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Description of surgical procedure
Setting
Inpatient surgery is performed in a hospital, and the person undergoing surgery stays at least one night in the hospital after the surgery. Outpatient surgery occurs in a hospital outpatient department or freestanding ambulatory surgery center, and the person who had surgery ... | Surgery | Wikipedia | 485 | 45599 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgery | Biology and health sciences | Health, fitness, and medicine | null |
Some medical systems have a practice of routinely performing chest x-rays before surgery. The premise behind this practice is that the physician might discover some unknown medical condition which would complicate the surgery, and that upon discovering this with the chest x-ray, the physician would adapt the surgery pr... | Surgery | Wikipedia | 371 | 45599 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgery | Biology and health sciences | Health, fitness, and medicine | null |
When the patient enters the operating room and is appropriately anesthetized, the team will then position the patient in an appropriate surgical position. If hair is present at the surgical site, it is clipped (instead of shaving). The skin surface within the operating field is cleansed and prepared by applying an anti... | Surgery | Wikipedia | 429 | 45599 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgery | Biology and health sciences | Health, fitness, and medicine | null |
An incision is made to access the surgical site. Blood vessels may be clamped or cauterized to prevent bleeding, and retractors may be used to expose the site or keep the incision open. The approach to the surgical site may involve several layers of incision and dissection, as in abdominal surgery, where the incision... | Surgery | Wikipedia | 271 | 45599 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgery | Biology and health sciences | Health, fitness, and medicine | null |
excision – cutting out an organ, tumor, or other tissue.
resection – partial removal of an organ or other bodily structure.
reconnection of organs, tissues, etc., particularly if severed. Resection of organs such as intestines involves reconnection. Internal suturing or stapling may be used. Surgical connection be... | Surgery | Wikipedia | 497 | 45599 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgery | Biology and health sciences | Health, fitness, and medicine | null |
repair according to the ICD-10-PCS, in the Medical and Surgical Section 0, root operation Q, means restoring, to the extent possible, a body part to its normal anatomic structure and function. This definition, repair, is used only when the method used to accomplish the repair is not one of the other root operations. Ex... | Surgery | Wikipedia | 212 | 45599 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgery | Biology and health sciences | Health, fitness, and medicine | null |
Postoperative care
After completion of surgery, the person is transferred to the post anesthesia care unit and closely monitored. When the person is judged to have recovered from the anesthesia, he/she is either transferred to a surgical ward elsewhere in the hospital or discharged home. During the post-operative per... | Surgery | Wikipedia | 444 | 45599 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgery | Biology and health sciences | Health, fitness, and medicine | null |
The use of topical antibiotics on surgical wounds to reduce infection rates has been questioned. Antibiotic ointments are likely to irritate the skin, slow healing, and could increase risk of developing contact dermatitis and antibiotic resistance. It has also been suggested that topical antibiotics should only be used... | Surgery | Wikipedia | 487 | 45599 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgery | Biology and health sciences | Health, fitness, and medicine | null |
Data from 2003 to 2011 showed that U.S. hospital costs were highest for the surgical service line; the surgical service line costs were $17,600 in 2003 and projected to be $22,500 in 2013. For hospital stays in 2012 in the United States, private insurance had the highest percentage of surgical expenditure. in 2012, mea... | Surgery | Wikipedia | 413 | 45599 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgery | Biology and health sciences | Health, fitness, and medicine | null |
Global surgery
Global surgery has been defined as 'the multidisciplinary enterprise of providing improved and equitable surgical care to the world's population, with its core belief as the issues of need, access and quality". Halfdan T. Mahler, the 3rd Director-General of the World Health Organization (WHO), first brou... | Surgery | Wikipedia | 491 | 45599 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgery | Biology and health sciences | Health, fitness, and medicine | null |
In alignment with the LCoGS call for action, the World Health Assembly adopted the resolution WHA68.15 in 2015 that stated, "Strengthening emergency and essential surgical care and anesthesia as a component of universal health coverage." This not only mandated the WHO to prioritize strengthening the surgical and anesth... | Surgery | Wikipedia | 422 | 45599 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgery | Biology and health sciences | Health, fitness, and medicine | null |
Access to surgical care is increasingly recognized as an integral aspect of healthcare and therefore is evolving into a normative derivation of human right to health. The ICESCR Article 12.1 and 12.2 define the human right to health as "the right of everyone to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physic... | Surgery | Wikipedia | 463 | 45599 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgery | Biology and health sciences | Health, fitness, and medicine | null |
Trepanation
Surgical treatments date back to the prehistoric era. The oldest for which there is evidence is trepanation, in which a hole is drilled or scraped into the skull, thus exposing the dura mater in order to treat health problems related to intracranial pressure.
