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The French mathematician Paul Lévy proved the following theorem, which gives a necessary and sufficient condition for a continuous -valued stochastic process to actually be -dimensional Brownian motion. Hence, Lévy's condition can actually be used as an alternative definition of Brownian motion.
Let be a continuous ... | Brownian motion | Wikipedia | 455 | 4436 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brownian%20motion | Physical sciences | Thermodynamics | Physics |
The narrow escape problem is a ubiquitous problem in biology, biophysics and cellular biology which has the following formulation: a Brownian particle (ion, molecule, or protein) is confined to a bounded domain (a compartment or a cell) by a reflecting boundary, except for a small window through which it can escape. Th... | Brownian motion | Wikipedia | 97 | 4436 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brownian%20motion | Physical sciences | Thermodynamics | Physics |
In computing, BIOS (, ; Basic Input/Output System, also known as the System BIOS, ROM BIOS, BIOS ROM or PC BIOS) is firmware used to provide runtime services for operating systems and programs and to perform hardware initialization during the booting process (power-on startup). The firmware comes pre-installed on the c... | BIOS | Wikipedia | 512 | 4473 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS | Technology | Computer hardware | null |
History
The term BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) was created by Gary Kildall and first appeared in the CP/M operating system in 1975, describing the machine-specific part of CP/M loaded during boot time that interfaces directly with the hardware. (A CP/M machine usually has only a simple boot loader in its ROM.)
Ve... | BIOS | Wikipedia | 315 | 4473 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS | Technology | Computer hardware | null |
User interface
The BIOS of the original IBM PC and XT had no interactive user interface. Error codes or messages were displayed on the screen, or coded series of sounds were generated to signal errors when the power-on self-test (POST) had not proceeded to the point of successfully initializing a video display adapter... | BIOS | Wikipedia | 348 | 4473 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS | Technology | Computer hardware | null |
Peripheral cards such as hard disk drive host bus adapters and video cards have their own firmware, and BIOS extension option ROM code may be a part of the expansion card firmware; that code provides additional capabilities in the BIOS. Code in option ROMs runs before the BIOS boots the operating system from mass stora... | BIOS | Wikipedia | 486 | 4473 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS | Technology | Computer hardware | null |
Option ROMs normally reside on adapter cards. However, the original PC, and perhaps also the PC XT, have a spare ROM socket on the motherboard (the "system board" in IBM's terms) into which an option ROM can be inserted, and the four ROMs that contain the BASIC interpreter can also be removed and replaced with custom R... | BIOS | Wikipedia | 416 | 4473 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS | Technology | Computer hardware | null |
After the motherboard BIOS completes its POST, most BIOS versions search for option ROM modules, also called BIOS extension ROMs, and execute them. The motherboard BIOS scans for extension ROMs in a portion of the "upper memory area" (the part of the x86 real-mode address space at and above address 0xA0000) and runs ea... | BIOS | Wikipedia | 511 | 4473 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS | Technology | Computer hardware | null |
When interrupt 19h is called, the BIOS attempts to locate boot loader software on a "boot device", such as a hard disk, a floppy disk, CD, or DVD. It loads and executes the first boot software it finds, giving it control of the PC.
The BIOS uses the boot devices set in Nonvolatile BIOS memory (CMOS), or, in the earlie... | BIOS | Wikipedia | 433 | 4473 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS | Technology | Computer hardware | null |
If an expansion ROM wishes to change the way the system boots (such as from a network device or a SCSI adapter) in a cooperative way, it can use the BIOS Boot Specification (BBS) API to register its ability to do so. Once the expansion ROMs have registered using the BBS APIs, the user can select among the available boo... | BIOS | Wikipedia | 448 | 4473 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS | Technology | Computer hardware | null |
Boot failure
On the original IBM PC and XT, if no bootable disk was found, the BIOS would try to start ROM BASIC with the interrupt call to interrupt 18h. Since few programs used BASIC in ROM, clone PC makers left it out; then a computer that failed to boot from a disk would display "No ROM BASIC" and halt (in respons... | BIOS | Wikipedia | 479 | 4473 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS | Technology | Computer hardware | null |
At boot time, all BIOS services are available, and the memory below address 0x00400 contains the interrupt vector table. BIOS POST has initialized the system timers, interrupt controller(s), DMA controller(s), and other motherboard/chipset hardware as necessary to bring all BIOS services to ready status. DRAM refresh f... | BIOS | Wikipedia | 449 | 4473 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS | Technology | Computer hardware | null |
Operating systems and executive software that are designed to supersede this basic firmware functionality provide replacement software interfaces to application software. Applications can also provide these services to themselves. This began even in the 1980s under MS-DOS, when programmers observed that using the BIOS ... | BIOS | Wikipedia | 499 | 4473 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS | Technology | Computer hardware | null |
Identification
Some BIOSes contain a software licensing description table (SLIC), a digital signature placed inside the BIOS by the original equipment manufacturer (OEM), for example Dell. The SLIC is inserted into the ACPI data table and contains no active code.
