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Other species are important in commercial microbial fermentations. For example, alcoholic beverages such as Japanese sake are often made from rice or other starchy ingredients (like manioc), rather than from grapes or malted barley. Typical microorganisms used to make alcohol, such as yeasts of the genus Saccharomyces,...	Aspergillus	Wikipedia	335	1529518	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspergillus	Biology and health sciences	Basics	Plants	vital_articles
A. nidulans (Emericella nidulans) has been used as a research organism for many years and was used by Guido Pontecorvo to demonstrate parasexuality in fungi. Recently, A. nidulans was one of the pioneering organisms to have its genome sequenced by researchers at the Broad Institute. As of 2008, a further seven Aspergil...	Aspergillus	Wikipedia	472	1529518	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspergillus	Biology and health sciences	Basics	Plants	vital_articles
A. lentulus is an opportunistic human pathogen that causes invasive aspergillosis with high mortality rates. In 2013, A. lentulus was found to have a heterothallic functional sexual breeding system. A. terreus is commonly used in industry to produce important organic acids and enzymes, and was the initial source for t...	Aspergillus	Wikipedia	348	1529518	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspergillus	Biology and health sciences	Basics	Plants	vital_articles
Genomics The simultaneous publication of three Aspergillus genome manuscripts in Nature in December 2005 established the genus as the leading filamentous fungal genus for comparative genomic studies. Like most major genome projects, these efforts were collaborations between a large sequencing centre and the respective...	Aspergillus	Wikipedia	402	1529518	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspergillus	Biology and health sciences	Basics	Plants	vital_articles
Pathogens Some Aspergillus species cause serious disease in humans and animals. The most common pathogenic species are A. fumigatus and A. flavus, which produces aflatoxin which is both a toxin and a carcinogen, and which can contaminate foods such as nuts. The most common species causing allergic disease are A. fumig...	Aspergillus	Wikipedia	494	1529518	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspergillus	Biology and health sciences	Basics	Plants	vital_articles
Aspergillosis of the air passages is also frequently reported in birds, and certain species of Aspergillus have been known to infect insects. Most people inhale Aspergillus into their lungs everyday, but generally only the immuno-compromised become sick with aspergillosis.	Aspergillus	Wikipedia	61	1529518	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspergillus	Biology and health sciences	Basics	Plants	vital_articles
The caddisflies (order Trichoptera) are a group of insects with aquatic larvae and terrestrial adults. There are approximately 14,500 described species, most of which can be divided into the suborders Integripalpia and Annulipalpia on the basis of the adult mouthparts. Integripalpian larvae construct a portable casing...	Caddisfly	Wikipedia	485	1529533	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caddisfly	Biology and health sciences	Insects: General	Animals	vital_articles
Etymology The name of the order "Trichoptera" derives from the Greek: (, "hair"), genitive trichos + (, "wing"), and refers to the fact that the wings of these insects are bristly. The origin of the word "caddis" is unclear, but it dates back to at least as far as Izaak Walton's 1653 book The Compleat Angler, where "...	Caddisfly	Wikipedia	418	1529533	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caddisfly	Biology and health sciences	Insects: General	Animals	vital_articles
About 14,500 species of caddisfly in 45 families have been recognised worldwide, but many more species remain to be described. Most can be divided into the suborders Integripalpia and Annulipalpia on the basis of the adult mouthparts. The characteristics of adults depend on the palps, wing venation and genitalia of bot...	Caddisfly	Wikipedia	441	1529533	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caddisfly	Biology and health sciences	Insects: General	Animals	vital_articles
Caddisfly larvae can be found in all feeding guilds in freshwater habitats. Most early stage larvae and some late stage ones are collector-gatherers, picking up fragments of organic matter from the benthos. Other species are collector-filterers, sieving organic particles from the water using silken nets, or hairs on th...	Caddisfly	Wikipedia	425	1529533	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caddisfly	Biology and health sciences	Insects: General	Animals	vital_articles
The adult stage of a caddisfly may only survive for a few weeks; many species do not feed as adults and die soon after breeding, but some species are known to feed on nectar. The winged insects are nocturnal and provide food for night-flying birds, bats, small mammals, amphibians and arthropods. The larval stage lasts ...	Caddisfly	Wikipedia	476	1529533	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caddisfly	Biology and health sciences	Insects: General	Animals	vital_articles
Caddisfly cases are open at both ends, the larvae drawing oxygenated water through the posterior end, over their gills, and pumping it out of the wider, anterior end. The larvae move around inside the tubes and this helps maintain the water current; the lower the oxygen content of the water, the more active the larvae ...	Caddisfly	Wikipedia	478	1529533	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caddisfly	Biology and health sciences	Insects: General	Animals	vital_articles
Caddisfly larvae are aquatic, with six pairs of tracheal gills on the underside of the abdomen. The eggs are laid above water on emergent twigs or vegetation or on the water surface although females of some species enter water to choose sites. Although most species lay eggs, a few in the genus Triplectides are ovovivip...	Caddisfly	Wikipedia	461	1529533	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caddisfly	Biology and health sciences	Insects: General	Animals	vital_articles
