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74,544,501 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris%20Davison | Boris Davison (7 October 1908 – 24 January 1961) was a Russian-born mathematical physicist.
Biography
Boris Borisovich Davison was born 7 October 1908 in Vasilsursk, Gorky Oblast, Russia. He attended Leningrad State University, graduating in 1931. He then worked at the State Hydrological Institute.
Davison's grandfather had been British, and in 1938 Davison was given a choice – either renounce his British nationality or leave the Soviet Union. He chose to emigrate to the United Kingdom. He then briefly worked with Louis Rosenhead at the University of Liverpool but withdrew from work due to illness.
In 1942 he joined the University of Birmingham's atomic energy research team working under Rudolf Peierls, and in 1944 the university awarded him a PhD.
In 1943 he moved to Canada to work under George Placzek at the Montreal Laboratory of the joint British-Canadian atomic energy project. In October 1945 he briefly joined the British Mission at Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico, part of the Manhattan Project which had just developed the atom bomb. In 1946 Davison married Olga Hansen.
He worked at Chalk River Laboratory in Ontario before returning to the UK in 1947 to work at the Atomic Energy Research Establishment at Harwell, Oxfordshire.
In 1953 his security clearance was revoked by the British government because his parents still lived in the Soviet Union, potentially putting Davison at risk of blackmail. He was given a year's leave of absence working at the University of Birmingham. Davison then emigrated to Canada in 1954, where he took up a position at the computation centre at the University of Toronto.
In 1957 he authored the book Neutron Transport Theory.
Davison died suddenly at his home in Toronto on 24 January 1961 at the age of 52.
Books
References
Further reading
1908 births
1961 deaths
People from Vorotynsky District
Mathematical physicists
Hydrologists
Manhattan Project people
Saint Petersburg State University alumni
Alumni of the University of Birmingham
Academics of the University of Liverpool
Academics of the University of Birmingham
Academic staff of the University of Toronto | Boris Davison | [
"Environmental_science"
] | 408 | [
"Hydrology",
"Hydrologists"
] |
74,544,716 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HD%20198357 | HD 198357 (HR 7971; 28 G. Microscopii) is a solitary star located in the southern constellation Microscopium. It is faintly visible to the naked eye as an orange-hued point of light with an apparent magnitude of 5.50. Gaia DR3 parallax measurements imply a distance of 569 light-years and the object is currently receding with a heliocentric radial velocity of . At its current distance, HD 198357's brightness is diminished by 0.18 magnitudes due to interstellar extinction and it has an absolute magnitude of −0.75.
HD 198357 has a stellar classification of K3 III, indicating that it is an evolved K-type giant star. David Stanley Evans gave a classification of K3 II, indicating a more evolved bright giant. It has 1.81 times the mass of the Sun but it has expanded to 37.8 times the radius of the Sun. It radiates 417 times the luminosity of the Sun from its photosphere at an effective temperature of . HD 198357 is slightly metal deficient with an iron abundance three-quarters that of the Sun or [Fe/H] = −0.12 and it spins too slowly for its projected rotational velocity to be measured accurately. HD 198357 has a peculiar velocity of , indicating that it may be a runaway star (46% chance).
References
K-type giants
Microscopium
Microscopii, 28
CD-38 14250
198357
102916
7971 | HD 198357 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 316 | [
"Microscopium",
"Constellations"
] |
74,544,862 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthias%20rules | In physics, the Matthias rules refers to a historical set of empirical guidelines on how to find superconductors. These rules were authored Bernd T. Matthias who discovered hundreds of superconductors using these principles in the 1950s and 1960s. Deviations from these rules have been found since the end of the 1970s with the discovery of unconventional superconductors.
History
Superconductivity was first discovered in solid mercury in 1911 by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes and Gilles Holst, who had developed new techniques to reach near-absolute zero temperatures.
In subsequent decades, superconductivity was found in several other materials; In 1913, lead at 7 K, in 1930's niobium at 10 K, and in 1941 niobium nitride at 16 K.
In 1933, Walther Meissner and Robert Ochsenfeld discovered that superconductors expelled applied magnetic fields, a phenomenon that has come to be known as the Meissner effect.
Bernd T. Matthias and John Kenneth Hulm were encouraged by Enrico Fermi to start a systematic experimental investigation in the 1950s, looking for superconductors in different elements and compounds. For this reason, they developed a technique based on the Meissner effect.
In collaboration with Theodore H. Geballe, Matthias broke the record in 1954, with the discovery of superconductivity in niobium–tin (Nb3Sn) which had the highest known transition temperature of about 18 K. Later Matthias would try to come up with general empirical properties to find superconducting alloys. In the same year he published a first version of his famous guidelines which came to be known, as the "Mathias rules". Matthias was able to show in 1962 that some deviations from his rules where due to impurities or defects in the materials. Using his rules, Matthias and collaborators found in 1965 that niobium–germanium (Nb3Ge) with a record critical temperature above 20 K.
Matthias published a first outline his rules in 1957. A successful microscopic theory of superconductivity would no come up until the same year, with the development of the BCS theory by John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and John Robert Schrieffer.
Geballe and Matthias won the Oliver E. Buckley Condensed Matter Prize in 1970 for "For their joint experimental investigations of superconductivity which have challenged theoretical understanding and opened up the technology of high field superconductors."
One of the first deviations of Matthias' rules was found with the discovery of superconductivity in molybdenum sulfide and selenides. Matthias postulated an additional criterion in 1976 at the Rochester Conference on superconductivity to include these materials.
Another violation of Matthias rules appeared in 1979, with the discovery of heavy fermion superconductors by Frank Steglich where magnetism was expected to play a role, contrary to the Matthias rules.
Matthias held the record of highest critical temperature superconductor found until the discovery of high-temperature superconductors were discovered in 1986 by Georg Bednorz and K. Alex Müller.
Description
The Matthias rules are a set of guidelines to find low temperature superconductors but were never provided in list form by Matthias.
A popular summarized version of these rules reads:
High symmetry is good, cubic symmetry is the best.
High density of electronic states is good.
Stay away from oxygen.
Stay away from magnetism
Stay away from insulators.
Stay away from theorists!
Rule 2, rules out materials near metal-insulator transition like oxides. Rule 4, rules out material that are in close vicinity to ferromagnetism or antiferromagnetism. Rule 6 is not an official rule and is often added to indicate skepticism of the theories of the time.
Other equivalent principles as stated by Matthias, indicate to work mainly with d-electron metals; with the average number of valence electrons, preferably odd numbers 3, 5, and 7 and high electron density or high electron density of state at the Fermi level.
In 1976, Mattias added the criterion to include "elements which will not react at all with molybdenum alone form superconducting compounds with Mo3S4 and Mo3Se4, S or Se" due to deviations in molydenum compounds.
Failure and extensions
It has been argued that all of Matthias' rules have been shown to not be completely valid. Specially the rules are not valid for high-temperature superconductors, alternative rules for these materials have been suggested.
References
Superconductivity
History of physics
Obsolete theories in physics | Matthias rules | [
"Physics",
"Materials_science",
"Engineering"
] | 957 | [
"Physical quantities",
"Theoretical physics",
"Superconductivity",
"Materials science",
"Condensed matter physics",
"Electrical resistance and conductance",
"Obsolete theories in physics"
] |
74,547,833 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead%20apatite | Lead apatite is a generic name for apatite-structure materials that contain lead as the divalent cation. A Copper-doped lead-apatite has been proposed as a room-temperature superconductor. A number of minerals are known. All have a hexagonal crystal structure.
Minerals
References
Lead compounds
Crystals in space group 176
Calcium minerals
Gemstones
Halide minerals
Hexagonal minerals
Minerals in space group 176
Phosphate minerals
Piezoelectric materials | Lead apatite | [
"Physics"
] | 98 | [
"Physical phenomena",
"Materials",
"Electrical phenomena",
"Gemstones",
"Piezoelectric materials",
"Matter"
] |
74,548,285 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maytal%20Caspary%20Toroker | Maytal Caspary Toroker is an associate professor in the Department of Materials Science and Engineering at Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel. She is recognized for her significant contributions in the field of computational materials science, particularly in its applications to catalysis, charge transport, and energy conversion devices.
Early life and education
Maytal was born in Israel in a Jewish family. She completed her BA degree in molecular biochemistry (2004) from the Department of Chemistry at Technion. Later, she pursued her direct Ph.D. (2009) from the same department.
Research and career
After receiving her Ph.D., she started working with Prof. Emily A. Carter at Princeton University during the period of 2010–13, funded by the Marie Curie International Outgoing Fellowship from the European Union. In 2013, she joined the Department of Materials Science and Engineering at Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, as an assistant professor, and she is currently working as an associate professor.
Her research at Technion mainly involves development of density functional theory (DFT) and its application. She has extensively worked on developing a method for charge transport calculation through heterostructures using wave propagation method. Her research on doped NiOOH (Nickel oxy-hydroxide) has explained the reason for the material's remarkable success in the oxygen evolution reaction. Her results show that it is the iron's ability to change its oxidation state that facilitates oxygen evolution. This work was published in the journal Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics and was featured on the front cover of Issue 11, 2017. She has also conducted research on transition metal oxides for their applications as photocatalysts and photoelectrodes. She developed a method to calculate the band edge positions using first principles quantum mechanics calculations. These band edge positions play a crucial role in determining the suitability of these materials for various applications. Apart from this, she also works on metal organic frameworks (MOFs) and covalent organic frameworks (COFs) for their application in photocatalysis and electrocatalysis.
Currently she is the chair of European Cooperation in Science and Technology (COST) action on Computational materials sciences for efficient water splitting with nanocrystals from abundant elements. She is in the editorial advisory board of the journal Advanced Theory and Simulation, Wiley
Awards and honours
Alexander Goldberg Research Prize (2021)
L’Oréal-Unesco-Israel Award (2010)
New England Fund (2009)
References
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Technion – Israel Institute of Technology
Materials scientists and engineers | Maytal Caspary Toroker | [
"Materials_science",
"Engineering"
] | 529 | [
"Materials scientists and engineers",
"Materials science"
] |
74,548,741 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U-asema | U-asema, or Pitkäranta–Loimola (U-line) was a defense line during the Continuation War in Ladoga Karelia. The U-station is named after its chief designer and equipment manager, Major Yrjö Urto.
Fortress
Fortification work began in December 1943. When the attack began in the summer of 1944, the line was 55 kilometers long and best equipped in the direction of Uoma and Pitkäranta. The line had 15 ready-made concrete bunkers, 300 meters of armored barriers and five kilometers of battle trenches. Otherwise, the station was mostly unfinished.
U-station and its operation
U-station was an unfinished defensive position with a few strong fire positions, about 25 covered trenches, 12 concrete bunkers, trenches and one barbed wire barrage along the entire length of the station. All tank trenches had strong anti-tank barriers and mines. In Battle of Nietjärvi, the Defensive fighting position of three separate lines, the last one, on a narrow sand ridge, was clearly the strongest.
The position was defended by the 8th Division, 5th Division and 7th Division supported by the 15th Brigade. The Finnish troops occupied U-station for the most part by July 10. According to the retreating forces, 120 Artillery and 40 mortars arrived on the 6th-9th. July. The Battle of Nietjärvi area was occupied by the 5th division's infantry regiment 44 under the command of lieutenant colonel Ilmari Rytkönen and infantry regiment 2 under the command of colonel Heikki Saure.
The battles
The Karelian Front of the Soviet Union attacked the U-station with the forces of four army units in July 1944. The 5th, 8th and 7th divisions of the Finnish army were grouped at the U-station.
The biggest battle for the place took place in Battle of Nietjärvi. The fighting was of the nature of a great battle between the 14th and 15th. since July. The Finns repulsed the attacking Red Army troops. After the Moscow Armistice, the U-station remained on the side of the Soviet Union.
References
Forts in Finland
World War II defensive lines | U-asema | [
"Engineering"
] | 433 | [
"World War II defensive lines",
"Fortification lines"
] |
74,548,785 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seasonal%20semideciduous%20forest | The seasonal semideciduous forest is a vegetation type that belongs to the Atlantic Forest biome (Inland Atlantic Forest), but is also found occasionally in the Cerrado. Typical of central Brazil, it is caused by a double climatic seasonality: a season of intense summer rains followed by a period of drought. It is composed of phanerophytes with leaf buds that are protected from drought by scales (cataphylls or hairs), having deciduous sclerophyllous or membranaceous adult leaves. The degree of deciduousness, i.e. leaf loss, is dependent on the intensity and duration of basically two reasons: minimum and maximum temperatures and water balance deficiency. The percentage of deciduous trees in the forest as a whole is 20-50%.
The vegetation is located in the north and west of Paraná, region of the third plateau, where it presents different types of soil. It is also widely distributed in the southern portion of Mato Grosso do Sul, interspersed between fields up to the 21st parallel, where it appears in riparian forests, being called alluvial seasonal semideciduous forest.
Terminology
According to Rodrigues (1999), the seasonal semideciduous forest (IBGE, 1993) corresponds approximately to the following designations:
subtropical rain forest (Wettstein, 1904);
inland rain forests (Campos, 1912);
tropical semideciduous broadleaved forest (Kuhlmann, 1956);
tropical seasonal rain forest of the south-central plateau (Veloso, 1962);
mesophytic semideciduous forest (Rizzini, 1963);
sub-caducifolia or tropical seasonal forest (Andrade-Lima, 1966);
semideciduous plateau forest (Eiten, 1970);
subtropical foliated forests (Hueck, 1972);
submontane seasonal semideciduous forest (Veloso and Góes Filho, 1982);
semideciduous latifolia forest or plateau forest (Leitão Filho, 1982);
Mata de Cipó.
Categories
There is an IBGE (2012) altimetric division to delimit study regions, which is:
alluvial seasonal semideciduous forest: most frequent in the Pantanal;
lowland seasonal semideciduous forest: from Rio Grande do Norte to Rio de Janeiro, characterized by the African genus Caesalpinia, including the brazilwood tree;
submontane seasonal semideciduous forest: from Espírito Santo to Paraná, entering the inland states, on the plateaus and in the Mantiqueira and Órgãos mountains;
montane seasonal semideciduous forest: small area in Itatiaia and Roraima;
Some authors also indicate a fifth type, the coastal seasonal semideciduous forest (or Mata dos Tabuleiros), present along the east coast of Brazil, mainly between the states of Bahia and Rio de Janeiro.
Flora
Main Amazonian genera of Brazilian origin are:
Astronium
Cariniana
Lecythis
Parapiptadenia
Peltophorum
Preservation
The Inland Atlantic Forest is one of the ecoregions of the Atlantic Forest that is in the worst state of conservation. The largest tract (about 471,204 km2) of seasonal semideciduous forest was part of the Alto Paraná Atlantic Forests (or Selva Paranaense) ecoregion. It extended from northwestern São Paulo to southeastern Paraguay and the Argentine province of Misiones. In Brazil, only 2.7% (about 7,716 km2) of the original vegetation cover remains, which can be found in Morro do Diabo State Park, Iguaçu National Park and Turvo State Park, its largest well-preserved tracts. Most of the remaining forest is located in the province of Misiones, with about 11,230 km2. In Paraguay, there are 11,523 km2, which represent only 13.5% of the original coverage.
In Brazil, the situation is more critical. For a fragment to be considered large and to harbour significant species of the biome, such as large mammals (like the jaguar), it needs to be at least 10,000 hectares (100 km2). In the interior of São Paulo, the only fragment that has an area larger than this is the Morro do Diabo State Park. In the state of Rio Grande do Sul, this type of vegetation has been reduced by 4.26% (about 2,102.75 km2) of its original coverage.
See also
Seasonal tropical forest
References
Bibliography
Forests of Brazil
Forests
Tropical flora
Ecoregions
Atlantic Forest | Seasonal semideciduous forest | [
"Biology"
] | 959 | [
"Forests",
"Ecosystems"
] |
74,548,846 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Ford%20%28technologist%29 | Paul Ford (born August 11, 1974) is an American writer, programmer, and entrepreneur, based in New York City.
In 1997, he started Ftrain.com, one of the earliest blogs. He wrote for Harper's Magazine from 2004 to 2010 and is a regular contributor to Wired Magazine; he has been published in The New Yorker, The New York Times Magazine, MIT Technology Review, and NPR.
In 2015, he published a 38,000-word article in Bloomberg Businessweek titled "What is Code", a "deep dive into the meaning, practice, culture, and business of software", and the longest article ever run in the magazine. The piece won a National Magazine Award in 2016, was included in The Best American Magazine Writing 2016 published by the American Society of Magazine Editors and Columbia University Press, and Ford, together with Bloomberg editor Josh Tyrangiel, appeared on Charlie Rose to discuss it.
Ford is the author of The Secret Lives of Web Pages first published in 2016, with an updated edition forthcoming in 2025.
He is a co-founder of Aboard, an AI startup, and Postlight, a design and digital strategy consultancy that was acquired by NTT Data in 2022. He served as an advisor to the White House Office of Digital Strategy during the Obama Administration.
References
External links
Ftrain.com, Paul Ford's weblog (active 1997–2017)
Living people
1974 births
American computer programmers
American writers
American businesspeople
Wired (magazine) people | Paul Ford (technologist) | [
"Technology"
] | 303 | [
"Computing stubs",
"Computer specialist stubs"
] |
74,548,923 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minflux | MINFLUX, or minimal fluorescence photon fluxes microscopy, is a super-resolution light microscopy method that images and tracks objects in two and three dimensions with single-digit nanometer resolution.
MINFLUX uses a structured excitation beam with at least one intensity minimum – typically a doughnut-shaped beam with a central intensity zero – to elicit photon emission from a fluorophore. The position of the excitation beam is controlled with sub-nanometer precision, and when the intensity zero is positioned exactly on the fluorophore, the system records no emission. Thus, the system requires few emitted photons to determine the fluorophore's location with high precision. In practice, overlapping the intensity zero and the fluorophore would require a priori location knowledge to position the beam. As this is not the case, the excitation beam is moved around in a defined pattern to probe the emission from the fluorophore near the intensity minimum.
Each localization takes less than 5 microseconds, so MINFLUX can construct images of nanometric structures or track single molecules in fixed and live specimens by pooling the locations of fluorescent labels. Because the goal is to locate the point where a fluorophore stops emitting, MINFLUX significantly reduces the number of fluorescence photons needed for localization compared to other methods.
A commercial MINFLUX system is available from abberior instruments GmbH.
Principle
MINFLUX overcomes the Abbe diffraction limit in light microscopy and distinguishes individual fluorescing molecules by leveraging the photophysical properties of fluorophores. The system temporarily silences (sets in an OFF-state) all but one molecule within a diffraction-limited area (DLA) and then locates that single active (in an ON-state) molecule. Super-resolution microscopy techniques like stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (STORM) and photoactivated localization microscopy (PALM) do the same. However, MINFLUX differs in how it determines the molecule’s location.
The excitation beam used in MINFLUX has a local intensity minimum or intensity zero. The position of this intensity zero in a sample is adjusted via control electronics and actuators with sub-nanometer spatial and sub-microsecond temporal precision. When the active molecule located at is in a non-zero intensity area of the excitation beam, it fluoresces. The number of photons emitted by the active molecule is proportional to the excitation beam intensity at that position.
In the vicinity of the excitation beam intensity zero, the intensity of the emission from the active molecule when the intensity zero is located at position can be approximated by a quadratic function. Therefore, the recorded number of emission photons is:
where is a measure of the collection efficiency of detection, the absorption cross-section of the emitter, and the quantum yield of fluorescence.
In other words, photon fluxes emitted by the active molecule when it is located close to the zero-intensity point of the excitation beam carry information about its distance to the center of the beam. That information can be used to find the position of the active molecule. The position is probed with a set of excitation intensities . For example, the active molecule is excited with the same doughnut-shaped beam moved to different positions. The probing results in a corresponding set of photon counts . These photon counts are probabilistic; each time such a set is measured, the result is a different realization of photon numbers fluctuating around a mean value. Since their distribution follows Poissonian statistics, the expected position of the active molecule can be estimated from the photon numbers, using, for example, a maximum likelihood estimation of the form:
The position maximizes the likelihood that the measured set of photon counts occurred exactly as recorded and is thus, an estimate of the active molecule’s location.
Localization process
Recordings of the emitting active molecule at two different excitation beam positions are needed to use the quadratic approximation in the one-dimensional basic principle described above. Each recording provides a one-dimensional distance value to the center of the excitation beam. In two dimensions, at least three recording points are needed to ascertain a location that can be used to move the MINFLUX excitation beam toward the target molecule. These recording points demarcate a probing area L. Balzarotti et al. use the Cramér-Rao limit to show that constricting this probing area significantly improves localization precision, more so than increasing the number of emitted photons:
where is the Cramér-Rao limit, is the diameter of the probing area, and is the number of emitted photons.
MINFLUX takes advantage of this feature when localizing an active fluorophore. It records photon fluxes using a probing scheme of at least three recording points around the probing area and one point at the center. These fluxes differ at each recording point as the active molecule is excited by different light intensities. Those flux patterns inform the repositioning of the probing area to center on the active molecule. Then the probing process is repeated. With each probing iteration, MINFLUX constricts the probing area , narrowing the space where the active molecule can be located. Thus, the distance remaining between the intensity zero and the active molecule is determined more precisely at each iteration. The steadily improving positional information minimizes the number of fluorescence photons and the time that MINFLUX needs to achieve precise localizations.
Applications
By pooling the determined locations of multiple fluorescent molecules in a specimen, MINFLUX generates images of nanoscopic structures with a resolution of 1–3 nm. MINFLUX has been used to image DNA origami and the nuclear pore complex and to elucidate the architecture of subcellular structures in mitochondria and photoreceptors. Because MINFLUX does not collect large numbers of photons emitted from target molecules, localization is faster than with conventional camera-based systems. Thus, MINFLUX can iteratively localize the same molecule at microsecond intervals over a defined period. MINFLUX has been used to track the movement of the motor protein kinesin-1, both in vitro and in vivo, and to monitor configurational changes of the mechanosensitive ion channel PIEZO1.
See also
Confocal microscopy
Fluorescence
Fluorescence microscope
Fluorescence resonance energy transfer microscopy
Laser scanning confocal microscopy
Optical microscopy
Photoactivated localization microscopy
Stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy
Super-resolution microscopy
Ground state depletion microscopy
RESOLFT
References
Microscopy
Optical microscopy | Minflux | [
"Chemistry"
] | 1,372 | [
"Optical microscopy",
"Microscopy"
] |
74,550,274 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RO5256390 | RO5256390 or RO-5256390 is a drug developed by Hoffmann-La Roche which acts as an agonist for the trace amine associated receptor 1 (TAAR1). It is a full agonist of the rat, cynomolgus monkey, and human TAAR1, but a partial agonist of the mouse TAAR1.
Pharmacology
Pharmacodynamics
Actions
RO5256390 is a full agonist of the rat, cynomolgus monkey, and human TAAR1, but a high-efficacy partial agonist of the mouse TAAR1.
Effects
RO5256390 has been found to suppress the firing rates of ventral tegmental area (VTA) dopaminergic neurons and dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) serotonergic neurons in mouse brain slices ex vivo. This effect was absent in slices from TAAR1 knockout mice. Similarly, acute RO5256390 suppressed VTA dopaminergic and DRN serotonergic neuronal excitability in rats in vivo, whereas the excitability of locus coeruleus (LC) noradrenergic neurons was unaffected. In contrast with acute exposure however, chronic administration of RO5256390 for 14days increased the excitability of VTA dopaminergic and DRN serotonergic neurons. The drug has been found to dose-dependently block cocaine-induced inhibition of dopamine clearance (reuptake inhibition) in rat nucleus accumbens (NAc) slices ex vivo whilst having no effect on dopamine clearance by itself.
RO5256390 has been found to fully suppress the hyperlocomotion (a psychostimulant-like effect) induced by cocaine in rodents. In addition, it dose-dependently inhibited the hyperlocomotion induced by the NMDA receptor antagonists phencyclidine (PCP) and L-687,414. RO5256390 is said to produce a brain activity pattern similar to that of the antipsychotic olanzapine in rodents and hence is presumed to have antipsychotic-like properties. In contrast to classical antipsychotics however, RO5256390 did not produce extrapyramidal-like symptoms in rodents and instead could reduce the catalepsy induced by haloperidol. RO5256390 has been found to dose-dependently inhibit cocaine self-administration and context-triggered cocaine-seeking behavior in rodents.
RO5256390 shows robust aversive and locomotor-suppressing effects in rodents that are dependent on TAAR1 activation. Similar aversive effects have also been observed with other TAAR1 agonists like RO5263397 and RO5166017. RO5256390 has been shown to decrease motor hyperactivity, novelty-induced locomotor activity, and induce anxiolytic-like effects in the spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR), a rodent model of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). In contrast to the TAAR1 partial agonist RO5263397, RO5256390 did not produce antidepressant-like effects in rodents. Conversely however, both agents produced antidepressant-like effects in monkeys.
RO5256390 has been found to produce pro-cognitive effects in rodents and monkeys. It has been shown to strongly suppress rapid eye movement (REM) sleep in rodents. On the other hand, it did not promote wakefulness in rodents. RO5256390 has been shown to block compulsive and binge-like eating behavior in rats. For this reason, it is being investigated as a potential drug to treat binge eating disorder.
History
RO5256390 was first described in the scientific literature by 2013.
See also
RO5073012 – TAAR1 weak partial agonist
RO5166017 – TAAR1 partial or full agonist
RO5203648 – TAAR1 partial agonist
RO5263397 – TAAR1 partial agonist
EPPTB – TAAR1 antagonist/inverse agonist
References
Amines
Oxazolines
TAAR1 agonists
TAAR1 antagonists | RO5256390 | [
"Chemistry"
] | 896 | [
"Amines",
"Bases (chemistry)",
"Functional groups"
] |
74,550,668 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bed%20rotting | Bed rotting is a phrase from social media wherein a person stays in bed for an entire day without engaging in daily activities and chores. This concept emphasizes taking time to rest, recharge, and enjoy leisure activities like watching TV, reading, or scrolling through social media without the pressure to be productive.
On February 13, 2024, Dictionary.com announced that it added "bed rotting" along with more than 1,700 new or updated definitions to reflect recent online trends. It was defined as "the practice of spending many hours in bed during the day, often with snacks or an electronic device, as a voluntary retreat from activity or stress."
Background
Many who partake in bed rotting commonly spend their time on their smartphone or reading a book. The behavior may have a negative impact in individuals experiencing depression along with being a symptom of depression. While some see it as a way to prioritize mental health and combat burnout, it’s important to balance it with other activities to maintain overall well-being. The trend has gained traction on social media, where users share their "bed rotting" experiences, celebrating the art of doing nothing in a cozy, comfortable setting.
Response
Some observers have interpreted this as a reaction to stress and or anxiety. Lifehacker has described bed rotting as "an aspect of JOMO".
See also
Bed-ins for peace
Couch potato
Generation Z
Bedrest
Bedridden
References
Sleep
Self-care
2020s fads and trends
Depression (mood)
2020s neologisms
Culture of beds | Bed rotting | [
"Biology"
] | 310 | [
"Behavior",
"Sleep"
] |
63,047,004 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olivier%20Gascuel | Olivier Gascuel (born 1956) is a French researcher in bioinformatics. He is a research director at the CNRS. His work focuses in particular on phylogeny. He was the director of the Centre for Bioinformatics, Biostatistics and Integrative Biology at the Pasteur Institute from 2015 till 2020. In 2021, he joined the Institute of Systematics, Evolution, Biodiversity (ISYEB) at the National Museum of Natural History, France.
Biography
In 1975, Olivier Gascuel joined the École normale supérieure de Cachan, where he studied mathematics and then specialized in computer science. In parallel, he studied architecture.
In 1981, he defended a doctoral thesis on expert systems for medical diagnosis, then joined the CNRS as a research fellow.
He joined the Montpellier Laboratory of Computer Science, Robotics and Microelectronics (LIRMM) in 1987, and since then has focused his research on phylogeny. More recently, he has oriented part of his activities towards pathogens.
In 2000, together with Marie-France Sagot, he initiated the annual JOBIM conference, the "Journées Ouvertes en Biologie, Informatique et Mathématiques" (Open Days in Biology, Informatics and Mathematics), now organized by the French Society of Bioinformatics (SFBI).
Awards
In 2009, Olivier Gascuel was awarded the CNRS silver medal.
In 2017, he is the winner of the Grand Prix Inria - Académie des sciences.
Member of the French Academy of sciences in the integrative biology section, since 2019.
Books
Sylvie Thiria, Olivier Gascuel and Yves Lechevallier, Statistique et méthodes neuronales, Éditions Dunod, 1997, 311 p. ().
(en) Olivier Gascuel, Mathematics of Evolution and Phylogeny, Oxford University Press, 2005, 416 p. ().
References
1956 births
French bioinformaticians
French National Centre for Scientific Research awards
Pasteur Institute
Members of the French Academy of Sciences
Phylogenetics researchers
Computational phylogenetics
Living people
Research directors of the French National Centre for Scientific Research | Olivier Gascuel | [
"Biology"
] | 450 | [
"Genetics techniques",
"Computational phylogenetics",
"Bioinformatics",
"Phylogenetics",
"Phylogenetics researchers"
] |
63,047,442 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasilis%20Gregoriou | Vasilis Gregoriou (born 1965, Trikala, Greece) is a researcher, inventor, technology entrepreneur and former Director and Chairman of the Board of Directors at National Hellenic Research Foundation (NHRF) in Athens, Greece. During his career, he has achieved international recognition by serving in research and administrative positions both in Greece and the US. His studies in Greece began at the University of Patras (BSc. Chemistry) while his studies in the United States took place at Duke University where he received a PhD degree in Physical Chemistry. He was also a National Research Service Award recipient at Princeton University.
Career
His academic teaching experience spans in both undergraduate level at the University of Massachusetts and postgraduate level at the University of Connecticut and the University of Patras.
His published work as co-author includes three books, six chapters in other authors' books, 92 scientific papers and 146 research presentations. Vasilis Gregoriou is also co-inventor of 15 patents. His research interests include flexible photovoltaic cells based on organic semiconductors, optically active materials based on conjugated oligomers, and nanostructured polymer materials. He has served as President of Society for Applied Spectroscopy (SAS) in 2001 and now he participates as National Representative of Greece in the Committee of the European Research Council (ERC) for the Horizon 2020 program, the Mari Sklodowska-Curie actions and the Future and Emerging Technologies (FET). Vasilis Gregoriou has been the Director of the National Hellenic Research Foundation since 2013.
As a technology entrepreneur, Vasilis Gregoriou is the co-founder and the CEO of Advent Technologies which is based in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Advent Technologies develops advanced technology and devices in the field of energy and defense and it has also developed research collaborations with Northeastern University in Boston, US, Patras University in Greece, and the Institute of Chemical Engineering Sciences (ICE-HT/FORTH).
Awards and achievements
National Representative for Greece in Horizon 2020 Committee in the European Union for the European Research Council (ERC),
the Mari Sklodowska-Curie actions, and the Future and Emerging Technologies (FET) Brussels, Belgium (2014–present)
National Deputy Representative for Greece and Specialist for Nanotechnology in the European Union, Brussels (2007-2010)
President, Society for Applied Spectroscopy (SAS), 2001.
Board of Governors, Eastern Analytical Symposium (EAS), 1998 - .
President, New England Section, Society for Applied Spectroscopy (1997 –1998).
National Research Service Award recipient, NIH postdoctoral fellowship, Princeton University, 1994.
Tomas Hirschfeld Award, Federation of Analytical Chemistry and Spectroscopy Societies (FACSS), 1992.
Coblentz Society Student Award, 1992.
Books
“Vibrational Spectroscopy of Biomolecules and Polymers” V.G. Gregoriou and M. Braiman, Editors, Taylor & Francis Co, New York, NY, (2006).
“Polymer Spectroscopy” V.G. Gregoriou Editor, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, Germany (2004).
“Modern Infrared Spectroscopy: Principles and Applications” A.A. Christy, Y. Ozaki, and V.G. Gregoriou, Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, the Netherlands (2001).
References
External links
NHRF
Advent Technologies
Physical chemists
Greek scientists
1965 births
Living people
People from Trikala | Vasilis Gregoriou | [
"Chemistry"
] | 692 | [
"Physical chemists"
] |
63,048,872 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion%20genetics | Invasion genetics is the area of study within biology that examines evolutionary processes in the context of biological invasions. Invasion genetics considers how genetic and demographic factors affect the success of a species introduced outside of its native range, and how the mechanisms of evolution, such as natural selection, mutation, and genetic drift, operate in these populations. Researchers exploring these questions draw upon theory and approaches from a range of biological disciplines, including population genetics, evolutionary ecology, population biology, and phylogeography.
Invasion genetics, due to its focus on the biology of introduced species, is useful for identifying potential invasive species and developing practices for managing biological invasions. It is distinguished from the broader study of invasive species because it is less directly concerned with the impacts of biological invasions, such as environmental or economic harm. In addition to applications for invasive species management, insights gained from invasion genetics also contribute to a broader understanding of evolutionary processes such as genetic drift and adaptive evolution.
History
Descriptions of invasive species
Charles Elton formed the basis for examining biological invasions as a unified issue in his 1958 monograph, The Ecology of Invasions by Animals and Plants, drawing together case studies of species introductions. Other important events in the study of invasive species include a series of issues published by the Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment in the 1980s and the founding of the journal Biological Invasions in 1999. Much of the research motivated by Elton's monograph is generally identified with invasion ecology, and focuses on the ecological causes and impacts of biological invasions.
The Genetics of Colonizing Species
The evolutionary modern synthesis in the early 20th century brought together Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection and classical genetics through the development of population genetics, which provided the conceptual basis for studying how evolutionary processes shape variation in populations. This development was crucial to the emergence of invasion genetics, which is concerned with the evolution of populations of introduced species. The beginning of invasion genetics as a distinct study has been identified with a symposium held at Asilomar in 1964 which included a number of major contributors to the modern synthesis, including Theodosius Dobzhansky, Ernst Mayr, and G. Ledyard Stebbins, as well as scientists with experience working in areas of weed and pest control.
Stebbins, working with another botanist, Herbert G. Baker, collected a series of articles which emerged from the Asilomar symposium and published a volume titled The Genetics of Colonizing Species in 1965. This volume introduced many of the questions which continue to motivate research in invasion genetics today, including questions about the characteristics of successful invaders, the importance of a species' mating system in colonization success, the relative importance of genetic variation and phenotypic plasticity in adaptation to new environments, and the effect of population bottlenecks on genetic variation.
Terminology of invasion genetics
Since its publication in 1965, The Genetics of Colonizing Species helped to motivate research which would provide a theoretical and empirical foundation for invasion genetics. However, the term invasion genetics only first appeared in the literature in 1998, and the first published definition appeared in 2005. The success of introduced species is quite variable, consequently researchers have sought to develop terminology which allows distinguishing different levels of success. These approaches rely on describing invasion as a biological process.
Process of biological invasion
Background
Researchers have proposed a number of different methods for describing biological invasions. In 1992, the ecologists Mark Williamson and Alastair Fitter divided the process of biological invasion into three stages: escaping, establishing, and becoming a pest. Since then, there has been an expanding effort to develop a framework for categorizing biological invasions in terms that are neutral with respect to a species' environmental and economic impacts. This approach has allowed biologists to focus on the processes which facilitate or inhibit the spread of introduced species.
David M. Richardson and colleagues describe how introduced species must pass a series of barriers prior to becoming naturalized or invasive in a new range. Alternatively, the stages of an invasion may be separated by filters, as described by Robert I. Colautti and Hugh MacIsaac, so that invasion success would depend on the rate of introduction (propagule pressure) as well as the traits possessed by the organism.
Description
The most recent systematic effort to describe the steps of a biological invasion was made by Tim Blackburn and colleagues in 2011, which combined the concepts of barriers and stages. According to this framework, there are four stages of an invasion: transport, introduction, establishment, and spread. Each of these stages is accompanied by one or more barriers.
Application of invasion genetics to different stages of invasion
Invasion genetics can be used to understand the processes involved at each stage of a biological invasion. Many of the foundational questions of invasion genetics focused on processes involved during establishment and spread. As early as 1955, Herbert G. Baker proposed that self-fertilization would be a favourable trait for colonizing species because successful establishment would not require the simultaneous introduction of two individuals of opposite sexes. Baker subsequently elaborated a series of "ideal weed characteristics" in an article in The Genetics of Colonizing Species, which included traits such as the ability to tolerate environmental variation, dispersal ability, and the ability to tolerate generalist herbivores and pathogens. While some of the traits, such as ease of germination, may aid a species in transport or introduction, most of the traits Baker identified were primarily conducive to establishment and spread.
Advances in the study of molecular evolution may help biologists to understand better the processes of transport and introduction. Genomicist Melania Cristescu and her colleagues examined mitochondrial DNA of the fishhook waterflea introduced into the Great Lakes, tracing the source of the invasive populations to the Baltic Sea. More recently, Cristescu has argued for expanding the use of phylogenetic and phylogenomic approaches, as well as applying metabarcoding and population genomics, to understand how species are introduced and identify "failed invasions" where introduction does not lead to establishment.
Factors influencing invasion success
Propagule pressure
Propagule pressure describes the number of individuals introduced into an area in which they are not native, and can strongly affect the ability of species to reach a later stage of invasion. Factors which may influence the rate of transport and introduction into a novel environment include the species' abundance in its native range, as well as its tendency to co-occur with or be deliberately moved by humans.
The likelihood of reaching establishment is also highly dependent on the number of individuals introduced. Small populations can be limited by Allee effects, as individuals may have difficulty finding suitable mates and populations are vulnerable to demographic stochasticity. Small populations may also suffer from inbreeding depression. Species that are introduced in larger numbers are more likely to establish in different environments, and high propagule pressure will introduce more genetic diversity into a population. These factors can help a species adapt to different environmental conditions during establishment as well as during subsequent spread in a new range.
Traits of successful invaders
Herbert G. Baker's list of 14 "ideal weed characteristics", published in the 1965 volume The Genetics of Colonizing Species, has been the basis for investigation into characteristics which could contribute to invasion success of plants. Since Baker first proposed this list, researchers have debated whether or not particular traits could be linked to the "invasiveness" of a species. Mark van Kleunen, in revisiting the question, proposed examining the traits of candidate invaders in the context of the process of biological invasion. According to this approach, particular traits might be useful for introduced species because they would allow them to pass through a filter associated with a particular stage of an invasion.
Genetic variation
A population of introduced species exhibiting higher genetic variation could be more successful during establishment and spread, due to the higher likelihood of possessing a suitable genotype for the novel environment. However, populations of a species in an introduced range are likely to exhibit lower genetic variation compared to populations in the native range due to population bottlenecks and founder effects experienced during introduction. A classic study on population bottlenecks, conducted by Masatoshi Nei, described a genetic signature of bottlenecks on introduced populations of Drosophila pseudoobscura in Colombia. The ecological success of many invaders despite these apparent genetic limitations suggests a "genetic paradox of invasion", for which a number of answers have been proposed.
One of the possible resolutions for the genetic paradox of invasion is that most bottlenecks experienced by introduced species are typically not severe enough to have a strong effect on genetic variation. As well, a species may be introduced multiple times from multiple sources, resulting in genetic admixture which could compensate for lost genetic variation. The evolutionary ecologist Katrina Dlugosch has noted that the relationship between genetic variation and capacity for adaptation is nonlinear and may depend on factors such as the effect size of adaptive loci (in quantitative genetics, effect size refers to the magnitude of change in a phenotypic trait value associated with a particular locus) and the presence of cryptic variation.
Phenotypic plasticity
Phenotypic plasticity is the expression of different traits (or phenotypes), such as morphology or behaviour, in response to different environments. Plasticity allows organisms to cope with environmental variation without necessitating genetic evolution.
Herbert G. Baker proposed that the possession of "general purpose" genotypes which were tolerant of a range of environments could be advantageous for species introduced into new areas. General purpose genotypes could help introduced species encountering environmental variation during establishment and spread, in part because introduced species should have less genetic variation than native species. However, it remains disputed whether or not invasive species exhibit higher plasticity than native and non-invasive species.
Evolution during biological invasions
Genetic consequences of range expansion
Range expansion is the process by which an organism spreads and establishes new populations across a geographic scale, so it is part of a biological invasion. During a range expansion, there exists an expanding wave front, where rapidly-growing populations are established by a relatively small number of individuals. Under these demographic conditions, the phenomenon of gene surfing can lead to the accumulation of deleterious mutations. This reduces the fitness of individuals at the wave front, and is described as an expansion load (see also: mutation load). These mutations can limit the rate of range expansion and, in the absence of effective recombination and natural selection which would remove such mutations, can have severe and persisting negative effects on populations.
Local adaptation
Invasive species may encounter environments which differ either from those experienced in their natural range or where they are introduced. In these environments natural selection can act on these introduced populations, provided that there is sufficient genetic variation present in the population, which may lead to local adaptation. Such adaptation can facilitate both the establishment and spread of an introduced species.
Local adaptation can, however, be inhibited by genetic admixture between populations. Admixture can result in hybrid breakdown by breaking up beneficial gene linkages and introducing maladapted alleles.
Admixture can also facilitation species introductions by increasing genetic variation, thereby limiting the cost of inbreeding in small populations. Through heterosis, the increased quality of hybrid offspring, admixture has also been shown to increase the vigour of introduced populations of common yellow monkeyflower.
Hybridization
Hybridization broadly refers to breeding between individuals from genetically isolated populations, and may therefore be within a species (intraspecific) or between species (interspecific). When offspring are distinct from either parent, hybridization can be a source of evolutionary novelty. Hybridization can also lead to gene flow between populations or species through the mechanism of introgression.
Hybridization and its contribution to evolution was a subject of interest for G. Ledyard Stebbins, who noted in a 1959 review that the introduction of European species of the genus Tragopogon to North America had led to hybrid speciation; this example was also discussed by Herbert G. Baker in The Genetics of Colonizing Species. The first systematic review of the role of invasive plant species in interspecific hybridization appeared in 1992, and the phenomenon has also been explored in fish and aquatic invertebrates. Hybridization may increase the invasiveness of introduced species, either by introducing genetic variation, heterosis, or by creating novel genotypes which perform better in a given environment. Gene flow between introduced and native species can also result in the loss of biodiversity through genetic pollution.
