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Disks
Some very young star-forming regions, typically younger than 5 million years, sometimes contain isolated planetary-mass objects with infrared excess and signs of accretion. Most well known is the iPMO OTS 44 discovered to have a disk and being located in Chamaeleon I. Charmaeleon I and II have other candidate iP... | Rogue planet | Wikipedia | 417 | 558397 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rogue%20planet | Physical sciences | Planetary science | Astronomy | vital_articles |
Hong et al. predicted that exomoons can be scattered by planet-planet interactions and become ejected exomoons. Higher mass (0.3-1 ) ejected FFP are predicted to be possible, but they are also predicted to be rare. Ejection of a planet can occur via planet-planet scatter or due a stellar flyby. Another possibility is t... | Rogue planet | Wikipedia | 472 | 558397 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rogue%20planet | Physical sciences | Planetary science | Astronomy | vital_articles |
During planetary-system formation, several small protoplanetary bodies may be ejected from the system. An ejected body would receive less of the stellar-generated ultraviolet light that can strip away the lighter elements of its atmosphere. Even an Earth-sized body would have enough gravity to prevent the escape of the... | Rogue planet | Wikipedia | 420 | 558397 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rogue%20planet | Physical sciences | Planetary science | Astronomy | vital_articles |
The natural environment or natural world encompasses all biotic and abiotic things occurring naturally, meaning in this case not artificial. The term is most often applied to Earth or some parts of Earth. This environment encompasses the interaction of all living species, climate, weather and natural resources that aff... | Natural environment | Wikipedia | 410 | 558685 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural%20environment | Physical sciences | Earth science basics: General | Earth science | vital_articles |
Earth science generally recognizes four spheres, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere and the biosphere as correspondent to rocks, water, air and life respectively. Some scientists include as part of the spheres of the Earth, the cryosphere (corresponding to ice) as a distinct portion of the hydrosphere, as... | Natural environment | Wikipedia | 330 | 558685 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural%20environment | Physical sciences | Earth science basics: General | Earth science | vital_articles |
An ocean is a major body of saline water and a component of the hydrosphere. Approximately 71% of the surface of the Earth (an area of some 362 million square kilometers) is covered by ocean, a continuous body of water that is customarily divided into several principal oceans and smaller seas. More than half of this ar... | Natural environment | Wikipedia | 491 | 558685 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural%20environment | Physical sciences | Earth science basics: General | Earth science | vital_articles |
Natural lakes on Earth are generally found in mountainous areas, rift zones and areas with ongoing or recent glaciation. Other lakes are found in endorheic basins or along the courses of mature rivers. In some parts of the world, there are many lakes because of chaotic drainage patterns left over from the last ice age.... | Natural environment | Wikipedia | 401 | 558685 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural%20environment | Physical sciences | Earth science basics: General | Earth science | vital_articles |
The atmosphere of the Earth serves as a key factor in sustaining the planetary ecosystem. The thin layer of gases that envelops the Earth is held in place by the planet's gravity. Dry air consists of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 1% argon, inert gases and carbon dioxide. The remaining gases are often referred to as trace g... | Natural environment | Wikipedia | 271 | 558685 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural%20environment | Physical sciences | Earth science basics: General | Earth science | vital_articles |
Principal layers
Earth's atmosphere can be divided into five main layers. These layers are mainly determined by whether temperature increases or decreases with altitude. From highest to lowest, these layers are:
Exosphere: The outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere extends from the exobase upward, mainly composed of hy... | Natural environment | Wikipedia | 325 | 558685 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural%20environment | Physical sciences | Earth science basics: General | Earth science | vital_articles |
Other layers
Within the five principal layers determined by temperature there are several layers determined by other properties.
The ozone layer is contained within the stratosphere. It is mainly located in the lower portion of the stratosphere from about , though the thickness varies seasonally and geographically. Ab... | Natural environment | Wikipedia | 505 | 558685 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural%20environment | Physical sciences | Earth science basics: General | Earth science | vital_articles |
The United Nations Framework Convention Treaty and convention on Climate Change, to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system.
The Kyoto Protocol, which is the protocol to the international Framework Convention o... | Natural environment | Wikipedia | 408 | 558685 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural%20environment | Physical sciences | Earth science basics: General | Earth science | vital_articles |
Weather occurs due to density (temperature and moisture) differences between one place and another. These differences can occur due to the sun angle at any particular spot, which varies by latitude from the tropics. The strong temperature contrast between polar and tropical air gives rise to the jet stream. Weather sys... | Natural environment | Wikipedia | 458 | 558685 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural%20environment | Physical sciences | Earth science basics: General | Earth science | vital_articles |
A diverse variety of living organisms (life forms) can be found in the biosphere on Earth, and properties common to these organisms—plants, animals, fungi, protists, archaea, and bacteria—are a carbon- and water-based cellular form with complex organization and heritable genetic information. Living organisms undergo me... | Natural environment | Wikipedia | 507 | 558685 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural%20environment | Physical sciences | Earth science basics: General | Earth science | vital_articles |
Biogeochemical cycles
Global biogeochemical cycles are critical to life, most notably those of water, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus.