The adult caddisfly is a medium-sized insect with membranous, hairy wings, which are held in a tent-wise fashion when the insect is at rest. The antennae are fairly long and threadlike, the mouthparts are reduced in size and the legs have five tarsi (lower leg joints). Adults are nocturnal and are attracted to light. S...	Caddisfly	Wikipedia	483	1529533	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caddisfly	Biology and health sciences	Insects: General	Animals	vital_articles
In art While caddisflies in the wild construct their cases out of twigs, sand, aquatic plants, and rocks, the French artist Hubert Duprat makes art by providing wild caddisflies with precious stones and other materials. He collected caddisfly larvae from the wild and put them in climate-controlled tanks. He removes th...	Caddisfly	Wikipedia	161	1529533	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caddisfly	Biology and health sciences	Insects: General	Animals	vital_articles
Suborder Annulipalpia Superfamily Hydropsychoidea Family Hydropsychidae Superfamily Psychomyioidea Family Dipseudopsidae Family Ecnomidae Family †Electralbertidae Family Polycentropodidae Family Psychomyiidae Family Xiphocentronidae Superfamily Philopotamoidea Family Philopotamidae Family Stenopsychidae Su...	Caddisfly	Wikipedia	437	1529533	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caddisfly	Biology and health sciences	Insects: General	Animals	vital_articles
A conidium ( ; : conidia), sometimes termed an asexual chlamydospore or chlamydoconidium (: chlamydoconidia), is an asexual, non-motile spore of a fungus. The word conidium comes from the Ancient Greek word for dust, (). They are also called mitospores due to the way they are generated through the cellular process of ...	Conidium	Wikipedia	493	1530205	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conidium	Biology and health sciences	Fungal morphology and anatomy	Biology	vital_articles
Germination in Aspergillus As evidenced by recent literature, conidia germination of Aspergillus, a common mold, specifically is of interest. Aspergillus is not only a familiar fungus found across various different settings in the world, but it poses a danger for immunocompromised individuals, as inhaled Aspergillus c...	Conidium	Wikipedia	356	1530205	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conidium	Biology and health sciences	Fungal morphology and anatomy	Biology	vital_articles
Stages of Germination: Isotropic and Polarized Growth The phases following dormancy include isotropic growth, in which increased intracellular osmotic pressure and water uptake causes swelling of the conidia and increased cellular diameter, and polarized growth, in which the swelling from isotropic growth directs the ...	Conidium	Wikipedia	464	1530205	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conidium	Biology and health sciences	Fungal morphology and anatomy	Biology	vital_articles
Two important types of conidiomata, distinguished by their form, are: pycnidia (singular: pycnidium), which are flask-shaped, and acervuli (singular: acervulus), which have a simpler cushion-like form. Pycnidial conidiomata or pycnidia form in the fungal tissue itself, and are shaped like a bulging vase. The conidia a...	Conidium	Wikipedia	499	1530205	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conidium	Biology and health sciences	Fungal morphology and anatomy	Biology	vital_articles
Bioturbation is defined as the reworking of soils and sediments by animals or plants. It includes burrowing, ingestion, and defecation of sediment grains. Bioturbating activities have a profound effect on the environment and are thought to be a primary driver of biodiversity. The formal study of bioturbation began in ...	Bioturbation	Wikipedia	374	1530478	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioturbation	Physical sciences	Sedimentology	Earth science	vital_articles
Functional groups Bioturbators have been organized by a variety of functional groupings based on either ecological characteristics or biogeochemical effects. While the prevailing categorization is based on the way bioturbators transport and interact with sediments, the various groupings likely stem from the relevance ...	Bioturbation	Wikipedia	512	1530478	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioturbation	Physical sciences	Sedimentology	Earth science	vital_articles
The evaluation of the ecological role of bioturbators has largely been species-specific. However, their ability to transport solutes, such as dissolved oxygen, enhance organic matter decomposition and diagenesis, and alter sediment structure has made them important for the survival and colonization by other macrofaunal...	Bioturbation	Wikipedia	292	1530478	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioturbation	Physical sciences	Sedimentology	Earth science	vital_articles
Burrows offer protection from predation and harsh environmental conditions. For example, termites (Macrotermes bellicosus) burrow and create mounds that have a complex system of air ducts and evaporation devices that create a suitable microclimate in an unfavorable physical environment. Many species are attracted to bi...	Bioturbation	Wikipedia	320	1530478	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioturbation	Physical sciences	Sedimentology	Earth science	vital_articles
Bioturbators can also inhibit the presence of other benthic organisms by smothering, exposing other organisms to predators, or resource competition. While thalassinidean shrimps can provide shelter for some organisms and cultivate interspecies relationships within burrows, they have also been shown to have strong negat...	Bioturbation	Wikipedia	477	1530478	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioturbation	Physical sciences	Sedimentology	Earth science	vital_articles