Ancient Egypt
Prehistoric surgical techniques a... | Surgery | Wikipedia | 353 | 45599 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgery | Biology and health sciences | Health, fitness, and medicine | null |
In ancient Greece, temples dedicated to the healer-god Asclepius, known as Asclepieia (, sing. Asclepieion Ασκληπιείον), functioned as centers of medical advice, prognosis, and healing. In the Asclepieion of Epidaurus, some of the surgical cures listed, such as the opening of an abdominal abscess or the removal of trau... | Surgery | Wikipedia | 363 | 45599 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgery | Biology and health sciences | Health, fitness, and medicine | null |
Islamic world
During the Islamic Golden Age, largely based upon Paul of Aegina's Pragmateia, the writings of Albucasis (Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi), an Andalusian-Arab physician and scientist who practiced in the Zahra suburb of Córdoba, were influential. Al-Zahrawi specialized in curing disease by cau... | Surgery | Wikipedia | 497 | 45599 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgery | Biology and health sciences | Health, fitness, and medicine | null |
The second figure of importance in this era was Ambroise Paré (sometimes spelled "Ambrose"), a French army surgeon from the 1530s until his death in 1590. The practice for cauterizing gunshot wounds on the battlefield had been to use boiling oil; an extremely dangerous and painful procedure. Paré began to employ a less... | Surgery | Wikipedia | 476 | 45599 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgery | Biology and health sciences | Health, fitness, and medicine | null |
Modern pain control through anesthesia was discovered in the mid-19th century. Before the advent of anesthesia, surgery was a traumatically painful procedure and surgeons were encouraged to be as swift as possible to minimize patient suffering. This also meant that operations were largely restricted to amputations and... | Surgery | Wikipedia | 295 | 45599 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgery | Biology and health sciences | Health, fitness, and medicine | null |
Until the pioneering work of British surgeon Joseph Lister in the 1860s, most medical men believed that chemical damage from exposures to bad air (see "miasma") was responsible for infections in wounds, and facilities for washing hands or a patient's wounds were not available. Lister became aware of the work of French ... | Surgery | Wikipedia | 438 | 45599 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgery | Biology and health sciences | Health, fitness, and medicine | null |
Breast
Cardiothoracic
Colorectal
Craniofacial surgery
Dental surgery
Endocrine
Gynaecology
Neurosurgery
Ophthalmology
Oncological
Oral and maxillofacial surgery
Transplant
Orthopaedic surgery
Hand surgery
Otolaryngology
Paediatric (Pediatric)
Periodontal surgery
Plastic
Podiatric surgery
Skin
Trauma... | Surgery | Wikipedia | 163 | 45599 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgery | Biology and health sciences | Health, fitness, and medicine | null |
In information theory and coding theory, Reed–Solomon codes are a group of error-correcting codes that were introduced by Irving S. Reed and Gustave Solomon in 1960.
They have many applications, including consumer technologies such as MiniDiscs, CDs, DVDs, Blu-ray discs, QR codes, Data Matrix, data transmission technol... | Reed–Solomon error correction | Wikipedia | 312 | 45600 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed%E2%80%93Solomon%20error%20correction | Mathematics | Information theory | null |
History
Reed–Solomon codes were developed in 1960 by Irving S. Reed and Gustave Solomon, who were then staff members of MIT Lincoln Laboratory. Their seminal article was titled "Polynomial Codes over Certain Finite Fields" . The original encoding scheme described in the Reed and Solomon article used a variable polynomi... | Reed–Solomon error correction | Wikipedia | 470 | 45600 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed%E2%80%93Solomon%20error%20correction | Mathematics | Information theory | null |
In 1977, Reed–Solomon codes were implemented in the Voyager program in the form of concatenated error correction codes. The first commercial application in mass-produced consumer products appeared in 1982 with the compact disc, where two interleaved Reed–Solomon codes are used. Today, Reed–Solomon codes are widely impl... | Reed–Solomon error correction | Wikipedia | 267 | 45600 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed%E2%80%93Solomon%20error%20correction | Mathematics | Information theory | null |
Reed–Solomon coding is a key component of the compact disc. It was the first use of strong error correction coding in a mass-produced consumer product, and DAT and DVD use similar schemes. In the CD, two layers of Reed–Solomon coding separated by a 28-way convolutional interleaver yields a scheme called Cross-Interleav... | Reed–Solomon error correction | Wikipedia | 490 | 45600 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed%E2%80%93Solomon%20error%20correction | Mathematics | Information theory | null |
Data transmission
Specialized forms of Reed–Solomon codes, specifically Cauchy-RS and Vandermonde-RS, can be used to overcome the unreliable nature of data transmission over erasure channels. The encoding process assumes a code of RS(N, K) which results in N codewords of length N symbols each storing K symbols of data,... | Reed–Solomon error correction | Wikipedia | 501 | 45600 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed%E2%80%93Solomon%20error%20correction | Mathematics | Information theory | null |
Reed & Solomon's original view: The codeword as a sequence of values
There are different encoding procedures for the Reed–Solomon code, and thus, there are different ways to describe the set of all codewords.
