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Aside from the hypothesized fire effects on reduction of insolation, the impact would have created a dust cloud that blocked sunlight for up to a year, inhibiting photosynthesis. The asteroid hit an area of gypsum and anhydrite rock containing a large amount of combustible hydrocarbons and sulfur, much of which was vap... | Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event | Wikipedia | 481 | 44503418 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene%20extinction%20event | Physical sciences | Geological history | null |
The release of large quantities of sulphur aerosols into the atmosphere as a consequence of the impact would also have caused acid rain. Oceans acidified as a result. This decrease in ocean pH would kill many organisms that grow shells of calcium carbonate. The heating of the atmosphere during the impact itself may hav... | Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event | Wikipedia | 496 | 44503418 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene%20extinction%20event | Physical sciences | Geological history | null |
The Deccan Traps could have caused extinction through several mechanisms, including the release of dust and sulfuric aerosols into the air, which might have blocked sunlight and thereby reduced photosynthesis in plants. In addition, the latest Cretaceous saw a rise in global temperatures; Deccan Traps volcanism resulte... | Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event | Wikipedia | 303 | 44503418 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene%20extinction%20event | Physical sciences | Geological history | null |
In the years when the Deccan Traps hypothesis was linked to a slower extinction, Luis Alvarez (d. 1988) replied that paleontologists were being misled by sparse data. While his assertion was not initially well-received, later intensive field studies of fossil beds lent weight to his claim. Eventually, most paleontologi... | Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event | Wikipedia | 415 | 44503418 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene%20extinction%20event | Physical sciences | Geological history | null |
A severe regression would have greatly reduced the continental shelf area, the most species-rich part of the sea, and therefore could have been enough to cause a marine mass extinction. This change would not have caused the extinction of the ammonites. The regression would also have caused climate changes, partly by di... | Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event | Wikipedia | 396 | 44503418 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene%20extinction%20event | Physical sciences | Geological history | null |
Based on studies at Seymour Island in Antarctica, Sierra Petersen and colleagues argue that there were two separate extinction events near the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary, with one correlating to Deccan Trap volcanism and one correlated with the Chicxulub impact. The team analyzed combined extinction patterns using a... | Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event | Wikipedia | 204 | 44503418 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene%20extinction%20event | Physical sciences | Geological history | null |
In ecology, a disturbance is a temporary change in environmental conditions that causes a pronounced change in an ecosystem. Disturbances often act quickly and with great effect, to alter the physical structure or arrangement of biotic and abiotic elements. A disturbance can also occur over a long period of time and ca... | Disturbance (ecology) | Wikipedia | 469 | 3968480 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disturbance%20%28ecology%29 | Biology and health sciences | Ecology | Biology |
Logging, dredging, conversion of land to ranching or agriculture, mowing, and mining are examples of anthropogenic disturbance. Human activities have introduced disturbances into ecosystems worldwide on a large scale, resulting in widespread range expansion and rapid evolution of disturbance-adapted species. Agricultur... | Disturbance (ecology) | Wikipedia | 491 | 3968480 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disturbance%20%28ecology%29 | Biology and health sciences | Ecology | Biology |
Pine forests in western North America provide a good example of such a cycle involving insect outbreaks. The mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) plays an important role in limiting pine trees like lodgepole pine in forests of western North America. In 2004 the beetles affected more than 90,000 square kilomet... | Disturbance (ecology) | Wikipedia | 392 | 3968480 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disturbance%20%28ecology%29 | Biology and health sciences | Ecology | Biology |
A disturbance may change a forest significantly. Afterwards, the forest floor is often littered with dead material. This decaying matter and abundant sunlight promote an abundance of new growth. In the case of forest fires a portion of the nutrients previously held in plant biomass is returned quickly to the soil as bi... | Disturbance (ecology) | Wikipedia | 500 | 3968480 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disturbance%20%28ecology%29 | Biology and health sciences | Ecology | Biology |
While plants must deal directly with disturbances, many animals are not as immediately affected by them. Most can successfully evade fires, and many thrive afterwards on abundant new growth on the forest floor. New conditions support a wider variety of plants, often rich in nutrients compared to pre-disturbance vegetat... | Disturbance (ecology) | Wikipedia | 428 | 3968480 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disturbance%20%28ecology%29 | Biology and health sciences | Ecology | Biology |
The most recent understanding of the evolution of insects is based on studies of the following branches of science: molecular biology, insect morphology, paleontology, insect taxonomy, evolution, embryology, bioinformatics and scientific computing. It is estimated that the class of insects originated on Earth about 480... | Evolution of insects | Wikipedia | 473 | 3969819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution%20of%20insects | Biology and health sciences | Basics_4 | Biology |