Bioturbators have also altered phosphorus cycling on geologic scales. Bioturbators mix readily available particulate organic phosphorus (P) deeper into ocean sediment layers which prevents the precipitation of phosphorus (mineralization) by increasing the sequestration of phosphorus above normal chemical rates. The seq...	Bioturbation	Wikipedia	398	1530478	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioturbation	Physical sciences	Sedimentology	Earth science	vital_articles
Plants and animals utilize soil for food and shelter, disturbing the upper soil layers and transporting chemically weathered rock called saprolite from the lower soil depths to the surface. Terrestrial bioturbation is important in soil production, burial, organic matter content, and downslope transport. Tree roots are ...	Bioturbation	Wikipedia	422	1530478	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioturbation	Physical sciences	Sedimentology	Earth science	vital_articles
Freshwater Important sources of bioturbation in freshwater ecosystems include benthivorous (bottom-dwelling) fish, macroinvertebrates such as worms, insect larvae, crustaceans and molluscs, and seasonal influences from anadromous (migrating) fish such as salmon. Anadromous fish migrate from the sea into fresh-water ri...	Bioturbation	Wikipedia	404	1530478	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioturbation	Physical sciences	Sedimentology	Earth science	vital_articles
Macroinvertebrates including chironomid (non-biting midges) larvae and tubificid worms (detritus worms) are important agents of bioturbation in these ecosystems and have different effects based on their respective feeding habits. Tubificid worms do not form burrows, they are upward conveyors. Chironomids, on the other ...	Bioturbation	Wikipedia	492	1530478	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioturbation	Physical sciences	Sedimentology	Earth science	vital_articles
Salmon function as bioturbators on both gravel to sand-sized sediment and a nutrient scale, by moving and re-working sediments in the construction of redds (gravel depressions or "nests" containing eggs buried under a thin layer of sediment) in rivers and streams and by mobilization of nutrients. The construction of sa...	Bioturbation	Wikipedia	495	1530478	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioturbation	Physical sciences	Sedimentology	Earth science	vital_articles
Coastal ecosystems, such as estuaries, are generally highly productive, which results in the accumulation of large quantities of detritus (organic waste). These large quantities, in addition to typically small sediment grain size and dense populations, make bioturbators important in estuarine respiration. Bioturbators ...	Bioturbation	Wikipedia	476	1530478	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioturbation	Physical sciences	Sedimentology	Earth science	vital_articles
Deep sea Bioturbation is important in the deep sea because deep-sea ecosystem functioning depends on the use and recycling of nutrients and organic inputs from the photic zone. In low energy regions (areas with relatively still water), bioturbation is the only force creating heterogeneity in solute concentration and m...	Bioturbation	Wikipedia	468	1530478	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioturbation	Physical sciences	Sedimentology	Earth science	vital_articles
Evolution The onset of bioturbation had a profound effect on the environment and the evolution of other organisms. Bioturbation is thought to have been an important co-factor of the Cambrian Explosion, during which most major animal phyla appeared in the fossil record over a short time. Predation arose during this tim...	Bioturbation	Wikipedia	432	1530478	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioturbation	Physical sciences	Sedimentology	Earth science	vital_articles
Patterns or traces of bioturbation are preserved in lithified rock. The study of such patterns is called ichnology, or the study of "trace fossils", which, in the case of bioturbators, are fossils left behind by digging or burrowing animals. This can be compared to the footprint left behind by these animals. In some ca...	Bioturbation	Wikipedia	329	1530478	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioturbation	Physical sciences	Sedimentology	Earth science	vital_articles
Research history Bioturbation's importance for soil processes and geomorphology was first realized by Charles Darwin, who devoted his last scientific book to the subject (The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms). Darwin spread chalk dust over a field to observe changes in the depth of the chalk la...	Bioturbation	Wikipedia	210	1530478	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioturbation	Physical sciences	Sedimentology	Earth science	vital_articles
Fungal infection, also known as mycosis, is a disease caused by fungi. Different types are traditionally divided according to the part of the body affected; superficial, subcutaneous, and systemic. Superficial fungal infections include common tinea of the skin, such as tinea of the body, groin, hands, feet and beard, a...	Fungal infection	Wikipedia	510	1530575	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungal%20infection	Biology and health sciences	Infectious disease	null	vital_articles
A wide range of fungal infections occur in other animals, and some can be transmitted from animals to people. Classification Mycoses are traditionally divided into superficial, subcutaneous, or systemic, where infection is deep, more widespread and involving internal body organs. They can affect the nails, vagina, ski...	Fungal infection	Wikipedia	510	1530575	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungal%20infection	Biology and health sciences	Infectious disease	null	vital_articles
