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In the clothes free movement, the term "smoothie" refers to an individual who has removed their body hair. In the past, such practices were frowned upon and in some cases, forbidden: violators could face exclusion from the club. Enthusiasts grouped together and formed societies of their own that catered to that fashio... | Hair removal | Wikipedia | 410 | 155140 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hair%20removal | Biology and health sciences | Hygiene and grooming: General | Health |
The Baháʼí Faith recommends against complete and long-term head-shaving outside of medical purposes. It is not currently practiced as a law, contingent upon a future decision by the Universal House of Justice, its highest governing body. Sikhs take an even stronger stance, opposing all forms of hair removal. One of the... | Hair removal | Wikipedia | 479 | 155140 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hair%20removal | Biology and health sciences | Hygiene and grooming: General | Health |
In the military
A buzz cut or completely shaven haircut is common in military organizations where, among other reasons, it is considered to promote uniformity and neatness. Most militaries have occupational safety and health policies that govern the hair length and hairstyles permitted; in the field and living in close... | Hair removal | Wikipedia | 395 | 155140 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hair%20removal | Biology and health sciences | Hygiene and grooming: General | Health |
In sport
It is a common practice for professional footballers (soccer players) and road cyclists to remove leg hair for a number of reasons. In the case of a crash or tackle, the absence of the leg hair means the injuries (usually road rash or scarring) can be cleaned up more efficiently, and treatment is not impeded. ... | Hair removal | Wikipedia | 509 | 155140 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hair%20removal | Biology and health sciences | Hygiene and grooming: General | Health |
Depilation methods
"Depilation", or temporary removal of hair to the level of the skin, lasts several hours to several days and can be achieved by
Shaving or trimming (manually or with electric shavers which can be used on pubic hair or body hair)
Depilatories (creams or "shaving powders" which chemically dissolve ha... | Hair removal | Wikipedia | 87 | 155140 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hair%20removal | Biology and health sciences | Hygiene and grooming: General | Health |
Epilation methods
"Epilation", or removal of the entire hair from the root, lasts several days to several weeks and may be achieved by
Tweezing (hairs are tweezed, or pulled out, with tweezers or with fingers)
Waxing (a hot or cold layer is applied and then removed with porous strips)
Sugaring (hair is removed by ap... | Hair removal | Wikipedia | 462 | 155140 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hair%20removal | Biology and health sciences | Hygiene and grooming: General | Health |
Permanent hair removal
Electrology has been practiced in the United States since 1875. It is approved by the FDA. This technique permanently destroys germ cells responsible for hair growth by way of the insertion of a fine probe into the hair follicle and the application of a current adjusted to each hair type and trea... | Hair removal | Wikipedia | 489 | 155140 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hair%20removal | Biology and health sciences | Hygiene and grooming: General | Health |
Doubtful methods
Many methods have been proposed or sold over the years without published clinical proof they can work as claimed.
Electric tweezers
Transdermal electrolysis
Transcutaneous hair removal
Microwave hair removal
Foods and dietary supplements
Non-prescription topical preparations (also called "hair in... | Hair removal | Wikipedia | 315 | 155140 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hair%20removal | Biology and health sciences | Hygiene and grooming: General | Health |
Shaving is the removal of hair, by using a razor or any other kind of bladed implement, to slice it down—to the level of the skin or otherwise. Shaving is most commonly practiced by men to remove their facial hair and by women to remove their leg and underarm hair. A man is called clean-shaven if he has had his beard e... | Shaving | Wikipedia | 461 | 155154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaving | Biology and health sciences | Health and fitness | null |
Safety razors have existed since at least 1876 when the single-edge Star safety razor was patented by brothers Frederick and Otto Kampfe. The razor was essentially a small piece of a straight razor attached to a handle using a clamp mechanism. Before each shave the blade had to be attached to a special holder, stropped... | Shaving | Wikipedia | 491 | 155154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaving | Biology and health sciences | Health and fitness | null |
Shaving methods
Shaving can be done with a straight razor or safety razor (called 'manual shaving' or 'wet shaving') or an electric razor (called 'dry shaving') or beard trimmer.
