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A mesotherm (from Greek μέσος mesos "intermediate" and thermē "heat") is a type of animal with a thermoregulatory strategy intermediate to cold-blooded ectotherms and warm-blooded endotherms.
Definition
Mesotherms have two basic characteristics:
Elevation of body temperature via metabolic production of heat.
Weak o... | Mesotherm | Wikipedia | 454 | 43062570 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesotherm | Biology and health sciences | Basics | Biology |
This viewpoint was challenged by D'Emic, who argued that because growth rates are sensitive to seasonal variation in resources, dinosaur maximum growth rates were underestimated by Grady et al. Adjusting dinosaur rates upwards by a factor of two, D'Emic found dinosaurs to grow similarly to mammals, and thus were likely... | Mesotherm | Wikipedia | 247 | 43062570 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesotherm | Biology and health sciences | Basics | Biology |
In chemistry, a vanadate is an anionic coordination complex of vanadium. Often vanadate refers to oxoanions of vanadium, most of which exist in its highest oxidation state of +5. The complexes and are referred to as hexacyanovanadate(III) and nonachlorodivanadate(III), respectively.
A simple vanadate ion is the tetr... | Vanadate | Wikipedia | 498 | 3976493 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadate | Physical sciences | Metallic oxyanions | Chemistry |
Aqueous solutions
Dissolution of vanadium pentoxide in strongly basic aqueous solution gives the colourless ion. On acidification, this solution's colour gradually darkens through orange to red at around pH 7. Brown hydrated V2O5 precipitates around pH 2, redissolving to form a light yellow solution containing the io... | Vanadate | Wikipedia | 309 | 3976493 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadate | Physical sciences | Metallic oxyanions | Chemistry |
Soil texture is a classification instrument used both in the field and laboratory to determine soil classes based on their physical texture. Soil texture can be determined using qualitative methods such as texture by feel, and quantitative methods such as the hydrometer method based on Stokes' law. Soil texture has ag... | Soil texture | Wikipedia | 357 | 3978897 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil%20texture | Physical sciences | Soil science | Earth science |
In the United States, twelve major soil texture classifications are defined by the United States Department of Agriculture. The twelve classifications are sand, loamy sand, sandy loam, loam, silt loam, silt, sandy clay loam, clay loam, silty clay loam, sandy clay, silty clay, and clay. Soil textures are classified by ... | Soil texture | Wikipedia | 409 | 3978897 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil%20texture | Physical sciences | Soil science | Earth science |
Soil separates are specific ranges of particle sizes. The smallest particles are clay particles and are classified as having diameters of less than 0.002 mm. Clay particles are plate-shaped instead of spherical, allowing for an increased specific surface area. The next smallest particles are silt particles and have dia... | Soil texture | Wikipedia | 505 | 3978897 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil%20texture | Physical sciences | Soil science | Earth science |
Sieving
Sieving is a long-established but still widely used soil analysis technique. In sieving, a known weight of sample material passes through finer sieves. The amount collected on each sieve is weighted to determine the percentage weight in each size fraction.
The method is used to determine the grain size distr... | Soil texture | Wikipedia | 415 | 3978897 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil%20texture | Physical sciences | Soil science | Earth science |
The hydrometer method requires the use of sodium hexametaphosphate, which acts as a dispersing agent to separate soil aggregates. The soil is mixed with the sodium hexametaphosphate solution on an orbital shaker overnight. The solution is transferred to one liter graduated cylinders and filled with water. The soil solu... | Soil texture | Wikipedia | 354 | 3978897 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil%20texture | Physical sciences | Soil science | Earth science |
The Stokes' diameter determined via sedimentation method is the diameter of a sphere having the same settling velocity and same density as the particle. This is the reason why the sedimentation analysis applies well when assuming that particles are spherical, have similar densities, have negligible interactions and are... | Soil texture | Wikipedia | 470 | 3978897 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil%20texture | Physical sciences | Soil science | Earth science |
Compared to other techniques laser diffraction is a fast and cost-effective method to measure particle size and quickly analyze soil samples. A big advantage is the built-in dispersion (e.g. dispersion by air pressure or ultrasound dispersion) unit of laser diffraction instruments. Therefore, dry samples can be measure... | Soil texture | Wikipedia | 490 | 3978897 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil%20texture | Physical sciences | Soil science | Earth science |
X-ray sedimentation
The x-ray sedimentation technique is a hybrid technique which combines sedimentation and x-ray absorption. The particle size is calculated from the terminal settling velocities of particles by applying Stokes' law. The adsorption of the x-radiation is used to determine the relative mass concentrati... | Soil texture | Wikipedia | 80 | 3978897 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil%20texture | Physical sciences | Soil science | Earth science |
An interstellar object is an astronomical object (such as an asteroid, a comet, or a rogue planet, but not a star or stellar remnant) in interstellar space that is not gravitationally bound to a star. This term can also be applied to an object that is on an interstellar trajectory but is temporarily passing close to a ... | Interstellar object | Wikipedia | 479 | 21694580 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstellar%20object | Physical sciences | Astronomy basics | Astronomy |
Astronomers estimate that several interstellar objects of extrasolar origin (like ʻOumuamua) pass inside the orbit of Earth each year, and that 10,000 are passing inside the orbit of Neptune on any given day.
