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and similarly for temperature () and pressure (), where the primed quantities denote fluctuations superposed to the mean. This decomposition of a flow variable into a mean value and a turbulent fluctuation was originally proposed by Osborne Reynolds in 1895, and is considered to be the beginning of the systematic mathe... | Turbulence | Wikipedia | 483 | 154664 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbulence | Physical sciences | Fluid mechanics | null |
Thus, Kolmogorov introduced a second hypothesis: for very high Reynolds numbers the statistics of small scales are universally and uniquely determined by the kinematic viscosity and the rate of energy dissipation . With only these two parameters, the unique length that can be formed by dimensional analysis is
This is... | Turbulence | Wikipedia | 494 | 154664 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbulence | Physical sciences | Fluid mechanics | null |
where is the mean turbulent kinetic energy of the flow. The wavenumber corresponding to length scale is . Therefore, by dimensional analysis, the only possible form for the energy spectrum function according with the third Kolmogorov's hypothesis is
where would be a universal constant. This is one of the most famo... | Turbulence | Wikipedia | 497 | 154664 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbulence | Physical sciences | Fluid mechanics | null |
Since the experimental values obtained for the second order structure function only deviate slightly from the value predicted by Kolmogorov theory, the value for is very near to (differences are about 2%). Thus the "Kolmogorov − spectrum" is generally observed in turbulence. However, for high order structure functio... | Turbulence | Wikipedia | 198 | 154664 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbulence | Physical sciences | Fluid mechanics | null |
In probability and statistics, a probability mass function (sometimes called probability function or frequency function) is a function that gives the probability that a discrete random variable is exactly equal to some value. Sometimes it is also known as the discrete probability density function. The probability mass... | Probability mass function | Wikipedia | 462 | 154725 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability%20mass%20function | Mathematics | Probability | null |
When there is a natural order among the potential outcomes , it may be convenient to assign numerical values to them (or n-tuples in case of a discrete multivariate random variable) and to consider also values not in the image of . That is, may be defined for all real numbers and for all as shown in the figure.
The... | Probability mass function | Wikipedia | 235 | 154725 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability%20mass%20function | Mathematics | Probability | null |
Bernoulli distribution: ber(p) , is used to model an experiment with only two possible outcomes. The two outcomes are often encoded as 1 and 0. An example of the Bernoulli distribution is tossing a coin. Suppose that is the sample space of all outcomes of a single toss of a fair coin, and is the random variable defi... | Probability mass function | Wikipedia | 464 | 154725 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability%20mass%20function | Mathematics | Probability | null |
Pentlandite is an iron–nickel sulfide with the chemical formula . Pentlandite has a narrow variation range in nickel to iron ratios (Ni:Fe), but it is usually described as 1:1. In some cases, this ratio is skewed by the presence of pyrrhotite inclusions. It also contains minor cobalt, usually at low levels as a fractio... | Pentlandite | Wikipedia | 500 | 154735 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentlandite | Physical sciences | Minerals | Earth science |
Pentlandite is synonymous with folgerite, horbachite, lillhammerite, and nicopyrite.
Pentlandite group
The pentlandite group is a subdivision of rare minerals that share similar chemical and structural properties with pentlandite, hence the name. Their chemical formula can be written as XY8(S, Se)8 in which X is usua... | Pentlandite | Wikipedia | 458 | 154735 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentlandite | Physical sciences | Minerals | Earth science |
The behaviour of sulfide melts is complex and is affected by copper, nickel, iron, and sulfur ratios. Typically, above 1100 °C, only one sulfide melt exists. Upon cooling to 1000 °C, a solid containing mostly Fe and minor amounts of Ni and Cu is formed. This phase is called monosulfide solid solution (MSS), and is unst... | Pentlandite | Wikipedia | 488 | 154735 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentlandite | Physical sciences | Minerals | Earth science |
Pentlandite is also the dominant ore mineral occurring in Kambalda type komatiitic nickel ore deposits, the prime example of which can be found in the Yilgarn Craton of Western Australia. Similar deposits exist at Nkomati, Namibia, in the Thompson Belt, Canada, and a few examples from Brazil.
