitters and released them from a location 12 miles (20 kilometers) north of their home roost. The animals' flight paths were tracked from a small plane flying overhead.
Bats that received no artificial magnetic exposure took off southward, easily finding their way home.
Prior to being released, two other groups of bats were exposed to magnetic fields rotated 90 degrees clockwise or counterclockwise from Earth's magnetic north. The bats were able to observe the setting sun.
Upon release these bats appeared to fly south using "flight rules" based on the direction of magnetic attraction at sunset.
Bats in the group exposed to the clockwise magnetic fields flew east, for example, while those in the opposite group flew west.
But some of the errant bats eventually realized their mistake and made it home that night, suggesting either a recalibration of the compass or use of other navigational cues, Holland says.
A Sense of Where You Are
A magnetic sense has been described in a wide array of animals, not just ones that fly. Lobsters have it. So do salamanders. (Related: "Rat Radar: Rodent Uses Natural 'GPS'" [January 29, 2004].)
"It's not just associated with long-distance movements or migration," said John Phillips, a biologist at Virginia Tech university in Blacksburg. "We find even short-distance movements by simple animals are patterned by use of directional compass cues."
Scientists know of two kinds of magnetic orientation. In one, a simple compass sense is based on particles of a mineral found in many organisms known as magnetite.
Some birds can also "see" changes in light intensity in different locations within Earth's magnetic field. (Related story: "Magnetic Beaks Help Birds Navigate, Study Says" [November 24, 2004].)
This more sophisticated sensory apparatus provides an internal "map sense" of where the birds are on the globe.
"We don't know if bats have a light-dependent compass," Holland said. "But they do have magnetite in their bodies."
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|© 1996-2008 National Geographic Society. All rights reserved.|
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Thyroglossal ducts cysts (TGDC) are the most common form of congenital cyst in the neck. They are cysts of epithelial remnants of the thyroglossal tract and present characteristically as a midline neck mass at the level of the thyrohyoid membrane, closely associated with the hyoid bone. Although most patients with TGDC are children or adolescents, up to one-third are aged 20 years or older [1,2]. Males and females are equally affected.
Patients with a TGDC often have ectopic thyroid glands. (See 'Thyroid ectopia' below.)
The anlage of the thyroid gland forms at the foramen cecum of the tongue, which is located on the dorsum of the tongue posteriorly at the apex of the V-shaped sulcus formed by the circumvallate papillae . During the fourth week of gestation, a ventral diverticulum of the foramen cecum is formed from the first and second pharyngeal pouches (the medial thyroid anlage). This diverticulum, with its narrow neck connected to the tongue, descends in the midline of the neck as the thyroglossal tract to the position of the normal thyroid in the base of the neck, where the thyroid lobes separate, by the seventh week. The path of descent is usually anterior to the hyoid bone, but may be posterior to or through the bone, and ends on the anterior surface of the first few tracheal rings.
The tract usually atrophies and disappears by the tenth week of gestation. Portions of the tract and remnants of thyroid tissue associated with it may persist at any point between the tongue and the thyroid (figure 1).
The pyramidal lobe can be thought of as the most caudal remnant of this tract and is present in approximately one-third of normal subjects. The lateral thyroid anlage, consisting of the C-cell precursors, which arises from the neural crest portion of the fourth pharyngeal pouch, ultimately fuses with the descended medial anlage . The pyramidal lobe usually arises from the isthmus of the thyroid, but may arise from the medial aspect of one of the thyroid lobes or both lobes.
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Dancing Moose is not introducing a new concept with its Dual Language English/Spanish classroom, but it is certainly taking advantage of the momentum of quality programs around the country that are capitalizing on children’s enhanced creativity and analytical thinking of a dual language program.
Leading researchers in dual language programs, Virginia P. Collier and Wayne P. Thomas, have documented that children exposed to a second language learn at a more rapid rate. Bilingual researcher Ellen Bialystok of York University in Toronto stated that:
“Several studies have linked bilingualism to improved working memory, which is associated with reading and math skills.”
In research conducted at Nanjing University in China, bilingual seven year-old children outperformed their monolingual peers on two working memory tests—one requiring them to recall and rearrange a series of numbers and the other to retrace a pattern of hops made my an animated frog on a computer screen.
Researchers say that the best way to become proficient in a second language is to start young and practice often (Scientific American Mind, July/August, 2011).