Interstellar comets occasionally pass through the inner Solar System and approach with random velocities, most... | Interstellar object | Wikipedia | 391 | 21694580 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstellar%20object | Physical sciences | Astronomy basics | Astronomy |
It is possible for objects orbiting a star to be ejected due to interaction with a third massive body, thereby becoming interstellar objects. Such a process was initiated in the early 1980s when C/1980 E1, initially gravitationally bound to the Sun, passed near Jupiter and was accelerated sufficiently to reach escape ... | Interstellar object | Wikipedia | 442 | 21694580 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstellar%20object | Physical sciences | Astronomy basics | Astronomy |
Interstellar visitors in the Solar System cover the whole range of sizes – from kilometer large objects down to submicron particles. Also, interstellar dust and meteoroids carry with them valuable information from their parent systems. Detection of these objects along the continuum of sizes is, however, not evident (se... | Interstellar object | Wikipedia | 364 | 21694580 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstellar%20object | Physical sciences | Astronomy basics | Astronomy |
A dim object was discovered on October 19, 2017, by the Pan-STARRS telescope, at an apparent magnitude of 20. The observations showed that it follows a strongly hyperbolic trajectory around the Sun at a speed greater than the solar escape velocity, in turn meaning that it is not gravitationally bound to the Solar Syste... | Interstellar object | Wikipedia | 496 | 21694580 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstellar%20object | Physical sciences | Astronomy basics | Astronomy |
In 2007, Afanasiev et al. reported the likely detection of a multi-centimeter intergalactic meteor hitting the atmosphere above the Special Astrophysical Observatory of the Russian Academy of Sciences on July 28, 2006.
In November 2018, Harvard astronomers Amir Siraj and Avi Loeb reported that there should be hundreds... | Interstellar object | Wikipedia | 467 | 21694580 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstellar%20object | Physical sciences | Astronomy basics | Astronomy |
2017 interstellar meteor
CNEOS 2017-03-09 (aka Interstellar meteor 2; IM2), a meteor with a mass of roughly 6.3 tons, burned up in the Earth's atmosphere on March 9, 2017. Similar to IM1, it has a high mechanical strength. In September 2022, astronomers Amir Siraj and Avi Loeb reported the discovery of a candidate inte... | Interstellar object | Wikipedia | 337 | 21694580 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstellar%20object | Physical sciences | Astronomy basics | Astronomy |
A supercapacitor (SC), also called an ultracapacitor, is a high-capacity capacitor, with a capacitance value much higher than solid-state capacitors but with lower voltage limits. It bridges the gap between electrolytic capacitors and rechargeable batteries. It typically stores 10 to 100 times more energy per unit volu... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 276 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
Electrostatic double-layer capacitors (EDLCs) use carbon electrodes or derivatives with much higher electrostatic double-layer capacitance than electrochemical pseudocapacitance, achieving separation of charge in a Helmholtz double layer at the interface between the surface of a conductive electrode and an electrolyte.... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 386 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
In the early 1950s, General Electric engineers began experimenting with porous carbon electrodes in the design of capacitors, from the design of fuel cells and rechargeable batteries. Activated charcoal is an electrical conductor that is an extremely porous "spongy" form of carbon with a high specific surface area. In ... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 390 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
Between 1975 and 1980 Brian Evans Conway conducted extensive fundamental and development work on ruthenium oxide electrochemical capacitors. In 1991 he described the difference between "supercapacitor" and "battery" behaviour in electrochemical energy storage. In 1999 he defined the term "supercapacitor" to make refere... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 401 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