Due to their external skeleton, the fossil history of insects is not entirely dependent on lagerstätte type preservation as for many soft-bodied organisms. However, with their small size and light build, insects have not left a particularly robust fossil record. Other than insects preserved in amber, most finds are ter... | Evolution of insects | Wikipedia | 344 | 3969819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution%20of%20insects | Biology and health sciences | Basics_4 | Biology |
Freshwater and marine insect fossils
The common denominator among most deposits of fossil insects and terrestrial plants is the lake environment. Those insects that became preserved were either living in the fossil lake (autochthonous) or carried into it from surrounding habitats by winds, stream currents, or their own... | Evolution of insects | Wikipedia | 388 | 3969819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution%20of%20insects | Biology and health sciences | Basics_4 | Biology |
There are many different ways insects can be fossilized and preserved including compressions and impressions, concretions, mineral replication, charcoalified (fusainized) remains, and their trace remains. Compressions and impressions are the most extensive types of insect fossils, occurring in rocks from the Carbonifer... | Evolution of insects | Wikipedia | 498 | 3969819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution%20of%20insects | Biology and health sciences | Basics_4 | Biology |
Most modern insect families appeared in the Jurassic, and further diversification probably in genera occurred in the Cretaceous. By the Tertiary, there existed many of what are still modern genera; hence, most insects in amber are, indeed, members of extant genera. Insects diversified in only about 100 million years in... | Evolution of insects | Wikipedia | 507 | 3969819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution%20of%20insects | Biology and health sciences | Basics_4 | Biology |
The Carboniferous () is famous for its wet, warm climates and extensive swamps of mosses, ferns, horsetails, and calamites. Glaciations in Gondwana, triggered by Gondwana's southward movement, continued into the Permian and because of the lack of clear markers and breaks, the deposits of this glacial period are often r... | Evolution of insects | Wikipedia | 453 | 3969819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution%20of%20insects | Biology and health sciences | Basics_4 | Biology |
Palaeodictyopteroidea is a large and diverse group that includes 50% of all known Paleozoic insects. Containing many of the primitive features of the time: very long cerci, an ovipositor, and wings with little or no anal lobe. Protodonata, as its name implies, is a primitive paraphyletic group similar to Odonata; altho... | Evolution of insects | Wikipedia | 350 | 3969819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution%20of%20insects | Biology and health sciences | Basics_4 | Biology |
Permian
The Permian () was a relatively short time period, during which all the Earth's major land masses were collected into a single supercontinent known as Pangaea. Pangaea straddled the equator and extended toward the poles, with a corresponding effect on ocean currents in the single great ocean ("Panthalassa", the... | Evolution of insects | Wikipedia | 362 | 3969819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution%20of%20insects | Biology and health sciences | Basics_4 | Biology |
During this time, many of the species from the Carboniferous diversified, and many new orders developed, including: Protelytroptera, primitive relatives of Plecoptera (Paraplecoptera), Psocoptera, Mecoptera, Coleoptera, Raphidioptera, and Neuroptera, the last four being the first definitive records of the Holometabola.... | Evolution of insects | Wikipedia | 313 | 3969819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution%20of%20insects | Biology and health sciences | Basics_4 | Biology |
The oldest known insect that resembles species of Coleoptera date back to the Lower Permian (), though they instead have 13-segmented antennae, elytra with more fully developed venation and more irregular longitudinal ribbing, and an abdomen and ovipositor extending beyond the apex of the elytra. The oldest true beetle... | Evolution of insects | Wikipedia | 507 | 3969819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution%20of%20insects | Biology and health sciences | Basics_4 | Biology |
As a consequence of the P-Tr Mass Extinction at the border of Permian and Triassic, there is only little fossil record of insects including beetles from the Lower Triassic. However, there are a few exemptions, like in Eastern Europe: At the Babiy Kamen site in the Kuznetsk Basin numerous beetle fossils were discovered,... | Evolution of insects | Wikipedia | 467 | 3969819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution%20of%20insects | Biology and health sciences | Basics_4 | Biology |
The first true species of Diptera are known from the Middle Triassic, becoming widespread during the Middle and Late Triassic . A single large wing from a species of Diptera in the Triassic (10 mm instead of usual 2–6 mm) was found in Australia (Mt. Crosby). This family Tilliardipteridae, despite the numerous 'tipuloid... | Evolution of insects | Wikipedia | 309 | 3969819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution%20of%20insects | Biology and health sciences | Basics_4 | Biology |
There are many important sites from the Jurassic, with more than 150 important sites with beetle fossils, the majority being situated in Eastern Europe and North Asia. In North America and especially in South America and Africa the number of sites from that time period is smaller and the sites have not been exhaustivel... | Evolution of insects | Wikipedia | 363 | 3969819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution%20of%20insects | Biology and health sciences | Basics_4 | Biology |
The Cretaceous () had much of the same insect fauna as the Jurassic until much later on. During the Cretaceous, the late-Paleozoic-to-early-Mesozoic supercontinent of Pangaea completed its tectonic breakup into present day continents, although their positions were substantially different at the time. As the Atlantic Oc... | Evolution of insects | Wikipedia | 374 | 3969819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution%20of%20insects | Biology and health sciences | Basics_4 | Biology |