The removal of a full beard often requires the use of scissors or an electric (or beard) trimmer to reduce the mass of hair, simplifying th... | Shaving | Wikipedia | 495 | 155154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaving | Biology and health sciences | Health and fitness | null |
Since cuts are more likely when using safety razors and straight razors, wet shaving is generally done in more than one pass with the blade. The goal is to reduce the amount of hair with each pass, instead of trying to eliminate all of it in a single pass. This also reduces the risks of cuts, soreness, and ingrown ha... | Shaving | Wikipedia | 378 | 155154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaving | Biology and health sciences | Health and fitness | null |
The main disadvantages of electric shaving are that it may not cut the whiskers as closely as razor shaving does and it requires a source of electricity, usually a rechargeable battery. The advantages include fewer cuts to the skin, quicker shaving, and no need for water and lather sources (a wet shave). The initial co... | Shaving | Wikipedia | 402 | 155154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaving | Biology and health sciences | Health and fitness | null |
Aberrations
Shaving can have numerous side effects, including cuts, abrasions, and irritation. Many side effects can be minimized by using a fresh blade, applying plenty of lubrication, shaving in the direction of hair growth, and avoiding pressing the razor into the skin. A shaving brush can also help to lift the hai... | Shaving | Wikipedia | 345 | 155154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaving | Biology and health sciences | Health and fitness | null |
Razor burn is an irritation of the skin caused by using a blunt blade or not using proper technique. It appears as a mild rash 2–4 minutes after shaving (once hair starts to grow through sealed skin) and usually disappears after a few hours to a few days, depending on severity. In severe cases, razor burn can also be a... | Shaving | Wikipedia | 492 | 155154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaving | Biology and health sciences | Health and fitness | null |
is a medical term for persistent inflammation caused by shaving. It is also known by the initials PFB or colloquial terms such as razor bumps.
Myths
Shaving does not cause terminal hair to grow back thicker, coarser or darker. This belief arose because hair that has never been cut has a naturally tapered end as it em... | Shaving | Wikipedia | 510 | 155154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaving | Biology and health sciences | Health and fitness | null |
Islām also teaches followers to shave/pluck body hair such as pubic and armpit hair on a regular basis (40 days). Shī'a and Sunnī narrations from the Prophet state that: "God's Prophet (May God bless him) said: 'Anyone who believes in God and the Hereafter should not postpone shaving the pubic hair for more than forty ... | Shaving | Wikipedia | 245 | 155154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaving | Biology and health sciences | Health and fitness | null |
Shrews (family Soricidae) are small mole-like mammals classified in the order Eulipotyphla. True shrews are not to be confused with treeshrews, otter shrews, elephant shrews, West Indies shrews, or marsupial shrews, which belong to different families or orders.
Although its external appearance is generally that of a l... | Shrew | Wikipedia | 489 | 155176 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrew | Biology and health sciences | Soricomorpha | null |
They do not hibernate, but some species are capable of entering torpor. In winter, many species undergo morphological changes that drastically reduce their body weight. Shrews can lose between 30% and 50% of their body weight, shrinking the size of bones, skull, and internal organs.
Whereas rodents have gnawing inciso... | Shrew | Wikipedia | 446 | 155176 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrew | Biology and health sciences | Soricomorpha | null |
Shrews are unusual among mammals in a number of respects. Unlike most mammals, some species of shrews are venomous. Shrew venom is not conducted into the wound by fangs, but by grooves in the teeth. The venom contains various compounds, and the contents of the venom glands of the American short-tailed shrew are suffici... | Shrew | Wikipedia | 469 | 155176 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrew | Biology and health sciences | Soricomorpha | null |
The 385 shrew species are placed in 26 genera, which are grouped into three living subfamilies: Crocidurinae (white-toothed shrews), Myosoricinae (African shrews), and Soricinae (red-toothed shrews). In addition, the family contains the extinct subfamilies Limnoecinae, Crocidosoricinae, Allosoricinae, and Heterosoricin... | Shrew | Wikipedia | 268 | 155176 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrew | Biology and health sciences | Soricomorpha | null |
Female ejaculation is characterized as an expulsion of fluid from the Skene's gland at the lower end of the urethra during or before an orgasm. It is also known colloquially as squirting or gushing, although research indicates that female ejaculation and squirting are different phenomena, squirting being attributed to... | Female ejaculation | Wikipedia | 457 | 155202 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Female%20ejaculation | Biology and health sciences | Human anatomy | Health |
The suggestion that women can expel fluid from their genital area as part of sexual arousal has been described by women's health writer Rebecca Chalker as "one of the most hotly debated questions in modern sexology". Female ejaculation has been discussed in anatomical, medical, and biological literature throughout reco... | Female ejaculation | Wikipedia | 275 | 155202 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Female%20ejaculation | Biology and health sciences | Human anatomy | Health |
He identified [XIII:212] the various controversies regarding the ejaculate and its origin, but stated he believed that this fluid "which rushes out with such impetus during venereal combat or libidinous imagining" was derived from a number of sources, including the vagina, urinary tract, cervix and uterus. He appears t... | Female ejaculation | Wikipedia | 339 | 155202 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Female%20ejaculation | Biology and health sciences | Human anatomy | Health |