Pentlandite, but primaril... | Pentlandite | Wikipedia | 156 | 154735 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentlandite | Physical sciences | Minerals | Earth science |
Hydrogen sulfide is a chemical compound with the formula . It is a colorless chalcogen-hydride gas, and is poisonous, corrosive, and flammable, with trace amounts in ambient atmosphere having a characteristic foul odor of rotten eggs. Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele is credited with having discovered the chemical... | Hydrogen sulfide | Wikipedia | 419 | 154738 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen%20sulfide | Physical sciences | Hydrogen compounds | Chemistry |
Extreme temperatures and pressures
At pressures above 90 GPa (gigapascal), hydrogen sulfide becomes a metallic conductor of electricity. When cooled below a critical temperature this high-pressure phase exhibits superconductivity. The critical temperature increases with pressure, ranging from 23 K at 100 GPa to 150 K a... | Hydrogen sulfide | Wikipedia | 505 | 154738 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen%20sulfide | Physical sciences | Hydrogen compounds | Chemistry |
For use in qualitative inorganic analysis, thioacetamide is used to generate :
Many metal and nonmetal sulfides, e.g. aluminium sulfide, phosphorus pentasulfide, silicon disulfide liberate hydrogen sulfide upon exposure to water:
This gas is also produced by heating sulfur with solid organic compounds and by reducing... | Hydrogen sulfide | Wikipedia | 468 | 154738 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen%20sulfide | Physical sciences | Hydrogen compounds | Chemistry |
Hydrogen sulfide is involved in vasodilation in animals, as well as in increasing seed germination and stress responses in plants. Hydrogen sulfide signaling is moderated by reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS). has been shown to interact with the NO pathway resulting in several different ... | Hydrogen sulfide | Wikipedia | 481 | 154738 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen%20sulfide | Physical sciences | Hydrogen compounds | Chemistry |
Hydrogen sulfide was a reagent in the qualitative inorganic analysis of metal ions. In these analyses, heavy metal (and nonmetal) ions (e.g., Pb(II), Cu(II), Hg(II), As(III)) are precipitated from solution upon exposure to . The components of the resulting solid are then identified by their reactivity.
Miscellaneous a... | Hydrogen sulfide | Wikipedia | 485 | 154738 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen%20sulfide | Physical sciences | Hydrogen compounds | Chemistry |
Besides living near gas and oil drilling operations, ordinary citizens can be exposed to hydrogen sulfide by being near waste water treatment facilities, landfills and farms with manure storage. Exposure occurs through breathing contaminated air or drinking contaminated water.
In municipal waste landfill sites, the bu... | Hydrogen sulfide | Wikipedia | 434 | 154738 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen%20sulfide | Physical sciences | Hydrogen compounds | Chemistry |
Removal from fuel gases
Hydrogen sulfide is commonly found in raw natural gas and biogas. It is typically removed by amine gas treating technologies. In such processes, the hydrogen sulfide is first converted to an ammonium salt, whereas the natural gas is unaffected.
The bisulfide anion is subsequently regenerated b... | Hydrogen sulfide | Wikipedia | 464 | 154738 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen%20sulfide | Physical sciences | Hydrogen compounds | Chemistry |
Exposure to lower concentrations can result in eye irritation, a sore throat and cough, nausea, shortness of breath, and fluid in the lungs. These effects are believed to be due to hydrogen sulfide combining with alkali present in moist surface tissues to form sodium sulfide, a caustic. These symptoms usually subside i... | Hydrogen sulfide | Wikipedia | 276 | 154738 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen%20sulfide | Physical sciences | Hydrogen compounds | Chemistry |
Exposure limits stipulated by the United States government:
10 ppm REL-Ceiling (NIOSH): recommended permissible exposure ceiling (the recommended level that must not be exceeded, except once for 10 min. in an 8-hour shift, if no other measurable exposure occurs)
20 ppm PEL-Ceiling (OSHA): permissible exposure ceiling (... | Hydrogen sulfide | Wikipedia | 504 | 154738 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen%20sulfide | Physical sciences | Hydrogen compounds | Chemistry |
On September 2, 2005, a leak in the propeller room of a Royal Caribbean Cruise Liner docked in Los Angeles resulted in the deaths of 3 crewmen due to a sewage line leak. As a result, all such compartments are now required to have a ventilation system.
A dump of toxic waste containing hydrogen sulfide is believed to ha... | Hydrogen sulfide | Wikipedia | 423 | 154738 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen%20sulfide | Physical sciences | Hydrogen compounds | Chemistry |
In June 2016, a mother and her daughter were found dead in their still-running 2006 Porsche Cayenne SUV against a guardrail on Florida's Turnpike, initially thought to be victims of carbon monoxide poisoning. Their deaths remained unexplained as the medical examiner waited for results of toxicology tests on the victims... | Hydrogen sulfide | Wikipedia | 236 | 154738 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen%20sulfide | Physical sciences | Hydrogen compounds | Chemistry |
On May 24, 2018, two workers were killed, another seriously injured, and 14 others hospitalized by hydrogen sulfide inhalation at a Norske Skog paper mill in Albury, New South Wales. An investigation by SafeWork NSW found that the gas was released from a tank used to hold process water. The workers were exposed at the ... | Hydrogen sulfide | Wikipedia | 496 | 154738 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen%20sulfide | Physical sciences | Hydrogen compounds | Chemistry |
As of 2010, this phenomenon has occurred in a number of US cities, prompting warnings to those arriving at the site of the suicide. These first responders, such as emergency services workers or family members are at risk of death or injury from inhaling the gas, or by fire. Local governments have also initiated campaig... | Hydrogen sulfide | Wikipedia | 464 | 154738 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen%20sulfide | Physical sciences | Hydrogen compounds | Chemistry |
The biochemistry of hydrogen sulfide is a key part of the chemistry of the iron-sulfur world. In this model of the origin of life on Earth, geologically produced hydrogen sulfide is postulated as an electron donor driving the reduction of carbon dioxide.