There are a large number of important fossil sites worldwide containing beetles from the Cretaceous. Most of them are located in Europe and Asia and belong to the temperate climate zone during the Cretaceous. A few of the fossil sites mentioned in the chapter Jurassic also shed some light on the early cretaceous beetle... | Evolution of insects | Wikipedia | 491 | 3969819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution%20of%20insects | Biology and health sciences | Basics_4 | Biology |
Paleogene
There are many fossils of beetles known from this era, though the beetle fauna of the Paleocene is comparatively poorly investigated. In contrast, the knowledge on the Eocene beetle fauna is very good. The reason is the occurrence of fossil insects in amber and clay slate sediments. Amber is fossilized tree r... | Evolution of insects | Wikipedia | 457 | 3969819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution%20of%20insects | Biology and health sciences | Basics_4 | Biology |
In 2008, researchers at Tufts University uncovered what they believe is the world's oldest known full-body impression of a primitive flying insect, a 300 million-year-old specimen from the Carboniferous Period. Devonian Rhyniognatha hirsti, from the 396 million year old Rhynie chert is known only from mandibles, and co... | Evolution of insects | Wikipedia | 496 | 3969819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution%20of%20insects | Biology and health sciences | Basics_4 | Biology |
Many insects also make use of these toxins to protect themselves from their predators. Such insects often advertise their toxicity using warning colors. This successful evolutionary pattern has also been utilized by mimics. Over time, this has led to complex groups of coevolved species. Conversely, some interactions be... | Evolution of insects | Wikipedia | 459 | 3969819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution%20of%20insects | Biology and health sciences | Basics_4 | Biology |
Paleoptera and Neoptera are the winged orders of insects differentiated by the presence of hardened body parts called sclerites; also, in Neoptera, muscles that allow their wings to fold flatly over the abdomen. Neoptera can further be divided into incomplete metamorphosis-based (Polyneoptera and Paraneoptera) and comp... | Evolution of insects | Wikipedia | 443 | 3969819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution%20of%20insects | Biology and health sciences | Basics_4 | Biology |
The subclass Apterygota (wingless insects) is now considered artificial as the silverfish (order Thysanura) are more closely related to Pterygota (winged insects) than to bristletails (order Archaeognatha). For instance, just like flying insects, Thysanura have so-called dicondylic mandibles, while Archaeognatha have m... | Evolution of insects | Wikipedia | 456 | 3969819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution%20of%20insects | Biology and health sciences | Basics_4 | Biology |
The Odonata (dragonflies) are also a good candidate as the oldest living member of the Pterygota. Mayflies are morphologically and physiologically more basal, but the derived characteristics of dragonflies could have evolved independently in their own direction for a long time. It seems that orders with aquatic nymphs ... | Evolution of insects | Wikipedia | 388 | 3969819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution%20of%20insects | Biology and health sciences | Basics_4 | Biology |
One possible scenario on how direct insemination evolved in insects is seen in scorpions. The male deposits a spermatophore on the ground, locks its claws with the female's claws and then guides her over his packet of sperm, making sure it comes in contact with her genital opening. When the early (male) insects laid th... | Evolution of insects | Wikipedia | 296 | 3969819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution%20of%20insects | Biology and health sciences | Basics_4 | Biology |
If the ancestors of the other flying insects evolved the same habit of clasping the female and dragging her over their spermatophore, but posterior instead of anterior like the Odonata does, their genitals would come very close to each other. And from there on, it would be a very short step to modify the vestigial appe... | Evolution of insects | Wikipedia | 430 | 3969819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution%20of%20insects | Biology and health sciences | Basics_4 | Biology |
And finally when looking at the three most primitive insects with aquatic nymphs (called naiads: Ephemeroptera, Odonata and Plecoptera), each order has its own kind of tracheal gills that are so different from one another that they must have separate origins. This would be expected if they evolved from land-dwelling sp... | Evolution of insects | Wikipedia | 477 | 3969819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution%20of%20insects | Biology and health sciences | Basics_4 | Biology |
Theories
When the first forests arose on Earth, new niches for terrestrial animals were created. Spore-feeders and others who depended on plants and/or the animals living around them would have to adapt too to make use of them. In a world with no flying animals, it would probably just be a matter of time before some ar... | Evolution of insects | Wikipedia | 423 | 3969819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution%20of%20insects | Biology and health sciences | Basics_4 | Biology |
Gliding requires universal body modifications, as seen in present-day vertebrates such as some rodents and marsupials, which have grown wide, flat expansions of skin for this purpose. The flying dragons (genus Draco) of Indonesia has modified its ribs into gliders, and even some snakes can glide through the air by spre... | Evolution of insects | Wikipedia | 490 | 3969819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution%20of%20insects | Biology and health sciences | Basics_4 | Biology |
Insects that had evolved their proto-wings in a world without flying predators could afford to be exposed openly without risk, but this changed when carnivorous flying insects evolved. It is unknown when they first evolved, but once these predators had emerged they put a strong selection pressure on their victims and t... | Evolution of insects | Wikipedia | 404 | 3969819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution%20of%20insects | Biology and health sciences | Basics_4 | Biology |