Preschool and kindergarten is an ideal time for children to begin to experience the advantages of dual language instruction.
We look forward to launching our new Dual Language Classroom at Dancing Moose this fall.
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Welcome to the Welsh Air Quality Data and Statistics Database. These pages contain options for you to retrieve data relating to Air Quality in Wales from the present day back to 1986.
The database contains tables of measured concentration data and statistics from the air quality monitoring sites operated by the National Assembly for Wales and other members of the Welsh Air Quality Forum. Estimates of emissions - the amount of pollution produced by a range of activities can be obtained from the National Atmospheric Emissions Inventory (NAEI).
Emissions and concentration statistics shown in this database are National Statistics. National Statistics are produced to high professional standards set out in the National Statistics Code of Practice. They undergo regular quality assurance reviews to ensure that they meet customer needs. They are produced free from any political interference. Further National Statistics are available at from Defra's Environment Protection Statistics and Information Management Division (EPSIM) at http://www.defra.gov.uk/statistics/environment/
Automatic Networks produce hourly pollutant concentrations, with data being collected from individual sites by dial-up modem. The data go back as far as 1986 at some sites. By clicking on the map on the homepage of this web site you can get detailed information for each site presently in operation.
Non-automatic Networks measure less frequently - either daily, weekly or monthly - and samples are collected by some physical means (such as diffusion tube or filter). These samples are then subjected to chemical analysis, and final pollutant concentrations calculated from these results.
A range of simple statistics are routinely calculated by the database for the automatic monitoring data each night. These include:
There are three options for the output of your database download, according to the size of the data request. Small enquiries can be shown on your screen using minimum HTML, moderately sized enquiries can be e-mailed to you as an attachment in comma separated format, or the largest enquiries will be left on an ftp site, also in comma separated format, for you to collect. The data on the ftp site will be wiped within seven days if it is not retrieved.
The comma-separated format should make it easy to load the file into a spreadsheet once saved to your local machine. If the program does not recognise the format automatically, you will need to set the file type to "Text" and the separator as "Comma" for Lotus, or rename the file to [NAME].csv for Excel.
A description of the data verification and ratification process can be found here.
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One of the most peculiar periods in American political history is the rise and fall of the Anti-Masonic Party. In 1826, William Morgan, who lived in Batavia, New York, decided to write a tell-all book about the Masons after he was denied admission to the local lodge. Some members of the Batavia lodge ran an advertisement denouncing Morgan. Various Masons claimed that Morgan owed them money. Someone attempted to set fire to the newspaper offices of David Miller who had agreed to help publish Morgan’s planned book exposing the Masons. Morgan was jailed for debt. On September 11, 1826 he was freed from jail when his debts were paid by a man who claimed to be a friend of Morgan. The two men went by carriage to Fort Niagara, the carriage arriving there the next day. Morgan was never seen again. Suspicion was immediate that Morgan had been killed by Masons drowning him in the Niagara River. Three Masons served jail terms for kidnapping him. No prosecution was ever attempted for the murder of Morgan.
This caused a huge stink in New York, with popular opinion believing that Masonic officials had literally gotten away with murder. Thurlow Weed was the driving force in transforming this anti-Mason sentiment into the anti-Masonic political party. Churches throughout New York state denounced the Masons. In the 1828 election it became the main opposition party to the Democrats in New York and broadened its appeal by supporting internal improvements and a high protective tariff. The movement quickly spread to other states, becoming powerful in Pennsylvania and Vermont, electing governors in both states. In 1832 it held the first national political convention and nominated William Wirt, a former United States Attorney General for President. In 1836 the party did not nominate any candidate for President, but most anti-Masons support William Henry Harrison, who ran well in Northern states thus setting himself up for a successful run in 1840. (more…)
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Saturday, July 16, 2011
Farm Bulletin: Anatomy of a Berry
The ripening of the small fruit is gathering steam. The fruits we typically call "berries" are, in the botanist's lexicon, aggregate fruits composed of numerous small, single seeded individual fruits called drupelets. In you look closely, you will notice they are essentially tiny cherry-like fruits borne on a receptacle and fused on their flanks.
In the raspberries, the drupelets fall free of the receptacle, leaving a hollow fruit. In the loganberries and most of members of the group, the receptacle remains attached to the drupelets, and "the berry" detaches at the stem. Each drupelet retains a bit of the stigma that was pollinated to produce it. Damp, cool days during pollination result in fewer bee visits to each flower, and smaller fruit because fewer stigmas are pollinated.
