Split (1)

train · 123k rows

text stringlengths 26 3.6k	page_title stringlengths 1 71	source stringclasses 1 value	token_count int64 10 512	id stringlengths 2 8	url stringlengths 31 117	topic stringclasses 4 values	section stringlengths 4 49 ⌀	sublist stringclasses 9 values
Conceptual means Invention is often a creative process. An open and curious mind allows an inventor to see beyond what is known. Seeing a new possibility, connection or relationship can spark an invention. Inventive thinking frequently involves combining concepts or elements from different realms that would not norma...	Invention	Wikipedia	500	44312	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invention	Technology	Technology: General	null
Invention is often an exploratory process with an uncertain or unknown outcome. There are failures as well as successes. Inspiration can start the process, but no matter how complete the initial idea, inventions typically must be developed. Improvement Inventors may, for example, try to improve something by making it...	Invention	Wikipedia	361	44312	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invention	Technology	Technology: General	null
In Europe, the first test a patent application must pass is, "Is this an invention?" If it is, subsequent questions are whether it is new and sufficiently inventive. The implication—counter-intuitively—is that a legal invention is not inherently novel. Whether a patent application relates to an invention is governed by...	Invention	Wikipedia	477	44312	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invention	Technology	Technology: General	null
Some inventions in art include the: Collage and construction invented by Picasso Readymade art invented by Marcel Duchamp mobile invented by Alexander Calder Combine invented by Robert Rauschenberg Shaped painting invented by Frank Stella Motion picture, the invention of which is attributed to Eadweard Muybridge ...	Invention	Wikipedia	456	44312	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invention	Technology	Technology: General	null
Clovers, also called trefoils, are plants of the genus Trifolium (), consisting of about 300 species of flowering plants in the legume family Fabaceae originating in Europe. The genus has a cosmopolitan distribution with the highest diversity in the temperate Northern Hemisphere, but many species also occur in South Am...	Clover	Wikipedia	422	44344	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clover	Biology and health sciences	Fabales	Plants
Imports of guano and the development of the Haber-Bosch process in the 20th century substantially displaced clover as a crop, with negative effects on pollinators, but in the 1990s and 2010s, the cost of industrially-fixed nitrogen rose substantially, approximately doubling, and reviving interest in forage mixes that i...	Clover	Wikipedia	423	44344	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clover	Biology and health sciences	Fabales	Plants
Trifolium repens, white or Dutch clover, is a perennial abundant in meadows and good pastures. The flowers are white or pinkish, becoming brown and deflexed as the corolla fades. Trifolium hybridum, alsike or Swedish clover, is a perennial which was introduced early in the 19th century and has now become naturalized in...	Clover	Wikipedia	451	44344	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clover	Biology and health sciences	Fabales	Plants
The record for most leaflets is 63, set on August 2, 2023, by Yoshiharu Watanabe in Japan. The previous record holder, Shigeo Obara, had discovered an 18-leaf clover in 2002, a 21-leaf clover in 2008 and a 56-leaf clover in 2009, also in Japan. A common idiom is "to be (or to live) in clover", meaning to live a carefr...	Clover	Wikipedia	173	44344	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clover	Biology and health sciences	Fabales	Plants
Phylogeny The first extensive classification of Trifolium had been done by Michael Zohary and David Heller, and it was subsequently released in 1984. They divided the genus into eight sections: Lotoidea, Paramesus, Mistyllus, Vesicamridula, Chronosemium, Trifolium, Trichoecephalum, and Involucrarium, with Lotoidea pla...	Clover	Wikipedia	379	44344	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clover	Biology and health sciences	Fabales	Plants
Trifolium absconditum Trifolium acaule Steud. ex A.Rich. Trifolium affine C.Presl Trifolium acutiflorum Trifolium × adulterinum Trifolium affine Trifolium africanum Ser. Trifolium aintabense Boiss. & Hausskn. Trifolium albopurpureum Torr. & A. Gray – rancheria clover Trifolium alexandrinum L. – Egyptian cl...	Clover	Wikipedia	512	44344	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clover	Biology and health sciences	Fabales	Plants
Trifolium bolanderi A.Gray Trifolium bordsilovskyi Trifolium brandegeei S.Watson Trifolium breweri S. Watson – forest clover Trifolium brutium Ten. Trifolium buckwestiorum Isely – Santa Cruz clover Trifolium bullatum Boiss. & Hausskn. Trifolium burchellianum Ser. Trifolium calcaricum J.L.Collins & Wieboldt Tr...	Clover	Wikipedia	512	44344	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clover	Biology and health sciences	Fabales	Plants
Trifolium eriocephalum Nutt. – woollyhead clover Trifolium eriosphaerum Boiss. Trifolium erubescens Fenzl Trifolium euxinum Zohary Trifolium eximium Stephan ex Ser. Trifolium farayense Trifolium fergan-karaeri Trifolium fontanum Trifolium fragiferum L. – strawberry clover Trifolium friscanum (S.L.Welsh) S.L...	Clover	Wikipedia	512	44344	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clover	Biology and health sciences	Fabales	Plants