As we know, in mayflies the nymphs and the adults are specialized for two different ways of living; in the water and in the air. The only stage (instar) between these two is the subimago. In more primitive fossil forms, the preadult individuals had not just one instar but numerous ones (while the modern subimago do not... | Evolution of insects | Wikipedia | 442 | 3969819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution%20of%20insects | Biology and health sciences | Basics_4 | Biology |
Modern mayfly nymphs do not acquire gills until after their first moult. Before this stage they are so small that they need no gills to extract oxygen from the water. This could be a trait from the common ancestor of all flyers. An early terrestrial insect would have no need for paired outgrowths from the body before i... | Evolution of insects | Wikipedia | 466 | 3969819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution%20of%20insects | Biology and health sciences | Basics_4 | Biology |
Reaching maturity and a fully-grown body became only a part of the development process; gradually a new anatomy and new abilities - only possible in the later stages of life - emerged. The anatomy insects were born and grew up with had limitations which the adults who had learned to fly did not suffer from. If they wer... | Evolution of insects | Wikipedia | 179 | 3969819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution%20of%20insects | Biology and health sciences | Basics_4 | Biology |
WASH (or WatSan, WaSH; stemming from the first letters of "water, sanitation and hygiene") is a sector in development cooperation, or within local governments, that provides water, sanitation, and hygiene services to communities. The main purposes of providing access to WASH services are to achieve public health gains,... | WASH | Wikipedia | 448 | 30777141 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WASH | Biology and health sciences | Fields of medicine | Health |
It is difficult to provide safely managed WASH services in urban slums. WASH systems can also fail quite soon after installation (e.g., leaking water distribution systems). Further challenges include polluted water sources and the impacts of climate change on water security. Planning approaches for more reliable and eq... | WASH | Wikipedia | 482 | 30777141 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WASH | Biology and health sciences | Fields of medicine | Health |
People without access to safe, reliable, domestic water supplies face lower water security at specific times throughout the year due to cyclical changes in water quantity or quality. For example, where access to water on-premises is not available, drinking water quality at the point of use (PoU) can be much worse compa... | WASH | Wikipedia | 488 | 30777141 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WASH | Biology and health sciences | Fields of medicine | Health |
With regard to toilets, improved sanitation includes the following types of toilets: flush toilet, connections to a piped sewer system, septic systems, pour-flush pit latrines, pit latrines with slabs, ventilated improved pit latrines, and composting toilets.
Access to sanitation services is included in Target 6.2 of ... | WASH | Wikipedia | 418 | 30777141 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WASH | Biology and health sciences | Fields of medicine | Health |
Hygiene is a broad concept. "Hygiene refers to conditions and practices that help to maintain health and prevent the spread of diseases." Hygiene can comprise many behaviors, including hand washing, menstrual hygiene and food hygiene. In the context of WASH, hand washing with soap and water is regarded as a top priorit... | WASH | Wikipedia | 413 | 30777141 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WASH | Biology and health sciences | Fields of medicine | Health |
Direct impact (infections): The direct impacts include fecal–oral infections (through the fecal–oral route), helminth infections and insect vector diseases (see also waterborne diseases, which can contaminate drinking water). For example, lack of clean water and proper sanitation can result in feces-contaminated drinki... | WASH | Wikipedia | 461 | 30777141 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WASH | Biology and health sciences | Fields of medicine | Health |
Acute respiratory infections were the second largest cause of WASH-attributable burden of disease in 2019, followed by malnutrition and soil-transmitted helminthiasis. The latter does not lead to such high death numbers (in comparison) but is fully connected to unsafe WASH; its "population-attributable fraction" is est... | WASH | Wikipedia | 465 | 30777141 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WASH | Biology and health sciences | Fields of medicine | Health |
Diarrheal diseases
Respiratory infections
Soil-transmitted helminth infections
Malaria
Trachoma
Schistosomiasis
Lymphatic filariasis
Onchocerciasis
Dengue
Japanese encephalitis
Protein–energy malnutrition
Drowning
There are also other diseases where adverse health outcomes are likely to be linked to inadequ... | WASH | Wikipedia | 370 | 30777141 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WASH | Biology and health sciences | Fields of medicine | Health |
The combination of direct and indirect deaths from malnutrition caused by unsafe water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) practices was estimated by the World Health Organization in 2008 to lead to 860,000 deaths per year in children under five years of age. The multiple inter-dependencies between malnutrition and infectio... | WASH | Wikipedia | 462 | 30777141 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WASH | Biology and health sciences | Fields of medicine | Health |
Women tend to face a higher risk of diseases and illness due to limited WASH access. In their third trimester, pregnant women face severe hardship walking to and from a water collection site. The consumption of unclean water leading to infection in the fetus accounts for 15% of deaths for women during pregnancy globall... | WASH | Wikipedia | 348 | 30777141 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WASH | Biology and health sciences | Fields of medicine | Health |
Many scholars have attempted to summarize the evidence of WASH interventions from the limited number of high quality studies. Hygiene interventions, in particular those focusing on the promotion of handwashing, appear to be especially effective in reducing morbidity. A meta-analysis of the literature found that handwas... | WASH | Wikipedia | 467 | 30777141 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WASH | Biology and health sciences | Fields of medicine | Health |