Members of the genus Ribes, the gooseberries and currants, produce true berries. The general definition of a berry is "a pulpy fruit enclosing several seeds." Tomatoes and grapes are also berries in the botanist's world. The Ribes are very good for preserves and jellies. Red currants are often combined with raspberries to make jam because they have a high pectin content. Red and black currants produce good juice. For the best quality and yield, use a steam juicer such as the Mehu Liisa, developed by Finns desperate to preserve the essence of summer. Generally neglected in North America, the berries of Ribes are very nutritious and deserve a more prominent place on the table.
The individual currants (right) are on a raceme called a "strig" in the trade. The strig should be removed before the fruit is used. The stem lends an off-flavor and bitterness if it is cooked with the fruit. The classic kitchen trick is to use a fork to comb the individual berries off the strig. Works, but it gets tedious. A more efficient method is to put the fruit in the freezer, and when the berries are frozen, the stems can be rubbed off without making a mess of the berries. Insulated gloves are useful if you have a lot of currants to clean.
As an aside, the currants of the genus Ribes bear no relationship to the black, wrinkled raisins called currants. Those small, dried grapes originated around the ancient Greek city of Corinth, and the word "currant" as applied to them is merely a British corruption of that ancient city's name. The grape used to produce those raisin is also sold as the "Champagne Grape," though there is absolutely no connection between those grapes and the sparkling wine than lends its name to them.
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http://www.goodstuffnw.com/2011/07/farm-bulletin-anatomy-of-berry.html
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2013-05-19T02:59:24Z
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383160/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00001-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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NASA Earth Observatory
NASA Earth Observatory is an online publishing outlet for NASA which was created in 1999. It is the principal source of satellite imagery and other scientific information pertaining to the climate and the environment which are being provided by NASA for consumption by the general public. It is funded with public money, as authorized by the United States Congress, and is part of the EOS Project Science Office located at Goddard Space Flight Center. As of 2006[update] NASA Earth Observatory has won the Webby People's Voice Award in Education three times. There were a series of publicized images issued by the website in 2008, including imagery of clouds streaming over the Caspian Sea, dust storms curling off the coast of Morocco, the crumbling of the Wilkins Ice Shelf, Hurricane Bertha, and others.
See also
|This astronomy-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.|
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA_Earth_Observatory
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2013-05-24T02:29:42Z
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01.Installing solar panels
The popularity of solar panels, which can be fixed to your roof to generate electricity, has grown significantly in recent years. Our recent report looks at typical payback times for a small system.
In this report you'll find:
- What to consider when choosing a solar panel system.
- Where to find an installer/designer.
- How to calclulate your system's approximate payback time.
- Government rebates and incentives that are available.
- How to a avoid a dodgy import.
- What 'feed-in' tariff will you be paid for electricity your panels produce?
How solar photovoltaic (PV) systems work
Flat solar modules are mounted on your roof and convert energy from sunlight into direct current (DC) energy. A device called an inverter then changes the DC energy into alternating current (AC) electricity. This can be used to power your household appliances. A grid-connected system can feed excess energy into the electricity network (grid), while a standalone system needs a battery to store excess energy.
Solar panels work best when they’re north facing, pointed directly at the sun, at the correct angle and not blocked by trees or shading. The effectiveness of solar panels also depends on where you live and the weather. Of the capital cities, solar panels in Adelaide and Darwin generate the most electricity on average each day, somewhere between 10% to 30% more than Hobart and Melbourne. These and other factors need to be considered to calculate a system’s payback time and likely energy output.
Tune into the CHOICE Radio podcast to hear Alan Dooley and Christopher Zinn discuss the myths and hidden costs of installing photovoltaic (PV) solar panels
Subscribe to the free CHOICE Radio podcasts.
For more information onSolar energy, see Energy and water.
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http://www.choice.com.au/reviews-and-tests/household/energy-and-water/solar/solar-panels-counting-the-cost.aspx
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2013-05-25T05:59:11Z
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Marine debris is one of the most widespread pollution problems facing the world's oceans and waterways. Learn more about the issue and arm yourself with the most accurate information!
Definition of Marine Debris:
Marine debris is any persistent solid material that is manufactured or processed and directly or indirectly, intentionally or unintentionally, disposed of or abandoned into the marine environment or the Great Lakes.
Download an educational 1-pager about marine debris ( 1.1MB).