Trifolium leucanthum M.Bieb. Trifolium ligusticum Balb. ex Loisel. Trifolium longidentatum Nábelek Trifolium longipes Nutt. – longstalk clover Trifolium lucanicum Gasp. Trifolium lugardii Bullock Trifolium lupinaster L. Trifolium macilentum Greene Trifolium macraei Hook. & Arn. – Chilean clover, double-head clo...	Clover	Wikipedia	502	44344	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clover	Biology and health sciences	Fabales	Plants
Trifolium pallidum Waldst. & Kit. Trifolium palmeri Trifolium pamphylicum Trifolium pannonicum Jacq. – Hungarian clover Trifolium parnassi Boiss. & Spruner Trifolium parryi A.Gray Trifolium patens Schreb. Trifolium patulum Tausch Trifolium pauciflorum d'Urv. Trifolium × permixtum Trifolium peruvianum Vogel...	Clover	Wikipedia	509	44344	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clover	Biology and health sciences	Fabales	Plants
Trifolium rubens L. Trifolium rueppellianum Fresen. Trifolium salmoneum Mouterde Trifolium sannineum Trifolium sarosiense Trifolium saxatile All. Trifolium scabrum L. Trifolium schimperi (Hochst.) A.Rich. Trifolium schneideri Trifolium × schwarzii Trifolium scutatum Boiss. Trifolium sebastiani Savi Trif...	Clover	Wikipedia	511	44344	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clover	Biology and health sciences	Fabales	Plants
Trifolium vernum Phil. Trifolium vesiculosum Savi Trifolium vestitum D.Heller & Zohary Trifolium virginicum Small Trifolium wentzelianum Harms Trifolium wettsteinii Dörfl. & Hayek Trifolium wigginsii J. M. Gillett Trifolium willdenovii Spreng. − tomcat clover Trifolium wormskioldii Lehm. – cow clover Trifolium...	Clover	Wikipedia	106	44344	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clover	Biology and health sciences	Fabales	Plants
The shallot is a cultivar group of the onion. Until 2010, the (French red) shallot was classified as a separate species, Allium ascalonicum. The taxon was synonymized with Allium cepa (the common onion) in 2010, as the difference was too small to justify a separate species. As part of the onion genus Allium, its close...	Shallot	Wikipedia	448	44346	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shallot	Biology and health sciences	Root vegetables	Plants
Shallots are extensively cultivated for culinary uses, propagated by offsets. In some regions ("long-season areas"), the offsets are usually planted in autumn (September or October in the Northern Hemisphere). In some other regions, the suggested planting time for the principal crop is early spring (typically in Februa...	Shallot	Wikipedia	455	44346	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shallot	Biology and health sciences	Root vegetables	Plants
In most Indian cuisines, the distinction between onions and shallots is weak; larger varieties of shallot are sometimes confused with small red onions and used interchangeably. Indeed, most parts of India use the regional name for onion interchangeably with shallot (Maharashtra, for instance, where both are called kand...	Shallot	Wikipedia	328	44346	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shallot	Biology and health sciences	Root vegetables	Plants
In Southeast Asian cuisines, such as those of Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Brunei, both shallots and garlic are often used as elementary spices. Raw shallots can also accompany cucumbers when pickled in mild vinegar solution. They are also often chopped finely, then fried...	Shallot	Wikipedia	235	44346	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shallot	Biology and health sciences	Root vegetables	Plants
In physics, Wien's displacement law states that the black-body radiation curve for different temperatures will peak at different wavelengths that are inversely proportional to the temperature. The shift of that peak is a direct consequence of the Planck radiation law, which describes the spectral brightness or intensit...	Wien's displacement law	Wikipedia	399	44363	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wien%27s%20displacement%20law	Physical sciences	Thermodynamics	Physics
A piece of metal heated by a blow torch first becomes "red hot" as the very longest visible wavelengths appear red, then becomes more orange-red as the temperature is increased, and at very high temperatures would be described as "white hot" as shorter and shorter wavelengths come to predominate the black body emission...	Wien's displacement law	Wikipedia	430	44363	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wien%27s%20displacement%20law	Physical sciences	Thermodynamics	Physics
The preponderance of emission in the visible range, however, is not the case in most stars. The hot supergiant Rigel emits 60% of its light in the ultraviolet, while the cool supergiant Betelgeuse emits 85% of its light at infrared wavelengths. With both stars prominent in the constellation of Orion, one can easily app...	Wien's displacement law	Wikipedia	353	44363	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wien%27s%20displacement%20law	Physical sciences	Thermodynamics	Physics
Discovery The law is named for Wilhelm Wien, who derived it in 1893 based on a thermodynamic argument. Wien considered adiabatic expansion of a cavity containing waves of light in thermal equilibrium. Using Doppler's principle, he showed that, under slow expansion or contraction, the energy of light reflecting off the ...	Wien's displacement law	Wikipedia	494	44363	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wien%27s%20displacement%20law	Physical sciences	Thermodynamics	Physics
Notice that for a given temperature, different parameterizations imply different maximal wavelengths. In particular, the curve of intensity per unit frequency peaks at a different wavelength than the curve of intensity per unit wavelength. For example, using and parameterization by wavelength, the wavelength for maxi...	Wien's displacement law	Wikipedia	512	44363	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wien%27s%20displacement%20law	Physical sciences	Thermodynamics	Physics