In the original view of , every codeword of the Reed–Solomon code is a sequence of function values of a polyn... | Reed–Solomon error correction | Wikipedia | 383 | 45600 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed%E2%80%93Solomon%20error%20correction | Mathematics | Information theory | null |
While the number of different polynomials of degree less than k and the number of different messages are both equal to , and thus every message can be uniquely mapped to such a polynomial, there are different ways of doing this encoding. The original construction of interprets the message x as the coefficients of the ... | Reed–Solomon error correction | Wikipedia | 502 | 45600 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed%E2%80%93Solomon%20error%20correction | Mathematics | Information theory | null |
The BCH view: The codeword as a sequence of coefficients
In this view, the message is interpreted as the coefficients of a polynomial . The sender computes a related polynomial of degree where and sends the polynomial . The polynomial is constructed by multiplying the message polynomial , which has degree , with a... | Reed–Solomon error correction | Wikipedia | 425 | 45600 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed%E2%80%93Solomon%20error%20correction | Mathematics | Information theory | null |
The Reed–Solomon code is a [n, k, n − k + 1] code; in other words, it is a linear block code of length n (over F) with dimension k and minimum Hamming distance The Reed–Solomon code is optimal in the sense that the minimum distance has the maximum value possible for a linear code of size (n, k); this is known as the S... | Reed–Solomon error correction | Wikipedia | 485 | 45600 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed%E2%80%93Solomon%20error%20correction | Mathematics | Information theory | null |
The Reed–Solomon code properties discussed above make them especially well-suited to applications where errors occur in bursts. This is because it does not matter to the code how many bits in a symbol are in error — if multiple bits in a symbol are corrupted it only counts as a single error. Conversely, if a data strea... | Reed–Solomon error correction | Wikipedia | 448 | 45600 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed%E2%80%93Solomon%20error%20correction | Mathematics | Information theory | null |
Designers are not required to use the "natural" sizes of Reed–Solomon code blocks. A technique known as "shortening" can produce a smaller code of any desired size from a larger code. For example, the widely used (255,223) code can be converted to a (160,128) code by padding the unused portion of the source block with ... | Reed–Solomon error correction | Wikipedia | 465 | 45600 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed%E2%80%93Solomon%20error%20correction | Mathematics | Information theory | null |
The goal of the decoder is to find the number of errors (ν), the positions of the errors (ik), and the error values at those positions (eik). From those, e(x) can be calculated and subtracted from r(x) to get the originally sent message s(x).
Syndrome decoding
The decoder starts by evaluating the polynomial as receiv... | Reed–Solomon error correction | Wikipedia | 487 | 45600 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed%E2%80%93Solomon%20error%20correction | Mathematics | Information theory | null |
There is a linear recurrence relation that gives rise to a system of linear equations. Solving those equations identifies those error locations Xk.
Define the error locator polynomial as
The zeros of are the reciprocals . This follows from the above product notation construction, since if , then one of the multipli... | Reed–Solomon error correction | Wikipedia | 497 | 45600 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed%E2%80%93Solomon%20error%20correction | Mathematics | Information theory | null |
Calculate ik by taking the log base of Xk. This is generally done using a precomputed lookup table.
Fix the errors
Finally, e(x) is generated from ik and eik and then is subtracted from r(x) to get the originally sent message s(x), with errors corrected.
Example
Consider the Reed–Solomon code defined in with an... | Reed–Solomon error correction | Wikipedia | 506 | 45600 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed%E2%80%93Solomon%20error%20correction | Mathematics | Information theory | null |
The extended Euclidean algorithm can find a series of polynomials of the form
where the degree of R decreases as i increases. Once the degree of Ri(x) < t/2, then
B(x) and Q(x) don't need to be saved, so the algorithm becomes:
R−1 := xt
R0 := S(x)
A−1 := 0
A0 := 1
i := 0
while degree of Ri ≥ t/2
i := i + ... | Reed–Solomon error correction | Wikipedia | 488 | 45600 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed%E2%80%93Solomon%20error%20correction | Mathematics | Information theory | null |
The Singleton bound states that the minimum distance d of a linear block code of size (n,k) is upper-bounded by . The distance d was usually understood to limit the error-correction capability to . The Reed–Solomon code achieves this bound with equality, and can thus correct up to errors. However, this error-correctio... | Reed–Solomon error correction | Wikipedia | 413 | 45600 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed%E2%80%93Solomon%20error%20correction | Mathematics | Information theory | null |
Encoder
Here we present a simple MATLAB implementation for an encoder.