Since capacitors' energy content increases with the square of the voltage, researchers were looking for a way to increase the electrolyte's breakdown voltage. In 1994 using the anode of a 200 V high-voltage tantalum electrolytic capacitor, David A. Evans developed an "Electrolytic-Hybrid Electrochemical Capacitor". The... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 501 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
The two electrodes form a series circuit of two individual capacitors C1 and C2. The total capacitance Ctotal is given by the formula
Supercapacitors may have either symmetric or asymmetric electrodes. Symmetry implies that both electrodes have the same capacitance value, yielding a total capacitance of half the value... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 447 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
Applying a voltage to an electrochemical capacitor causes both electrodes in the capacitor to generate electrical double-layers. These double-layers consist of two layers of charges: one electronic layer is in the surface lattice structure of the electrode, and the other, with opposite polarity, emerges from dissolved ... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 458 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
Assuming that the minimum distance between the electrode and the charge accumulating region cannot be less than the typical distance between negative and positive charges in atoms of ~0.05 nm a general capacitance upper limit of ~18 μF/cm2 has been predicted for non-faradaic capacitors.
The main drawback of carbon ele... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 507 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
The electrons involved in the faradaic processes are transferred to or from valence electron states (orbitals) of the redox electrode reagent. They enter the negative electrode and flow through the external circuit to the positive electrode where a second double-layer with an equal number of anions has formed. The elec... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 434 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
Although conventional battery-type electrode materials also use chemical reactions to store charge, they show very different electrical profiles, as the rate of discharge is limited by the speed of diffusion. Grinding those materials down to nanoscale frees them of the diffusion limit and give them a more pseudocapacit... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 376 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
Conventional capacitors (also known as electrostatic capacitors), such as ceramic capacitors and film capacitors, consist of two electrodes separated by a dielectric material. When charged, the energy is stored in a static electric field that permeates the dielectric between the electrodes. The total energy increases w... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 468 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
Supercapacitors compete with electrolytic capacitors and rechargeable batteries, especially lithium-ion batteries. The following table compares the major parameters of the three main supercapacitor families with electrolytic capacitors and batteries.
Electrolytic capacitors feature nearly unlimited charge/discharge cy... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 490 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
Electrical energy is stored in supercapacitors via two storage principles, static double-layer capacitance and electrochemical pseudocapacitance; and the distribution of the two types of capacitance depends on the material and structure of the electrodes. There are three types of supercapacitors based on storage princi... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 422 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
Double-layer capacitance and pseudocapacitance both contribute inseparably to the total capacitance value of a supercapacitor. However, the ratio of the two can vary greatly, depending on the design of the electrodes and the composition of the electrolyte. Pseudocapacitance can increase the capacitance value by as much... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 471 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
The most commonly used electrode material for supercapacitors is carbon in various manifestations such as activated carbon (AC), carbon fibre-cloth (AFC), carbide-derived carbon (CDC), carbon aerogel, graphite (graphene), graphane and carbon nanotubes (CNTs).