Parameterization by wavelength Planck's law for the spectrum of black-body radiation predicts the Wien displacement law and may be used to numerically evaluate the constant relating temperature and the peak parameter value for any particular parameterization. Commonly a wavelength parameterization is used and in that c...	Wien's displacement law	Wikipedia	490	44363	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wien%27s%20displacement%20law	Physical sciences	Thermodynamics	Physics
They suggest that the average photon energy be presented in place of Wien's displacement law, as being a more physically meaningful indicator of changes that occur with changing temperature. In connection with this, they recommend that the average number of photons per second be discussed in connection with the Stefan–...	Wien's displacement law	Wikipedia	96	44363	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wien%27s%20displacement%20law	Physical sciences	Thermodynamics	Physics
A black body or blackbody is an idealized physical body that absorbs all incident electromagnetic radiation, regardless of frequency or angle of incidence. The radiation emitted by a black body in thermal equilibrium with its environment is called black-body radiation. The name "black body" is given because it absorbs ...	Black body	Wikipedia	417	44364	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20body	Physical sciences	Thermodynamics	Physics
Cavity with a hole A widely used model of a black surface is a small hole in a cavity with walls that are opaque to radiation. Radiation incident on the hole will pass into the cavity, and is very unlikely to be re-emitted if the cavity is large. Lack of any re-emission, means that the hole is behaving like a perfect...	Black body	Wikipedia	497	44364	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20body	Physical sciences	Thermodynamics	Physics
Transmission, absorption, and reflection A body's behavior with regard to thermal radiation is characterized by its transmission τ, absorption α, and reflection ρ. The boundary of a body forms an interface with its surroundings, and this interface may be rough or smooth. A nonreflecting interface separating regions ...	Black body	Wikipedia	477	44364	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20body	Physical sciences	Thermodynamics	Physics
Cavity with a hole In 1898, Otto Lummer and Ferdinand Kurlbaum published an account of their cavity radiation source. Their design has been used largely unchanged for radiation measurements to the present day. It was a hole in the wall of a platinum box, divided by diaphragms, with its interior blackened with iron oxi...	Black body	Wikipedia	111	44364	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20body	Physical sciences	Thermodynamics	Physics
A typewriter is a mechanical or electromechanical machine for typing characters. Typically, a typewriter has an array of keys, and each one causes a different single character to be produced on paper by striking an inked ribbon selectively against the paper with a type element. Thereby, the machine produces a legible w...	Typewriter	Wikipedia	437	44365	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typewriter	Technology	Media and communication	null
In 1575, an Italian printmaker, Francesco Rampazetto, invented the , a machine to impress letters in papers. In 1714, Henry Mill obtained a patent in Britain for a machine that, from the patent, appears to have been similar to a typewriter. The patent shows that this machine was created: "[he] hath by his great study ...	Typewriter	Wikipedia	427	44365	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typewriter	Technology	Media and communication	null
American Charles Thurber developed multiple patents, of which his first in 1843 was created as an aid to blind people, such as the 1845 Chirographer. In 1855, the Italian Giuseppe Ravizza created a prototype typewriter called Cembalo scrivano o macchina da scrivere a tasti ("Scribe harpsichord, or machine for writing ...	Typewriter	Wikipedia	392	44365	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typewriter	Technology	Media and communication	null
Malling-Hansen developed his typewriter further through the 1870s and 1880s and made many improvements, but the writing head remained the same. On the first model of the writing ball from 1870, the paper was attached to a cylinder inside a wooden box. In 1874, the cylinder was replaced by a carriage, moving beneath the...	Typewriter	Wikipedia	424	44365	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typewriter	Technology	Media and communication	null
The index typewriter was briefly popular in niche markets. Although they were slower than keyboard type machines, they were mechanically simpler and lighter. They were therefore marketed as being suitable for travellers and, because they could be produced more cheaply than keyboard machines, as budget machines for user...	Typewriter	Wikipedia	390	44365	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typewriter	Technology	Media and communication	null
1884 – Hammond "Ideal" typewriter with case, by Hammond Typewriter Company Limited, United States. Despite an unusual, curved keyboard (see picture in citation), the Hammond became popular because of its superior print quality and changeable typeface. Invented by James Hammond of Boston, Massachusetts in 1880, and comm...	Typewriter	Wikipedia	471	44365	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typewriter	Technology	Media and communication	null