Studies on the effect of sanitation interventions alone on health are rare. When studies do evaluate sanitation measures, they are mostly included as part of a package of different interventions. A pooled analysis of the limited number of studies on sanitation interventions suggest that improving sanitation has a prote... | WASH | Wikipedia | 415 | 30777141 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WASH | Biology and health sciences | Fields of medicine | Health |
In many places of the world, getting and providing water is considered "women's work," so gender and water access are intricately linked. Water gathering and supply to family units remains primarily a woman's task in less developed countries where water gathering is considered a main chore. This water work is also larg... | WASH | Wikipedia | 495 | 30777141 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WASH | Biology and health sciences | Fields of medicine | Health |
Lack of WASH facilities can prevent students from attending school, particularly female students. Strong cultural taboos around menstruation, which are present in many societies, coupled with a lack of Menstrual Hygiene Management services in schools, results in girls staying away from school during menstruation.
Reas... | WASH | Wikipedia | 425 | 30777141 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WASH | Biology and health sciences | Fields of medicine | Health |
Supervised daily group handwashing in schools is an effective strategy for building good hygiene habits, with the potential to lead to positive health and education outcomes for children. This has for example been implemented in the "Essential Health Care Program" by the Department of Education in the Philippines. Mass... | WASH | Wikipedia | 424 | 30777141 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WASH | Biology and health sciences | Fields of medicine | Health |
The improvement of WASH standards within health facilities needs to be guided by national policies and standards as well as an allocated budget to improve and maintain services. A number of solutions exist that can considerably improve the health and safety of both patients and service providers at health facilities:
... | WASH | Wikipedia | 510 | 30777141 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WASH | Biology and health sciences | Fields of medicine | Health |
Access to WASH services also varies internally within nations depending on socioeconomic status, political power, and level of urbanization. In 2004 it was found that urban households are 30% and 135% more likely to have access to improved water sources and sanitation respectively, as compared to rural areas.
The huma... | WASH | Wikipedia | 490 | 30777141 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WASH | Biology and health sciences | Fields of medicine | Health |
It has been estimated, using data from 2012 and 2013, that "wastewater treatment in centralized facilities contributes alone some 3% of global nitrous oxide emissions and 7% of anthropogenic methane emissions". Data from 2023 from centralized sewage treatment plants in the United States indicate that methane emissions ... | WASH | Wikipedia | 428 | 30777141 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WASH | Biology and health sciences | Fields of medicine | Health |
When looking at the emissions from the sanitation and wastewater sector most people focus on treatment systems, particularly treatment plants. This is because treatment plants require considerable energy input and are estimated to account for 3% of global electricity consumption. This makes sense for high-income count... | WASH | Wikipedia | 506 | 30777141 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WASH | Biology and health sciences | Fields of medicine | Health |
The effects of climate change can have negative impacts on existing sanitation services in several ways, for example by damage and loss of services from floods and reduced carrying capacity of waters receiving wastewater. The weather and climate-related aspects (variability, seasonality and extreme weather events) have... | WASH | Wikipedia | 466 | 30777141 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WASH | Biology and health sciences | Fields of medicine | Health |
Nature-based solutions (NbS) can play an important role for climate change adaptation approaches of water and sanitation services. This includes ecological restoration (which can improve infiltration and thus reduce flooding), ecological engineering for wastewater treatment, green infrastructure for stormwater manageme... | WASH | Wikipedia | 485 | 30777141 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WASH | Biology and health sciences | Fields of medicine | Health |
Four important activities to achieve climate resilient WASH services include: First, a risk analysis is performed to look at possible implications of extreme weather events as well as preventive actions. Such preventive actions can include for example elevating the infrastructure to be above expected flood levels. Seco... | WASH | Wikipedia | 509 | 30777141 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WASH | Biology and health sciences | Fields of medicine | Health |
As of 2022, it is becoming more common for countries to include "climate change preparedness approaches" in their national WASH plans. Preparedness in this context means working on mitigation, adaptation and resilience of WASH systems. Still, most national policies on WASH services do not set out how to address climate... | WASH | Wikipedia | 495 | 30777141 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WASH | Biology and health sciences | Fields of medicine | Health |
The abbreviation WASH was used from the year 1988 onwards as an acronym for the Water and Sanitation for Health Project of the United States Agency for International Development. At that time, the letter "H" stood for health, not hygiene. Similarly, in Zambia the term WASHE was used in a report in 1987 and stood for Wa... | WASH | Wikipedia | 488 | 30777141 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WASH | Biology and health sciences | Fields of medicine | Health |
Awards
Important awards for individuals or organizations working on WASH include the Stockholm Water Prize since 1991 and the Sarphati Sanitation Awards since 2013, for sanitation entrepreneurship.