The nitrogen cycle is the transformation of nitrogen and nitrogen-containing compounds in nature. It is a cycle which includes gaseous components.
The water cycle, is the con... | Natural environment | Wikipedia | 401 | 558685 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural%20environment | Physical sciences | Earth science basics: General | Earth science | vital_articles |
The word, "wilderness", derives from the notion of wildness; in other words that which is not controllable by humans. The word etymology is from the Old English wildeornes, which in turn derives from wildeor meaning wild beast (wild + deor = beast, deer). From this point of view, it is the wildness of a place that make... | Natural environment | Wikipedia | 357 | 558685 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural%20environment | Physical sciences | Earth science basics: General | Earth science | vital_articles |
Goals for the benefit of people and natural systems, commonly expressed by environmental scientists and environmentalists include:
Elimination of pollution and toxicants in air, water, soil, buildings, manufactured goods, and food.
Preservation of biodiversity and protection of endangered species.
Conservation and s... | Natural environment | Wikipedia | 319 | 558685 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural%20environment | Physical sciences | Earth science basics: General | Earth science | vital_articles |
Lactococcus lactis is a gram-positive bacterium used extensively in the production of buttermilk and cheese, but has also become famous as the first genetically modified organism to be used alive for the treatment of human disease. L. lactis cells are cocci that group in pairs and short chains, and, depending on growth... | Lactococcus lactis | Wikipedia | 415 | 559011 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactococcus%20lactis | Biology and health sciences | Gram-positive bacteria | Plants | vital_articles |
L. lactis is mainly isolated from either the dairy environment, or plant material. Dairy isolates are suggested to have evolved from plant isolates through a process in which genes without benefit in the rich milk were lost or downregulated. This process, called genome erosion or reductive evolution, has been described... | Lactococcus lactis | Wikipedia | 469 | 559011 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactococcus%20lactis | Biology and health sciences | Gram-positive bacteria | Plants | vital_articles |
Therapeutic benefits
The feasibility of using lactic acid bacteria (LAB) as functional protein delivery vectors has been widely investigated. Lactococcus lactis has been demonstrated to be a promising candidate for the delivery of functional proteins because of its noninvasive and nonpathogenic characteristics. Many di... | Lactococcus lactis | Wikipedia | 400 | 559011 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactococcus%20lactis | Biology and health sciences | Gram-positive bacteria | Plants | vital_articles |
The authors propose two possible routes by which IL-10 can reach its therapeutic target. Genetically engineered L. lactis may produce murine IL-10 in the lumen, and the protein may diffuse to responsive cells in the epithelium or the lamina propria. Another route involves L. lactis being taken up by M cells because of ... | Lactococcus lactis | Wikipedia | 414 | 559011 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactococcus%20lactis | Biology and health sciences | Gram-positive bacteria | Plants | vital_articles |
In addition, it was demonstrated that tumor growth can be inhibited by the LAB strain itself, due to the ability of LAB to produce exopolysaccharides. This study shows that L. lactis NZ9000 can inhibit HT-29 proliferation and induce cell apoptosis by itself. The success of this strain's construction helped to inhibit m... | Lactococcus lactis | Wikipedia | 109 | 559011 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactococcus%20lactis | Biology and health sciences | Gram-positive bacteria | Plants | vital_articles |
In genetics, chromosome translocation is a phenomenon that results in unusual rearrangement of chromosomes. This includes balanced and unbalanced translocation, with two main types: reciprocal, and Robertsonian translocation. Reciprocal translocation is a chromosome abnormality caused by exchange of parts between non-h... | Chromosomal translocation | Wikipedia | 507 | 560502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosomal%20translocation | Biology and health sciences | Genetics | Biology | vital_articles |
Robertsonian translocations
Robertsonian translocation is a type of translocation caused by breaks at or near the centromeres of two acrocentric chromosomes. The reciprocal exchange of parts gives rise to one large metacentric chromosome and one extremely small chromosome that may be lost from the organism with little... | Chromosomal translocation | Wikipedia | 479 | 560502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosomal%20translocation | Biology and health sciences | Genetics | Biology | vital_articles |
Chromosomal translocations between the sex chromosomes can also result in a number of genetic conditions, such as
XX male syndrome: caused by a translocation of the SRY gene from the Y to the X chromosome
By chromosome
Denotation
The International System for Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature (ISCN) is used to denote a ... | Chromosomal translocation | Wikipedia | 176 | 560502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosomal%20translocation | Biology and health sciences | Genetics | Biology | vital_articles |
Umber is a natural earth pigment consisting of iron oxide and manganese oxide; it has a brownish color that can vary among shades of yellow, red, and green. Umber is considered one of the oldest pigments known to humans, first seen in Ajanta Caves in 200 BC – 600 AD. Umber's advantages are its highly versatile color, w... | Umber | Wikipedia | 471 | 561853 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umber | Physical sciences | Minerals | Earth science | vital_articles |
Toward the end of the 19th century, the Impressionist movement started to use cheaper and more readily available synthetic dyes and reject natural pigments like umber to create mixed hues of brown. The Impressionists chose to make their own browns from mixtures of red, yellow, green, blue and other pigments, particular... | Umber | Wikipedia | 474 | 561853 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umber | Physical sciences | Minerals | Earth science | vital_articles |
Burnt umber is made by heating raw umber, which dehydrates the iron oxides and changes them partially to the more reddish hematite. It is used for both oil and water color paint.