Animals
Hydrogen sulfide is lethal to most animals, but a few hi... | Hydrogen sulfide | Wikipedia | 470 | 154738 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen%20sulfide | Physical sciences | Hydrogen compounds | Chemistry |
Dubai International Airport () is the primary international airport serving Dubai, United Arab Emirates, and is the world's busiest airport by international passenger traffic as of 2023. It is also the busiest airport in the Middle East as of 2023, the second-busiest airport in the world by passenger traffic as of 202... | Dubai International Airport | Wikipedia | 440 | 154742 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubai%20International%20Airport | Technology | Asia | null |
History
The history of civil aviation in Dubai started in July 1937 when an air agreement was signed for a flying boat base for aircraft of Imperial Airways with the rental of the base at about 440 rupees per month – this included the guards' wages. The Empire Flying Boats started operating once a week flying eastboun... | Dubai International Airport | Wikipedia | 494 | 154742 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubai%20International%20Airport | Technology | Asia | null |
The new precision category 2 Approach and Runway Lighting System was commissioned in 1971. The construction of the Airport Fire Station and the installation of the generators were completed in December 1971 and were fully operational in March 1972. The ruler of Dubai also commissioned and inaugurated the Long-range Sur... | Dubai International Airport | Wikipedia | 403 | 154742 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubai%20International%20Airport | Technology | Asia | null |
The opening of Terminal 2 in 1998 saw the first step of phase 1 of the new development master plan launched in 1997. In the second stage, Concourse 1, named Sheikh Rashid Terminal opened in April 2000. The concourse is in length connects to the check-in area via a tunnel containing moving walkways (conveyor belt/trav... | Dubai International Airport | Wikipedia | 449 | 154742 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubai%20International%20Airport | Technology | Asia | null |
Also as part of the expansion, the airport now handles at least 75 million (an increase of 19 million) passengers per annum with the opening of Concourse 3, part of Terminal 3. However, recent communications predict a further increase to 80 million passengers with additional reassessments of existing capacities. In 200... | Dubai International Airport | Wikipedia | 451 | 154742 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubai%20International%20Airport | Technology | Asia | null |
In September 2012, Dubai Airports changed the names of concourses to make it easier for passengers to navigate the airport. Concourse 1, in which over 100 international airlines operate, became Concourse C (C1-C50). Concourse 2 became Concourse B (B1-B32) and Concourse 3 became Concourse A (A1-A24). The gates in Termin... | Dubai International Airport | Wikipedia | 424 | 154742 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubai%20International%20Airport | Technology | Asia | null |
Emirates is the largest airline operating at the airport, with an all-wide-body fleet of over 200 Airbus and Boeing aircraft based at Dubai, providing scheduled services to the Middle East, Africa, Asia, Europe, North America, South America, Australia and New Zealand. It operates out of Terminal 3, Concourses A, B and ... | Dubai International Airport | Wikipedia | 509 | 154742 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubai%20International%20Airport | Technology | Asia | null |
Paul Griffiths (Dubai Airports' CEO) in his interview with Vision magazine, cited plans to build infrastructure to support the expansion of Emirates and budget airline flydubai and ascend the ranks of global aviation hubs.
Control tower
The airport traffic control tower (ATCT) was constructed as part of phase two of ... | Dubai International Airport | Wikipedia | 499 | 154742 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubai%20International%20Airport | Technology | Asia | null |
In 2013, Dubai Airports announced a major renovation for Terminal 1 and Concourse C. The renovations include upgraded baggage systems, replacement of check-in desks and a more spacious departure hall. Arrivals will also see improvements to help reduce waiting times. The renovation was completed by the middle of 2015.
... | Dubai International Airport | Wikipedia | 505 | 154742 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubai%20International%20Airport | Technology | Asia | null |
Terminal 2 has undergone a major refurbishment recently, extending check-in and boarding facilities, changing the interior and exterior décor, and offering more dining choices to passengers. Capacity was increased to allow for 10 million passengers, an increase of 5 million.