function encoded = rsEncoder(msg, m, prim_poly, n, k)
% RSENCODER Encode message with the Reed-Solomon algorithm
% m is the number of bits per symbol
% prim_poly: Primitive polynomial p(x). Ie for DM is 301
% k is the size of the me... | Reed–Solomon error correction | Wikipedia | 409 | 45600 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed%E2%80%93Solomon%20error%20correction | Mathematics | Information theory | null |
Decoder
Now the decoding part:
function [decoded, error_pos, error_mag, g, S] = rsDecoder(encoded, m, prim_poly, n, k)
% RSDECODER Decode a Reed-Solomon encoded message
% Example:
% [dec, ~, ~, ~, ~] = rsDecoder(enc_msg, 8, 301, 12, numel(msg))
max_errors = floor((n - k) / 2);
orig_vals = encoded... | Reed–Solomon error correction | Wikipedia | 508 | 45600 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed%E2%80%93Solomon%20error%20correction | Mathematics | Information theory | null |
% Find quotient*g1 and pad
c = conv(quotient, g1);
c = trim(c);
c = pad(c, length(g0));
% Update g as g0-quotient*g1
g = g0 - c;
% Check if the degree of remainder(x) is less than max_errors
if all(remainder(1:end - max_errors) == 0)
break;
e... | Reed–Solomon error correction | Wikipedia | 479 | 45600 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed%E2%80%93Solomon%20error%20correction | Mathematics | Information theory | null |
% Now to fix the errors just add with the encoded code
decoded_gf = encoded(1:k) + errors_gf(1:k);
decoded = decoded_gf.x;
end
% Remove leading zeros from Galois array
function gt = trim(g)
gx = g.x;
gt = gf(gx(find(gx, 1) : end), g.m, g.prim_poly);
end
% Add leading zeros
function xpad = pad(x, k)
... | Reed–Solomon error correction | Wikipedia | 452 | 45600 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed%E2%80%93Solomon%20error%20correction | Mathematics | Information theory | null |
In 1986, a decoder known as the Berlekamp–Welch algorithm was developed as a decoder that is able to recover the original message polynomial as well as an error "locator" polynomial that produces zeroes for the input values that correspond to errors, with time complexity , where is the number of values in a message. T... | Reed–Solomon error correction | Wikipedia | 270 | 45600 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed%E2%80%93Solomon%20error%20correction | Mathematics | Information theory | null |
The cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) is a large cat and the fastest land animal. It has a tawny to creamy white or pale buff fur that is marked with evenly spaced, solid black spots. The head is small and rounded, with a short snout and black tear-like facial streaks. It reaches at the shoulder, and the head-and-body length... | Cheetah | Wikipedia | 420 | 45609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheetah | Biology and health sciences | Carnivora | null |
The cheetah is threatened by habitat loss, conflict with humans, poaching and high susceptibility to diseases. The global cheetah population was estimated in 2021 at 6,517; it is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. It has been widely depicted in art, literature, advertising, and animation. It was tamed in ancien... | Cheetah | Wikipedia | 431 | 45609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheetah | Biology and health sciences | Carnivora | null |
In the 19th and 20th centuries, several cheetah zoological specimens were described; some were proposed as subspecies.
A South African specimen with notably dense fur was proposed as (Felis lanea) by Philip Sclater in 1877 and became known as the "woolly cheetah". Its classification as a species was mostly disputed. Th... | Cheetah | Wikipedia | 350 | 45609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheetah | Biology and health sciences | Carnivora | null |
The oldest cheetah fossils, excavated in eastern and southern Africa, date to 3.5–3 mya; the earliest known specimen from South Africa is from the lowermost deposits of the Silberberg Grotto (Sterkfontein). Though incomplete, these fossils indicate forms larger but less cursorial than the modern cheetah. The first occu... | Cheetah | Wikipedia | 449 | 45609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheetah | Biology and health sciences | Carnivora | null |
The three species of the Puma lineage may have had a common ancestor during the Miocene (roughly 8.25 mya). Some suggest that North American cheetahs possibly migrated to Asia via the Bering Strait, then dispersed southward to Africa through Eurasia at least 100,000 years ago; some authors have expressed doubt over the... | Cheetah | Wikipedia | 487 | 45609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheetah | Biology and health sciences | Carnivora | null |
•Regulation of muscle contraction (Five genes: ADORA1, ADRA1B, CACNA1C, RGS2, SCN5A).
•Physiological stress response (Two genes: ADORA1, TAOK2).
•Negative regulation of catabolic process (Four genes: APOC3, SUFU, DDIT4, PPARA).