Computer manufacturers that distribute OEM versions of... | BIOS | Wikipedia | 497 | 4473 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS | Technology | Computer hardware | null |
After operating systems load, the System Management Mode code is still running in SMRAM. Since 2010, BIOS technology is in a transitional process toward UEFI.
Configuration
Setup utility
Historically, the BIOS in the IBM PC and XT had no built-in user interface. The BIOS versions in earlier PCs (XT-class) were not s... | BIOS | Wikipedia | 488 | 4473 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS | Technology | Computer hardware | null |
Configuring, enabling and disabling the hardware components
Setting the system time
Setting the boot order
Setting various passwords, such as a password for securing access to the BIOS user interface and preventing malicious users from booting the system from unauthorized portable storage devices, or a password for ... | BIOS | Wikipedia | 425 | 4473 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS | Technology | Computer hardware | null |
The original IBM PC BIOS (and cassette BASIC) was stored on mask-programmed read-only memory (ROM) chips in sockets on the motherboard. ROMs could be replaced, but not altered, by users. To allow for updates, many compatible computers used re-programmable BIOS memory devices such as EPROM, EEPROM and later flash memory... | BIOS | Wikipedia | 506 | 4473 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS | Technology | Computer hardware | null |
Another type of firmware chip was found on the IBM PC AT and early compatibles. In the AT, the keyboard interface was controlled by a microcontroller with its own programmable memory. On the IBM AT, that was a 40-pin socketed device, while some manufacturers used an EPROM version of this chip which resembled an EPROM. ... | BIOS | Wikipedia | 387 | 4473 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS | Technology | Computer hardware | null |
Many PC motherboard suppliers licensed the BIOS "core" and toolkit from a commercial third party, known as an "independent BIOS vendor" or IBV. The motherboard manufacturer then customized this BIOS to suit its own hardware. For this reason, updated BIOSes are normally obtained directly from the motherboard manufacture... | BIOS | Wikipedia | 510 | 4473 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS | Technology | Computer hardware | null |
There are at least five known viruses that attack the BIOS. Two of which were for demonstration purposes. The first one found in the wild was Mebromi, targeting Chinese users.
The first BIOS virus was BIOS Meningitis, which instead of erasing BIOS chips it infected them. BIOS Meningitis was relatively harmless, compar... | BIOS | Wikipedia | 475 | 4473 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS | Technology | Computer hardware | null |
The third BIOS virus was a technique presented by John Heasman, principal security consultant for UK-based Next-Generation Security Software. In 2006, at the Black Hat Security Conference, he showed how to elevate privileges and read physical memory, using malicious procedures that replaced normal ACPI functions stored... | BIOS | Wikipedia | 442 | 4473 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS | Technology | Computer hardware | null |
Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI) supplements the BIOS in many new machines. Initially written for the Intel Itanium architecture, UEFI is now available for x86 and Arm platforms; the specification development is driven by the Unified EFI Forum, an industry special interest group. EFI booting has been suppor... | BIOS | Wikipedia | 370 | 4473 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS | Technology | Computer hardware | null |
In condensed matter physics, a Bose–Einstein condensate (BEC) is a state of matter that is typically formed when a gas of bosons at very low densities is cooled to temperatures very close to absolute zero, i.e., . Under such conditions, a large fraction of bosons occupy the lowest quantum state, at which microscopic qu... | Bose–Einstein condensate | Wikipedia | 299 | 4474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein%20condensate | Physical sciences | States of matter | null |
Bose first sent a paper to Einstein on the quantum statistics of light quanta (now called photons), in which he derived Planck's quantum radiation law without any reference to classical physics. Einstein was impressed, translated the paper himself from English to German and submitted it for Bose to the Zeitschrift für ... | Bose–Einstein condensate | Wikipedia | 421 | 4474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein%20condensate | Physical sciences | States of matter | null |
On 5 June 1995, the first gaseous condensate was produced by Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman at the University of Colorado at Boulder NIST–JILA lab, in a gas of rubidium atoms cooled to 170 nanokelvins (nK). Shortly thereafter, Wolfgang Ketterle at MIT produced a Bose–Einstein Condensate in a gas of sodium atoms. For thei... | Bose–Einstein condensate | Wikipedia | 512 | 4474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein%20condensate | Physical sciences | States of matter | null |
It is noticeable that is a monotonically growing function of in , which are the only values for which the series converge.