Evolutionary responses of native species to invaders
Because biological invasions can have a profound impact on the invaded environment, it is expected that the arrival of invasive species creates new selective pressures on native organisms, typically through competitive or predatory interactions. Through adaptive evolution, species in affected ecological communities could evolve to tolerate invasive species. This means that biological invasions potentially have both ecological and evolutionary consequences for native species. However, many studies have failed to detect an adaptive response of native species to ecological disruptions. The ecologists Jennifer Lau and Casey terHorst have pointed to this absence of an evolutionary response as an important consideration for understanding how invasive species disrupt ecological communities and the multiple challenges faced by native populations.
See also
Invasive species
Introduced species
Colonisation (biology)
Population genetics
Population genomics
Glossary of invasion biology terms
Invader potential
Indigenous (ecology)
Conservation genetics
Ecological genetics
References
Further reading
Barrett, Spencer C.H.; Colautti, Robert I.; Dlugosch, Katrina M.; Rieseberg, Loren H., eds. (2016). Invasion genetics: The Baker and Stebbins legacy. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. . WorldCat
External links
Spencer Barrett on the Foundation of Invasion Genetics (YouTube link)
Invasive animal species
Evolutionary biology terminology | Invasion genetics | [
"Biology"
] | 2,762 | [
"Evolutionary biology terminology"
] |
63,050,376 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puccinia%20sparganioides | Puccinia sparganioides is a parasitic fungus that causes rust disease on plants, including Spartina alterniflora.
References
sparganioides
Parasitic fungi
Fungus species | Puccinia sparganioides | [
"Biology"
] | 38 | [
"Fungus stubs",
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
63,050,733 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Difference%20Equations%3A%20From%20Rabbits%20to%20Chaos | Difference Equations: From Rabbits to Chaos is an undergraduate-level textbook on difference equations, a type of recurrence relation in which the values of a sequence are determined by equations involving differences of successive terms of the sequence. It was written by Paul Cull, Mary Flahive, and Robby Robson, and published by Springer-Verlag in their Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics series (Vol. 111, 2005, doi:10.1007/0-387-27645-9, ).
Topics
After an introductory chapter on the Fibonacci numbers and the rabbit population dynamics example based on these numbers that Fibonacci introduced in his book Liber Abaci, the book includes chapters on
homogeneous linear equations, finite difference equations and generating functions, nonnegative difference equations and roots of characteristic polynomials, the Leslie matrix in population dynamics, matrix difference equations and Markov chains, recurrences in modular arithmetic, algorithmic applications of fast Fourier transforms, and nonlinear difference equations and dynamical systems. Four appendices include a set of worked problems, background on complex numbers and linear algebra, and a method of Morris Marden for testing whether the sequence defined by a difference equation converges to zero.
Reception and related reading
Other books on similar topics include A Treatise on the Calculus of Finite Differences by George Boole, Introduction to Difference Equations by S. Goldberg, Difference Equations: An Introduction with Applications by W. G. Kelley and A. C. Peterson, An Introduction to Difference Equations by S. Elaydi, Theory of Difference Equations: An Introduction by V. Lakshmikantham and D. Trigiante, and Difference Equations: Theory and Applications by R. E. Mickens. However, From Rabbits to Chaos places a greater emphasis on computation than theory compared to some of these other books. Reviewer Henry Ricardo writes that the book is "more suitable to an undergraduate course" than its alternatives, despite being less in-depth, because of its greater accessibility and connection to application areas.
Similarly, reviewer Shandelle Henson calls From Rabbits to Chaos "well written and easy to read" but adds that it is not "comprehensive or up-to-date".
References
Recurrence relations
Mathematics textbooks
2005 non-fiction books | Difference Equations: From Rabbits to Chaos | [
"Mathematics"
] | 454 | [
"Mathematical relations",
"Recurrence relations"
] |
63,054,227 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apilimod | Apilimod (STA-5326) is a drug that was initially identified as an inhibitor of production of the interleukins IL-12 and IL-23, and developed for the oral treatment of autoimmune conditions such as Crohn's disease and rheumatoid arthritis, though clinical trial results were disappointing and development for these applications was not continued.
Subsequently, it was discovered that apilimod has an additional mode of action, as an inhibitor of the lipid kinase enzyme PIKfyve. PIKfyve makes two lipids, PtdIns5P and PtdIns(3,5)P2, whose syntheses are efficiently and similarly inhibited by apilimod (ID50 = 0.4 nM) in in vitro assays. Administration of apilimod (100 nM; 60 min) in human embryonic kidney cells powerfully reduces levels of both PtdIns5P and PtdIns(3,5)P2.
Recently apilimod has been repurposed as a potential antiviral and anti-cancer drug, with possible applications in the treatment of non-Hodgkin lymphoma as well as viral diseases such as Ebola virus disease, Lassa fever and COVID-19.
References
Antiviral drugs
Anti-interleukin drugs | Apilimod | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 277 | [
"Antiviral drugs",
"Biocides",
"Hydrazones",
"Functional groups"
] |
63,054,907 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heaven%20Benchmark | Heaven Benchmark is benchmarking software based on the UNIGINE Engine. The benchmark was developed and published by UNIGINE Company in 2009. The main purpose of software is performance and stability testing for GPUs. Users can choose a workload preset, Basic or Extreme, or set the parameters by custom. The benchmark 3D scene is a steampunk-style city on flying islands in the middle of the clouds. The scene is GPU-intensive because of tessellation used for all the surfaces, dynamic sky with volumetric clouds and day-night cycle, real-time global illumination, and screen-space ambient occlusion.
Heaven and other benchmarks by UNIGINE Company are often used by hardware reviewers to compare performance of GPUs and by overclockers for online and offline competitions in GPU overclocking. Running Heaven (or another benchmark by UNIGINE Company) produces a performance score: the higher the numbers, the better the performance. Heaven Benchmark was shipped with Zotac GPUs. Included in Phoronix Test Suite.
Heaven Benchmark is claimed to be the first DirectX 11 benchmark. It was officially introduced at the Windows 7 presentation on October 22, 2009.
Technological features
Visuals powered by UNIGINE 1 Engine
Support for Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7, Windows 8, Linux, macOS
Support for DirectX 9, DirectX 11 and OpenGL 4.0
Support for NVIDIA SLI and AMD CrossFire
GPU temperature and clock monitoring
Adaptive hardware tessellation
Dynamic sky with volumetric clouds and tweakable day-night cycle
Real-time global illumination and screen-space ambient occlusion
Support for stereo 3D and multi-monitor configurations
Cinematic and interactive fly/walk-through camera modes
See also
Benchmark
Overclocking
References
External links
Official website
Benchmarks (computing) | Heaven Benchmark | [
"Technology"
] | 387 | [
"Benchmarks (computing)",
"Computing comparisons",
"Computer performance"
] |
63,055,098 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19%20misinformation | False information, including intentional disinformation and conspiracy theories, about the scale of the COVID-19 pandemic and the origin, prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of the disease has been spread through social media, text messaging, and mass media. False information has been propagated by celebrities, politicians, and other prominent public figures. Many countries have passed laws against "fake news", and thousands of people have been arrested for spreading COVID-19 misinformation. The spread of COVID-19 misinformation by governments has also been significant.
Commercial scams have claimed to offer at-home tests, supposed preventives, and "miracle" cures. Several religious groups have claimed their faith will protect them from the virus. Without evidence, some people have claimed the virus is a bioweapon accidentally or deliberately leaked from a laboratory, a population control scheme, the result of a spy operation, or the side effect of 5G upgrades to cellular networks.
The World Health Organization (WHO) declared an "infodemic" of incorrect information about the virus that poses risks to global health. While belief in conspiracy theories is not a new phenomenon, in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, this can lead to adverse health effects. Cognitive biases, such as jumping to conclusions and confirmation bias, may be linked to the occurrence of conspiracy beliefs. Uncertainty among experts, when combined with a lack of understanding of the scientific process by laypeople, has likewise been a factor amplifying conspiracy theories about the COVID-19 pandemic. In addition to health effects, harms resulting from the spread of misinformation and endorsement of conspiracy theories include increasing distrust of news organizations and medical authorities as well as divisiveness and political fragmentation.
Overview
In January 2020, the BBC reported on the developing issue of conspiracy theories and bad health advice regarding COVID-19. Examples at the time included false health advice shared on social media and private chats, as well as conspiracy theories such as the outbreak being planned with the participation of the Pirbright Institute. In January, The Guardian listed seven instances of misinformation, adding the conspiracy theories about bioweapons and the link to 5G technology, and including varied false health advice.
In an attempt to speed up research sharing, many researchers have turned to preprint servers such as arXiv, bioRxiv, medRxiv, and SSRN. Papers are uploaded to these servers without peer review or any other editorial process that ensures research quality. Some of these papers have contributed to the spread of conspiracy theories. Preprints about COVID-19 have been extensively shared online and some data suggest that they have been used by the media almost 10 times more than preprints on other topics.
According to a study published by the Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism, most misinformation related to COVID-19 involves "various forms of reconfiguration, where existing and often true information is spun, twisted, recontextualised, or reworked"; less misinformation "was completely fabricated". The study also found that "top-down misinformation from politicians, celebrities, and other prominent public figures", while accounting for a minority of the samples, captured a majority of the social media engagement. According to their classification, the largest category of misinformation (39%) was "misleading or false claims about the actions or policies of public authorities, including government and international bodies like the WHO or the UN".
In addition to social media, television and radio have been perceived as sources of misinformation. In the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, Fox News adopted an editorial line that the emergency response to the pandemic was politically motivated or otherwise unwarranted, and presenter Sean Hannity claimed on-air that the pandemic was a "hoax" (he later issued a denial). When evaluated by media analysts, the effect of broadcast misinformation has been found to influence health outcomes in the population. In a natural experiment (an experiment that takes place spontaneously, without human design or intervention), two similar television news programs that were shown on the Fox News network in February–March 2020 were compared. One program reported the effects of COVID-19 more seriously, while a second program downplayed the threat of COVID-19. The study found that audiences who were exposed to the news downplaying the threat were statistically more susceptible to increased COVID-19 infection rates and death. In August 2021, television broadcaster Sky News Australia was criticised for posting videos on YouTube containing misleading medical claims about COVID-19. Conservative talk radio in the US has also been perceived as a source of inaccurate or misleading commentary on COVID-19. In August and September 2021, several radio hosts who had discouraged COVID-19 vaccination, or expressed skepticism toward the COVID-19 vaccine, subsequently died from COVID-19 complications, among them Dick Farrel, Phil Valentine and Bob Enyart.
Misinformation on the subject of COVID-19 has been used by politicians, interest groups, and state actors in many countries for political purposes: to avoid responsibility, scapegoat other countries, and avoid criticism of their earlier decisions. Sometimes there is a financial motive as well. Multiple countries have been accused of spreading disinformation with state-backed operations in the social media in other countries to generate panic, sow distrust, and undermine democratic debate in other countries, or to promote their models of government.
A Cornell University study of 38 million articles in English-language media around the world found that US President Donald Trump was the single largest driver of the misinformation. Analysis published by National Public Radio in December 2021 found that as American counties showed higher vote shares for Trump in 2020, COVID-19 vaccination rates significantly decreased and death rates significantly increased. NPR attributed the findings to misinformation.
Virus origin
The consensus among virologists is that the most likely origin of the SARS-CoV-2 virus to be natural crossover from animals, having spilled-over into the human population from bats, possibly through an intermediate animal host, although the exact transmission pathway has not been determined. Genomic evidence suggests an ancestor virus of SARS-CoV-2 originated in horseshoe bats.
An alternative hypothesis under investigation, deemed unlikely by the majority of virologists given a lack of evidence, is that the virus may have accidentally escaped from the Wuhan Institute of Virology in the course of standard research. A poll in July 2021 found that 52% of US adults believe COVID-19 escaped from a lab.
Unsubstantiated speculation and conspiracy theories related to this topic have gained popularity during the pandemic. Common conspiracy theories state that the virus was intentionally engineered, either as a bio-weapon or to profit from the sale of vaccines. According to the World Health Organization, genetic manipulation has been ruled out by genomic analysis. Many other origin stories have also been told, ranging from claims of secret plots by political opponents to a conspiracy theory about mobile phones. In March 2020, the Pew Research Center found that a third of Americans believed COVID-19 had been created in a lab, and a quarter thought it had been engineered intentionally. The spread of these conspiracy theories is magnified through mutual distrust and animosity, as well as nationalism and the use of propaganda campaigns for political purposes.
The promotion of misinformation has been used by American far-right groups such as QAnon, by rightwing outlets such as Fox News, by former US President Donald Trump and also other prominent Republicans to stoke anti-China sentiments, and has led to increased anti-Asian activity on social media and in the real world. This has also resulted in the bullying of scientists and public health officials, both online and in-person, fueled by a highly political and oftentimes toxic debate on many issues. Such spread of misinformation and conspiracy theories has the potential to negatively affect public health and diminish trust in governments and medical professionals.
The resurgence of the lab leak and other theories was fueled in part by the publication, in May 2021, of early emails between National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) director Anthony Fauci and scientists discussing the issue. Per the emails in question, Kristian Andersen (author of one study debunking genomic manipulation theories) had heavily considered the possibility, and emailed Fauci proposing possible mechanisms, before ruling out deliberate manipulation with deeper technical analysis. These emails were later misconstrued and used by critics to claim a conspiracy was occurring. The ensuing controversy became known as the "Proximal Origin". However, despite claims to the contrary in some US newspapers, no new evidence has surfaced to support any theory of a laboratory accident, and the majority of peer-reviewed research points to a natural origin. This parallels previous outbreaks of novel diseases, such as HIV, SARS and H1N1, which have also been the subject of allegations of laboratory origin.
Wuhan lab origin
Bio-weapon
One early source of the bio-weapon origin theory was former Israeli secret service officer Dany Shoham, who gave an interview to The Washington Times about the biosafety level 4 (BSL-4) laboratory at the Wuhan Institute of Virology. A scientist from Hong Kong, Li-Meng Yan, fled China and released a preprint stating the virus was modified in a lab rather than having a natural evolution. In an ad hoc peer-review (as the paper was not submitted for traditional peer review as part of the standard scientific publishing process), her claims were labelled as misleading, unscientific, and an unethical promotion of "essentially conspiracy theories that are not founded in fact". Yan's paper was funded by the Rule of Law Society and the Rule of Law Foundation, two non-profits linked to Steve Bannon, a former Trump strategist, and Guo Wengui, an expatriate Chinese billionaire. This misinformation was further seized on by the American far-right, who have been known to promote distrust of China. In effect, this formed "a fast-growing echo chamber for misinformation". The idea of SARS-CoV-2 as a lab-engineered weapon is an element of the Plandemic conspiracy theory, which proposes that it was deliberately released by China.
The Epoch Times, an anti-Chinese Communist Party (CCP) newspaper affiliated with Falun Gong, has spread misinformation related to the COVID-19 pandemic in print and via social media including Facebook and YouTube. It has promoted anti-CCP rhetoric and conspiracy theories around the coronavirus outbreak, for example through an 8-page special edition called "How the Chinese Communist Party Endangered the World", which was distributed unsolicited in April 2020 to mail customers in areas of the United States, Canada, and Australia. In the newspaper, the SARS-CoV-2 virus is known as the " virus", and a commentary in the newspaper posed the question, "is the novel coronavirus outbreak in Wuhan an accident occasioned by weaponizing the virus at that [Wuhan P4 virology] lab?" The paper's editorial board suggested that COVID-19 patients cure themselves by "condemning the " and "maybe a miracle will happen".
In response to the propagation of theories in the US of a Wuhan lab origin, the Chinese government promulgated the conspiracy theory that the virus was developed by the United States army at Fort Detrick. The conspiracy theory was also promoted by British MP Andrew Bridgen in March 2023.
Gain-of-function research
One idea used to support a laboratory origin invokes previous gain-of-function research on coronaviruses. Virologist Angela Rasmussen argued that this is unlikely, due to the intense scrutiny and government oversight gain-of-function research is subject to, and that it is improbable that research on hard-to-obtain coronaviruses could occur under the radar. The exact meaning of "gain of function" is disputed among experts.
In May 2020, Fox News host Tucker Carlson accused Anthony Fauci of having "funded the creation of COVID" through gain-of-function research at the Wuhan Institute of Virology (WIV).
Citing an essay by science writer Nicholas Wade, Carlson alleged that Fauci had directed research to make bat viruses more infectious to humans.
In a hearing the next day, US senator Rand Paul alleged that the US National Institutes of Health (NIH) had been funding gain-of-function research in Wuhan, accusing researchers including epidemiologist Ralph Baric of creating "super-viruses".
Both Fauci and NIH Director Francis Collins have denied that the US government supported such research.
Baric likewise rejected Paul's allegations, saying that his lab's research into the potential in bat coronaviruses for cross-species transmission was not deemed gain-of-function by NIH or the University of North Carolina, where he works.
A 2017 study of chimeric bat coronaviruses at the WIV listed NIH as a sponsor; however, NIH funding was only related to sample collection. Based on this and other evidence, The Washington Post rated the claim of an NIH connection to gain-of-function research on coronaviruses as "two pinocchios", representing "significant omissions and/or exaggerations".
Accidental release of collected sample
Another theory suggests the virus arose in humans from an accidental infection of laboratory workers by a natural sample. Unfounded online speculation about this scenario has been widespread.
In March 2021, an investigatory report released by the WHO described this scenario as "extremely unlikely" and not supported by any available evidence. The report acknowledged, however, that the possibility cannot be ruled out without further evidence. The investigation behind this report operated as a joint collaboration between Chinese and international scientists. At the release briefing for the report, WHO Director-General Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus reiterated the report's calls for a deeper probe into all evaluated possibilities, including the laboratory origin scenario. The study and report were criticised by heads of state from the US, the EU, and other WHO member countries for a lack of transparency and incomplete access to data. Further investigations have also been requested by some scientists, including Anthony Fauci and signatories of a letter published in Science.
Since May 2021, some media organizations softened previous language that described the laboratory leak theory as "debunked" or a "conspiracy theory". On the other hand, scientific opinion that an accidental leak is possible, but unlikely, has remained steady. A number of journalists and scientists have said that they dismissed or avoided discussing the lab leak theory during the first year of the pandemic as a result of perceived polarization resulting from Donald Trump's embrace of the theory.
Stolen from Canadian lab
Some social media users have alleged that COVID-19 was stolen from a Canadian virus research lab by Chinese scientists. Health Canada and the Public Health Agency of Canada said that this had "no factual basis". The stories seem to have been derived from a July 2019 CBC news article stating that some Chinese researchers had their security access to the National Microbiology Laboratory in Winnipeg, a Level4 virology lab, revoked after a Royal Canadian Mounted Police investigation. Canadian officials described this as an administrative matter and said there was no risk to the Canadian public.
Responding to the conspiracy theories, the CBC stated that its articles "never claimed the two scientists were spies, or that they brought any version of [a] coronavirus to the lab in Wuhan". While pathogen samples were transferred from the lab in Winnipeg to Beijing in March 2019, neither of the samples contained a coronavirus. The Public Health Agency of Canada has stated that the shipment conformed to all federal policies, and that the researchers in question are still under investigation, and thus it cannot be confirmed nor denied that these two were responsible for sending the shipment. The location of the researchers under investigation by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police has also not been released.
In a January 2020 press conference, NATO secretary-general Jens Stoltenberg, when asked about the case, stated that he could not comment specifically on it, but expressed concerns about "increased efforts by the nations to spy on NATO allies in different ways".
Accusations by China
According to The Economist, conspiracy theories exist on China's internet about COVID-19 being created by the CIA in order to "keep China down". According to an investigation by ProPublica, such conspiracy theories and disinformation have been propagated under the direction of China News Service, the country's second largest government-owned media outlet controlled by the United Front Work Department. Global Times and Xinhua News Agency have similarly been implicated in propagating disinformation related to COVID-19's origins. NBC News however has noted that there have also been debunking efforts of US-related conspiracy theories posted online, with a WeChat search of "Coronavirus [disease 2019] is from the U.S." reported to mostly yield articles explaining why such claims are unreasonable.
In March 2020, two spokesmen for the Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Zhao Lijian and Geng Shuang, alleged at a press conference that Western powers may have "bio-engineered" COVID-19. They were alluding that the US Army created and spread COVID-19, allegedly during the 2019 Military World Games in Wuhan, where numerous cases of influenza-like illness were reported.
A member of the U.S. military athletics delegation based at Fort Belvoir, who competed in the 50mi Road Race at the Wuhan games, became the subject of online targeting by netizens accusing her of being "patient zero" of the COVID-19 outbreak in Wuhan, and was later interviewed by CNN, to clear her name from the "false accusations in starting the pandemic".
In January 2021, Hua Chunying renewed the conspiracy theory from Zhao Lijian and Geng Shuang that the SARS-CoV-2 virus originating in the United States at the U.S. biological weapons lab Fort Detrick. This conspiracy theory quickly went trending on the Chinese social media platform Weibo, and Hua Chunying continued to cite evidence on Twitter, while asking the government of the United States to open up Fort Detrick for further investigation to determine if it is the source of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. In August 2021, a Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesman repeatedly used an official podium to elevate the Fort Detrick's origin unproven idea.
According to a report from Foreign Policy, Chinese diplomats and government officials in concert with China's propaganda apparatus and covert networks of online agitators and influencers have responded, focused on repeating Zhao Lijian's allegation relating to Fort Detrick in Maryland, and the "over 200 U.S. biolabs" around the world.
Accusations by Russia
In February 2020, US officials alleged that Russia is behind an ongoing disinformation campaign, using thousands of social media accounts on Twitter, Facebook and Instagram to deliberately promote unfounded conspiracy theories, claiming the virus is a biological weapon manufactured by the CIA and the US is waging economic war on China using the virus.
In March 2022, amid the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the Russian Defense Ministry stated that US President Joe Biden's son, Hunter Biden, as well as billionaire George Soros, were closely tied to Ukrainian biolabs. American right-wing media personalities, such as Tucker Carlson, highlighted the story, while Chinese Communist Party-owned tabloid Global Times further stated that the labs had been studying bat coronaviruses, which spread widely on the Chinese internet for insinuating that the United States had created SARS-CoV-19 in Ukrainian laboratories.
Accusations by other countries
According to Washington, DC-based nonprofit Middle East Media Research Institute, numerous writers in the Arabic press have promoted the conspiracy theory that COVID-19, as well as SARS and the swine flu virus, were deliberately created and spread to sell vaccines against these diseases, and it is "part of an economic and psychological war waged by the U.S. against China with the aim of weakening it and presenting it as a backward country and a source of diseases".
Accusations in Turkey of Americans creating the virus as a weapon have been reported, and a YouGov poll from August 2020 found that 37% of Turkish respondents believed the US government was responsible for creating and spreading the virus.
An Iranian cleric in Qom said Donald Trump targeted the city with coronavirus "to damage its culture and honor". Reza Malekzadeh, Iran's deputy health minister and former Minister of Health, rejected claims that the virus was a biological weapon, pointing out that the US would be suffering heavily from it. He said Iran was hard-hit because its close ties to China and reluctance to cut air ties introduced the virus, and because early cases had been mistaken for influenza.
In Iraq, pro-Iranian social media users waged a Twitter campaign during Trump's Presidency to end U.S. presence in the country by blaming it for the virus. The campaign centered around hashtags such as #Bases_of_the_American_pandemic and #Coronavirus_is_Trump's_weapon. A March 2020 survey by USCENTCOM found that 67% of Iraqi respondents believed a foreign force was behind COVID-19, with 72% of them naming the USA as that force.
Theories blaming the USA have also circulated in the Philippines, Venezuela and Pakistan. An October 2020 Globsec poll of Eastern European countries found that 38% of respondents in Montenegro and Serbia, 37% of those in North Macedonia, and 33% in Bulgaria believed the USA deliberately created COVID-19.
Jewish origin
In the Muslim world
Iran's Press TV asserted that "Zionist elements developed a deadlier strain of coronavirus against Iran." Similarly, some Arab media outlets accused Israel and the United States of creating and spreading COVID-19, avian flu, and SARS. Users on social media offered other theories, including the allegation that Jews had manufactured COVID-19 to precipitate a global stock market collapse and thereby profit via insider trading, while a guest on Turkish television posited a more ambitious scenario in which Jews and Zionists had created COVID-19, avian flu, and Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever to "design the world, seize countries, [and] neuter the world's population". Turkish politician Fatih Erbakan reportedly said in a speech: "Though we do not have certain evidence, this virus serves Zionism's goals of decreasing the number of people and preventing it from increasing, and important research expresses this."
Israeli attempts to develop a COVID-19 vaccine prompted negative reactions in Iran. Grand Ayatollah Naser Makarem Shirazi denied initial reports that he had ruled that a Zionist-made vaccine would be halal, and one Press TV journalist tweeted that "I'd rather take my chances with the virus than consume an Israeli vaccine." A columnist for the Turkish Yeni Akit asserted that such a vaccine could be a ruse to carry out mass sterilization.
In the United States
An alert by the US Federal Bureau of Investigation regarding the possible threat of far-right extremists intentionally spreading COVID-19 mentioned blame being assigned to Jews and Jewish leaders for causing the pandemic and several statewide shutdowns.
In Germany
Flyers have been found on German tram cars, falsely blaming Jews for the pandemic.
In April 2022, two members of the Reichsbürger movement (later implicated in the 2022 German coup d'état plot) were charged with conspiring to kidnap the German health minister Karl Lauterbach.
In Britain
According to a study carried out by the University of Oxford in early 2020, nearly one-fifth of respondents in England believed to some extent that Jews were responsible for creating or spreading the virus with the motive of financial gain.
Muslims spreading virus
In India, Muslims have been blamed for spreading infection following the emergence of cases linked to a Tablighi Jamaat religious gathering. There are reports of vilification of Muslims on social media and attacks on individuals in India. Claims have been made that Muslims are selling food contaminated with SARS-CoV-2 and that a mosque in Patna was sheltering people from Italy and Iran. These claims were shown to be false. In the UK, there are reports of far-right groups blaming Muslims for the pandemic and falsely claiming that mosques remained open after the national ban on large gatherings.
Population-control scheme
According to the BBC, Jordan Sather, a YouTuber supporting the QAnon conspiracy theory and the anti-vax movement, has falsely claimed that the outbreak was a population-control scheme created by the Pirbright Institute in England and by former Microsoft CEO Bill Gates.
Piers Corbyn was described as "dangerous" by physician and broadcaster Hilary Jones during their joint interview on Good Morning Britain in early September 2020. Corbyn described COVID-19 as a "psychological operation to close down the economy in the interests of mega-corporations" and stated "vaccines cause death".
5G mobile networks
The first conspiracy theories purporting a link between COVID-19 and 5G mobile networks had already appeared by the end of January 2020. Such claims spread rapidly on social media networks, leading to the spread of misinformation in what has been likened to a "digital wildfire".
In March 2020, Thomas Cowan, a holistic medical practitioner who trained as a physician and operates on probation with the Medical Board of California, alleged that COVID-19 is caused by 5G. He based this on the claims that African countries had not been affected significantly by the pandemic and Africa was not a 5G region. Cowan also falsely alleged that the viruses were waste from cells that were poisoned by electromagnetic fields, and that historical viral pandemics coincided with major developments in radio technology.
The video of Cowan's claims went viral and was recirculated by celebrities, including Woody Harrelson, John Cusack, and singer Keri Hilson. The claims may also have been recirculated by an alleged "coordinated disinformation campaign", similar to campaigns used by the Internet Research Agency in Saint Petersburg, Russia. The claims were criticized on social media and debunked by Reuters, USA Today, Full Fact and American Public Health Association executive director Georges C. Benjamin.
Cowan's claims were repeated by Mark Steele, a conspiracy theorist who claimed to have first-hand knowledge that 5G was in fact a weapon system capable of causing symptoms identical to those produced by the virus. Kate Shemirani, a former nurse who had been struck off the UK nursing registry and had become a promoter of conspiracy theories, repeatedly claimed that these symptoms were identical to those produced by exposure to electromagnetic fields.
Steve Powis, national medical director of NHS England, described theories linking 5G mobile-phone networks to COVID-19 as the "worst kind of fake news". Viruses cannot be transmitted by radio waves, and COVID-19 has spread and continues to spread in many countries that do not have 5G networks.
There were 20 suspected arson attacks on phone masts in the UK over the 2020 Easter weekend. These included an incident in Dagenham where three men were arrested on suspicion of arson, a fire in Huddersfield that affected a mast used by emergency services, and a fire in a mast that provides mobile connectivity to the NHS Nightingale Hospital Birmingham. Some telecom engineers reported threats of violence, including threats to stab and murder them, by individuals who believe them to be working on 5G networks. In April 2020, Gardaí and fire services were called to fires at 5G masts in County Donegal, Ireland. The Gardaí were treating the fires as arson. After the arson attacks, British Cabinet Office Minister Michael Gove said the theory that COVID-19 virus may be spread by 5G wireless communication is "just nonsense, dangerous nonsense as well". Telecommunications provider Vodafone announced that two Vodafone masts and two it shares with O2, another provider, had been targeted.
By April 2020, at least 20 mobile-phone masts in the UK had been vandalised. Because of the slow rollout of 5G in the UK, many of the damaged masts had only 3G and 4G equipment. Mobile-phone and home broadband operators estimated there were at least 30 incidents where engineers maintaining equipment were confronted in the week up to 6 April. As of 30 May, there had been 29 incidents of attempted arson at mobile-phone masts in the Netherlands, including one case where "Fuck 5G" was written. There have also been incidents in Ireland and Cyprus. Facebook has deleted messages encouraging attacks on 5G equipment.
Engineers working for Openreach, a division of British Telecom, posted pleas on anti-5G Facebook groups asking to be spared abuse as they are not involved with maintaining mobile networks. Industry lobby group Mobile UK said the incidents were affecting the maintenance of networks that support home working and provide critical connections to vulnerable customers, emergency services, and hospitals. A widely circulated video showed a woman accusing employees of broadband company Community Fibre of installing 5G as part of a plan to kill the population.
Of those who believed that 5G networks caused COVID-19 symptoms, 60% stated that much of their knowledge about the virus came from YouTube. In April 2020, YouTube announced that it would reduce the amount of content claiming links between 5G and COVID-19. Videos that are conspiratorial about 5G that do not mention COVID-19 would not be removed, though they might be considered "borderline content" and therefore removed from search recommendations, losing advertising revenue. The discredited claims had been circulated by British conspiracy theorist David Icke in videos (subsequently removed) on YouTube and Vimeo, and an interview by London Live TV network, prompting calls for action by Ofcom. It took YouTube on average 41 days to remove Covid-related videos containing false information in the first half of 2020.
Ofcom issued guidance to ITV following comments by Eamonn Holmes about 5G and COVID-19 on This Morning. Ofcom said the comments were "ambiguous" and "ill-judged" and they "risked undermining viewers' trust in advice from public authorities and scientific evidence". Ofcom also found local channel London Live in breach of standards for an interview it had with David Icke. It said that he had "expressed views which had the potential to cause significant harm to viewers in London during the pandemic".
In April 2020, The Guardian revealed that Jonathan Jones, an evangelical pastor from Luton, had provided the male voice on a recording blaming 5G for deaths caused by COVID-19. He claimed to have formerly headed the largest business unit at Vodafone, but insiders at the company said that he was hired for a sales position in 2014 when 5G was not a priority for the company and that 5G would not have been part of his job. He had left Vodafone after less than a year.
A tweet started an internet meme that Bank of England £20 banknotes contained a picture of a 5G mast and the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Facebook and YouTube removed items pushing this story, and fact checking organisations established that the picture is of Margate Lighthouse and the "virus" is the staircase at the Tate Britain.
American scientist selling virus to China
In April 2020, rumors circulated on Facebook, alleging that the US Government had "just discovered and arrested" Charles Lieber, chair of the Chemistry and Chemical Biology Department at Harvard University for "manufacturing and selling" the novel coronavirus (COVID-19) to China. According to a report from Reuters, posts spreading the rumor were shared in multiple languages over 79,000 times on Facebook. Lieber was arrested in January 2020, and later charged with two federal counts of making an allegedly false statement about his links to a Chinese university, unrelated to the virus. The rumor of Lieber, a chemist in an area entirely unrelated to the virus research, developing COVID-19 and selling it to China has been discredited.
Meteor origin
In 2020, a group of researchers that included Edward J. Steele and Chandra Wickramasinghe, the foremost living proponent of panspermia, speculated in ten research papers that COVID-19 originated from a meteor spotted as a bright fireball over the city of Songyuan in Northeast China in October 2019 and that a fragment of the meteor landed in the Wuhan area, which started the first COVID-19 outbreaks. However, the group of researchers did not provide any direct evidence proving this conjecture.
In an August 2020 article, Astronomy.com called the meteor origin conjecture "so remarkable that it makes the others look boring by comparison".
NCMI intelligence report
In April 2020, ABC News reported that, in November 2019, "U.S. intelligence officials were warning that a contagion was sweeping through China's Wuhan region, changing the patterns of life and business and posing a threat to the population". The article stated that the National Center for Medical Intelligence (NCMI), had produced an intelligence report in November 2019 which raised concerns about the situation. The director of the NCMI, Col. R. Shane Day said "media reporting about the existence/release of a National Center for Medical Intelligence Coronavirus-related product/assessment in November 2019 is not correct. No such NCMI product exists".
PCR testing
Social media posts have falsely claimed that Kary Mullis, the inventor of polymerase chain reaction (PCR), said that PCR testing for SARS-CoV-2 does not work. Mullis, who received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the invention of PCR, died in August 2019 before the emergence of the SARS-CoV-2 virus and never made these statements. Several posts claim Mullis said "PCR tests cannot detect free infectious viruses at all", that PCR testing was designed to detect any non-human DNA or the DNA and RNA of the person being tested, or that the process of DNA amplification used in PCR will lead to contamination of the samples. A video of a 1997 interview with Mullis has also been widely circulated, in which Mullis says PCR will find "anything"; the video description asserts that this means PCR cannot be used to reliably detect SARS-CoV-2.
In reality, the reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) test for SARS-CoV-2 is highly sensitive to the virus, and testing laboratories have controls in place to prevent and detect contamination. However, the tests only reveal the presence of the virus and not whether it remains infectious.
A claim attributed to the Swiss Federal Office of Public Health that PCR testing is fraudulent became popular in the Philippines and remains a widespread belief. According to a report from AFP, research associate Joshua Miguel Danac of the University of the Philippines' National Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology debunked the claim, calling PCR tests "the gold standard for diagnosis". Fake testing and perception of fake testing remains a problem in the Philippines.
Symptoms and severity
In early 2020, there were a number of viral photos and videos that were mischaracterized as showing an extreme severity to COVID-19 exposure. In January and February 2020, a number of videos from China were circulated on social media that purported to show people infected with COVID-19 either suddenly collapsing, or having already collapsed, on the street. Some of these videos were republished or referenced by some tabloid newspapers, including the Daily Mail and The Sun. However, the people in these videos are generally believed to have been suffering from something other than COVID-19, such as one who was drunk.
A video from February 2020 purported to be of dead COVID-19 victims in China was actually a video from Shenzhen of people sleeping on the street. Similarly, a photo that circulated in March 2020 of dozens of people lying down in the street, purported to be of COVID-19 victims in either China or Italy, was in fact a photo of living people from a 2014 art project in Germany.
Incidence and mortality
Correctly reporting the number of people who were sick or who had died was difficult, especially during the earliest days of the pandemic.
In China
Chinese under-reporting during early 2020
Leaked documents show that China's public reporting of cases gave an incomplete picture during the early stages of the pandemic. For example, in February 2020, China publicly reported 2,478 new confirmed cases. However, confidential internal documents that later leaked to CNN showed 5,918 new cases in February. , 1,772 clinically diagnosed cases and 1,796 suspected cases.
Nurse whistleblower
In January 2020, a video circulated online appearing to be of a nurse named Jin Hui in Hubei, describing a far more dire situation in Wuhan than reported by Chinese officials. However, the BBC said that, contrary to its English subtitles in one of the video's existing versions, the woman does not claim to be either a nurse or a doctor in the video and that her suit and mask do not match the ones worn by medical staff in Hubei.
The video claimed that more than 90,000 people had been infected with the virus in China, that the virus could spread from one person to 14 people () and that the virus was starting a second mutation. The video attracted millions of views on various social media platforms and was mentioned in numerous online reports. The claimed of 14 in the video was noted by the BBC to be inconsistent with the expert estimation of 1.4 to 2.5 at that time. The video's claim of 90,000 infected cases was noted to be 'unsubstantiated'.
Alleged leak of death toll by Tencent
In February 2020, Taiwan News published an article claiming that Tencent may have accidentally leaked the real numbers of death and infection in China. Taiwan News suggested that the Tencent Epidemic Situation Tracker had briefly showed infected cases and death tolls many times higher of the official figure, citing a Facebook post by a 38-year-old Taiwanese beverage store owner and an anonymous Taiwanese netizen. The article, referenced by other news outlets such as the Daily Mail and widely circulated on Twitter, Facebook and 4chan, sparked a wide range of conspiracy theories that the screenshot indicates the real death toll instead of the ones published by health officials.
The author of the original news article defended the authenticity and newsworthiness of the leak on a WION program.
Mass cremation in Wuhan
In February 2020, a report emerged on Twitter claiming that data showed a massive increase in sulfur emissions over Wuhan, China. The Twitter thread then claimed the reason was due to the mass cremation those who died from COVID-19. The story was shared on multiple media outlets, including Daily Express, Daily Mail, and Taiwan News. Snopes debunked the misinformation, pointing out that the maps used by the claims were not real-time observations of sulfur dioxide (SO2) concentrations above Wuhan. Instead, the data was a computer-generated model based on historical information and forecast on SO2 emissions.
A story in The Epoch Times in February 2020 shared a map from the Internet that falsely alleged massive sulfur dioxide releases from crematoriums during the COVID-19 pandemic in China, speculating that 14,000 bodies may have been burned. A fact check by AFP reported that the map was a NASA forecast taken out of context.
Decline in cellphone subscriptions
There was a decrease of nearly 21 million cellphone subscriptions among the three largest cellphone carriers in China, which led to misinformation that this is evidence for millions of deaths due to COVID-19 in China. The drop is attributed to cancellations of phone services due to a downturn in the social and economic life during the outbreak.
In the US
Accusations have been made of under-reporting, over-reporting, and other problems. Necessary data was corrupted in some places, for example, on the state level in the United States.
The public health handling of the pandemic has been hampered by the use of archaic technology (including fax machines and incompatible formats), poor data flow and management (or even no access to data), and general lack of standardization and leadership. Privacy laws hampered contact tracing and case finding efforts, which resulted in under-diagnosis and under-reporting.
Allegations of inflated death counts
In August 2020, President Donald Trump retweeted a conspiracy theory alleging that COVID-19 deaths are systematically overcounted, and that only 6% of the reported deaths in the United States were actually from the disease. This 6% number is based on only counting death certificates where COVID-19 is the sole condition listed. The lead mortality statistician at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's (CDC) National Center for Health Statistics said that those death certificates likely did not include all the steps that led to the death and thus were incomplete. The CDC collects data based on case surveillance, vital records, and excess deaths. A FactCheck.org article on the issue reported that while 6% of the death certificates included COVID-19 exclusively as the cause of death and 94% had additional conditions that contributed to it, COVID-19 was listed as the underlying cause of death in 92% of them, as it may directly cause other severe conditions such as pneumonia or acute respiratory distress syndrome.
The U.S. experienced 882,000 "excess deaths" (i.e., deaths above the baseline expected from normal mortality in previous years) between February 2020 and January 2022, which is somewhat higher than the officially recorded mortality from COVID-19 during that period (835,000 deaths). Analysis of weekly data from each U.S. state shows that the calculated excess deaths are strongly correlated with COVID-19 infections, undercutting the notion that the deaths were primarily caused by some factor other than the disease.
Misleading Johns Hopkins News-Letter article
In November 2020, an article by Genevieve Briand (assistant director for the Master's program in Applied Economics at JHU) was published in the student-run Johns Hopkins News-Letter claiming to have found "no evidence that COVID-19 create[d] any excess deaths". The article was later retracted after it was used to promote conspiracy theories on right-wing social media accounts and misinformation websites, but the presentation was not removed from YouTube, where it had been viewed more than 58,000 times as of 3 December 2020.
Briand compared data from spring 2020 and January 2018, ignoring expected seasonal variations in mortality and unusual peaks in the spring and summer of 2020 compared to previous spring and summer months. Briand's article failed to account for the total excess mortality from all causes reported during the pandemic, with 300,000 deaths associated with the virus per CDC data in 2020. Deaths per age group were also shown as a proportion percentage rather than as raw numbers, obscuring the effects of the pandemic when the number of deaths increases but the proportions are maintained. The article also suggested that deaths attributed to cardiac and respiratory diseases in infected persons were incorrectly categorized as deaths due to COVID-19. This view fails to recognize that those with such conditions are more vulnerable to the virus and therefore more likely to die from it. The retraction of Briand's article went viral on social media under false claims of censorship.
Misinformation targeting Taiwan
In February 2020, the Taiwanese Central News Agency reported that large amounts of misinformation had appeared on Facebook claiming the pandemic in Taiwan was out of control, the Taiwanese government had covered up the total number of cases, and that President Tsai Ing-wen had been infected. The Taiwan fact-checking organization had suggested the misinformation on Facebook shared similarities with mainland China due to its use of simplified Chinese characters and mainland China vocabulary. The organization warned that the purpose of the misinformation is to attack the government.
In March 2020, Taiwan's Ministry of Justice Investigation Bureau warned that China was trying to undermine trust in factual news by portraying the Taiwanese government reports as fake news. Taiwanese authorities have been ordered to use all possible means to track whether the messages were linked to instructions given by the Chinese Communist Party. The PRC's Taiwan Affairs Office denied the claims, calling them lies, and said that Taiwan's Democratic Progressive Party was "inciting hatred" between the two sides. They then claimed that the "DPP continues to politically manipulate the virus". According to The Washington Post, China has used organized disinformation campaigns against Taiwan for decades.
Nick Monaco, the research director of the Digital Intelligence Lab at Institute for the Future, analyzed the posts and concluded that the majority appear to have come from ordinary users in China, not the state. However, he criticized the Chinese government's decision to allow the information to spread beyond China's Great Firewall, which he described as "malicious". According to Taiwan News, nearly one in four cases of misinformation are believed to be connected to China.
In March 2020, the American Institute in Taiwan announced that it was partnering with the Taiwan FactCheck Center to help combat misinformation about the COVID-19 outbreak.