Note that these pages are not within the Marine Debris 101 site, so page format and navigation links will be different.
Find accurate and science-based information here on what is actually known about the so called "garbage patches." Once and for all, find out if the eastern Pacific garbage patch is indeed twice the size of Texas. Also, get more information on what exactly these "patches" are.
Check out the most up-to-date information on what research has shown us about plastic marine debris. Find out if plastic marine debris really does degrade in salt water and what scientists have to say about plastic marine debris and pollutants -- are they really "poisonous plastic pills" that we're eating in our fish? Find out!
The tragedy of the March 2011 tsunami in Japan had far-reaching effects that included the U.S. West Coast and Hawaii. This page contains information and answers to some frequently asked questions about the marine debris generated from the tsunami in Japan.
There are so many facts and figures about marine debris out there and not all of them are entirely true. Here are some of the most common questions that we receive and the researched answers. You'll get answers to questions such as, "Is it true that 80% of marine debris comes from land and 20% comes from the ocean?" and "Are there really 46,000 pieces of plastic per square kilometer of the world's oceans?"
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http://marinedebris.noaa.gov/marinedebris101/mdinfo.html
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2013-05-21T01:32:00Z
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One of the recurring dilemmas of conservation biology is whether, and how far, to intervene in predator-prey relationships: in particular, what action is appropriate when an endangered species is being eaten to extinction by a more common one. That question has come up with raven predation on desert tortoises in the Mojave, golden eagle predation on island foxes on Santa Cruz Island, California gull predation on western snowy plovers and least terns in the South Bay.
It’s trickiest in cases like those three where both predator and prey are native species. When the predator is an invasive exotic—as with red foxes versus California clapper rails, or feral pigs and goats versus any number of native plants—there are usually administrative resources at hand, although even the pigs and goats have their defenders (as in When the Killing Stops, T. C. Boyle’s new novel about the Channel Islands wildlife wars.)
What do you do, though, when the victim isn’t officially recognized as endangered and the non-native predator happens to be legally protected?
The victim in question is the tricolored blackbird, a California near-endemic (there are small populations in Baja California, Nevada, and Oregon.) This bird, a close relative of the widespread red-winged blackbird, was once incredibly abundant. John Neff, writing in the 1930s, estimated the statewide population as two to three million.
Tricolors, named from the male’s black, white, and crimson plumage, nested in huge colonies in freshwater wetlands throughout the Central Valley and coastal central and southern California. Most are itinerant breeders, raising one brood at a San Joaquin Valley location, then moving north en masse for second and sometimes third attempts in the Sacramento Valley.
That’s how it was before the development of rural California. More recent estimates have ranged from 150-260,000 between 2000-2005 and 400,000 in 2008. That apparent increase may be an artifact of methodological inconsistencies between the two studies. Biologists who study the tricolor, like Robert Meese of UC Davis, believe numbers are continuing to fall.
Meese presented the grim news in a recent Golden Gate Audubon Society program. He pointed to the usual suspects: the loss of wetlands to agriculture and urbanization, exacerbated by water diversions. The replacement of crops like alfalfa and sunflower with vineyards and orchards has eliminated additional suitable nesting and foraging habitat. Until 1989, it was legal to shoot tricolored blackbirds as agricultural pests. Some Sacramento Valley rice growers (Meese wasn’t naming names) still do so; enforcement is spotty.
Tricolors are also falling victim to a kind of attractive nuisance. They’ve been adaptable enough to switch from cattails and bulrushes to other nesting substrates: Himalayan blackberries, nettles, mustard, milk thistles, giant reeds, and—unfortunately for them—the triticale that’s grown to feed cattle. Growers have been harvesting the triticale before the birds complete their nesting cycle, killing thousands of fledglings. There used to be a federal program that, among other things, provided financial incentives to delay the harvest. It has been defunded, of course.
And now the beleaguered blackbirds, at least the San Joaquin Valley population, are facing a new threat: predation by cattle egrets. “In 2006, they went into a tricolored blackbird colony in Tulare County and basically wiped out the colony,” says Meese. “Three colonies were lost last year. No young fledged.” The worst-case scenario: young egrets are learning that blackbird nests are an easy food source. What happens when they strike out on their own? Meese’s answer: “We’ve got a huge, huge problem on our hands.”