The first recorded use of burnt umber as a color name in English was in 1650. | Umber | Wikipedia | 61 | 561853 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umber | Physical sciences | Minerals | Earth science | vital_articles |
Earth pigments are naturally occurring minerals that have been used since prehistoric times as pigments. Among the primary types of earth pigments include the reddish-brown ochres, siennas, and umbers, which contain various amounts of iron oxides and manganese oxides. Other earth pigments include the green earth pigmen... | Earth pigment | Wikipedia | 222 | 561873 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%20pigment | Physical sciences | Minerals | Earth science | vital_articles |
Magnesium chloride is an inorganic compound with the formula . It forms hydrates , where n can range from 1 to 12. These salts are colorless or white solids that are highly soluble in water. These compounds and their solutions, both of which occur in nature, have a variety of practical uses. Anhydrous magnesium chlorid... | Magnesium chloride | Wikipedia | 437 | 562007 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium%20chloride | Physical sciences | Halide salts | Chemistry | vital_articles |
As suggested by the existence of hydrates, anhydrous is a Lewis acid, although a weak one. One derivative is tetraethylammonium tetrachloromagnesate . The adduct is another. In the coordination polymer with the formula , Mg adopts an octahedral geometry. The Lewis acidity of magnesium chloride is reflected in its del... | Magnesium chloride | Wikipedia | 455 | 562007 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium%20chloride | Physical sciences | Halide salts | Chemistry | vital_articles |
For the purpose of preventing ice from forming on pavement, magnesium chloride is applied in three ways: anti-icing, which involves spreading it on roads to prevent snow from sticking and forming; prewetting, which means a liquid formulation of magnesium chloride is sprayed directly onto salt as it is being spread onto... | Magnesium chloride | Wikipedia | 484 | 562007 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium%20chloride | Physical sciences | Halide salts | Chemistry | vital_articles |
Magnesium concentrations in natural seawater are between 1250 and 1350 mg/L, around 3.7% of the total seawater mineral content. Dead Sea minerals contain a significantly higher magnesium chloride ratio, 50.8%. Carbonates and calcium are essential for all growth of corals, coralline algae, clams, and invertebrates. Magn... | Magnesium chloride | Wikipedia | 412 | 562007 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium%20chloride | Physical sciences | Halide salts | Chemistry | vital_articles |
In mathematics and solid state physics, the first Brillouin zone (named after Léon Brillouin) is a uniquely defined primitive cell in reciprocal space. In the same way the Bravais lattice is divided up into Wigner–Seitz cells in the real lattice, the reciprocal lattice is broken up into Brillouin zones. The boundaries... | Brillouin zone | Wikipedia | 496 | 562067 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brillouin%20zone | Physical sciences | Crystallography | Physics | vital_articles |
A telescope is a device used to observe distant objects by their emission, absorption, or reflection of electromagnetic radiation. Originally, it was an optical instrument using lenses, curved mirrors, or a combination of both to observe distant objects – an optical telescope. Nowadays, the word "telescope" is defined ... | Telescope | Wikipedia | 459 | 7070301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telescope | Technology | Optical | null | vital_articles |
The invention of the achromatic lens in 1733 partially corrected color aberrations present in the simple lens and enabled the construction of shorter, more functional refracting telescopes. Reflecting telescopes, though not limited by the color problems seen in refractors, were hampered by the use of fast tarnishing sp... | Telescope | Wikipedia | 471 | 7070301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telescope | Technology | Optical | null | vital_articles |
As wavelengths become longer, it becomes easier to use antenna technology to interact with electromagnetic radiation (although it is possible to make very tiny antenna). The near-infrared can be collected much like visible light; however, in the far-infrared and submillimetre range, telescopes can operate more like a r... | Telescope | Wikipedia | 449 | 7070301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telescope | Technology | Optical | null | vital_articles |
By collecting and correlating signals simultaneously received by several dishes, high-resolution images can be computed. Such multi-dish arrays are known as astronomical interferometers and the technique is called aperture synthesis. The 'virtual' apertures of these arrays are similar in size to the distance between th... | Telescope | Wikipedia | 502 | 7070301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telescope | Technology | Optical | null | vital_articles |
X-rays are much harder to collect and focus than electromagnetic radiation of longer wavelengths. X-ray telescopes can use X-ray optics, such as Wolter telescopes composed of ring-shaped 'glancing' mirrors made of heavy metals that are able to reflect the rays just a few degrees. The mirrors are usually a section of a ... | Telescope | Wikipedia | 464 | 7070301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telescope | Technology | Optical | null | vital_articles |
The engineering design process, also known as the engineering method, is a common series of steps that engineers use in creating functional products and processes. The process is highly iterative – parts of the process often need to be repeated many times before another can be entered – though the part(s) that get iter... | Engineering design process | Wikipedia | 483 | 7071096 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering%20design%20process | Technology | Basics | null | vital_articles |
Design requirements
Establishing design requirements and conducting requirement analysis, sometimes termed problem definition (or deemed a related activity), is one of the most important elements in the design process in certain industries, and this task is often performed at the same time as a feasibility analysis. T... | Engineering design process | Wikipedia | 404 | 7071096 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering%20design%20process | Technology | Basics | null | vital_articles |
trigger word – a word or phrase associated with the issue at hand is stated, and subsequent words and phrases are evoked.