Potentially harmful mutations has been found in a gene related to spermatogenesis (AKAP4... | Cheetah | Wikipedia | 378 | 45609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheetah | Biology and health sciences | Carnivora | null |
In 1981, two female cheetahs that had mated with a wild male from Transvaal at the De Wildt Cheetah and Wildlife Centre (South Africa) gave birth to one king cheetah each; subsequently, more king cheetahs were born at the centre. In 2012, the cause of this coat pattern was found to be a mutation in the gene for transme... | Cheetah | Wikipedia | 344 | 45609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheetah | Biology and health sciences | Carnivora | null |
The coat is typically tawny to creamy white or pale buff (darker in the mid-back portion). The chin, throat and underparts of the legs and the belly are white and devoid of markings. The rest of the body is covered with around 2,000 evenly spaced, oval or round solid black spots, each measuring roughly . Each cheetah h... | Cheetah | Wikipedia | 465 | 45609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheetah | Biology and health sciences | Carnivora | null |
The cheetah is superficially similar to the leopard, which has a larger head, fully retractable claws, rosettes instead of spots, lacks tear streaks and is more muscular. Moreover, the cheetah is taller than the leopard. The serval also resembles the cheetah in physical build, but is significantly smaller, has a shorte... | Cheetah | Wikipedia | 180 | 45609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheetah | Biology and health sciences | Carnivora | null |
Sharply contrasting with the other big cats in its morphology, the cheetah shows several specialized adaptations for prolonged chases to catch prey at some of the fastest speeds reached by land animals. Its light, streamlined body makes it well-suited to short, explosive bursts of speed, rapid acceleration, and an abil... | Cheetah | Wikipedia | 485 | 45609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheetah | Biology and health sciences | Carnivora | null |
The cheetah resembles the smaller cats in cranial features, and in having a long and flexible spine, as opposed to the stiff and short one in other large felids. The roughly triangular skull has light, narrow bones and the sagittal crest is poorly developed, possibly to reduce weight and enhance speed. The mouth can no... | Cheetah | Wikipedia | 437 | 45609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheetah | Biology and health sciences | Carnivora | null |
In stressful situations, the cheetah has a lower cortisol level than the leopard, indicating better stress response; it also has lower immunoglobulin G and Serum amyloid A levels but a higher lysozyme level and a higher bacterial killing capacity than the leopard, indicating a poorer adaptive and induced innate immune ... | Cheetah | Wikipedia | 460 | 45609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheetah | Biology and health sciences | Carnivora | null |
One stride of a galloping cheetah measures ; the stride length and the number of jumps increases with speed. During more than half the duration of the sprint, the cheetah has all four limbs in the air, increasing the stride length. Running cheetahs can retain up to 90% of the heat generated during the chase. A 1973 stu... | Cheetah | Wikipedia | 451 | 45609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheetah | Biology and health sciences | Carnivora | null |
The physiological reasons for speed in cheetahs are:
Small head and long lumbar region of the spine, 36.8% of the presacral vertebral column.
A tibia and radius longer than the femur and humerus, with a femorotibial index of 101.9–105 and a humeroradial index of 100.1–103.3.
Elongated and slender long bones of the limb... | Cheetah | Wikipedia | 319 | 45609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheetah | Biology and health sciences | Carnivora | null |
Ecology and behaviour
Cheetahs are active mainly during the day, whereas other carnivores such as leopards and lions are active mainly at night; These larger carnivores can kill cheetahs and steal their kills; hence, the diurnal tendency of cheetahs helps them avoid larger predators in areas where they are sympatric, s... | Cheetah | Wikipedia | 388 | 45609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheetah | Biology and health sciences | Carnivora | null |
Some males are territorial, and group together for life, forming coalitions that collectively defend a territory which ensures maximum access to females—this is unlike the behaviour of the male lion who mates with a particular group (pride) of females. In most cases, a coalition will consist of brothers born in the sam... | Cheetah | Wikipedia | 446 | 45609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheetah | Biology and health sciences | Carnivora | null |
Males are generally less nomadic than females; often males in coalitions (and sometimes solitary males staying far from coalitions) establish territories. Whether males settle in territories or disperse over large areas forming home ranges depends primarily on the movements of females. Territoriality is preferred only ... | Cheetah | Wikipedia | 340 | 45609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheetah | Biology and health sciences | Carnivora | null |
Chirping: A chirp (or a "stutter-bark") is an intense bird-like call and lasts less than a second. Cheetahs chirp when they are excited, for instance, when gathered around a kill. Other uses include summoning concealed or lost cubs by the mother, or as a greeting or courtship between adults. The cheetah's chirp is simi... | Cheetah | Wikipedia | 503 | 45609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheetah | Biology and health sciences | Carnivora | null |
Another major means of communication is by scent—the male will often raise his tail and spray urine on elevated landmarks such as a tree trunks, stumps or rocks; other cheetahs will sniff these landmarks and repeat the ritual. Females may also show marking behaviour but less prominently than males do. Females in oestru... | Cheetah | Wikipedia | 426 | 45609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheetah | Biology and health sciences | Carnivora | null |
Prey preferences and hunting success vary with the age, sex and number of cheetahs involved in the hunt and on the vigilance of the prey. Generally, only groups of cheetahs (coalitions or mother and cubs) will try to kill larger prey; mothers with cubs especially look out for larger prey and tend to be more successful ... | Cheetah | Wikipedia | 452 | 45609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheetah | Biology and health sciences | Carnivora | null |
Cheetahs can decelerate dramatically towards the end of the hunt, slowing down from to in just three strides, and can easily follow any twists and turns the prey makes as it tries to flee. To kill medium- to large-sized prey, the cheetah bites the prey's throat to strangle it, maintaining the bite for around five min... | Cheetah | Wikipedia | 307 | 45609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheetah | Biology and health sciences | Carnivora | null |
Cheetahs move their heads from side to side so the sharp carnassial teeth tear the flesh, which can then be swallowed without chewing. They typically begin with the hindquarters where the tissue is the softest, and then progress toward the abdomen and the spine. Ribs are chewed on at the ends, and the limbs are not gen... | Cheetah | Wikipedia | 437 | 45609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheetah | Biology and health sciences | Carnivora | null |