However, women's writing of that time portrayed this in more positive terms. Thus we find Almeda Sperry writing to Emma Goldman in 1918, about the "rhythmic spurt of your love juices".<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8aZ-jOTonK8C&pg=PA154 |title=Falk C. Love, Anarchy and Emma Goldman. Holt Rinehar... | Female ejaculation | Wikipedia | 500 | 155202 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Female%20ejaculation | Biology and health sciences | Human anatomy | Health |
as were Masters and Johnson ten years later, who observed (pp 79–80):
(emphasis in original) yet dismissed it (p. 135) – "female ejaculation is an erroneous but widespread concept", and even twenty years later in 1982, they repeated the statement that it was erroneous (p. 69–70) and the result of "urinary stress incon... | Female ejaculation | Wikipedia | 429 | 155202 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Female%20ejaculation | Biology and health sciences | Human anatomy | Health |
Anthropological accounts
Female ejaculation appears in 20th-century anthropological works, such as Malinowski's Melanesian study, The Sexual Life of Savages (1929), and Gladwin and Sarason's "Truk: Man in Paradise" (1956). Malinowski states that in the language of the Trobriand Island people, a single word is used to d... | Female ejaculation | Wikipedia | 159 | 155202 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Female%20ejaculation | Biology and health sciences | Human anatomy | Health |
In colorimetry, the Munsell color system is a color space that specifies colors based on three properties of color: hue (basic color), value (lightness), and chroma (color intensity). It was created by Albert H. Munsell in the first decade of the 20th century and adopted by the United States Department of Agriculture (... | Munsell color system | Wikipedia | 490 | 155350 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munsell%20color%20system | Physical sciences | Basics | Physics |
Two colors of equal value and chroma, on opposite sides of a hue circle, are complementary colors, and mix additively to the neutral gray of the same value. The diagram below shows 40 evenly spaced Munsell hues, with complements vertically aligned.
Value
Value, or lightness, varies vertically along the color solid, f... | Munsell color system | Wikipedia | 460 | 155350 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munsell%20color%20system | Physical sciences | Basics | Physics |
In computer processing, the Munsell colors are converted to a set of "HVC" numbers. The V and C are the same as the normal chroma and value. The H (hue) number is converted by mapping the hue rings into numbers between 0 and 100, where both 0 and 100 correspond to 10RP.
As the Munsell books, including the 1943 renotat... | Munsell color system | Wikipedia | 472 | 155350 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munsell%20color%20system | Physical sciences | Basics | Physics |
The original embodiment of the system (the 1905 Atlas) had some deficiencies as a physical representation of the theoretical system. These were improved significantly in the 1929 Munsell Book of Color and through an extensive series of experiments carried out by the Optical Society of America in the 1940s resulting in ... | Munsell color system | Wikipedia | 219 | 155350 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munsell%20color%20system | Physical sciences | Basics | Physics |
Liriodendron () is a genus of two species of characteristically large trees, deciduous over most of their populations, in the magnolia family (Magnoliaceae).
These trees are widely known by the common name tulip tree or tuliptree for their large flowers superficially resembling tulips. It is sometimes referred to as t... | Liriodendron | Wikipedia | 418 | 155383 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liriodendron | Biology and health sciences | Magnoliales | Plants |
Leaves are slightly larger in L. chinense, compared to L. tulipifera, but with considerable overlap between the species; the petiole is 4–18 cm long. Leaves on young trees tend to be more deeply lobed and larger in size than those on mature trees. In autumn, the leaves turn yellow, or brown and yellow. Both species gro... | Liriodendron | Wikipedia | 369 | 155383 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liriodendron | Biology and health sciences | Magnoliales | Plants |
In the Appalachian cove forests, trees 150 to 165 ft in height are common, and trees from 166 to nearly 180 ft are also found. More Liriodendron over 170 ft in height have been measured by the Eastern Native Tree Society than for any other eastern species. The current tallest tulip tree on record has reached 191.9 ft, ... | Liriodendron | Wikipedia | 501 | 155383 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liriodendron | Biology and health sciences | Magnoliales | Plants |
The wood of the North American species (called poplar or tulipwood) is fine grained and stable. It is easy to work and commonly used for cabinet and furniture framing, i.e. internal structural members and subsurfaces for veneering. Additionally, much inexpensive furniture, described for sales purposes simply as "hardwo... | Liriodendron | Wikipedia | 356 | 155383 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liriodendron | Biology and health sciences | Magnoliales | Plants |
Computability theory, also known as recursion theory, is a branch of mathematical logic, computer science, and the theory of computation that originated in the 1930s with the study of computable functions and Turing degrees. The field has since expanded to include the study of generalized computability and definability... | Computability theory | Wikipedia | 440 | 155414 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computability%20theory | Mathematics | Discrete mathematics | null |
Many problems in mathematics have been shown to be undecidable after these initial examples were established. In 1947, Markov and Post published independent papers showing that the word problem for semigroups cannot be effectively decided. Extending this result, Pyotr Novikov and William Boone showed independently in t... | Computability theory | Wikipedia | 357 | 155414 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computability%20theory | Mathematics | Discrete mathematics | null |
The terminology for computable functions and sets is not completely standardized.