The terminal has now increased the number o... | Dubai International Airport | Wikipedia | 411 | 154742 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubai%20International%20Airport | Technology | Asia | null |
Upon completion, Terminal 3 was the largest building in the world by floor space, with over of space, capable of handling 60 million passengers in a year. A large part is located under the taxiway area and is directly connected to Concourse B: the departure and arrival halls in the new structure are beneath the airpo... | Dubai International Airport | Wikipedia | 437 | 154742 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubai%20International%20Airport | Technology | Asia | null |
The concourse includes one 4-star hotel and one 5-star hotel, first- and business-class lounges, and duty-free areas. The total built-up area is . The concourse allows for multi-level boarding and boasts the largest first and business class lounges in the world. Each lounge has its own dedicated floor offering direct a... | Dubai International Airport | Wikipedia | 468 | 154742 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubai%20International%20Airport | Technology | Asia | null |
Concourse C
Concourse C, a part of Terminal 3, was opened in 2000 and used to be the largest concourse at Dubai International Airport before Concourse B in Terminal 3 opened. It incorporates 50 gates, including 28 air bridges at gates (C1-C23, except for C12a, C15, and C15a) and 22 remote gates located at a lower leve... | Dubai International Airport | Wikipedia | 381 | 154742 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubai%20International%20Airport | Technology | Asia | null |
The center itself is located close to Terminal 2 and includes a two-story main building, a hangar, a ramp area for aircraft parking and a special VIP car park for long term parking. The center also has its own immigration and customs sections, its own Dubai Duty-Free outlet, a fully equipped business and conference ... | Dubai International Airport | Wikipedia | 419 | 154742 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubai%20International%20Airport | Technology | Asia | null |
Dubai Airport has two closely spaced parallel runways, 12R/30L is , 12L/30R is . The gap between the centrelines of the two runways is . The runways are equipped with four sets of ILS to guide landing aircraft safely under very poor weather conditions. The runways were expanded to accommodate the Airbus A380 which came... | Dubai International Airport | Wikipedia | 350 | 154742 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubai%20International%20Airport | Technology | Asia | null |
Accommodating the Airbus A380
With Dubai-based Emirates being one of the launch customers for the Airbus A380 and also the largest customer, Dubai Airport needed to expand its existing facilities to accommodate the very large aircraft. The Department of Civil Aviation spent $120 million in upgrading both of its termina... | Dubai International Airport | Wikipedia | 343 | 154742 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubai%20International%20Airport | Technology | Asia | null |
Ilmenite is a titanium-iron oxide mineral with the idealized formula . It is a weakly magnetic black or steel-gray solid. Ilmenite is the most important ore of titanium and the main source of titanium dioxide, which is used in paints, printing inks, fabrics, plastics, paper, sunscreen, food and cosmetics.
Structure a... | Ilmenite | Wikipedia | 508 | 154744 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmenite | Physical sciences | Minerals | Earth science |
Although ilmenite is typically close to the ideal composition, with minor mole percentages of Mn and Mg, the ilmenites of kimberlites usually contain substantial amounts of geikielite molecules, and in some highly differentiated felsic rocks ilmenites may contain significant amounts of pyrophanite molecules.
At tempe... | Ilmenite | Wikipedia | 453 | 154744 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmenite | Physical sciences | Minerals | Earth science |
Titanium dioxide is most used as a white pigment and the major consuming industries for TiO2 pigments are paints and surface coatings, plastics, and paper and paperboard. Per capita consumption of TiO2 in China is about 1.1 kilograms per year, compared with 2.7 kilograms for Western Europe and the United States.
Tita... | Ilmenite | Wikipedia | 495 | 154744 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmenite | Physical sciences | Minerals | Earth science |
Australia was the world's largest ilmenite ore producer in 2011, with about 1.3 million tonnes of production, followed by South Africa, Canada, Mozambique, India, China, Vietnam, Ukraine, Norway, Madagascar and United States.
The top four ilmenite and rutile feedstock producers in 2010 were Rio Tinto Group, Iluka Reso... | Ilmenite | Wikipedia | 325 | 154744 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmenite | Physical sciences | Minerals | Earth science |
Attractive major potential ilmenite deposits include:
The Karhujupukka magnetite-ilmenite deposit in Kolari, northern Finland with around 5 Mt reserves and ore containing about 6.2% titanium.