Carbon-based electrodes exhibit predominantly static double... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 475 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
Activated carbon fibres
Activated carbon fibres (ACF) are produced from activated carbon and have a typical diameter of 10 μm. They can have micropores with a very narrow pore-size distribution that can be readily controlled. The surface area of ACF woven into a textile is about . Advantages of ACF electrodes include ... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 330 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
Carbide-derived carbon (CDC), also known as tunable nanoporous carbon, is a family of carbon materials derived from carbide precursors, such as binary silicon carbide and titanium carbide, that are transformed into pure carbon via physical, e.g., thermal decomposition or chemical, e.g., halogenation) processes. Carbide... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 452 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs), also called buckytubes, are carbon molecules with a cylindrical nanostructure. They have a hollow structure with walls formed by one-atom-thick sheets of graphite. These sheets are rolled at specific and discrete ("chiral") angles, and the combination of chiral angle and radius controls propert... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 501 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
MWNTs have mesopores that allow for easy access of ions at the electrode–electrolyte interface. As the pore size approaches the size of the ion solvation shell, the solvent molecules are partially stripped, resulting in larger ionic packing density and increased faradaic storage capability. However, the considerable vo... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 426 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
Brian Evans Conway's research described electrodes of transition metal oxides that exhibited high amounts of pseudocapacitance. Oxides of transition metals including ruthenium (), iridium (), iron (), manganese () or sulfides such as titanium sulfide () alone or in combination generate strong faradaic electron–transfer... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 484 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
Another approach uses electron-conducting polymers as pseudocapacitive material. Although mechanically weak, conductive polymers have high conductivity, resulting in a low ESR and a relatively high capacitance. Such conducting polymers include polyaniline, polythiophene, polypyrrole and polyacetylene. Such electrodes a... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 481 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
Another way to enhance CNT electrodes is by doping with a pseudocapacitive dopant as in lithium-ion capacitors. In this case the relatively small lithium atoms intercalate between the layers of carbon. The anode is made of lithium-doped carbon, which enables lower negative potential with a cathode made of activated car... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 356 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
For example, researchers use a kind of novel skutterudite Ni–CoP3 nanosheets and use it as positive electrodes with activated carbon (AC) as negative electrodes to fabricate asymmetric supercapacitor (ASC). It exhibits high energy density of 89.6 Wh/kg at 796 W/kg and stability of 93% after 10,000 cycles, which can be ... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 483 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
The electrolyte must be chemically inert and not chemically attack the other materials in the capacitor to ensure long time stable behavior of the capacitor's electrical parameters. The electrolyte's viscosity must be low enough to wet the porous, sponge-like structure of the electrodes. An ideal electrolyte does not e... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 465 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
Separators have to physically separate the two electrodes to prevent a short circuit by direct contact. It can be very thin (a few hundredths of a millimeter) and must be very porous to the conducting ions to minimize ESR. Furthermore, separators must be chemically inert to protect the electrolyte's stability and condu... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 453 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
This extraordinarily strong frequency dependence can be explained by the different distances the ions have to move in the electrode's pores. The area at the beginning of the pores can be easily accessed by the ions; this short distance is accompanied by low electrical resistance. The greater the distance the ions have ... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 471 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
This frequency dependence affects capacitor operation. Rapid charge and discharge cycles mean that neither the rated capacitance value nor specific energy are available. In this case the rated capacitance value is recalculated for each application condition.
The time t a supercapacitor can deliver a constant current I... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 492 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
Charging/discharging a supercapacitor is connected to the movement of charge carriers (ions) in the electrolyte across the separator to the electrodes and into their porous structure. Losses occur during this movement that can be measured as the internal DC resistance.
With the electrical model of cascaded, series-con... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 462 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
Because supercapacitors operate without forming chemical bonds, current loads, including charge, discharge and peak currents are not limited by reaction constraints. Current load and cycle stability can be much higher than for rechargeable batteries. Current loads are limited only by internal resistance, which may be s... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 451 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
Device parameters such as capacitance initial resistance and steady state resistance are not constant, but are variable and dependent on the device's operating voltage. Device capacitance will have a measurable increase as the operating voltage increases. For example: a 100F device can be seen to vary 26% from its maxi... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 448 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
commercial energy density varies widely, but in general range from around 5 to . In comparison, petrol fuel has an energy density of 32.4 MJ/L or . Commercial specific energies range from around 0.5 to . For comparison, an aluminum electrolytic capacitor stores typically 0.01 to , while a conventional lead–acid batter... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 412 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
Since supercapacitors do not rely on chemical changes in the electrodes (except for those with polymer electrodes), lifetimes depend mostly on the rate of evaporation of the liquid electrolyte. This evaporation is generally a function of temperature, current load, current cycle frequency and voltage. Current load and c... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 508 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
The lifetime specification from datasheets can be used to estimate the expected lifetime for a given design. The "10-degrees-rule" used for electrolytic capacitors with non-solid electrolyte is used in those estimations, and can be used for supercapacitors. This rule employs the Arrhenius equation: a simple formula for... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 487 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
Since the positive and negative electrodes (or simply positrode and negatrode, respectively) of symmetric supercapacitors consist of the same material, theoretically supercapacitors have no true polarity and catastrophic failure does not normally occur. However reverse-charging a supercapacitor lowers its capacity, so ... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 376 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
The following table shows differences among capacitors of various manufacturers in capacitance range, cell voltage, internal resistance (ESR, DC or AC value) and volumetric and gravimetric specific energy. In the table, ESR refers to the component with the largest capacitance value of the respective manufacturer. Rough... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 510 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
Supercapacitors vary sufficiently that they are rarely interchangeable, especially those with higher specific energy. Applications range from low to high peak currents, requiring standardized test protocols.