The definition in terms of μ-recursive functions as well as a different definition of functions by Gödel led to the traditional name recursive for sets and functions computable by a Turing machine. The word decidable stems from the Germ... | Computability theory | Wikipedia | 491 | 155414 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computability%20theory | Mathematics | Discrete mathematics | null |
Computability theory in mathematical logic has traditionally focused on relative computability, a generalization of Turing computability defined using oracle Turing machines, introduced by Turing in 1939. An oracle Turing machine is a hypothetical device which, in addition to performing the actions of a regular Turing ... | Computability theory | Wikipedia | 377 | 155414 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computability%20theory | Mathematics | Discrete mathematics | null |
Many-one reductions are "stronger" than Turing reductions: if a set A is many-one reducible to a set B, then A is Turing reducible to B, but the converse does not always hold. Although the natural examples of noncomputable sets are all many-one equivalent, it is possible to construct computably enumerable sets A and B ... | Computability theory | Wikipedia | 439 | 155414 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computability%20theory | Mathematics | Discrete mathematics | null |
There are uncountably many sets that are not computably enumerable, and the investigation of the Turing degrees of all sets is as central in computability theory as the investigation of the computably enumerable Turing degrees. Many degrees with special properties were constructed: hyperimmune-free degrees where every ... | Computability theory | Wikipedia | 507 | 155414 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computability%20theory | Mathematics | Discrete mathematics | null |
The strong reducibilities include:
One-one reducibility: A is one-one reducible (or 1-reducible) to B if there is a total computable injective function f such that each n is in A if and only if f(n) is in B.
Many-one reducibility: This is essentially one-one reducibility without the constraint that f be injective. A ... | Computability theory | Wikipedia | 457 | 155414 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computability%20theory | Mathematics | Discrete mathematics | null |
Rice's theorem and the arithmetical hierarchy
Rice showed that for every nontrivial class C (which contains some but not all c.e. sets) the index set E = {e: the eth c.e. set We is in C} has the property that either the halting problem or its complement is many-one reducible to E, that is, can be mapped using a many-on... | Computability theory | Wikipedia | 408 | 155414 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computability%20theory | Mathematics | Discrete mathematics | null |
Numberings
A numbering is an enumeration of functions; it has two parameters, e and x and outputs the value of the e-th function in the numbering on the input x. Numberings can be partial-computable although some of its members are total computable functions. Admissible numberings are those into which all others can be... | Computability theory | Wikipedia | 460 | 155414 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computability%20theory | Mathematics | Discrete mathematics | null |
The lattice of computably enumerable sets
When Post defined the notion of a simple set as a c.e. set with an infinite complement not containing any infinite c.e. set, he started to study the structure of the computably enumerable sets under inclusion. This lattice became a well-studied structure. Computable sets can be... | Computability theory | Wikipedia | 489 | 155414 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computability%20theory | Mathematics | Discrete mathematics | null |
Besides the lattice of computably enumerable sets, automorphisms are also studied for the structure of the Turing degrees of all sets as well as for the structure of the Turing degrees of c.e. sets. In both cases, Cooper claims to have constructed nontrivial automorphisms which map some degrees to other degrees; this c... | Computability theory | Wikipedia | 318 | 155414 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computability%20theory | Mathematics | Discrete mathematics | null |
Frequency computation
This branch of computability theory analyzed the following question: For fixed m and n with 0 < m < n, for which functions A is it possible to compute for any different n inputs x1, x2, ..., xn a tuple of n numbers y1, y2, ..., yn such that at least m of the equations A(xk) = yk are true. Such set... | Computability theory | Wikipedia | 418 | 155414 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computability%20theory | Mathematics | Discrete mathematics | null |
Inductive inference
This is the computability-theoretic branch of learning theory. It is based on E. Mark Gold's model of learning in the limit from 1967 and has developed since then more and more models of learning. The general scenario is the following: Given a class S of computable functions, is there a learner (tha... | Computability theory | Wikipedia | 428 | 155414 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computability%20theory | Mathematics | Discrete mathematics | null |
Continuous computability theory
Computability theory for digital computation is well developed. Computability theory is less well developed for analog computation that occurs in analog computers, analog signal processing, analog electronics, artificial neural networks and continuous-time control theory, modelled by dif... | Computability theory | Wikipedia | 493 | 155414 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computability%20theory | Mathematics | Discrete mathematics | null |
Name
The field of mathematical logic dealing with computability and its generalizations has been called "recursion theory" since its early days. Robert I. Soare, a prominent researcher in the field, has proposed that the field should be called "computability theory" instead. He argues that Turing's terminology using th... | Computability theory | Wikipedia | 439 | 155414 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computability%20theory | Mathematics | Discrete mathematics | null |
Corrosion is a natural process that converts a refined metal into a more chemically stable oxide. It is the gradual deterioration of materials (usually a metal) by chemical or electrochemical reaction with their environment. Corrosion engineering is the field dedicated to controlling and preventing corrosion.