United Nations organs
UNICEF - UNICEF's declared strategy is "to achieve universal and equitable access to safe and af... | WASH | Wikipedia | 211 | 30777141 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WASH | Biology and health sciences | Fields of medicine | Health |
In the physical sciences, a particle (or corpuscule in older texts) is a small localized object which can be described by several physical or chemical properties, such as volume, density, or mass. They vary greatly in size or quantity, from subatomic particles like the electron, to microscopic particles like atoms and ... | Particle | Wikipedia | 407 | 30778041 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle | Physical sciences | Particle physics: General | null |
Another type, microscopic particles usually refers to particles of sizes ranging from atoms to molecules, such as carbon dioxide, nanoparticles, and colloidal particles. These particles are studied in chemistry, as well as atomic and molecular physics. The smallest particles are the subatomic particles, which refer to ... | Particle | Wikipedia | 500 | 30778041 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle | Physical sciences | Particle physics: General | null |
N refers to the number of particles considered. As simulations with higher N are more computationally intensive, systems with large numbers of actual particles will often be approximated to a smaller number of particles, and simulation algorithms need to be optimized through various methods.
Distribution of particles
... | Particle | Wikipedia | 240 | 30778041 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle | Physical sciences | Particle physics: General | null |
Coptotermes gestroi, commonly known as the Asian subterranean termite is a small species of termite that lives underground. Both this species and the Formosan subterranean termite (Coptotermes formosanus) are destructive pests native to Asia, but have spread to other parts of the world including the United States. In A... | Coptotermes gestroi | Wikipedia | 457 | 30780223 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptotermes%20gestroi | Biology and health sciences | Cockroaches & Termites (Blattodea) | Animals |
Description
The body of the worker termite is small, white, and translucent as are the limbs. The soldier is larger and also white, but the ovoid head, the forward-pointing mandibles, the prothorax, and the front segments of the abdomen are dark brown. Two small pale spots are on the head adjacent to the antennae. On t... | Coptotermes gestroi | Wikipedia | 464 | 30780223 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptotermes%20gestroi | Biology and health sciences | Cockroaches & Termites (Blattodea) | Animals |
Damage
These termites are voracious feeders and consume wood, cardboard, and paper and sometimes even fabric. They feed on all sorts of cellulose-containing materials and drill holes in such materials as rubber, plastic, and styrofoam in their search for food. They also attack living trees by consuming the heartwood wh... | Coptotermes gestroi | Wikipedia | 186 | 30780223 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptotermes%20gestroi | Biology and health sciences | Cockroaches & Termites (Blattodea) | Animals |
An acid anhydride is a type of chemical compound derived by the removal of water molecules from an acid.
In organic chemistry, organic acid anhydrides contain the functional group . Organic acid anhydrides often form when one equivalent of water is removed from two equivalents of an organic acid in a dehydration react... | Acid anhydride | Wikipedia | 120 | 41560816 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid%20anhydride | Physical sciences | Concepts | Chemistry |
A base anhydride is an oxide of a chemical element from group 1 or 2 (the alkali metals and alkaline earth metals, respectively). They are obtained by removing water from the corresponding hydroxide base. If water is added to a base anhydride, a corresponding hydroxide salt can be [re]-formed.