Misrepresented World Population Project map
In early February 2020, a decade-old map illustrating a hypothetical viral outbreak published by the World Population Project (part of the University of Southampton) was misappropriated by a number of Australian media news outlets (and British tabloids The Sun, Daily Mail and Metro) which claimed the map represented the COVID-19 pandemic. This misinformation was then spread via the social media accounts of the same media outlets, and while some outlets later removed the map, the BBC reported, in February, that a number of news sites had yet to retract the map.
"Casedemic"
COVID-19 deniers use the word casedemic as a shorthand for a conspiracy theory holding that COVID-19 is harmless and that the reported disease figures are merely a result of increased testing. The concept is particularly attractive to anti-vaccination activists, who use it to argue that public health measures, and particularly vaccines, are not needed to counter what they say is a fake epidemic.
David Gorski writes that the word casedemic was seemingly coined by Ivor Cummins—an engineer whose views are popular among COVID-19 deniers—in August 2020.
The term has been adopted by alternative medicine advocate Joseph Mercola, who has exaggerated the effect of false positives in polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tests to construct a false narrative that testing is invalid because it is not perfectly accurate . In reality, the problems with PCR testing are well-known and accounted for by public health authorities. Such claims also disregard the possibility of asymptomatic spread, the number of potentially-undetected cases during the initial phases of the pandemic in comparison to the present due to increased testing and knowledge since, and other variables that can influence PCR tests.
Disease spread
Early in the pandemic, little information was known about how the virus spreads, when the first people became sick, or who was most vulnerable to infection, serious complications, or death. During 2020, it became clear that the main route of spread was through exposure to the virus-laden respiratory droplets produced by an infected person. There were also some early questions about whether the disease might have been present earlier than reported; however, subsequent research disproved this idea.
California herd immunity in 2019
In March 2020, Victor Davis Hanson publicized a theory that COVID-19 may have been in California in the fall of 2019 resulting in a level of herd immunity to at least partially explain differences in infection rates in cities such as New York City vs Los Angeles. Jeff Smith of Santa Clara County stated that evidence indicated the virus may have been in California since December 2019. Early genetic and antibody analyses refute the idea that the virus was in the United States prior to January 2020.
Patient Zero
In March 2020, conspiracy theorists started the false rumor that Maatje Benassi, a US army reservist, was "Patient Zero" of the pandemic, the first person to be infected with COVID-19. Benassi was targeted because of her participation in the 2019 Military World Games at Wuhan before the pandemic started, even though she never tested positive for the virus. Conspiracy theorists even connected her family to the DJ Benny Benassi as a Benassi virus plot, even though they are not related and Benny had also not had the virus.
Airborne
Before mid-2021 the World Health Organization (WHO) denied that COVID readily spread through the air; although, they acknowledged such spread could occur during certain medical procedures as of July 2020. In February 2020 the Director-General of WHO, Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, initially stated COVID was airborne during a press conference, only to retract this statement a few minutes later. In March 2020 WHO tweeted "FACT: #COVID19 is NOT airborne."
The air quality researcher Lidia Morawska viewed their initial position as "spreading misinformation". Hundreds of scientists, by mid 2020, viewed airborne spread as occurring and called on the WHO to change their position. Concerns were raised that "conservative voices" within the WHO committee tasked with these guidelines were preventing new evidence from being incorporated.
Surfaces
Early in the pandemic it was claimed that COVID-19 could be spread by contact with contaminated surfaces or fomites—even though this is an uncommon transmission route for other respiratory viruses. This led to recommendations that high-contact surfaces (like playground equipment or school desks) be frequently deep-cleaned and that certain items (like groceries or mailed packages) be disinfected. Ultimately, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) concluded that the likelihood of transmission under these scenarios was less than 1 in 10,000. They further concluded that handwashing reduced the risk of exposure to COVID-19, but surface disinfection did not.
Susceptibility based on ethnicity
There have been claims that specific ethnicities are more or less vulnerable to COVID-19. COVID-19 is a new zoonotic disease, so no population has yet had the time to develop population immunity.
Beginning in February 2020, reports quickly spread via Facebook, implied that a Cameroonian student in China had been completely cured of the virus due to his African genetics. While a student was successfully treated, other media sources have indicated that no evidence implies Africans are more resistant to the virus and labeled such claims as false information. Kenyan Secretary of Health Mutahi Kagwe explicitly refuted rumors that "those with black skin cannot get coronavirus [disease 2019]", while announcing Kenya's first case in March. This false claim was cited as a contributing factor in the disproportionately high rates of infection and death observed among African Americans.
There have been claims of "Indian immunity": that the people of India have more immunity to the COVID-19 virus due to living conditions in India. This idea was deemed "absolute drivel" by Anand Krishnan, professor at the Centre for Community Medicine of the All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS). He said there was no population immunity to the COVID-19 virus yet, as it is new, and it is not even clear whether people who have recovered from COVID-19 will have lasting immunity, as this happens with some viruses but not with others.
Iran's Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei claimed the virus was genetically targeted at Iranians by the US, giving this explanation for the pandemic having seriously affected Iran. He did not offer any evidence.
A group of Jordanian researchers published a report claiming that Arabs are less vulnerable to COVID-19 due to a genetic variation specific to those of Middle East heritage. This paper had not been debunked by November 2020.
Xenophobic blaming by ethnicity and religion
COVID-19-related xenophobic attacks have been made against individuals with the attacker blaming the victim for COVID-19 on the basis of the victim's ethnicity. People who are considered to look Chinese have been subjected to COVID-19-related verbal and physical attacks in many other countries, often by people accusing them of transmitting the virus. Within China, there has been discrimination (such as evictions and refusal of service in shops) against people from anywhere closer to Wuhan (where the pandemic started) and against anyone perceived as being non-Chinese (especially those considered African), as the Chinese government has blamed continuing cases on re-introductions of the virus from abroad (90% of reintroduced cases were by Chinese passport-holders). Neighbouring countries have also discriminated against people seen as Westerners.
People have also simply blamed other local groups along the lines of pre-existing social tensions and divisions, sometimes citing reporting of COVID-19 cases within that group. For instance, Muslims have been widely blamed, shunned, and discriminated against in India (including some violent attacks), amid unfounded claims that Muslims are deliberately spreading COVID-19, and a Muslim event at which the disease did spread has received far more public attention than many similar events run by other groups and the government. White supremacist groups have blamed COVID-19 on non-whites and advocated deliberately infecting minorities they dislike, such as Jews.
Bat soup
Some media outlets, including Daily Mail and RT, as well as individuals, disseminated a video showing a Chinese woman eating a bat, falsely suggesting it was filmed in Wuhan and connecting it to the outbreak. However, the widely circulated video contains unrelated footage of a Chinese travel vlogger, Wang Mengyun, eating bat soup in the island country of Palau in 2016. Wang posted an apology on Weibo, in which she said she had been abused and threatened, and that she had only wanted to showcase Palauan cuisine. The spread of misinformation about bat consumption has been characterized by xenophobic and racist sentiment toward Asians. In contrast, scientists suggest the virus originated in bats and migrated into an intermediary host animal before infecting people.
Large gatherings
South Korean "conservative populist" Jun Kwang-hun told his followers there was no risk to mass public gatherings as the virus was impossible to contract outdoors. Many of his followers are elderly.
Lifetime of the virus
Misinformation has spread that the lifetime of SARS-CoV-2 is only 12 hours and that staying home for 14 hours during the Janata curfew would break the chain of transmission. Another message claimed that observing the Janata curfew would result in the reduction of COVID-19 cases by 40%.
Mosquitoes
It has been claimed that mosquitoes transmit COVID-19. There is no evidence that this is true.
Contaminated objects
A fake Costco product recall notice circulated on social media purporting that Kirkland-brand bath tissue had been contaminated with COVID-19 (meaning SARS-CoV-2) due to the item being made in China. No evidence supports that SARS-CoV-2 can survive on surfaces for prolonged periods of time (as might happen during shipping), and Costco has not issued such a recall.
A warning claiming to be from the Australia Department of Health said COVID-19 spreads through petrol pumps and that everyone should wear gloves when filling up petrol in their cars.
There were claims that wearing shoes in one's home was the reason behind the spread of COVID-19 in Italy.
Cruise ships as safe havens
In March 2020, the Miami New Times reported that managers at Norwegian Cruise Line had prepared a set of responses intended to convince wary customers to book cruises, including "blatantly false" claims that COVID-19 "can only survive in cold temperatures, so the Caribbean is a fantastic choice for your next cruise", that "Scientists and medical professionals have confirmed that the warm weather of the spring will be the end of the Coronavirus ", and that the virus "cannot live in the amazingly warm and tropical temperatures that your cruise will be sailing to".
Flu is seasonal (becoming less frequent in the summer) in some countries, but not in others. While it is possible that COVID-19 will also show some seasonality, this has not yet been determined. When COVID-19 spread along international air travel routes, it did not bypass tropical locations. Outbreaks on cruise ships, where an older population lives in close quarters, frequently touching surfaces which others have touched, were common.
It seems that COVID-19 can be transmitted in all climates. It has seriously affected many warm-climate countries. For instance, Dubai, with a year-round average daily high of 28.0 Celsius (82.3 °F) and the airport said to have the world's most international traffic, has had thousands of cases.
Breastfeeding
While commercial companies that make breastmilk substitutes promote their products during the pandemic, the WHO and UNICEF advise that women should continue to breastfeed during the COVID-19 pandemic even if they have confirmed or suspected COVID-19. Evidence indicates that it is unlikely that COVID-19 can be transmitted through breast milk.
Sexual transmission and infertility
COVID-19 can persist in men's semen even after they have begun to recover, although the virus cannot replicate in the reproductive system.
Chinese researchers who found the virus in the semen of men infected with COVID-19, claimed that this opened up a small chance the disease could be sexually transmitted, though this claim has been questioned by other academics since this has been shown with many other viruses such as Ebola and Zika.
A team of Italian scholars found that 11 of 43 men who recovered from infections, or one-quarter of the test subjects, had either azoospermia (no sperm in semen) or oligospermia (low sperm count). Mechanisms through which infectious diseases affect sperm is roughly divided into two categories. One involves viruses entering the testes, where they attack spermatogonia. The other involves high fever exposing the testes to heat and thereby killing sperm.
Prevention
People tried many different things to prevent infection. Sometimes the misinformation was false claims of efficacy, such as claims that the virus could not spread during religious ceremonies, and at other times the misinformation was false claims of inefficacy, such as claiming that alcohol-based hand sanitizer did not work. In other cases, especially with regard to public health advice about wearing face masks, additional scientific evidence resulted in different advice over time.
Hand sanitizer, antibacterial soaps
Claims that hand sanitizer is merely "antibacterial not antiviral", and therefore ineffective against COVID-19, have spread widely on Twitter and other social networks. While the effectiveness of sanitiser depends on the specific ingredients, most hand sanitiser sold commercially inactivates SARS-CoV-2, which causes COVID-19. Hand sanitizer is recommended against COVID-19, though unlike soap, it is not effective against all types of germs. Washing in soap and water for at least 20 seconds is recommended by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) as the best way to clean hands in most situations. However, if soap and water are not available, a hand sanitizer that is at least 60% alcohol can be used instead, unless hands are visibly dirty or greasy. The CDC and the Food and Drug Administration both recommend plain soap; there is no evidence that antibacterial soaps are any better, and limited evidence that they might be worse long-term.
Public use of face masks
Authorities, especially in Asia, recommended wearing face masks in public early in the pandemic. In other parts of the world, authorities made conflicting (or contradictory) statements. Several governments and institutions, such as in the United States, initially dismissed the use of face masks by the general population, often with misleading or incomplete information about their effectiveness. Commentators have attributed the anti-mask messaging to attempts at managing mask shortages caused by initial inaction, remarking that the claims went beyond the science, or were simply lies.
In February 2020, U.S. Surgeon General Jerome Adams tweeted "Seriously people—STOP BUYING MASKS! They are NOT effective in preventing general public from catching #Coronavirus [disease 2019]"; he later reversed his position with increasing evidence that masks can limit the spread of COVID-19. In June 2020, Anthony Fauci (a key member of the White House Coronavirus Task Force) confirmed that the American public were told not to wear masks from the beginning, due to a shortage of masks, and then explained that masks do actually work.
Some media outlets claimed that neck gaiters were worse than not wearing masks at all in the COVID-19 pandemic, misinterpreting a study which was intended to demonstrate a method for evaluating masks (and not actually to determine the effectiveness of different types of masks). The study also only looked at one wearer wearing the one neck gaiter made from a polyester/spandex blend, which is not sufficient evidence to support the claim about gaiters made in the media. The study found that the neck gaiter, which was made from a thin and stretchy material, appeared to be ineffective at limiting airborne droplets expelled from the wearer; Isaac Henrion, one of the co-authors, suggests that the result was likely due to the material rather than the style, stating that "Any mask made from that fabric would probably have the same result, no matter the design." Warren S. Warren, a co-author, said that they tried to be careful with their language in interviews, but added that the press coverage has "careened out of control" for a study testing a measuring technique.
There are false claims spread that the usage of masks causes adverse health-related issues such as low blood oxygen levels, high blood carbon dioxide levels, and a weakened immune system. Some also falsely claimed that masks cause antibiotic-resistant pneumonia by preventing pathogenic organisms to be exhaled away from the body.
Individuals have speciously claimed legal or medical exemptions to avoid complying with mask mandates. Individuals have, for instance, claimed that the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA; designed to prohibit discrimination based on disabilities) allows exemption from mask requirements. The United States Department of Justice (DOJ) responded that the Act "does not provide a blanket exemption to people with disabilities from complying with legitimate safety requirements necessary for safe operations". The DOJ also issued a warning about cards (sometimes featuring DOJ logos or ADA notices) that claim to "exempt" their holders from wearing masks, stating that these cards are fraudulent and not issued by any government agency.
Alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs
Contrary to some reports, drinking alcohol does not protect against COVID-19, and can increase short term and long term health risks. Drinking alcohol is made with pure ethanol. Other substances such as hand sanitizer, wood alcohol, and denatured alcohol contain other alcohols, such as isopropanol or methanol. These other alcohols are poisonous, and may cause gastric ulcers, blindness, liver failure, or death. Such chemicals are commonly present in improperly fermented or distilled alcoholic beverages.
Several countries, including Iran and Turkey have reported incidents of methanol poisoning, caused by the false belief that drinking alcohol would cure or protect against COVID-19. Alcohol is banned in Iran, and bootleg alcohol may contain methanol. According to the Associated Press in March 2020, 480 people had died and 2,850 become ill due to methanol poisoning. That figure reached 700 by April.
In Kenya, in April 2020, the Governor of Nairobi Mike Sonko came under scrutiny for including small bottles of the cognac Hennessy in care packages, falsely claiming that alcohol serves as "throat sanitizer".
In 2020, tobacco smoking spread on social media as a false remedy to COVID-19 after a few small observational studies were published in which tobacco smoking was shown to be preventative against SARS-CoV-2. In April 2020, researchers at a Paris hospital noted an inverse relationship between smoking and COVID-19 infections, which led to an increase in tobacco sales in France. These results were at first so astonishing that the French government initiated a clinical trial with transdermal nicotine patches. More recent clinical evidence based on larger studies clearly demonstrates that smokers have an increased chance of COVID-19 infection and experience more severe respiratory symptoms.
In early 2020, several viral tweets spread around Europe and Africa, suggesting that snorting cocaine would sterilize one's nostrils of SARS-CoV-2. In response, the French Ministry of Health released a public service announcement debunking this claim, saying "No, cocaine does NOT protect against COVID-19. It is an addictive drug that causes serious side effects and is harmful to people's health." The World Health Organization also debunked the claim.
Warm or hot drinks
There were several claims that drinking warm drinks at a temperature of around protects one from COVID-19, most notably by Alberto Fernández, the president of Argentina said "The WHO recommends that one drink many hot drinks because heat kills the virus." Scientists commented that the WHO had made no such recommendation, and that drinking hot water can damage the oral mucosa.
Religious protection
A number of religious groups have claimed protection due to their faith. Some refused to stop practices, such as gatherings of large groups, that promoted the transmission of the virus.
In Israel, some Ultra-Orthodox Jews initially refused to close synagogues and religious seminaries and disregarded government restrictions because "The Torah protects and saves", which resulted in an eight-fold faster rate of infection among some groups.
In South Korea the River of Grace Community Church in Gyeonggi Province spread the virus after spraying salt water into their members' mouths in the belief that it would kill the virus, while the Shincheonji Church of Jesus in Daegu where a church leader claimed that no Shincheonji worshipers had caught the virus in February while hundreds died in Wuhan, later caused the biggest spread of the virus in the country. In Tanzania, President John Magufuli, instead of banning congregations, urged the faithfuls to go to pray in churches and mosques in the belief that it will protect them. He said that COVID-19 is a devil, therefore "cannot survive in the body of Jesus Christ; it will burn" (the "body of Jesus Christ" refers to the Christian church).
Despite the COVID-19 pandemic, in March 2020, the Church of Greece announced that Holy Communion, in which churchgoers eat pieces of bread soaked in wine from the same chalice, would continue as a practice. The Holy Synod said Holy Communion "cannot be the cause of the spread of illness", with Metropolitan Seraphim saying the wine was without blemish because it represented the blood and body of Christ, and that "whoever attends Holy Communion is approaching God, who has the power to heal". The Church refused to restrict Christians from taking Holy Communion, which was supported by several clerics, some politicians, and health professionals. The Greek Association of Hospital Doctors criticized these professionals for putting their religious beliefs before science. A review of the medical publications on the subject, published by a Greek physician, claims that the transmission of any infectious disease through the Holy Communion has never been documented. This controversy divided the Greek society, the politics and medical experts.
The Islamic missionary movement Tablighi Jamaat organised Ijtema mass gatherings in Malaysia, India, and Pakistan whose participants believed that God will protect them, causing the biggest rise in COVID-19 cases in these and other countries. In Iran, the head of Fatima Masumeh Shrine encouraged pilgrims to visit the shrine despite calls to close the shrine, saying that they "consider this holy shrine to be a place of healing". In Somalia, false claims have spread Muslims are immune to the virus.
Helicopter spraying
In Sri Lanka, the Philippines and India, it has been claimed that one should stay at home on particular days when helicopters spray "COVID-19 disinfectant" over homes. No such spraying has taken place, nor is it planned, nor, as of July 2020, is there any such agent that could be sprayed.
Food
In India, fake news circulated that the World Health Organization warned against eating cabbage to prevent COVID-19 infection. Claims that the poisonous fruit of the Datura plant is a preventive measure for COVID-19 resulted in eleven people being hospitalized in India. They ate the fruit, following the instructions from a TikTok video that propagated misinformation regarding the prevention of COVID-19.
Claims that vegetarians are immune to COVID-19 spread online in India, causing "#NoMeat_NoCoronaVirus" to trend on Twitter. Such claims are false.
Vitamin D
In February 2020, claims that Vitamin D pills could help prevent COVID-19 circulated on social media in Thailand. Some conspiracy theorists have claimed that vitamin D was being intentionally suppressed as a preventative option by governments.
One meta-analysis found weak evidence that increased vitamin D levels may reduce the likelihood of intensive care admission for people with COVID-19; but found no effect of mortality.
A preprint of a journal article from Indonesia purporting to show a beneficial effect of vitamin D for COVID-19 went viral across social media, and was cited several times in mainstream academic literature, including in a recommendation from NICE. Tabloid newspapers such as the Daily Mail and The Sun likewise promoted the story. Subsequent investigation, however, found none of the authors seemed to be known of at the hospitals listed as their affiliations, suggesting the paper was entirely fraudulent.
A study of YouTube content concerning vitamin D and COVID-19 in 2020 found that over three quarters of the 77 videos analysed as part of the study contained false and misleading information. Most alarmingly according to the study's authors, the majority of the purveyors of misinformation in these videos were medical professionals. The study concluded that much of the advice given by these YouTube videos may result in adverse health outcomes such as increase in risk of skin cancer from excessive sunlight exposure, if viewers followed it.
Vaccines
Hospital conditions
Some conservative figures in the United States, such as Richard Epstein, downplayed the scale of the pandemic, saying it has been exaggerated as part of an effort to hurt President Trump. Some people pointed to empty hospital parking lots as evidence that the virus has been exaggerated. Despite the empty parking lots, many hospitals in New York City and other places experienced thousands of COVID-19-related hospitalizations.
In the course of 2020, conspiracy theorists used the #FilmYourHospital hashtag to encourage people to record videos in seemingly empty, or sparsely populated hospitals, in order to prove that the pandemic was a "hoax".
Treatment
Widely circulated posts on social media have made many unfounded claims of treatment methods of COVID-19. Some of these claims are scams, and some promoted methods are dangerous and unhealthy.
Herbal treatments
Various national and party-held Chinese media heavily advertised an "overnight research" report by Wuhan Institute of Virology and Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, on how , an herb mixture from traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), can effectively inhibit COVID-19. The report led to a purchase craze of .
The president of Madagascar Andry Rajoelina launched and promoted in April 2020 a herbal drink based on an artemisia plant as a miracle cure that can treat and prevent COVID-19 despite a lack of medical evidence. The drink has been exported to other African countries.
Based on in-vitro studies, extracts of E. purpurea (Echinaforce) showed virucidal activity against coronaviruses, including SARS-CoV-2. Because the data was experimental and solely derived from cell cultures, antiviral effects in humans have not been elucidated. As a result, regulatory agencies have not recommended the use of Echinacea preparations for the prophylaxis and treatment of COVID-19.
Vitamin C
During the early years of the COVID-19 pandemic, vitamin C was the subject of more FDA warning letters than any other quack treatment for COVID-19. In April 2021, the US National Institutes of Health (NIH) COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines stated that "there are insufficient data to recommend either for or against the use of vitaminC for the prevention or treatment of COVID-19." In an update posted December 2022, the NIH position was unchanged:
There is insufficient evidence for the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel (the Panel) to recommend either for or against the use of vitamin C for the treatment of COVID-19 in nonhospitalized patients.
There is insufficient evidence for the Panel to recommend either for or against the use of vitamin C for the treatment of COVID-19 in hospitalized patients.
Common cold and flu treatments
In March 2020, a photo circulated online showing a 30-year-old Indian textbook that lists aspirin, antihistamines, and nasal spray as treatments for coronavirus diseases. False claims spread asserting that the book was evidence that COVID-19 started much earlier than reported and that common cold treatments could be a cure for COVID-19. The textbook actually talks about coronaviruses in general, as a family of viruses.
A rumor circulated on social media posts on Weibo, Facebook and Twitter claiming that Chinese experts said saline solutions could kill COVID-19. There is no evidence for this.
A tweet from French health minister Olivier Véran, a bulletin from the French health ministry, and a small speculative study in The Lancet Respiratory Medicine raised concerns about ibuprofen worsening COVID-19, which spread extensively on social media. The European Medicines Agency and the World Health Organization recommended COVID-19 patients keep taking ibuprofen as directed, citing lack of convincing evidence of any danger.
Cow dung and urine
Indian political activist Swami Chakrapani and Member of the Legislative Assembly Suman Haripriya claimed that drinking cow urine and applying cow dung on the body can cure COVID-19. In Manipur, two people were arrested under the National Security Act for social media posts which said cow urine and dung did not cure the virus. (They were arrested under Section 153 of the Indian Penal Code for allegedly promoting enmity between different groups on grounds of religion, race, place of birth, residence, language, etc. and acts prejudicial to maintenance of harmony).
WHO's chief scientist Soumya Swaminathan criticised politicians incautiously spreading such misinformation without evidence.
2-Deoxy-D-glucose
A drug based on 2-deoxy-D-glucose (2-DG) was approved by the Drugs Controller General of India for emergency use as adjunct therapy in moderate to severe COVID-19 patients.
The drug was launched at a press conference with a false claim that it was approved by the World Health Organization. It was developed by the DRDO along with Dr. Reddy's Laboratories, who stated in a press release, that the drug "helps in faster recovery of hospitalised patients and reduces supplemental oxygen dependence". The Wire as well as The Hindu noted that the approval was based on poor evidence; no journal publication (or preprint) concerning efficacy and safety are yet available.
Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) prescriptions
Since its third version, the COVID management guidelines from the Chinese National Health Commission recommends using Traditional Chinese medicines to treat the disease. In Wuhan, China Central Television reported that local authorities have pushed for a set of TCM prescriptions to be used for every case since early February. One formula was promoted at the national level by mid-February. The local field hospitals were explicitly TCM-oriented. According to state media, as of 16 March 2020, 91.91% of all Hubei patients have used TCM, with the rate reaching 99% in field hospitals and 94% in bulk quarantine areas. In March 2020, the online insert of the official People's Daily, distributed in The Daily Telegraph, published an article stating that Traditional Chinese medicine "helps fight coronavirus [disease 2019]".
Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine
There were claims that chloroquine was used to cure more than 12,000 COVID-19 patients in Nigeria.
In March 2020, Adrian Bye, a tech startup leader who is not a doctor, suggested to cryptocurrency investors Gregory Rigano and James Todaro that "chloroquine will keep most people out of hospital". (Bye later admitted that he had reached this conclusion through "philosophy" rather than medical research.) Two days later, Rigano and Todaro promoted chloroquine in a self-published article that claimed affiliation with the Stanford University School of Medicine, the National Academy of Sciences and the Birmingham School of Medicine – the three institutions mentioned that they had no links to the article, and Google removed the article for violating its terms of service.
Ivermectin
Dangerous treatments
Some QAnon proponents, including Jordan Sather and others, have promoted gargling "Miracle Mineral Supplement" (actually chlorine dioxide, a chemical used in some industrial applications as a bleach that may cause life-threatening reactions and even death) as a way of preventing or curing the disease. The Food and Drug Administration has warned multiple times that drinking MMS is "dangerous" as it may cause "severe vomiting" and "acute liver failure".
Twelve people were hospitalized in India when they ingested the poisonous thornapple (Datura stramonium AKA Jimsonweed) after seeing the plant recommended as a 'coronavirus [disease 2019] home remedy' in a TikTok video. Datura species contain many substances poisonous to humans, mainly through anticholinergic effects.
Silver
In February 2020, televangelist Jim Bakker promoted a colloidal silver solution, sold on his website, as a remedy for COVID-19; naturopath Sherrill Sellman, a guest on his show, falsely stated that it "hasn't been tested on this strain of the coronavirus, but it's been tested on other strains of the coronavirus and has been able to eliminate it within 12 hours". The US Food and Drug Administration and New York Attorney General's office both issued cease-and-desist orders against Bakker, and he was sued by the state of Missouri over the sales.
The New York Attorney General's office also issued a cease-and-desist order to radio host Alex Jones, who was selling silver-infused toothpaste that he falsely claimed could kill the virus and had been verified by federal officials, causing a Jones spokesman to deny the products had been sold for the purpose of treating any disease. The FDA later threatened Jones with legal action and seizure of several silver-based products if he continued to promote their use against COVID-19.
Mustard oil
The yoga guru Ramdev claimed that one can treat COVID-19 by pouring mustard oil through the nose, causing the virus to flow into the stomach where it would be destroyed by gastric acid. He also claimed that if a person can hold their breath for a minute, it means they do not have any type of coronavirus, symptomatic or asymptomatic. Both these claims were found to be false.
Untested treatments
Misinformation that the Indian government was spreading an "anti-corona" drug in the country during Janata curfew, a stay-at-home curfew enforced in India, went viral on social media.
Following the first reported case of COVID-19 in Nigeria in February, untested cures and treatments began to spread via platforms such as WhatsApp.
In March 2020, the US Federal Bureau of Investigation arrested actor Keith Lawrence Middlebrook for wire fraud with a fake COVID-19 cure.
Spiritual healing
Another televangelist, Kenneth Copeland, claimed on Victory Channel during a programme called "Standing Against Coronavirus", that he can cure television viewers of directly from the television studio. The viewers had to touch the television screen to receive the spiritual healing.
Organ trafficking
In India, baseless rumours spread saying that people were being taken to care centres and killed to harvest their organs, with their bodies then being swapped to avoid suspicion. These rumours spread more quickly through online platforms such as WhatsApp, and resulted in protests, attacks against healthcare workers, and reduced willingness to seek COVID-19 testing and treatment.
Other
Name of the disease
Social media posts and Internet memes claimed that COVID-19 derives from "Chinese Originated Viral Infectious Disease 19", or similar, as supposedly the "19th virus to come out of China". In fact, the WHO named the disease as follows: CO stands for corona, VI for virus, Dfor disease and 19 for when the outbreak was first identified (31 December 2019).
Another false social media rumor claimed COVID-19 was an acronym derived from a series of ancient symbols interpreted as "see a sheep surrender."
Simpsons prediction
Claims that The Simpsons had predicted the COVID-19 pandemic in 1993, accompanied by a doctored screenshot from the episode "The Fool Monty" (where the text "Corona Virus" was layered over the original text "Apocalypse Meow", without blocking it from view), were later found to be false. The claim had been widely spread on social media.
Return of wildlife
During the pandemic, many false and misleading images or news reports about the environmental impact of the COVID-19 pandemic were shared by clickbait journalism sources and social media.
A viral post that originated on Weibo and spread on Twitter claimed that a pack of elephants descended on a village under quarantine in China's Yunnan, got drunk on corn wine, and passed out in a tea garden. A Chinese news report debunked the claim that the elephants got drunk on corn wine and noted that wild elephants were a common sight in the village; the image attached to the post was originally taken at the Asian Elephant Research Center in Yunnan in December 2019.
Following reports of reduced pollution levels in Italy as a result of lockdowns, images purporting to show swans and dolphins swimming in Venice canals went viral on social media. The image of the swans was revealed to have been taken in Burano, where swans are common, while footage of the dolphins was filmed at a port in Sardinia hundreds of miles away. The Venice mayor's office clarified that the reported water clarity in the canals was due to the lack of sediment being kicked up by boat traffic, not a reduction in water pollution as initially reported.
Following the lockdown of India, a video clip purporting to show the extremely rare Malabar civet (a critically endangered, possibly extinct, species) walking the empty streets of Meppayur went viral on social media. Experts later identified the civet in the video as actually being the much commoner small Indian civet. Another viral Indian video clip showed a pod of humpback whales allegedly returning to the Arabian Sea offshore from Mumbai following the shutdown of shipping routes; however, this video was found to have actually been taken in 2019 in the Java Sea.
Virus remains in body permanently
It has been wrongly claimed that anyone infected with COVID-19 will have the virus in their bodies for life. While there is no curative treatment, most infected people recover from the disease and eliminate the virus from their bodies.
COVID-19 denialism
COVID-19 denialism or merely COVID denialism is the thinking of those who deny the COVID-19 pandemic, or deny that deaths are happening in the manner or proportions scientifically recognized by the World Health Organization. The claims that the COVID-19 pandemic has been faked, exaggerated, or mischaracterized are pseudoscience. Some famous people who have engaged in COVID-19 denialism include businessman Elon Musk, former U.S. President Donald Trump, and former Brazilian President Jair Bolsonaro.
Antisemitism
An October 2021 report by the UK-based anti-racism group Hope not Hate found that COVID-19 conspiracy theories were a primary gateway into antisemitic rhetoric, due to what they described as "conspiratorial antisemitism". According to the report, "An important bridge between COVID-19 conspiracy theories and antisemitism are ideologies that provide overarching explanations for smaller alleged deceptions. For example, the need for anti-5G campaigners to explain why telecom companies, healthcare providers and authorities are conspiring to expose the population to supposedly dangerous radiation has driven attention towards 'superconspiracies'."
Also in October 2021, the fact-checking organisation Logically found that antisemitic conspiracy theories related to the pandemic were being promoted on one of the largest COVID-19 conspiracy groups on Telegram, including posts highlighting Jewish people in leadership positions at Moderna, Pfizer, the CDC and US President Joe Biden's White House, and claims that mask and vaccine mandates were similar to the Holocaust.
US anti-vax anti-China covert operation
At the beginning of the pandemic, Philippine President Duterte had sought Chinese assistance for vaccines, easing claims in the South China Sea, and improving relations between the two countries. To counter China's influence in the Philippines, under Donald Trump's presidency, the US military conducted a covert operation aimed at spreading doubts about the safety of Chinese aid, including vaccines. This campaign of misinformation has contributed to low vaccination coverage and increased death rates from COVID-19 in the Philippines. Health experts condemned these actions, pointing out the damage done to public trust and global health. The operation involved the creation of fake social media accounts posing as Filipinos and spreading anti-vaccine messages. The campaign was described by then-Defense Secretary Mark Esper as "payback" for COVID-19 disinformation by China directed against the U.S.
The operation spread to other regions such as in the Middle East and Central Asia like Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan, where the Pentagon aimed to intensify fears that the Chinese vaccine produced by Sinovac Biotech contained pork derivatives, and could be considered "haram", i.e. forbidden by Islamic law.
The operation ended in mid-2021, when the Biden administration banned the anti-vaccine campaign.
Efforts to combat misinformation
In February 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) described a "massive infodemic", citing an over-abundance of reported information, which was false, about the virus that "makes it hard for people to find trustworthy sources and reliable guidance when they need it". The WHO stated that the high demand for timely and trustworthy information has incentivised the creation of a direct WHO 24/7 myth-busting hotline where its communication and social media teams have been monitoring and responding to misinformation through its website and social media pages. The WHO specifically debunked several claims as false, including the claim that a person can tell if they have the virus or not simply by holding their breath; the claim that drinking large amounts of water will protect against the virus; and the claim that gargling salt water prevents infection.
Social media
In early February 2020, Facebook, Twitter, and Google announced that they were working with WHO to address misinformation on their platforms. In a blog post, Facebook stated that it would remove content flagged by global health organizations and local authorities that violate its content policy on misinformation leading to "physical harm". Facebook is also giving free advertising to WHO. Nonetheless, a week after Trump's speculation that sunlight could kill the virus, The New York Times found "780 Facebook groups, 290 Facebook pages, nine Instagram accounts and thousands of tweets pushing UV light therapies", material which those companies declined to remove from their platforms. In August 2020, Facebook removed seven million posts with misinformation about COVID-19.
At the end of February 2020, Amazon removed more than a million products that claimed to cure or protect against COVID-19, and removed tens of thousands of listings for health products whose prices were "significantly higher than recent prices offered on or off Amazon", although numerous items were "still being sold at unusually high prices" as of 28 February.
Millions of instances of COVID-19 misinformation have occurred across multiple online platforms. Other researchers monitoring the spread of fake news observed certain rumors started in China; many of them later spread to Korea and the United States, prompting several universities in Korea to start the multilingual "Facts Before Rumors" campaign to evaluate common claims seen online. The proliferation of such misinformation on social media has led to workshops for the application of machine learning resources to detect misinformation.
Party and ideology partisanship has also contributed to the public's lack of trust in messages delivered via social media channels, leading to a greater proclivity to follow fake news and misinformation campaigns. According to research, COVID mass media communication should prioritize increasing trust in scientific medicine over attempting to bridge the issue's partisan divide.
In addition, the divisive nature of the issue, being mired in existing political tensions, has led to online bullying of scientists.
Wikipedia
The media have praised Wikipedia's coverage of COVID-19 and its combating the inclusion of misinformation through efforts led by the English-language Wikipedia's WikiProject Medicine, among other groups. From May 2020, Wikipedia's consensus for the COVID-19 pandemic page has been to "not mention the theory that the virus was accidentally leaked from a laboratory in the article." However, in June 2021, Wikipedia editors began debating the inclusion of the lab leak hypothesis. WHO began working with Wikipedia to provide much of its infographics and reports on COVID-19 to help fight misinformation, with plans to use similar approaches for fighting misinformation about other infectious diseases in the future.
Newspapers and scholarly journals
Initially, many newspapers with paywalls lowered them for some or all their COVID-19 coverage. Many scientific publishers made scientific papers related to the outbreak open access (free).
The scientific publishing community, while intent on producing quality scholarly publications, has itself been negatively impacted by the infiltration of inferior or false research leading to the retraction of several articles on the topic of COVID-19, as well as polluting valid and reliable scientific study, bringing into question the reliability of research undertaken. Retraction Watch maintains a database of retracted COVID-19 articles.
Podcasts
In January 2022, 270 US healthcare professionals, scientists and professors wrote an open letter to Spotify complaining that podcast host Joe Rogan had a "concerning history of broadcasting misinformation, particularly regarding the Covid-19 pandemic" and describing him as a "menace to public health". This was in part due to Rogan platforming and promoting the conspiracy theories of Robert W. Malone who was one of two recent guests on The Joe Rogan Experience who compared pandemic policies to the holocaust. The letter described the interview as a "mass-misinformation events of this scale have extraordinarily dangerous ramifications".
Government censorship
In many countries, censorship was performed by governments, with "fake news" laws being enacted to criminalize certain types of speech regarding COVID-19. Often, people were arrested for making posts online.
In March 2020, the Turkish Interior Ministry reported 93 suspects and 19 arrests of social media users whose posts were "targeting officials and spreading panic and fear by suggesting the virus had spread widely in Turkey and that officials had taken insufficient measures". In April 2020, Iran's military said that 3600 people had been arrested for "spreading rumors" about COVID-19 in the country. In Cambodia, at least 17 individuals who expressed concerns about the spread of COVID-19 were arrested between January and March 2020 on "fake news" charges. In April 2020, Algerian lawmakers passed a law criminalizing "fake news" deemed harmful to "public order and state security".
In the Philippines, China, India, Egypt, Ethiopia, Bangladesh, Morocco, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Iran, Vietnam, Laos, Indonesia, Mongolia, Sri Lanka, Kenya, South Africa, Côte d'Ivoire, Somalia, Mauritius, Zimbabwe, Thailand, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Montenegro, Serbia, Malaysia, Singapore, and Hong Kong, people have been arrested for allegedly spreading false information about the COVID-19 pandemic. The United Arab Emirates has introduced criminal penalties for the spread of misinformation and rumours related to the outbreak. Myanmar blocked access to 221 news websites, including several leading media outlets.
In the United States, some elected officials aided the spread of misinformation. In January 2022, Congressman Troy Nehls entered a full transcript of the Malone interview on The Joe Rogan Experience into the Congressional Record in order to circumvent what he said was censorship by social media.
Scams
The WHO has warned of criminal scams involving perpetrators who misrepresent themselves as representatives of the WHO seeking personal information from victims. The Federal Communications Commission has advised consumers not to click on links in suspicious emails and not to give out personal information. The Federal Trade Commission has also warned of charity scams related to the pandemic.
Cybersecurity firm Check Point stated there has been a large increase in phishing attacks to lure victims into unwittingly installing a computer virus under the guise of emails related to COVID-19 containing attachments. Cyber-criminals use deceptive domains such as "cdc-gov.org" instead of the correct "cdc.gov", or even spoof the original domain so it resembles specific websites. More than 4,000 domains related to COVID-19 have been registered.
Police in New Jersey, United States, reported incidents of criminals knocking on people's doors and claiming to be from the CDC. They then attempt to sell products at inflated prices or otherwise scam victims under the guise of educating and protecting the public from COVID-19.
Links that purportedly direct to the Johns Hopkins University COVID-19 map, but instead direct to a false site that spreads malware, have been circulating on the Internet.
Since the passage in March 2020, of the CARES Act, criminals have taken advantage of the stimulus bill by asking people to pay in advance to receive their stimulus payment. Because of this, the IRS has advised consumers to only use the official IRS COVID-19 web address to submit information to the IRS (and not in response to a text, email, or phone call). In response to these schemes, many financial companies, like Wells Fargo and LoanDepot, as well as health insurers, like Humana, for example, have posted similar advisories on their websites.
See also
COVID-19 misinformation in Canada
COVID-19 misinformation in the Philippines
COVID-19 misinformation by the United States
Notes
References
External links
2020 hoaxes
Alternative medicine
Articles containing video clips
Biological warfare
China–United States relations
Communication of falsehoods
Conspiracy theories in China
Conspiracy theories promoted by Donald Trump
Fake news
Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on journalism
Health-related conspiracy theories
Misinformation
Pseudohistory
Pseudoscience
Vaccine hesitancy | COVID-19 misinformation | [
"Technology",
"Biology"
] | 19,926 | [
"Biological warfare",
"Health-related conspiracy theories",
"Science and technology-related conspiracy theories"
] |
63,057,517 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalized%20pencil-of-function%20method | Generalized pencil-of-function method (GPOF), also known as matrix pencil method, is a signal processing technique for estimating a signal or extracting information with complex exponentials. Being similar to Prony and original pencil-of-function methods, it is generally preferred to those for its robustness and computational efficiency.
The method was originally developed by Yingbo Hua and Tapan Sarkar for estimating the behaviour of electromagnetic systems by its transient response, building on Sarkar's past work on the original pencil-of-function method. The method has a plethora of applications in electrical engineering, particularly related to problems in computational electromagnetics, microwave engineering and antenna theory.
Method
Mathematical basis
A transient electromagnetic signal can be represented as:
where
is the observed time-domain signal,
is the signal noise,
is the actual signal,
are the residues (),
are the poles of the system, defined as ,
by the identities of Z-transform,
are the damping factors and
are the angular frequencies.
The same sequence, sampled by a period of , can be written as the following:
,
Generalized pencil-of-function estimates the optimal and 's.
Noise-free analysis
For the noiseless case, two matrices, and , are produced:
where is defined as the pencil parameter. and can be decomposed into the following matrices:
where
and are diagonal matrices with sequentially-placed and values, respectively.
If , the generalized eigenvalues of the matrix pencil
yield the poles of the system, which are . Then, the generalized eigenvectors can be obtained by the following identities:
where the denotes the Moore–Penrose inverse, also known as the pseudo-inverse. Singular value decomposition can be employed to compute the pseudo-inverse.
Noise filtering
If noise is present in the system, and are combined in a general data matrix, :
where is the noisy data. For efficient filtering, L is chosen between and . A singular value decomposition on yields:
In this decomposition, and are unitary matrices with respective eigenvectors and and is a diagonal matrix with singular values of . Superscript denotes the conjugate transpose.
Then the parameter is chosen for filtering. Singular values after , which are below the filtering threshold, are set to zero; for an arbitrary singular value , the threshold is denoted by the following formula:
,
and are the maximum singular value and significant decimal digits, respectively. For a data with significant digits accurate up to , singular values below are considered noise.
and are obtained through removing the last and first row and column of the filtered matrix , respectively; columns of represent . Filtered and matrices are obtained as:
Prefiltering can be used to combat noise and enhance signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). Band-pass matrix pencil (BPMP) method is a modification of the GPOF method via FIR or IIR band-pass filters.
GPOF can handle up to 25 dB SNR. For GPOF, as well as for BPMP, variance of the estimates approximately reaches Cramér–Rao bound.