Subcutaneous fungal infections include sporotrichosis, chromoblastomycosis, and eumycetoma. Systemic Systemic fungal infections include histoplasmosis, cryptococcosis, coccidioidomycosis, blastomycosis, mucormycosis, aspergillosis, pneumocystis pneumonia and systemic candidiasis. Systemic mycoses due to primary patho...	Fungal infection	Wikipedia	436	1530575	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungal%20infection	Biology and health sciences	Infectious disease	null	vital_articles
COVID-19 During the COVID-19 pandemic some fungal infections have been associated with COVID-19. Fungal infections can mimic COVID-19, occur at the same time as COVID-19 and more serious fungal infections can complicate COVID-19. A fungal infection may occur after antibiotics for a bacterial infection which has occurre...	Fungal infection	Wikipedia	464	1530575	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungal%20infection	Biology and health sciences	Infectious disease	null	vital_articles
According to the Global Action Fund for Fungal Infections, every year there are over 10 million cases of fungal asthma, around 3 million cases of long-term aspergillosis of lungs, 1 million cases of blindness due to fungal keratitis, more than 200,000 cases of meningitis due to cryptococcus, 700,000 cases of invasive c...	Fungal infection	Wikipedia	247	1530575	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungal%20infection	Biology and health sciences	Infectious disease	null	vital_articles
Sodium permanganate is the inorganic compound with the formula NaMnO4. It is closely related to the more commonly encountered potassium permanganate, but it is generally less desirable, because it is more expensive to produce. It is mainly available as the monohydrate. This salt absorbs water from the atmosphere and ...	Sodium permanganate	Wikipedia	409	8676888	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium%20permanganate	Physical sciences	Metallic oxyanions	Chemistry	vital_articles
A zero-day (also known as a 0-day) is a vulnerability in software or hardware that is typically unknown to the vendor and for which no patch or other fix is available. The vendor thus has zero days to prepare a patch, as the vulnerability has already been described or exploited. Despite developers' goal of delivering ...	Zero-day vulnerability	Wikipedia	426	16001916	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-day%20vulnerability	Technology	Computer security	null	vital_articles
Exploits An exploit is the delivery mechanism that takes advantage of the vulnerability to penetrate the target's systems, for such purposes as disrupting operations, installing malware, or exfiltrating data. Researchers Lillian Ablon and Andy Bogart write that "little is known about the true extent, use, benefit, and ...	Zero-day vulnerability	Wikipedia	479	16001916	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-day%20vulnerability	Technology	Computer security	null	vital_articles
According to research by RAND Corporation published in 2017, zero-day exploits remain usable for 6.9 years on average, although those purchased from a third party only remain usable for 1.4 years on average. The researchers were unable to determine if any particular platform or software (such as open-source software) h...	Zero-day vulnerability	Wikipedia	357	16001916	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-day%20vulnerability	Technology	Computer security	null	vital_articles
Zero-day exploits can fetch millions of dollars. There are three main types of buyers: White: the vendor, or to third parties such as the Zero Day Initiative that disclose to the vendor. Often such disclosure is in exchange for a bug bounty. Not all companies respond positively to disclosures, as they can cause legal l...	Zero-day vulnerability	Wikipedia	500	16001916	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-day%20vulnerability	Technology	Computer security	null	vital_articles
Research published in 2022 based on maximum prices paid as quoted by a single exploit broker found a 44 percent annualized inflation rate in exploit pricing. Remote zero-click exploits could fetch the highest price, while those that require local access to the device are much cheaper. Vulnerabilities in widely used sof...	Zero-day vulnerability	Wikipedia	419	16001916	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-day%20vulnerability	Technology	Computer security	null	vital_articles
The United States National Security Agency (NSA) increased its search for zero-day vulnerabilities after large tech companies refused to install backdoors into the software, tasking the Tailored Access Operations (TAO) with discovering and purchasing zero-day exploits. In 2007, former NSA employee Charlie Miller public...	Zero-day vulnerability	Wikipedia	472	16001916	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-day%20vulnerability	Technology	Computer security	null	vital_articles
In 2022 the spyware Pegasus, developed by Israel's NSO Group, was found to exploit zero-click vulnerabilities in messaging apps like iMessage and WhatsApp. These exploits allowed attackers to access targets' devices without requiring user interaction, heightening concerns over surveillance and privacy.	Zero-day vulnerability	Wikipedia	62	16001916	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-day%20vulnerability	Technology	Computer security	null	vital_articles
The domesticated hedgehog kept as a pet is typically the African pygmy hedgehog (Atelerix albiventris). Other species kept as pets include the long-eared hedgehog (Hemiechinus auritus) and the Indian long-eared hedgehog (Hemiechinus collaris). In the ancient era Although ancient humans were familiar with the hedgehog...	Domesticated hedgehog	Wikipedia	504	2177275	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domesticated%20hedgehog	Biology and health sciences	Eulipotyphla	Animals	vital_articles
It is illegal to own a hedgehog as a pet in some jurisdictions in North America, and a license is needed to legally breed them. These restrictions may have been enacted due to the ability of some hedgehog species to carry foot and mouth disease, a highly contagious disease of cloven-hooved animals. The European hedgeh...	Domesticated hedgehog	Wikipedia	129	2177275	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domesticated%20hedgehog	Biology and health sciences	Eulipotyphla	Animals	vital_articles