Recognizing that the second term on the right-hand side contains the expression for the average occupation number of the fundamental state , the equation of state can be rewritten as
Because ... | Bose–Einstein condensate | Wikipedia | 476 | 4474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein%20condensate | Physical sciences | States of matter | null |
Dilute atomic gases
The first "pure" Bose–Einstein condensate was created by Eric Cornell, Carl Wieman, and co-workers at JILA on 5 June 1995. They cooled a dilute vapor of approximately two thousand rubidium-87 atoms to below 170 nK using a combination of laser cooling (a technique that won its inventors Steven Chu, ... | Bose–Einstein condensate | Wikipedia | 485 | 4474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein%20condensate | Physical sciences | States of matter | null |
Magnons, electron spin waves, can be controlled by a magnetic field. Densities from the limit of a dilute gas to a strongly interacting Bose liquid are possible. Magnetic ordering is the analog of superfluidity. In 1999 condensation was demonstrated in antiferromagnetic , at temperatures as great as 14 K. The high tran... | Bose–Einstein condensate | Wikipedia | 491 | 4474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein%20condensate | Physical sciences | States of matter | null |
Suppose now that the energy of state is slightly greater than the energy of state by an amount . At temperature , a particle will have a lesser probability to be in state by . In the distinguishable case, the particle distribution will be biased slightly towards state . But in the indistinguishable case, since there... | Bose–Einstein condensate | Wikipedia | 501 | 4474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein%20condensate | Physical sciences | States of matter | null |
Bogoliubov theory for weakly interacting gas
Nikolay Bogoliubov considered perturbations on the limit of dilute gas, finding a finite pressure at zero temperature and positive chemical potential. This leads to corrections for the ground state. The Bogoliubov state has pressure : .
The original interacting system can ... | Bose–Einstein condensate | Wikipedia | 473 | 4474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein%20condensate | Physical sciences | States of matter | null |
Numerical solution
The Gross-Pitaevskii equation is a partial differential equation in space and time variables. Usually it does not have analytic solution and
different numerical methods, such as split-step
Crank–Nicolson
and Fourier spectral methods, are used for its solution. There are different Fortran and C progr... | Bose–Einstein condensate | Wikipedia | 500 | 4474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein%20condensate | Physical sciences | States of matter | null |
Superfluidity of BEC and Landau criterion
The phenomena of superfluidity of a Bose gas and superconductivity of a strongly-correlated Fermi gas (a gas of Cooper pairs) are tightly connected to Bose–Einstein condensation. Under corresponding conditions, below the temperature of phase transition, these phenomena were ob... | Bose–Einstein condensate | Wikipedia | 483 | 4474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein%20condensate | Physical sciences | States of matter | null |
which is greater than that of singly charged vortices, indicating that these multiply charged vortices are unstable to decay. Research has, however, indicated they are metastable states, so may have relatively long lifetimes.
Closely related to the creation of vortices in BECs is the generation of so-called dark soli... | Bose–Einstein condensate | Wikipedia | 504 | 4474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein%20condensate | Physical sciences | States of matter | null |
The process of creation of molecular Bose condensate during the sweep of the magnetic field throughout the Feshbach resonance, as well as the reverse process, are described by the exactly solvable model that can explain many experimental observations.
Current research
Compared to more commonly encountered states of ... | Bose–Einstein condensate | Wikipedia | 484 | 4474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein%20condensate | Physical sciences | States of matter | null |
Studies of vortices in nonuniform Bose–Einstein condensates as well as excitations of these systems by the application of moving repulsive or attractive obstacles, have also been undertaken. Within this context, the conditions for order and chaos in the dynamics of a trapped Bose–Einstein condensate have been explored ... | Bose–Einstein condensate | Wikipedia | 367 | 4474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein%20condensate | Physical sciences | States of matter | null |
Bose-Einstein condensation has mainly been observed on alkaline atoms, some of which have collisional properties particularly suitable for evaporative cooling in traps, and which where the first to laser-cooled. As of 2021, using ultra-low temperatures of or below, Bose–Einstein condensates had been obtained for a mul... | Bose–Einstein condensate | Wikipedia | 475 | 4474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein%20condensate | Physical sciences | States of matter | null |
Continuous Bose–Einstein condensation
Limitations of evaporative cooling have restricted atomic BECs to "pulsed" operation, involving a highly inefficient duty cycle that discards more than 99% of atoms to reach BEC. Achieving continuous BEC has been a major open problem of experimental BEC research, driven by the sam... | Bose–Einstein condensate | Wikipedia | 468 | 4474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein%20condensate | Physical sciences | States of matter | null |