The Balla Balla magnetite-iron-titanium-vanadium ore deposit in the Pilbara of Western Australia, which contains 456 million t... | Ilmenite | Wikipedia | 369 | 154744 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmenite | Physical sciences | Minerals | Earth science |
Patenting activity related to titanium dioxide production from ilmenite is rapidly increasing. Between 2002 and 2022, there have been 459 patent families that describe the production of titanium dioxide from ilmenite, and this number is growing rapidly. The majority of these patents describe pre-treatment processes, su... | Ilmenite | Wikipedia | 491 | 154744 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmenite | Physical sciences | Minerals | Earth science |
Lunar ilmenite
Ilmenite has been found in lunar samples, particularly in high-Ti lunar mare basalts common from Apollo 11 and Apollo 17 sites, and on average, constitutes up to 5% of lunar meteorites. Ilmenite has been targeted for ISRU water and oxygen extraction due to a simplistic reduction reaction which occurs wit... | Ilmenite | Wikipedia | 78 | 154744 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmenite | Physical sciences | Minerals | Earth science |
Zirconium dioxide (), sometimes known as zirconia (not to be confused with zirconium silicate or zircon), is a white crystalline oxide of zirconium. Its most naturally occurring form, with a monoclinic crystalline structure, is the mineral baddeleyite. A dopant stabilized cubic structured zirconia, cubic zirconia, is s... | Zirconium dioxide | Wikipedia | 499 | 154750 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zirconium%20dioxide | Physical sciences | Oxide salts | Chemistry |
Zirconia is often more useful in its phase 'stabilized' state. Upon heating, zirconia undergoes disruptive phase changes. By adding small percentages of yttria, these phase changes are eliminated, and the resulting material has superior thermal, mechanical, and electrical properties. In some cases, the tetragonal phase... | Zirconium dioxide | Wikipedia | 443 | 154750 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zirconium%20dioxide | Physical sciences | Oxide salts | Chemistry |
Niche uses
The very low thermal conductivity of cubic phase of zirconia also has led to its use as a thermal barrier coating, or TBC, in jet and diesel engines to allow operation at higher temperatures. Thermodynamically, the higher the operation temperature of an engine, the greater the possible efficiency. Another lo... | Zirconium dioxide | Wikipedia | 482 | 154750 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zirconium%20dioxide | Physical sciences | Oxide salts | Chemistry |
Zirconia is also employed in the deposition of optical coatings; it is a high-index material usable from the near-UV to the mid-IR, due to its low absorption in this spectral region. In such applications, it is typically deposited by PVD.
In jewelry making, some watch cases are advertised as being "black zirconium oxi... | Zirconium dioxide | Wikipedia | 337 | 154750 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zirconium%20dioxide | Physical sciences | Oxide salts | Chemistry |
In physiology, dehydration is a lack of total body water that disrupts metabolic processes. It occurs when free water loss exceeds free water intake. This is usually due to excessive sweating, disease, or a lack of access to water. Mild dehydration can also be caused by immersion diuresis, which may increase risk of de... | Dehydration | Wikipedia | 488 | 155056 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dehydration | Biology and health sciences | Specific diseases | Health |
In the elderly, blunted response to thirst or inadequate ability to access free water in the face of excess free water losses (especially hyperglycemia related) seem to be the main causes of dehydration. Excess free water or hypotonic water can leave the body in two ways – sensible loss such as osmotic diuresis, sweati... | Dehydration | Wikipedia | 470 | 155056 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dehydration | Biology and health sciences | Specific diseases | Health |
Definition
Dehydration occurs when water intake does not replace free water lost due to normal physiologic processes, including breathing, urination, perspiration, or other causes, including diarrhea, and vomiting. Dehydration can be life-threatening when severe and lead to seizures or respiratory arrest, and also car... | Dehydration | Wikipedia | 361 | 155056 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dehydration | Biology and health sciences | Specific diseases | Health |
Laboratory tests
While there is no single gold standard test to diagnose dehydration, evidence can be seen in multiple laboratory tests involving blood and urine. Serum osmolarity above 295 mOsm/kg is typically seen in dehydration due to free water loss. A urinalysis, which is a test that performs chemical and microsc... | Dehydration | Wikipedia | 461 | 155056 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dehydration | Biology and health sciences | Specific diseases | Health |
In most athletes exercising and sweating for 4–5 hours with a sweat sodium concentration of less than 50 mmol/L, the total sodium lost is less than 10% of total body stores (total stores are approximately 2,500 mmol, or 58 g for a 70-kg person). These losses appear to be well tolerated by most people. The inclusion of ... | Dehydration | Wikipedia | 453 | 155056 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dehydration | Biology and health sciences | Specific diseases | Health |
For severe cases of dehydration where fainting, unconsciousness, or other severely inhibiting symptoms are present (the patient is incapable of standing upright or thinking clearly), emergency attention is required. Fluids containing a proper balance of replacement electrolytes are given orally or intravenously with co... | Dehydration | Wikipedia | 189 | 155056 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dehydration | Biology and health sciences | Specific diseases | Health |