Test specifications and parameter requirements are specified in the generic specification IEC/EN 62391–1, Fixed... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 476 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
Numerous non-linear loads, such as EV chargers, HEVs, air conditioning systems, and advanced power conversion systems cause current fluctuations and harmonics. These current differences create unwanted voltage fluctuations and therefore power oscillations on the grid. Power oscillations not only reduce the efficiency o... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 394 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
Micro grids are usually powered by clean and renewable energy. Most of this energy generation, however, is not constant throughout the day and does not usually match demand. Supercapacitors can be used for micro grid storage to instantaneously inject power when the demand is high and the production dips momentarily, an... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 488 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
Supercapacitors' low internal resistance supports applications that require short-term high currents. Among the earliest uses were motor startup (cold engine starts, particularly with diesels) for large engines in tanks and submarines. Supercapacitors buffer the battery, handling short current peaks, reducing cycling a... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 416 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
Mobile hybrid Diesel–electric rubber tyred gantry cranes move and stack containers within a terminal. Lifting the boxes requires large amounts of energy. Some of the energy could be recaptured while lowering the load, resulting in improved efficiency. A triple hybrid forklift truck uses fuel cells and batteries as prim... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 466 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
In 2009, Alstom and RATP equipped a Citadis tram with an experimental energy recovery system called "STEEM". The system is fitted with 48 roof-mounted supercapacitors to store braking energy, which provides tramways with a high level of energy autonomy by enabling them to run without overhead power lines on parts of it... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 482 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
In 2015, Alstom announced SRS, an energy storage system that charges supercapacitors on board a tram by means of ground-level conductor rails located at tram stops. This allows trams to operate without overhead lines for short distances. The system has been touted as an alternative to the company's ground-level power s... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 505 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
A hybrid electric bus called tribrid was unveiled in 2008 by the University of Glamorgan, Wales, for use as student transport. It is powered by hydrogen fuel or solar cells, batteries and ultracapacitors.
Motor racing
The FIA, a governing body for motor racing events, proposed in the Power-Train Regulation Framework... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 439 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
Supercapacitors' lower specific energy makes them unsuitable for use as a stand-alone energy source for long distance driving. The fuel economy improvement between a capacitor and a battery solution is about 20% and is available only for shorter trips. For long distance driving the advantage decreases to 6%. Vehicles c... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 443 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
Developments
commercially available lithium-ion supercapacitors offered the highest gravimetric specific energy to date, reaching 15 Wh/kg (). Research focuses on improving specific energy, reducing internal resistance, expanding temperature range, increasing lifetimes and reducing costs. Projects include tailored-po... | Supercapacitor | Wikipedia | 314 | 33307786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor | Technology | Components | null |
A stellar core is the extremely hot, dense region at the center of a star. For an ordinary main sequence star, the core region is the volume where the temperature and pressure conditions allow for energy production through thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium. This energy in turn counterbalances the mass of the... | Stellar core | Wikipedia | 465 | 38815769 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar%20core | Physical sciences | Stellar astronomy | Astronomy |
Below about , energy production in the stellar core is predominantly through the proton–proton chain reaction, a process requiring only hydrogen. For stars above this mass, the energy generation comes increasingly from the CNO cycle, a hydrogen fusion process that uses intermediary atoms of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen... | Stellar core | Wikipedia | 487 | 38815769 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar%20core | Physical sciences | Stellar astronomy | Astronomy |
Stars with higher masses have at least partially convective cores while on the main sequence, and they develop a relatively large helium core before exhausting hydrogen throughout the convective region, and possibly in a larger region due to convective overshoot. When core fusion ceases, the core starts to collapse and... | Stellar core | Wikipedia | 437 | 38815769 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar%20core | Physical sciences | Stellar astronomy | Astronomy |
For stars in the mass range , the helium core becomes degenerate before it is hot enough for helium to start fusion. When the density of the degenerate helium at the core is sufficiently high − at around with a temperature of about − it undergoes a nuclear explosion known as a "helium flash". This event is not observ... | Stellar core | Wikipedia | 342 | 38815769 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar%20core | Physical sciences | Stellar astronomy | Astronomy |
Megaloptera is an order of insects. It contains the alderflies, dobsonflies and fishflies, and there are about 300 known species.