In the m... | Corrosion | Wikipedia | 466 | 155443 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrosion | Physical sciences | Chemical reactions | null |
Galvanic corrosion occurs when two different metals have physical or electrical contact with each other and are immersed in a common electrolyte, or when the same metal is exposed to electrolyte with different concentrations. In a galvanic couple, the more active metal (the anode) corrodes at an accelerated rate and th... | Corrosion | Wikipedia | 489 | 155443 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrosion | Physical sciences | Chemical reactions | null |
Resistance to corrosion
Some metals are more intrinsically resistant to corrosion than others (for some examples, see galvanic series). There are various ways of protecting metals from corrosion (oxidation) including painting, hot-dip galvanization, cathodic protection, and combinations of these.
Intrinsic chemistry ... | Corrosion | Wikipedia | 371 | 155443 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrosion | Physical sciences | Chemical reactions | null |
Passivation is primarily determined by metallurgical and environmental factors. The effect of pH is summarized using Pourbaix diagrams, but many other factors are influential. Some conditions that inhibit passivation include high pH for aluminium and zinc, low pH or the presence of chloride ions for stainless steel, hi... | Corrosion | Wikipedia | 380 | 155443 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrosion | Physical sciences | Chemical reactions | null |
Certain conditions, such as low concentrations of oxygen or high concentrations of species such as chloride which compete as anions, can interfere with a given alloy's ability to re-form a passivating film. In the worst case, almost all of the surface will remain protected, but tiny local fluctuations will degrade the ... | Corrosion | Wikipedia | 506 | 155443 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrosion | Physical sciences | Chemical reactions | null |
A stainless steel is said to be "sensitized" if chromium carbides are formed in the microstructure. A typical microstructure of a normalized type 304 stainless steel shows no signs of sensitization, while a heavily sensitized steel shows the presence of grain boundary precipitates. The dark lines in the sensitized micr... | Corrosion | Wikipedia | 366 | 155443 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrosion | Physical sciences | Chemical reactions | null |
Hydrogen grooving
In the chemical industry, hydrogen grooving is the corrosion of piping at grooves created by the interaction of a corrosive agent, corroded pipe constituents, and hydrogen gas bubbles. For example, when sulfuric acid () flows through steel pipes, the iron in the steel reacts with the acid to form a p... | Corrosion | Wikipedia | 402 | 155443 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrosion | Physical sciences | Chemical reactions | null |
Microbial corrosion, or commonly known as microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC), is a corrosion caused or promoted by microorganisms, usually chemoautotrophs. It can apply to both metallic and non-metallic materials, in the presence or absence of oxygen. Sulfate-reducing bacteria are active in the absence of oxy... | Corrosion | Wikipedia | 480 | 155443 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrosion | Physical sciences | Chemical reactions | null |
Various treatments are used to slow corrosion damage to metallic objects which are exposed to the weather, salt water, acids, or other hostile environments. Some unprotected metallic alloys are extremely vulnerable to corrosion, such as those used in neodymium magnets, which can spall or crumble into powder even in dry... | Corrosion | Wikipedia | 407 | 155443 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrosion | Physical sciences | Chemical reactions | null |
Reactive coatings
If the environment is controlled (especially in recirculating systems), corrosion inhibitors can often be added to it. These chemicals form an electrically insulating or chemically impermeable coating on exposed metal surfaces, to suppress electrochemical reactions. Such methods make the system less ... | Corrosion | Wikipedia | 471 | 155443 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrosion | Physical sciences | Chemical reactions | null |
Cathodic protection (CP) is a technique to control the corrosion of a metal surface by making it the cathode of an electrochemical cell. Cathodic protection systems are most commonly used to protect steel pipelines and tanks; steel pier piles, ships, and offshore oil platforms.