Calculation of residues
Residues of the complex poles are obtained through the least squares problem:
Applications
The method is generally used for the closed-form evaluation of Sommerfeld integrals in discrete complex image method for method of moments applications, where the spectral Green's function is approximated as a sum of complex exponentials. Additionally, the method is used in antenna analysis, S-parameter-estimation in microwave integrated circuits, wave propagation analysis, moving target indication, radar signal processing, and series acceleration in electromagnetic problems.
See also
Estimation of signal parameters via rotational invariance techniques
Generalized eigenvalue problem
Matrix pencil
MUSIC (algorithm)
Prony's method
References
Signal processing
Computational electromagnetics
Radar signal processing
Estimation theory
Articles containing proofs
Signal estimation | Generalized pencil-of-function method | [
"Physics",
"Mathematics",
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 769 | [
"Computational electromagnetics",
"Telecommunications engineering",
"Computer engineering",
"Signal processing",
"Computational physics",
"Articles containing proofs"
] |
53,233,575 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HD%20151932 | HD 151932, also known as WR 78, is a Wolf-Rayet star located in the constellation Scorpius, close to the galactic plane. Its distance is around 1,300 parsecs (4,200 lightyears) away from the Earth. Despite being a blue-colored Wolf-Rayet star, it is extremely reddened by interstellar extinction, so its apparent magnitude is brighter for longer-wavelength passbands. HD 151932 lies about 22 west of the open cluster NGC 6231, the center of the OB association Scorpius OB1; it is not clear whether it is a part of the association or not. With an apparent magnitude of about 6.5, it is one of the few Wolf-Rayet stars that can be seen with the naked eye (although it can only be seen with the naked eye under excellent viewing conditions).
Like most extremely massive stars, HD 151932 is losing mass via its stellar wind. The total rate of mass loss is /yr. The multiplicity (i.e., whether the star is a single star or a binary star system) of HD 151932 has not been studied very much. A periodic shift in the spectrum with a period of 3.3 days (implying it is a spectroscopic binary) has been noticed, but it may be spurious; the star appears to be a single star but may be orbiting face-on and/or with a lower-mass companion.
The spectrum of HD 151932 is unusual: part of the He I absorption lines are known to be shifted towards the violet side of the electromagnetic spectrum – this has been interpreted as an expanding stellar shell. Related to this is the fact that the Si IV line varies irregularly in radial velocity, the nature of which is largely unknown. X-rays have been detected from this star, along with several other Wolf-Rayet stars such as WR 24 and WR 136.
References
Scorpius
Wolf–Rayet stars
Scorpii, V919
082543
6429
151932
Durchmusterung objects | HD 151932 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 433 | [
"Scorpius",
"Constellations"
] |
53,234,343 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%20419 | NGC 419 is a globular cluster located approximately from Earth in the constellation Tucana. It was discovered on September 2, 1826, by James Dunlop. It was described by Dreyer as "pretty large, pretty bright, round, gradually brighter middle". At a distance of about 186,000 light years (57,000 parsecs), it is located within the Small Magellanic Cloud. At an aperture of 50 arcseconds, its apparent V-band magnitude is 10.30, but at this wavelength, it has 0.15 magnitudes of interstellar extinction.
NGC 419 is about 1.45 billion years old. Its estimated mass is , and its total luminosity is , leading to a mass-to-luminosity ratio of 0.18 /. All else equal, older star clusters have higher mass-to-luminosity ratios; that is, they have lower luminosities for the same mass.
See also
List of NGC objects (1–1000)
References
External links
0419
18260902
Tucana
Open clusters
Small Magellanic Cloud
Discoveries by James Dunlop | NGC 419 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 231 | [
"Tucana",
"Constellations"
] |
53,235,267 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross%20Greenberg | Ross Matthew Greenberg (September 16, 1956 – February 16, 2017) was an American software developer, noted for creating one of the first antivirus software products. He also worked in journalism, and was a founding member of the Internet Press Guild.
Career
Flushot Plus
In 1987, as Software Concepts Design, Greenberg released one of the first two heuristic antivirus software utilities, Flushot Plus. He released it as shareware for $10.
O'Reilly book author Roger A. Grimes described Flushot Plus as "the first holistic program to fight MMC [malicious mobile code]".
Journalism
In the 1980s, Greenberg was a frequent contributor to PC Magazine, and was the primary sysop of its CompuServe forum, PC MagNet.
In 1996, he became a founder member of the Internet Press Guild.
Personal life
Greenberg was born in New York City, and raised in Syosset. His parents were Muriel and Walter Greenberg. He had two sisters: Toni (Richard) Koweek and Carla G. Kaplan.
Greenberg attended the State University of New York at Stony Brook, graduating in 1978.
Greenberg's wife, Dawn, was from Marietta, Georgia.
Greenberg was survived by his wife, son Wade Maxwell Greenberg of Marietta, step-daughter Chanice Hughes-Greenberg of NYC, and elder sister Toni of Hudson.
Health issues and death
Greenberg suffered from multiple sclerosis, first diagnosed in the mid-1980s. His elder sister described the form of his illness as "aggressive".
In late 2009, after his condition became too challenging for his family to care for him, Greenberg moved to a nursing home near Atlanta, Georgia. He later moved to a nursing home in Forsyth, Georgia. In August 2015, he was moved to Chelsey Park Health and Rehabilitation Center, Dahlonega, Georgia, where he died after contracting pneumonia, in February 2017.
See also
Interrupt List for MS-DOS
References
1956 births
2017 deaths
American computer scientists
People in information technology
American male journalists
American freelance journalists
American technology journalists
American technology company founders
People from New York City | Ross Greenberg | [
"Technology"
] | 420 | [
"People in information technology",
"Information technology"
] |
53,236,762 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epitranscriptomic%20sequencing | In epitranscriptomic sequencing, most methods focus on either (1) enrichment and purification of the modified RNA molecules before running on the RNA sequencer, or (2) improving or modifying bioinformatics analysis pipelines to call the modification peaks. Most methods have been adapted and optimized for mRNA molecules, except for modified bisulfite sequencing for profiling 5-methylcytidine which was optimized for tRNAs and rRNAs.
There are seven major classes of chemical modifications found in RNA molecules: N6-methyladenosine, 2'-O-methylation, N6,2'-O-dimethyladenosine, 5-methylcytidine, 5-hydroxylmethylcytidine, inosine, and pseudouridine. Various sequencing methods have been developed to profile each type of modification. The scale, resolution, sensitivity, and limitations associated with each method and the corresponding bioinformatics tools used will be discussed.
Methods for profiling N6-methyladenosine
Methylation of adenosine does not affect its ability to base-pair with thymidine or uracil, so N6-methyladenosine (m6A) cannot be detected using standard sequencing or hybridization methods. This modification is marked by the methylation of the adenosine base at the nitrogen-6 position. It is abundantly found in polyA+ mRNA; also found in tRNA, rRNA, snRNA, and long ncRNA.
m6A-seq and MeRIP-seq
In 2012, the first two methods for m6A sequencing came out that enabled transcriptome-wide profile of m6A in mammalian cells. These two techniques, called m6A-seq and MeRIP-seq (m6A-specific methylated RNA immunoprecipitation), are also the first methods to allow for any type of RNA modification sequencing. These methods were able to detect 10,000 m6A peaks in the mammalian transcriptome; the peaks were found to be enriched in 3’UTR regions, near STOP codons, and within long exons.
The two methods were optimized to detect methylation peaks in poly(A)+ mRNA, but the protocol could be adapted to profile any type of RNA. Collected RNA sample is fragmented into ~100-nucleotide-long oligonucleotides using a fragmentation buffer, immunoprecipitation with purified anti-m6A antibody, elution and collection of antibody-tagged RNA molecules. The immunoprecipitation procedure in MeRIP-Seq is able to produce >130fold enrichment of m6A sequences. Random primed cDNA library generation was performed, followed by adaptor ligation and Illumina sequencing. Since the RNA strands are randomly chopped up, the m6A site should, in principle, lie somewhere in the center of the regions to which sequence reads align. At extremes, the region would be roughly 200nt wide (100nt up- and downstream of the m6A site).
When the first nucleotide of a transcript is an adenosine, in addition to the ribose 2’-O-methylation, this base can be further methylated at the N6 position.
m6A-seq was confirmed to be able to detect m6Am peaks at transcription start sites. Adapter ligation at both ends of RNA fragment results in reads tending to pileup at the 5’ terminus of the transcript. Schwartz et al. (2015) leveraged this knowledge to detect mTSS sites by picking out sites with a high ratio of the size of pileups in the IP samples compared to input sample. As confirmation, >80% of the highly enriched pileup sites contained adenosine.
The resolution of these methods is 100-200nt, which was the range of the fragment size.
These two methods had several drawbacks: (1) required substantial input material, (2) low resolution which made pinpointing the actual site with the m6A mark difficult, and (3) cannot directly assess false positives.
Especially in MeRIP-Seq, the bioinformatics tools that are currently available are only able to call 1 site per ~100-200nt wide peak, so a substantial portion of clustered m6As (~64nt between each individual site within a cluster) are missed. Each cluster can contain up to 15 m6A residues.
In 2013, a modified version of m6A-seq based on the previous two methods m6A-seq and MeRIP-seq came out which aimed to increase resolution, and demonstrated this in the yeast transcriptome. They achieved this by decreasing fragment size and employing a ligation-based strand-specific library preparation protocol capturing both ends of the fragmented RNA, ensuring that the methylated position is within the sequenced fragment. By additionally referencing the m6A consensus motif and eliminating false positive m6A peaks using negative control samples, the m6A profiling in yeast was able to be done at single-base resolution.
UV-based Methods
PA-m6A-seq
UV-induced RNA-antibody crosslinking was added on top of m6A-seq to produce PA-m6A-seq (photo-crosslinking-assisted m6A-seq) which increases resolution up to ~23nt. First, 4-thiourodine (4SU) is incorporated into the RNA by adding 4SU in growth media, some incorporation sites presumably near m6A location. Immunoprecipitation is then performed on full-length RNA using m6A-specific antibody [36]. UV light at 365 nm is then shined onto RNA to activate the crosslinking to the antibody with 4SU. Crosslinked RNA was isolated via competition elution and fragmented further to ~25-30nt; proteinase K was used to dissociate the covalent bond between crosslinking site and antibody. Peptide fragments that remain after antibody removal from RNA cause the base to be read as a C as opposed to a T during reverse transcription, effectively inducing a point mutation at the 4SU crosslinking site. The short fragments are subjected to library construction and Illumina sequencing, followed by finding the consensus methylation sequence.
The presence of the T to C mutation helps increase the signal to noise ratio of methylation site detection as well as providing greater resolution to the methylation sequence.
One shortcoming of this method is that m6A sites that did not incorporate 4SU can't be detected.
Another caveat is that position of 4SU incorporation can vary relative to any single m6A residue, so it still remains challenging to precisely locate m6A site using the T to C mutation.
m6A-CLIP and miCLIP
m6A-CLIP (crosslinking immunoprecipitation) and miCLIP (m6A individual-nucleotide-resolution crosslinking and immunoprecipitation) are UV-based sequencing techniques. These two methods activate crosslinking at 254 nm, fragments RNA molecules before immunoprecipitation with antibody, and do not depend on the incorporation of photoactivatable ribonucleosides - the antibody directly crosslinks with a base close (very predictable location) to the m6A site. These UV-based strategies uses antibodies that induces consistent and predictable mutational and truncation patterns in the cDNA strand during reverse-transcription that could be leveraged to more precisely locate the m6A site. Though both m6A-CLIP and miCLIP reply on UV induced mutations, m6A-CLIP is distinct by taking advantage that m6A alone can induce cDNA truncation during reverse transcription and generate single-nucleotide mapping for over ten folds more precise m6A sites (MITS, m6A-induced truncation sites), permitting comprehensive and unbiased precise m6A mapping. In contrast, UV-mapped m6A sites by miCLIP is only a small subset of total precise m6A sites. The precise location of tens of thousands of m6A sites in human and mouse mRNAs by m6A-CLIP reveals that m6A is enriched at last exon but not around stop codon.
In m6A-CLIP and miCLIP, RNA is fragmented to ~20-80nt first, then the 254 nm UV-induced covalent RNA/m6A antibody complex was formed in the fragments containing m6A. The antibody was removed with proteinase K before reverse-transcription, library construction and sequencing. Remnants of peptides at the crosslinking site on the RNA after antibody removal, leads to insertions, truncations, and C to T mutations during reverse transcription to cDNA, especially at the +1 position to the m6A site (5’ to the m6A site) in the sequence reads.
Positive sites seen using m6A-CLIP and miCLIP had high percent of matches with those detected using SCARLET, which has higher local resolution around a specific site, (see below), implicating m6A-CLIP and miCLIP has high spatial resolution and low false discovery rate.
miCLIP has been used to detect m6Am by looking at crosslinking-induced truncation sites at the 5’UTR.
Methods for quantifying m6A modification status
Although m6A sites could be profiled at high resolution using UV-based methods, the stoichiometry of m6A sites - the methylation status or the ratio m6A+ to m6A- for each individual site within a type of RNA - is still unknown. SCARLET (2013) and m6A-LAIC-seq (2016) allows for the quantitation of stoichiometry at a specific locus and transcriptome-wide, respectively.
Bioinformatics methods used to analyze m6A peaks do not make any prior assumptions about the sequence motifs within which m6A sites are usually found, and take into consideration all possible motifs. Therefore, it is less likely to miss sites.
SCARLET
SCARLET (site-specific cleavage and radioactive-labeling followed by ligation-assisted extraction and thin-layer chromatography) is used determining the fraction of RNA in a sample that carries a methylated adenine at a specific site. One can start with total RNA without having to enrich for the target RNA molecule. Therefore, it is an especially suitable method for quantifying methylation status in low abundance RNAs such as tRNAs. However, it is not suitable or practical for large-scale location of m6A sites.
The procedure begins with a chimeric DNA oligonucleotide annealing to the target RNA around the candidate modification site. The chimeric ssDNA has 2’OMe/2’H modifications and is complementary to the target sequence. The chimeric oligonucleotide serves as a guide to allow RNase H to cleave the RNA strand precisely at the 5’-end of the candidate site. The cut site is then radiolabeled with phosphorus-32 and splint-ligated to a 116nt ssDNA oligonucleotide using DNA ligase. RNase T1/A is introduced to the sample to digest all RNA, except for the RNA molecules with the 116-mers DNA attached. This radiolabeled product is then isolated and digested by nuclease to generate a mixture of modified and unmodified adenosines (5’P-m6A and 5’-P-A) which is separated using thin layer chromatography. The relative proportions of the two groups can be determined using UV absorption levels.
m6A-LAIC-seq
m6A-LAIC-seq (m6A-level and isoform-characterization sequencing) is a high-throughput approach to quantify methylation status on a whole-transcriptome scale. Full-length RNA samples are used in this method. RNAs are first subjected to immunoprecipitation with an anti-m6A antibody. Excess antibody is added to the mixture to ensure all m6A-containing RNAs are pulled down. The mixture is separated into eluate (m6A+ RNAs) and supernatant (m6A- RNAs) pools. External RNA Controls Consortium (ERCC) spike ins are added to the eluate and supernatant, as well as an independent control arm consisting of just ERCC spike in. After antibody cleavage in the eluate pool, each of the three mixtures are sequenced on a next generation sequencing platform. The m6A levels per site or gene could be quantified by the ERCC-normalized RNA abundances in different pools. Since full-length RNA is used, it is possible to directly compare alternatively spliced isoforms between the m6A+ and m6A- fractions as well as comparing isoform abundance within the m6A+ portion.
Despite the advances in m6A-sequencing, several challenges still remain: (1) A method has yet to be developed that characterizes the stoichiometry between different sites in the same transcript; (2) Analysis results are heavily dependent on the bioinformatics algorithm used to call the peaks; (3) Current methods all use m6A-specific antibodies to tag m6A sites, but it has been reported that the antibodies contain intrinsic bias for RNA sequences.
Methods for 2'-O-methylation Profiling
The 2'-O-methylation of the ribose moiety is one of the most common RNA modifications and is present in diverse highly abundant non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) and at the 5' cap of mRNAs. Moreover, many studies have revealed that Nm at 3’-end is presented in some ncRNAs, such as microRNAs (miRNAs) in plants as well as PIWI-interacting RNAs (piRNAs) in animals.This modification can perturb the function of ribosomes and disrupt tRNA decoding, regulate alternative splicing fidelity, protect ncRNAs from 3’-5’ exonucleolytic degradation and provide a molecular signature for discrimination of self from non-self mRNA.
Nm-REP-seq
A novel method, Nm-REP-seq, was developed for the transcriptome-wide identification of 2'-O-methylation sites at single-base resolution by using RNA exoribonuclease (Mycoplasma genitalium RNase R, MgR) and periodate oxidation reactivity to eliminate 2'-hydroxylated (2'-OH) nucleosides. Nm-REP-seq discovered telomerase RNA component (TERC) RNA, scaRNAs and snoRNAs as new classes of Nm-containing ncRNAs as well as identified many 2'-O-methylation sites in various ncRNAs and mRNAs. Furthermore, Nm-REP-seq revealed 2'-O-Methylation located at the 3’-end of snoRNAs, snRNAs, tRNAs and fragments derived from them, as well as piRNAs and miRNAs.
Methods for N6,2'-O-dimethyladenosine (m6Am) Profiling
N6,2'-O-dimethyladenosine, abundant in polyA+ mRNAs, occurs at the first nucleotide after the 5' cap, when an additional methyl group is added to a 2ʹ-O-methyladenosine residue at the ‘capped’ 5ʹ end of mRNA.
Since m6Am can be recognized by anti-m6A antibodies at transcription start sites, the methods used for m6A profiling can be and were adapted for m6Am profiling, namely m6A-seq, and miCLIP (see m6A-seq and miCLIP descriptions above).
Methods for 5-methylcytidine profiling
5-methylcytidine, m5C, is abundantly found in mRNA and ncRNAs, especially tRNA and rRNAs. In tRNAs, this modification stabilizes the secondary structure and influences anticodon stem-loop conformation. In rRNAs, m5C affects translational fidelity.
Two principles have been used to develop m5C sequencing methods. The first one is antibody-based approach (bisuphite sequencing and m5C-RIP), similar to m6C sequencing. The second is detecting targets of m5C RNA methyltransferases by covalently linking the enzyme to its target, and then using IP specific to the target enzyme to enrich for RNA molecules containing the mark (Aza-IP and miCLIP).
Modified bisulfite sequencing
Modified bisulfite sequencing was optimized for rRNA, tRNA, and miRNA molecules from Drosophila.
Bisulfite treatment has been most widely used to detect dm5C (DNA m5C). The treatment essentially converts a cytosine to a uridine, but methylated cytosines would be unchanged by the treatment.
Previous attempts to develop m5C sequencing protocols using bisulfite treatment were not able to effectively address the problem of the harsh treatment of RNA which causes significant degradation of the molecules. Specifically, bisulfite deamination treatment (high pH) of RNA is detrimental to the stability of phosphodiester bonds. As a result, it is difficult to pre-enrich RNA molecules or to obtain enough PCR product of the correct size for deep sequencing.
A modified version of bisulfite sequencing was developed by Schaefer et al. (2009) which decreased the temperature at which bisulfite treatment of RNA from 95 °C to 60 °C. The rationale behind the modification was that since RNA, unlike DNA, is not double-stranded, but rather, consists of regions of single-strandedness, double-stranded stem structures and loops, it could be possible to unwind RNA at a much lower temperature. Indeed, RNA could be treated for 180 minutes at 60C without significant loss of PCR amplicons of the expected size. Deamination rates were determined to be 99% at 180min of treatment.
After bisulfite treatment of fragmented RNA, reverse transcription is performed, followed by PCR amplification of the cDNA products, and finally deep sequencing was done using the Roche 454 platform.
Since the developers of the method used the Roche platform, they also used GS Amplicon Variant Analyzer (Roche) for analyzing deep sequencing data to quantify sequence-specific cytosine content.
However, recent papers have suggested that the method have several flaws: (1) Incomplete conversion of regular cytosines in double-stranded regions of RNA; (2) areas containing other modifications that resulted in bisulfite-treatment resistance; and (3) sites containing potential false-positives due to (1) and (2) In addition, it is possible the sequencing depth is still not high enough to correctly detect all methylated sites.
Aza-IP
Aza-IP 5-azacytidine-mediated RNA immunoprecipitation has been optimized on and used for detecting targets of methyltransferases, particularly NSUN2 and DNMT2 — the two main enzymes responsible for laying down the m5C mark.
First, the cell is made to overexpress an epitope-tagged m5C-RNA methytransferase derivative so that the antibody used later on for immunoprecipitation could recognize the enzyme. Second, 5-aza-C is introduced to the cells so that it could be incorporated into nascent RNA in place of cytosine. Normally, the methyltransferases are released (i.e. covalent bond between cytosine and methyltransferase is broken) following methylation of the residue. For 5-aza-C, due to a nitrogen substitution in the C5 position of cytosine, the RNA methytransferase enzyme remains covalently bound to the target RNA molecule at the C6 position.
Third, the cell is lysed and the m5C-RNA methyltransferase of interest is immunoprecipitated along with the RNA molecules that are covalently linked to the protein. The IP step enabled >200-fold enrichment of RNA targets, which were mainly tRNAs. The enriched molecules were then fragmented and purified. cDNA library is then constructed and sequencing is performed.
An important additional feature is that RNA methyltransferase covalent linkage to the C5 of m-aza-C induces rearrangement and ring opening. This ring opening results in preferential pairing with cytosine and is therefore read as guanosine during sequencing. This C to G transversion allows for base resolution detection of m5C sites.
One caveat is that m5C sites not replaced by 5-azacytosine will be missed.
miCLIP
miCLIP (Methylation induced crosslinking immunoprecipitation) was used to detect NSUN2 targets, which were found to be mostly non-coding RNAs such as tRNA. An induced mutation of C271A in NSUN2 inhibits release of enzyme from RNA target. This mutation was over-expressed in the cells of interest, and the mutated NSUN2 was also tagged with the Myc epitope. The covalently linked RNA-protein complexes are isolated via immunoprecipitation for a Myc-specific antibody. These complexes are confirmed and detected by radiolabeling with phosphorus-32. The RNA is then extracted from the complex, reverse-transcribed, amplified with PCR, and sequenced using next-generation platforms.
Both miCLIP and Aza-IP, though limited by specific targeting of enzymes, can allow for the detection of low-abundance methylated RNA without deep sequencing.
Methods for Inosine Profiling
Inosine is created enzymatically when an adenosine residue is modified.
Analysis of base-pairing properties
Since the chemical makeup of inosine is a deaminated adenosine, this is one of few methylation alterations that has an accompanying alteration in base pairing, which can be capitalised on. The original adenosine nucleotide will pair with a thymine, whereas the methylated inosine will pair with a cytosine. cDNA sequences obtained by rtPCR can therefore be compared to the corresponding genomic sequences; in sites where A residues are repeatedly interpreted as G, a methylation event can be assumed. At high enough accuracy, it is feasible that the quantity of mRNA molecules in the population that have been methylated can be calculated as a percentage. This method potentially has single-nucleotide resolution. In fact, the abundance of RNA-seq data that is now publicly available can be leveraged to investigate G (in cDNA) versus A (in genome). One particular pipeline, called RNA and DNA differences (RDD), claims to excludes false positives, but only 56.8% of its A-to-I sites were found to be valid by ICE-seq (see below).
Limitations
The background noise caused by single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), somatic mutations, pseudogenes and sequencing errors reduce the reliability of the signal, especially in a single-cell context.
Chemical methods
Inosine-specific cleavage
The first method to detect A-to-I RNA modifications, developed in 1997, was inosine-specific cleavage. RNA samples are treated with glyoxal and borate to specifically modify all G bases, and subsequently enzymatically digested to by RNase T1, which cleaves after I sites. The amplification of these fragments then allows analysis of cleavage sites and inference of A-to-I modification.
. It was used to prove the position of inosine at specific sites rather than identify novel sites or transcriptome-wide profiles.
Limitations
The existence of two A-to-I modifications in relatively close proximity, which is common in Alu elements, means the downstream mod is less likely to be detected since the cDNA synthesis will be truncated at a prior nucleotide. The throughput is low, and the initial method required specific primers; the protocol is complicated and labour-intensive.
ICE and ICE-seq
Inosine chemical erasing (ICE) refer to a process in which acrylonitrile is reacted with inosine to form N1-cyanoethylinosine (ce1I). This serves to stall reverse transcriptase and lead to truncated cDNA molecules. This was combined with deep-sequencing in a developed method called ICE-seq. Computational methods for automated analysis of the data are available, the main premise being the comparison of treated and untreated samples to identify truncated transcripts and thus infer an inosine modification by read count, with a step to reduce false positives by comparison to online database dbSNP.
Limitations
The original ICE protocol involved an RT-PCR amplification step and therefore required primers and knowledge of the location or regions to be investigated, alongside a maximum cDNA length of 300–500bp.
The ICE-seq method is complicated, along with being labour-, reagent- and time-intensive. One protocol from 2015 took 22 days. This shares a limitation with inosine-specific cleavage, in that if there are two A-to-I modifications in relatively close proximity, the downstream mod is less likely to be detected since the cDNA synthesis will be truncated at a prior nucleotide.
Both ICE and ICE-seq suffer from a lack of sensitivity to infrequently edited locations: it becomes difficult to distinguish a modification with a frequency of <10% from a false positive. An increase in read depth and quality can increase sensitivity, but also then suffer from further amplification bias.
Biological methods
ADAR knockdown
The modification of A to I is effected by adenosine deaminases that act on RNA (ADARs), of which in mice there are three. The knockdown of these in the cell, therefore, and the subsequent cell–cell comparison of ADAR+ and ADAR- RNA content would be anticipated to provide a basis for A-to-I modification profiling. However, there are further functions of ADAR enzymes within the cell — for example, they have further roles in RNA processing, and in miRNA biogenesis — which would also be likely to change the landscape of cellular mRNA. Recently a map of A-to-I editing in mice was generated using editing-deficient ADAR1 and ADAR2 double-knockout mice as a negative control. Thereby, A-to-I editing was detected with high confidence.
Methods for Pseudouridine Methylation Profiling
Pseudouridine, or Ψ, the overall most abundant post-translational RNA modification, is created when a uridine base is isomerised. In eukaryotes, this can occur by either of two distinct mechanisms; it is sometimes referred to as the ‘fifth RNA nucleotide’. It is incorporated into stable non-coding RNAs such as tRNA, rRNA, and snRNA, with roles in ribosomal ligand binding and translational fidelity in tRNA, and in fine-tuning branching events and splicing events in snRNAs. Pseudouridine has one more hydrogen bond donor from an imino group and a more stable C–C bond, since a C-glycosidic linkage has replaced the N-glycosidic linkage found in its counterpart (regular uridine). As neither of these changes affect its base-pairing properties, both will have the same output when directly sequenced; therefore methods for its detection involve prior biochemical modification.
Biochemical methods
CMCT methods
There are multiple pseudouridine detection methods beginning with the addition of N-cyclohexyl-N′-b-(4-methylmorpholinium) ethylcarbodiimide metho-p-toluene-sulfonate (CMCT; also known as CMC), since its reaction with pseudouridine produces CMC-Ψ. CMC-Ψ causes reverse transcriptase to stall one nucleotide in the 3’ direction. These methods have single-nucleotide resolution.
In an optimisation step, azido-CMC can confer the ability to add biotinylation; subsequent biotin pulldown will enrich Ψ-containing transcripts, allowing identification of even low-abundance transcripts.
Limitations
As with other procedures predicated on biochemical alteration followed by sequencing, the development of high-throughput sequencing has removed the limitations requiring prior knowledge of sites of interest and primer design. The method causes a lot of RNA degradation, so it is necessary to start with a large amount of sample, or use effective normalisation techniques to account for amplification biases. One final limitation is that, for CMC labelling of pseudouridine to be specific, it is not complete, and therefore nor is it quantitative. A new reactant that could achieve a higher sensitivity with specificity would be beneficial.
Methods for 5-hydroxylmethylcytidine Profiling
Cytidine residues, modified once to m5C (discussed above), can be further modified: either oxidised once for 5-hydroxylmethylcytidine (hm5C), or oxidised twice for 5-formylcytidine (f5C). Arising from the oxidative processing of m5C enacted in mammals by ten-eleven translocation (TET) family enzymes, hm5C is known to occur in all three kingdoms and to have roles in regulation. While 5-hydroxymethylcytidine (hm5dC) is known to be found in DNA in a widespread manner, hm5C is also found in organisms for which no hm5dC has been detected, indicating it is a separate process with distinct regulatory stipulations. To observe the in vivo addition of methyl groups to cytosine RNA residues followed by oxidative processing, mice can be fed on a diet incorporating particular isotopes and these be traced by LC-MS/MS analysis. Since the metabolic pathway from nutritional intake to nucleotide incorporation is known to progress from dietary methionine --> S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) --> methyl group on RNA base, the labelling of dietary methionine with 13C and D means these will end up in hm5C residues that have been altered since the addition of these into the diet. In contrast to m5C, a large quantity of hm5C modifications have been recorded within coding sequences.
hMeRIP-seq
hMeRIP-seq is an immunoprecipitation method, in which RNA–protein complexes are crosslinked for stability, and antibodies specific to hm5C are added. Using this method, over 3,000 hm5C peaks have been called in Drosophila melanogaster S2 cells.
Limitations
Despite two distinct base-resolution methods being available for hm5dC, there are no base-resolution methods for detection of hm5C.
Biophysical validation of RNA modifications
Apart from mass spectrometry and chromatography, other two validation techniques have been developed, namely
Pre- and post-labelling techniques:
Pre-labelling → involves the use of 32P: cells are grown in 32P containing medium, thus allowing the incorporation of [α-32P]NTPs during transcription by T7 RNA polymerase. The modified RNA is then extracted, and each RNA species is isolated and subsequently digested by T2 RNase. Next, RNA is hydrolyzed into 5' nucleoside monophosphates, which are analyzed 2D-TLC (two-dimensional thin-layer chromatography). This method is able to detect and quantify every modification but will not contribute to the characterization of the sequence.
Post-labelling → implicates the selective labelling of a specific position within the sequence: these techniques rely on the Stanley-Vassilenko approach principles, that has been adjusted to achieve a better validation quality. First, RNA is cleaved into free 5’-OH fragments either by RNase H or DNAzymes, by sequence specific hydrolysis. The polynucleotide kinase (PKN) then performs the 5’ radioactive post-labelling phosphorylation using [γ-32P]ATP. At this point, the labelled fragments undergo a size fragmentation, that can be performed either by Nuclease P1 or according to the SCARLET method. In both cases, the final product is a group of 5’ nucleoside monophosphates (5’ NMPs) that will be analyzed by TLC.
SCARLET: this recent approach exploits not just one, but two sequence selection steps, the last of which is obtained during the splinted ligation of the radioactive-labelled fragments with a long DNA oligonucleotide, at its 3’-end. After degradation, the labelled residue is purified together with the ligated DNA oligonucleotide and finally hydrolyzed and therefore released thanks to the activity of the Nuclease P1.
This method has proven to be very useful in the validation of modified residues in mRNAs and lncRNAs, such as m6A and Ψ
Oligonucleotide-based techniques: this method includes several variants
Splinted ligation of particular modified DNAs, that exploits the ligase sensitivity to 3’ and 5’ nucleotides (so far used for m6A, 2’-O-Me, Ψ)
Microarray modification identification through a DNA-chip, that exploits the decrease in duplex stability of cDNA oligonucleotides, due to the impediment in conventional base-pairing caused by modifications (ex. m1A, m1G, m22G)
RT primer extension at low dNTPs concentration, for mapping of RT arrest signals.
Single-Molecule Real-Time Sequencing for epitranscriptome sequencing
Single-molecule real-time sequencing (SMRT) is used in the epigenomic and epitranscriptomic fields. As regards epigenomics, thousands of zero-mode waveguides (ZMWs) are used to capture the DNA polymerase: when a modified base is present, the biophysical dynamics of its movement changes, creating a unique kinetic signature before, during, and after the base incorporation.
SMRT sequencing can be used to detect modified bases in RNA, including m6A sites. In this case, a reverse transcriptase is used as enzyme with ZMWs to observe the cDNA synthesis in real time. The incorporation of synthetically designed m6A sites leaves a kinetic signature and increases the interpulse duration (IPD).
There are some issues concerning the reading of homonucleotide stretches and the base resolution of m6A therein, due to the stuttering of reverse transcriptase. Secondly, the throughput is too low for transcriptome-wide approaches.
One of the most commonly used platform is the SMRT sequencing technology by Pacific Biosciences.
Nanopore sequencing in epitranscriptomics
A possible alternative to the detection of epitranscriptomic modifications by SMRT sequencing is the direct detection using the Nanopore sequencing technologies. This technique exploits nanometer-sized protein channels embedded into a membrane or solid materials, and coupled to sensors, able to detect the amplitude and duration of the variations of the ionic current passing through the pore. As the RNA passes through the nanopore, the blockage leads to a disruption in current stream, which is different for the different bases, included modified ones, and therefore can be used to identify possible modifications. By producing single-molecule reads, without previous RNA amplification and conversion to cDNA, these techniques can lead to the production of quantitative transcriptome-wide maps.
In particular, the Nanopore technology proved to be effective in detecting the presence of two nucleotide analogs in RNA: N6-methyladenosine (m6A) and 5-methylcytosine (5-mC). Using Hidden Markov Models (HMM) or recurrent neural networks (RNN) trained with known sequences, it was possible to demonstrate that the modified nucleotides produce a characteristic disruption in the ionic current when passing through the pore, and that these data can be used to identify the nucleotide.
References
RNA
Nucleosides
Bioinformatics
Molecular biology | Epitranscriptomic sequencing | [
"Chemistry",
"Engineering",
"Biology"
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53,239,324 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair%20river%20sharing | Fair river sharing is a kind of a fair division problem in which the waters of a river has to be divided among countries located along the river. It differs from other fair division problems in that the resource to be divided—the water—flows in one direction—from upstream countries to downstream countries. To attain any desired division, it may be required to limit the consumption of upstream countries, but this may require to give these countries some monetary compensation.
In addition to sharing river water, which is an economic good, it is often required to share river pollution (or the cost of cleaning it), which is an economic bad.
River sharing in practice
There are 148 rivers in the world flowing through two countries, 30 through three, nine through four and 13 through five or more. Some notable examples are:
The Jordan River, whose sources run from upstream Lebanon and Syria to downstream Israel and Jordan. The attempts of Syria to divert the Jordan River, starting in 1965, are cited as one of the reasons for the Six-Day War. Later, in 1994, the Israel–Jordan peace treaty determined a sharing of the waters between Israel and Jordan, by which Jordan receives water per year.
The Nile, running from upstream Ethiopia through Sudan to downstream Egypt. There is a long history of disputes over the Nile agreements of 1929 and 1959.
The Ganges, running from upstream India to downstream Bangladesh. There was controversy over the operation of the Farakka Barrage.
Between Mexico and the United States, there was controversy over the desalination facility in the Morelos Dam.
The Mekong runs from China's Yunnan Province to Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam. In 1995, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam established the Mekong River Commission to assist in the management and coordinated use of the Mekong's resources. In 1996 China and Myanmar became "dialogue partners" of the MRC and the six countries now work together within a cooperative framework.
Property rights
In the international law, there are several conflicting views on the property rights to the river waters.
The theory of absolute territorial sovereignty (ATS) states that a country has absolute property rights over any river basin in its territory. So any country may consume some or all of the waters that enter its area, without leaving any water to downstream countries.
The theory of unlimited territorial integrity (UTI) states that a country shares the property rights to all the waters from the origin of the river down to its territory. So, a country may not consume all the waters in its territory, since this hurts the right of downstream countries.
The theory of territorial integration of all basin states (TIBS) states that a country shares the property rights to all the waters of the river. So each country is entitled to an equal share of the river waters, regardless of its geographic location.
Efficient water allocation
Kilgour and Dinar were the first to suggest a theoretical model for efficient water sharing.
The model
The countries are numbered according to their location, so that country 1 is the most upstream, then 2, etc.
The river picks up volume along its course: before each location , an amount of water enters the river. So, country 1 gets water, country 2 gets plus the water unconsumed by country 1, and so on.
Each country has a benefit function that describes its utility from each amount of water. This function is increasing but strictly concave function, since the countries have diminishing returns. We can define for each country its marginal benefit function , which describes the price it is willing to pay for an additional unit of water given its current consumption; it is positive but strictly decreasing.
Money can be transferred between countries. Countries have quasilinear utility, so a country who consumes water and receives money has utility .
A consumption plan is a vector of water allocations and side-payments . The important aspect of the river sharing setting is that water only flows downstream. Therefore, the total consumption at each location must be at most the total amount of water that enters this location:
.
Additionally, the sum of the side-payments must be at most 0, so that the divider does not have to subsidize the division.
The situation without cooperation
Without cooperation, each country maximizes its individual utility. So if a country is an insatiable agent (its benefit function is always increasing), it will consume all the water that enters its region. This may be inefficient. For example, suppose there are two countries with the following benefit functions:
The inflow is . Without cooperation, country 1 will consume 2 units and country 2 will have 0 units: . Then, the benefits will be . This is not Pareto efficient: it is possible to allocate 1 unit of water to each country: , and transfer e.g. units of money from country 2 to country 1. Then, the utilities will be which are better for both countries.
The efficient allocation
Because preferences are quasi-linear, an allocation is Pareto-efficient if-and-only-if it maximizes the sum of all agents' benefits and wastes no money. Under the assumption that benefit functions are strictly concave, there is a unique optimal allocation. It structure is simple. Intuitively, the optimal allocation should equalize the marginal benefits of all countries (as in the above example). However, this may be impossible because of the structure of the river: the upstream countries do not have access to downstream waters. For example, in the above two-country example, if the inflow is , then it is not possible to equalize the marginal benefits, and the optimal allocation is to let each country consume its own water: .
Therefore, in the optimal allocation, the marginal benefits are weakly decreasing. The countries are divided to consecutive groups, from upstream to downstream. In each group, the marginal benefit is the same, and between groups, the marginal benefit is decreasing.
The possibility of calculating an optimal allocation allows much more flexibility in water-sharing agreements. Instead of agreeing in advance on fixed water quantities, it is possible to adjust the quantities to the actual amount of water that flows through the river each year. The utility of such flexible agreements has been demonstrated by simulations based on historical of the Ganges flow. The social welfare when using the flexible agreement is always higher than when using the optimal fixed agreement, but the increase is especially significant in times of drought, when the flow is below the average.
Stable monetary transfers
Calculating the efficient water allocation is only the first step in solving a river-sharing problem. The second step is calculating monetary transfers that will incentivize countries to cooperate with the efficient allocation. What monetary transfer vector should be chosen? Ambec and Sprumont study this question using axioms from cooperative game theory.
Cooperation when countries are non-satiable
According to the ATS doctrine, each country has full rights to the water in its region. Therefore, the monetary payments should guarantee to each country at least the utility-level that it could attain on its own. With non-satiable countries, this level is at least . Moreover, we should guarantee to each coalition of countries, at least the utility-level that they could attain by the optimal allocation among the countries in the coalition. This implies a lower bound on the utility of each coalition, called the core lower bound.
According to the UTI doctrine, each country has rights to all water in its region and upstream. These rights are not compatible since their sum is above the total amount of water. However, these rights define an upper bound - the largest utility that a country can hope for. This is the utility it could get alone, if there were no other countries upstream: . Moreover, the aspiration level of each coalition of countries is the highest utility-level it could attain in the absence of the other countries. This implies an upper bound on the utility of each coalition, called the aspiration upper bound.
There is at most one welfare-distribution that satisfies both the core-lower-bound and the aspiration-upper-bound: it is the downstream incremental distribution. The welfare of each country should be the stand-alone value of the coalition minus the stand-alone value of the coalition .
When the benefit functions of all countries are non-satiable, the downstream-incremental-distribution indeed satisfies both the core-lower-bounds and the aspiration-upper-bounds. Hence, this allocation scheme can be seen as a reasonable compromise between the doctrines of ATS and UTI.
Cooperation when countries are satiable
When the benefit functions are satiable, new coalitional considerations come into play.
These are best illustrated by an example.
Suppose there are three countries. Countries 1 and 3 are in a coalition. Country 1 wants to sell water to country 3 in order to increase their group welfare. If country 2 is non-satiable, then 1 cannot leave water to 3, since it will be entirely consumed by 2 along the way. So 1 must consume all its water. In contrast, if country 2 is satiable (and this fact is common knowledge), then it may be worthwhile for 1 to leave some water to 3, even if some of it will be consumed by 2. This increases the welfare of the coalition, but also the welfare of 2. Thus, cooperation is helpful not only for the cooperating countries, but also for the non-cooperating countries!
With satiable countries, each coalition has two different core-lower-bounds:
The non-cooperative core-lower-bound is the value that the coalition can guarantee to itself based on its own water sources, when the other countries do not cooperate.
The cooperative core-lower-bound is the value that the coalition can guarantee to itself based on its own water sources, when the other countries cooperate.
As illustrated above, the cooperative core-lower-bound is higher than the non-cooperative core-lower-bound.
The non-cooperative-core is non-empty. Moreover, the downstream-incremental-distribution is the unique solution that satisfies both the non-cooperative-core-lower-bounds and the aspiration-upper-bound.
However, the cooperative-core may be empty: there might be no allocation that satisfies the cooperative-core-lower-bound. Intuitively, it is harder to attain stable agreements, since middle countries might "free-ride" agreements by downstream and upstream countries.
Sharing a polluted river
A river carries not only water but also pollutants coming from agricultural, biological and industrial waste. River pollution is a negative externality: when an upstream country pollutes a river, this creates external cleaning costs for downstream countries. This externality may result in over-pollution by the upstream countries. Theoretically, by the Coase theorem, we could expect the countries to negotiate and achieve a deal in which polluting countries will agree to reduce the level of pollution for an appropriate monetary compensation. However, in practice this does not always happen.
Empirical evidence and case-studies
Evidence from various international rivers shows that, at water quality monitoring stations immediately upstream of international borders, the pollution levels are more than 40% higher than the average levels at control stations.
This may imply that countries do not cooperate for pollution reduction, and the reason for this may be the unclearness in property rights.
See and and for other empirical studies.
Dong, Ni, Wang and Meidan Sun discuss the Baiyang Lake, which was polluted by a tree of 13 counties and townships. To clean the river and its sources, 13 wastewater treatment plants were built in the region. The authors discuss different theoretic models for sharing the costs of these buildings among the townships and counties, but mention that at the end the costs were not shared but rather paid by the Baoding municipal government, since the polluters did not have an incentive to pay.