Legal status internationally Austria: European hedgehogs are protected and cannot be kept as pets. Four-toed hedgehogs (African Pygmy hedgehogs) may legally be kept as pets. Australia: All hedgehogs are classified as exotic pets that are illegal to import. Canada: In Quebec – European hedgehogs are illegal. Four-toed h...	Domesticated hedgehog	Wikipedia	508	2177275	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domesticated%20hedgehog	Biology and health sciences	Eulipotyphla	Animals	vital_articles
In Idaho and Oregon – European hedgehogs cannot be kept as pets. Four-toed hedgehogs may legally be kept as pets. In New Jersey and Wyoming – a permit is required. In Wisconsin – an import permit from the state department of agriculture is required to bring a hedgehog into the state. In Fairfax County, Virginia, it bec...	Domesticated hedgehog	Wikipedia	204	2177275	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domesticated%20hedgehog	Biology and health sciences	Eulipotyphla	Animals	vital_articles
Enclosures In the wild, a hedgehog will cover many miles each night. A hedgehog with insufficient range may show signs of depression, such as excessive sleeping, refusal to eat, repetitious behaviour, and self-mutilation. Hedgehogs require a fair amount of exercise to avoid liver problems due to excess weight. Therefo...	Domesticated hedgehog	Wikipedia	511	2177275	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domesticated%20hedgehog	Biology and health sciences	Eulipotyphla	Animals	vital_articles
Diseases Hedgehogs can easily become obese; if they can no longer roll completely into a ball, it is a clear sign of obesity. Conversely, hedgehogs often stop eating under situations of stress, such as when adjusting to a new home. Hedgehogs are prone to many diseases, including cancer, which spreads quickly in hedgeh...	Domesticated hedgehog	Wikipedia	231	2177275	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domesticated%20hedgehog	Biology and health sciences	Eulipotyphla	Animals	vital_articles
Cosmic dustalso called extraterrestrial dust, space dust, or star dustis dust that occurs in outer space or has fallen onto Earth. Most cosmic dust particles measure between a few molecules and , such as micrometeoroids (<30 μm) and meteoroids (>30 μm). Cosmic dust can be further distinguished by its astronomical locat...	Cosmic dust	Wikipedia	460	2178570	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic%20dust	Physical sciences	Basics_2	Astronomy	vital_articles
The interdisciplinary study of dust brings together different scientific fields: physics (solid-state, electromagnetic theory, surface physics, statistical physics, thermal physics), fractal mathematics, surface chemistry on dust grains, meteoritics, as well as every branch of astronomy and astrophysics. These dispara...	Cosmic dust	Wikipedia	459	2178570	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic%20dust	Physical sciences	Basics_2	Astronomy	vital_articles
Don Brownlee at the University of Washington in Seattle first reliably identified the extraterrestrial nature of collected dust particles in the latter 1970s. Another source is the meteorites, which contain stardust extracted from them. Stardust grains are solid refractory pieces of individual presolar stars. They are ...	Cosmic dust	Wikipedia	427	2178570	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic%20dust	Physical sciences	Basics_2	Astronomy	vital_articles
Infrared light can penetrate cosmic dust clouds, allowing us to peer into regions of star formation and the centers of galaxies. NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope was the largest infrared space telescope, before the launch of the James Webb Space Telescope. During its mission, Spitzer obtained images and spectra by detec...	Cosmic dust	Wikipedia	480	2178570	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic%20dust	Physical sciences	Basics_2	Astronomy	vital_articles
The scattering of light from dust grains in long exposure visible photographs is quite noticeable in reflection nebulae, and gives clues about the individual particle's light-scattering properties. In X-ray wavelengths, many scientists are investigating the scattering of X-rays by interstellar dust, and some have sugge...	Cosmic dust	Wikipedia	497	2178570	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic%20dust	Physical sciences	Basics_2	Astronomy	vital_articles
Also important are their extreme isotopic compositions, which are expected to exist nowhere in the interstellar medium. This also suggests that the presolar grains condensed from the gases of individual stars before the isotopes could be diluted by mixing with the interstellar medium. These allow the source stars to be...	Cosmic dust	Wikipedia	467	2178570	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic%20dust	Physical sciences	Basics_2	Astronomy	vital_articles
Some bulk properties Cosmic dust is made of dust grains and aggregates into dust particles. These particles are irregularly shaped, with porosity ranging from fluffy to compact. The composition, size, and other properties depend on where the dust is found, and conversely, a compositional analysis of a dust particle ca...	Cosmic dust	Wikipedia	409	2178570	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic%20dust	Physical sciences	Basics_2	Astronomy	vital_articles
The large grains in interstellar space are probably complex, with refractory cores that condensed within stellar outflows topped by layers acquired during incursions into cold dense interstellar clouds. That cyclic process of growth and destruction outside of the clouds has been modeled to demonstrate that the cores li...	Cosmic dust	Wikipedia	492	2178570	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic%20dust	Physical sciences	Basics_2	Astronomy	vital_articles