The Beer–Bouguer–Lambert (BBL) extinction law is an empirical relationship describing the attenuation in intensity of a radiation beam passing through a macroscopically homogenous medium with which it interacts. Formally, it states that the intensity of radiation decays exponentially in the absorbance of the medium, a... | Beer–Lambert law | Wikipedia | 467 | 4476 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beer%E2%80%93Lambert%20law | Physical sciences | Optics | Physics |
In 1852, August Beer noticed that colored solutions also appeared to exhibit a similar attenuation relation. In his analysis, Beer does not discuss Bouguer and Lambert's prior work, writing in his introduction that "Concerning the absolute magnitude of the absorption that a particular ray of light suffers during its pr... | Beer–Lambert law | Wikipedia | 426 | 4476 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beer%E2%80%93Lambert%20law | Physical sciences | Optics | Physics |
A collimated beam (directed radiation) with cross-sectional area will encounter particles (on average) during its travel. However, not all of these particles interact with the beam. Propensity to interact is a material-dependent property, typically summarized in absorptivity or scattering cross-section . These al... | Beer–Lambert law | Wikipedia | 486 | 4476 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beer%E2%80%93Lambert%20law | Physical sciences | Optics | Physics |
Assume that a beam of light enters a material sample. Define as an axis parallel to the direction of the beam. Divide the material sample into thin slices, perpendicular to the beam of light, with thickness sufficiently small that one particle in a slice cannot obscure another particle in the same slice when viewed a... | Beer–Lambert law | Wikipedia | 423 | 4476 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beer%E2%80%93Lambert%20law | Physical sciences | Optics | Physics |
There are at least six conditions that need to be fulfilled in order for the Beer–Lambert law to be valid. These are:
The attenuators must act independently of each other.
The attenuating medium must be homogeneous in the interaction volume.
The attenuating medium must not scatter the radiation—no turbidity—unless t... | Beer–Lambert law | Wikipedia | 506 | 4476 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beer%E2%80%93Lambert%20law | Physical sciences | Optics | Physics |
The BBL extinction law also arises as a solution to the BGK equation.
Chemical analysis by spectrophotometry
The Beer–Lambert law can be applied to the analysis of a mixture by spectrophotometry, without the need for extensive pre-processing of the sample. An example is the determination of bilirubin in blood plasma ... | Beer–Lambert law | Wikipedia | 460 | 4476 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beer%E2%80%93Lambert%20law | Physical sciences | Optics | Physics |
where each is the optical depth whose subscript identifies the source of the absorption or scattering it describes:
refers to aerosols (that absorb and scatter);
are uniformly mixed gases (mainly carbon dioxide (CO2) and molecular oxygen (O2) which only absorb);
is nitrogen dioxide, mainly due to urban pollutio... | Beer–Lambert law | Wikipedia | 264 | 4476 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beer%E2%80%93Lambert%20law | Physical sciences | Optics | Physics |
Bakelite ( ), formally , is a thermosetting phenol formaldehyde resin, formed from a condensation reaction of phenol with formaldehyde. The first plastic made from synthetic components, it was developed by Leo Baekeland in Yonkers, New York, in 1907, and patented on December 7, 1909.
Bakelite was one of the first plas... | Bakelite | Wikipedia | 426 | 4485 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakelite | Physical sciences | Polymers | Chemistry |
He then began experimenting on strengthening wood by impregnating it with a synthetic resin rather than coating it. By controlling the pressure and temperature applied to phenol and formaldehyde, he produced a hard moldable material that he named Bakelite, after himself. It was the first synthetic thermosetting plastic... | Bakelite | Wikipedia | 452 | 4485 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakelite | Physical sciences | Polymers | Chemistry |
The Bakelite Corporation was formed in 1922 after patent litigation favorable to Baekeland, from a merger of three companies: Baekeland's General Bakelite Company; the Condensite Company, founded by J. W. Aylesworth; and the Redmanol Chemical Products Company, founded by Lawrence V. Redman. Under director of advertisin... | Bakelite | Wikipedia | 449 | 4485 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakelite | Physical sciences | Polymers | Chemistry |
In addition to the original Bakelite material, these companies eventually made a wide range of other products, many of which were marketed under the brand name "Bakelite plastics". These included other types of cast phenolic resins similar to Catalin, and urea-formaldehyde resins, which could be made in brighter colors... | Bakelite | Wikipedia | 505 | 4485 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakelite | Physical sciences | Polymers | Chemistry |
Bakelite's molding process had a number of advantages. Bakelite resin could be provided either as powder or as preformed partially cured slugs, increasing the speed of the casting. Thermosetting resins such as Bakelite required heat and pressure during the molding cycle but could be removed from the molding process wit... | Bakelite | Wikipedia | 473 | 4485 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakelite | Physical sciences | Polymers | Chemistry |
Phenolic resin products may swell slightly under conditions of extreme humidity or perpetual dampness. When rubbed or burnt, Bakelite has a distinctive, acrid, sickly-sweet or fishy odor.