Pubic hair (or pubes , ) is terminal body hair that is found in the genital area and pubic region of adolescent and adult humans. The hair is located on and around the sex organs, and sometimes at the top of the inside of the thighs, even extending down the perineum, and to the anal region. Pubic hair is also found on ... | Pubic hair | Wikipedia | 475 | 155117 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pubic%20hair | Biology and health sciences | Integumentary system | Biology |
In males, the first pubic hair appears as a few sparse hairs that are usually thin on the scrotum or at the upper base of the penis (stage 2). Within a year, hairs around the base of the penis are abundant (stage 3). Within 3 to 4 years, hair fills the pubic area (stage 4) and becomes much thicker and darker, and by 5 ... | Pubic hair | Wikipedia | 511 | 155117 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pubic%20hair | Biology and health sciences | Integumentary system | Biology |
Clinical significance
Pubic lice
Pubic hair can become infested with pubic lice (also known as crab lice). Adult pubic lice are in length. The pubic hair can usually host up to a dozen on average. Pubic lice are usually found attached to hair in the pubic area but sometimes are found on coarse hair elsewhere on the ... | Pubic hair | Wikipedia | 331 | 155117 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pubic%20hair | Biology and health sciences | Integumentary system | Biology |
Symptoms of a crab louse infection in the pubic area is intense itching, redness and inflammation. These symptoms cause increased circulation to the skin of the pubic region creating a blood-rich environment for the crab louse. Pubic lice infestation can also be diagnosed by identifying the presence of nits or eggs on ... | Pubic hair | Wikipedia | 288 | 155117 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pubic%20hair | Biology and health sciences | Integumentary system | Biology |
According to John Ruskin's biographer Mary Lutyens, the notable author, artist, and art critic was apparently accustomed only to the hairless nudes portrayed unrealistically in art, never having seen a naked woman before his wedding night. He was allegedly so shocked by his discovery of his wife Effie's pubic hair that... | Pubic hair | Wikipedia | 455 | 155117 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pubic%20hair | Biology and health sciences | Integumentary system | Biology |
In some Middle Eastern societies, removal of male and female body hair has been considered proper hygiene, mandated by local customs, for many centuries. Muslim teaching (applicable to males and females) includes Islamic hygienical jurisprudence in which pubic and armpit hair must be pulled out or shaven to be consider... | Pubic hair | Wikipedia | 487 | 155117 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pubic%20hair | Biology and health sciences | Integumentary system | Biology |
Some women modify their pubic hair, either to fit in with societal trends or as an expression of their own style or lifestyle. Styles of pubic hair modification include:
Triangle or American wax (pubic hair is shortened from the sides to form a triangle so that pubic hair is hidden while wearing swimwear. The triangle... | Pubic hair | Wikipedia | 410 | 155117 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pubic%20hair | Biology and health sciences | Integumentary system | Biology |
In the late 18th century, female pubic hair was openly portrayed in Japanese shunga (erotica), especially in the ukiyo-e tradition. Hokusai's picture The Dream of the Fisherman's Wife (1814), which depicts a woman having an erotic fantasy, is a well-known example. In Japanese drawings, such as hentai, pubic hair is oft... | Pubic hair | Wikipedia | 344 | 155117 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pubic%20hair | Biology and health sciences | Integumentary system | Biology |
In Western societies, after the spread of Christianity, public exposure of a woman's bare skin between the ankle and waist started to be disapproved of culturally. Upper body exposure due to the use of the popular vest bodices used in Western Europe from the 15th century to early 20th century, as the widespread dirndls... | Pubic hair | Wikipedia | 451 | 155117 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pubic%20hair | Biology and health sciences | Integumentary system | Biology |
In another part of his autobiography Walter remarks that he has seen those "bare of hair, those with but hairy stubble, those with bushes six inches long, covering them from bum bone to navel." And he adds reflectively – "there is not much that I have not seen, felt or tried, with respect to this supreme female article... | Pubic hair | Wikipedia | 168 | 155117 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pubic%20hair | Biology and health sciences | Integumentary system | Biology |
Bruxism is excessive teeth grinding or jaw clenching. It is an oral parafunctional activity; i.e., it is unrelated to normal function such as eating or talking. Bruxism is a common behavior; the global prevalence of bruxism (both sleep and awake) is 22.22%. Several symptoms are commonly associated with bruxism, includ... | Bruxism | Wikipedia | 471 | 155131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruxism | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorders | Health |
Children are reported to brux as commonly as adults. It is possible for sleep bruxism to occur as early as the first year of life, after the first teeth (deciduous incisors) erupt into the mouth, and the overall prevalence in children is about 14–20%. The ICSD-R states that sleep bruxism may occur in over 50% of normal... | Bruxism | Wikipedia | 407 | 155131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruxism | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorders | Health |
A grinding or tapping noise during sleep, sometimes detected by a partner or a parent. This noise can be surprisingly loud and unpleasant, and can wake a sleeping partner. Noises are rarely associated with awake bruxism.