Urine-marking in males can become more pronounced when a female in their vicinity comes into estrus. Males, sometimes even those in coalitions, fight among one another to secure access to the female. Often one male will eventually win dominance over the others and mate with the female, though a female can mate with dif... | Cheetah | Wikipedia | 319 | 45609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheetah | Biology and health sciences | Carnivora | null |
Compared to other felids, cheetah cubs are highly vulnerable to several predators during the first few weeks of their life. Mothers keep their cubs hidden in dense vegetation for the first two months and nurse in the early morning. The mother is extremely vigilant at this stage; she stays within of the lair, frequentl... | Cheetah | Wikipedia | 487 | 45609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheetah | Biology and health sciences | Carnivora | null |
In eastern and southern Africa, the cheetah occurs mostly in savannas like the Kalahari and Serengeti. In central, northern and western Africa, it inhabits arid mountain ranges and valleys; in the harsh climate of the Sahara, it prefers high mountains, which receive more rainfall than the surrounding desert. The vegeta... | Cheetah | Wikipedia | 374 | 45609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheetah | Biology and health sciences | Carnivora | null |
In the past until the mid-20th century, the cheetah ranged across vast stretches in Asia, from the Arabian Peninsula in the west to the Indian subcontinent in the east, and as far north as the Aral and Caspian Seas. A few centuries ago the cheetah was abundant in India, and its range coincided with the distribution of ... | Cheetah | Wikipedia | 353 | 45609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheetah | Biology and health sciences | Carnivora | null |
Present distribution
The cheetah occurs mostly in eastern and southern Africa; its presence in Asia is limited to the central deserts of Iran, though there have been unconfirmed reports of sightings in Afghanistan, Iraq and Pakistan in the last few decades. The global population of cheetahs was estimated at nearly 7,10... | Cheetah | Wikipedia | 504 | 45609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheetah | Biology and health sciences | Carnivora | null |
Until the 1970s, cheetahs and other carnivores were frequently killed to protect livestock in Africa. Gradually the understanding of cheetah ecology increased and their falling numbers became a matter of concern. The De Wildt Cheetah and Wildlife Centre was set up in 1971 in South Africa to provide care for wild cheeta... | Cheetah | Wikipedia | 381 | 45609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheetah | Biology and health sciences | Carnivora | null |
In 2001, the Iranian government collaborated with the CCF, the IUCN, Panthera Corporation, UNDP and the Wildlife Conservation Society on the Conservation of Asiatic Cheetah Project (CACP) to protect the natural habitat of the Asiatic cheetah and its prey. In 2004, the Iranian Centre for Sustainable Development (CENESTA... | Cheetah | Wikipedia | 443 | 45609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheetah | Biology and health sciences | Carnivora | null |
The cheetah shows little aggression toward humans, and can be tamed easily, as it has been since antiquity. The earliest known depictions of the cheetah are from the Chauvet Cave in France, dating back to 32,000–26,000 BC. According to historians such as Heinz Friederichs and Burchard Brentjes, the cheetah was first ta... | Cheetah | Wikipedia | 408 | 45609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheetah | Biology and health sciences | Carnivora | null |
Hunting cheetahs are known in pre-Islamic Arabic art from Yemen. Hunting with cheetahs became more prevalent toward the seventh centuryAD. In the Middle East, the cheetah would accompany the nobility to hunts in a special seat on the back of the saddle. Taming was an elaborate process and could take a year to complete.... | Cheetah | Wikipedia | 452 | 45609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheetah | Biology and health sciences | Carnivora | null |
The first cheetah to be brought into captivity in a zoo was at the Zoological Society of London in 1829. Early captive cheetahs showed a high mortality rate, with an average lifespan of 3–4 years. After trade of wild cheetahs was delimited by the enforcement of CITES in 1975, more efforts were put into breeding in capt... | Cheetah | Wikipedia | 472 | 45609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheetah | Biology and health sciences | Carnivora | null |
Attacks on humans
There are no documented records of lethal attacks on humans by wild cheetahs. However, there have been instances of people being fatally mauled by captive cheetahs. In 2007, a 37-year-old woman from Antwerp was killed by a cheetah in a Belgian zoo after sneaking into its cage outside of visiting hours... | Cheetah | Wikipedia | 508 | 45609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheetah | Biology and health sciences | Carnivora | null |
The Bill Thomas Cheetah American racing car, a Chevrolet-based coupe first designed and driven in 1963, was an attempt to challenge Carroll Shelby's Shelby Cobra in American sports car competition of the 1960s. Because only two dozen or fewer chassis were built, with only a dozen complete cars, the Cheetah was never ho... | Cheetah | Wikipedia | 130 | 45609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheetah | Biology and health sciences | Carnivora | null |
Nightjars are medium-sized nocturnal or crepuscular birds in the family Caprimulgidae and order Caprimulgiformes, characterised by long wings, short legs, and very short bills. They are sometimes called bugeaters, their primary source of food being insects. Some New World species are called nighthawks. The English wor... | Nightjar | Wikipedia | 384 | 45648 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nightjar | Biology and health sciences | Caprimulgiformes | null |
Caprimulgidae
Traditionally, nightjars have been divided into two subfamilies—the Caprimulginae, or typical nightjars with 79 known species, and the Chordeilinae, or nighthawks of the New World, with 10 known species. The groups are similar in most respects, but the typical nightjars have rictal bristles, longer bills... | Nightjar | Wikipedia | 441 | 45648 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nightjar | Biology and health sciences | Caprimulgiformes | null |
†Ventivorus Mourer-Chauviré 1988
Subfamily Eurostopodinae
Genus Eurostopodus (7 species)
Genus Lyncornis (2 species)
Subfamily Caprimulginae (typical nightjars)
Genus Gactornis – collared nightjar
Genus Nyctipolus (2 species)
Genus Nyctidromus (2 species)
Genus Hydropsalis (4 species)
Genus Siphonorhis (2 spec... | Nightjar | Wikipedia | 494 | 45648 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nightjar | Biology and health sciences | Caprimulgiformes | null |
They also usually nest on the ground, laying one or two patterned eggs directly onto bare ground. Nightjars possibly move their eggs and chicks from the nesting site in the event of danger by carrying them in their mouths. This suggestion has been repeated many times in ornithology books, but surveys of nightjar resear... | Nightjar | Wikipedia | 196 | 45648 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nightjar | Biology and health sciences | Caprimulgiformes | null |
In history and popular culture
Nighthawk as a name has been applied to numerous places, characters, and objects throughout history.