Applications and uses
The characteristics of Bakelite made it particularly suitable as a molding compound, an adhesive or binding ... | Bakelite | Wikipedia | 431 | 4485 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakelite | Physical sciences | Polymers | Chemistry |
Beginning in the 1920s, it became a popular material for jewelry. Designer Coco Chanel included Bakelite bracelets in her costume jewelry collections. Designers such as Elsa Schiaparelli used it for jewelry and also for specially designed dress buttons. Later, Diana Vreeland, editor of Vogue, was enthusiastic about Bak... | Bakelite | Wikipedia | 509 | 4485 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakelite | Physical sciences | Polymers | Chemistry |
By the late 1940s, newer materials were superseding Bakelite in many areas. Phenolics are less frequently used in general consumer products today due to their cost and complexity of production and their brittle nature. They still appear in some applications where their specific properties are required, such as small pr... | Bakelite | Wikipedia | 506 | 4485 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakelite | Physical sciences | Polymers | Chemistry |
Similar plastics
Catalin is also a phenolic resin, similar to Bakelite, but contains different mineral fillers that allow the production of light colors.
Condensites are similar thermoset materials having much the same properties, characteristics, and uses.
Crystalate is an early plastic.
Faturan is a phenolic resi... | Bakelite | Wikipedia | 188 | 4485 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakelite | Physical sciences | Polymers | Chemistry |
A bean is the seed of any plant in the legume family (Fabaceae) used as a vegetable for human consumption or animal feed. The seeds are often preserved through drying, but fresh beans are also sold. Most beans are traditionally soaked and boiled, but they can be cooked in many different ways, including frying and bakin... | Bean | Wikipedia | 406 | 4487 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bean | Biology and health sciences | Fabales | null |
Most of the kinds of beans commonly eaten today are part of the genus Phaseolus, which originated in the Americas. The first European to encounter them was Christopher Columbus, while exploring what may have been the Bahamas, and saw them growing in fields. Five kinds of Phaseolus beans were domesticated by pre-Columbi... | Bean | Wikipedia | 509 | 4487 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bean | Biology and health sciences | Fabales | null |
The following is a summary of FAO data.
The world leader in production of dry beans (Phaseolus spp), is India, followed by Myanmar (Burma) and Brazil. In Africa, the most important producer is Tanzania.
Source: UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
Uses
Nutrition
Raw green beans are 90% water, 7% carbohydrat... | Bean | Wikipedia | 483 | 4487 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bean | Biology and health sciences | Fabales | null |
Cooking beans, without bringing them to a boil, in a slow cooker at a temperature well below boiling may not destroy toxins. A case of poisoning by butter beans used to make falafel was reported; the beans were used instead of traditional broad beans or chickpeas, soaked and ground without boiling, made into patties, a... | Bean | Wikipedia | 458 | 4487 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bean | Biology and health sciences | Fabales | null |
Beans have often been thought of as a food of the poor, as small farmers ate grains, vegetables, and got their protein from beans, while the wealthier classes were able to afford meat. European society has what Ken Albala calls "a class-based antagonism" to beans.
Different cultures agree in disliking the flatulence ... | Bean | Wikipedia | 279 | 4487 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bean | Biology and health sciences | Fabales | null |
The breasts are two prominences located on the upper ventral region of the torso among humans and other primates. Both sexes develop breasts from the same embryological tissues. The relative size and development of the breasts is a major secondary sex distinction between females and males. There is also considerable va... | Breast | Wikipedia | 456 | 4489 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breast | Biology and health sciences | Integumentary system | null |
Breasts is often used to refer to female breasts in particular, though the stricter anatomical term refers to the same region on members of either sex. Male breasts are sometimes referred to in the singular to mean the collective upper chest area, whereas female breasts are referred to in the plural unless speaking of ... | Breast | Wikipedia | 471 | 4489 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breast | Biology and health sciences | Integumentary system | null |
A 2001 study proposed that the rounded shape of a woman's breast evolved to prevent the sucking infant offspring from suffocating while feeding at the teat; that is, because of the human infant's small jaw, which did not project from the face to reach the nipple, they might block the nostrils against the mother's breas... | Breast | Wikipedia | 472 | 4489 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breast | Biology and health sciences | Integumentary system | null |
Morphologically, the breast is tear-shaped. The superficial tissue layer (superficial fascia) is separated from the skin by 0.5–2.5 cm of subcutaneous fat (adipose tissue). The suspensory Cooper's ligaments are fibrous-tissue prolongations that radiate from the superficial fascia to the skin envelope. The female adult ... | Breast | Wikipedia | 420 | 4489 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breast | Biology and health sciences | Integumentary system | null |
The breast is an apocrine gland that produces the milk used to feed an infant. The nipple of the breast is surrounded by the areola (nipple-areola complex). The areola has many sebaceous glands, and the skin color varies from pink to dark brown. The basic units of the breast are the terminal duct lobular units (TDLUs),... | Breast | Wikipedia | 315 | 4489 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breast | Biology and health sciences | Integumentary system | null |