Conditions in interstellar space are generally not suitable for the formation of silicate cores. This would take excessive time to accomplish, even if it might be possible. The arguments are that: given an observed typical grain diameter a, the time for a grain to attain a, and given the temperature of interstellar gas...	Cosmic dust	Wikipedia	469	2178570	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic%20dust	Physical sciences	Basics_2	Astronomy	vital_articles
Planetary disk formation of precursor molecules was determined, in large part, by the temperature of the solar nebula. Since the temperature of the solar nebula decreased with heliocentric distance, scientists can infer a dust grain's with knowledge of the grain's materials. Some materials could only have been formed ...	Cosmic dust	Wikipedia	277	2178570	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic%20dust	Physical sciences	Basics_2	Astronomy	vital_articles
We can follow the trail to the right in the diagram to the IDPs that contain the most volatile and primitive elements. The trail takes us first from interplanetary dust particles to chondritic interplanetary dust particles. Planetary scientists classify chondritic IDPs in terms of their diminishing degree of oxidation ...	Cosmic dust	Wikipedia	457	2178570	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic%20dust	Physical sciences	Basics_2	Astronomy	vital_articles
In September 2012, NASA scientists reported that polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), subjected to interstellar medium (ISM) conditions, are transformed, through hydrogenation, oxygenation and hydroxylation, to more complex organics – "a step along the path toward amino acids and nucleotides, the raw materials of p...	Cosmic dust	Wikipedia	487	2178570	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic%20dust	Physical sciences	Basics_2	Astronomy	vital_articles
Some of the better known dusty regions in the Universe are the diffuse nebulae in the Messier catalog, for example: M1, M8, M16, M17, M20, M42, M43. Some larger dust catalogs are Sharpless (1959) A Catalogue of HII Regions, Lynds (1965) Catalogue of Bright Nebulae, Lynds (1962) Catalogue of Dark Nebulae, van den Bergh...	Cosmic dust	Wikipedia	346	2178570	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic%20dust	Physical sciences	Basics_2	Astronomy	vital_articles
Deinotheriidae ("terrible beasts") is a family of prehistoric elephant-like proboscideans that lived during the Cenozoic era, first appearing in Africa during the Oligocene then spreading across Europe and the lower latitudes of Asia during the Miocene epoch. Their most distinctive features were their lack of upper tus...	Deinotheriidae	Wikipedia	429	2179965	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deinotheriidae	Biology and health sciences	Proboscidea	Animals	vital_articles
Ecology Deinotheres were "shearing browsers" adapted for feeding on plants above ground level. The way they chewed their food was probably similar to that of modern tapirs, with the front teeth being used to crush the food, while the second and third molars have a strong vertical shearing action, with little lateral (s...	Deinotheriidae	Wikipedia	489	2179965	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deinotheriidae	Biology and health sciences	Proboscidea	Animals	vital_articles
While these Miocene deinotheres were dispersed widely and evolved to huge elephant sizes, they were not as common as the contemporary (but smaller) Elephantoidea. Fossil remains of this age are known from the France, Germany, Greece, Malta, and northern India and Pakistan. These consist chiefly of teeth and the bones ...	Deinotheriidae	Wikipedia	496	2179965	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deinotheriidae	Biology and health sciences	Proboscidea	Animals	vital_articles
In statistical mechanics, Boltzmann's equation (also known as the Boltzmann–Planck equation) is a probability equation relating the entropy , also written as , of an ideal gas to the multiplicity (commonly denoted as or ), the number of real microstates corresponding to the gas's macrostate: where is the Boltzmann c...	Boltzmann's entropy formula	Wikipedia	417	9328562	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boltzmann%27s%20entropy%20formula	Physical sciences	Thermodynamics	Physics	vital_articles
There are many instantaneous microstates that apply to a given macrostate. Boltzmann considered collections of such microstates. For a given macrostate, he called the collection of all possible instantaneous microstates of a certain kind by the name monode, for which Gibbs' term ensemble is used nowadays. For single pa...	Boltzmann's entropy formula	Wikipedia	479	9328562	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boltzmann%27s%20entropy%20formula	Physical sciences	Thermodynamics	Physics	vital_articles
“The most likely state distribution will be for those w0, w1 … values for which 𝒫 is a maximum or since the numerator is a constant, for which the denominator is a minimum. The values w0, w1 must simultaneously satisfy the two constraints (1) and (2). Since the denominator of 𝒫 is a product, it is easiest to determin...	Boltzmann's entropy formula	Wikipedia	479	9328562	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boltzmann%27s%20entropy%20formula	Physical sciences	Thermodynamics	Physics	vital_articles
The term Boltzmann entropy is also sometimes used to indicate entropies calculated based on the approximation that the overall probability can be factored into an identical separate term for each particle—i.e., assuming each particle has an identical independent probability distribution, and ignoring interactions and c...	Boltzmann's entropy formula	Wikipedia	324	9328562	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boltzmann%27s%20entropy%20formula	Physical sciences	Thermodynamics	Physics	vital_articles
An induction generator or asynchronous generator is a type of alternating current (AC) electrical generator that uses the principles of induction motors to produce electric power. Induction generators operate by mechanically turning their rotors faster than synchronous speed. A regular AC induction motor usually can be...	Induction generator	Wikipedia	488	9331066	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induction%20generator	Technology	Power generation	null	vital_articles