The order's name comes from Ancient Greek, from mega- (μέγα-) "large" + pteryx (πτέρυξ) "wing", in reference to the large, clumsy wings of these insects. Megaloptera are relatively unknown ... | Megaloptera | Wikipedia | 480 | 1476259 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megaloptera | Biology and health sciences | Insects: General | Animals |
Anatomy and life cycle
Adult megalopterans closely resemble the lacewings, except for the presence of a pleated region on their hindwings, helping them to fold over the abdomen. They have strong mandibles and mouthparts apparently adapted for chewing, although many species do not eat as adults. They have large compound... | Megaloptera | Wikipedia | 480 | 1476259 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megaloptera | Biology and health sciences | Insects: General | Animals |
The Megaloptera are monophyletic and are a sister clade of the Neuroptera. Within the Megaloptera, Corydalinae and Chauliodinae are sister clades. The oldest fossils confidently identifiable as megalopterans date to the Early Jurassic. | Megaloptera | Wikipedia | 59 | 1476259 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megaloptera | Biology and health sciences | Insects: General | Animals |
Dangerous goods (DG) are substances that are a risk to health, safety, property or the environment during transport. Certain dangerous goods that pose risks even when not being transported are known as hazardous materials (syllabically abbreviated as HAZMAT or hazmat). An example for dangerous goods is hazardous waste ... | Dangerous goods | Wikipedia | 505 | 1476975 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dangerous%20goods | Physical sciences | Basics: General | Chemistry |
The Intergovernmental Organisation for International Carriage by Rail has developed the regulations concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Rail ("RID", part of the Convention concerning International Carriage by Rail). Many individual nations have also structured their dangerous goods transportatio... | Dangerous goods | Wikipedia | 481 | 1476975 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dangerous%20goods | Physical sciences | Basics: General | Chemistry |
People who handle dangerous goods will often wear protective equipment, and metropolitan fire departments often have a response team specifically trained to deal with accidents and spills. Persons who may come into contact with dangerous goods as part of their work are also often subject to monitoring or health surveil... | Dangerous goods | Wikipedia | 496 | 1476975 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dangerous%20goods | Physical sciences | Basics: General | Chemistry |
Australia
The Australian Dangerous Goods Code complies with international standards of importation and exportation of dangerous goods in line with the UN Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods. Australia uses the standard international UN numbers with a few slightly different signs on the back, front and s... | Dangerous goods | Wikipedia | 414 | 1476975 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dangerous%20goods | Physical sciences | Basics: General | Chemistry |
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom (and also Australia, Malaysia, and New Zealand) use the Hazchem warning plate system which carries information on how an emergency service should deal with an incident. The Dangerous Goods Emergency Action Code List (EAC) lists dangerous goods; it is reviewed every two years and is an ... | Dangerous goods | Wikipedia | 510 | 1476975 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dangerous%20goods | Physical sciences | Basics: General | Chemistry |
The Consumer Product Safety Commission regulates hazardous materials that may be used in products sold for household and other consumer uses.
Hazard classes for materials in transport
Following the UN model, the DOT divides regulated hazardous materials into nine classes, some of which are further subdivided. Hazardou... | Dangerous goods | Wikipedia | 222 | 1476975 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dangerous%20goods | Physical sciences | Basics: General | Chemistry |
Lancetfishes are large oceanic predatory ray-finned fishes in the genus Alepisaurus ("scaleless lizard") in the monogeneric family Alepisauridae.