Sacrificial anode protection
For effe... | Corrosion | Wikipedia | 459 | 155443 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrosion | Physical sciences | Chemical reactions | null |
Anodic protection impresses anodic current on the structure to be protected (opposite to the cathodic protection). It is appropriate for metals that exhibit passivity (e.g. stainless steel) and suitably small passive current over a wide range of potentials. It is used in aggressive environments, such as solutions of su... | Corrosion | Wikipedia | 366 | 155443 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrosion | Physical sciences | Chemical reactions | null |
Rust is one of the most common causes of bridge accidents. As rust displaces a much higher volume than the originating mass of iron, its build-up can also cause failure by forcing apart adjacent components. It was the cause of the collapse of the Mianus River Bridge in 1983, when support bearings rusted internally and ... | Corrosion | Wikipedia | 494 | 155443 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrosion | Physical sciences | Chemical reactions | null |
Polymer degradation involves several complex and often poorly understood physiochemical processes. These are strikingly different from the other processes discussed here, and so the term "corrosion" is only applied to them in a loose sense of the word. Because of their large molecular weight, very little entropy can be... | Corrosion | Wikipedia | 449 | 155443 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrosion | Physical sciences | Chemical reactions | null |
Mathematically, corrosion rates of glasses are characterized by normalized corrosion rates of elements (g/cm2·d) which are determined as the ratio of total amount of released species into the water (g) to the water-contacting surface area (cm2), time of contact (days), and weight fraction content of the element in ... | Corrosion | Wikipedia | 483 | 155443 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrosion | Physical sciences | Chemical reactions | null |
The standard procedure ISO 719 describes a test of the extraction of water-soluble basic compounds under neutral conditions: 2 g of glass, particle size 300–500 μm, is kept for 60 min in 50 mL de-ionized water of grade 2 at 98 °C; 25 mL of the obtained solution is titrated against 0.01 mol/L HCl solution. The volume of... | Corrosion | Wikipedia | 407 | 155443 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrosion | Physical sciences | Chemical reactions | null |
Heritability is a statistic used in the fields of breeding and genetics that estimates the degree of variation in a phenotypic trait in a population that is due to genetic variation between individuals in that population. The concept of heritability can be expressed in the form of the following question: "What is the ... | Heritability | Wikipedia | 314 | 155624 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritability | Biology and health sciences | Genetics | Biology |
Heritability measures the fraction of phenotype variability that can be attributed to genetic variation. This is not the same as saying that this fraction of an individual phenotype is caused by genetics. For example, it is incorrect to say that since the heritability of personality traits is about 0.6, that means that... | Heritability | Wikipedia | 441 | 155624 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritability | Biology and health sciences | Genetics | Biology |
Estimates of heritability use statistical analyses to help to identify the causes of differences between individuals. Since heritability is concerned with variance, it is necessarily an account of the differences between individuals in a population. Heritability can be univariate – examining a single trait – or multiva... | Heritability | Wikipedia | 414 | 155624 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritability | Biology and health sciences | Genetics | Biology |
A particularly important component of the genetic variance is the additive variance, Var(A), which is the variance due to the average effects (additive effects) of the alleles. Since each parent passes a single allele per locus to each offspring, parent-offspring resemblance depends upon the average effect of single al... | Heritability | Wikipedia | 454 | 155624 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritability | Biology and health sciences | Genetics | Biology |
Assumptions
Estimates of the total heritability of human traits assume the absence of epistasis, which has been called the "assumption of additivity". Although some researchers have cited such estimates in support of the existence of "missing heritability" unaccounted for by known genetic loci, the assumption of additi... | Heritability | Wikipedia | 483 | 155624 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritability | Biology and health sciences | Genetics | Biology |
Studies of human heritability often utilize adoption study designs, often with identical twins who have been separated early in life and raised in different environments. Such individuals have identical genotypes and can be used to separate the effects of genotype and environment. A limit of this design is the common p... | Heritability | Wikipedia | 410 | 155624 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritability | Biology and health sciences | Genetics | Biology |
Sibling comparison
A basic approach to heritability can be taken using full-Sib designs: comparing similarity between siblings who share both a biological mother and a father. When there is only additive gene action, this sibling phenotypic correlation is an index of familiarity – the sum of half the additive genetic v... | Heritability | Wikipedia | 502 | 155624 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritability | Biology and health sciences | Genetics | Biology |
Intraclass correlations
Consider the experiment above. We have two groups of progeny we can compare. The first is comparing the various progeny for an individual sire (called within sire group). The variance will include terms for genetic variance (since they did not all get the same genotype) and environmental varianc... | Heritability | Wikipedia | 452 | 155624 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritability | Biology and health sciences | Genetics | Biology |
Linear mixed models
A wide variety of approaches using linear mixed models have been reported in literature. Via these methods, phenotypic variance is partitioned into genetic, environmental and experimental design variances to estimate heritability. Environmental variance can be explicitly modeled by studying individu... | Heritability | Wikipedia | 490 | 155624 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritability | Biology and health sciences | Genetics | Biology |
When genome-wide genotype data and phenotypes from large population samples are available, one can estimate the relationships between individuals based on their genotypes and use a linear mixed model to estimate the variance explained by the genetic markers. This gives a genomic heritability estimate based on the varia... | Heritability | Wikipedia | 401 | 155624 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritability | Biology and health sciences | Genetics | Biology |
Heritability estimates' prominent critics, such as Steven Rose, Jay Joseph, and Richard Bentall, focus largely on heritability estimates in behavioral sciences and social sciences. Bentall has claimed that such heritability scores are typically calculated counterintuitively to derive numerically high scores, that heri... | Heritability | Wikipedia | 383 | 155624 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritability | Biology and health sciences | Genetics | Biology |
Penetrance in genetics is the proportion of individuals carrying a particular variant (or allele) of a gene (genotype) that also expresses an associated trait (phenotype). In medical genetics, the penetrance of a disease-causing mutation is the proportion of individuals with the mutation that exhibit clinical symptoms ... | Penetrance | Wikipedia | 491 | 155625 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penetrance | Biology and health sciences | Genetics | Biology |
Factors affecting penetrance
Many factors such as age, sex, environment, epigenetic modifiers, and modifier genes are linked to penetrance. These factors can help explain why certain individuals with a specific genotype exhibit symptoms or signs of disease, whilst others do not.