In generator operation, a prime mover (turbine or engine) drives the rotor above the synchronous speed (negative slip). The stator flux induces current in the rotor, but the opposing rotor flux is now cutting the stator coils, a current is induced in the stator coils 270° behind the magnetizing current, in phase with m...	Induction generator	Wikipedia	428	9331066	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induction%20generator	Technology	Power generation	null	vital_articles
Active Power Active power delivered to the line is proportional to slip above the synchronous speed. Full rated power of the generator is reached at very small slip values (motor dependent, typically 3%). At synchronous speed of 1800 RPM, generator will produce no power. When the driving speed is increased to 1860 RPM ...	Induction generator	Wikipedia	506	9331066	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induction%20generator	Technology	Power generation	null	vital_articles
Limitations An induction generator connected to a capacitor system can generate sufficient reactive power to operate independently. When the load current exceeds the capability of the generator to supply both magnetization reactive power and load power the generator will immediately cease to produce power. The load mu...	Induction generator	Wikipedia	434	9331066	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induction%20generator	Technology	Power generation	null	vital_articles
A/B testing (also known as bucket testing, split-run testing, or split testing) is a user experience research method. A/B tests consist of a randomized experiment that usually involves two variants (A and B), although the concept can be also extended to multiple variants of the same variable. It includes application of...	A/B testing	Wikipedia	437	9332179	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A/B%20testing	Mathematics	Statistics	null	vital_articles
The company then monitors which campaign has the higher success rate by analyzing the use of the promotional codes. The email using the code A1 has a 5% response rate (50 of the 1,000 people emailed used the code to buy a product), and the email using the code B1 has a 3% response rate (30 of the recipients used the co...	A/B testing	Wikipedia	502	9332179	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A/B%20testing	Mathematics	Statistics	null	vital_articles
Segmentation and targeting A/B tests most commonly apply the same variant (e.g., user interface element) with equal probability to all users. However, in some circumstances, responses to variants may be heterogeneous. That is, while a variant A might have a higher response rate overall, variant B may have an even highe...	A/B testing	Wikipedia	456	9332179	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A/B%20testing	Mathematics	Statistics	null	vital_articles
A/B tests are sensitive to variance; they require a large sample size in order to reduce standard error and produce a statistically significant result. In applications where active users are abundant, such as popular online social media platforms, obtaining a large sample size is trivial. In other cases, large sample s...	A/B testing	Wikipedia	413	9332179	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A/B%20testing	Mathematics	Statistics	null	vital_articles
With the growth of the internet, new ways to sample populations have become available. Google engineers ran their first A/B test in the year 2000 in an attempt to determine what the optimum number of results to display on its search engine results page would be. The first test was unsuccessful due to glitches that resu...	A/B testing	Wikipedia	486	9332179	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A/B%20testing	Mathematics	Statistics	null	vital_articles
A/B testing for product pricing A/B testing can be used to determine the right price for the product, as this is perhaps one of the most difficult tasks when a new product or service is launched. A/B testing (especially valid for digital goods) is an excellent way to find out which price-point and offering maximize th...	A/B testing	Wikipedia	330	9332179	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A/B%20testing	Mathematics	Statistics	null	vital_articles
A loupe ( ) is a simple, small magnification device used to see small details more closely. They generally have higher magnification than a magnifying glass, and are designed to be held or worn close to the eye. A loupe does not have an attached handle, and its focusing lens(es) are contained in an opaque cylinder or c...	Loupe	Wikipedia	415	11817652	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loupe	Technology	Optical instruments	null	vital_articles
Photography Analog (film) photographers use loupes to review, edit or analyze negatives and slides on a light table. Typical magnifications for viewing slides full-frame depend on image format; 35 mm frames (24×36 mm slides to 38×38 mm superslides) are best viewed at ca. 5×, while ca. 3× is optimal for viewing medium f...	Loupe	Wikipedia	451	11817652	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loupe	Technology	Optical instruments	null	vital_articles
Treatment of periodontal disease is achieved by removing calculus deposits, plaque and therefore bacteria which causes inflammation and subsequently bone destruction. In severe cases, surgery to reduce pocket depth is indicated. Periodontists and hygienists must visualize plaque and calculus to remove it. Magnification...	Loupe	Wikipedia	417	11817652	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loupe	Technology	Optical instruments	null	vital_articles