Standardization By about 1910, the "manual" or "mechanical" typewriter had reached a somewhat standardized design. There were minor variations from one manufacturer to another, but most typewriters followed the concept that each key was attached to a typebar that had the corresponding letter molded, in reverse, into i...	Typewriter	Wikipedia	512	44365	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typewriter	Technology	Media and communication	null
Shift key A significant innovation was the shift key, introduced with the Remington No. 2 in 1878. This key physically "shifted" either the basket of typebars, in which case the typewriter is described as "basket shift", or the paper-holding carriage, in which case the typewriter is described as "carriage shift". Eit...	Typewriter	Wikipedia	406	44365	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typewriter	Technology	Media and communication	null
To facilitate typewriter use in business settings, a tab (tabulator) key was added in the late nineteenth century. Before using the key, the operator had to set mechanical "tab stops", pre-designated locations to which the carriage would advance when the tab key was pressed. This facilitated the typing of columns of nu...	Typewriter	Wikipedia	482	44365	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typewriter	Technology	Media and communication	null
Color Some ribbons were inked in black and red stripes, each being half the width and running the entire length of the ribbon. A lever on most machines allowed switching between colors, which was useful for bookkeeping entries where negative amounts were highlighted in red. The red color was also used on some selected...	Typewriter	Wikipedia	457	44365	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typewriter	Technology	Media and communication	null
Electric designs Although electric typewriters would not achieve widespread popularity until nearly a century later, the basic groundwork for the electric typewriter was laid by the Universal Stock Ticker, invented by Thomas Edison in 1870. This device remotely printed letters and numbers on a stream of paper tape fro...	Typewriter	Wikipedia	447	44365	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typewriter	Technology	Media and communication	null
In 1928, Delco, a division of General Motors, purchased Northeast Electric, and the typewriter business was spun off as Electromatic Typewriters, Inc. In 1933, Electromatic was acquired by IBM, which then spent $1 million on a redesign of the Electromatic Typewriter, launching the IBM Electric Typewriter Model 01. In ...	Typewriter	Wikipedia	449	44365	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typewriter	Technology	Media and communication	null
Later models of IBM Executives and Selectrics replaced inked fabric ribbons with "carbon film" ribbons that had a dry black or colored powder on a clear plastic tape. These could be used only once, but later models used a cartridge that was simple to replace. A side effect of this technology was that the text typed on ...	Typewriter	Wikipedia	488	44365	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typewriter	Technology	Media and communication	null
By 1970, as offset printing began to replace letterpress printing, the Composer would be adapted as the output unit for a phototypesetting system. The system included a computer-driven input station to capture the key strokes on magnetic tape and insert the operator's format commands, and a Composer unit to read the ta...	Typewriter	Wikipedia	386	44365	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typewriter	Technology	Media and communication	null
Unlike the Selectrics and earlier models, these really were "electronic" and relied on integrated circuits and electromechanical components. These typewriters were sometimes called display typewriters, dedicated word processors or word-processing typewriters, though the latter term was also frequently applied to less s...	Typewriter	Wikipedia	415	44365	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typewriter	Technology	Media and communication	null
A rather specialized market for typewriters exists due to the regulations of many correctional systems in the US, where prisoners are prohibited from having computers or telecommunication equipment, but are allowed to own typewriters. The Swintec corporation (headquartered in Moonachie, New Jersey), which, as of 2011, ...	Typewriter	Wikipedia	442	44365	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typewriter	Technology	Media and communication	null
The traditional erasing method involved the use of a special typewriter eraser made of hard rubber that contained an abrasive material. Some were thin, flat disks, pink or gray, approximately in diameter by thick, with a brush attached from the center, while others looked like pink pencils, with a sharpenable eraser ...	Typewriter	Wikipedia	432	44365	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typewriter	Technology	Media and communication	null
In the 1950s and 1960s, correction fluid made its appearance, under brand names such as Liquid Paper, Wite-Out and Tipp-Ex; it was invented by Bette Nesmith Graham. Correction fluid was a kind of opaque, white, fast-drying paint that produced a fresh white surface onto which, when dry, a correction could be retyped. Ho...	Typewriter	Wikipedia	423	44365	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typewriter	Technology	Media and communication	null
Other layouts for English A number of radically different layouts such as Dvorak have been proposed to reduce the perceived inefficiencies of QWERTY, but none have been able to displace the QWERTY layout; their proponents claim considerable advantages, but so far none has been widely used. The Blickensderfer typewrite...	Typewriter	Wikipedia	467	44365	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typewriter	Technology	Media and communication	null