Base anhydrides are not ... | Base anhydride | Wikipedia | 265 | 41561062 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base%20anhydride | Physical sciences | Concepts | Chemistry |
A deep-focus earthquake in seismology (also called a plutonic earthquake) is an earthquake with a hypocenter depth exceeding 300 km. They occur almost exclusively at convergent boundaries in association with subducted oceanic lithosphere. They occur along a dipping tabular zone beneath the subduction zone known as the ... | Deep-focus earthquake | Wikipedia | 400 | 38807433 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep-focus%20earthquake | Physical sciences | Seismology | Earth science |
Physical process
Shallow-focus earthquakes are the result of the sudden release of strain energy built up over time in rock by brittle fracture and frictional slip over planar surfaces. However, the physical mechanism of deep focus earthquakes is poorly understood. Subducted lithosphere subject to the pressure and tem... | Deep-focus earthquake | Wikipedia | 476 | 38807433 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep-focus%20earthquake | Physical sciences | Seismology | Earth science |
Transformational faulting, also known as anticrack faulting, is the result of the phase transition of a mineral to a higher-density phase occurring in response to shear stress in a fine-grained shear zone. The transformation occurs along the plane of maximal shear stress. Rapid shearing can then occur along these plane... | Deep-focus earthquake | Wikipedia | 466 | 38807433 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep-focus%20earthquake | Physical sciences | Seismology | Earth science |
Indonesia
The Australian plate subducts under the Sunda plate, creating uplift over much of southern Indonesia, as well as earthquakes at depths of up to . Notable deep-focus earthquakes in this region include a 7.9 earthquake in 1996 and a 7.5 earthquake in 2007.
Papua New Guinea / Fiji / New Zealand
By far the m... | Deep-focus earthquake | Wikipedia | 385 | 38807433 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep-focus%20earthquake | Physical sciences | Seismology | Earth science |
Tyrrhenian Sea
The Tyrrhenian Sea west of Italy is host to a large number of deep-focus earthquakes as deep as below the surface. However, very few earthquakes occur in the region less than deep, the majority originating from a depth of around . Due to the lack of shallow earthquakes, the faulting is believed to ori... | Deep-focus earthquake | Wikipedia | 342 | 38807433 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep-focus%20earthquake | Physical sciences | Seismology | Earth science |
A hydrophile is a molecule or other molecular entity that is attracted to water molecules and tends to be dissolved by water.
In contrast, hydrophobes are not attracted to water and may seem to be repelled by it. Hygroscopics are attracted to water, but are not dissolved by water.
Molecules
A hydrophilic molecule or ... | Hydrophile | Wikipedia | 461 | 29287934 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrophile | Physical sciences | Supramolecular chemistry | Chemistry |
Hydroxyl groups (-OH), found in alcohols, are polar and therefore hydrophilic (water liking) but their carbon chain portion is non-polar which make them hydrophobic. The molecule increasingly becomes overall more nonpolar and therefore less soluble in the polar water as the carbon chain becomes longer. Methanol has the... | Hydrophile | Wikipedia | 415 | 29287934 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrophile | Physical sciences | Supramolecular chemistry | Chemistry |
In male human anatomy, the foreskin, also known as the prepuce (), is the double-layered fold of skin, mucosal and muscular tissue at the distal end of the human penis that covers the glans and the urinary meatus. The foreskin is attached to the glans by an elastic band of tissue, known as the frenulum. The outer skin ... | Foreskin | Wikipedia | 313 | 29289333 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreskin | Biology and health sciences | Reproductive system | Biology |
External
The outside of the foreskin is a continuation of the shaft skin of the penis and is covered by a keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. The inner foreskin is a continuation of the epithelium that covers the glans and is made up of glabrous squamous mucous membrane, like the inside of the eyelid or the mo... | Foreskin | Wikipedia | 463 | 29289333 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreskin | Biology and health sciences | Reproductive system | Biology |
As a continuation of the human shaft skin, the prepuce receives somatosensory innervation from the bilateral dorsal nerve of the penis and branches of the perineal nerve, and autonomic innervation from the pelvic plexus. The somatosensory receptors that are found in the prepuce are both nociceptors and mechanoreceptors... | Foreskin | Wikipedia | 439 | 29289333 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreskin | Biology and health sciences | Reproductive system | Biology |
By eleven and twelve weeks of gestation, the process of preputial formation is evident as a thickening of the epidermis that separates from the penis creating a raised fold, known as the preputial fold. On the underside of this structure forms the preputial lamina, which expands dorsolaterally over the base of the deve... | Foreskin | Wikipedia | 327 | 29289333 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreskin | Biology and health sciences | Reproductive system | Biology |
During the first years of life, the inner foreskin is fused to the glans making them hard to manually separate. At that time, forced retraction can cause pain or microtearing and is thus not recommended. The two surfaces may begin to separate from early childhood, but complete separation and retraction is a process tha... | Foreskin | Wikipedia | 345 | 29289333 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreskin | Biology and health sciences | Reproductive system | Biology |
Variability
In children, the foreskin usually covers the glans completely but in adults it may not. During erection, the degree of automatic foreskin retraction varies considerably; in some adults, when the foreskin is longer than the erect penis, it will not spontaneously retract upon erection. In this case, the fore... | Foreskin | Wikipedia | 368 | 29289333 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreskin | Biology and health sciences | Reproductive system | Biology |