Surgeons in many specialties commonly use loupes when doing surgery on delicate structures. The loupes used by surgeons are mounted in the lenses of glasses and are custom made for the individual surgeon, taking into account their corrected vision, interpupillary distance and desired focal distance. Multiple magnificat...	Loupe	Wikipedia	299	11817652	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loupe	Technology	Optical instruments	null	vital_articles
In chemistry, a space-filling model, also known as a calotte model, is a type of three-dimensional (3D) molecular model where the atoms are represented by spheres whose radii are proportional to the radii of the atoms and whose center-to-center distances are proportional to the distances between the atomic nuclei, all ...	Space-filling model	Wikipedia	312	7181923	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space-filling%20model	Physical sciences	Substance	Chemistry	vital_articles
Space-filling models arise out of a desire to represent molecules in ways that reflect the electronic surfaces that molecules present, that dictate how they interact, one with another (or with surfaces, or macromolecules such as enzymes, etc.). Crystallographic data are the starting point for understanding static molec...	Space-filling model	Wikipedia	440	7181923	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space-filling%20model	Physical sciences	Substance	Chemistry	vital_articles
In 1965, Walter L. Koltun designed and patented a simplified system with molded plastic atoms of various colours, which were joined by specially designed snap connectors; this simpler system accomplished essentially the same ends as the Corey-Pauling system, and allowed for the development of the models as a popular wa...	Space-filling model	Wikipedia	222	7181923	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space-filling%20model	Physical sciences	Substance	Chemistry	vital_articles
In photometry, luminous flux or luminous power is the measure of the perceived power of light. It differs from radiant flux, the measure of the total power of electromagnetic radiation (including infrared, ultraviolet, and visible light), in that luminous flux is adjusted to reflect the varying sensitivity of the human...	Luminous flux	Wikipedia	391	581888	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminous%20flux	Physical sciences	Optics	Physics	vital_articles
Luminous flux (in lumens) is a measure of the total amount of light a lamp puts out. The luminous intensity (in candelas) is a measure of how bright the beam in a particular direction is. If a lamp has a 1 lumen bulb and the optics of the lamp are set up to focus the light evenly into a 1 steradian beam, then the beam ...	Luminous flux	Wikipedia	137	581888	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminous%20flux	Physical sciences	Optics	Physics	vital_articles
An antenna tuner, a matchbox, transmatch, antenna tuning unit (ATU), antenna coupler, or feedline coupler is a device connected between a radio transmitter or receiver and its antenna to improve power transfer between them by matching the impedance of the radio to the antenna's feedline. Antenna tuners are particularl...	Antenna tuner	Wikipedia	467	582127	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antenna%20tuner	Technology	Broadcasting	null	vital_articles
Overview An antenna's impedance is different at different frequencies. An antenna tuner matches a radio with a fixed impedance (typically 50 Ohms for modern transceivers) to the combination of the feedline and the antenna; useful when the impedance seen at the input end of the feedline is unknown, complex, or otherwis...	Antenna tuner	Wikipedia	455	582127	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antenna%20tuner	Technology	Broadcasting	null	vital_articles
Broad band matching methods Transformers, autotransformers, and baluns are sometimes incorporated into the design of narrow band antenna tuners and antenna cabling connections. They will all usually have little effect on the resonant frequency of either the antenna or the narrow band transmitter circuits, but can widen...	Antenna tuner	Wikipedia	349	582127	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antenna%20tuner	Technology	Broadcasting	null	vital_articles
Autotransformers There are several designs for impedance matching using an autotransformer, which is a single-wire transformer with different connection points or taps spaced along the windings. They are distinguished mainly by their impedance transform ratio (1:1, 1:4, 1:9, etc., the square of the winding ratio), and ...	Antenna tuner	Wikipedia	404	582127	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antenna%20tuner	Technology	Broadcasting	null	vital_articles
Antenna matching methods that use transformers tend to cover a wide range of frequencies. A single, typical, commercially available balun can cover frequencies from 3.5–30.0 MHz, or nearly the entire shortwave radio band. Matching to an antenna using a cut segment of transmission line (described below) is perhaps the m...	Antenna tuner	Wikipedia	424	582127	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antenna%20tuner	Technology	Broadcasting	null	vital_articles
A second common method is the use of a stub: A shorted, or open section of line is connected in parallel with the main line. With coax this is done using a 'T'-connector. The length of the stub and its location can be chosen so as to produce a matched line below the stub, regardless of the complex impedance or SWR of t...	Antenna tuner	Wikipedia	496	582127	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antenna%20tuner	Technology	Broadcasting	null	vital_articles
Types of L networks and their use The L-network can have eight different configurations, six of which are shown here. The two missing configurations are the same as the bottom row, but with the parallel element (wires vertical) on the right side of the series element (wires horizontal), instead of on the left, as shown...	Antenna tuner	Wikipedia	445	582127	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antenna%20tuner	Technology	Broadcasting	null	vital_articles

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