Other examples of typewriter practices that are sometimes still used in desktop publishing systems include inserting a double space between sentences, and the use of the typewriter apostrophe, , and straight quotes, , as quotation marks and prime marks. The practice of underlining text in place of italics and the use o...	Typewriter	Wikipedia	246	44365	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typewriter	Technology	Media and communication	null
backspace (BS) – a keystroke that moved the cursor backwards one position (on a typewriter, this moved the physical platen backwards), to enable a character to be overtyped. Originally this was used to combine characters (for example, the sequence , backspace, to make ). Subsequently it facilitated "erase and retype" ...	Typewriter	Wikipedia	496	44365	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typewriter	Technology	Media and communication	null
line feed (LF), also called "newline" – Whereas most typewriters rolled the paper forward automatically on a "carriage return), this is an explicit control character on computer systems that moves the cursor to the next on-screen line of text. (But not to the beginning of that line a CR is also needed if that effect is...	Typewriter	Wikipedia	320	44365	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typewriter	Technology	Media and communication	null
Social effects When Remington started marketing typewriters, the company assumed the machine would not be used for composing but for transcribing dictation, and that the person typing would be a woman. The 1800s Sholes and Glidden typewriter had floral ornamentation on the case. During World Wars I and II, increasin...	Typewriter	Wikipedia	480	44365	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typewriter	Technology	Media and communication	null
Early adopters Henry James dictated to a typist. Mark Twain claimed in his autobiography that he was the first important writer to present a publisher with a typewritten manuscript, for The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876). Research showed that Twain's memory was incorrect and that the first book submitted in typed f...	Typewriter	Wikipedia	465	44365	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typewriter	Technology	Media and communication	null
Richard Polt, a philosophy professor at Xavier University in Cincinnati who collects typewriters, has edited ETCetera, a quarterly magazine about historic writing machines, and is the author of the book The Typewriter Revolution: A Typist's Companion for the 21st Century. William Gibson used a Hermes 2000 model manual...	Typewriter	Wikipedia	407	44365	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typewriter	Technology	Media and communication	null
Erik Satie's 1917 score for the ballet Parade includes a "Mach. à écrire" as a percussion instrument, along with (elsewhere) a roulette wheel and a pistol. The composer Leroy Anderson wrote The Typewriter (1950) for orchestra and typewriter, and it has since been used as the theme for numerous radio programs. The solo...	Typewriter	Wikipedia	464	44365	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typewriter	Technology	Media and communication	null
The determination of a make and/or model of typewriter is a 'classification' problem and several systems have been developed for this purpose. These include the original Haas Typewriter Atlases (Pica version) and (Non-Pica version) and the TYPE system developed by Philip Bouffard, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police's Te...	Typewriter	Wikipedia	503	44365	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typewriter	Technology	Media and communication	null
Collections Public and private collections of typewriters exist around the world, including: Schreibmaschinenmuseum Peter Mitterhofer (Parcines, Italy) Museo della Macchina da Scrivere (Milan, Italy) Liverpool Typewriter Museum (Liverpool, England) Museum of Printing – MoP (Haverhill, Massachusetts, US) Chestnut Ri...	Typewriter	Wikipedia	215	44365	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typewriter	Technology	Media and communication	null
Triton is the largest natural satellite of the planet Neptune. It is the only moon of Neptune massive enough to be rounded under its own gravity and hosts a thin, hazy atmosphere. Triton orbits Neptune in a retrograde orbit—revolving in the opposite direction to the parent planet's rotation—the only large moon in the S...	Triton (moon)	Wikipedia	493	44371	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triton%20%28moon%29	Physical sciences	Solar System	null
Triton was discovered by British astronomer William Lassell on October 10, 1846, just 17 days after the discovery of Neptune. When John Herschel received news of Neptune's discovery, he wrote to Lassell suggesting he search for possible moons. Lassell discovered Triton eight days later. Lassell also claimed for a perio...	Triton (moon)	Wikipedia	384	44371	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triton%20%28moon%29	Physical sciences	Solar System	null
Triton's orbit is associated with two tilts, the obliquity of Neptune's rotation to Neptune's orbit, 30°, and the inclination of Triton's orbit to Neptune's rotation, 157° (an inclination over 90° indicates retrograde motion). Triton's orbit precesses forward relative to Neptune's rotation with a period of about 678 Ea...	Triton (moon)	Wikipedia	397	44371	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triton%20%28moon%29	Physical sciences	Solar System	null
The current understanding of moons in retrograde orbits means they cannot form in the same region of the solar nebula as the planets they orbit. Therefore Triton must have been captured from elsewhere in the Solar System. Astrophysicists believe it might have originated in the Kuiper belt, a ring of small icy objects ...	Triton (moon)	Wikipedia	451	44371	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triton%20%28moon%29	Physical sciences	Solar System	null