Lymphatic drainage
Approximately 75% of the lymph from the breast travels to the axillary lymph nodes on the same side of the body, while 25% of the lymph travels to the parasternal nodes (beside the sternum bone). A small amount of remaining lymph travels to the other breast and to the abdominal lymph nodes. The subar... | Breast | Wikipedia | 510 | 4489 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breast | Biology and health sciences | Integumentary system | null |
The base of each breast is attached to the chest by the deep fascia over the pectoralis major muscles. The base of the breast is semi-circular, however the shape and position of the breast above the surface is variable. The space between the breast and the pectoralis major muscle, called retromammary space, gives mobil... | Breast | Wikipedia | 452 | 4489 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breast | Biology and health sciences | Integumentary system | null |
The breasts are principally composed of adipose, glandular, and connective tissues. Because these tissues have hormone receptors, their sizes and volumes fluctuate according to the hormonal changes particular to thelarche (sprouting of breasts), menstruation (egg production), pregnancy (reproduction), lactation (feedin... | Breast | Wikipedia | 475 | 4489 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breast | Biology and health sciences | Integumentary system | null |
In gender-affirming hormone therapy, breast development is induced through feminizing HRT, often combining estrogen with anti-androgens to suppress testosterone. Maximum growth is usually achieved after 2–3 years.
Factors such as age, genetics, and hormone dosage influence outcomes.
Changes during the menstrual cycle... | Breast | Wikipedia | 488 | 4489 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breast | Biology and health sciences | Integumentary system | null |
Risk factors for developing breast cancer include obesity, a lack of physical exercise, alcohol consumption, hormone replacement therapy during menopause, ionizing radiation, an early age at first menstruation, having children late in life (or not at all), older age, having a prior history of breast cancer, and a famil... | Breast | Wikipedia | 405 | 4489 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breast | Biology and health sciences | Integumentary system | null |
Exercise
Biomechanical studies have demonstrated that, depending on the activity and the size of a woman's breast, when she walks or runs braless, her breasts may move up and down by or more, and also oscillate side to side. Researchers have also found that as women's breast size increased, they took part in less phy... | Breast | Wikipedia | 486 | 4489 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breast | Biology and health sciences | Integumentary system | null |
Plastic surgery can be performed to augment or reduce the size of breasts, or reconstruct the breast in cases of deformative disease, such as breast cancer. Breast augmentation and breast lift (mastopexy) procedures are done only for cosmetic reasons, whereas breast reduction is sometimes medically indicated. In cases ... | Breast | Wikipedia | 503 | 4489 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breast | Biology and health sciences | Integumentary system | null |
Female breasts were also prominent in Minoan art in the form of the famous Snake Goddess statuettes, and a few other pieces, though most female breasts are covered. In Ancient Greece there were several cults worshipping the "Kourotrophos", the suckling mother, represented by goddesses such as Gaia, Hera and Artemis. Th... | Breast | Wikipedia | 493 | 4489 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breast | Biology and health sciences | Integumentary system | null |
Many cultures, including Western cultures in North America, associate breasts with sexuality and tend to regard bare breasts as immodest or indecent. In some cultures, like the Himba in northern Namibia, bare-breasted women are normal. In some African cultures, for example, the thigh is regarded as highly sexualized an... | Breast | Wikipedia | 358 | 4489 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breast | Biology and health sciences | Integumentary system | null |
In some cultures, breasts play a role in human sexual activity. Breasts and especially the nipples are among the various human erogenous zones. They are sensitive to the touch as they have many nerve endings; and it is common to press or massage them with hands or orally before or during sexual activity. During sexual ... | Breast | Wikipedia | 422 | 4489 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breast | Biology and health sciences | Integumentary system | null |
Some women report achieving an orgasm from nipple stimulation, but this is rare. Research suggests that the orgasms are genital orgasms, and may also be directly linked to "the genital area of the brain". In these cases, it seems that sensation from the nipples travels to the same part of the brain as sensations from t... | Breast | Wikipedia | 356 | 4489 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breast | Biology and health sciences | Integumentary system | null |
The British thermal unit (Btu) is a measure of heat, which is a form of energy. It was originally defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water by one degree Fahrenheit. It is also part of the United States customary units. The SI unit for energy is the joule (J); one Btu equals ... | British thermal unit | Wikipedia | 484 | 4495 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British%20thermal%20unit | Physical sciences | Energy | Basics and measurement |
The unit 'therm' is used to represent 100,000 Btu. A decatherm is 10 therms or one million Btu. The unit quad is commonly used to represent one quadrillion (1015) Btu.