Cattle egrets evolved in Africa and Asia in the company of large grazing animals, following them around and snatching the insects they stir up. They’re equally at home with elephants, rhinos, water buffalos, capybaras, tortoises, or tractors. Relatively new immigrants to the Americas, the birds appeared to have crossed the Atlantic from West Africa to South America, then worked their way through the Caribbean up to Florida, thence north and west, reaching California in 1964. Although they’re now established as far north as the Sacramento Valley, the bulk of the state’s cattle egret population is in Southern California’s Imperial Valley.
Like most herons, cattle egrets do not scruple at taking the occasional smaller bird. (I once saw a great egret grab and swallow a song sparrow at the Hayward Regional Shoreline.) Some have taken to waiting on Gulf Coast beaches to pick up exhausted northbound migrants. But the mass attacks on nesting colonies are new.
So why not cull the egrets, at least in Tulare and nearby counties, to give the blackbirds a respite? First, the tricolored blackbird is not recognized on either the state or federal levels as an endangered or threatened species. It’s listed as a California Species of Special Concern, which confers no meaningful protection. Second, the cattle egret is specifically protected under the federal Migratory Bird Treaty Act. OK, it’s kind of migratory. But it’s not a native bird! I’d love to know whose bright idea this was.
Meanwhile, Meese and other biologists, organized as the Tricolored Blackbird working group, have drafted a conservation plan in lieu of a formal endangered listing. To learn more, visit the Tricolored Blackbird Portal (tricolor.ice.davis.edu.)
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http://berkeleydailyplanet.com/issue/2011-03-30/article/37584?headline=Unnatural-Enemies--By-Joe-Eaton
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2013-05-23T12:45:40Z
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Apparently both these equations can't be right at the same time, number of objects and weight of objects are not the same thing.
Mass of the nucleus equals mass of the neutrons plus mass of the protons MINUS binding energy.
Neutrons and protons hold very strong to each other in nucleus. When you take several separated neutrons and several protons and you fuse them into a nucleus a lot of energy is emitted (that's where the energy in stars and hydrogen bombs comes from). You have probably heard about Einstein equation E=mc2
- it means energy is equivalent to mass. When the energy is emitted, mass of the remaining nucleus is smaller than the sum of masses of protons and neutrons, this missing mass is called "mass deficit" or "binding energy".
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http://www.physicsforums.com/showpost.php?p=3781480&postcount=2
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2013-05-22T00:16:14Z
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is the reason for the androcentric nature of the Tripitaka?
I am focussing my answer only within the Theravada context which
preserved the teachings in Pali. Theravadins believe that their
teaching is most authentic from a historical point of view.
We need to understand that the Tripitaka that we know of was
not a written work from the Buddha's time. Religious knowledge
was to be practised and handed down from teachers to chosen
disciples. Hence no religious teaching was recorded. This applied
also to the teaching of the Buddha. The Tripitaka was first
recorded in Sri Lanka not before 450 B.E. (about 90 B.C.)
recorded was according to the understanding of the monk recorders.
What they chose to record was subjective, hence it is understandable
why the Tripitaka is androcentric. The Tripitaka was recorded
by men who were ridden with Indian social values. They were
men who by the vinaya, were expected to lead lives of purity.
The most immediate obstacle to their chastity was the opposite
gender. Many teachings as preserved by these men therefore projected
women (embodiment of their obstacles) as evil, unclean, etc.
This is a necessary barrier to fence themselves off from failing
into the pit of the unchaste. While reading the Tripitaka one
must remind oneself of this limitation in order to sift the
essence from its social contextual limitations.
at the teaching from the Paramattha level, one sees clearly
that Buddhism is free from gender bias, Buddhism is the first
religion in the world to recognise the equal spiritual potentiality
of men and women. This provides a special place for Buddhism
which started in India to lift up to the world spiritual level
without boundary in race, caste, or gender.