The proposed capture of Triton may explain several features of the Neptunian system, including the extremely eccentric orbit of Neptune's moon Nereid and the scarcity of moons as compared to the other giant planets. Triton's initially eccentric orbit would have intersected the orbits of irregular moons and disrupted th...	Triton (moon)	Wikipedia	409	44371	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triton%20%28moon%29	Physical sciences	Solar System	null
Triton is the seventh-largest moon and sixteenth-largest object in the Solar System and is modestly larger than the dwarf planets Pluto and Eris. It is also the largest retrograde moon in the Solar System. It accounts for more than 99.5% of all the mass known to orbit Neptune, including the planet's rings and fifteen o...	Triton (moon)	Wikipedia	493	44371	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triton%20%28moon%29	Physical sciences	Solar System	null
Because Triton's surface indicates a long history of melting, models of its interior posit that Triton is differentiated, like Earth, into a solid core, a mantle and a crust. Water, the most abundant volatile in the Solar System, comprises Triton's mantle, enveloping a core of rock and metal. There is enough rock in Tr...	Triton (moon)	Wikipedia	349	44371	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triton%20%28moon%29	Physical sciences	Solar System	null
Turbulence at Triton's surface creates a troposphere (a "weather region") rising to an altitude of 8 km. Streaks on Triton's surface left by geyser plumes suggest that the troposphere is driven by seasonal winds capable of moving material over a micrometer in size. Unlike other atmospheres, Triton's lacks a stratospher...	Triton (moon)	Wikipedia	432	44371	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triton%20%28moon%29	Physical sciences	Solar System	null
All detailed knowledge of the surface of Triton was acquired from a distance of 40,000 km by the Voyager 2 spacecraft during a single encounter in 1989. The 40% of Triton's surface imaged by Voyager 2 revealed blocky outcrops, ridges, troughs, furrows, hollows, plateaus, icy plains and a few craters. Triton is relative...	Triton (moon)	Wikipedia	422	44371	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triton%20%28moon%29	Physical sciences	Solar System	null
The Voyager 2 probe in 1989 observed a handful of geyser-like eruptions of nitrogen gas or water and entrained dust from beneath the surface of Triton in plumes up to 8 km high. Triton is thus one of the few bodies in the Solar System on which active eruptions of some sort have been observed. The best-observed examples...	Triton (moon)	Wikipedia	454	44371	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triton%20%28moon%29	Physical sciences	Solar System	null
Triton's south polar region is covered by a highly reflective cap of frozen nitrogen and methane sprinkled by impact craters and openings of geysers. Little is known about the north pole because it was on the night side during the Voyager 2 encounter, but it is thought that Triton must also have a north polar ice cap. ...	Triton (moon)	Wikipedia	478	44371	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triton%20%28moon%29	Physical sciences	Solar System	null
Triton's western hemisphere consists of a strange series of fissures and depressions known as "cantaloupe terrain" because it resembles the skin of a cantaloupe melon. Although it has few craters, it is thought that this is the oldest terrain on Triton. It probably covers much of Triton's western half. Cantaloupe terr...	Triton (moon)	Wikipedia	461	44371	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triton%20%28moon%29	Physical sciences	Solar System	null
The orbital properties of Triton were already determined with high accuracy in the 19th century. It was found to have a retrograde orbit, at a very high angle of inclination to the plane of Neptune's orbit. The first detailed observations of Triton were not made until 1930. Little was known about the satellite until Vo...	Triton (moon)	Wikipedia	309	44371	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triton%20%28moon%29	Physical sciences	Solar System	null
New concepts for missions to the Neptune system to be conducted in the 2010s were proposed by NASA scientists on numerous occasions over the last decades. All of them identified Triton as being a prime target and a separate Triton lander comparable to the Huygens probe for Titan was frequently included in those plans. ...	Triton (moon)	Wikipedia	290	44371	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triton%20%28moon%29	Physical sciences	Solar System	null
Brown dwarfs are substellar objects that have more mass than the biggest gas giant planets, but less than the least massive main-sequence stars. Their mass is approximately 13 to 80 times that of Jupiter ()not big enough to sustain nuclear fusion of ordinary hydrogen (1H) into helium in their cores, but massive enough...	Brown dwarf	Wikipedia	382	44401	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown%20dwarf	Physical sciences	Stellar astronomy	null
The objects now called "brown dwarfs" were theorized by Shiv S. Kumar in the 1960s to exist and were originally called black dwarfs, a classification for dark substellar objects floating freely in space that were not massive enough to sustain hydrogen fusion. However, (a) the term black dwarf was already in use to refe...	Brown dwarf	Wikipedia	451	44401	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown%20dwarf	Physical sciences	Stellar astronomy	null