Hophmayer-Tokich and Kliot present two case studies from Israel where municipalities who suffer from water pollution initiated cooperation on wastewater treatment with upstream polluters. The findings suggest that regional cooperation can be an efficient tool in promoting advanced wastewater treatment, and has several advantages: an efficient use of limited resources (financial and land); balancing disparities between municipalities (size, socio-economic features, consciousness and ability of local leaders); and reducing spillover effects. However, some problems were reported in both cases and should be addressed.
Several theoretical models were proposed for the problem.
Market model: each agent can freely trade in licenses for emission/pollution
Emissions trading is a market-based approach to attain an efficient pollution allocation. It is applicable to general pollution settings; river pollution is a special case. As an example, Montgomery studies a model with agents each of which emits pollutants, and locations each of which suffers pollution which is a linear combination of the emissions. The relation between and is given by a diffusion matrix , such that: . In the special case of a linear river presented above, we have , and is a matrix with a triangle of ones.
Efficiency is attained by permitting free trade in licenses. Two kinds of licenses are studied:
Emission license - a license which directly confers a right to emit pollutants up to a certain rate.
Pollution license for a given monitoring-point - a license which confers the right to emit pollutants at a rate which will cause no more than a specified increase at the pollution-level . A polluter that affects water quality at a number of points (e.g. an upstream agent) has to hold a portfolio of licenses covering all relevant monitoring-points.
In both markets, free trade can lead to an efficient outcome. However, the market in pollution-licenses is more widely applicable than the market in emission-licenses.
There are several difficulties with the market approach, such as: how should the initial allocation of licenses be determined? How should the final allocation of licenses be enforced? See Emissions trading for more details.
Non-cooperative game with money: each agent chooses how much pollution to emit
Laan and Moes (2012) describe the polluted-river situation as follows.
Each country can choose a level of emission (e.g., by choosing what factories to have, what waste-disposal system to have, etc.).
Each country suffers a level of pollution that depends on the emissions from it and all upstream agents:
Each country has a benefit function that depends on its emission it creates, ; the marginal benefit is assumed to be positive and strictly decreasing.
Each country has a cost function that depends on the pollution it suffers, ; the marginal cost is assumed to be positive and strictly increasing.
Money can be transferred between countries, and the utility of country is .
Under the above assumptions, there exists a unique optimal emission-vector, in which the social welfare (the sum of benefits minus the sum of costs) is maximized.
There also exists a unique Nash equilibrium emission-vector, in which each country produces the emission best for it given the emissions of the others. The total amount of emission in equilibrium is strictly higher than in the optimal situation, in accordance with the empirical findings of Sigman.
For example, suppose there are two countries with the following benefit functions:
The socially-optimal levels are , and the utilities are . The Nash equilibrium levels are , and the utilities (benefit minus cost) are . In equilibrium, the upstream country 1 over-pollutes; this improves its own utility but harms the utility of the downstream country 2.
The main question of interest is: how to make countries reduce pollution to its optimal level? Several solutions have been proposed.
Cooperative game with money: each agent chooses what coalition to join for pollution-reduction
The cooperative approach deals directly with pollution levels (rather than licenses). The goal is to find monetary transfers that will make it profitable to agents to cooperate and implement the efficient pollution level.
Gengenbach and Weikard and Ansink focus on the stability of voluntary coalitions of countries, that cooperate for pollution-reduction.
van-der-Laan and Moes focus on property rights and the distribution of the gain in social welfare that arises when countries along an international river switch from no cooperation on pollution levels to full cooperation: It is possible to attain the efficient pollution levels by monetary payments. The monetary payments depend on property rights:
According to the ATS doctrine, each country has a right to pollute as much as it wants inside its territory. So to prevent upstream countries from polluting, the downstream countries must pay them at least as much as required to keep their utility at their equilibrium level. In the above example, ATS implies that 2 should pay 1 at least 0.473-0.376=0.097. The ATS rule says that 2 pays 1 exactly this value, so that the utility of 1 is exactly its equilibrium payoff. This can be generalized to three or more agents using the downstream incremental distribution by which the utility of each group of upstream agents is exactly their equilibrium payoff, and all the gains of cooperation between these agents and agent are given to agent .
According to the UTI doctrine, each country has a right to receive clean water and can prevent all countries upstream from it from creating any pollution. So to be able to pollute, the upstream countries must pay the downstream countries at least as much as required to keep their utility at the clean level. In the above example, UTI implies that 1 should pay 2 at least 0.139 - which is its utility when e1=0. The UTI rule says that 1 pays 2 exactly this value, so the utility of 2 is exactly its payoff from a clean incoming river. This can be generalized to three or more agents using an "upstream incremental distribution", by which the utility of each group of downstream agents is exactly their optimal payoff from a clean river, and all the gains of cooperation between these agents and agent are given to agent .
According to the TIBS doctrine, all countries have equal rights to the river. One way to interpret this principle is that the utility of each country should be some kind of average between its ATS utility and its UTI utility. For every vector of responsibilities , it is possible to define a TIBS- rule that gives, to each country, a utility which is an -weighted average of its utilities under UTI and ATS.
This model can be generalized to rivers that are not linear but have a tree-like topology.
Cost-sharing models: cleaning-costs are fixed; a central authority decides how to divide them
1. Dong, Ni and Wang (extending a previous work by Ni and Wang) assume each agent has an exogenously given cost , caused by the need to clean the river to match environmental standards. This cost is caused by the pollution of the agent itself and all agents upstream to it. The goal is to charge each agent i a vector of payments such that , i.e., the payments of all agents for region j cover the cost of cleaning it.
They suggest three rules for dividing the total costs of pollution among the agents:
The ATS doctrine implies the Local Responsibility Sharing method, which holds each agent responsible for the costs on its own territory and therefore requires that each agent pays its own costs .
The UTI doctrine implies the Upstream Equal Sharing method, which recognizes that the costs on the territory of each agent are caused by it and all its upstream agents and thus requires that is divided equally among i and all agents upstream from i.
An alternative interpretation of the UTI doctrine implies the Downstream Equal Sharing method, which recognizes that the downstream agents enjoy the waters coming from upstream. Moreover, according to some river-sharing models, the enjoy the waters even more than the upstream agents. Therefore they should contribute to clean the water, so should be divided equally among i and all agents downstream from i.
Each of these methods can be characterized by some axioms: additivity, efficiency (the payments exactly cover the costs), no blind costs (an agent with zero costs should pay zero - since he does not pollute), independence of upstream/downstream costs, upstream/downstream symmetry, and independence of irrelevant costs. The latter axiom is relevant for non-linear river trees, in which waters from various sources flow into a common lake. It means that the payments by agents in two different branches of the tree should be independent of each other's costs.
In the above models, pollution levels are not specified. Hence, their methods do not reflect the different responsibility of each region in producing the pollution.
2. Alcalde-Unzu, Gomez-Rua and Molis suggest a different rule for cost-sharing, that does take into account the different pollution-production. The underlying idea is that each agent should pay for the pollution it emits. However, the emission levels are not known - only the cleaning-costs are known. The emission levels could be calculated from the cleaning costs using the transfer rate t (a number in [0,1]), as follows:
However, usually t is not known accurately. Upper and lower bounds on t can be estimated from the vector of cleaning-costs. Based on these bounds, it is possible to calculate bounds on the responsibility of upstream agents. Their principles for cost-sharing are:
Limits of responsibility - the cost paid by each agent for cleaning its own segment is within its limits of responsibility.
No downstream responsibility - an agent j situated downstream from agent i does not effect the pollution at region i and so does not have to participate in its cleansing.
Consistent responsibility - the part of the cost of cleaning a segment paid by one agent, relative to the part paid by another agent, is consistent throughout all the segments situated downstream from both agents.
Monotonicity w.r.t. information on transfer rate - when information on transfer-rate becomes more accurate such that the estimate on the real transfer-rate becomes higher(lower), the amount of waste in any segment for which all its upstream agents are responsible should be weakly higher(lower).
The rule characterized by these principles is called the Upstream Responsibility (UR) rule: it estimates the responsibility of each agent using expected value of the transfer-rate, and charges each agent according to its estimated responsibility.
In a further study they present a different rule called the Expected Upstream Responsibility (EUR) rule: it estimate the expected responsibility of each agent taking the transfer-rate as a random variable, and charges each agent according to its estimated expected responsibility. The two rules are different because the responsibility is a non-linear function of t. In particular, the UR rule is better for upstream countries (it charges them less), and the EUR rule is better for downstream countries.
The UR rule is incentive compatible: it incentivizes countries to reduce their pollution since this always leads to reduced payment. In contrast, the EUR rule might cause a perverse incentive: a country might pay less by polluting more, due to the effect on the estimated transfer rate.
Further reading
River-sharing with different entitlements, based on the leximin order.
River-sharing when the river is not linear.
References
Fair division
Border rivers | Fair river sharing | [
"Mathematics"
] | 4,717 | [
"Recreational mathematics",
"Game theory",
"Fair division"
] |
53,240,991 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas%20von%20Antropoff | Andreas von Antropoff (; 16 August 1878, Reval, Russian empire — 2 June 1956, Bonn) — Russian (Estonian-born) and German scientist-chemist, professor at the Bonn University and is known to have coined the term "neutronium" and developed a temporarily and widely used alternative periodic table of elements in 1926.
Biography
His father was Roman von Antropoff, a lawyer and owner of a manor house and his mother was Sophie Emilie von Antropoff. Antropoff had four brothers and one sister:
Roman Andreas von Antropoff
Elisabeth Molly von Antropoff
Sergei von Antropoff
Nikolai Alexander von Antropoff
Karl Alexander von Antropoff
From 1889 to 1892 Andreas von Antropoff attended the Domschule of the St Mary's Cathedral, Tallinn, in 1893 the Lajusschule and later the secondary school in Reval. He studied mechanical engineering at the Polytechnic School in Riga from 1897 to 1899 and chemistry from 1899 to 1904.
From 1904 to 1907 he studied chemistry in Heidelberg, where he graduated as a Doctor of Science (Dr. phil. nat.). In 1907 and 1908 he worked as a researcher at the University College London under William Ramsay.
From 1908 to 1915 he was assistant and associate professor and from 1911 to 1915 lecturer for inorganic chemistry at the Riga Polytechnic School. In 1911 he made his Magister degree at the Saint Petersburg State University and was department head at the Central Chamber for Measures and Weights in Saint Petersburg.
In 1916 he was arrested on allegations of espionage in connection with World War I and imprisoned from July 1916 until March 1917 in Saint Petersburg. From September 1917 until January 1918, he served in the military. In 1918 he was again arrested for political reasons by Bolsheviks of the Petrograd Soviet.
In 1918 Antropoff was appointed to the Technical College in Karlsruhe, from where he went to serve in Bonn as a full professor and department head for physical chemistry from 1924.
Andreas von Antropoff married Erika Pauline Alice von Antropoff (born Erika Germanniga in Spremberg) on 11 December 1926.
Antropoff became dean of the faculty of mathematics and natural sciences in Bonn University and a member of the Senate. An active national socialist, he was the first to hoist the swastika flag at the university in 1933. In 1944 he took over the management of the Agricultural Research Institute in Ebstorf, Uelzen county. As a result of his Nazi past, he was suspended from office in 1945 and retired in 1948.
Antropoff's periodic table
He first published his periodic table in the article "Eine neue Form des periodischen Systems der Elemente" in the Zeitschrift für angewandte Chemie in 1926.
The periodic table is regularly numbered from 1 - Hydrogen to 118 - Oganesson, with "each number representing the number of protons stored within an atom's nucleus in a satisfying balance" compared to most other contemporary tables. In addition, he placed the theoretical "Element zero" atop his periodic table and called it Neutronium.
His periodic table was in widespread use in German schools until 1945 and soon disappeared after von Antropoff's Nazi affiliations came to light.
Linus Pauling copied Antropoff's periodic table design in his 1949 book General Chemistry and used it also in other editions of The Chemical Bond without crediting Antropoff, most likely due to the author's disgrace.
Publications
Antropoff authored several publications on inorganic chemistry, general chemistry, electrochemistry, and physics, such as:
Experimentelle Untersuchung über die Löslichkeit der Edelgase in Flüssigkeiten, 1919
Experimentelle Einführung in die Chemie, (1929)
Atlas der anorganischen und physikalischen Chemie (in cooperation with M. v. Stackelberg)
Wandtafeln des periodischen Systems der Elemente, 1926
References
External links
Antropoff's Periodic Table
^ U. Klein (31 October 2001). Tools and Modes of Representation in the Laboratory Sciences. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 150–. .
Andreas Karachalios (8 December 2009). Erich Hückel (1896-1980): From Physics to Quantum Chemistry. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 107–. .
1878 births
1956 deaths
20th-century German chemists
University of Bonn alumni
People involved with the periodic table | Andreas von Antropoff | [
"Chemistry"
] | 900 | [
"Periodic table",
"People involved with the periodic table"
] |
53,241,452 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrasporaphyte | The tetrasporaphyte is a phase in the life history of algae which bear tetrasporangia. This phase is usually morphologically similar to the gametophyte phase.
References
Algae | Tetrasporaphyte | [
"Biology"
] | 43 | [
"Algae stubs",
"Algae"
] |
53,241,979 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claus%20Montonen | Claus Kalevi Montonen (born 1946) is a Finnish theoretical physicist, most known for his work with British physicist David Olive in proposing the Montonen–Olive duality.
Life
Claus Montonen received his MSc from the University of Helsinki in 1968 and his PhD at the University of Cambridge in 1974, where he was taught by David Olive before he left for CERN. He held research fellowships at Orsay, CNRS and CERN. From 1974 he has held various research and teaching positions at the University of Helsinki and Helsinki Institute of Physics.
Publications
In 1977 while at CERN Montonen, together with Olive, made the remarkable conjecture that there should exist an electromagnetic dual theory in which the roles of magnetic monopoles and gauge bosons are interchanged. The Montonen-Olive duality was later found to emerge from a deeper web of dualities underlying M-theory, ushering in the second superstring revolution of the mid 1990s, through the work of Ed Witten and others.
References
Citations
Bibliography
External links
Claus Montonen, University of Helsinki
1942 births
20th-century Finnish physicists
Theoretical physicists
People associated with CERN
Academic staff of the University of Helsinki
String theorists
Alumni of the University of Cambridge
Living people | Claus Montonen | [
"Physics"
] | 254 | [
"Theoretical physics",
"Theoretical physicists"
] |
53,242,625 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleurotus%20cornucopiae | Pleurotus cornucopiae is a species of edible fungus in the genus Pleurotus, It is quite similar to the better-known Pleurotus ostreatus, and like that species is cultivated and sold in markets in Europe and China, but it is distinguished because its gills are very decurrent, forming a network on the stem.
Naming
The species name means "of the Cornucopia" (horn of plenty), which is appropriate since the mushrooms are edible and sometimes take on a shape similar to a drinking horn.
The original definition of this species, or basionym, was made by Jean-Jacques Paulet in 1793 as Dendrosarcos cornucopiae. At a time when most gilled mushrooms were lumped into genus Agaricus, Paulet invented genus Dendrosarcos, later Latinised to Dendrosarcus, for those having an excentric or missing stipe. In fact those fungi have not been found to be a closely related group, and today the name only has historical interest, though the taxonomic rules imply that it still needs to be recorded. In 1871 in his "Führer in die Pilzkunde" ("Guide to Mycology"), Paul Kummer introduced Pleurotus as a genus, but the allocation of P. cornucopiae to it was only done later in 1910 by Léon Louis Rolland.
The synonym Pleurotus sapidus due to Schulzer (1873) is sometimes seen
The English name "Branched Oyster Mushroom" has been given to this species.
Description
The following sections use the given references throughout.
General
The cap grows to about wide, whitish when young then darkening to brownish with age. At most there may be very slight traces of the veil.
The stem is always present, may be forked and can vary from excentric to fairly central. Each stem may be up to about 12 cm long and up to 2 cm thick.
The whitish gills are decurrent down the stem and anastomose (criss-cross), becoming a network of ridges at the bottom.
The flesh is firm and white. The strong smell has an aniseed element and is also floury when the mushroom is cut. The taste is floury.
Microscopic characteristics
The flesh may be monomitic (as with ordinary fragile mushrooms) or dimitic, having extra thick-walled hyphae which give the flesh a tougher consistency, especially when older.
The spores in the form of an rather elongated ellipsoid are around 8-12 μm by 3.5-5.5 μm.
There are no cystidia.
Similar species
Pleurotus cornucopiae is quite similar to the well-known food mushroom Pleurotus ostreatus, being distinguished because in the latter case, the gills are not very decurrent and the cap colour is slate or bluish grey. Another species, P. pulmonarius has a comparable cap colour to P. cornucopiae but the gills on the stipe are similar to P. ostreatus.
It is even more closely related to the yellow-capped "golden oyster mushroom", Pleurotus citrinopileatus, which is native to eastern Asia. The forms are easily distinguishable by the cap colour, but they are sometimes considered to be just varieties of the same species, and as a consequence golden oyster mushrooms are sometimes identified using the older scientific name Pleurotus cornucopiae. However, according to the mycological reference "Species Fungorum", these are two separate species.
Distribution and habitat
This mushroom is saprobic on dead wood and can also be a weak parasite. It occurs stumps and fallen trunks of oak, beech, elm, and other broad-leaved trees.
Appearing from spring to late summer, it is distributed in the wild throughout Europe (from August to November), where it varies locally between common and fairly rare. It is also reported from the U.S. and Mexico.
Ecology
It is a mild parasite of broad-leaved trees.
Uses
This mushroom is edible and it is cultivated in a manner similar to P. ostreatus, though less extensively. Specimens are best collected young and with the tougher stems dicarded.
A Chinese paper evaluated several commercially available varieties of P. cornucopiae and reported that it in the Shanghai area an appropriate growth medium is cotton-seed hulls and wood-chips, with 65% water content. Another paper (actually treating the yellow-topped form) also suggested pasteurized switch grass as a useful substrate, though the yield was less than with cotton-seed hulls and straw.
References
External links
Fungal tree pathogens and diseases
Pleurotaceae
Edible fungi
Fungus species | Pleurotus cornucopiae | [
"Biology"
] | 975 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
53,242,630 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penny%20graph | In geometric graph theory, a penny graph is a contact graph of unit circles. It is formed from a collection of unit circles that do not cross each other, by creating a vertex for each circle and an edge for every pair of tangent circles. The circles can be represented physically by pennies, arranged without overlapping on a flat surface, with a vertex for each penny and an edge for each two pennies that touch.
Penny graphs have also been called unit coin graphs, because they are the coin graphs formed from unit circles. If each vertex is represented by a point at the center of its circle, then two vertices will be adjacent if and only if their distance is the minimum distance among all pairs of vertices. Therefore, penny graphs have also been called minimum-distance graphs, smallest-distance graphs, or closest-pairs graphs. Similarly, in a mutual nearest neighbor graph that links pairs of points in the plane that are each other's nearest neighbors, each connected component is a penny graph, although edges in different components may have different lengths.
Every penny graph is a unit disk graph and a matchstick graph.
Like planar graphs more generally, they obey the four color theorem, but this theorem is easier to prove for penny graphs.
Testing whether a graph is a penny graph, or finding its maximum independent set, is NP-hard; however, both upper and lower bounds are known for the size of the maximum independent set, higher than the bounds that are possible for arbitrary planar graphs.
Properties
Number of edges
Every vertex in a penny graph has at most six neighboring vertices; here the number six is the kissing number for circles in the plane.
However, the pennies on the boundary of the convex hull have fewer neighbors. Counting more precisely this reduction in neighbors for boundary pennies leads to a precise bound on the number of edges in any penny graph: a penny graph with vertices has at most
edges. Some penny graphs, formed by arranging the pennies in a triangular grid, have exactly this number of edges.
By arranging the pennies in a square grid, or in the form of certain squaregraphs, one can form triangle-free penny graphs whose number of edges is at least
and in any triangle-free penny graph the number of edges is at most
Swanepoel conjectured that the bound is tight. Proving this, or finding a better bound, remains open.
Coloring
Every penny graph contains a vertex with at most three neighbors. For instance, such a vertex can be found at one of the corners of the convex hull of the circle centers. Therefore, penny graphs have degeneracy at most three. Based on this, one can prove that their graph colorings require at most four colors, much more easily than the proof of the more general four-color theorem. However, despite their restricted structure, there exist penny graphs that do still require four colors.
Analogously, the degeneracy of every triangle-free penny graph is at most two. Every such graph contains a vertex with at most two neighbors, even though it is not always possible to find this vertex on the convex hull. Based on this, one can prove that they require at most three colors, more easily than the proof of the more general Grötzsch's theorem that triangle-free planar graphs are 3-colorable.
Independent sets
A maximum independent set in a penny graph is a subset of the pennies, no two of which touch each other. Finding maximum independent sets is NP-hard for arbitrary graphs, and remains NP-hard on penny graphs. It is an instance of the maximum disjoint set problem, in which one must find large subsets of non-overlapping regions of the plane. However, as with planar graphs more generally, Baker's technique provides a polynomial-time approximation scheme for this problem.
In 1983, Paul Erdős asked for the largest number such that every -vertex penny graph has an independent set of at least vertices. That is, if we place pennies on a flat surface, there should be a subset of of the pennies that do not touch each other. By the four-color theorem, , and the improved bound was proven by Swanepoel. In the other direction, Pach and Tóth proved that . As of 2013, these remained the best bounds known for this problem.
Computational complexity
Constructing a penny graph from the locations of its circles can be performed as an instance of the closest pair of points problem, taking worst-case time or (with randomized time and with the use of the floor function) expected time . An alternative method with the same worst-case time is to construct the Delaunay triangulation or nearest neighbor graph of the circle centers (both of which contain the penny graph as a subgraph) and then test which edges correspond to circle tangencies.
However, if a graph is given without geometric positions for its vertices, then testing whether it can be represented as a penny graph is NP-hard. It remains NP-hard even when the given graph is a tree. Similarly, testing whether a graph can be represented as a three-dimensional mutual nearest neighbor graph is also NP-hard.
It is possible to perform some computational tasks on directed penny graphs, such as testing whether one vertex can reach another, in polynomial time and substantially less than linear space, given an input representing its circles in a form allowing basic computational tasks such as testing adjacency and finding intersections of the circles with axis-parallel lines.
Related graph families
Penny graphs are a special case of the coin graphs (graphs that can be represented by tangencies of non-crossing circles of arbitrary radii). Because the coin graphs are the same as the planar graphs, all penny graphs are planar. The penny graphs are also unit disk graphs (the intersection graphs of unit circles), unit distance graphs (graphs that can be drawn with all edges having equal lengths, allowing crossings), and matchstick graphs (graphs that can be drawn in the plane with equal-length straight edges and no edge crossings).
References
Geometric graphs
Planar graphs
Circle packing | Penny graph | [
"Mathematics"
] | 1,237 | [
"Geometry problems",
"Packing problems",
"Planar graphs",
"Circle packing",
"Planes (geometry)",
"Mathematical problems"
] |
53,242,993 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PyMC | PyMC (formerly known as PyMC3) is a probabilistic programming language written in Python. It can be used for Bayesian statistical modeling and probabilistic machine learning.
PyMC performs inference based on advanced Markov chain Monte Carlo and/or variational fitting algorithms.
It is a rewrite from scratch of the previous version of the PyMC software.
Unlike PyMC2, which had used Fortran extensions for performing computations, PyMC relies on PyTensor, a Python library that allows defining, optimizing, and efficiently evaluating mathematical expressions involving multi-dimensional arrays.
From version 3.8 PyMC relies on ArviZ to handle plotting, diagnostics, and statistical checks. PyMC and Stan are the two most popular probabilistic programming tools.
PyMC is an open source project, developed by the community and has been fiscally sponsored by NumFOCUS.
PyMC has been used to solve inference problems in several scientific domains, including
astronomy,
epidemiology,
molecular biology,
crystallography,
chemistry,
ecology
and psychology.
Previous versions of PyMC were also used widely, for example in
climate science,
public health, neuroscience,
and parasitology.
After Theano announced plans to discontinue development in 2017, the PyMC team evaluated TensorFlow Probability as a computational backend, but decided in 2020 to fork Theano under the name Aesara.
Large parts of the Theano codebase have been refactored and compilation through JAX and Numba were added.
The PyMC team has released the revised computational backend under the name PyTensor and continues the development of PyMC.
Inference engines
PyMC implements non-gradient-based and gradient-based Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) algorithms for Bayesian inference and stochastic, gradient-based variational Bayesian methods for approximate Bayesian inference.
MCMC-based algorithms:
No-U-Turn sampler (NUTS), a variant of Hamiltonian Monte Carlo and PyMC's default engine for continuous variables
Metropolis–Hastings, PyMC's default engine for discrete variables
Sequential Monte Carlo for static posteriors
Sequential Monte Carlo for approximate Bayesian computation
Variational inference algorithms:
Black-box Variational Inference
See also
Stan is a probabilistic programming language for statistical inference written in C++
ArviZ a Python library for exploratory analysis of Bayesian models
Bambi is a high-level Bayesian model-building interface based on PyMC
References
Further reading
External links
PyMC website
PyMC source, a Git repository hosted on GitHub
PyTensor is a Python library for defining, optimizing, and efficiently evaluating mathematical expressions involving multi-dimensional arrays.
Computational statistics
Free Bayesian statistics software
Monte Carlo software
Numerical programming languages
Probabilistic software
Python (programming language) scientific libraries | PyMC | [
"Mathematics"
] | 602 | [
"Probabilistic software",
"Computational statistics",
"Computational mathematics",
"Mathematical software"
] |
53,243,172 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eridanus%20II | The Eridanus II Dwarf is a low-surface brightness dwarf galaxy in the constellation Eridanus. Eridanus II was independently discovered by two groups in 2015, using data from the Dark Energy Survey (Bechtol et al., 2015; Koposov et al. 2015). This galaxy is probably a distant satellite of the Milky Way (Li et al., 2016). Eridanus II contains a centrally located globular cluster; and is the smallest, least luminous galaxy known to contain a globular cluster. Crnojević et al., 2016. Eridanus II is significant, in a general sense, because the widely accepted Lambda CDM cosmology predicts the existence of many more dwarf galaxies than have yet been observed. The search for just such bodies was one of the motivations for the ongoing Dark Energy Survey observations. Eridanus II has special significance because of its apparently stable globular cluster. The stability of this cluster, near the center of such a small, diffuse, galaxy places constraints on the nature of dark matter (Brandt 2016; Li et al., 2016).
Discovery and history of observations
Since the end of the Twentieth century, the most widely accepted cosmologies have been built on the foundations of the ΛCDM model which, in turn, is founded on the bedrock of the Big Bang cosmologies of the 1960s and 1970s. In the simplest terms, ΛCDM adds dark energy (Λ) and cold dark matter (CDM) to the Big Bang in order to explain the major features of the universe we observe today. ΛCDM describes a universe whose mass is dominated by dark matter. In such a universe, galaxies might be thought of as accretions of normal (baryonic) matter onto the largest concentrations of dark matter. However, ΛCDM does not predict any particular scale of CDM concentrations (Koposov et al. 2015; Besla et al., 2010:5). In fact, it suggests that there ought to be tens or hundreds of smaller dark matter bodies for each observable galaxy the size of our own Milky Way galaxy (Koposov et al. 2015; Bechtol et al., 2015). These should contain much less baryonic matter than a “normal” galaxy. Thus, we should observe many, very faint, satellite galaxies around the Milky Way.
Until about 1990, however, only about 11 Milky Way satellites were known (Pawlowski et al., 2015; Bechtol et al., 2015). The difference between the number of satellites known and the number expected in ΛCDM is referred to as the "missing dwarf" or "substructure" problem. Simon & Geha (2007) also discuss various cosmological and astrophysical "fixes" which might reconcile theory and observation without requiring a great many new dwarf galaxies. Efforts have been underway to determine whether the predicted population of faint satellite galaxies could be observed, and many new dwarf satellites are now being reported. One of the most notable current efforts is the Dark Energy Survey (DES), which makes extensive use of one of the new generation of Chilean telescopes, the 4 m Blanco instrument at the Cerro Telolo Inter-American Observatory (Bechtol et al., 2015: 1). As of early 2016, the results have been promising, with over a dozen new satellite galaxies observed and reported.
Eridanus II is one these newly discovered satellites. The discovery was made independently by two groups working from the DES data, and their results were published simultaneously in 2015 (Bechtol et al. 2015; Koposov et al., 2015). The DES group and a third group of researchers conducted more detailed follow-up observations in late 2015, using both of the Magellan instruments at Las Campanas, Chile. These observations included more detailed spectral data and also focused on Eridanus II's central globular cluster (Crnojević et al., 2016; Zaritsky et al., 2016; Li et al., 2016). Finally, Crnojević et al. (2016) also conducted observations in early 2016 using the Byrd Green Bank radio telescope at Green Bank, West Virginia, USA. Additional data have been obtained from a re-examination of older radio telescope surveys which included the region of the sky occupied by Eridanus II (Westmeier et al., 2015).
Properties
Location
Eridanus II is located deep in the southern sky. Since Eridanus II is a faint, diffuse object, spread over several arc-minutes of the sky, its position cannot be stated with great precision. The most detailed observations are probably those of Crnojević et al. (2016), who report (J2000) celestial coordinates of RA 3h 44m 20.1s (56.0838°) and Dec −43° 32' 0.1" (−43.5338°). These correspond to galactic coordinates of l = 249.7835°, b = −51.6492°. Standing on the galactic plane at the position of the Sun, facing the center of the galaxy, Eridanus II would be on the right and below, about half-way down the sky from the horizontal.
The distance to Eridanus II has been estimated using a variety of methods. All rely on fitting the observed stars to a curve (an isochrone) on a color-magnitude diagram (CMD), then comparing the luminosity of stars from the target galaxy with the luminosity of stars from equivalent positions on the CMD in galaxies of known distance, after various corrections for the estimated age and metallicity (derived in part from the curve-fitting process). See, e.g., Sand et al. (2012). The results have been fairly consistent: 330 kpc (1076 kly) (Bechtol et al., 2015), 380 kpc (1238 kly) (Koposov et al., 2015), and 366 ± 17 kpc (1193 ± 55 kly) (Crnojević et al., 2016). Whatever the exact distance value, Eridanus II is the most distant of currently known bodies which are likely satellites of the Milky Way (Id.).
Velocity
Determining whether or not Eridanus II is, in fact, a satellite galaxy depends in part on an understanding of its velocity. Li et al. (2016) have recently taken up that challenging series of measurements. Most of the difficulty relates to the fact that, while Eridanus II is distant in astronomical terms, it is too close in cosmological terms. Not only are spectral redshifts quite small at this distance, but the galaxy cannot be treated as a point object. Li et al. were forced to look at the spectra of individual stars, all of which were moving with respect to each other at speeds not much less than that of Eridanus II with respect to the observers, who were also moving at appreciable speeds around the center of the Earth, the Sun, and the center of the Milky Way galaxy. In spite of these difficulties, Li et al. were able to obtain a very tight distribution of velocities centering on 75.6 km/sec in a direction away from us. However, since the Sun's rotation about the center of the Milky Way is presently carrying us almost directly away from Eridanus II (i.e., towards the left of the observer described above), Eridanus II's motion is actually carrying it toward the center of the galaxy at about 67 km/sec (Li et al., 2016: 5, Table 1).
While these observations solve the problem of radial velocity, the movement of Eridanus II towards the center of the Milky Way galaxy, they cannot solve the problem of transverse velocity, motion at right angles to the line between Eridanus II and the Milky Way. That is, we cannot determine whether Eridanus II is orbiting the Milky Way, or simply moving in its direction from outside the system. Li et al. (2016: 7–8) report that Eridanus II does not exhibit a "tail" or gradient of lower (or higher) velocity stars in a particular direction, which might give a clue to that galaxy's transverse velocity. However, they point out that an object similar to Eridanus II would need a total velocity of about 200 km/sec to escape capture by the Milky Way. Given its radial velocity of 75 km/sec, Eridanus II would need a transverse velocity of some 185 km/sec to avoid capture—certainly possible, but not likely. In addition, they point to the results of detailed simulation studies of the Local Group (Garrison-Kimmel et al., 2014). All objects situated similarly to Eridanus II in these simulations were determined to be satellites of the Milky Way (Li et al. (2016: 8)). For reasons to be discussed in the concluding section, most researchers now believe that Eridanus II is an extremely long-period (i.e., several billion years per orbit) satellite of the Milky Way, probably beginning only its second approach to our galaxy.
Eridanus II is moving toward the center of the Milky Way at 67 km/sec. However, applying the current value of the Hubble Constant (i.e. about 76 km/sec/Mpc), the space between the two galaxies is also increasing at about 26 km/sec. The Hubble Constant is also believed to change over time, so that orbital dynamics on the scale of megaparsecs and billions of years cannot simply be computed using Newton's law of gravitation. In addition, the speed of light delay must be considered. The velocity measurements of Li et al. (2016) made use of light emitted by Eridanus II approximately one million years ago. At the present moment, Eridanus II is probably only around 300 kpc away (vs. the 380 kpc observed) and has accelerated significantly beyond the observed 67 km/sec toward the Milky Way.
Size, shape, and rotation
Eridanus II does not have a spherical shape, and its ellipticity (ε) has been estimated at 0.45 (Crnojević et al., 2016; Koposov et al., 2015). Its size depends on assumptions about mass distribution and three-dimensional structure. Crnojević et al. (2016) find that their data are consistent with a simple exponential distribution of mass and a half-light radius (a radius enclosing half the luminosity of the galaxy) of 277 ±14 pc (~890 light years), with an apparent half-light diameter of 4.6 arcmin to observers on Earth.
A galactic structure of this small size is not expected to show signs of coherent rotation. In their studies of Eridanus II's velocity, Li et al. (2016) found no velocity gradient or anisotropy which would suggest coherent rotation. The material making up Eridanus II must orbit about the galactic center, but there is no evidence of a well-defined plane or concerted direction of rotation.
Relationship to other objects
A number of workers have speculated about an association between the Magellanic Clouds and various dwarf galaxies in the Local Group, including Eridanus II. The Magellanic Clouds are two satellite galaxies of the Milky Way, which are both presently about 60 kpc distant, and separated by 24 kpc from each other. This work is reviewed—briefly, but cogently—by Koposov et al. (2015: 16–17). Koposov and co-workers note that the Clouds show significant signs of distortion characteristic of tidal stress. This stress may have been induced by proximity to the Milky Way, but simulations suggest that it is more likely a result of interactions between the Clouds themselves (Besla et al. (2010); Diaz & Bekki (2011)).
Koposov's group suggest that the Magellanic Clouds are of the right size and age to have been part of a loosely-bound association of small galaxies which has been captured by the Milky Way, resulting in a scatter of small galaxies, including Eridanus II, roughly aligned along the trajectory of the Clouds. As they note, the evidence for such pre-existing association is not compelling, but it does explain an otherwise "alarming" number of small galaxies found along a relatively narrow celestial corridor. In addition, similar clusters of dwarf galaxies are known to inhabit specific corridors around other major galaxies in the Local Group.
Pawlowski et al. (2015) also note Eridanus II's alignment with the Magellanic Clouds, but doubt that Eridanus II is properly part of a Magellanic cluster of dwarf galaxies because of its considerable distance from the other suspected members of the group. On the other hand, they argue for the existence of a well-defined plane running from the Andromeda Galaxy to the Milky Way. This plane, only 50 kpc (160 ly) thick, but up to 2 Mpc (6.5 million ly) wide, includes 10 presently-known dwarves, all more than 300 kpc from any of the major galaxies of the Local Group. These workers observe that Eridanus II is not as well confined to the plane as are other members, and suggest that this may have something to do with its distant alignment to the Magellanic Clouds.
Stellar properties
Stellar population and age
The stars in Eridanus II are largely consistent with a very old (~10 billion years) and low-metal ([Fe/H] < −1) population, similar to other small dwarf galaxies as well as many globular clusters. Its color-magnitude diagram (CMD) shows a marked red horizontal branch (RHB), which sometimes marks a metal-rich population (Koposov et al. (2015: 11); Crnojević et al., (2016: 2–3)). The Red Giant Branch (RGB) is relatively vertical, ruling out any large proportion of young (250 million years or less), metal-rich stars (Crnojević et al., 2016: 2–3). Nevertheless, the strength of the Horizontal Branch and the presence of an unexpectedly large number of stars to the left (i.e. bluer) side of the main sequence, suggested that Eridanus II contained at least two populations of stars (Koposov et al. (2015); Crnojević et al., (2016)).
Based on these hints of underlying diversity, Crnojević et al., (2016) chose to reconstruct the CMD as the sum of two populations. They found a good fit with a model in which Eridanus II composed over 95% of ancient stars formed 10 billion years ago or more, with a few percent of intermediate age stars, on the order of 3 billion years old. This general picture has been partially confirmed by Li et al. (2016), who showed that many apparently young stars in Eridanus II had velocities and spectra marking them as foreground contaminants—stars from the Milky Way galaxy which lay in the same part of the sky as Eridanus II.
Luminosity and metallicity
Based on their two-component model and the known distance to Eridanus II, Crnojević et al., (2016: 4) determined its absolute magnitude MV = −7.1 ± 0.3. Of the total light emitted by Eridanus II, they attributed 94% (~5.6 ± 1.5 x 104 L⊙) to the old stellar population, and 6% (~3.5 ± 3 x 103 L⊙) to the intermediate-age stars.
Li et al. (2016) calculated the mean metallicity of Eridanus II by measuring the size of the calcium triplet absorption peaks in spectra from 16 individual stars on the RGB. This technique is normally requires the spectra of Horizontal Branch stars, but these could not be sufficiently resolved in their system. They therefore used the spectra of RGB stars with corrections previously worked out by the DES group (Simon et al., 2015). From these data, Li et al. calculated a very low mean metallicity of −2.38, with a broad dispersion of 0.47 dex. This unusually wide scatter of metallicity values may also reflect the presence of multiple stellar populations.
Mass
Bechtol et al. (2015) have estimated the total mass of stars in Eridanus II to be on the order of 8.3 x 104 solar masses. This is the Initial Mass Function described by Chabrier (2001), calculated on the basis of various assumptions about the mass of the population of stars too faint to be detected directly. Chabrier's semi-empirical formula was based on stars relatively close to the Sun, a population radically different from the stars of Eridanus II. However, the estimate is based on the basics of stellar chemistry which are thought to be universal. The total mass of the galaxy is given below in the discussion of dark matter.
Eridanus II globular cluster
Perhaps the most surprising characteristic of Eridanus II is that it hosts its own globular cluster. This makes Eridanus II by orders of magnitude the least luminous object so-far known to include a globular cluster (Crnojević et al., (2016: 4)). The cluster has a half-light radius of 13 pc (42 ly) and an absolute magnitude of −3.5. It contributes about 4% of total galactic luminosity (Crnojević et al., (2016: 4)).
The cluster lies within 45 pc (150 ly) of the calculated galactic center (in projection). Such nuclear clusters are quite common in dwarf galaxies, and this has motivated investigations into the possible role of nuclear clusters in forming galaxies (Georgiev et al., 2009; Georgiev et al., 2010). Zaritsky et al. (2015) have shown that the existence and properties of the Eridanus II globular cluster are consistent with what is already known about clusters in dwarf galaxies, when extrapolated to unexpectedly low-luminosity objects.
Other components
Gas
Another unanticipated feature of Eridanus II was the near absence of free interstellar gas. Until the discovery of Eridanus II, astronomers had generally believed that dwarf galaxies close (<300 kpc) to the Milky Way were largely gas-free, while more distant dwarf galaxies retained significant amounts of free hydrogen gas (e.g., Garrison-Kimmel et al., 2014: 14; Spekkens et al., 2014). Such interstellar gas is detected using radio telescopes to measure the characteristic spectral signatures of atomic hydrogen. However, neither a review of previous survey work (Westmeier et al., 2016), nor targeted radio telescope observations of Eridanus II (Crnojević et al., 2016) were able to detect hydrogen gas associated with Eridanus II.
The general absence of gas in dwarf galaxies close to the Milky Way (or to other large galaxies) is believed to be the result either of tidal stripping in the gravitational field of the larger body, or of ram pressure by direct contact with its interstellar gas envelope (see, e.g., Jethwa et al., 2016: 17). This understanding led Crnojević et al., 2016 to conclude that Eridanus II is bound to the Milky Way and is on its second in-fall toward our galaxy. However, other explanations are possible. For example, as Li et al. (2016: 10) point out, Eridanus II may have lost its gas during the Re-ionization Event which occurred approximately 1 billion years after the Big Bang; although, as Li et al. point out, that explanation is somewhat inconsistent with the presence of an intermediate-age population of stars which presumably formed from free hydrogen 4–6 billion years ago.
Dark matter
By definition, Dark Matter has little, if any, interaction with baryonic matter except through its gravitational field. The amount of dark matter in a galaxy can be estimated by comparing its dynamical mass, the mass necessary to account for the relative motion of the stars in the galaxy, to its stellar mass, the mass contained in stars necessary to account for the galaxy's luminosity. As noted above, Bechtol et al. (2015) have estimated the luminous mass of Eridanus II to be on the order of 8.3 x 104 solar masses. Furthermore, as explained in the previous section, Westmeier et al. (2016) and Crnojević et al. (2016) have shown that the contribution of free gas to the total mass of Eridanus II is probably negligible and will not complicate the comparison. It remains only to estimate the dynamical mass.
The dynamical mass of a galaxy can be estimated if we know the velocities of the stars relative to one another. As discussed in the section on velocity, the velocities of stars in Eridanus II—relative to Earth—was measured by Li et al. (2016). The movement of the stars relative to one another can then be estimated from the variation ("dispersion") of the velocities relative to an outside observer. This number was calculated by Li et al. (2016: 5) and found to be σv = 6.9 km/sec. However, as mentioned in the velocity section, it is only possible to measure the stellar velocities in one direction, along the line joining the observer and Eridanus II. Fortunately, this is sufficient. Wolf et al. (2010) showed that the necessarily symmetrical movement of stars in a globular cluster or spheroidal dwarf allows one to calculate dynamical mass included in the half-light radius (i.e., the radius enclosing half of the luminosity) from radial velocity dispersion alone, with very few additional assumptions.