The World Health Organization (WHO) stated in 2007 that there was "debate about the role of the foreskin, with possible functions including keeping the glans moist, protecting the developing penis in utero, or enhancing sexual pleasure due to the presence of nerve receptors". In 2009, the World Health Organization call... | Foreskin | Wikipedia | 474 | 29289333 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreskin | Biology and health sciences | Reproductive system | Biology |
The foreskin can be involved in balanitis, phimosis, sexually transmitted infection and penile cancer. The American Academy of Pediatricians' now expired 2012 technical report on circumcision found that the foreskin can harbor micro-organisms that may increase the risk of urinary tract infections in some infants and co... | Foreskin | Wikipedia | 440 | 29289333 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreskin | Biology and health sciences | Reproductive system | Biology |
Circumcision is the removal of the foreskin, either partially or completely. It is most commonly performed as an elective procedure for prophylactic, cultural, or religious reasons. Circumcision may also be performed on children or adults to treat phimosis, balanitis, and other pathologies. The ethics of circumcision i... | Foreskin | Wikipedia | 373 | 29289333 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreskin | Biology and health sciences | Reproductive system | Biology |
In graph theory, a branch of mathematics, the Herschel graph is a bipartite undirected graph with 11 vertices and 18 edges. It is a polyhedral graph (the graph of a convex polyhedron), and is the smallest polyhedral graph that does not have a Hamiltonian cycle, a cycle passing through all its vertices. It is named afte... | Herschel graph | Wikipedia | 504 | 24670148 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herschel%20graph | Mathematics | Graph theory | null |
The dual polyhedron is a rectified triangular prism, which can be formed as the convex hull of the midpoints of the edges of a triangular prism. When constructed in this way, it has three square faces on the same planes as the square faces of the prism, two equilateral triangle faces on the planes of the triangular end... | Herschel graph | Wikipedia | 449 | 24670148 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herschel%20graph | Mathematics | Graph theory | null |
All but three of the vertices of the Herschel graph have degree three. A graph is called cubic or 3-regular when all of its vertices have degree three. P. G. Tait conjectured that a polyhedral 3-regular graph must be Hamiltonian; this was disproved when W. T. Tutte provided a counterexample, the Tutte graph, which is m... | Herschel graph | Wikipedia | 431 | 24670148 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herschel%20graph | Mathematics | Graph theory | null |
History
The Herschel graph is named after Alexander Stewart Herschel, a British astronomer, who wrote an early paper concerning William Rowan Hamilton's icosian game. This is a puzzle involving finding Hamiltonian cycles on a polyhedron, usually the regular dodecahedron. The Herschel graph describes the smallest convex... | Herschel graph | Wikipedia | 178 | 24670148 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herschel%20graph | Mathematics | Graph theory | null |
Glass knifefishes are fishes in the family Sternopygidae in the order Gymnotiformes. Species are also known as rattail knifefishes.
These fishes inhabit freshwater streams and rivers in Panama and South America. Many species are specialized for life in the deep (more than ) swiftly moving waters of large river channel... | Glass knifefish | Wikipedia | 316 | 5340299 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass%20knifefish | Biology and health sciences | Gymnotiformes | Animals |
Crystal engineering studies the design and synthesis of solid-state structures with desired properties through deliberate control of intermolecular interactions. It is an interdisciplinary academic field, bridging solid-state and supramolecular chemistry.
The main engineering strategies currently in use are hydrogen... | Crystal engineering | Wikipedia | 495 | 5340351 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal%20engineering | Physical sciences | Crystallography | Physics |
In two dimensions
2D architectures (i.e., molecularly thick architectures) is a branch of crystal engineering. The formation (often referred as molecular self-assembly depending on its deposition process) of such architectures lies in the use of solid interfaces to create adsorbed monolayers. Such monolayers may featur... | Crystal engineering | Wikipedia | 424 | 5340351 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal%20engineering | Physical sciences | Crystallography | Physics |
Crystal structure prediction
Crystal structure prediction (CSP) is a computational approach to generate energetically feasible crystal structures (with corresponding space group and positional parameters) from a given molecular structure. The CSP exercise is considered most challenging as "experimental" crystal struct... | Crystal engineering | Wikipedia | 478 | 5340351 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal%20engineering | Physical sciences | Crystallography | Physics |
A supramolecular synthon is a pair of molecules that form relatively strong intermolecular interactions in the early phases of crystallization; these molecule pairs are the basic structural motif found in a crystal lattice.
Defects or imperfections
Lattice defects, such as point defects, tilt boundaries, or dislocati... | Crystal engineering | Wikipedia | 408 | 5340351 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal%20engineering | Physical sciences | Crystallography | Physics |
Assessing mechanical properties
Nanoindentation is a standard and widely-accepted method for measuring mechanical properties within the crystal engineering field. The method quantifies hardness, elasticity, packing anisotropy, and polymorphism of a crystalline material. Hirshfeld surfaces are visual models of electron... | Crystal engineering | Wikipedia | 153 | 5340351 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal%20engineering | Physical sciences | Crystallography | Physics |
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