morphological analysis – independent design characteristics are listed in a chart, and different engineering solutions are proposed for each solution. Normally, a preliminary sketch and short rep... | Engineering design process | Wikipedia | 466 | 7071096 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering%20design%20process | Technology | Basics | null | vital_articles |
Computer-aided design (CAD) programs have made the detailed design phase more efficient. For example, a CAD program can provide optimization to reduce volume without hindering a part's quality. It can also calculate stress and displacement using the finite element method to determine stresses throughout the part.
Pr... | Engineering design process | Wikipedia | 323 | 7071096 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering%20design%20process | Technology | Basics | null | vital_articles |
Maja squinado (the European spider crab, spiny spider crab or spinous spider crab) is a species of migratory crab found in the Mediterranean Sea. The appearance of the European spider crab is similar to the much larger Japanese spider crab, although the European spider crab belongs to the family Majidae, and the Japane... | Maja squinado | Wikipedia | 451 | 6914315 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maja%20squinado | Biology and health sciences | Crabs and hermit crabs | Animals | vital_articles |
There are two main periods for the critical moults that follow the approximately two-year period of growth leading to sexual maturity: the first, the prepubertal, in April, and the second, the pubertal, from July to October. However, in captive animals it has been noticed that in very large individuals that are in the ... | Maja squinado | Wikipedia | 479 | 6914315 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maja%20squinado | Biology and health sciences | Crabs and hermit crabs | Animals | vital_articles |
A review of the species complex around M. squinado was able to differentiate between specimens from the Mediterranean Sea and those from the Atlantic, and concluded that the Atlantic specimens were a separate species, called Maja brachydactyla Balss, 1922. The specific epithet squinado derives from the Provençal name f... | Maja squinado | Wikipedia | 83 | 6914315 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maja%20squinado | Biology and health sciences | Crabs and hermit crabs | Animals | vital_articles |
The Stereospondyli are a group of extinct temnospondyl amphibians that existed primarily during the Mesozoic period. They are known from all seven continents and were common components of many Triassic ecosystems, likely filling a similar ecological niche to modern crocodilians prior to the diversification of pseudosuc... | Stereospondyli | Wikipedia | 339 | 6915193 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereospondyli | Biology and health sciences | Prehistoric amphibians | Animals | vital_articles |
Evolutionary history
Stereospondyls first definitively appeared during the early Permian, as represented by fragmentary remains of a rhinesuchid from the Pedra de Fogo Formation of Brazil. Rhinesuchids are one of the earliest groups of stereospondyls to appear in the fossil record and are predominantly a late Permian ... | Stereospondyli | Wikipedia | 423 | 6915193 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereospondyli | Biology and health sciences | Prehistoric amphibians | Animals | vital_articles |
Stereospondyls were the latest-surviving temnospondyl group. With the diversification of crocodile-like archosaurs and an extinction event at the end of the Triassic, most other temnospondyls disappeared. Chigutisaurid brachyopoids persisted into the Jurassic in Asia and Australia, including Koolasuchus, the youngest k... | Stereospondyli | Wikipedia | 473 | 6915193 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereospondyli | Biology and health sciences | Prehistoric amphibians | Animals | vital_articles |
Soil salinity control refers to controlling the process and progress of soil salinity to prevent soil degradation by salination and reclamation of already salty (saline) soils. Soil reclamation is also known as soil improvement, rehabilitation, remediation, recuperation, or amelioration.
The primary man-made cause of ... | Soil salinity control | Wikipedia | 500 | 11671698 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil%20salinity%20control | Technology | Soil and soil management | null | vital_articles |
For example, assuming irrigation water with a low salt concentration of 0.3 g/L (equal to 0.3 kg/m3 corresponding to an electric conductivity of about 0.5 FdS/m) and a modest annual supply of irrigation water of 10,000 m3/ha (almost 3 mm/day) brings 3,000 kg salt/ha each year. With the absence of sufficient natural dra... | Soil salinity control | Wikipedia | 484 | 11671698 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil%20salinity%20control | Technology | Soil and soil management | null | vital_articles |
Salt affected area
Normally, the salinization of agricultural land affects a considerable area of 20% to 30% in irrigation projects. When the agriculture in such a fraction of the land is abandoned, a new salt and water balance is attained, a new equilibrium is reached and the situation becomes stable.
In India alone,... | Soil salinity control | Wikipedia | 488 | 11671698 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil%20salinity%20control | Technology | Soil and soil management | null | vital_articles |
Classification
Soils are considered saline when the ECe > 4. When 4 < ECe < 8, the soil is called slightly saline, when 8 < ECe < 16 it is called (moderately) saline, and when ECe > 16 severely saline.