GD 165B and class L For many years, efforts to discover brown dwarfs were fruitless. In 1988, however, a faint companion to the white dwarf star GD 165 was found in an infrared search of white dwarfs. The spectrum of the companion GD 165B was very red and enigmatic, showing none of the features expected of a low-mass ...	Brown dwarf	Wikipedia	464	44401	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown%20dwarf	Physical sciences	Stellar astronomy	null
Its near-infrared spectrum clearly exhibited a methane absorption band at 2 micrometres, a feature that had previously only been observed in the atmospheres of giant planets and that of Saturn's moon Titan. Methane absorption is not expected at any temperature of a main-sequence star. This discovery helped to establish...	Brown dwarf	Wikipedia	472	44401	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown%20dwarf	Physical sciences	Stellar astronomy	null
For some time, Teide 1 was the smallest known object outside the Solar System that had been identified by direct observation. Since then, over 1,800 brown dwarfs have been identified, even some very close to Earth, like Epsilon Indi Ba and Bb, a pair of brown dwarfs gravitationally bound to a Sun-like star 12 light-yea...	Brown dwarf	Wikipedia	498	44401	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown%20dwarf	Physical sciences	Stellar astronomy	null
High-mass brown dwarfs versus low-mass stars Lithium is generally present in brown dwarfs and not in low-mass stars. Stars, which reach the high temperature necessary for fusing hydrogen, rapidly deplete their lithium. Fusion of lithium-7 and a proton occurs, producing two helium-4 nuclei. The temperature necessary fo...	Brown dwarf	Wikipedia	443	44401	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown%20dwarf	Physical sciences	Stellar astronomy	null
Clouds are used to explain the weakening of the iron hydride (FeH) spectral line in late L-dwarfs. Iron clouds deplete FeH in the upper atmosphere, and the cloud layer blocks the view to lower layers still containing FeH. The later strengthening of this chemical compound at cooler temperatures of mid- to late T-dwarfs ...	Brown dwarf	Wikipedia	509	44401	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown%20dwarf	Physical sciences	Stellar astronomy	null
Low-mass brown dwarfs versus high-mass planets Like stars, brown dwarfs form independently, but, unlike stars, they lack sufficient mass to "ignite" hydrogen fusion. Like all stars, they can occur singly or in close proximity to other stars. Some orbit stars and can, like planets, have eccentric orbits. Size and fue...	Brown dwarf	Wikipedia	487	44401	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown%20dwarf	Physical sciences	Stellar astronomy	null
It is also debated whether brown dwarfs would be better defined by their formation process rather than by theoretical mass limits based on nuclear fusion reactions. Under this interpretation brown dwarfs are those objects that represent the lowest-mass products of the star formation process, while planets are objects f...	Brown dwarf	Wikipedia	497	44401	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown%20dwarf	Physical sciences	Stellar astronomy	null
Some researchers call them free-floating planets, whereas others call them planetary-mass brown dwarfs. Role of other physical properties in the mass estimate While spectroscopic features can help to distinguish between low-mass stars and brown dwarfs, it is often necessary to estimate the mass to come to a conclusio...	Brown dwarf	Wikipedia	488	44401	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown%20dwarf	Physical sciences	Stellar astronomy	null
These are brown dwarfs with a spectral class of M5.5 or later; they are also called late-M dwarfs. Some scientists regard them as red dwarfs. All brown dwarfs with spectral type M are young objects, such as Teide 1, which is the first M-type brown dwarf discovered, and LP 944-20, the closest M-type brown dwarf. Spectr...	Brown dwarf	Wikipedia	334	44401	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown%20dwarf	Physical sciences	Stellar astronomy	null
As GD 165B is the prototype of the L dwarfs, Gliese 229B is the prototype of a second new spectral class, the T dwarfs. T dwarfs are pinkish-magenta. Whereas near-infrared (NIR) spectra of L dwarfs show strong absorption bands of H2O and carbon monoxide (CO), the NIR spectrum of Gliese 229B is dominated by absorption b...	Brown dwarf	Wikipedia	388	44401	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown%20dwarf	Physical sciences	Stellar astronomy	null
In 2009, the coolest-known brown dwarfs had estimated effective temperatures between , and have been assigned the spectral class T9. Three examples are the brown dwarfs CFBDS J005910.90–011401.3, ULAS J133553.45+113005.2 and ULAS J003402.77−005206.7. The spectra of these objects have absorption peaks around 1.55 microm...	Brown dwarf	Wikipedia	457	44401	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown%20dwarf	Physical sciences	Stellar astronomy	null
In the hydrogen-dominated atmosphere of brown dwarfs a chemical equilibrium between carbon monoxide and methane exists. Carbon monoxide reacts with hydrogen molecules and forms methane and hydroxyl in this reaction. The hydroxyl radical might later react with hydrogen and form water molecules. In the other direction of...	Brown dwarf	Wikipedia	456	44401	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown%20dwarf	Physical sciences	Stellar astronomy	null
Young brown dwarfs have low surface gravities because they have larger radii and lower masses than the field stars of similar spectral type. These sources are noted by a letter beta (β) for intermediate surface gravity or gamma (γ) for low surface gravity. Indicators of low surface gravity include weak CaH, K I and Na ...	Brown dwarf	Wikipedia	493	44401	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown%20dwarf	Physical sciences	Stellar astronomy	null