Nebraska's state nickname was once the "Bugeater State" and its people were sometimes called "bugeaters" (presumably named after the common nighthawk). The Nebraska Cornhuskers college a... | Nightjar | Wikipedia | 322 | 45648 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nightjar | Biology and health sciences | Caprimulgiformes | null |
Eggplant (US, CA, AU, NZ, PH), aubergine (UK, IE), brinjal (IN, SG, MY, ZA), or baigan (IN, GY) is a plant species in the nightshade family Solanaceae. Solanum melongena is grown worldwide for its edible fruit.
Most commonly purple, the spongy, absorbent fruit is used in several cuisines. Typically used as a vegetable... | Eggplant | Wikipedia | 496 | 45712 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eggplant | Biology and health sciences | Solanales | null |
There is no consensus about the place of origin of eggplant; the plant species has been described as native to South Asia, where it continues to grow wild, or Africa. It has been cultivated in southern and eastern Asia since prehistory. The first known written record of the plant is found in Qimin Yaoshu, an ancient Ch... | Eggplant | Wikipedia | 510 | 45712 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eggplant | Biology and health sciences | Solanales | null |
Aubergine-type names
Whereas eggplant was coined in English, most of the diverse other European names for the plant derive from the bāḏinjān . Bāḏinjān is itself a loan-word in Arabic, whose earliest traceable origins lie in the Dravidian languages. The Hobson-Jobson dictionary comments that "probably there is no wor... | Eggplant | Wikipedia | 488 | 45712 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eggplant | Biology and health sciences | Solanales | null |
Through the colonial expansion of Portugal, the Portuguese form was borrowed into a variety of other languages:
Indian, Malaysian, Singaporean and South African English brinjal, brinjaul (first attested in the seventeenth century).
West Indian English brinjalle and (through folk-etymology) brown-jolly.
French bring... | Eggplant | Wikipedia | 508 | 45712 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eggplant | Biology and health sciences | Solanales | null |
It has been known as 'Jew's apple', apparently in relation to a belief that the fruit was first imported to the West Indies by Jewish people.
Cultivars
Different cultivars of the plant produce fruit of different size, shape, and color, though typically purple. The less common white varieties of eggplant are also know... | Eggplant | Wikipedia | 492 | 45712 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eggplant | Biology and health sciences | Solanales | null |
Varieties
S. m. var. esculentum – common aubergine, including white varieties, with many cultivars
S. m. var. depressum – dwarf aubergine
S. m. var. serpentium – snake aubergine
Genetically engineered eggplant
Bt brinjal is a transgenic eggplant that contains a gene from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis. ... | Eggplant | Wikipedia | 498 | 45712 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eggplant | Biology and health sciences | Solanales | null |
In Chinese cuisine, eggplants are known as qiézi (). They are often deep fried and made into dishes such as yúxiāng-qiézi ("fish fragrance eggplant") or di sān xiān ("three earthen treasures"). Elsewhere in China, such as in Yunnan cuisine (in particular the cuisine of the Dai people) they are barbecued or roasted, the... | Eggplant | Wikipedia | 435 | 45712 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eggplant | Biology and health sciences | Solanales | null |
South Asia
Eggplant is widely used in its native India, for example in sambar (a tamarind lentil stew), dalma (a dal preparation with vegetables, native to Odisha), chutney, curry (vankai), and achaar (a pickled dish). Owing to its versatile nature and wide use in both everyday and festive Indian food, it is often des... | Eggplant | Wikipedia | 287 | 45712 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eggplant | Biology and health sciences | Solanales | null |
Middle East and the Mediterranean
Eggplant is often stewed, as in the French ratatouille, or deep-fried as in the Italian parmigiana di melanzane, the Turkish karnıyarık, or Turkish, Greek, and Levantine musakka/moussaka, and Middle Eastern and South Asian dishes. Eggplants can also be battered before deep-frying and ... | Eggplant | Wikipedia | 351 | 45712 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eggplant | Biology and health sciences | Solanales | null |
A Spanish dish called escalivada in Catalonia calls for strips of roasted aubergine, sweet pepper, onion, and tomato. In Andalusia, eggplant is mostly cooked thinly sliced, deep-fried in olive oil and served hot with honey (berenjenas a la Cordobesa). In the La Mancha region of central Spain, a small eggplant is pickle... | Eggplant | Wikipedia | 389 | 45712 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eggplant | Biology and health sciences | Solanales | null |
Iran