Applying this formula, Li et al. (2016: 5–6) found that the half-light dynamical mass was on the order of 1.2 x 107 solar masses. Using Bechtol et al.'s estimate of total luminous mass, this would imply that 99.7% of Eridanus II's mass is dark matter. However, this relationship is more usually expressed as a mass-to-light ratio, in solar units (M⊙/L⊙). Thus, applying the luminosity results of Crnojević et al. (2016), Li et al. (2016) report a mass to light ratio of 420. Note that the ratio of dark matter to baryonic matter in the universe at large is on the order of 5 or 6. Plainly Eridanus II is dark matter-dominated to an extraordinary degree.
Discussion and significance
Eridanus II has mainly attracted attention from the astrophysical community in three areas. These are (1) the partial confirmation of the predictions of ΛCDM cosmology concerning the number of small, faint dwarf galaxies in the Local Group; (2) the questions Eridanus II raises about the history of the Milky Way and the Magellanic Clouds; and (3) the constraints placed on the nature of dark matter by the unanticipated finding of an apparently stable globular cluster at the heart of this strange little galaxy. The first two points have been discussed to some extent in previous sections. The third requires a little more attention.
Eridanus II and Lambda-CDM
As noted in the introductory section, one of the principle aims of the Dark Energy Survey was to determine whether the numbers of faint dwarf galaxies predicted by ΛCDM cosmology actually existed. In the main, DES seems to be succeeding. Certainly, DES and similar efforts have shown that the region around the Milky Way contains a much larger number of dwarf galaxies than were known a few decades ago. However, the ultimate outcome of this search is still unclear. In particular, Koposov et al. (2015) briefly sound two interesting, but discordant, notes. First, they note that the dwarf galaxies identified by DES are mainly too big and too bright. These are not members of the class of truly tiny, nearly invisible objects predicted by many versions of ΛCDM. Rather, these are objects similar to those already identified in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (Koposov et al., 2015: 13)). Thus, something might be wrong about our expectations. The second, and perhaps related, point is that the Sloan Survey "revealed that there appears to be a gap in the distribution of effective radii between globular clusters (GCs) and dwarfs which extends across a large range of luminosities." Koposov et al. (2015: 1). That is, absent finding a new population intermediate between globular clusters and the current crop of rather robust galactic dwarves, we may be forced to conclude that there is something special about certain scales of dark matter organization. While such a gap would scarcely threaten the basics of ΛCDM cosmology, it would call for a serious explanation.
Galactic history
As previously mentioned, Li et al. (2016) tentatively conclude that Eridanus II is a satellite of the Milky Way. While the velocities determined by these investigators is consistent with either a first or second in-fall, they believe that it is more likely that Eridanus II is making its second approach to our galaxy. In particular, they point to the absence of interstellar gas in Eridanus II. This is most easily explained if an earlier encounter with the Milky Way stripped the galaxy of free gas by tidal stripping or ram pressure. In addition, they note that the second episode of star formation presumably responsible for the intermediate-age population of stars, coincides roughly with the estimates of Eridanus II's orbital period derived from the ELVIS simulation: that is, in the neighborhood of three billion years.
Eridanus II is also potentially significant for the history of the Magellanic Clouds and the Local Group. Both Koposov et al. (2015) and Pawlowski et al. (2015) have noted its alignment with other galactic dwarves associated with the Magellanic Clouds, although Eridanus II is quite distant from the other members of that group. Pawlowski et al. (2015) observe that it is also aligned with a number of dwarves associated with the Andromeda Galaxy, but seems slightly out-of-plane. Accordingly, Eridanus II may be a member of either of those galactic communities, of both, or of neither. Whatever the final judgment, Eridanus II is likely to be an important factor in the resolving that important segment of our galactic history.
Constraints on dark matter
In an important recent paper, Brandt (2016) has argued that the presence of a stable globular cluster near the center of Eridanus II places severe constraints on certain possible forms of dark matter. Although any number of dark matter candidates have been proposed, the main contenders may be divided into two groups: WIMPS (Weakly Interacting Massive Particles) and MACHOs (MAssive Compact Halo Objects). One important class of MACHOs consists of primordial black holes. These objects might range from 10−2 to 105 solar masses, or higher, depending on the details of the applicable cosmology and the extent of possible post-Big Bang merger. See, e.g., García-Bellido (2017). Brandt's work addresses black holes toward the middle and upper end of this range of masses.
Brandt notes that the physics of globular clusters are similar to those of diffusion. Repeated gravitational interchanges between bodies gradually act to equalize kinetic energy, which is proportional to the square of velocity. The net effect, over sufficiently long times, is sorting by mass. The more massive, low-velocity, objects tend to remain near the center of the cluster, while less massive objects are set on more distant trajectories, or expelled from the system entirely. In any case, the cluster gradually expands, while the most massive objects remain relatively close to the center of mass. Given the overwhelming dominance of dark matter in Eridanus II, the gravitational dynamics of the globular cluster must be driven by dark matter. And, if dark matter is mainly a collection of black holes larger than an average star, the sorting effect should cause the cluster to expand to large size and perhaps eventually eject all but the largest stars. Green (2016) has recently expanded on Brandt's equations to allow for a diverse range of black hole masses.
There are several limitations to this argument, all of which are acknowledged and discussed by Brandt. Three of these are pertinent here. First, of all the many possible types of dark matter proposed by theorists, exactly one has received experimental support; but that one type is precisely the sort of black hole at issue here. If nothing else, the first detection of gravitational waves by LIGO showed (a) that black holes of this size do exist and (b) that they are sufficiently common that the collision and merger of two such objects was the first discrete event observed by LIGO (Abbott et al., 2016). Second, as discussed by Brandt (2016) and Carr (2016), the strength of the constraints imposed by Eridanus II's globular cluster depends both on the proportion of the dark matter made up of these intermediate-mass black holes, the distribution of that matter, and the time scales allowed for the mass-sorting process. Third, the Eridanus II globular cluster is virtually unique. It is possible, if not particularly likely, that the cluster will turn out to be a foreground contaminant, a transient phenomenon, or a structure formed elsewhere and recently captured by Eridanus II. In short, the Eridanus II globular cluster is likely to be an important, but not decisive, part of the dark matter lexicon for some time to come.
References
Citations
Dwarf galaxies
Local Group
Milky Way Subgroup
Eridanus (constellation)
? | Eridanus II | [
"Astronomy"
] | 6,247 | [
"Eridanus (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
53,243,187 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangulene | Triangulene (also known as Clar's hydrocarbon) is the smallest triplet-ground-state polybenzenoid. It exists as a biradical with the chemical formula . It was first hypothesized by Czech chemist Erich Clar in 1953. Its first confirmed synthesis was published in a February 2017 issue of Nature Nanotechnology, in a project led by researchers David Fox and Anish Mistry at the University of Warwick in collaboration with IBM. Other attempts by Japanese researchers have been successful only in making substituted triangulene derivatives.
A six-step synthesis yielded two isomers of dihydrotriangulene which were then deposited on xenon or copper base. The researchers used a combined scanning tunneling and atomic force microscope (STM/AFM) to remove individual hydrogen atoms. The synthesized molecule of triangulene remained stable at high-vacuum low-temperature conditions for four days, giving the scientists plenty of time to characterize it (also using STM/AFM).
[n]Triangulenes
Triangulene, as defined here, is a member of a wider class of [n]triangulenes, where n is the number of hexagons along an edge of the molecule. Thus, triangulene may also be referred to as [3]triangulene.
Theory
A tight-binding description of the molecular orbitals of [n]triangulenes predicts that [n]triangulenes have (n − 1) unpaired electrons, which are associated to (n − 1) non-bonding states. When electron–electron interactions are included, theory predicts that the ground state total spin quantum number S of [n]triangulenes is S = . Thus, [3]triangulenes are predicted to have an S = 1 ground state. The intramolecular exchange interaction in triangulene, which determines the energy difference between the S = 1 ground state and the S = 0 excited state, is predicted to be the largest among all polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) diradicals, due to maximum overlap of the wave function of the unpaired electrons.
The ground state spin of [n]triangulenes can be rationalized in terms of a theorem by Elliot H. Lieb, which relates, for a bipartite lattice, the ground state spin of the Hubbard model at half filling to the sublattice imbalance.
Experiments
So far, the ultra-high vacuum on-surface syntheses of [n]triangulenes with n = 3, 4, 5 and 7 (the hitherto largest triangulene homologue) have been reported. In addition, the on-surface synthesis of [3]triangulene dimers has also been reported, where inelastic electron tunneling spectroscopy provides a direct evidence of a strong antiferromagnetic coupling between the triangulenes. In 2021, an international team of researchers reported the fabrication of [3]triangulene-based quantum spin chains on a gold surface, where signatures of both spin fractionalization and Haldane gap were observed.
References
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
Free radicals | Triangulene | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 675 | [
"Senescence",
"Free radicals",
"Biomolecules"
] |
53,243,664 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmembrane%20protein%20255A | Transmembrane protein 255A is a protein that is encoded by the TMEM255A gene. TMEM255A is often referred to as family with sequence similarity 70, member A (FAM70A). The TMEM255A protein is transmembrane and is predicted to be located the nuclear envelope of eukaryote organisms.
Gene
The TMEM25A gene (often referred to as Family with Sequence Similarity 70 Member A; FAM70A) is located on Xq24, spanning 60,555 base pairs. TMEM255A is flanked by the genes ATPase Na+/K+ transporting family member beta 4 (ATP1B4) and NFKB activating protein pseudogene 1 (NKAPP1).
mRNA
There are three variants of the transcript seen, where isoform 1 is the longest. The 5’- and 3’- UTRs of the mRNA spans 227 and 2207 base pairs, respectively, and are predicted to contain several stem-loops. The mRNA is 3512 base pairs long and the gene consists of 9 exons.
Protein
The longest protein encoded for is isoform 1, which spans 349 amino acids, and is predicted to have a molecular weight at 38 kDa and isoelectric point at pH 7.89. Compared to the average vertebrate protein, TMEM255A is rich in aspartic acid, isoleucine, proline and tyrosine, and relatively poor in glutamic acid and lysine. No charge clusters have been found in this protein.
The protein is predicted to be post-translationally modified by phosphorylation and glycosylation. The protein is predicted to have four transmembrane domains in the nuclear membrane. The structure of the protein is predicted to be helical in the transmembrane domains. Disulfide bonds are predicted to be found in the region in between transmembrane domains 3 and 4, which indicates that this particular region is located in the nucleoplasm.
Expression
TMEM255A is predicted to be most abundantly expressed in nerve, brain, testis, ovary, thymus and kidney. The protein is expressed in a variety of tissues, but at relatively moderate levels.
Regulation of expression
Both the 5' and 3' Untranslated Regions (UTRs) are predicted to consist of several stem-loops. The 3' UTR also contain a conserved miRNA target site (amino acids 22-29). Phosphorylation and glycosylation sites have also been predicted in TMEM255A.
Interacting proteins
Affinity Capture MS experimentally predicts that TMEM255A interacts with ten different proteins; Ankyrin repeat domain 13D (ANKRD13D), Collagen beta (1-O) galactosyltransferase 2 (COLGALT2), Grancalcin (GCA), Itchy E3 ubiquitin protein ligase (ITCH), Potassium channel tetramerization domain containing 2 (KCTD2), Neural precursor cell expressed developmentally down-regulated 4 (NEDD4), SEC24 family member B (SEC24D), Ubiquitin associated and SH3 domain containing B (UBASH3D), WW domain containing E3 ubiquitin protein ligase 1 and 2 (WWP1, WWP2) - most of these are included in ubiquitination processes, transcription regulation and protein degradation.
Clinical significance
TMEM255A is predicted to be highly expressed in peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator 1α-upregulated glioblastoma multiforme cells (specific gene function not yet fully established). Ongoing research is investigating the possibility of TMEM255A to be used in personalized immunotherapy.
Homology
There is one known paralog for TMEM255A, called TMEM255B, which is found on chromosome 13 (position 13q34). TMEM255A is only found in the kingdom of animalia, and its most distant homolog is found in invertebrata (i.e. Saccoglossus kowalenskii).
References
Transmembrane proteins
Phylogenetics | Transmembrane protein 255A | [
"Biology"
] | 922 | [
"Bioinformatics",
"Phylogenetics",
"Taxonomy (biology)"
] |
53,244,435 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C12orf66 | C12orf66 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the C12orf66 gene. The C12orf66 protein is one of four proteins in the KICSTOR protein complex which negatively regulates mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) signaling.
Gene
C12orf66 is located on the minus strand in the locus 12q14.2. C12orf66 variant 1 is 36 Mbp in length spanning the base pairs 64,186,312 - 64,222,296 on chromosome 12. There are 3 total C12orf66 transcript variants. C12orf66 variant 1 is the longest with 4 exons. C12orf66 variant 2 has a shortened exon 1 and is missing exon 4 compared to variant 1. C12orf66 variant 3 is missing exon 4.
Expression
In humans, C12orf66 has higher than average expression in a number of tissues such as endocrine glands as well as lymphoid tissues and cells. Additionally, C12orf66 expression is increased in a number of cancers including leukemia, breast cancer, cervical cancer, and a number of gastrointestinal related cancers. C12orf66 expression is higher earlier in development. A number of experiments using different human embryonic stem cell lines, oocytes, as well as erythroblasts found C12orf66 expression was increased in these cells earlier in development and expression decreased as these cells became more differentiated. Additionally, expression of C12orf66 in fetal organs is higher than C12orf66 expression in the same adult organs.
Protein
The human C12orf66 protein is 446 amino acids in length with a molecular weight of 50kdal . C12orf66 contains the domain of unknown function 2003 (DUF2003) from amino acids 10-444. The DUF2003 is characterized by a series of alpha helices and beta sheets.
Function
C12orf66 is part of a larger protein complex called KICSTOR. KICSTOR is a complex of four proteins coded by the genes KPTN, ITFG2, C12orf66, and SZT2. The KICSTOR complex plays a role in regulating mTORC1 signaling. mTORC1 activates protein translation when the cell has sufficient amounts amino acids and energy. This ensures cell growth and proliferation occurs in ideal cellular environments. KICSTOR recruits the protein complex GATOR1, a negative regulator of mTORC1, to the correct location on the lysosome where mTORC1 signaling occurs. In addition to the localization of GATOR1 to the lysosome, KICSTOR is also necessary for the regulation of mTORC1 signaling by amino acid or glucose deprivation. Normally, amino acid or glucose deprivation inhibits mTORC1 signaling. However, loss of any one protein in the four protein KICSTOR complex resulted in a lack of inhibition of mTORC1 by amino acid or glucose deprivation and increased mTORC1 signaling. Thus, KICSTOR is a negative regulator of mTORC1 signaling that functions by localizing GATOR1 to the lysosomal surface as well inhibiting mTORC1 during periods of amino acid or glucose deprivation. How the KICSTOR complex directly inhibits mTORC1 as well as senses amino acid or glucose deprivation remains to be elucidated.
Clinical Significance
Loss of the genomic locus 12q14 which contains the human protein encoding gene C12orf66 is linked to a number of developmental delays and neurodevelopment disorders such as macrocephaly. Additionally, one study found the level of C12orf66 expression is down-regulated in colorectal cancer. In this study, the amount of C12orf66 down-regulation along with the expression of a number of other genes were used as an accurate indicator of clinical outcome in patients with colorectal cancer. Thus, the level of C12orf66 gene expression reflected the survivability of these patients.
Protein-Protein Interactions
C12orf66 interacts with the three proteins of the KICSTOR complex coded by the genes KPTN, ITFG2, and SZT2 as well as GATOR1. Additionally, C12orf66 is predicted to interact with KRAS, DEPDC5, and C7orf60. These interactions were detected by high throughput affinity capture chromatography.
Homologs
C12orf66 is a highly conserved protein with a large number of orthologs and no known paralogs. The list of C12orf66 orthologs includes mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, marine worms, mollusks, insects, and fungi.
References
Uncharacterized proteins | C12orf66 | [
"Biology"
] | 980 | [
"Protein classification",
"Uncharacterized proteins"
] |
56,089,649 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European%20Secure%20Software-defined%20Radio | European Secure Software-defined Radio (ESSOR) is a planned European Union (EU) Permanent Structured Cooperation project for the development of common technologies for European military software-defined radio systems, to guarantee the interoperability and security of voice and data communications between EU forces in joint operations, on a variety of platforms.
History
The project was based on United States' Software Communications Architecture and Joint Tactical Radio System, to which Thales was a major contributor. Germany initially did not participate in ESSOR, developing instead its own SDR system, Streitkräftegemeinsame, verbundfähige Funkgerät-Ausstattung.
Consortium
The work of development is being carried out by a consortium of private companies, one from each member country, including Thales (FR), Leonardo (IT), Indra Sistemas (SP), Radmor (PL), Bittium (FI) and Rohde & Schwarz (DE).
See also
Permanent Structured Cooperation
Organisation for Joint Armament Cooperation
References
External links
Description
Permanent Structured Cooperation projects
Software-defined radio
Military equipment of the European Union | European Secure Software-defined Radio | [
"Engineering"
] | 226 | [
"Radio electronics",
"Software-defined radio"
] |
56,091,345 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%20513 | NGC 513, also occasionally referred to as PGC 5174 or UGC 953, is a spiral galaxy in the constellation Andromeda. It is located approximately 262 million light-years from the Solar System and was discovered on 13 September 1784 by astronomer William Herschel.
Observation history
Herschel discovered the object and simply noted "stellar". Therefore, the galaxy was probably mistaken for a star. Herschel discovered this galaxy along with many other objects on a single observation, using Beta Andromedae as a reference star. The position noted is correct and off only by approximately 30" from UGC 953, thus the objects are generally viewed as equivalents. John Louis Emil Dreyer, creator of the New General Catalogue, described the galaxy as "faint, small, stellar", still indicating the misidentification of NGC 513 as a star.
One supernova has been observed in NGC 513: SN 2023jpp (type Ia, mag. 17.6).
Description
The galaxy has an apparent size of 0.9 × 0.6 arcmins and a recessional velocity of approximately 5807 kilometers per second. The redshift of 0.01956 allows an estimate of the galaxy's distance using Hubble's law, which puts the object at roughly 260 million light-years from the Sun.
See also
List of NGC objects (1–1000)
References
External links
SEDS
Spiral galaxies
Andromeda (constellation)
0513
5174
0953
Astronomical objects discovered in 1784
Discoveries by William Herschel | NGC 513 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 318 | [
"Andromeda (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
56,091,851 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevreul%27s%20salt | Chevreul's salt (copper(I,II) sulfite dihydrate, Cu2SO3•CuSO3•2H2O or Cu3(SO3)2•2H2O), is a copper salt which was prepared for the first time by a French chemist Michel Eugène Chevreul in 1812. Its unusual property is that it contains copper in both of its common oxidation states, making it a mixed-valence complex. It is insoluble in water and stable in air. What was known as Rogojski's salt is a mixture of Chevreul's salt and metallic copper.
Preparation
Chevreul's salt is prepared by treating aqueous copper(II) sulfate with a solution of potassium metabisulfite. The solution changes colour from blue to green immediately. The identity of the green species is unknown. Heating this solution produces a reddish solid precipitate:
3 CuSO4 + 4 K2S2O5 + 3 H2O → Cu3(SO3)2•2H2O + 4 K2SO4 + 4 SO2 + H2SO4
When sodium ions are present in the solutions that form the salt, sodium can substitute for some of the copper (I), as the ions have the same charge and similar sizes.
Reactions
Chevreul's salt exhibits properties of both copper(I) and copper(II). Hydrochloric acid produces a white solid of copper(I) chloride. If too much acid is added, the precipitate dissolves. If an ammonia solution is added to the product, it is dissolved and a deep blue color appears - the presence of [Cu(NH3)4]2+ complex.
On heating in an inert atmosphere it is stable to 200 °C. It gives off water and sulfur dioxide to give CuSO4•Cu2O and CuSO4•2CuO. At 850 °C CuO is formed and from 900 °C to 1100 °C Cu2O appears. Heating in air or oxygen yields CuSO4, CuSO3, and ultimately CuO (cupric oxide)
Properties
The infrared spectrum of Chevreul's salt contains strong bands with maxima at 473, 632 cm−1, medium ones at 915, 980, and 1025 cm−1, and a weak band at 860 cm−1. 980 cm−1 is due to symmetric stretch of the sulfite group, 632 cm−1 due to symmetric bend, 915 due to asymmetric stretch, and 473 cm−1 is due to asymmetric bend. The absence of splitting in these bands indicates that the sulfite group is not distorted by the other components in the compound.
The optical reflectance spectrum shows absorption around 425 nm with a shoulder to 500 nm. This is due to a cuprous sulfite chromophore. An absorption peaking at 785 nm with a shoulder to 1000 nm, in the near infrared, is due to Jahn-Teller splitting in cupric ions. Maximum reflectance is around 650 nm in the red part of the spectrum.
In the infrared range the band gap is 0.85 eV.
Chevreul's salt is a representative member of an isomorphic series of double salts with formulae Cu2SO3•FeSO3•2H2O, Cu2SO3•MnSO3•2H2O, and Cu2SO3•CdSO3•2H2O. The properties of these salts show the effect of ionic radius and ion hardness. Another analogue, Cu2SO3•NiSO3•2H2O, is brick-red in colour. It is made by bubbling sulfur dioxide through a nickel sulfate, copper sulfate mixed solution, heating to 80°C and changing pH to 3.5 to precipitate the salt.
The thermal conductivity of Chevreul’s salt is 0.1 kWcm−1K−1. Heat capacity is 0.62 Jcm−3K−1, and thermal diffusivity is 0.154 cm2s−1.
The specific susceptibility is 3.71×10−6 emu/g.
In Chevreul's salt crystals there are two environments for copper. The +1 oxidation state copper is in a distorted tetrahedral space surrounded by three oxygens and a sulfur atom. The +2 oxidation state copper (or other metal in the isomorphic series) is in a distorted octahedral coordination surrounded by four oxygen atoms and two water molecules.
The X-ray photoelectron spectrum of Chevreul's salt shows peaks at 955.6, 935.8, 953.3 and 943.9 eV that correspond to Cu(II) 2p1/2, 2p3/2, Cu(I) 2p1/2, 2p3/2. There are also secondary peaks for copper at 963.7, and 943.9 eV. Sulfur 2p causes a peak at 166.7 eV and oxygen 1s causes a spike at 531.8.
Application
Chevreul's salt is used in a hydrometallurgical process to extract copper from ore. Firstly the ore is oxidised, then extracted with an ammonium sulfate-ammonia solution. This is then injected with sulfur dioxide resulting in the precipitation of Chevreul's salt. pH must be between 2 and 4.5 for the precipitation to take place.
Chevreul's salt is formed as a corrosion product on copper metal in the presence of humid air contaminated with sulfur dioxide. When first formed the salt has an unstable orthorhombic form with a = 5.591, b = 7.781 and c = 8.356 Å, which changes to the normal monoclinic form over a month, or faster when heated.
References
Copper compounds
Sulfites
Mixed valence compounds | Chevreul's salt | [
"Chemistry"
] | 1,226 | [
"Mixed valence compounds",
"Inorganic compounds"
] |
56,091,940 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive%20displacement%20pipette | Positive displacement pipettes are a type of pipette that operates via piston-driven displacement. Unlike an air displacement pipette, which dispenses liquid using an air cushion in the pipette tip, the piston in a positive displacement pipette makes direct contact with the sample, allowing the aspiration force to remain constant.
Applications
Since the piston makes direct contact with the sample, the aspiration force in a positive displacement pipette is unaffected by the sample's physical properties. Several liquid handling companies suggest that positive displacement pipettes can be used to accurately pipette very viscous, volatile, hot or cold, or corrosive samples.
Viscous liquids
Viscous liquids, such as glycerol, flow very slowly. Glycerol has high dynamic viscosity, and if a researcher aspirates a sample of glycerol too quickly with an air displacement pipette, It will draw up an air bubble. When a researcher attempts to dispense the liquid, some of it will stick to the pipette tip wall, dispense very slowly and remain in the tip. Surfactants also produce this effect, but the remaining liquid film is thinner.
In a positive displacement pipette, the aspiration strength remains constant, so the tip fills evenly. Also, the piston slides along the internal sides of the pipette tip and pushes the total volume out, so no liquid is left behind.
Volatile liquids
Volatile liquids such as acetone, hexane, and methanol, evaporate continuously in air displacement pipettes. Some volatile liquids expand so quickly that they expand the air column in the pipette, which causes leakage: The pipette will lose drops and dispense liquid imprecisely. As drops leak out, they can contaminate the bench, ultimately causing cross-contamination from sample to sample. These drops can also produce a health hazard.
Because there is no air cushion in a positive displacement pipette, liquids do not evaporate or leak. Drops will not fall from the tip, and vapors will not contaminate the internal parts of the pipette. Also, the capillary/piston (CP) tips used for positive displacement pipetting are disposable.
Hot or cold liquids
In an air displacement pipette, the ambient temperature is correlated with the volume of the air cushion and affects the aspiration volume. Cold liquids, such as a suspension of restriction enzymes, which are usually handled at 0°C, cause the air cushion to shrink and the pipette to aspirate more liquid than expected, making the pipette over-deliver. Hot samples, such as mammalian cell cultures at body temperature or polymerase chain reaction solutions at 60°C or higher, will cause the air cushion to expand, causing the pipette to aspirate less liquid than expected and making the pipette under-deliver.
Positive displacement pipettes do not have an air cushion and are less affected by liquid temperature, yielding greater pipetting accuracy.
Corrosive and hazardous liquids
Corrosive and radioactive liquids may damage the piston, seal, and tip holder in an air displacement pipette. Positive displacement pipettes use a disposable capillary/piston (CP) tip, so the pipette is not affected by corrosive samples over its lifetime. Since there is no contact between the sample and the pipette, there is little risk of contamination.
Pipetting technique
Positive displacement pipettes operate very similarly to air displacement pipettes.
Steps for operating a positive displacement pipette
Set the pipetting volume.
Attach a CP tip onto the pipette.
Hold the pipette vertically and press the plunger to the first stop.
Put the CP tip into the sample and slowly release it, moving the button to the home position.
Press the plunger to the first stop again to dispense the sample.
Press the plunger to the second stop to eject the CP tip.
References
Laboratory equipment
Volumetric instruments | Positive displacement pipette | [
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 807 | [
"Volumetric instruments",
"Measuring instruments"
] |
56,092,036 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%204522 | NGC 4522 is an edge-on spiral galaxy located about 60 million light-years away within the Virgo Cluster in the constellation Virgo. NGC 4522 is losing its molecular gas though ram-pressure stripping as it plows though the cluster at a speed of more than 10 million kilometres per hour. The galaxy was discovered by astronomer John Herschel on January 18, 1828.
Ram-pressure stripping
The selectively disturbed interstellar medium (ISM) of NGC 4522, together with a normal-appearing stellar disk, strongly suggest that the galaxy is undergoing ram-pressure stripping caused by an interaction between the intracluster medium (ICM) of the surrounding Virgo Cluster with the ISM of the galaxy itself.
However at NGC 4522's projected distance from Messier 87 (~1 Mpc), and assumption of a static smooth ICM and other "standard values", the force of the ram-pressure stripping exerted at the galaxy's location appears to be an order of magnitude less than needed to cause the observed truncation of the galaxy's gas disk. Despite this, NGC 4522 may have recently passed through a region of enhanced ICM density. Possibly, the infall of the Messier 49 group into the Virgo Cluster has stirred up the ICM of the cluster, locally enhancing the ram pressure exerted on NGC 4522.
Features
In NGC 4522, there are several features that have been suggested to be attributes of ram-pressure stripping.
The northeast region of NGC 4522, contains a large, continuous dust lane that curves out of the disk of the galaxy that is known as "The dust upturn”. The region also contains a wide lane of stars, including many young blue stars that has been named "The stellar upturn". At the top of the upturn, there are a couple of distinct HII regions.
The southwest region features a number of decoupled extraplanar dust clouds and an arm structure containing a number of HII regions and groupings of bright young blue stars.
Star formation
As a consequence of ram-pressure stripping, NGC 4522 has a shrunken star forming disk with an enhanced rate of star formation in the inner regions while there is lack of star formation in the outer disk.
Some of the newly formed stars in NGC 4522 are forming in H II regions in filaments of stripped gas rising from the star forming disk of the galaxy. These stars may enter the halo of NGC 4522 or escape into intergalactic space.
See also
List of NGC objects (4001–5000)
NGC 4402
ESO 137-001
References
External links
Virgo (constellation)
Spiral galaxies
4522
41729
7711
Astronomical objects discovered in 1828
Virgo Cluster
Discoveries by John Herschel | NGC 4522 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 564 | [
"Virgo (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
56,092,947 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldberg%E2%80%93Coxeter%20construction | The Goldberg–Coxeter construction or Goldberg–Coxeter operation (GC construction or GC operation) is a graph operation defined on regular polyhedral graphs with degree 3 or 4. It also applies to the dual graph of these graphs, i.e. graphs with triangular or quadrilateral "faces". The GC construction can be thought of as subdividing the faces of a polyhedron with a lattice of triangular, square, or hexagonal polygons, possibly skewed with regards to the original face: it is an extension of concepts introduced by the Goldberg polyhedra and geodesic polyhedra. The GC construction is primarily studied in organic chemistry for its application to fullerenes, but it has been applied to nanoparticles, computer-aided design, basket weaving, and the general study of graph theory and polyhedra.
The Goldberg–Coxeter construction may be denoted as , where is the graph being operated on, and are integers, , and .
History
Michael Goldberg introduced the Goldberg polyhedron in 1937. Buckminster Fuller coined the term "geodesic dome" in the 1940s, although he largely kept the mathematics behind the domes a trade secret. Geodesic domes are the geometric dual of (a section of) a Goldberg polyhedron: a full geodesic dome can be thought of as a geodesic polyhedron, dual to the Goldberg polyhedron. In 1962, Donald Caspar and Aaron Klug published an article on the geometry of viral capsids that applied and expanded upon concepts from Goldberg and Fuller. H.S.M. Coxeter published an article in 1971 covering much of the same information. Caspar and Klug were the first to publish the most general correct construction of a geodesic polyhedron, making the name "Goldberg–Coxeter construction" an instance of Stigler's law of eponymy.
The discovery of Buckminsterfullerene in 1985 motivated research into other molecules with the structure of a Goldberg polyhedron. The terms "Goldberg–Coxeter fullerene" and "Goldberg–Coxeter construction" were introduced by Michel Deza in 2000. This is also the first time the degree 4 case was considered.
Construction
This section largely follows Deza et al.'s two articles.
Master polygons
Regular lattices over the complex plane can be used to create "master polygons". In geodesic dome terminology, this is the "breakdown structure" or "principal polyhedral triangle" (PPT). The 4-regular case uses the square lattice over the Gaussian integers, and the 3-regular case uses triangular lattice over the Eisenstein integers. For convenience, an alternate parameterization of the Eisenstein integers is used, based on the sixth root of unity instead of the third. The usual definition of Eisenstein integers uses the element . A norm, , is defined as the square of the absolute value of the complex number. For 3-regular graphs this norm is the T-number or triangulation number used in virology.
The master polygon is an equilateral triangle or square laid over the lattice. The table to the right gives formulas for the vertices of the master polygons in the complex plane, and the gallery below shows the (3,2) master triangle and square. So that the polygon can be described by a single complex number, one vertex is fixed at 0. There are multiple numbers that can describe the same polygon: these are associates of each other: if and are associates, then in the Eisensteins or in the Gaussians for some integer . The set of elements that are associates of each other is an equivalence class, and the element of each equivalence class that has and is the normal form.
Master polygons, and the operator , can be classified as follows:
Class I:
Class II:
Class III: all other. Class III operators exist in chiral pairs: is the chiral pair of .
Below are tables of master triangles and squares. Class I corresponds to the first column, and Class II corresponds to the diagonal with a slightly darker background.
Master polygons for triangles
Master polygons for squares
Composition of Goldberg–Coxeter operations corresponds to multiplication of complex numbers. If and only if (i.e. the series of operations on the left produces a graph isomorphic to the one on the right), then for a 3-regular graph is in the equivalence class of , and for a 4-regular graph is in the equivalence class of . There are some useful consequences of this:
The application of repeated Goldberg–Coxeter operations is commutative and associative.
Complex conjugation of the element or corresponds to reflection of the constructed graph.
Since the Gaussian integers and Euclidean integers are both Euclidean domains, elements of those domains can be uniquely factored into prime elements. Therefore, it also makes sense to decompose a Goldberg–Coxeter operator into a sequence of "prime" Goldberg–Coxeter operators, and this sequence is unique (up to rearrangement).
Performing the GC construction
The steps of performing the GC construction are as follows:
Determine the master polygon, based on , , and
If operating on a 3- or 4-regular graph (instead of a graph with triangular/quadrilateral faces), take its dual graph. This dual graph will have triangular or quadrilateral faces.
Replace the faces of the triangulated/quadrangulated graph with the master polygon. Be aware that planar graphs have an "external" face that must be replaced as well. In the below example, this is done by attaching it to one side of the graph and connecting other sides as necessary. This temporarily introduces overlapping edges into the graph, but the resulting graph is planar. The vertices can be rearranged so that there are no overlapping edges.
If the original graph was a 3- or 4-regular graph, take the dual of the result of step 3. Otherwise, the result of step 3 is the GC construction.
Below is an example, where is constructed on the skeleton of a cube. In the last two graphs, blue lines are edges of , while black lines are edges of . (Dotted lines are normal graph edges, just drawn differently to make overlapping graph edges more visible.) Red vertices are in and remain in , while blue vertices are newly created by the construction and are only in .
Extensions
The Goldberg–Coxeter construction can be easily extended to some non-planar graphs, such as toroidal graphs. Class III operators, because of their chirality, require a graph that can be embedded on an orientable surface, but class I and II operators can be used on non-orientable graphs.
See also
Geodesic grid
Quadrilateralized spherical cube
Loop subdivision surface
Catmull–Clark subdivision surface
Conway polyhedron notation
Footnotes
References
Graph operations
Polyhedra | Goldberg–Coxeter construction | [
"Mathematics"
] | 1,427 | [
"Mathematical relations",
"Graph theory",
"Graph operations"
] |
56,093,993 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postia%20duplicata | Postia duplicata is a species of poroid fungus in the family Fomitopsidaceae that was described as a new species in 2014. It is found in Yunnan and Zhejiang provinces of China, where it causes a brown rot on angiosperm wood. The fungus is named (duplicata) for its characteristic two-layered context, a feature that distinguishes it from other Postia species. The spores made by this fungus are cylindrical, hyaline, smooth, and typically measure 3.8–5.8 by 1.8–2.5 μm.
References
Fomitopsidaceae
Fungi of China
Fungi described in 2014
Taxa named by Bao-Kai Cui
Taxa named by Yu-Cheng Dai
Fungus species | Postia duplicata | [
"Biology"
] | 152 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
56,094,260 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilya%20Nemenman | Ilya Mark Nemenman (born January 8, 1975, in Minsk, Belarus) is a theoretical physicist at Emory University, where he is a Winship Distinguished Research Professor of Physics and Biology. He is known for his studies of information processing in biological systems and for developing coarse-grained models of these systems. He is a Fellow of the American Physical Society for "his contributions to theoretical biological physics, especially information processing in a variety of living systems, and for the development of coarse-grained modeling methods of such systems". He is a Simons Investigator and James S. McDonnell Foundation Complex Systems Scholar. He also served in the Chair Line of the Division of Biological Physics of the American Physical Society, from 2013 to 2018. Nemenman also was a founder of the q-bio conference, and is a general member of the Aspen Center for Physics.
Life
Ilya Nemenman is the son of Mark Nemenman, a Soviet computer scientist. He studied physics at the Belarusian State University before moving to the US to complete his BS in physics and math at Santa Clara University. He studied for his master's degree in physics at San Francisco State University. He studied for his PhD under Bill Bialek at Princeton University, and graduated in 2000. He then completed postdoctoral research at the University of California, Santa Barbara and Columbia University before starting work at Los Alamos National Laboratory. Finally, in 2009, he moved to join the faculty at Emory University.
References
20th-century Belarusian Jews
21st-century Belarusian Jews
Emory University faculty
Fellows of the American Physical Society
1975 births
Living people
Scientists from Minsk
Belarusian Jews
American people of Belarusian-Jewish descent
21st-century American physicists
Simons Investigator
Theoretical physicists
Aspen Center for Physics people | Ilya Nemenman | [
"Physics"
] | 351 | [
"Theoretical physics",
"Theoretical physicists"
] |
56,094,278 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertirelin | Fertirelin, or fertirelin acetate, sold under the brand name Ovalyse, is a gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist (GnRH agonist) which has been marketed in the United Kingdom and Austria. It may no longer be available. Fertirelin has been used in veterinary medicine. It may have been used in the treatment of sex hormone-dependent conditions and infertility in women. The drug was first introduced in 1981 in Japan to treat various kinds of ovarian failure in cattle. Fertirelin is a synthetic peptide and GnRH analogue. It is used as the acetate salt.
See also
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor § Agonists
References
GnRH agonists
Peptides
Veterinary drugs | Fertirelin | [
"Chemistry"
] | 162 | [
"Biomolecules by chemical classification",
"Peptides",
"Molecular biology"
] |
56,095,189 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazilian%20jurisdictional%20waters | Brazilian jurisdictional waters (, AJB) are the riverine and oceanic spaces over which Brazil exerts some degree of jurisdiction over activities, persons, installations and natural resources. They comprise internal waters, the territorial sea and exclusive economic zone (EEZ), to a distance of from baselines along the coast, as well as waters overlying the extended continental shelf, where Brazilian claims of jurisdiction over its overlying waters are controversial, as the water column over this stretch of seabed is part of the high seas. The continental shelf of Brazil is under a different legal regime from its overlying waters. The Brazilian Navy covers both the shelf and the waters in its less formal concept of a "Blue Amazon".
The AJB's total claimed area stands at 5,669,852.41 km² (equivalent to 67% of land territory), of which 2,094,656.59 km² are above the extended shelf. These maritime zones are based on the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). From 1970 until it came into effect in 1994, Brazil had claimed a territorial sea as far as 200 nautical miles from the coast, instead of the present 12, but retains rights over natural resources in this area through its EEZ. Its coastline is the longest in the South Atlantic Ocean, but only three archipelagos contribute to its EEZ: Fernando de Noronha, Trindade and Martin Vaz and Saint Peter and Saint Paul.
Brazil's marine ecosystem is hydrographically and topographically complex and exhibits high rates of endemism and an economic potential in biotechnology. The two prevailing ocean currents, Brazil and North Brazil, have warm, nutrient-poor waters sustaining relatively low biomasses for each species, with a correspondingly limited fishing potential. In winter, cold waters of the Falkland Current may reach as far as the 24th parallel south and cold fronts and extratropical cyclones bring rough seas. The wind, waves, tides and thermal and osmotic gradients offer untouched potentials for renewable energy generation. 26.4% of the EEZ was under protected areas in 2021, mostly around the remote archipelagos of Saint Peter and Saint Paul and Trindade and Martin Vaz. Both are only populated by researchers and military personnel, which is one of the reasons for the government's marine science programs.
Most of the country's population lives near the coast and most of its international trade is conducted through the sea, but local shipbuilding and the national merchant marine have little presence in this trade. Coastal shipping answers a modest share of internal trade and mostly covers the oil and natural gas sector. There is no official measurement of the Brazilian maritime economy; 2015 estimates placed it at 2.67% of the gross domestic product directly tied to the sea, mostly in the tourism-dominated service sector. Coast guard duties in jurisdictional waters are assigned to the Navy.
Definition
International law
Brazilian regulation on maritime spaces follows UNCLOS, a codification of international maritime law which came into force in 1994. This Convention, ratified by 168 states as of 2022, unifies centuries of rulemaking on interstate disputes over control of the seas. It organizes the sea off the coast of sovereign states in multiple zones: the territorial sea, contiguous zone, exclusive economic zone and continental shelf. Distances are measured in nautical miles from baselines along the coast. There are two kinds of baseline: normal lines, which follow the low-water line as plotted on official charts, or straight lines where the coast is too jagged or island-strewn.
The territorial sea extends up to from baselines and grants coastal states sovereignty over the airspace, water column, seabed and subsoil. Each of these spaces is treated separately in the other maritime zones. In the contiguous zone, at 12 to 24 miles from baselines, a coastal state does not have full sovereignty, but may take measures to prevent or repress unlawful activities in its territory or territorial sea. The contiguous zone is part of the EEZ, which has a width of 188 miles, from the limit of the territorial sea until a distance of from baselines. This area gives a coastal state jurisdiction over the exploitation, conservation and management of its waters, seabed and subsoil. The high seas begin at the EEZ's outer limit.
The continental shelf as defined in international law is distinct from the geological continental shelf and consists in an area of seabed and its subsoil, excluding the overlying water column, over which a coastal state has sovereign rights over its natural resources. It extends "to the outer edge of the continental margin, or to a distance of 200 nautical miles from the baselines", as defined in the UNCLOS. If a coastal state's continental margin extends beyond 200 nmi, it may propose an extended continental shelf to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS), an international organ created by the UNCLOS.
Brazilian law
The term "Brazilian jurisdictional waters" (, AJB) exists in legislation since 1941 at the earliest, although it was less common than "Brazilian waters", "waters of the territorial sea" or "territorial waters". The territorial sea has had a legal definition since 1850, an exclusive fishing regime since 1938, a continental shelf since 1950, and a contiguous zone since 1966. An extended continental shelf was first proposed in 2004 and the country has yet to reach a full understanding with the CLCS to make its claims final and binding.
Law no. 8,617 of January 4, 1993 defined Brazil's maritime zones according to the UNCLOS definitions, and Decree no. 1,530 of June 22, 1995 reproduced the convention's text, making it enforceable within the country. When ratifying the convention, Brazil also announced any foreign military operations within its EEZ must be notified in advance. The concept of AJB was becoming commonplace in legislation since a 1987 law on the prohibition of whaling within the AJB. Other legislative acts used expressions such as "waters under Brazilian jurisdiction", "waters under national jurisdiction" and "Brazilian jurisdictional marine waters", but the Navy took a liking to AJB. This term was used for many years without an explicit definition until the Maritime Authority's Norms for the Operation of Foreign Waters in Brazilian Jurisdictional Waters ( – NORMAM-04/2001 (Ordinance 61/, September 22, 2001):
The Navy has the jurisdiction to complete and expound on the gaps in national maritime legislation, and therefore, definitions given in its norms prevail over others. Matching definitions have been given in other editions of the NORMAM and in the 2014 Navy Basic Doctrine, which further established that the AJB cannot be considered part of the high seas. Presidential decrees and the National Defense White Paper, which was ratified by Congress in 2018, have accepted the Navy's definition.