Crop tolerance
Sensitive crops lose their vigor already in slightly saline soils; most crops are negatively affected ... | Soil salinity control | Wikipedia | 498 | 11671698 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil%20salinity%20control | Technology | Soil and soil management | null | vital_articles |
In many cases a seasonal average water table depth of 0.6 to 0.8 m is deep enough. This means that the water table may occasionally be less than 0.6 m (say 0.2 m just after an irrigation or a rain storm). This automatically implies that, in other occasions, the water table will be deeper than 0.8 m (say 1.2 m). The flu... | Soil salinity control | Wikipedia | 252 | 11671698 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil%20salinity%20control | Technology | Soil and soil management | null | vital_articles |
The vadose zone of the soil below the soil surface and the water table is subject to four main hydrological inflow and outflow factors:
Infiltration of rain and irrigation water (Irr) into the soil through the soil surface (Inf) :
Inf = Rain + Irr
Evaporation of soil water through plants and directly into the air throu... | Soil salinity control | Wikipedia | 384 | 11671698 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil%20salinity%20control | Technology | Soil and soil management | null | vital_articles |
The salt concentration Cp can be taken as a part of the salt concentration of the soil in the unsaturated zone (Cu) giving: Cp = Le.Cu, where Le is the leaching efficiency. The leaching efficiency is often in the order of 0.7 to 0.8, but in poorly structured, heavy clay soils it may be less. In the Leziria Grande polde... | Soil salinity control | Wikipedia | 428 | 11671698 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil%20salinity%20control | Technology | Soil and soil management | null | vital_articles |
Owing to the water application in the irrigated strips they have a higher water table which induces flow of groundwater to the unirrigated strips. This flow functions as subsurface drainage for the irrigated strips, whereby the water table is maintained at a not-too-shallow depth, leaching of the soil is possible, and ... | Soil salinity control | Wikipedia | 501 | 11671698 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil%20salinity%20control | Technology | Soil and soil management | null | vital_articles |
LeachMod, Using the SaltMod principles helps in analyzing leaching experiments in which the soil salinity was monitored in various root zone layers while the model will optimize the value of the leaching efficiency of each layer so that a fit is obtained of observed with simulated soil salinity values.
Spatial variati... | Soil salinity control | Wikipedia | 89 | 11671698 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil%20salinity%20control | Technology | Soil and soil management | null | vital_articles |
Marine ecosystems are the largest of Earth's aquatic ecosystems and exist in waters that have a high salt content. These systems contrast with freshwater ecosystems, which have a lower salt content. Marine waters cover more than 70% of the surface of the Earth and account for more than 97% of Earth's water supply and 9... | Marine ecosystem | Wikipedia | 462 | 5411659 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine%20ecosystem | Physical sciences | Oceanography | Earth science | vital_articles |
Coral reefs are one of the most well-known marine ecosystems in the world, with the largest being the Great Barrier Reef. These reefs are composed of large coral colonies of a variety of species living together. The corals form multiple symbiotic relationships with the organisms around them.
Mangroves
Mangroves are ... | Marine ecosystem | Wikipedia | 505 | 5411659 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine%20ecosystem | Physical sciences | Oceanography | Earth science | vital_articles |
Physically formed by brown macroalgae, kelp forests provide a unique habitat for marine organisms and are a source for understanding many ecological processes. Over the last century, they have been the focus of extensive research, particularly in trophic ecology, and continue to provoke important ideas that are relevan... | Marine ecosystem | Wikipedia | 441 | 5411659 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine%20ecosystem | Physical sciences | Oceanography | Earth science | vital_articles |
Lagoons are areas that are separated from larger water by natural barriers such as coral reefs or sandbars. There are two types of lagoons, coastal and oceanic/atoll lagoons. A coastal lagoon is, as the definition above, simply a body of water that is separated from the ocean by a barrier. An atoll lagoon is a circular... | Marine ecosystem | Wikipedia | 501 | 5411659 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine%20ecosystem | Physical sciences | Oceanography | Earth science | vital_articles |
Intertidal zones are the areas that are visible and exposed to air during low tide and covered up by saltwater during high tide. There are four physical divisions of the intertidal zone with each one having its distinct characteristics and wildlife. These divisions are the Spray zone, High intertidal zone, Middle Inter... | Marine ecosystem | Wikipedia | 381 | 5411659 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine%20ecosystem | Physical sciences | Oceanography | Earth science | vital_articles |
The ocean's surface acts like a skin between the atmosphere above and the water below, and harbours an ecosystem unique to this environment. This sun-drenched habitat can be defined as roughly one metre in depth, as nearly half of UV-B is attenuated within this first meter. Organisms here must contend with wave action ... | Marine ecosystem | Wikipedia | 469 | 5411659 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine%20ecosystem | Physical sciences | Oceanography | Earth science | vital_articles |
Altogether, there are 66 LMEs, which contribute an estimated $3 trillion annually. This includes being responsible for 90% of global annual marine fishery biomass. LME-based conservation is based on recognition that the world's coastal ocean waters are degraded by unsustainable fishing practices, habitat degradation, e... | Marine ecosystem | Wikipedia | 453 | 5411659 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine%20ecosystem | Physical sciences | Oceanography | Earth science | vital_articles |
In addition to providing many benefits to the natural world, marine ecosystems also provide social, economic, and biological ecosystem services to humans. Pelagic marine systems regulate the global climate, contribute to the water cycle, maintain biodiversity, provide food and energy resources, and create opportunities... | Marine ecosystem | Wikipedia | 488 | 5411659 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine%20ecosystem | Physical sciences | Oceanography | Earth science | vital_articles |
Moving offshore, pelagic marine systems are directly threatened by overfishing. Global fisheries landings peaked in the late 1980s, but are now declining, despite increasing fishing effort. Fish biomass and average trophic level of fisheries landing are decreasing, leading to declines in marine biodiversity. In particu... | Marine ecosystem | Wikipedia | 387 | 5411659 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine%20ecosystem | Physical sciences | Oceanography | Earth science | vital_articles |
The term coldwater fish can have different meanings in different contexts.