Other parafunctional activity which may occur together with bruxism: cheek biting (which may manif... | Bruxism | Wikipedia | 413 | 155131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruxism | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorders | Health |
Bruxism is usually detected because of the effects of the process (most commonly tooth wear and pain), rather than the process itself. The large forces that can be generated during bruxism can have detrimental effects on the components of masticatory system, namely the teeth, the periodontium and the articulation of th... | Bruxism | Wikipedia | 110 | 155131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruxism | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorders | Health |
Pain
Most people with bruxism will experience no pain. The presence or degree of pain does not necessarily correlate with the severity of grinding or clenching. The pain in the muscles of mastication caused by bruxism can be likened to muscle pain after exercise. The pain may be felt over the angle of the jaw (masseter... | Bruxism | Wikipedia | 425 | 155131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruxism | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorders | Health |
Tooth wear
Many publications list tooth wear as a consequence of bruxism, but some report a lack of a positive relationship between tooth wear and bruxism. Tooth wear caused by tooth-to-tooth contact is termed attrition. This is the most usual type of tooth wear that occurs in bruxism, and affects the occlusal surface ... | Bruxism | Wikipedia | 470 | 155131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruxism | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorders | Health |
Tooth mobility
The view that occlusal trauma (as may occur during bruxism) is a causative factor in gingivitis and periodontitis is not widely accepted. It is thought that the periodontal ligament may respond to increased occlusal (biting) forces by resorbing some of the bone of the alveolar crest, which may result in ... | Bruxism | Wikipedia | 449 | 155131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruxism | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorders | Health |
Some bruxism activity is rhythmic with bite force pulses of tenths of a second (like chewing), and some have longer bite force pulses of 1 to 30 seconds (clenching). Some individuals clench without significant lateral movements. Bruxism can also be regarded as a disorder of repetitive, unconscious contraction of muscle... | Bruxism | Wikipedia | 297 | 155131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruxism | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorders | Health |
There is evidence that sleep bruxism is caused by mechanisms related to the central nervous system, involving sleep arousal and neurotransmitter abnormalities. Underlying these factors may be psychosocial factors including daytime stress which is disrupting peaceful sleep. Sleep bruxism is mainly characterized by "rhyt... | Bruxism | Wikipedia | 345 | 155131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruxism | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorders | Health |
Historical focus
Historically, many believed that problems with the bite were the sole cause for bruxism. It was often claimed that a person would grind at the interfering area in a subconscious, instinctive attempt to wear this down and "self equiliberate" their occlusion. However, occlusal interferences are extremely... | Bruxism | Wikipedia | 310 | 155131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruxism | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorders | Health |
Psychosocial factors
Many studies have reported significant psychosocial risk factors for bruxism, particularly a stressful lifestyle, and this evidence is growing, but still not conclusive. Some consider emotional stress and anxiety to be the main triggering factors. It has been reported that persons with bruxism resp... | Bruxism | Wikipedia | 466 | 155131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruxism | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorders | Health |
Medications
Certain stimulant drugs, including both prescribed and recreational drugs, are thought by some to cause the development of bruxism. However, others argue that there is insufficient evidence to draw such a conclusion. Examples may include dopamine agonists, dopamine antagonists, tricyclic antidepressants, se... | Bruxism | Wikipedia | 378 | 155131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruxism | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorders | Health |
Occlusal factors
Occlusion is defined most simply as "contacts between teeth", and is the meeting of teeth during biting and chewing. The term does not imply any disease. Malocclusion is a medical term referring to less than ideal positioning of the upper teeth relative to the lower teeth, which can occur both when the... | Bruxism | Wikipedia | 417 | 155131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruxism | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorders | Health |
Acrodynia
Atypical facial pain
Autism
Cerebral palsy
Disturbed sleep patterns and other sleep disorders, such as obstructive sleep apnea, snoring, moderate daytime sleepiness, and insomnia
Down syndrome
Dyskinesias
Epilepsy
Eustachian tube dysfunction
Infarction in the basal ganglia
Intellectual disability,... | Bruxism | Wikipedia | 394 | 155131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruxism | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorders | Health |
The Individual (personal) Tooth-Wear Index was developed to objectively quantify the degree of tooth wear in an individual, without being affected by the number of missing teeth. Bruxism is not the only cause of tooth wear. Another possible cause of tooth wear is acid erosion, which may occur in people who drink a lot ... | Bruxism | Wikipedia | 467 | 155131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruxism | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorders | Health |
Several devices have been developed that aim to objectively measure bruxism activity, either in terms of muscular activity or bite forces. They have been criticized for introducing a possible change in the bruxing habit, whether increasing or decreasing it, and are therefore poorly representative to the native bruxing ... | Bruxism | Wikipedia | 382 | 155131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruxism | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorders | Health |
Bruxism can be subdivided into two types based upon when the parafunctional activity occurs – during sleep ("sleep bruxism"), or while awake ("awake bruxism"). This is the most widely used classification since sleep bruxism generally has different causes to awake bruxism, although the effects on the condition on the te... | Bruxism | Wikipedia | 378 | 155131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruxism | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorders | Health |
Classification by cause