Observations of known brown dwarf candidates have revealed a pattern of brightening and dimming of infrared emissions that suggests relatively cool, opaque cloud patterns obscuring a hot interior that is stirred by extreme winds. The weather on such bodies is thought to be extremely strong, comparable to but far exceed...	Brown dwarf	Wikipedia	462	44401	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown%20dwarf	Physical sciences	Stellar astronomy	null
Milestones 1995: First brown dwarf verified. Teide 1, an M8 object in the Pleiades cluster, is picked out with a CCD in the Spanish Observatory of Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias. First methane brown dwarf verified. Gliese 229B is discovered orbiting red dwarf Gliese 229A (20 ly aw...	Brown dwarf	Wikipedia	376	44401	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown%20dwarf	Physical sciences	Stellar astronomy	null
X-ray flares detected from brown dwarfs since 1999 suggest changing magnetic fields within them, similar to those in very-low-mass stars. Although they do not fuse hydrogen into helium in their cores like stars, energy from the fusion of deuterium and gravitational contraction keep their interiors warm and generate st...	Brown dwarf	Wikipedia	322	44401	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown%20dwarf	Physical sciences	Stellar astronomy	null
The first brown dwarf that was discovered to emit radio signals was LP 944-20, which was observed since it is also a source of X-ray emission, and both types of emission are signatures of coronae. Approximately 5–10% of brown dwarfs appear to have strong magnetic fields and emit radio waves, and there may be as many as...	Brown dwarf	Wikipedia	457	44401	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown%20dwarf	Physical sciences	Stellar astronomy	null
In a study published in Aug 2017 NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope monitored infrared brightness variations in brown dwarfs caused by cloud cover of variable thickness. The observations revealed large-scale waves propagating in the atmospheres of brown dwarfs (similarly to the atmosphere of Neptune and other Solar System ...	Brown dwarf	Wikipedia	492	44401	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown%20dwarf	Physical sciences	Stellar astronomy	null
It is not known if the same trend continues with Y-dwarfs, because their sample size is so small. The Y+Y dwarf binaries should have a high mass ratio q and a low separation, reaching scales of less than one au. In 2023, the Y+Y dwarf WISE J0336-0143 was confirmed as a binary with JWST, with a mass ratio of q=0.62±0.05...	Brown dwarf	Wikipedia	477	44401	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown%20dwarf	Physical sciences	Stellar astronomy	null
There are other interesting binary systems such as the eclipsing binary brown dwarf system 2MASS J05352184–0546085. Photometric studies of this system have revealed that the less massive brown dwarf in the system is hotter than its higher-mass companion. Brown dwarfs around stars Brown dwarfs and massive planets in ...	Brown dwarf	Wikipedia	398	44401	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown%20dwarf	Physical sciences	Stellar astronomy	null
Systems with close, tidally locked brown dwarfs orbiting around white dwarfs belong to the post common envelope binaries or PCEBs. Only eight confirmed PCEBs containing a white dwarf with a brown dwarf companion are known, including WD 0137-349 AB. In the past history of these close white dwarf–brown dwarf binaries, th...	Brown dwarf	Wikipedia	509	44401	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown%20dwarf	Physical sciences	Stellar astronomy	null
Brown dwarfs form similarly to stars and are surrounded by protoplanetary disks, such as Cha 110913−773444. Disks around brown dwarfs have been found to have many of the same features as disks around stars; therefore, it is expected that there will be accretion-formed planets around brown dwarfs. Given the small mass o...	Brown dwarf	Wikipedia	295	44401	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown%20dwarf	Physical sciences	Stellar astronomy	null
A paper from 2021 studied circumstellar discs around brown dwarfs in stellar associations that are a few million years old and 140 to 200 parsecs away. The researchers found that these disks are not massive enough to form planets in the future. There is evidence in these disks that might indicate that planet formation ...	Brown dwarf	Wikipedia	428	44401	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown%20dwarf	Physical sciences	Stellar astronomy	null
According to the IAU working definition (from August 2018) an exoplanet can orbit a brown dwarf. It requires a mass below 13 and a mass ratio of M/Mcentral<2/(25+√621). This means that an object with a mass up to 3.2 around a brown dwarf with a mass of 80 is considered a planet. It also means that an object with a m...	Brown dwarf	Wikipedia	307	44401	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown%20dwarf	Physical sciences	Stellar astronomy	null
A 2017 study, based upon observations with Spitzer estimates that 175 brown dwarfs need to be monitored in order to guarantee (95%) at least one detection of a below earth-sized planet via the transiting method. JWST could potentially detect smaller planets. The orbits of planets and moons in the solar system often ali...	Brown dwarf	Wikipedia	422	44401	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown%20dwarf	Physical sciences	Stellar astronomy	null

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.