In the context of fishkeeping, it refers to ornamental fish species that tolerate the temperatures of a typical indoor aquarium well and do not require a heater to remain active, as opposed to tropical fish whom need a heater to survive in the ... | Coldwater fish | Wikipedia | 306 | 2943192 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coldwater%20fish | Biology and health sciences | Fishes by habitat | Animals | vital_articles |
Southern redbelly dace
Lepomis
Shubunkin
Comet goldfish
Common goldfish
Fancy goldfish
Black telescope
Fantail goldfish
Oranda
Ryukin
Weather loach
White Cloud Mountain minnow
Celestial Pearl Danio
Buenos Aires tetra
Gold barb
Rosy barb
Odessa barb
Fathead minnow
Banded corydoras
Chinese high fin banded shark
Three-... | Coldwater fish | Wikipedia | 453 | 2943192 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coldwater%20fish | Biology and health sciences | Fishes by habitat | Animals | vital_articles |
Wild fisheries
The term "coldwater" is also used to refer to wild fish species that prefer bodies of water that are colder than most temperate waters. In recreational fishing, anglers may loosely break down fish into categories of warm-water fish, cool-water fish, and cold-water fish. Warm-water fish, such as largemout... | Coldwater fish | Wikipedia | 255 | 2943192 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coldwater%20fish | Biology and health sciences | Fishes by habitat | Animals | vital_articles |
Antibiotic sensitivity testing or antibiotic susceptibility testing is the measurement of the susceptibility of bacteria to antibiotics. It is used because bacteria may have resistance to some antibiotics. Sensitivity testing results can allow a clinician to change the choice of antibiotics from empiric therapy, which ... | Antibiotic sensitivity testing | Wikipedia | 327 | 2943640 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic%20sensitivity%20testing | Biology and health sciences | Basics_3 | Biology | vital_articles |
Uses
In clinical medicine, antibiotics are most frequently prescribed on the basis of a person's symptoms and medical guidelines. This method of antibiotic selection is called empiric therapy, and it is based on knowledge about what bacteria cause an infection, and to what antibiotics bacteria may be sensitive or resi... | Antibiotic sensitivity testing | Wikipedia | 448 | 2943640 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic%20sensitivity%20testing | Biology and health sciences | Basics_3 | Biology | vital_articles |
Testing based on exposing bacteria to antibiotics uses agar plates or dilution in agar or broth. The selection of antibiotics will depend on the organism grown, and the antibiotics that are available locally. To ensure that the results are accurate, the concentration of bacteria that is added to the agar or broth (th... | Antibiotic sensitivity testing | Wikipedia | 454 | 2943640 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic%20sensitivity%20testing | Biology and health sciences | Basics_3 | Biology | vital_articles |
Gradient methods, such as Etest, use a plastic strip placed on agar. A plastic strip impregnated with different concentrations of antibiotics is placed on a growth medium, and the growth medium is viewed after a period of incubation. The minimum inhibitory concentration can be identified based on the intersection of th... | Antibiotic sensitivity testing | Wikipedia | 382 | 2943640 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic%20sensitivity%20testing | Biology and health sciences | Basics_3 | Biology | vital_articles |
Genetic methods
Genetic testing, such as via polymerase chain reaction (PCR), DNA microarray, and loop-mediated isothermal amplification, may be used to detect whether bacteria possess genes which confer antibiotic resistance. An example is the use of PCR to detect the mecA gene for beta-lactam resistant Staphylococcus... | Antibiotic sensitivity testing | Wikipedia | 446 | 2943640 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic%20sensitivity%20testing | Biology and health sciences | Basics_3 | Biology | vital_articles |
MALDI-TOF
Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionisation-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) is another method of susceptibility testing. This is a form of time-of-flight mass spectrometry, in which the molecules of a bacterium are subject to matrix-assisted laser desorption. The ionised particles are then acc... | Antibiotic sensitivity testing | Wikipedia | 511 | 2943640 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic%20sensitivity%20testing | Biology and health sciences | Basics_3 | Biology | vital_articles |
Ideal antibiotic therapy is based on determining the causal agent and its antibiotic sensitivity. Empiric treatment is often started before laboratory microbiological reports are available. This might be for common or relatively minor infections based on clinical guidelines (such as community-acquired pneumonia), or fo... | Antibiotic sensitivity testing | Wikipedia | 460 | 2943640 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic%20sensitivity%20testing | Biology and health sciences | Basics_3 | Biology | vital_articles |
Alexander Fleming in the 1920s developed the first method of susceptibility testing. The "gutter method" that he developed was a diffusion method, involving an antibiotic that was diffused through a gutter made of agar. In the 1940s, multiple investigators, including Pope, Foster and Woodruff, Vincent and Vincent used ... | Antibiotic sensitivity testing | Wikipedia | 463 | 2943640 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic%20sensitivity%20testing | Biology and health sciences | Basics_3 | Biology | vital_articles |
As of 2017, point-of-care resistance diagnostics were available for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), rifampin-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis (TB), and vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE) through GeneXpert by molecular diagnostics company Cepheid.