Brazilan law regulates maritime traffic, environmental conservation, natural resource exploitation and scientific research in the AJB. Internal waters and the territorial sea are its only components which are part of Brazil's territory, where the state exerts full sovereignty. The EEZ and continental shelf merely offer sovereign rights over natural resources. Therefore the expression "Brazilian maritime territory", which some authors used for the totality of Brazilian maritime zones, is misleading.
Waters overlying the extended continental shelf
Some legal scholars have criticized the Brazilian state's claim of jurisdiction over the water column overlying its extended continental shelf. Beyond 200 nmi, the water column is part of the high seas, even when its underlying seabed belongs to a state's continental shelf. At the International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law, Alexandre Pereira Silva summarized in 2020 that the concept of AJB is incompatible with the UNCLOS and infringes on the freedom of the high seas. Tiago V. Zanella, an author on maritime law, does not dismiss the concept's "enormous strategic importance" for the country, but considers that to speak of jurisdictional rights over this area is to perform an "undue appropriation of a zone that is 'open to all states'".
In the hypothetical case of a foreign whaling vessel in the waters overlying the extended continental shelf, over 200 nmi from coastal baselines, Brazilian law would require the Navy to impede this vessel's illegal activities in the AJB. The vessel's owners could resort to an international court, such as the International Court of Justice or the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, which would rule in their favor. As a party to the UNCLOS, Brazil would have to comply with this ruling.
Naval officer Alexander Neves de Assumpção, in his thesis for the Naval War College, concedes there is a risk of naval commanders being led to infringe on international treaties ratified by Brazil. Nonetheless, he contended that "the concept of AJB need not be changed", as it is already moderated in legislation by the expressions "jurisdiction, to some degree", "for the purposes of control and oversight" and "within the limits of national and international law". To oversee exploitation of the seafloor, Brazil would still have a limited jurisdiction, not to be conflated with sovereignty, over its overlying waters, even when they lie in the high seas. No country has contested Brazil's definition, and Argentina and Chile have likewise claimed jurisdictions beyond what was given in the UNCLOS. What remained to be done was to draft norms clarifying which kinds of oversight are allowed.
Blue Amazon
To encompass all maritime spaces under Brazilian jurisdiction, in 2004 the Navy publicized the concept of a "Blue Amazon" (), which, as mentioned by admiral Júlio Soares de Moura Neto, Commander of the Navy in 2013, is a synonym for jurisdictional waters. The formal definition is "the region which comprises the surface of the sea, waters overlying the seabed, seabed and subsoil within the atlantic expanse which projects from the coast until the outer limit of the Brazilian continental shelf". The Blue Amazon is not a legal term. It is used in the Navy's external and internal communication and by scientific, environmental and other civilian sectors.
The term was coined to draw the public's attention to this area by comparison with the "Green" Amazon's vastness and abundance of natural resources. It is understood in multiple facets, that is, areas of interest to the state: sovereignty and national defense via political-strategic influence in the South Atlantic Ocean, economic prosperity, scientific and technological innovation and environmental conservation, with an emphasis on the first. The Navy has undertaken a national campaign to publicize the concept, seeking popular support to its maritime strategy, the expansion of maritime limits and military re-equipment. More broadly, it promotes the public's "maritime mentality", seeking to regain what its proponents see as an "oceanic destiny" neglected by public consciousness.
Delimitation
The Brazilian coast measures 7,491 km, the longest in the South Atlantic. Its baselines project, in the Navy's numbers, an area of 3,575,195.81 km2 within the 200 nmi strip, including a territorial sea measuring 157,975.47 km2 and a contiguous zone of 325,328.34 km2. 2,094,656.59 km2 of extended continental shelf are added to this number to reach a total of 5,669,852.41 km2. This corresponds to 67% of national territory (8.5 million km2) and 1.1 times the size of the Legal Amazon (5.2 million km2). As the AJB also include internal waters, around 60 thousand kilometers of waterways can be counted in its extent. The 5.7 million km2 total claim is reached when counting the most recent (2018) revised proposals for the extended continental shelf. Earlier proposals reached a total of 4,451,766 km2.
This area has two international maritime boundaries, one with French Guiana and another with Uruguay, both of which are defined by rhumb lines (which cross the meridians at a constant angle) starting from the border: near the Oyapock River, for the former, and Chuí Lighthouse, for the latter. These limits were defined in 1972 with Uruguay and 1981 with France.
Territorial sea
Since the 19th century, the Brazilian territorial sea was defined as a three-mile strip along the coast. Exclusive fishing rights were at at 12 nmi from the shore in 1938. A presidential decree added a further three miles of territorial sea in 1966, in a "six miles plus six miles" regime, comparable to a contiguous zone and exclusive fishing rights zone, as far as 12 nmi from the shore. The territorial sea was once again extended in 1969 to a width of 12 nmi.
In the following year, Emílio Garrastazu Médici's government (1969–1974) claimed a territorial sea as far as 200 nmi, spanning 3.2 million km2 of the ocean. All of its seabed, subsoil and airspace were to be placed under Brazilian sovereignty. At a time when the ruling military dictatorship envisioned great power status, this decision answered fishing interests and fears of foreign activity (military exercises and exploitation of recently discovered oil fields off the coast of Rio de Janeiro). Public opinion, riding a wave of patriotic fervor, responded favorably. Other Latin American countries endorsed the measure, which was not without precedent, as Argentina and Uruguay had made similar declarations.
Contemporary international law defined no maximum width for the territorial sea, but in the early 1970s most states, including traditional maritime powers, recognized no jurisdiction beyond 12 nmi from the shore. Therefore, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs received letters of protest from the United States, the Soviet Union and nine other industrialized states. The Brazilian fleet, with a mere 57 ships of significant tonnage, lacked the effective capability to patrol the full extent of the claims. When Brazil signed the UNCLOS, it gave in to great power pressures, in the opinion of diplomat Luiz Augusto de Araújo Castro. Once the treaty was harmonized with the country's law in 1993, the Brazilian government retracted the limits of its territorial sea, from 200 to 12 nmi, but secured a 200-mile EEZ.
EEZ
The University of British Columbia's Sea Around Us database quantifies a Brazilian EEZ spanning 2,400,918 km2 projected from the continental shore, 468,599 km2 surrounding the Trindade and Martim Vaz Archipelago, 363,373 km2 surrounding the Fernando de Noronha Archipelago and 413,641 km2 surrounding the Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago. Official Brazilian numbers are 3,539,919 km2 of total EEZ area, the world's 11th largest, with a water volume of 10 billion cubic meters. Nonetheless, this is a relatively small area compared to the length of the coast, as Brazil has few islands at major distances from the coast. The archipelagos of Trindade and Martim Vaz and Saint Peter and Saint Paul have minimal land areas, but project a quarter of the EEZ.
Article 121 of UNCLOS confers an EEZ and continental shelf to islands, but denies such privileges to "rocks which cannot sustain human habitation or economic life of their own". Among Brazil's oceanic islands, only Fernando de Noronha, Trindade and Belmonte (in Saint Peter and Saint Paul) are permanently inhabited. Fernando de Noronha has the largest population, 3,167 in the 2022 census. Trindade and Saint Peter and Saint Paul have research outposts established by the Navy. Rocas Atoll has no more than an automatic lighthouse. UNCLOS recognized it within Fernando de Noronha's jurisdiction, just as the Island of Martim Vaz was included in Trindade's. However, Colombian representatives in a continental shelf dispute with Nicaragua pointed in 2019 that Brazil claims Rocas as an island and note the official Brazilian map has an EEZ projecting from the atoll.
Occupation of St. Peter and St. Paul
Extending the EEZ is an openly declared objective of the Navy's presence in both Trindade and Saint Peter and Saint Paul. Brazilian sovereignty over Trindade was once contested by the United Kingdom in 1895–1896, and a permanent presence is maintained since 1957, with a population of 36 military personnel in 2023. On the other hand, Saint Peter and Saint Paul was a neglected territory with no records of human inhabitation. Only after UNCLOS came into force did the Navy's command take serious measures to occupy the area. The Archipelago Program (), organized in 1996, installed a scientific station in Belmonte Islet and changed the site's toponymy from "Saint Peter and Saint Paul Rocks" to "Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago".
The station has room for four researches and/or seamen over 15-day periods. Conditions for habitation are poor: researchers are only allowed after undergoing survival training, and a ship is kept on standby to aid the station, which is about 1,000 km from the coast. The islets and rocks have a maximum width of 420 meters, lack soil and drinking water and are exposed to seismic events and severe weather. In the official Brazilian understanding, a permanent presence is by itself enough to distinguish an island according to Article 121, regardless of the population's biweekly rotation and difficult survival.
Starting on 1995, the Navy's Directorate of Hydrography and Navigation published nautical charts with a dotted red line in the 200 nmi radius around the rocks, indicating its potential EEZ and continental shelf. The Navy presented the Interministerial Commission on Marine Resources with its case in 1999, citing the precedents of Rockall, Okinotorishima, some Hawaiian islands, Clipperton, Jan Mayen and Aves. The Ministry of Foreign Relations was favorable and noted: "although the UNCLOS is clear about the rocks which cannot sustain human habitation, it cannot be denied that there is permanent occupation in the said archipelago, though its ‘inhabitants’ depend on the continent for its sustainability". Their greatest concern was having the claim challenged by other parties to the UNCLOS. After securing approval from the president and the National Defense Council, in August 27, 2004 Brazil submitted the coordinates of the external limits of its EEZ to the UN's Bulletin of the Law of the Sea. The area around Saint Peter and Saint Paul was formally claimed for the first time.
yielded rights to an area the size of Bahia, whose limits are closer to Africa than South America. Article 121 has its controversies, among them the South China Sea Arbitration, whose conclusions may contradict Brazil's interpretation of the legal status of Saint Peter and Saint Paul. The Permanent Court of Arbitration ruled that "the mere presence of a small number of persons on a feature" that "is only capable of sustaining habitation through the continued delivery of supplies from outside" does not equate to island status under Article 121. No state has objected to Brazil's claim over the archipelago.
Oceanography
Geomorphology
The seabed and subsoil beneath the AJB mostly consists of a portion of the divergent continental margin formed out of the split between the South American and African plates. Its continental shelf (geomorphological, not legal), slope and rise are well defined but interrupted by other features fashioned by tectonic and sedimentary forces. The far northern coast is part of the North Atlantic's divergent margin, and another sector to the east is a part of a transform margin.
20.5% of the area beneath the EEZ is at depths shallower than 200 m, which may be considered part of the continental shelf. Deep-sea features cover the rest: the continental slope (13.3%), terraces (1.7%), submarine canyons (1.4%), the continental rise (40%), abyssal plains (29.6%), submarine fans (4.9%), seamounts (2.2%), guyots (1.4%), ridges (1.2%) and spreading ridges (1.4%). These percentages add up to more than 100%, as some features occupy the same spaces. Five islands or archipelagos rise out of the ocean floor: Saint Peter and Saint Paul in the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, Rocas Atoll and Fernando de Noronha in the Fernando de Noronha Ridge and Trindade and Martin Vaz in the Vitória-Trindade Ridge.
Ocean currents
The two main surface currents off the Brazilian coast are the Brazil and North Brazil (or Guiana) currents, both of which have warm, nutrient-poor waters with a deep thermocline (the layer in which temperature rapidly lowers with depth). They appear around the 11th parallel south, between Recife and Maceió, when the South Equatorial Current, pushed west by the trade winds, meets the South American continent and splits in two. Most of its water proceeds to the northwest towards the Caribbean, forming the North Brazil Current, and the remainder flows southwest, forming the Brazil Current. Both run parallel to the coast. The North Brazil Current achieves speeds of 1–2 m/s, pushing the Amazonas River's plume, which provides a fifth of the global fresh water discharge into the ocean, to the northwest. Amazonian waters may be found up to 320 km from the coast.
The Brazil Current is the western arm of the South Atlantic Gyre, a counterclockwise cycle of currents between South America and Africa. It flows until the latitudes of 35° to 40° S, where it meets the colder waters of the Falkland Current and both turn to the east, forming the South Atlantic Current. The Gyre returns to South America through the South Equatorial Current. The Brazil Current's surface water mass is known as the Tropical Water, with a 18 °C to 28 °C temperature range and an average salinity of 35.1 to 36.2 ppm. These values are comparable to its North Atlantic counterpart, the Gulf Stream. It is, however, slower, with a speed below 0.6 m/s. Its depth in the water column reaches 200 m on the edge of the continental shelf.
In the Southern and Southeastern regions, the Brazil Current draws closer and further from the coast throughout the year, defining a strong seasonal pattern in water temperature and salinity. In winter, the Falkland Current may reach as far north as the 24th parallel south. Its water mass, known as the Subantarctic Water, mixes with the Tropical Water to form the South Atlantic Central Water (SACW), which, as a colder and denser mass, forms a layer beneath the Tropical Water in the Brazil Current. Certain points in the coast (Cape Frio and Cape Santa Marta) are subject to upwellings of the SACW when northeasterly winds push surface waters.
In the Santos Basin the Tropical Water has concentrations of 4.19 ml/L of dissolved oxygen, 0.02 μmol/L of phosphate, 1.10 μmol/L of nitrate and 2.04 μmol/L of silicate. In contrast, the SACW has 5.13 ml/L of oxygen, 0.51 μmol/L of phosphate, 6.14 μmol/L of nitrate and 5.12 μmol/L of silicate. At the 20th parallel south, the SACW extends to a depth of 660 m in the first semester. Further depths contain the Antarctic Intermediate Water (700–1,200 m), North Atlantic Deep Water (1,200–2,000 m) and Antarctic Bottom Water.
Climate
Brazilian jurisdictional waters have three climate patterns: northern, from Cape Orange, Amapá to Cape Branco, Paraíba,central, from Cape Branco to Cape São Tomé, Rio de Janeiro, and southern, from Cape São Tomé to Chuí Stream. The northern climate pattern is dominated by the Intertopical Convergence Zone, a belt of clouds shaped in an east-west direction by trade winds. It moves south of the Equator from Janury to April, although it may rapidly change its position, and brings convective rainfall, often in the form of storms. In some years it stays further north, causing drought in Northeastern Brazil and lower temperatures in the southern tropical Atlantic. The inverse happens when it stays further south.
The central region is more seasonal. Easterly and northeasterly trade winds carry moisture from the coast and become colder and stronger in winter, from June to August, due to the South Atlantic High. In this period, precipitation increases between Cape Branco and Salvador and lowers to the south. Easterly waves and, from May to October, cold fronts cause rainfall, and in the latter case, rough seas and lower temperatures.
The southern region is ruled by two phenomena, the South Atlantic Convergence Zone (SACZ) and extratropical cyclones. The SACZ is a northwest-southeast axis of clouds most common in summer, south of Bahia's coast, causing multiple days of bad weather. Extratropical cyclones may occur on a weekly basis in winter and are followed by cold fronts. They come from the south of the continent in a northeasterly direction. causing low temperatures, rainfall and rough seas. Wind speeds may exceed 60 km/h in trajectories parallel to the coast, occasionally sinking small fishing boats. Cold air masses linger in their aftermath, some of which are dry, having crossed the Andes, while others come from the Weddell Sea and are humid, but not as cold.
Brazil's oceanic islands have maritime-influenced tropical climates. Trindade has an average annual temperature of 25 °C and a dry season from January to March. Fernando de Noronha has an average annual temperature of 27 °C, with a dry season from August to February.
Oceanographic and meteorological data are traditionally collected by ships, coastal stations and drifting or stationary buoys, which is labor-intensive to repeatedly monitor over large areas and time periods, but can be eased by satellites. Public investment into these activities is organized since 1995 under the Pilot Program for the Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS/Brasil), which includes the National Buoys Program and the Pilot Research Moored Array in the Tropical Atlantic (Pirata), a joint American-French-Brazilian program which contributes to climate monitoring in Northern and Northeastern Brazil.
Marine life
Brazil's marine ecosystem is vast and hydrologically and topographically complex, spanning a wide range of habitats and high levels of endemism. 31.8% of the coast's length can be classified into bays and estuaries, 27.6% as beaches and rocky shores, 18% as lagoons and coastal marshes, 13.6% as mangrove forests and 9% as dunes and cliffs. About 3,000 km or a third of the coast has reefs in the continental shelf: coral reefs from 0° 52' N to 19° S and rocky reefs from 20° to 28° S. At greater depths, sedimented slopes, submarine canyons, reef-forming and solitary corals, methane seeps and pockmarks, seamounts and guyots have distinct benthic communities.
A 2011 literature review counted 9,103 marine species in the Brazilian coast, of which 8,878 were animals: 1,966 crustaceans, 1,833 molluscs, 1,294 vertebrates (fish), 987 annelids, 535 cnidarians, 400 sponges, 308 miscellaneous invertebrates, 254 echinoderms, 178 miscellaneous vertebrates, 133 bryozoans, 70 tunicates and 45 flatworms. In other kingdoms, two species were found among bacteria, 488 rhodophytes, 201 chlorophytes and 14 angiosperms among plants and 49 dinoflagellates and 15 foraminiferans among protists. Real numbers may be as high as 13 thousand. 66 invasive species have been accounted for.
Although the number of species is high, each has a relatively small biomass. The two prevailing currents, Brazil and North Brazil, are poor in nutrient salts in the euphotic layer, where photosynthesis and biomass production take place at the lowest trophic level, and have a deep thermocline, which restrains bottom-to-surface nutrient flow. Greater levels of biomass may be found in the Falkland Current, which has a higher concentration of nutrient salts; upwelling zones such as Cape Frio; closer to shore, where shallow waters, river discharge, wind and tides allow turbulence to enrich seawater; and stretches of the Northern coast under the influence of the Amazon River's nutrient-rich fresh water.
In nutrient poor-waters, picoplankton are the chief primary producers. Upwelling zones have larger species of phytoplankton and greater populations of pelagic fish. Pelagic community transfer organic matter to benthic communities, of which there are two geographical groups: thee northern, southeastern and southern coasts have flat bottoms of sand, mud and clay, whereas the eastern and northeastern coasts have irregular, rocky bottoms formed by calcareous algae. Seabird diversity is relatively low (around 130 species). Rocas Atoll and other areas are breeding grounds for Northern Hemisphere birds, from September to May, and southern birds from May to August.
Human activity
The "Blue Amazon's" human dimension is not as complex as the "Green Amazon's", as seafarers and oil rig workers are its only inhabitants. On the other hand, 26.6% of the Brazilian population or 50 million inhabitants lived in the coastal zone's 450 thousand km2 as of the 2010 census, a demographic density up to five times the national average. This population is concentrated in a few urban centers, leaving other areas of the coast with a low density of occupation. 13 state capitals are coastal. Many coastal resources have concurrent and competing uses and are thus a stage for social and environmental conflicts stemming from contradictions between environmental conservation, economic development and public, private, local and global interests.
Interests as diverse as those of the ministries of Justice and Public Security, Defense, Foreign Affairs, Economy, Infrastructure, Agriculture and Livestock, Education, Citizenship, Technology and Innovation, Environment, Tourism and Regional Development are represented in the Interministerial Commission for Marine Resources (, CIRM). This body coordinates the state's strategic programs in the sector, such as LEPLAC, as outlined in the National Marine Resources Policy and the four-year Sectoral Plans for Marine Resources. The CIRM is coordinated by the Commander of the Navy, who is represented in the commission by an officer who also heads the Secretariat (SECIRM), a supporting organ which maintains contact with federal ministries, state governments, the scientific community and private entities.
Research
The Brazilian state invests in several research programs in the South Atlantic to shore up its continental shelf expansion proposals, ensure national presence in oceanic islands and understand the area's biodiversity and natural resources. National oceanography has succeeded in surveys of the continental shelf's geology and the EEZ's living resources, engineering projects and participation in international research programs, but the number of researches and availability of equipment and vessels are not enough for the breadth of the field.
Oceanic science, technology and innovation in the country is mostly financed by public entities, with notable exceptions of companies such as Chevron, Equinor, Shell and Vale. 65 higher education institutions offered 1,840 annual positions in courses in Marine Sciences in 2022. Both the Navy and civilian institutions operate oceanographic research vessels. A national institute of the sea comparable to the role played by the Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais, Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária andFundação Oswaldo Cruz in other areas, did not exist until the foundation of the National Oceanic Research Institute (, Inpo). Initially staffed with only 17 officials and a yearly budget of R$ 10 million, it is a small organization conceived to aggregate research data and direct strategic projects.
According to the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, out of 370 thousand papers on marine science published globally in 2010–2014, Brazilian authors were on 13 thousand. In four categories, "functions and processes of marine ecosystems", "ocean health", "blue growth" and "human health and well-being", the percentage of papers in Brazil's total scientific output is higher than the international average, and the country is deemed specialized in these areas. The category "marine data and oceanic observation" is at the global average and "oceans and climate", "oceanic technology" and "oceanic crust and marine geological risks" were below average.
Economy
Brazilian jurisdictional waters directly participate in the national Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in six sectors: services (particularly tourism), energy, manufacturing, defense, fishing and transport. Furthermore, the sea hosts critical communications infrastructure, submarine cables through which the Brazilian Internet receives 98% of its data. Indirect economic contributions are much greater and may be difficult to measure: for instance, coastal sites boost value in the real estate sector. Specialists deem the maritime economy to still have idle potential, particularly in the "blue GDP" or blue economy, a socially- and environmentally-minded economic frontier.
A "maritime sector" does not exist in chief economic indexes such as the GDP and many activities are counted as part of other sectors, such as agriculture. There is no official and systematic methodology for its calculation. The first scientific study to account for the sector produced estimates for 2015: the maritime economy produced R$1.1 trillion or 18.93% of the national GDP and employed 19,829,439 workers. "Maritime-adjacent" sectors were responsible for 16.26% of the GDP and 17,745,279 jobs, mostly in the tertiary sector. Activities directly conducted offshore, or whose products offshore, represented 2.67% of the GDP and 2,084,160 jobs.
In this estimate, the tourism-centered service sector is the chief activity in Brazil's maritime economy, rather than traditionally maritime sectors such as oil and gas, fishing and aquaculture. When properly accounted for, the sector is comparable in size to agribusiness. Comparisons with estimates in other countries may be misleading, as their methodologies are different, but the value estimated for the economy directly connected to the sea is consistent with a 2013 United States estimate of 2.2% of national GDP. In 2020 the CIRM tasked a research team with the definition of a measuring methodology so that in the future, official numbers can be published through the Institute of Geography and Statistics.
Trade
Coastal cities have in the sea a natural trade route between themselves and with other continents, one that is cost-effective for large volumes of cargo and long distances. Brazilian ports moved 1.151 billion tons of cargo in 2020 and employed 43,205 registered workers in 2021. The busiest ports were Santos, Paranaguá and Itaguaí, but Northern and Northeastern ports are on the rise as export terminals for Center-Western agricultural production.
Maritime transport is the primary mode of Brazilian international trade, shipping 98.6% of exports by weight and 88.9% by value in 2021 and 95% of the weight and 74% of the value of imports. In contrast, waterways have a modest participation in internal trade, contrary to what the length of the coastline may suggest. Internal shipping was used for a share of only 15% of domestic transport demand in 2015, 10% in coastal shipping and 5% on inland waterways. The sector has declined since 1950, when 32.4% of domestic transport demand was provided by ships. The sector has grown over the 21st century. It mostly services the oil and gas sector; from 2017 to 2019, the two largest points of departure were the Campos and Santos sedimentary basins, while the two largest destinations were the Petrobras terminals in São Sebastião and Angra dos Reis.
Transport between coastal hubs was historically provided almost exclusively by coastal shipping, but since the 1950s, developmental policies have prioritized land transport and the automobile industry. In the present, highways are the primary mode of transport. Coastal shipping has idle potential, and the sector's representatives emphasize its predictability, multimodality and lower risks of damage, theft and environmental accidents. However, companies interested in coastal shipping face logistical difficulties in modal integration, insufficient line frequency and high costs, which are a result of the fleet's high occupancy rates.
The Brazilian Merchant Marine employed 26,631 mariners, 887 ships and 5.522 million in deadweight tonnage in 2023. It is well-represented on internal shipping, in which it provided for 92% of container transport, 59.1% of general cargo, 24.3% of dry bulk cargo and 4.1% of wet bulk cargo in 2021. On international trade, the Brazilian flag can hardly be seen, with a few exceptions such as shipping to other Mercosul countries or oil exports. In 2008, Brazilian companies were responsible for around 10% of the international freight market, mostly by using chartered foreign vessels. In 2005, only 4% of freight fees from external trade were paid to Brazilian companies.
Shipbuilding
Brazil's naval industry is historically concentrated in the state of Rio de Janeiro. 26 shipyards were in operation in 2010, of which 15 were in Rio. 152 projects were under construction in 2016, mostly barges and towboats (82 units), followed by oil tankers, offshore support vessels, tugboats, oil platforms, submarines and gas tankers. The industry is labor-intensive and each direct job may indirectly create another five. Shipyards employed 21 thousand workers in 2019, a major drop from the 82 thousand in 2014, but the sector was recovering.
At the peak of shipbuilding, ships flying the national flag provided 17.6% of international freight in 1974. Production began to decline in the 1980s and growth was only regained in the 21st century, driven by the oil industry's demand. National-flagged vessels couldn't compete after deregulation and the lifting of protectionist policies, and local shipbuilding costs remained higher than in other countries with greater labor and energy prices.
Tourism
Nautical tourism provided for R$12.6 billion of Brazil's 2023 GDP, only accounting for travel and sports in speedboats, sailboats, yatches, jets and similar craft. The boat sector created 150 thousand direct and indirect jobs. The cruise ship sector added a further R$5 billion and 80 thousand jobs in the 2023/2024 season. More broadly, coastal tourism also includes beaches, bathing resorts and diving) and their infrastructure: hotels, food, recreation, sporting equipment and marinas. Brazilian attractions in this sector are the vast coastline and internal waters, its climate and its scenery, with tropical and subtropical white sand beaches and, further south, coastal mountains. A deficit of cruise ship vacancies in the 2023/2024 season suggests an untapped potential, but insufficient docks are a major shortcoming.
Mining
Oil and natural gas are among Brazil's chief interests in the sea, since the 1970s and even more after discoveries in the pre-salt layer of coastal sedimentary basins in the 2000s. Most national production of these resources takes place beneath jurisdictional waters; production was largest in the states of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Espírito Santo. Brazil was the world's 8th largest crude oil and lease condensate producer in 2023. Supply exceeds domestic demand, but the country still imports crude oil and its derivatives for lack of refining capacity.
The South Atlantic's seabed and subsoil are also a new frontier for underwater mining. Coal, gas hydrates, aggregates, heavy mineral sands, phosphorites, evaporites, sulphur, cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts, polymetallic sulfides and polymetallic nodules have been prospected in the Brazilian continental shelf. In the moment, this sector is of little relevance. As of 2019, the only 11 mining titles registered at the National Mining Agency for underwater mining referred to limestone and shelly limestone extraction.
Renewable energy
The Brazilian coast has an untapped potential in renewable energy generation from its tides, waves, winds and osmotic and thermal gradients. Total tidal and wave generation potential was estimated at 114 GW in 2022. Viable site for tidal power generation are in the Northern region and Maranhão, while wave power is possible in the remaining coastal states. Vertical temperature gradients may be studied for ocean thermal energy conversion in oceanic islands and the middle continental shelves of Santa Catarina and Rio de Janeiro. Usable osmotic gradients may be found in major estuarine systems such as the Amazon Delta and Patos Lagoon.
Offshore wind power potential was estimated in 2024 at 480 GW over fixed foundations (at maximum depths of 70 m) and 748 with floating wind turbines. Major urban centers such as Fortaleza, Rio de Janeiro and Porto Alegre are close to the main potential wind power areas, with the greatest potential in the South. However, initial costs would be high and a significant scale of production would only be achieved with significant investments in the transmission network, port infrastructure and manufacturing capacity. For comparison, Brazil's electrical grid had 200 GW of centralized power in 2024, primarily sourced from hydroelectric power.
Fishing
Brazil historically provides little more than 0.5% of global marine fishing output. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization accounted for a national fishing production of 758 thousand tons in 2022, out of a global total of 91.029 million. Over 30% of captures take place in rivers and lakes. Brazil also produced 738 thousand tons from aquaculture out of a global total of 94.413 million. Export-focused industrial fishing developed in the country since the 1960s, driven by a mistaken belief that fish stocks would be endless. The vast oceanic area under national jurisdiction does not by itself make the country a fishing power, as already mentioned oceanographic conditions do not produce a large biomass of fish.
Fish stocks were comprehensively surveyed by the Program for Evaluation of the Sustainable Potential of Living Resources in the Exclusive Economic Zone of Brazil (, ReviZEE), a decentralized, multidisciplinary effort undertaken in 1996–2005. As of its conclusion, 69% of marine fish output consisted of eight families: and (Sciaenidae), sardines (Clupeidae), tunas and related fish (Scombridae), shrimp (Penaeidae), catfish (Ariidae) , (Mugilidae), , , , and other fish of the Carangidae family and red fishes of the Lutjanidae family. Most species targeted by coastal and continental fisheries were over-exploited and there was no perspective of increased production. Oceanic fisheries had greater potential, but even then, stocks were nearing the limits of sustainable exploitation. Even at deeper waters inaccessible to traditional fleets, stocks have limited potential. The greatest long-term potential for growth lies in aquaculture, including mariculture in the coast's many bays and bights.
Fishing and aquaculture provide little more than 0.5% of national GDP, though they are relevant at the local level, creating 3.5 million direct and indirect jobs, mostly from artisanal fishermen and their families. Out of an estimated fleet of 21,732 boats in 2019, most had less than 12 meters in length and only a third were motorized. Industrial fishing is concentrated in the South and Southeast. Fish are not central to the Brazilian diet: annual per capita consumption stood at 9.5 kg in 2020, below the global average of 20 kg. Even then, production does not meed demand in 2022 Brazil was among the world's 11 largest fish importers.
Biotechnology
Besides fishing, another category of living resources is biotechnology, which takes advantage of molecules and genes from marine microorganisms. In the South Atlantic, research in this area focuses on hydrolytic enyzmes and bioremediation. The Brazilian state promotes a prospection program, Biomar, since 2005. This activity has next to no environmental impacts, but the industrialization of marine biotechnological products was still distant as of 2020.
Environmental policy
Brazilian marine ecosystems are under pressure from industrial fishing, navigation, port and land pollution, coastal development, mining, oil and gas extraction, invasive species and climate change. Industrial, mining, agriculture, pharmaceutical, sanitary and other residues drain into the sea from the continent. A particularly serious case was the Mariana dam disaster, which led to mining residues with a high concentration of iron, aluminum, manganese, arsenic, mercury and other metals crossing over 600 km through the Doce River until meeting the sea. Oil spills are the most visible type of pollution, of which the largest case took place in the Northeastern coast in 2019. Global ocean acidification may impede biogenic calficication in Espírito Santo and the Abrolhos Bank and dissolve existing shells and skeletons, releasing carbon dioxide. In the South Atlantic, increasing seawater surface temperatures will tend to weaken the Falkland Current, displacing the Brazil-Falkland Confluence to the south.
Marine environmental management falls upon a mesh of policies, norms, programs and agencies. Enforcement is assigned to the Brazilian Institute of Environment and Renewable Natural Resources (IBAMA) and the Navy. 27.6% of the territorial sea and 26.4% of the EEZ, or 26.5% of these areas in total, were protected under 190 conservation units in 2021. Coastal areas had a further 549 units. Until 2020, when environmental protection areas were decreed in the archipelagos of Saint Peter and Saint Paul and Trindade and Martim Vaz, conservation unit coverage in the EEZ did not exceed 1.5%. This measure allowed Brazil to announce its full implementation of Aichi Target 11, the protection of at least 10% of coastal and marine areas, which it had committed itself to fulfill in 2010, as a party to the Convention on Biological Diversity.
However, full (no-take) protection coverage stood at only 2.5%. The Ministry of the Environment had as its target to extend this number to 10% in the following 15 years. Unprotected areas that could be given priority include reefs at the edge of the Amazonic continental shelf, shallow waters of the North Brazilian Chain, the southern part of the Abrolhos Bank and, in the South, deep-water coral reefs, rhodolith beds and mobile bottom benthic communities. The most serious overlap between risk factors and biodiversity is at areas in the Southeast and southern Bahia, to a total of 83 thousand km2. This conclusion was published in the journal Diversity and Distributions in 2021, based on the distribution of 143 animal species with critically endangered, endangered or vulnerable conservation status. Its authors contend that the criteria for existing areas have been more opportunistic and political than biologica. The archipelagos of Saint Peter and Saint Paul and Trindade and Martim Vaz are remote areas and their conservation harms few economic interests, unlike the coast.
Security
The "Blue Amazon's" limits are imaginary lines over the sea and only physically exist insofar as they are patrolled by Brazilian ships. Jurisdictional waters are a border region and as such, must be monitored and if needed, denied access to external actors. This burden falls on the Armed Forces and particularly the Navy, in its "dual" nature, simultaneously tasked with police and war operations. There is no independent coast guard. In formal recognition of this role, the Navy Command is rewarded with some of the royalties of offshore oil extraction. The Brazilian Air Force aids the Navy's activities with its patrol aircraft. Brazil has further responsibilities of maritime search and rescue from the 7th parallel north to the 35th parallel south, as far east as the 10th meridian west.
The Navy's "coast guard" dimension is embodied in its Naval Districts, to which a considerable number of patrol vessels are assigned. The Navy's commander is the Brazilian Maritime Authority and as such is responsible for implementing and overseeing laws and regulations on the sea and interior waters, if needed by seizing foreign vessels which conduct unauthorized activities in any of the BJW's maritime zones and handing them to appropriate authorities.
In its warmaking dimension, the Navy is tasked with deterring foreign powers and, should war break out, to deny them use of the sea, control maritime areas and project power over land. Its priorities are the coastal strip between Santos and Vitória, the Amazon Delta, archipelagos, oceanic islands, oil rigs and naval and port installations. Naval strategic thought defines the Blue Amazon as the "vital area", the Atlantic from the 16th parallel north to Antarctica as the "primary area" and the Caribbean Sea and East Pacific Ocean as the "secondary area". In defense of its interests in the South Atlantic, Brazil has a two-pronged approach of military re-equipment and the development of closer ties with other states in the region.
References and notes
Notes
References
Sources
Marine ecoregions
Biota of the Atlantic Ocean
Ecoregions of Brazil
Environment of Brazil
Borders of Brazil
Economy of Brazil
Brazil | Brazilian jurisdictional waters | [
"Biology"
] | 10,090 | [
"Biota of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Biota by sea or ocean"
] |
56,095,710 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pixel%20Imaging%20Mass%20Spectrometry%20camera | The Pixel Imaging Mass Spectrometry camera (PImMS) is an ultrafast imaging sensor designed for time-of-flight particle imaging. It was invented by professors of chemistry at the University of Oxford, Mark Brouard and Claire Vallance., Renato Turchetta from IMASENIC (formerly at the STFC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory), and Andrei Nomerotski from Brookhaven National Labs (formerly at the Department of Physics, University of Oxford). The camera and accompanying software have been further developed by Iain Sedgwick (STFC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory), Jaya John John (Department of Physics, University of Oxford), and Jason Lee (Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford). The camera has been used for studies in chemical reaction dynamics, imaging mass spectrometry, and neutron time-of-flight imaging.
References
External links
Chemistry
Cameras
Mass spectrometry | Pixel Imaging Mass Spectrometry camera | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry",
"Technology"
] | 186 | [
"Spectrum (physical sciences)",
"Instrumental analysis",
"Mass",
"Mass spectrometry",
"Cameras",
"Recording devices",
"Matter"
] |
56,095,737 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claire%20Vallance | Claire Vallance is a professor of Physical Chemistry at the University of Oxford, Tutorial Fellow in Physical Chemistry at Hertford College, and past President of the Faraday Division of the Royal Society of Chemistry. In collaboration with professor Mark Brouard and others, she created the PImMS (Pixel Imaging Mass Spectrometry) sensor, used for time-of-flight particle imaging and recently featured in the Royal Society of Chemistry's Research Frontiers report. She is co-founder of the spin-out company Oxford HighQ, which is developing next-generation chemical and nanoparticle sensors based on optical microcavity technology. Vallance's research spans chemical reaction dynamics, optical microcavity spectroscopy, and applications of spectroscopy and imaging in medical diagnostics. She is also an accomplished musician and triathlete.
Education
Claire Vallance attended Marlborough Girls' College in Blenheim, New Zealand. She then studied Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics, and Music at the University of Canterbury, where she completed a B.Sc.(hons) degree in 1995, graduating first in her year. She studied for a Ph.D. under the supervision of Peter Harland, working in gas-phase molecular dynamics, and graduated in early 1999. Upon completion of her studies, she returned to Oxford to take up a Violette and Samuel Glasstone Fellowship in the Physical and Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory and a Junior Research Fellowship at St. Catherine's College.
Honours and awards
Fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry, 2016
Books
Tutorials in Molecular Reaction Dynamics. RSC Press, 2010. (Joint editor with Mark Brouard)
Astrochemistry: from the Big Bang to the Present Day, World Scientific Press, 2017.
An Introduction to Chemical Kinetics, Morgan-Claypool Publishing, 2017
An Introduction to the Gas Phase, Morgan-Claypool Publishing, 2018
References
External links
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
Fellows of Hertford College, Oxford
Physical chemists
New Zealand women chemists
New Zealand pianists
New Zealand women pianists
New Zealand chemists
New Zealand violinists
New Zealand women violinists
21st-century pianists
21st-century violinists
21st-century women pianists
University of Canterbury alumni | Claire Vallance | [
"Chemistry"
] | 448 | [
"Physical chemists"
] |
56,096,452 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myo-Inositol%20trispyrophosphate | myo-Inositol trispyrophosphate (ITPP) is an inositol phosphate, a pyrophosphate, a drug candidate, and a putative performance-enhancing substance, which exerts its biological effects by increasing tissue oxygenation.
Chemistry
ITPP is a pyrophosphate derivative of phytic acid with the molecular formula C6H12O21P6.
Biological effects
ITPP is a membrane-permeant allosteric regulator of hemoglobin that mildly reduces its oxygen-binding affinity, which shifts the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve to the right and thereby increases oxygen release from the blood into tissue. Phytic acid, in contrast, is not membrane-permeant due to its charge distribution.
Rodent studies in vivo demonstrated increased tissue oxygenation and dose-dependent increases in endurance during physical exercise, in both healthy mice and transgenic mice expressing a heart failure phenotype.
The substance is believed to have a high potential for use in athletic doping, and liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry tests have been developed to detect ITPP in urine tests. Its use as a performance-enhancing substance in horse racing has also been suspected and similar tests have been developed for horses
ITPP has been studied for potential adjuvant use in the treatment of cancer in conjunction with chemotherapy, due to its effects in reducing tissue hypoxia. Human clinical trials were registered in 2014 under the compound number OXY111A. The substance has also been examined in the context of other illnesses involving hypoxia, such as cardiovascular disease and dementia
See also
Phytic acid
Inositol
Inositol phosphate
Inositol trisphosphate
myo-Inositol
References
Phospholipids
Inositol
Signal transduction | Myo-Inositol trispyrophosphate | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 380 | [
"Phospholipids",
"Inositol",
"Signal transduction",
"Biochemistry",
"Neurochemistry"
] |
56,097,087 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%201436 | NGC 1436 (also called NGC 1437) is a barred spiral galaxy with LINER activity approximately 58 million light-years away from Earth in the constellation of Eridanus. NGC 1436 is a flocculent spiral galaxy lying almost face-on to the Earth. It is a member of the Fornax I cluster.
NGC 1436 is host to a nuclear star cluster with an estimated mass of around 2 × 107 M☉, and is also host to a supermassive black hole with an estimated mass of around 3.2 × 106 M☉.
Observational history
This galaxy was entered twice in the New General Catalogue, first as NGC 1436 and after that as NGC 1437. It was discovered by John Herschel on January 9, 1836, who described it as "very bright, and evidently a globular cluster". It later received designation NGC 1436. It was also observed by Scottish astronomer James Dunlop with his 9" reflector at Parramatta, who described it as "a pretty large faint round nebula, about 3.5' diameter, gradual slight condensation to the centre, very faint at the margin".
John Herschel observed this object again on November 28, 1837, assumed it was new and measured an accurate position. It later received second designation in the New General Catalogue (NGC 1437) because of that.
Until recently this galaxy was often called NGC 1437, but in recent references it is being called NGC 1436 more and more frequently.
Physical characteristics
NGC 1436's spiral arms wind onto the bulge of the galaxy in a bar-like pattern. Within the spiral arms which are tightly wound, there is abundant dust with numerous star-forming regions. The spiral arms are propment within 2 arc minutes of the center but outside that range, they fade into a smooth and featureless disk, suggesting that the galaxy is transtioning into a lenticular galaxy. Addidtionally, the distubution of HI in the disk of the galaxy is truncated within only the inner star forming region of the galaxy which along with the morphology of the galaxy also agrees with the conclusion that the galaxy is transtioning into a lenticular galaxy as a result of the environment of the Fornax Cluster. Observations also show that the inner and outer regions of the disk of NGC 1436 experienced a burst of star formation around 5 billion years ago afterwards followed by a rapid quenching in the outer disc and by slow quenching in the inner disc, which continues to form stars to this day. It is therefore inferred that as NGC 1436 fell though the Fornax Cluster around 5 billion years ago the combination of a tidal interaction and/or ram pressure stripping was able to compress and then remove most of the HI gas from the outer region of the disk, causing a temporary increase of star formation followed by a rapid decrease of its star formation. The inner regions of the disk were much closer to the center of the galaxy which was affected more strongly by gravitational forces of the center of the galaxy which allowed the inner region of the disk to hold on to more of the HI gas. However, since the removal of HI gas from the outer regions of the disk of the galaxy as NGC 1436 fell though the cluster the accection of cold gas to replenish star formation in the inner disk stopped which is why star formation in the inner disk has decreased in the last few billion years but not to zero as star formation is still observed to be ongoing in that region.
See also
Types and morphology of galaxies
List of NGC objects (1001–2000)
Eridanus (constellation)
References
External links
Barred spiral galaxies
Eridanus (constellation)
1436
13687
Astronomical objects discovered in 1836
Discoveries by John Herschel
Fornax Cluster
Flocculent spiral galaxies
LINER galaxies | NGC 1436 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 774 | [
"Eridanus (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
56,097,330 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coda%20%28document%20editor%29 | Coda is a cloud-based multi-user document editor.