Lancetfishes grow up to in length. Very little is known about their biology, though they are widely distributed in all oceans, except the polar seas. Specimens have been r... | Lancetfish | Wikipedia | 412 | 1477183 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancetfish | Biology and health sciences | Aulopiformes | Animals |
The mouth is wide, gaping to the back of the eye, and each jaw has two or three large, fang-like teeth, in addition to numerous smaller teeth. The caudal fin is very deeply forked; its upper lobe is prolonged as a long filament, although most lancetfishes seem to lose this when captured. The anal fin originates under t... | Lancetfish | Wikipedia | 456 | 1477183 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancetfish | Biology and health sciences | Aulopiformes | Animals |
No commercial fisheries exist for lancetfishes. Their flesh is watery and gelatinous, although edible and reportedly sweet to taste. They are caught as bycatch by tuna fisheries and are often considered pests, taking bait intended for more valuable species. Data from longline fisheries in the central and western Pacifi... | Lancetfish | Wikipedia | 449 | 1477183 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancetfish | Biology and health sciences | Aulopiformes | Animals |
In addition to a high degree of cannibalism and consumption of gelatinous foods, lancetfishes have also been documented with plastic refuse in their stomachs in the tropical north Pacific. While the exact pathway of this ingestion is not yet clear, lancetfish likely have some affinity with the epipelagic, but this coul... | Lancetfish | Wikipedia | 300 | 1477183 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancetfish | Biology and health sciences | Aulopiformes | Animals |
The Fort Peck Dam is the highest of six major dams along the Missouri River, located in northeast Montana in the United States, near Glasgow, and adjacent to the community of Fort Peck. At in length and over in height, it is the largest hydraulically filled dam in the United States, and creates Fort Peck Lake, the fi... | Fort Peck Dam | Wikipedia | 509 | 1477664 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort%20Peck%20Dam | Technology | Dams | null |
Fort Peck Dam is one of six Missouri River Main stem dams operated by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Omaha District. The dams downstream of Fort Peck Dam are: Garrison Dam (near Riverdale, North Dakota), Oahe Dam (near Pierre, South Dakota), Big Bend Dam (near Fort Thompson, South Dakota), Fort Randall Dam (near Pic... | Fort Peck Dam | Wikipedia | 397 | 1477664 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort%20Peck%20Dam | Technology | Dams | null |
Since the construction method of hydraulic fill was chosen, four electric dredges were built. Because of the distance of the site from the nearest shoreline, a shipyard was started on the site, affectionately dubbed "The Fort Peck Navy" and "The Biggest Shipyard in Montana" by the workers. These dredges would pump mate... | Fort Peck Dam | Wikipedia | 370 | 1477664 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort%20Peck%20Dam | Technology | Dams | null |
At approximately 1:15 p.m. the core pool near station 15+00 began to settle slowly. As its rate of settlement increased, cracks appeared below the crest in the upstream embankment. As the settlement of the pool got larger, portions of the shell began to slide backwards into the core pool area and the majority of the u... | Fort Peck Dam | Wikipedia | 408 | 1477664 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort%20Peck%20Dam | Technology | Dams | null |
In the testing and analysis done by the Corps of Engineers and others to determine the cause of the slide, several modes of failure were considered. These were: movement along a weak zone in the shale in the abutment, movement along the shale surface, bursting of the shell due to excessive core pressure, and temporary ... | Fort Peck Dam | Wikipedia | 484 | 1477664 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort%20Peck%20Dam | Technology | Dams | null |
The dam is also center-stage in Bucking the Sun, by the Montana-born writer Ivan Doig, published in 1996. The novel tells the story of the fictional Duff family and their various roles in the mammoth dam project, and in the process describes the working conditions and way of life of the thousands of workers hired to co... | Fort Peck Dam | Wikipedia | 288 | 1477664 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort%20Peck%20Dam | Technology | Dams | null |
Cyclopentane (also called C pentane) is a highly flammable alicyclic hydrocarbon with chemical formula C5H10 and CAS number 287-92-3, consisting of a ring of five carbon atoms each bonded with two hydrogen atoms above and below the plane. It is a colorless liquid with a petrol-like odor. Its freezing point is −94 °C an... | Cyclopentane | Wikipedia | 479 | 1478144 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclopentane | Physical sciences | Aliphatic hydrocarbons | Chemistry |
Cyclopentane can be fluorinated to give compounds ranging from to perfluorocyclopentane . Such species are conceivable refrigerants and specialty solvents.
The cyclopentane ring is pervasive in natural products including many useful drugs. Examples include most steroids, prostaglandins, and some lipids.