Quantitative PCR, with the view of determini... | Antibiotic sensitivity testing | Wikipedia | 299 | 2943640 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic%20sensitivity%20testing | Biology and health sciences | Basics_3 | Biology | vital_articles |
A pregnancy test is used to determine whether a female is pregnant or not. The two primary methods are testing for the female pregnancy hormone (human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)) in blood or urine using a pregnancy test kit, and scanning with ultrasonography. Testing blood for hCG results in the earliest detection of... | Pregnancy test | Wikipedia | 476 | 311410 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pregnancy%20test | Biology and health sciences | Diagnostics | Health | vital_articles |
Quantitative tests measure the exact amount of hCG in the sample. Blood tests can detect hCG levels as low as 1 mIU/mL, and typically clinicians will diagnose a positive pregnancy test at 5mIU/mL.
There is a multilevel urine pregnancy test (MLPT) that measures hCG levels semiquantitatively. The hCG levels are measured... | Pregnancy test | Wikipedia | 512 | 311410 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pregnancy%20test | Biology and health sciences | Diagnostics | Health | vital_articles |
Spurious evaporation lines may appear on many home pregnancy tests if read after the suggested 3–5 minute window or reaction time, independent of an actual pregnancy. False positives may also appear on tests used past their expiration date.
False positive pregnancy test can happen due to 'phantom hCG' which is due to ... | Pregnancy test | Wikipedia | 396 | 311410 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pregnancy%20test | Biology and health sciences | Diagnostics | Health | vital_articles |
Other uses
Pregnancy tests may be used to predict if a pregnancy is likely to continue or is abnormal. Miscarriage, or spontaneous abortion or pregnancy loss, is common in early pregnancy. Serial quantitative blood tests may be done, usually 48 hours apart, and interpreted based on the knowledge that hCG in a viable n... | Pregnancy test | Wikipedia | 396 | 311410 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pregnancy%20test | Biology and health sciences | Diagnostics | Health | vital_articles |
Records of attempts at pregnancy testing have been found as far back as the ancient Greek and ancient Egyptian cultures. The ancient Egyptians watered bags of wheat and barley with the urine of a possibly pregnant woman. Germination indicated pregnancy. The type of grain that sprouted was taken as an indicator of the f... | Pregnancy test | Wikipedia | 492 | 311410 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pregnancy%20test | Biology and health sciences | Diagnostics | Health | vital_articles |
Hormonal pregnancy tests such as Primodos and Duogynon were used in the 1960s and 1970s in the UK and Germany. These tests involved taking a dosed amount of hormones, and observing the response a few days later. A pregnant woman does not react, as she is producing the hormones in pregnancy; a subject who is not pregnan... | Pregnancy test | Wikipedia | 408 | 311410 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pregnancy%20test | Biology and health sciences | Diagnostics | Health | vital_articles |
A mammary gland is an exocrine gland in humans and other mammals that produces milk to feed young offspring. Mammals get their name from the Latin word mamma, "breast". The mammary glands are arranged in organs such as the breasts in primates (for example, humans and chimpanzees), the udder in ruminants (for example, c... | Mammary gland | Wikipedia | 430 | 311440 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammary%20gland | Biology and health sciences | Integumentary system | Biology | vital_articles |
The basic components of a mature mammary gland are the alveoli (hollow cavities, a few millimeters large), which are lined with milk-secreting cuboidal cells and surrounded by myoepithelial cells. These alveoli join to form groups known as lobules. Each lobule has a lactiferous duct that drains into openings in the nip... | Mammary gland | Wikipedia | 488 | 311440 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammary%20gland | Biology and health sciences | Integumentary system | Biology | vital_articles |
Mammary glands develop during different growth cycles. They exist in both sexes during the embryonic stage, forming only a rudimentary duct tree at birth. In this stage, mammary gland development depends on systemic (and maternal) hormones, but is also under the (local) regulation of paracrine communication between nei... | Mammary gland | Wikipedia | 290 | 311440 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammary%20gland | Biology and health sciences | Integumentary system | Biology | vital_articles |
Biochemistry
Estrogen and growth hormone (GH) are essential for the ductal component of mammary gland development, and act synergistically to mediate it. Neither estrogen nor GH are capable of inducing ductal development without the other. The role of GH in ductal development has been found to be mostly mediated by its... | Mammary gland | Wikipedia | 472 | 311440 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammary%20gland | Biology and health sciences | Integumentary system | Biology | vital_articles |
Androgens such as testosterone inhibit estrogen-mediated mammary gland development (e.g., by reducing local ER expression) through activation of androgen receptors expressed in mammary gland tissue, and in conjunction with relatively low estrogen levels, are the cause of the lack of developed mammary glands in males.