Alternatively, bruxism can be divided into primary bruxism (also termed "idiopathic bruxism"), where the disorder is not related to any other medical condition, or secondary bruxism, where the disorder is associated with other medical conditions. Secondary bruxism includes iatrogenic causes, suc... | Bruxism | Wikipedia | 437 | 155131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruxism | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorders | Health |
Psychosocial interventions
Given the strong association between awake bruxism and psychosocial factors (the relationship between sleep bruxism and psychosocial factors being unclear), the role of psychosocial interventions could be argued to be central to the management. The most simple form of treatment is therefore r... | Bruxism | Wikipedia | 384 | 155131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruxism | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorders | Health |
Specific drugs that have been studied in sleep bruxism are clonazepam, levodopa, amitriptyline, bromocriptine, pergolide, clonidine, propranolol, and l-tryptophan, with some showing no effect and others appear to have promising initial results; however, it has been suggested that further safety testing is required befo... | Bruxism | Wikipedia | 375 | 155131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruxism | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorders | Health |
Occlusal splints (also termed dental guards) are commonly prescribed, mainly by dentists and dental specialists, as a treatment for bruxism. Proponents of their use claim many benefits, however when the evidence is critically examined in systematic reviews of the topic, it is reported that there is insufficient evidenc... | Bruxism | Wikipedia | 493 | 155131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruxism | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorders | Health |
Splints may also reduce muscle strain by allowing the upper and lower jaw to move easily with respect to each other. Treatment goals include: constraining the bruxing pattern to avoid damage to the temporomandibular joints; stabilizing the occlusion by minimizing gradual changes to the positions of the teeth, preventin... | Bruxism | Wikipedia | 474 | 155131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruxism | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorders | Health |
Botulinum toxin
Botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) is used as a treatment for bruxism. A 2020 overview of systematic reviews found that botulinum toxin type A (BTX-A) showed a significant pain and sleep bruxism frequency reduction when compared to placebo or conventional treatment (behavioral therapy, occlusal splints, and dr... | Bruxism | Wikipedia | 493 | 155131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruxism | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorders | Health |
Occlusal adjustment/reorganization
As an alternative to simply reactively repairing the damage to teeth and conforming to the existing occlusal scheme, occasionally some dentists will attempt to reorganize the occlusion in the belief that this may redistribute the forces and reduce the amount of damage inflicted on the... | Bruxism | Wikipedia | 299 | 155131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruxism | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorders | Health |
"La bruxomanie" (a French term, translates to bruxomania) was suggested by Marie Pietkiewics in 1907. In 1931, Frohman first coined the term bruxism. Occasionally recent medical publications will use the word bruxomania with bruxism, to denote specifically bruxism that occurs while awake; however, this term can be cons... | Bruxism | Wikipedia | 512 | 155131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruxism | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorders | Health |
In David Lynch's 1977 film Eraserhead, Henry Spencer's partner ("Mary X") is shown tossing and turning in her sleep, and snapping her jaws together violently and noisily, depicting sleep bruxism. In Stephen King's 1988 novel The Tommyknockers, the sister of central character Bobbi Anderson also had bruxism. In the 2000... | Bruxism | Wikipedia | 363 | 155131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruxism | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorders | Health |
Hair removal is the deliberate removal of body hair or head hair. This process is also known as epilation or depilation.
Hair is a common feature of the human body, exhibiting considerable variation in thickness and length across different populations. Hair becomes more visible during and after puberty. Additionally, ... | Hair removal | Wikipedia | 427 | 155140 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hair%20removal | Biology and health sciences | Hygiene and grooming: General | Health |
In Ancient Egypt, besides being a fashion statement for affluent Egyptians of all genders, hair removal served as a treatment for louse infestation, which was a prevalent issue in the region. Very often, they would replace the removed head hair with a Nubian wig, which was seen as easier to maintain and also fashionabl... | Hair removal | Wikipedia | 413 | 155140 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hair%20removal | Biology and health sciences | Hygiene and grooming: General | Health |
It was not until the late 19th century that women in Europe and America started to make hair removal a component of their personal care regime. According to Rebecca Herzig, the modern-day notion of body hair being unwomanly can be traced back to Charles Darwin's book first published in 1871 "The Descent of Man and Sele... | Hair removal | Wikipedia | 477 | 155140 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hair%20removal | Biology and health sciences | Hygiene and grooming: General | Health |
With the increased popularity in many countries of women wearing fashion clothing, sportswear and swimsuits during the 20th century and the consequential exposure of parts of the body on which hair is commonly found, there has emerged a popularization for women to remove visible body hair, such as on legs, underarms an... | Hair removal | Wikipedia | 466 | 155140 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hair%20removal | Biology and health sciences | Hygiene and grooming: General | Health |
The unibrow is considered a sign of beauty and attractiveness for women in Oman and for both genders in Tajikistan, often emphasized with kohl. In Middle Eastern societies, regular trimming or removal of female and male underarm hair and pubic hair has been considered proper personal hygiene, necessitated by local cust... | Hair removal | Wikipedia | 461 | 155140 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hair%20removal | Biology and health sciences | Hygiene and grooming: General | Health |
Fashions
The term "glabrousness" also has been applied to human fashions, wherein some participate in culturally motivated hair removal by depilation (surface removal by shaving, dissolving), or epilation (removal of the entire hair, such as waxing or plucking).
Although the appearance of secondary hair on parts of th... | Hair removal | Wikipedia | 381 | 155140 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hair%20removal | Biology and health sciences | Hygiene and grooming: General | Health |
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