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http://buddhanet.net/e-learning/history/wbq05.htm
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2013-05-19T11:09:05Z
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Book Description: The essence of critical thinking concepts and tools distilled into a 20-page pocket-size guide. It is a critical thinking supplement to any textbook or course. It is best used in conjunction with the Analytic Thinking Guide. Everyone thinks; it is our nature to do so. But much of our thinking, left to itself, is biased, distorted, partial, uninformed or down-right prejudiced. Yet the quality of our life and that of what we produce, make, or build depends precisely on the quality of our thought. Shoddy thinking is costly, both in money and in quality of life. Excellence in thought, however, must be systematically cultivated. Critical thinking is the art of analyzing and evaluating thinking with a view to improving it. Critical thinking is, self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-corrective thinking. It requires rigorous standards of excellence and mindful command of their use. It entails effective communication and problem solving abilities and a commitment to overcoming our native egocentrism and sociocentrism. This miniature guide focuses on of the essence of critical thinking concepts and tools distilled into pocket size. For faculty it provides a shared concept of critical thinking. For students it is a critical thinking supplement to any textbook for any course. Faculty can use it to design instruction, assignments, and tests in any subject. Students can use it to improve their learning in any content area. Its generic skills apply to all subjects. For example, critical thinkers are clear as to the purpose at hand and the question at issue. They question information, conclusions, and points of view. They strive to be clear, accurate, precise, and relevant. They seek to think beneath the surface, to be logical, and fair. They apply these skills to their reading and writing as well as to their speaking and listening. They apply them in history, science, math, philosophy, and the arts; in professional and personal life.
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http://www.campusbooks.com/books/nonfiction/education/education-theory/9780944583104_Richard-Paul-Linda-Elder_The-Miniature-Guide-to-Critical-ThinkingConc.html
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2013-05-20T12:02:47Z
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Research Center > History
American Memory from the Library of Congress
American Memory is a gateway to rich primary source materials relating to the history and culture of the United States. Enter "wyoming" in the search to find historic resources on Wyoming in the collection.
4th Grade Social Studies: Wyoming History
Campbell County School District Fourth Grade site containing information about Wyoming history. Be sure to click on the "BACK TO WYOMING PAGE" link for more information about Wyoming.
This site is an interactive tour through technological history, from Leonardo da Vinci to Albert Einstein. The site includes text, video, a trivia game, search engine and a parent’s guide. Great for students at the elementary level and up.
History for Kids
This is a world history site devoted to middle school classrooms and teachers. It has lesson plans, crafts, games, recommended books and a search engine to find any information available about a specific topic. Links to other sites are also included.
Journey Through the Middle Ages
This is a site for elementary school students to learn about medieval life. Students can tour the site either through pure text, interactive maps or a game. Included are links to other castle sites.
This site is devoted to Asian culture and history for grades K-12. It includes resources and activities for teachers and students, a reference area, latest news, links, maps and profiles, and an expert database.
Water in Africa
This site provides detailed lesson plans and activities concerning water culture throughout the many countries of Africa, suitable for grades K-12. Included are resources, photos, a learning community, and a monthly news brief.
The American Presidency
The American Presidency site gathers hundreds of articles penned by noted historians and drawn from Grolier's authoritative encyclopedias, the Academic American Encyclopedia, the Encyclopedia Americana, and the New Book of Knowledge. Research speeches, photographs, multimedia presentations and other items connected with the history of the presidency as well.
Ben's Guide to U.S. Government for Kids
A comprehensive resource, Ben's Guide to U.S. Government contains targeted sections for elementary, middle, and high school students. Choose a grade level for age-appropriate information about branches of government, the election process, and historical documents, to name a few. The site also contains a glossary as well as games and activities.
Everything you wanted to know about the Civil War is on this site. Travel along the annotated timeline, visit the battle sites and monuments, read government documents, diaries, and letters, and check out the lyrics for famous songs from the period.
The Colonial Gazette
Here's an interesting site that presents information on Colonial America in the form of a newspaper. Unusual historical facts are brought to life in innovative stories and articles. Meet the pilgrims, witches, and Native Americans from long ago.
Although Congress Link is primarily a resource for teachers, it includes several sections that could be of interest to students doing research for homework or school projects. The "Know Your Congress" section provides information about Congressional leadership, how laws are made, and how to contact your Congressional representative. You can also browse helpful related Web sites.
NARA National Archives of the United States
This collection of primary sources and activities for the classroom is the place to find key historical texts, like the Constitution, the Zimmerman Telegram, and documents pertaining to the Amistad case. The collection also includes lesson plans that incorporate primary sources, correlated to the National History Standards and National Standards for Civics and Government.
Supreme Court of the United States
Find out what cases the Supreme Court is scheduled to hear, read opinions, learn Court rules, or check out the Court calendar on the Court's Web site. You can also learn about the Court or get information about visiting.
Britannia: Monarchs in Britain
Need to memorize the kings and queens of England, or just a British history buff? This site describes every British monarch from King Egbert in 802 to the presently reigning Queen Elizabeth. It also covers the monarchs of the Danes, the Norse, and the Scots.