Conformatio... | Cyclopentane | Wikipedia | 344 | 1478144 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclopentane | Physical sciences | Aliphatic hydrocarbons | Chemistry |
A power cable is an electrical cable, an assembly of one or more electrical conductors, usually held together with an overall sheath. The assembly is used for transmission of electrical power. Power cables may be installed as permanent wiring within buildings, buried in the ground, run overhead, or exposed. Power cable... | Power cable | Wikipedia | 506 | 1480601 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power%20cable | Technology | Power transmission | null |
Cables consist of three major components: conductors, insulation, protective jacket. The makeup of individual cables varies according to application. The construction and material are determined by three main factors:
Working voltage, determining the thickness of the insulation;
Current-carrying capacity, determining... | Power cable | Wikipedia | 401 | 1480601 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power%20cable | Technology | Power transmission | null |
Special purpose power cables for overhead applications are often bound to a high strength alloy, ACSR, or alumoweld messenger. This cable is called aerial cable or pre-assembled aerial cable (PAC). PAC can be ordered unjacketed, however, this is less common in recent years due to the low added cost of supplying a polym... | Power cable | Wikipedia | 422 | 1480601 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power%20cable | Technology | Power transmission | null |
For circuits operating at or above 2,000 volts between conductors, a conductive shield should surround the conductor's insulation. This equalizes electrical stress on the cable insulation. This technique was patented by Martin Hochstadter in 1916; the shield is sometimes called a Hochstadter shield. Aside from the semi... | Power cable | Wikipedia | 494 | 1480601 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power%20cable | Technology | Power transmission | null |
All electrical cables are somewhat flexible, allowing them to be shipped to installation sites wound on reels, drums or hand coils. Flexibility is an important factor in determining the appropriate stranding class of the cable as it directly affects the minimum bending radius. Power cables are generally stranding class... | Power cable | Wikipedia | 322 | 1480601 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power%20cable | Technology | Power transmission | null |
Infestation is the state of being invaded or overrun by pests or parasites. It can also refer to the actual organisms living on or within a host.
Terminology
In general, the term "infestation" refers to parasitic diseases caused by animals such as arthropods (i.e. mites, ticks, and lice) and worms, but excluding (exc... | Infestation | Wikipedia | 254 | 26096048 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infestation | Biology and health sciences | Helminthic diseases and infestations | Health |
The evolution of the molluscs is the way in which the Mollusca, one of the largest groups of invertebrate animals, evolved. This phylum includes gastropods, bivalves, scaphopods, cephalopods, and several other groups.
The fossil record of mollusks is relatively complete, and they are well represented in most fossil-bea... | Evolution of molluscs | Wikipedia | 501 | 5348550 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution%20of%20molluscs | Biology and health sciences | Basics_4 | Biology |
Volborthella, some fossils of which predate , was long thought to be a cephalopod, but discoveries of more detailed fossils showed its shell was not secreted, but built from grains of the mineral silicon dioxide (silica), and it was not divided into a series of compartments by septa as those of fossil shelled cephalopo... | Evolution of molluscs | Wikipedia | 495 | 5348550 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution%20of%20molluscs | Biology and health sciences | Basics_4 | Biology |
Molluscs are generally regarded members of the Lophotrochozoa, a group defined by having trochophore larvae and, in the case of living Lophophorata, a feeding structure called a lophophore. The other members of the Lophotrochozoa are the annelid worms and seven marine phyla. The diagram on the right summarizes a phylog... | Evolution of molluscs | Wikipedia | 447 | 5348550 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution%20of%20molluscs | Biology and health sciences | Basics_4 | Biology |
However, an analysis in 2009 using both morphological and molecular phylogenetics comparisons concluded the molluscs are not monophyletic; in particular, Scaphopoda and Bivalvia are both separate, monophyletic lineages unrelated to the remaining molluscan classes; the traditional phylum Mollusca is polyphyletic, and it... | Evolution of molluscs | Wikipedia | 220 | 5348550 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution%20of%20molluscs | Biology and health sciences | Basics_4 | Biology |
Metriorhynchidae is an extinct family of specialized, aquatic metriorhynchoid crocodyliforms from the Middle Jurassic to the Early Cretaceous period (Bajocian to early Aptian) of Europe, North America and South America. The name Metriorhynchidae was coined by the Austrian zoologist Leopold Fitzinger in 1843. The group ... | Metriorhynchidae | Wikipedia | 211 | 5353692 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metriorhynchidae | Biology and health sciences | Other prehistoric archosaurs | Animals |
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