Conversions
One Btu is approximately:
(kilojoules)
(watt hours)
(calories)
(kilocalories)
25,031 to 25,160 ft⋅pdl (foot-poundal)
(foot-poun... | British thermal unit | Wikipedia | 357 | 4495 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British%20thermal%20unit | Physical sciences | Energy | Basics and measurement |
Associated units
1 ton of cooling, a common unit in North American refrigeration and air conditioning applications, is . It is the rate of heat transfer needed to freeze of water into ice in 24 hours.
In the United States and Canada, the R-value that describes the performance of thermal insulation is typically quot... | British thermal unit | Wikipedia | 478 | 4495 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British%20thermal%20unit | Physical sciences | Energy | Basics and measurement |
Biotechnology is a multidisciplinary field that involves the integration of natural sciences and engineering sciences in order to achieve the application of organisms and parts thereof for products and services.
The term biotechnology was first used by Károly Ereky in 1919 to refer to the production of products from r... | Biotechnology | Wikipedia | 356 | 4502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology | Technology | Food and health | null |
The concept of biotechnology encompasses a wide range of procedures for modifying living organisms for human purposes, going back to domestication of animals, cultivation of plants, and "improvements" to these through breeding programs that employ artificial selection and hybridization. Modern usage also includes genet... | Biotechnology | Wikipedia | 502 | 4502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology | Technology | Food and health | null |
Although not normally what first comes to mind, many forms of human-derived agriculture clearly fit the broad definition of "utilizing a biotechnological system to make products". Indeed, the cultivation of plants may be viewed as the earliest biotechnological enterprise.
Agriculture has been theorized to have become ... | Biotechnology | Wikipedia | 462 | 4502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology | Technology | Food and health | null |
In the early twentieth century scientists gained a greater understanding of microbiology and explored ways of manufacturing specific products. In 1917, Chaim Weizmann first used a pure microbiological culture in an industrial process, that of manufacturing corn starch using Clostridium acetobutylicum, to produce aceton... | Biotechnology | Wikipedia | 362 | 4502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology | Technology | Food and health | null |
The MOSFET invented at Bell Labs between 1955 and 1960, Two years later, Leland C. Clark and Champ Lyons invented the first biosensor in 1962. Biosensor MOSFETs were later developed, and they have since been widely used to measure physical, chemical, biological and environmental parameters. The first BioFET was the ion... | Biotechnology | Wikipedia | 490 | 4502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology | Technology | Food and health | null |
For example, one application of biotechnology is the directed use of microorganisms for the manufacture of organic products (examples include beer and milk products). Another example is using naturally present bacteria by the mining industry in bioleaching. Biotechnology is also used to recycle, treat waste, clean up s... | Biotechnology | Wikipedia | 80 | 4502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology | Technology | Food and health | null |
A series of derived terms have been coined to identify several branches of biotechnology, for example:
Bioinformatics (or "gold biotechnology") is an interdisciplinary field that addresses biological problems using computational techniques, and makes the rapid organization as well as analysis of biological data possib... | Biotechnology | Wikipedia | 479 | 4502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology | Technology | Food and health | null |
White biotechnology, also known as industrial biotechnology, is biotechnology applied to industrial processes. An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical. Another example is the using of enzymes as industrial catalysts to either produce valuable chemicals or destroy hazardous/polluting chem... | Biotechnology | Wikipedia | 321 | 4502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology | Technology | Food and health | null |
Medicine
In medicine, modern biotechnology has many applications in areas such as pharmaceutical drug discoveries and production, pharmacogenomics, and genetic testing (or genetic screening). In 2021, nearly 40% of the total company value of pharmaceutical biotech companies worldwide were active in Oncology with Neurol... | Biotechnology | Wikipedia | 422 | 4502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology | Technology | Food and health | null |
Genetic testing allows the genetic diagnosis of vulnerabilities to inherited diseases, and can also be used to determine a child's parentage (genetic mother and father) or in general a person's ancestry. In addition to studying chromosomes to the level of individual genes, genetic testing in a broader sense includes bi... | Biotechnology | Wikipedia | 459 | 4502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology | Technology | Food and health | null |
Genetically modified foods are foods produced from organisms that have had specific changes introduced into their DNA with the methods of genetic engineering. These techniques have allowed for the introduction of new crop traits as well as a far greater control over a food's genetic structure than previously afforded b... | Biotechnology | Wikipedia | 469 | 4502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology | Technology | Food and health | null |