Age-dependent penetrance
If clinical ... | Penetrance | Wikipedia | 414 | 155625 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penetrance | Biology and health sciences | Genetics | Biology |
In cases where clinical symptoms or the phenotype related to a genetic mutation are present only in one sex, the disorder is said to be sex-limited. Familial male-limited precocious puberty (FMPP) caused by a mutation in the LHCGR gene, is an example of a genotype only penetrant in males. Meaning that males with this p... | Penetrance | Wikipedia | 511 | 155625 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penetrance | Biology and health sciences | Genetics | Biology |
Determining penetrance
It can be challenging to estimate the penetrance of a specific genotype due to all the influencing factors. In addition to the factors mentioned above there are several other considerations that must be taken into account when penetrance is determined:
Ascertainment bias
Penetrance estimates c... | Penetrance | Wikipedia | 432 | 155625 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penetrance | Biology and health sciences | Genetics | Biology |
For example, new research on Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy (HCM) based on a technique called Cardiac Magnetic Resonance (CMR), describes how various genetic illnesses that showcase the same phenotypic traits as HCM, are actually phenocopies. Previously these phenocopies were all diagnosed and treated, thought to arrive f... | Penetrance | Wikipedia | 112 | 155625 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penetrance | Biology and health sciences | Genetics | Biology |
Ibuprofen is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) that is used to relieve pain, fever, and inflammation. This includes painful menstrual periods, migraines, and rheumatoid arthritis. It may also be used to close a patent ductus arteriosus in a premature baby. It can be taken orally (by mouth) or intravenously.... | Ibuprofen | Wikipedia | 390 | 155627 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibuprofen | Biology and health sciences | Pain treatments | Health |
Ibuprofen is used primarily to treat fever (including postvaccination fever), mild to moderate pain (including pain relief after surgery), painful menstruation, osteoarthritis, dental pain, headaches, and pain from kidney stones. About 60% of people respond to any NSAID; those who do not respond well to a particular on... | Ibuprofen | Wikipedia | 508 | 155627 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibuprofen | Biology and health sciences | Pain treatments | Health |
In October 2020, the U.S. FDA required the drug label to be updated for all NSAID medications to describe the risk of kidney problems in unborn babies that result in low amniotic fluid.
Cardiovascular risk
Along with several other NSAIDs, chronic ibuprofen use is correlated with the risk of progression to hypertension... | Ibuprofen | Wikipedia | 501 | 155627 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibuprofen | Biology and health sciences | Pain treatments | Health |
Paracetamol (acetaminophen)
Ibuprofen combined with paracetamol is considered generally safe in children for short-term usage.
Overdose
Ibuprofen overdose has become common since it was licensed for over-the-counter (OTC) use. Many overdose experiences are reported in the medical literature, although the frequency of... | Ibuprofen | Wikipedia | 367 | 155627 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibuprofen | Biology and health sciences | Pain treatments | Health |
Treatment to address an ibuprofen overdose is based on how the symptoms present. In cases presenting early, decontamination of the stomach is recommended. This is achieved using activated charcoal; charcoal absorbs the drug before it can enter the bloodstream. Gastric lavage is now rarely used, but can be considered if... | Ibuprofen | Wikipedia | 377 | 155627 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibuprofen | Biology and health sciences | Pain treatments | Health |
Like aspirin and indomethacin, ibuprofen is a nonselective COX inhibitor, in that it inhibits two isoforms of cyclooxygenase, COX-1 and COX-2. The analgesic, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory activity of NSAIDs appears to operate mainly through inhibition of COX-2, which decreases the synthesis of prostaglandins invol... | Ibuprofen | Wikipedia | 493 | 155627 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibuprofen | Biology and health sciences | Pain treatments | Health |
Pharmacokinetics
After oral administration, peak serum concentration is reached after 12 hours, and up to 99% of the drug is bound to plasma proteins. The majority of ibuprofen is metabolized and eliminated within 24 hours in the urine; however, 1% of the unchanged drug is removed through biliary excretion.