Internet Ancient History Sourcebook
This sourcebook collects and organizes online ancient history resources into the format of a textbook for classroom use. You'll find comprehensive information on Mesopotamia, Egypt, Persia, Israel, Greece, Rome, the Hellenistic World, and more.
The History Channel
The popular cable channel goes online. You'll find exhibits, famous speeches, and quizzes, as well as a 20th century American timeline. Search their archives for historical documents and articles about any time period.
Internet Modern History Sourcebook
This amazing online resource has articles, sound files, illustrations, and more on everything from the Protestant Reformation to 20th century Asia, Africa, Middle East, and Latin America. Read a little or a lot depending on your world history needs.
Trenches on the Web
Studying World War I? Then visit this site, which is loaded with maps, photos, timelines, biographies, sound files, posters, trivia, and more on the Great War. There's a discussion forum, as well as a list of other online resources.
World War II Commemoration
Grolier Online compiled a history of World War II at this site. In addition to the comprehensive text, you'll find photos, air combat video clips, biographies of the major players, an online test, and links to other WWII sites.
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http://wyoming.edgate.com/st_research_history.html
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2013-05-20T22:33:10Z
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Backup Generators for PV Systems
We typically use generators as a supplement to photovoltaic power. There are some very large applications for which continuous-use generators may prove more cost effective than a PV system, but in almost all of the applications with which we work, the economics of generators are maximized by restricting them to providing backup power.
Generators are used for backup in situations where seasonal variability of insolation is substantial as in a cloudy climate, or for systems where occasional very large loads are powered, as for intermittent use of large shop tools or a deep well pump in a residence. We typically design residential PV systems to provide 80 to 90 percent of the home's annual electrical power. The last 10 to 20 percent is more economically supplied by a generator.
The reason for this is simply economics. In many cases we would double the cost of the system to provide this last 10 to 20 percent of annual power. It is much more Cost effective to employ a backup source of power during the least sunny time of the year.
The cost per kilowatt hour of electricity produced by a generator used in conjunction with a battery bank and inverter is much cheaper for residential type load profiles than is power produced by a continuously running generator. This is because engine-driven generators perform poorly when under-loaded. Low-load hours on the engine, especially diesel, can actually age it more than hours under full load. Fuel costs suffer too. A 6500 watt generator, for example, powering a 100 watt load will consume perhaps 50% as much fuel as it would consume if operating at full capacity. Therefore, work the generator near its capacity for shorter periods and then shut it down. Batteries can be charged while washing machines, pumps or other large loads are running. This maximizes efficiency while reducing generator run time, wear, and fuel costs.
In a grid intertie system the grid acts as your storage system therefore when it goes down you are with out power.
Generators and Battery Charging
Battery chargers take the 120 volt AC power from the generator and convert this power to low voltage DC. They are typically the largest consumer of the generator's output.
May of today's inverters incorporate a battery charger and transfer switch as optional or even standard equipment. These chargers are powerful, charging the batteries at a high rate and requiring a good sixed generator to power them. We recommend a generator of at least 4 to 5 kw in size for full time remote homes. Remember that these inverter/chargers also include an automatic transfer switch. This switch selects among the two sources of AC power to be delivered to the loads - inverter or generator power. The switch is biased to inverter power which is supplied to the loads whenever the generator is off. Once the generator is started, the switch senses the presence of generator voltage, waits a predetermined "warm-up" period then switches over, allowing generator power to flow to the loads.
The generator power is now running all loads in the house as well as powering the battery charger. Therefore the generator should be sized to not only run the battery charger at a high rate, but also any AC loads that may be running at the same time.
If the generator is undersized for the loads being run, the battery charging rate will be reduced. This may mean the generator is run for a very long time to fully charge the batteries.
So how do you avoid this problem that many have experienced? Simply select a good-sized battery charger and generator when designing your system. This is not the place to cut the budget, as generator fuel can cost you dearly.
Generator placement and Sol Sheds™
Sol Sheds are a common outbuilding on the homestead. They often serve multiple functions of housing the generator, batteries and power conditioning equipment required with your PV system. Beyond this, they can also house tools and equipment as well as support the solar array if placed in a sunny, non-shaded area. It is a good idea to keep flammable fuels and gasses in a separate building rather than the building in which one sleeps.