Industrial
Industrial biotechnology (known mainly in Europe as white biotechnology) is the application of biotechnology for industrial purposes, including industrial fermentation. It includes the practice of using cells such as microorganisms, or components of cells like enzymes, to generate industrially useful product... | Biotechnology | Wikipedia | 316 | 4502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology | Technology | Food and health | null |
Another example of synthetic biology applications in industrial biotechnology is the re-engineering of the metabolic pathways of E. coli by CRISPR and CRISPRi systems toward the production of a chemical known as 1,4-butanediol, which is used in fiber manufacturing. In order to produce 1,4-butanediol, the authors alter ... | Biotechnology | Wikipedia | 376 | 4502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology | Technology | Food and health | null |
The regulation of genetic engineering concerns approaches taken by governments to assess and manage the risks associated with the use of genetic engineering technology, and the development and release of genetically modified organisms (GMO), including genetically modified crops and genetically modified fish. There are ... | Biotechnology | Wikipedia | 400 | 4502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology | Technology | Food and health | null |
A ballpoint pen, also known as a biro (British English), ball pen (Hong Kong, Indonesia, Pakistani, Indian and Philippine English), or dot pen (Nepali English and South Asian English), is a pen that dispenses ink (usually in paste form) over a metal ball at its point, i.e., over a "ball point". The metals commonly used... | Ballpoint pen | Wikipedia | 490 | 4519 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballpoint%20pen | Technology | Writing tools | null |
László Bíró, a Hungarian newspaper editor (later a naturalized Argentine) frustrated by the amount of time that he wasted filling up fountain pens and cleaning up smudged pages, noticed that inks used in newspaper printing dried quickly, leaving the paper dry and smudge-free. He decided to create a pen using the same t... | Ballpoint pen | Wikipedia | 442 | 4519 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballpoint%20pen | Technology | Writing tools | null |
During the same period, American entrepreneur Milton Reynolds came across a Birome ballpoint pen during a business trip to Buenos Aires, Argentina. Recognizing commercial potential, he purchased several ballpoint samples, returned to the United States, and founded the Reynolds International Pen Company. Reynolds bypass... | Ballpoint pen | Wikipedia | 479 | 4519 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballpoint%20pen | Technology | Writing tools | null |
Inks
Ballpoint pen ink is normally a paste containing around 25 to 40 percent dye. The dyes are suspended in a mixture of solvents and fatty acids. The most common of the solvents are benzyl alcohol or phenoxyethanol, which mix with the dyes and oils to create a smooth paste that dries quickly. This type of ink is also... | Ballpoint pen | Wikipedia | 436 | 4519 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballpoint%20pen | Technology | Writing tools | null |
Rollerball pens employ the same ballpoint mechanics, but with the use of water-based inks instead of oil-based inks. Compared to oil-based ballpoints, rollerball pens are said to provide more fluid ink-flow, but the water-based inks will blot if held stationary against the writing surface. Water-based inks also remain ... | Ballpoint pen | Wikipedia | 462 | 4519 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballpoint%20pen | Technology | Writing tools | null |
The inexpensive, disposable Bic Cristal (also simply "Bic pen" or "Biro") is reportedly the most widely sold pen in the world. It was the Bic company's first product and is still synonymous with the company name. The Bic Cristal is part of the permanent collection at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City, acknowled... | Ballpoint pen | Wikipedia | 426 | 4519 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballpoint%20pen | Technology | Writing tools | null |
Technology developed by Fisher pens in the United States resulted in the production of what came to be known as the "Fisher Space Pen". Space Pens combine a more viscous ink with a pressurized ink reservoir that forces the ink toward the point. Unlike a standard ballpoint's ink container, the rear end of a Space Pen's ... | Ballpoint pen | Wikipedia | 458 | 4519 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballpoint%20pen | Technology | Writing tools | null |
The ballpoint pen has several limitations as an art medium. Color availability and sensitivity of ink to light are among concerns of ballpoint pen artists. As a tool that uses ink, marks made with a ballpoint pen can generally not be erased. Additionally, "blobbing" ink on the drawing surface and "skipping" ink-flow re... | Ballpoint pen | Wikipedia | 483 | 4519 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballpoint%20pen | Technology | Writing tools | null |
ISO 127561998: Drawing and writing instruments – Ball point pens – Vocabulary
ISO 12757-11998: Ball point pens and refills – Part 1: General use
ISO 12757-21998: Ball point pens and refills – Part 2: Documentary use (DOC)
ISO 14145-11998: Roller ball pens and refills – Part 1: General use
ISO 14145-21998: Roller ba... | Ballpoint pen | Wikipedia | 189 | 4519 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballpoint%20pen | Technology | Writing tools | null |
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