Chemistry
... | Ibuprofen | Wikipedia | 511 | 155627 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibuprofen | Biology and health sciences | Pain treatments | Health |
(S)-ibuprofen, the eutomer, harbors the desired therapeutic activity. The inactive (R)-enantiomer, the distomer, undergoes a unidirectional chiral inversion to offer the active (S)-enantiomer. That is, when the ibuprofen is administered as a racemate the distomer is converted in vivo into the eutomer while the latter i... | Ibuprofen | Wikipedia | 486 | 155627 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibuprofen | Biology and health sciences | Pain treatments | Health |
In 2009, the first injectable formulation of ibuprofen was approved in the United States, under the brand name Caldolor.
Ibuprofen can be taken orally (by mouth) (as a tablet, a capsule, or a suspension) and intravenously.
Research
Ibuprofen is sometimes used for the treatment of acne because of its anti-inflammatory... | Ibuprofen | Wikipedia | 458 | 155627 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibuprofen | Biology and health sciences | Pain treatments | Health |
Ibuprofen lysine is sold for rapid pain relief; given in the form of its lysine salt, absorption is much quicker (35 minutes for the salt compared to 90120 minutes for ibuprofen). However, a clinical trial with 351 participants in 2020, funded by Sanofi, found no significant difference between ibuprofen and ibuprofen l... | Ibuprofen | Wikipedia | 94 | 155627 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibuprofen | Biology and health sciences | Pain treatments | Health |
Fluoride () is an inorganic, monatomic anion of fluorine, with the chemical formula (also written ), whose salts are typically white or colorless. Fluoride salts typically have distinctive bitter tastes, and are odorless. Its salts and minerals are important chemical reagents and industrial chemicals, mainly used in t... | Fluoride | Wikipedia | 444 | 155650 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluoride | Physical sciences | Halide salts | Chemistry |
Fluoride is naturally present in groundwater, fresh and saltwater sources, as well as in rainwater, particularly in urban areas. Seawater fluoride levels are usually in the range of 0.86 to 1.4 mg/L, and average 1.1 mg/L (milligrams per litre). For comparison, chloride concentration in seawater is about 19 g/L. The low... | Fluoride | Wikipedia | 510 | 155650 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluoride | Physical sciences | Halide salts | Chemistry |
However, upon prolonged contact with moisture, soluble fluoride salts will decompose to their respective hydroxides or oxides, as the hydrogen fluoride escapes. Fluoride is distinct in this regard among the halides. The identity of the solvent can have a dramatic effect on the equilibrium shifting it to the right-hand ... | Fluoride | Wikipedia | 368 | 155650 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluoride | Physical sciences | Halide salts | Chemistry |
Naked fluoride
Most fluoride salts dissolve to give the bifluoride () anion. Sources of true F− anions are rare because the highly basic fluoride anion abstracts protons from many, even adventitious, sources. Relative unsolvated fluoride, which does exist in aprotic solvents, is called "naked". Naked fluoride is a stro... | Fluoride | Wikipedia | 254 | 155650 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluoride | Physical sciences | Halide salts | Chemistry |
Biochemistry
At physiological pHs, hydrogen fluoride is usually fully ionised to fluoride. In biochemistry, fluoride and hydrogen fluoride are equivalent. Fluorine, in the form of fluoride, is considered to be a micronutrient for human health, necessary to prevent dental cavities, and to promote healthy bone growth. T... | Fluoride | Wikipedia | 475 | 155650 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluoride | Physical sciences | Halide salts | Chemistry |
Production of metals and their compounds
The main uses of fluoride, in terms of volume, are in the production of cryolite, Na3AlF6. It is used in aluminium smelting. Formerly, it was mined, but now it is derived from hydrogen fluoride. Fluorite is used on a large scale to separate slag in steel-making. Mined fluorite (... | Fluoride | Wikipedia | 483 | 155650 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluoride | Physical sciences | Halide salts | Chemistry |
Dietary recommendations
The U.S. Institute of Medicine (IOM) updated Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) and Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for some minerals in 1997. Where there was not sufficient information to establish EARs and RDAs, an estimate designated Adequate Intake (AI) was used instead. AIs are typ... | Fluoride | Wikipedia | 463 | 155650 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluoride | Physical sciences | Halide salts | Chemistry |
Estimated daily intake
Daily intakes of fluoride can vary significantly according to the various sources of exposure. Values ranging from 0.46 to 3.6–5.4 mg/day have been reported in several studies (IPCS, 1984). In areas where water is fluoridated this can be expected to be a significant source of fluoride, however fl... | Fluoride | Wikipedia | 484 | 155650 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluoride | Physical sciences | Halide salts | Chemistry |
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