In Iranian cuisine, eggplant (called bādenjān or bādemjān in Persian) can be used in both appetizers and main courses. It can also be pickled in vinegar. The ideal eggplant in Iranian cuisine is long, straight, firm, and black. Based on how al-Razi uses the color of eggplant as a shorthand for purpleness in his K... | Eggplant | Wikipedia | 250 | 45712 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eggplant | Biology and health sciences | Solanales | null |
The 14th-century poet Boshaq At'ema refers to an early eggplant dish called burani-e badenjan: chopped eggplant sautéed with onions and turmeric, then slowly cooked, and finally mixed with yogurt. The combination of eggplant and kashk (condensed whey) is popular in Iranian cuisine; it is found in dishes like kashk o ba... | Eggplant | Wikipedia | 471 | 45712 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eggplant | Biology and health sciences | Solanales | null |
Medieval Iranian writers such as al-Razi and al-Biruni cautioned that eggplant contains harmful qualities, and it must be ripe and cooked before eating to neutralize them. They wrote that it could cause heat and dryness and an excess of black bile, contributing to a wide range of health problems. If the "salt" in it wa... | Eggplant | Wikipedia | 476 | 45712 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eggplant | Biology and health sciences | Solanales | null |
Many of the pests and diseases that afflict other solanaceous plants, such as tomato, capsicum, and potato, are also troublesome to eggplants. For this reason, it should generally not be planted in areas previously occupied by its close relatives. However, since eggplants can be particularly susceptible to pests such a... | Eggplant | Wikipedia | 447 | 45712 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eggplant | Biology and health sciences | Solanales | null |
A 2008 study of a sample of 741 people in India, where eggplant is commonly consumed, found nearly 10% reported some allergic symptoms after consuming eggplant, with 1.4% showing symptoms within two hours. Contact dermatitis from eggplant leaves and allergy to eggplant flower pollen have also been reported.
Individual... | Eggplant | Wikipedia | 461 | 45712 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eggplant | Biology and health sciences | Solanales | null |
Like the potato and S. lichtensteinii, but unlike the tomato, which then was generally put in a different genus, the eggplant was also described as S. esculentum, in this case once more in the course of Dunal's work. He also recognized the varieties aculeatum, inerme, and subinerme at that time. Similarly, H.C.F. Schuh... | Eggplant | Wikipedia | 159 | 45712 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eggplant | Biology and health sciences | Solanales | null |
Horseradish (Armoracia rusticana, syn. Cochlearia armoracia) is a perennial plant of the family Brassicaceae (which also includes mustard, wasabi, broccoli, cabbage, and radish). It is a root vegetable, cultivated and used worldwide as a spice and as a condiment. The species is probably native to Southeastern Europe an... | Horseradish | Wikipedia | 454 | 45714 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horseradish | Biology and health sciences | Brassicales | null |
Both roots and leaves were used as a traditional medicine during the Middle Ages. The root was used as a condiment on meats in Germany, Scandinavia, and Britain. It was introduced to North America during European colonization; both George Washington and Thomas Jefferson mention horseradish in garden accounts. Native Am... | Horseradish | Wikipedia | 264 | 45714 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horseradish | Biology and health sciences | Brassicales | null |
In Slavic languages, the word for mustard derives from a root meaning fire or burning, often used metaphorically to refer to spicy or bitter foods. The Czech word for mustard for example is hořčice. Hořký is the adjectival form in Czech, meaning hot (spicy) or bitter. Horseradish is a plant in the mustard family. The f... | Horseradish | Wikipedia | 445 | 45714 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horseradish | Biology and health sciences | Brassicales | null |
Pests and diseases
Introduced by accident, "cabbageworms", the larvae of Pieris rapae, are a common caterpillar pest in horseradish. Mature caterpillars chew large, ragged holes in the leaves leaving the large veins intact. Handpicking is an effective control strategy in home gardens. Another common pest of horseradish... | Horseradish | Wikipedia | 484 | 45714 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horseradish | Biology and health sciences | Brassicales | null |
On Passover, many Ashkenazi Jews use grated horseradish as a choice for Maror (bitter herbs) at the Passover Seder.
Horseradish sauce
Horseradish sauce made from grated horseradish root and vinegar is a common condiment in the United Kingdom, in Denmark (with sugar added) and in Poland. In the UK, it is usually serve... | Horseradish | Wikipedia | 390 | 45714 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horseradish | Biology and health sciences | Brassicales | null |
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