The sound insulation qualities of a Sol Shed offer another advantage... There is nothing like driving up a beautiful mountain to a picturesque home site, then being greeted by the howling of a generator as you step out of your truck. Sol Sheds can be placed a distance from living spaces, decks and the like.
If you are thinking of a Sol Shed to house your PV components, don't forget that your batteries are most efficient between 60°F and 80°F. In cold climates, the tremendous amounts of heat given off by the generator can aid in heating the space. Propane catalytic heaters with thermostats can also help. Excess heat can also be a problem if the generator is not properly ventilated to the outside.
Another good idea is to install DC lighting in your shed. With battery direct DC power, you will still have light when servicing your AC equipment.
Next - Grid Inter-Tie Systems
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http://www.ecodepotusa.com/Backup/Resources/Guides/SysComp/Generators/Generators.htm
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2013-05-25T05:58:27Z
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705559639/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115919-00002-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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| 0.949772
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In the week the world is celebrating the 40th anniversary of the Apollo moon landings, the UK government has announced a small step to raise the profile of the country’s space programme – one of the smallest among industrialised nations as a proportion of public spending.
Lord Drayson, science minister, launched a public consultation on setting up a British Space Agency. This would give UK space activities more focus than the existing British National Space Centre, a relatively powerless “partnership” of government departments and research councils.
Despite the low profile of the BNSC and a government investment of just £250m a year – channelled mainly through the European Space Agency – the UK has built up a commercially successful space industry that contributes £6.5bn a year to the national economy.
“Space is so important to our future,” says Lord Drayson. “The UK space industry has thrived under the BNSC but the Apollo 11 anniversary demonstrates the need for ambition, purpose and a clear sense of commitment.”
Of course the whole point of Apollo is that it was a manned programme – and the human factor was mainly responsible for its inspiring a generation of young people to pursue careers in science and engineering.
Under a money-saving policy started more than 20 years ago by the Thatcher government, and endorsed by its successors, the UK has avoided funding any human spaceflight activities, whether independently or through ESA. Other European countries have collaborated with the US and Russia to send their citizens to the International Space Station on the Shuttle and Soyuz craft.
This leaves Drayson, an enthusiast for human space flight, in a slightly difficult position, given that his government is unlikely to be able to afford the increased spending required to play a very active role in future manned programmes.
“I have said from the beginning of this job [as science minister] that manned spaceflight is very important, at a deep philosophical level. Going out and exploring the universe is not just about sending unmanned probes,” he told me. “It is very important to carry on manned space exploration and the UK needs to be part of that.”
Drayson and colleagues have persuaded ESA to decouple participation in the European astronaut corps from national contribution to specific manned projects – and earlier this summer, when ESA announced six new recruits to its astronaut corps, one of them was the British test pilot Tim Peake.
In the long run, however, it is hard to see how the UK can remain a significant player in international space exploration, manned or unmanned, without spending more public money.
As Phil Willis, chairman of the Commons science committee, put it, “we welcome Lord Drayson’s initiative but unless significant resources are put into a UK space agency, it will be a space agency in name only.”
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<urn:uuid:6ba10214-1592-41f7-a150-e0f3f92814fc>
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CC-MAIN-2013-20
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http://blogs.ft.com/scienceblog/2009/07/
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2013-05-26T02:34:39Z
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| 0.945915
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This article is divided in two paragraphs, the first paragraph on the orgins of lacrosse and the second paragraph is on who plays lacrosse. The sport of lacrosse is a sport that started in Native America by Native Americans in the 1500s; the game started when the players would use a long-handed stick called a crosse or a stick and a small solid rubber ball. The word lacrosse comes from the french world “la crosse,” and this translates to “the stick” in English. The game of lacrosse is almost excusively played in the United States and Canada. Polocrosse is when lacrosse is played on horseback; this is popular in the United Kingdom.
There are different kind of lacrosse such as: field lacrosse and box lacrosse. Many high schools have lacrosse teams as well as many college also have lacrosse teams. Lacrosse is also played in gym classes in middle school and high school; a popular verison of this game is Intercrosse. There are respective mens and women’s professional leagues in the United States. There is also an international league that has teams in the United States, Canada, Australia, and the United Kingdom. The sport has different come along since the invention of “la crosse.”
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http://www.lacrosse-network.com/2012/05/26/what-does-the-name-lacrosse-mean/
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2013-05-24T02:33:01Z
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