... | Mammary gland | Wikipedia | 439 | 311440 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammary%20gland | Biology and health sciences | Integumentary system | Biology | vital_articles |
By the pubertal stage, the mammary ducts have invaded to the end of the mammary fat pad. At this point, the terminal end buds become less proliferative and decrease in size. Side branches form from the primary ducts and begin to fill the mammary fat pad. Ductal development decreases with the arrival of sexual maturity ... | Mammary gland | Wikipedia | 349 | 311440 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammary%20gland | Biology and health sciences | Integumentary system | Biology | vital_articles |
Hormonal control
Lactiferous duct development occurs in females in response to circulating hormones. First development is frequently seen during pre- and postnatal stages, and later during puberty. Estrogen promotes branching differentiation, whereas in males testosterone inhibits it. A mature duct tree reaching the li... | Mammary gland | Wikipedia | 507 | 311440 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammary%20gland | Biology and health sciences | Integumentary system | Biology | vital_articles |
There is preliminary evidence that soybean intake mildly stimulates the breast glands in pre- and postmenopausal women.
Pregnancy
Secretory alveoli develop mainly in pregnancy, when rising levels of prolactin, estrogen, and progesterone cause further branching, together with an increase in adipose tissue and a richer ... | Mammary gland | Wikipedia | 371 | 311440 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammary%20gland | Biology and health sciences | Integumentary system | Biology | vital_articles |
Weaning
During weaning, decreased prolactin, missing mechanical stimulation (baby suckling), and changes in osmotic balance caused by milk stasis and leaking of tight junctions cause cessation of milk production. It is the (passive) process of a child or animal ceasing to be dependent on the mother for nourishment. In ... | Mammary gland | Wikipedia | 385 | 311440 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammary%20gland | Biology and health sciences | Integumentary system | Biology | vital_articles |
General
The breasts of female humans vary from most other mammals that tend to have less conspicuous mammary glands. The number and positioning of mammary glands varies widely in different mammals. The protruding teats and accompanying glands can be located anywhere along the two milk lines. In general most mammals dev... | Mammary gland | Wikipedia | 473 | 311440 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammary%20gland | Biology and health sciences | Integumentary system | Biology | vital_articles |
In mathematics, a function defined on some set with real or complex values is called bounded if the set of its values is bounded. In other words, there exists a real number such that
for all in . A function that is not bounded is said to be unbounded.
If is real-valued and for all in , then the function is sa... | Bounded function | Wikipedia | 285 | 311509 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bounded%20function | Mathematics | Functions: General | null | vital_articles |
Examples
The sine function is bounded since for all .
The function , defined for all real except for −1 and 1, is unbounded. As approaches −1 or 1, the values of this function get larger in magnitude. This function can be made bounded if one restricts its domain to be, for example, or .
The function , defined f... | Bounded function | Wikipedia | 296 | 311509 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bounded%20function | Mathematics | Functions: General | null | vital_articles |
Allicin is an organosulfur compound obtained from garlic and leeks. When fresh garlic is chopped or crushed, the enzyme alliinase converts alliin into allicin, which is responsible for the aroma of fresh garlic. Allicin is unstable and quickly changes into a series of other sulfur-containing compounds such as diallyl d... | Allicin | Wikipedia | 511 | 311596 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allicin | Physical sciences | Concepts: General | Chemistry | vital_articles |
Research
Allicin has been studied for its potential to treat various kinds of multiple drug resistance bacterial infections, as well as viral and fungal infections in vitro, but as of 2016, the safety and efficacy of allicin to treat infections in people was unclear.
A Cochrane review found there to be insufficient cl... | Allicin | Wikipedia | 214 | 311596 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allicin | Physical sciences | Concepts: General | Chemistry | vital_articles |
The cornea is the transparent front part of the eye that covers the iris, pupil, and anterior chamber. Along with the anterior chamber and lens, the cornea refracts light, accounting for approximately two-thirds of the eye's total optical power. In humans, the refractive power of the cornea is approximately 43 dioptres... | Cornea | Wikipedia | 473 | 311888 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornea | Biology and health sciences | Visual system | Biology | vital_articles |
The human cornea has five layers (possibly six, if the Dua's layer is included). Corneas of other primates have five known layers. The corneas of cats, dogs, wolves, and other carnivores only have four. From the anterior to posterior the layers of the human cornea are: | Cornea | Wikipedia | 69 | 311888 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornea | Biology and health sciences | Visual system | Biology | vital_articles |
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