Features
Coda is a document editor that uses features from spreadsheets, presentation documents, word processor files, and apps. Possible uses for Coda documents include using them as a wiki, database, or project management tool. Coda has built a formula system, much like spreadsheets commonly have, but in Coda documents, formulas can be used anywhere within the document, and can link to things that aren't just cells, including other documents, calendars or graphs. Coda also has the ability to integrate with custom third-party services, and has automations. It has offered $1 million in grants for developers that create such integrations.
Development
Coda Project, Inc. was founded by Shishir Mehrotra and Alex DeNeui in June 2014, who met at MIT. They developed the project mostly privately before a public beta was announced in October 2017. The company was named Coda, which is an anadrome for “a doc”. Coda raised $60 million in venture capital funding over two rounds by 2017. The Coda software came out of beta in February 2019. Version 1.0 had an improved user interface, new features for folders and workspaces, and permission levels for accessing files. Coda raised another $80 million in 2020, and $100 million in 2021. The 2021 funding brought Coda's valuation to $1.4 billion, making it a unicorn. In December 2024, Coda was acquired by Grammarly in an all-stock deal for an undisclosed amount.
See also
Cloud collaboration
Collaborative software
Collaborative real-time editor
Document collaboration
References
External links
Collaborative real-time editors
Web applications
Online word processors
Online spreadsheets
Announced mergers and acquisitions | Coda (document editor) | [
"Technology"
] | 365 | [
"Collaborative real-time editors"
] |
56,098,061 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2069%20Alpha%20Centauri%20mission | In December 2017, NASA released a mission concept involving the launch, in 2069, of an interstellar probe to search for signs of life on planets orbiting stars in and around the Alpha Centauri system. The announcement was at the annual conference of the American Geophysical Union. The mission (proposed in May 2016) remains a concept, and as such, has no name or allocated funding.
A preliminary mission outline suggests the use of solar sails propelled by high energy lasers to increase propulsion. The proposed launch would be on the 100th anniversary of the Apollo 11 mission.
The spacecraft would reach Alpha Centauri by the year 2113, 44 years after its launch travelling at 10% of the speed of light.
See also
, private project proposed April 2016
References
Hypothetical spacecraft
Proposed NASA space probes
Interstellar travel
2069 in science
Alpha Centauri
Projects established in 2017
Centennial anniversaries | 2069 Alpha Centauri mission | [
"Astronomy",
"Technology"
] | 180 | [
"Exploratory engineering",
"Astronomical hypotheses",
"Spacecraft stubs",
"Hypothetical spacecraft",
"Astronomy stubs",
"Interstellar travel"
] |
56,098,091 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous%20glucose%20monitor | A continuous glucose monitor (CGM) is a device used for monitoring blood glucose on a continual basis instead of monitoring glucose levels periodically by drawing a drop of blood from a finger. This is known as continuous glucose monitoring. CGMs are used by people who treat their diabetes with insulin, for example people with type 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes, or other types of diabetes, such as gestational diabetes.
A continuous glucose monitor has three parts:
a small electrode that is placed under the skin
a transmitter that sends readings from the electrode to a receiver at regular intervals (every 1 to 15 minutes)
a separate receiver that shows the glucose level on a display.
Currently approved CGMs use an enzymatic technology which reacts with glucose molecules in the body's interstitial fluid to generate an electric current that is proportional to glucose concentration. Data about glucose concentration is then relayed from a transmitter attached to the sensor to a receiver and display that shows the data to the user.
Some CGM devices must be calibrated periodically with traditional blood glucose measurements, but others do not require calibration by the user.
Benefits
Continuous glucose monitoring is gaining in popularity for a variety of reasons.
Traditional fingerstick testing measures blood glucose levels at only a single point in time. CGM enables users to see blood glucose levels continually, as well as trends in blood glucose levels over time.
CGM is more convenient and less painful than traditional fingerstick testing.
Some studies have demonstrated that CGM users spend less time in hypoglycemia or with lower glycated hemoglobin, both of which are favorable outcomes.
Continuous glucose monitors appear to lower hemoglobin A1c levels more than just monitoring with capillary blood testing, particularly when CGM is used by people with poorly controlled diabetes and combined with the use of an integrated insulin pump. However, a Cochrane systematic review found limited and conflicting evidence of the effectiveness of continuous glucose monitoring systems in children, adults, and users with poorly controlled diabetes.
A meta-analysis of 25 randomised controlled trials found that CGM-based feedback to support behavior change modestly reduces glycated hemoglobin levels and increases time-in-range in individuals with and without diabetes.
Limitations
Continuous glucose monitoring has some important limitations:
CGM systems are not sufficiently accurate for detecting hypoglycemia, a common side-effect of diabetes treatment. This is especially problematic because some devices have alarm functions to warn users about a hypoglycemic condition, and people might rely on those alarms. However, the Cochrane systematic review showed that the use of continuous glucose monitors did not increase the risk of hypoglycemia or ketoacidosis. Some manufacturers warn users about relying solely on CGM measurements. The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence recommends validating hypoglycaemic values with fingerprick testing.
Compression lows or pressure-induced sensitivity attenuations (PISA) are false hypoglycemic readings resulting from pressure applied at the CGM site. These can be caused by the user sleeping or sitting on the sensor, and may result in incorrect treatment.
Another limitation of CGM is that glucose levels are taken from the body's interstitial fluid rather than from the blood. Because it takes time for glucose to travel from the bloodstream into the interstitial fluid, there is an inherent lag between actual blood glucose level and the level measured by the CGM. This lag time varies by both user and device, but it is usually 5 to 20 minutes.
Flash glucose monitoring
The original Freestyle Libre monitor introduced by Abbott Diabetes Care in 2015 was described as doing "flash glucose monitoring," with a disposable 14-day sensor probe under the skin (as with other CGM sensors), but factory-calibrated without requiring calibration against a fingerstick glucose test. The sensor measures the glucose level of interstitial fluids (as a proxy for blood sugar levels) continuously; up to eight hours of these readings, averaged over each 15-minute period, are stored in the sensor unit, unlike most other CGM systems, which use a wireless link (typically Bluetooth) to an external device for each reading. Data stored in the sensor are transmitted on demand to a "reader" held within a centimeter or two of the sensor unit, employing near-field communication (NFC) technology. As only eight hours worth of data can be stored, downloads must not be spaced more than eight hours apart.
Differences in US insurance coverage favoring "flash glucose monitoring" over "continuous glucose monitoring" were an advantage to early adoption of Abbott's less expensive system. In the UK, flash glucose monitors and sensors are available to many patients without charge on the National Health Service (NHS).
The later Freestyle Libre 2 version of Abbott's device uses different, incompatible, sensors. It can be programmed to transmit a low blood sugar (hypoglycemia) or high sugar warning via Bluetooth to a nearby device and, as of 2023, transmits glucose readings via Bluetooth on a 60-second basis effectively making a CGM and not a flash glucose monitor. The following Freestyle Libre 3 is smaller, and transmits its readings via Bluetooth, as other meters do; it is not described as flash monitoring.
History
United States
The first CGM system was approved by the FDA in 1999. Continued development has extended the length of time sensors can be worn, options for receiving and reading data, and settings for alerting users to high and low glucose levels.
The first iteration of the Medtronic MiniMed took glucose readings every ten seconds with average readings reported every five minutes. Sensors could be worn for up to 72 hours.
A second system, developed by Dexcom, was approved in 2006. The sensor was approved for use for up to 72 hours, and the receiver needed to be within five feet for transmission of data.
In 2008, the third model was approved, Abbott Laboratories' Freestyle Navigator. Sensors could be worn for up to five days.
In 2012, Dexcom released a new device that allowed for the sensor to be worn for seven days and had a transmission distance of 20 feet. Dexcom later introduced an app allowing data from the sensor to be transmitted to an iPhone. This system was approved for pediatric use in 2015.
In September 2017, the FDA approved the first CGM that does not require calibration with fingerstick measurement, the FreeStyle Libre. The Libre is considered a "flash monitoring" system (FGM), and thus not a true ("real-time") CGM system. This device could be worn for up to ten days, but required 12 hours to start readings. and was followed by an updated device that could be worn for up to 14 days, and needed only one hour to start a new sensor. The FreeStyle Libre 2 was approved in Europe in October 2018, and enabled configuration of alerts when glucose is out of range.
In June 2018, the FDA approved the Eversense CGM system (manufactured by Senseonics Inc) for use in people 18 years of age and older with diabetes. This is the first FDA-approved CGM to include a fully implantable sensor to detect glucose, which can be worn for up to 90 days. The Eversense XL, a 180-day version of the system, was approved in Europe in October 2017.
China
China develops and produces CGM systems. The first CGM system to be approved for the European Union is manufactured by Medtrum Technologies. The sensor's intended use is up to 14 days and measures glucose levels every 2 minutes via a smartphone application. Medtrum was founded in 2008 and is based in Shanghai, China.
At the end of 2017, Medtrum introduced the TouchCare A6 CGM (later A7 or Slim in some countries) which measures glucose levels in the interstitial fluid up to 14 days. The TouchCare system comes with mobile applications, including a remote view application. The TouchCare system has glucose alerts and requires calibration every 24 hours.
At the end of 2021 the Medtrum Nano was announced, a very slim device not requiring calibration, approved for up to 14 days use, with customizable glucose alerts.
Medtrum makes both CGM and insulin pumps, both controlled by a single smartphone application which enables the user to monitor glucose levels and trigger insulin delivery in a closed-loop system.
United Kingdom
UK NICE guidelines introduced for the NHS in March 2022 in England and Wales advise that all Type 1 diabetic patients should be offered either flash glucose monitoring or CGM. People with Type 2 diabetes should be offered flash glucose monitoring or CGM if they use insulin twice daily or more, are otherwise advised to finger-prick eight times a day, have recurrent or severe hypoglycemia, have impaired hypoglycemia awareness, or cannot monitor their own blood sugar levels but they or a caretaker could use a scanning device. Details differ in Scotland and Northern Ireland.
Device characteristics
Continuous versus flash monitoring: Dexcom, Eversense, and Libre 2 and 3 use continuous monitoring where information on the glucose levels are continuously updated. Continuous monitoring allows to set automatic alarms that are triggered when the glucose level goes out of pre-configured thresholds. In contrast, with flash monitoring such as the Freestyle Libre1, the glucose level is read automatically by the sensor; however, data is only transmitted to the user on user request. The glucose information stored on the sensor contains all the data since the previous read (up to 8 hours). FreeStyle Libre 2 allows configuration of alarms when glucose reaches a pre-determined level.
Implantable sensors: Since the electronics and battery require a relatively large package, most CGM sensors are worn over the skin with the actual sensing probe penetrating the skin. However the Eversense sensor is an actual implant, and receives its power wirelessly from a so-called transmitter worn above the skin. The "transmitter" receives data from the sensor every 5 minutes and forwards that data to a nearby device wirelessly. However unlike the Freestyle Libre, the implanted device is too small to have its own battery and memory, so that no glucose readings are generated during periods in which the transmitter is not being worn. The transmitter must be removed at least once a day for recharging (10 minutes) and replacement of the adhesive.
Closed-loop system
The CGM is a key element in the development of a "closed-loop" system for the treatment of type I diabetes. A closed-loop system monitors blood glucose by CGM and sends data to an insulin pump for calculated delivery of insulin without user intervention. A number of insulin pumps currently offer an "auto mode" however this is not yet a fully closed loop system. There are several implementations, including the artificial pancreas system and the open source OpenAPS.
Emerging CGM technologies
The continuous glucose monitoring space remains subject to extensive research and development in building lower cost, more accurate and more easy-to-use sensing solutions, some of which aim to be noninvasive. A noninvasive CGM has been defined as a medical device that can measure glucose levels in the body without puncturing the skin, drawing blood or causing any pain.
As of August 2023, besides Dexcom and Abbott Diabetes, no other manufacturer has attained a significant market share worldwide. There have been regulatory approvals of noninvasive sensing systems in Europe, though market adoption has been low, not affecting the Abbott-Dexcom dominance.
Emerging invasive CGM technologies
Multiple invasive CGM solutions have been under development since the early 2000s.
Senseonics has commercialized its 180-day Eversense XL sensing systems in both the U.S. and European markets. In June 2023, it announced what it deemed favorable safety and accuracy data for its 365-day sensor, suggesting it may be commercializable in the future. In June 2024, Senseonics announced intent to launch sales of the 365-day sensor in 2025.
A solution built by U.S. firm GlySens, aimed to remove the need for an external reader by creating a sensor that could be implanted under the skin, that directly transmitted glucose values to an external app. As of August 2023, this undertaking has stalled and the system has not been approved anywhere and the company is defunct.
Another invasive CGM technology under development by Profusa Inc, based in Emeryville, California, builds on sensing research projects previously undertaken by the company under DARPA grants. This technology is composed of a hydrogel microsensor that is placed under the skin subcutaneously in a non-surgical procedure. In a 2020 literature review several biomedical engineers supported Profusa’s claims that the non-surgical insertion procedure differentiates it favorably from Senseonics’ Eversense system, as the latter requires a surgical procedure to insert and remove the sensor. The Profusa sensor allegedly also does not need to be removed because it overcomes the foreign body response. A reader is placed on the skin on top of where the sensor is, with the sensor transmitting a light signal to it. The sensor is claimed to last for three to six months. The is information then passed on to a smartphone where it can be tracked through an app. As of August 2023, this sensor has not attained regulatory approval in any jurisdiction, though a similar Profusa system measuring oxygen levels under the skin, has CE certification in Europe. Profusa has filed to go public via SPAC transaction.
A similar approach was under development by another California-based company called Metronom Health. This company has not released news releases, nor has any news covered any progress in terms of its research and development.
Yet another invasive approach is being developed by Belgium-based Indigo Diabetes. Indigo states that it is developing a CGM called a "continuous multi-metabolite monitoring system (CMM)". It is designed to provide people living with diabetes access to information on their glucose and other metabolite levels at any given time. It has yet to attain regulatory approval. The company completed a clinical trial in April 2024.
Emerging noninvasive CGM technologies
The ease of use many CGM users expect would be provided by a safe and accurate noninvasive device has led to significant innovation and research.
Noninvasive approaches can be divided into interstitial fluid-based, radio frequency-based or breath-based. Interstitial fluid-analyzing sensors either use a device to analyze fluid on the skin or under the skin by sending infrared lasers to detect glucose levels in fluid. Radio frequency devices go through the skin and may derive glucose level information from blood directly.
Apple has reportedly been working on a noninvasive CGM that it seeks to integrate into its Apple Watch. In March 2023 it was reported to have established proof-of-concept of a noninvasive CGM. Another company working on noninvasive CGM is Masimo, which sued Apple for patent infringement in this area in 2020. Masimo has also filed new patents through its subsidiary Cercacor (pending as of September 2023) covering a joint continuous glucose monitoring and pump-closed loop delivery system.
Samsung announced that it would be incorporating glucose monitoring with its smartwatch with a targeted release year of 2025. As of October 2023 the last update was in December 2022. It is not clear whether the watch will integrate readings from an external CGM such as Dexcom's or Abbott's, or work standalone. The company in 2020 published literature regarding a non-invasive method it had developed with MIT scientists to engage in continuous glucose monitoring using spectroscopy. The company has filed patents related to this technology.
SugarBeat, built by Nemaura Medical, is a wireless non-invasive blood glucose monitoring system using a disposable skin patch. The patch connects to a rechargeable transmitter which detects blood sugar and transfers the data to a mobile app every five minutes. The patch can be used for 24 hours. Electronic currents are used to draw interstitial fluid to the surface to analyse the glucose level. SugarBeat has achieved regulatory approval in Saudi Arabia and Europe, though market penetration rates remain very low. The company declared US$503,906 in revenue for the fiscal year ending March 2022, which compares to Dexcom's more than $3 billion. it had submitted a US FDA premarket approval application for sugarBEAT.
Another noninvasive system is built by US company Movano Health. It uses a small ring placed on the arm. Movano said in 2021 that it was building the smallest ever custom radio frequency (RF)-enabled sensor designed for simultaneous blood pressure and glucose monitoring. Movano is listed as MOVE on NASDAQ. By August 2023 Movano had shifted to building sensor rings for other parameters, such as heart rate, blood oxygen levels, respiration rate, skin temperature variability, and menstrual symptom tracking.
DiaMonTech AG is a Berlin, Germany-based privately-held company developing the D-Pocket, a non-CGM glucose sensor that uses infrared laser technology to scan the tissue fluid in the skin and detect glucose molecules. Short pulses of infrared light are sent to the skin, which are absorbed by the glucose molecules. This generates heat waves that are detected using its patented IRE-PTD method. The company claims a high selectivity of its method, results of a first study have been published in the Journal of Diabetes Science and Technology. In this study, a Median Absolute Relative Difference of 11.3% is claimed. DiaMonTech has announced that its envisioned follow-up product D-Sensor, will feature continuous measurements, making it a CGM though no release date has been given.
The BioXensor developed by British company BioRX uses patented radio frequency technology, alongside a multiple sensor (also capturing blood oxygen levels, ECG, respiration rate, heart rate and body temperature) approach. The company claims this enables the measurement of blood glucose levels every minute reliably, accurately, and non-invasively. BioXensor had not received regulatory approval .
Haifa, Israel-based company HAGAR completed a study of its GWave non-invasive CGM, reporting high accuracy. This sensor uses radiofrequency waves to measure glucose levels in the blood. The device had not received regulatory approval anywhere as of August 2023. One of the criticisms of radiofrequency technology as a way of measuring glucose is that studies in 2019 found that glucose can only be detected in the far infrared (nanometer wavelengths), rather than radiofrequencies even in the centimeter and millimeter wavelength range, putting into question the viability of radio frequencies for measuring glucose.
Glucomodicum is based in Helsinki, Finland. Their attempted solution uses interstitial fluid to non-invasively measure glucose levels continuously. It does not have regulatory approval.
KnowLabs is a Seattle, U.S-based company building a CGM called the Bio-RFID sensor, which works by sending radio waves through the skin to measure molecular signatures in the blood, which Know Labs' machine learning algorithms use to compute the user's blood sugar levels. The company reported that it had built a prototype, but had not attained regulatory approval as of August 2023.
Liom (formerly named Spiden) is a Swiss startup building a multi-biomarker and drug level monitoring noninvasive smartwatch wearable with continuous glucose monitoring capability as its first application. It has so far not attained regulatory approval as of October 2023. In January of 2024, Liom (then called Spiden) declared it had developed a prototype, with a claimed MARD (Mean Absolute Relative Difference) value to a reference glucose measurement of approximately 9%.
Occuity, a Reading, UK-based startup is taking a different approach to noninvasive glucose monitoring, by using the eye. The company is developing the Occuity Indigo, which will measure the change in refractive index of the eye to determine the concentration of glucose in the blood.
References
Diabetes-related supplies and medical equipment
Medical devices
1999 introductions | Continuous glucose monitor | [
"Biology"
] | 4,138 | [
"Medical devices",
"Medical technology"
] |
56,098,220 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryobiology%20%28journal%29 | Cryobiology is a bimonthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering cryobiology. It was established in 1964 and is published by Elsevier on behalf of the Society for Cryobiology, of which it is the official journal. The editor-in-chief is D.M. Rawson (University of Bedfordshire). According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2017 impact factor of 2.050.
References
External links
Cryobiology
Academic journals established in 1964
Bimonthly journals
Elsevier academic journals
Academic journals associated with international learned and professional societies
English-language journals | Cryobiology (journal) | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 119 | [
"Biochemistry",
"Physical phenomena",
"Phase transitions",
"Cryobiology"
] |
56,098,547 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klopman%E2%80%93Salem%20equation | In the theory of chemical reactivity, the Klopman–Salem equation describes the energetic change that occurs when two species approach each other in the course of a reaction and begin to interact, as their associated molecular orbitals begin to overlap with each other and atoms bearing partial charges begin to experience attractive or repulsive electrostatic forces. First described independently by Gilles Klopman and Lionel Salem in 1968, this relationship provides a mathematical basis for the key assumptions of frontier molecular orbital theory (i.e., theory of HOMO–LUMO interactions) and hard soft acid base (HSAB) theory. Conceptually, it highlights the importance of considering both electrostatic interactions and orbital interactions (and weighing the relative significance of each) when rationalizing the selectivity or reactivity of a chemical process.
Formulation and interpretation
In modern form, the Klopman–Salem equation is commonly given as:,where: is the electron population in atomic orbital ,, are the resonance and overlap integrals for the interaction of atomic orbitals and , is the total charge on atom , is the local dielectric constant, is the distance between the nuclei of atoms and , is the coefficient of atomic orbital in molecular orbital , and is the energy of molecular orbital .Broadly speaking, the first term describes the closed-shell repulsion of the occupied molecular orbitals of the reactants (contribution from four-electron filled–filled interactions, exchange interactions or Pauli repulsion). The second term describes the coulombic attraction or repulsion between the atoms of the reactants (contribution from ionic interactions, electrostatic effects or coulombic interactions). Finally, the third term accounts for all possible interactions between the occupied and unoccupied molecular orbitals of the reactants (contribution from two-electron filled–unfilled interactions, stereoelectronic effects or electron delocalization). Although conceptually useful, the Klopman–Salem equation seldom serves as the basis for energetic analysis in modern quantum chemical calculations.
Because of the difference in MO energies appearing in the denominator of the third term, energetically close orbitals make the biggest contribution. Hence, approximately speaking, analysis can often be simplified by considering only the highest occupied and lowest unoccupied molecular orbitals of the reactants (the HOMO–LUMO interaction in frontier molecular orbital theory). The relative contributions of the second (ionic) and third (covalent) terms play an important role in justifying HSAB theory, with hard–hard interactions governed by the ionic term and soft-soft interactions governed by the covalent term.
References
Quantum chemistry
Organic chemistry | Klopman–Salem equation | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry"
] | 537 | [
"Quantum chemistry",
"Quantum mechanics",
"Theoretical chemistry",
" molecular",
"nan",
"Atomic",
" and optical physics"
] |
56,100,050 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antella%20niemelaei | Antella niemelaei is a species of poroid crust fungus in the family Steccherinaceae.
Taxonomy
Antella niemelaei was formally described as new to science in 2011 as a member of Antrodiella. The specific epithet niemelaei honours Finnish mycologist Tuomo Niemelä, who made the first documented collections of this fungus in 1985. In 2016, Otto Miettinen transferred the species to the new genus Antella, in which it is the type species.
Description
Antella niemelaei is a European species that grows as a thin (about 0.5 mm thick), cream-coloured crust on dead hardwoods, especially on or around the dead fruit bodies of the polypore Hymenochaetopsis tabacina. It has small circular pores numbering about 4 per mm. The hyphal system is dimitic, with thin-walled generative hyphae having clamp connections, and thick-walled skeletal hyphae. Both hyphal types measure 2–4 μm wide. The spores produced by the fungus are thin-walled, hyaline, and ellipsoid, measuring 2.8–4 by 1.8–2.2 μm.
References
Fungi of Europe
Fungi described in 2011
Steccherinaceae
Fungus species | Antella niemelaei | [
"Biology"
] | 271 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
56,100,192 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atsumi%20Kiln | The Atsumi Kiln (渥美窯 Atsumigama) is a generic name for a historic kiln that dates from the late Heian period to the Kamakura period (early 12th century until the 13th century). It was located on the Atsumi Peninsula in Aichi prefecture.
A pot with a design of autumn grasses called akikusamon was discovered in the Hakusan Burial Mound. It dates to the Heian period, during the late 12th century, and is registered as a National Treasure.
References
External links
http://www.tnm.jp/modules/r_collection/index.php?controller=dtl_img&size=L&colid=E15464&t=type&id=34&lang=en
Culture in Aichi Prefecture
History of Aichi Prefecture
Japanese pottery kiln sites | Atsumi Kiln | [
"Chemistry",
"Engineering"
] | 179 | [
"Kilns",
"Japanese pottery kiln sites"
] |
56,100,977 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%201262 | NGC 1262 is a barred spiral galaxy located in the constellation Eridanus. NGC 1262 is about 686 million light-years from Earth. This galaxy was formerly believed to be the most distant object in the New General Catalogue, however, in 2023 using data from Ann Isaacs from the University of Minnesota, Stephen Odewahn from the McDonald Observatory used new radial velocity calculations which placed NGC 1262 nowhere near the most distant NGC galaxy. NGC 1262 is also a large galaxy with a diameter of about 380,000 light-years making it nearly four times larger than the Milky Way. It was discovered by astronomer Francis Leavenworth on November 12, 1885.
Supernova AT 2014fx in NGC 1262 was discovered by citizen scientists using the Galaxy Zoo website. Its coordinates (decimal) are: ra=48.893766 dec=-15.884613.
See also
List of the most distant astronomical objects
List of NGC objects (1001–2000)
NGC 5609
References
External links
Eridanus (constellation)
Barred spiral galaxies
1262
12107
Astronomical objects discovered in 1885
Discoveries by Francis Leavenworth | NGC 1262 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 231 | [
"Eridanus (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
56,101,085 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steccherinum%20subglobosum | Steccherinum subglobosum is a hydnoid fungus of the family Steccherinaceae. Found in China, it was described as new to science by mycologists Hai-Sheng Yuan and Yu-Cheng Dai in 2005. The type collection was found growing on a fallen angiosperm branch in Shennongjia Nature Reserve (Hubei province). The specific epithet subglobobum refers to the somewhat rounded shape of its spores.
References
Fungi described in 2005
Fungi of China
Steccherinaceae
Taxa named by Yu-Cheng Dai
Fungus species | Steccherinum subglobosum | [
"Biology"
] | 123 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
56,101,160 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steccherinum%20subulatum | Steccherinum subulatum is a hydnoid fungus of the family Steccherinaceae. Found in China, it was described as new to science by mycologists Hai-Sheng Yuan and Yu-Cheng Dai in 2005. The type collection was found growing on a fallen Celtis branch in Shennongjia Nature Reserve (Hubei province). The specific epithet subulatum (meaning subulate) refers to the shape of its skeletocystidia.
References
Fungi described in 2005
Fungi of China
Steccherinaceae
Taxa named by Yu-Cheng Dai
Fungus species | Steccherinum subulatum | [
"Biology"
] | 126 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
56,101,350 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAESAR%20%28spacecraft%29 | CAESAR (Comet Astrobiology Exploration Sample Return) is a sample-return mission concept to comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko. The mission was proposed in 2017 to NASA's New Frontiers program mission 4, and on 20 December 2017 it was one of two finalists selected for further concept development. On 27 June 2019, the other finalist, the Dragonfly mission, was chosen instead.
Had it been selected in June 2019, it would have launched between 2024 and 2025, with a capsule delivering a sample back to Earth in 2038. The Principal Investigator is Alexander Hayes of Cornell University in Ithaca, New York. CAESAR would be managed by NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland. Curation of the returned sample would take place at NASA's Astromaterials Research and Exploration Science Directorate, based at Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas.
The CAESAR team chose comet 67P over other cometary targets in part because the data collected by the Rosetta mission, which studied the comet from 2014 to 2016, allows the spacecraft to be designed to the conditions there, increasing the mission's chance of success. The Rosetta mission also provides a vast geologic context for this mission's sample-return analysis.
Overview
The two New Frontiers program Mission 4 finalists, announced on 20 December 2017, were Dragonfly to Titan, and CAESAR. Comet 67P was previously explored by the European Space Agency's Rosetta probe and its lander Philae during 2014-2016 to determine its origin and history. Squyres explained that knowing the existing conditions at the comet allows them to design systems that would dramatically improve the chances for success.
The CAESAR and Dragonfly missions received funding each through the end of 2018 to further develop and mature their concepts. NASA selected the Dragonfly mission on 27 June 2019 to build and launch in 2026.
Background
A comet sample-return mission was one of the goals in a list of options for a New Frontiers mission in both the 2003 and the 2011 Planetary Science Decadal Survey, which were guiding surveys among those in the scientific community of what and where NASA should prioritize. Another comet mission proposal, Comet Hopper, was one of three Discovery Program finalists that received in May 2011 to develop a detailed concept study; however, it was not selected. NASA has launched several missions to comets in the late 1990s and 2000s; these missions include Deep Space 1 (launched 1998), Stardust (launched 1999), CONTOUR (launched 2002 but failed after launch), and Deep Impact (launched 2005), as well as some participation on the Rosetta mission.
Astrobiology
CAESAR objectives were to understand the formation of the Solar System and how these components came together to form planets and give rise to life. Some researchers have hypothesized that Earth may have been seeded with organic compounds early in its development by tholin-rich comets, providing the raw material necessary for life to emerge. Tholins were detected by the Rosetta mission to comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko.
Spacecraft
The spacecraft would be built by Northrop Grumman Innovation Systems and it would inherit technology used by the successful Dawn mission. Navigation, sample site selection, and sample documentation are enabled by the camera suite, provided by Malin Space Science Systems. This camera suite consists of six cameras of varying fields of view and focal ranges: narrow angle camera (NAC), medium angle camera (MAC), touch-and-go camera (TAGCAM), two navigation cameras (NAVCAMs), and a sample container camera (CANCAM).
The robotic arm (TAG) and the Sample Acquisition System would be provided by Honeybee Robotics. The sample return capsule and heatshield are provided by the Japanese space agency JAXA.
Propulsion
The propulsion system on CAESAR would be NASA's Evolutionary Xenon Thruster (NEXT), a type of solar electric propulsion. It would employ three NEXT thrusters, with one used as a spare. The propellant is xenon.
Sample return
The spacecraft would not land on the comet, but would momentarily contact the surface with its TAG (Touch-And-Go) robotic arm, as done by OSIRIS-REx on an asteroid, including raising the solar arrays into a Y-shaped configuration to minimize the chance of dust accumulation during contact and provide more ground clearance. The sampler mechanism on the arm would produce a burst of nitrogen gas to blow regolith particles into the sampler head located at the end of the arm. CAESAR would collect between of regolith from the comet. The maximum pebble size would be . The system has enough compressed nitrogen gas for three samplings.
The system would separate the volatiles from the solid substances into separate containers and preserve the samples cold for the return trip. The spacecraft would head back to Earth and drop off the sample in a capsule, which would re-enter Earth's atmosphere and parachute down to the surface in 2038. The sample-return capsule (SRC) would be provided by JAXA and its design is based upon the SRC flown on the Hayabusa and Hayabusa2 spacecraft. The capsule would parachute down at the Utah Test and Training Range (UTTR), and it would be transported to NASA's Johnson Space Center for curation and analyses at the laboratory called Astromaterials Research and Exploration Science Directorate (ARES). A small portion of the sample will also be curated at Japan's Extraterrestrial Sample Curation Center. Most of the sample (≥75% of the total) would be preserved for analysis by future generations of scientists.
See also
References
Missions to comets
New Frontiers program proposals
Origin of life
Proposed NASA space probes
Proposed astrobiology space missions
Sample return missions | CAESAR (spacecraft) | [
"Biology"
] | 1,172 | [
"Biological hypotheses",
"Origin of life"
] |
56,101,526 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptoporus%20sinensis | Cryptoporus sinensis is a polypore fungus found in central and southern provinces of China. It was described as a new species in 2000 by mycologists Sheng H. Wu and Mu Zang. It is distinguished from the more widespread Cryptoporus volvatus by its smaller spores, which measure 7.5–10 by 4–5 μm.
References
Fungi described in 2000
Polyporaceae
Fungi of China
Fungus species
Taxa named by Mu Zang | Cryptoporus sinensis | [
"Biology"
] | 95 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
56,102,163 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyglucan | Polyglucan is any polysaccharide that contains glucan units. Specifically, polyglucan's are a structural polysaccharide. The basic polyglucan unit consists of a long linear chain of several hundred to many thousands D-glucose monomers attached with a type of covalent bond called, glycosidic bonds. The point of attachment is O-glycosidic bonds, where a glycosidic oxygen links the glycoside to the reducing end sugar. Polyglucans naturally occur in the cell walls of bacteria. Bacteria produce this polysaccharide in a cluster near the bacteria's cells. Polyglucan's are a source of beta-glucans. Structurally, beta 1.3-glucans are complex glucose homopolymers binding together in a beta-1,3 configuration.
Types
The following are beta glucans
Function
Polyglucans are utilized as a carbon source for microbial fermentation. Although polyglucan production has so far been promoted by nutrient limitation, it must be further enhanced to accommodate market demand. The combined strategies of cultivation design and genetic engineering are used for polyglucan productivity for bioethanol production.
Polyglucans are also involved in another sector of the energy industry, acting as biopolymers to increase oil recovery. The polysaccharide is attached to the bacteria cells and then mixed in an alkali solution such as sodium hydroxide to become soluble. After which, it is then pumped into the injection well. The reason it needs to be a fluid is so you can pump the polysaccharides into the reservoir, but then the polysaccharide needs to gel/solidify/precipitate in situ upon addition of another chemical in order to plug up the pore. The biopolymer is then combined and injected with water until it fills up at least 30% of the empty pores. Next, there is an injection of an acid solution or forming . This neutralizes the solution and allows for the precipitation of the biopolymer, polyglucans, inside the high-permeability zones. Evidence shows that the application of this polyglucan can reduce the permeability of approximately 80% of the high-permeability zones. Oil companies are able to benefit from the decreased permeability because oil tends to flow in areas with the highest permeability. They can also serve as dietary supplements.
Synthesis
Photosynthetic microorganisms, such as cyanobacteria and microalgae, are currently used for their polyglucan production. Since these organisms have high-photosynthetic activity and whole-year cultivation without utilization of arable land. The cultivation is done by modifying the nutrient supply and replacing the growth medium of the cyanobacteria and green microalgae since the control and manipulation of polyglucan metabolism necessitates the elucidation of the polyglucan production mechanism. These activities promote the growth of polyglucans from these organisms.
Clinical significance
The immune-modulation action of polyglucans has been known for over 40 years, after experiments showed that they stimulated the activation of macrophages through the activation of the complement system. The detection of the (1,3)-β-D-glucan in blood is also used as a means of identifying invasive or disseminated fungal infections. Although, a positive test does not render a diagnosis, and a negative test does not rule out infection. This test can aid in the detection of Aspergillus, Candida, and Pneumocystis jirovecii.
References
Polysaccharides | Polyglucan | [
"Chemistry"
] | 778 | [
"Carbohydrates",
"Polysaccharides"
] |
56,102,852 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitasti | A vitasti (, ) is an ancient Indian unit of length approximating to 21 centimeters.
Etymology
The Sanskrit word vitasti, meaning "span", is an ancient Indo-Iranian term. It is derived from the Proto-Indo-Iranian term *witasti- and is related to Avestan vītasti, Kurdish bist and Persian bidast, all meaning "span".
Measurement
According to the Vāstuśāstra, a vitasti is equal to 12 aṅgulas. It is defined as the long span between the extended thumb and the little finger or as the distance between the wrist and the fingertips.
Equivalence to other units of length
8 Paramāṇu = 1 Rathadhūli (chariot-dust)8 Rathadhūli = 1 Vālāgra (hair-end)8 Vālāgra = 1 Likṣā (nit)8 Likṣā = 1 Yūkā (louse)8 Yūkā = 1 Yava (barley)8 Yava = 1 Aṅgula (finger)12 Aṅgula = 1 Vitasti (span) 2 Vitasti = 1 Kiṣku (cubit)
References
Units of measurement | Vitasti | [
"Mathematics"
] | 232 | [
"Quantity",
"Units of measurement"
] |
56,103,252 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Padmakar%E2%80%93Ivan%20index | In chemical graph theory, the Padmakar–Ivan (PI) index is a topological index of a molecule, used in biochemistry. The Padmakar–Ivan index is a generalization introduced by Padmakar V. Khadikar and Iván Gutman of the concept of the Wiener index, introduced by Harry Wiener. The Padmakar–Ivan index of a graph G is the sum over all edges uv of G of number of edges which are not equidistant from u and v.
Let G be a graph and e = uv an edge of G. Here denotes the number of edges lying closer to the vertex u than the vertex v, and is the number of edges lying closer to the vertex v than the vertex u. The Padmakar–Ivan index of a graph G is defined as
The PI index is very important in the study of quantitative structure–activity relationship for the classification models used in the chemical, biological sciences, engineering, and nanotechnology.
Examples
The PI index of Dendrimer Nanostar of the following figure can be calculated by
References
Mathematical chemistry
Cheminformatics
Graph invariants | Padmakar–Ivan index | [
"Chemistry",
"Mathematics"
] | 225 | [
"Drug discovery",
"Applied mathematics",
"Graph theory",
"Molecular modelling",
"Mathematical chemistry",
"Computational chemistry",
"Theoretical chemistry",
"Graph invariants",
"nan",
"Cheminformatics",
"Mathematical relations"
] |
56,103,369 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open%20Bug%20Bounty | Open Bug Bounty is a non-profit bug bounty platform established in 2014. The coordinated vulnerability disclosure platform allows independent security researchers to report XSS and similar security vulnerabilities on any website they discover using non-intrusive security testing techniques. The researchers may choose to make the details of the vulnerabilities public in 90 days since vulnerability submission or to communicate them only to the website operators. The program's expectation is that the operators of the affected website will reward the researchers for making their reports.
Program
Unlike commercial bug bounty programs, Open Bug Bounty is a non-profit project and does not require payment by either the researchers or the website operators. Any bounty is a matter of agreement between the researchers and the website operators. Heise.de identified the potential for the website to be a vehicle for blackmailing website operators with the threat of disclosing vulnerabilities if no bounty is paid, but reported that Open Bug Bounty prohibits this.
Open Bug Bounty was launched by private security enthusiasts in 2014, and as of February 2017 had recorded 100,000 vulnerabilities, of which 35,000 had been fixed. It grew out of the website XSSPosed, an archive of cross-site scripting vulnerabilities.
In February 2018, the platform had 100,000 fixed vulnerabilities using coordinated disclosure program based on ISO 29147 guidelines.
Up to the end of 2019, the platform reported 272,020 fixed vulnerabilities using coordinated disclosure program based on ISO 29147 guidelines.
References
External links
Computer security exploits
Computing websites
2014 establishments | Open Bug Bounty | [
"Technology"
] | 320 | [
"Computing websites",
"Computer security exploits"
] |
56,103,572 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linzagolix | Linzagolix, sold under the brand name Yselty, is a medication used in the treatment of uterine fibroids. Linzagolix is a small-molecule, non-peptide, orally active gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonist (GnRH antagonist) developed by Kissei Pharmaceutical and ObsEva.
In June 2022, it was approved for medical use in the European Union and in the United Kingdom.
Medical uses
Linzagolix is indicated for treatment of moderate to severe symptoms of uterine fibroids in adult women of reproductive age.
Available forms
Linzagolix is available as linzagolix choline, the choline salt of linzagolix, in the form of 100 and 200mg film-coated oral tablets.
Pharmacology
Pharmacodynamics
Linzagolix acts as a selective antagonist of the GnRH receptor, the biological target of GnRH. By blocking this receptor, linzagolix prevents GnRH-mediated secretion of the gonadotropins, luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and prevents them from signaling the gonads to produce sex hormones including estrogens, progesterone, and androgens.
In clinical studies, linzagolix fully suppressed estradiol levels (median <20pg/mL) in women at a dosage of 200mg/day, whereas partial suppression of estradiol levels (median 20–60pg/mL) occurred at a dosage 100mg/day. Progesterone levels were also variably suppressed with these dosages.
Pharmacokinetics
The elimination half-life of linzagolix with repeated administration is approximately 15hours.
Society and culture
Legal status
On 16 December 2021, and on 22 April 2022, the Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP) of the European Medicines Agency (EMA) adopted a positive opinion, recommending the granting of a marketing authorization for the medicinal product Yselty, intended for the treatment of symptoms of uterine fibroids. The applicant for this medicinal product is ObsEva Ireland Ltd. Linzagolix was approved for medical use in the European Union in June 2022.
Brand names
Linzagolix is sold under the brand name Yselty.
Availability
Linzagolix is available in the European Union and in the United Kingdom.
References
Further reading
External links
Carboxylic acids
Ethers
Fluoroarenes
GnRH antagonists
Pyrimidines | Linzagolix | [
"Chemistry"
] | 532 | [
"Organic compounds",
"Carboxylic acids",
"Functional groups",
"Ethers"
] |
56,103,612 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/II%20Lupi | II Lupi (IRAS 15194-5115) is a Mira variable and carbon star located in the constellation Lupus. It is the brightest carbon star in the southern hemisphere at 12 μm.
In 1987, the infrared source IRAS 15194-5115 was identified as an extreme carbon star. It was seen to be strongly variable at optical and infrared wavelengths. It is very faint visually, 15th or 16th magnitude in a red filter and below 21st magnitude in a blue filter, but at mid-infrared wavelengths (N band) it is the third-brightest carbon star in the sky. A star at the location had earlier been catalogued as WOS 48, a possible S-type star, on the basis of strong LaO bands in its spectrum.
On the basis of infrared photometry, IRAS 15194-5115 was given the variable star designation II Lupi in 1995, although the variability type was still unknown. More detailed infrared photometry confirmed that II Lupi was a Mira variable and showed regular variations with a period of 575 days over 18 years. The mean magnitude also dimmed and brightened during that time and has been characterised as a 6,900-day secondary period although less than a full cycle was observed. The secondary period could be interpreted as an isolated or irregular obscuration event in a dust shell surrounding the star.
II Lupi has a strong stellar wind averaging per year.
References
Mira variables
Carbon stars
Lupus (constellation)
Lupi, II
IRAS catalogue objects
J15230507-5125587 | II Lupi | [
"Astronomy"
] | 319 | [
"Constellations",
"Lupus (constellation)"
] |
56,103,654 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opigolix | Opigolix (, ; developmental code name ASP-1707) is a small-molecule, non-peptide, orally active gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonist (GnRH antagonist) which was under development by Astellas Pharma for the treatment of endometriosis and rheumatoid arthritis. It was also under investigation for the treatment of prostate cancer. It reached phase II clinical trials for both endometriosis and rheumatoid arthritis prior to the discontinuation of its development in April 2018.
See also
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor § Antagonists
References
External links
Opigolix - AdisInsight
Abandoned drugs
Secondary alcohols
Amidines
Benzimidazoles
Fluoroarenes
GnRH antagonists
Aromatic ketones | Opigolix | [
"Chemistry"
] | 166 | [
"Amidines",
"Functional groups",
"Drug safety",
"Bases (chemistry)",
"Abandoned drugs"
] |
56,103,909 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophthalmic%20drug%20administration | Ophthalmic drug administration is the administration of a drug to the eyes, most typically as an eye drop formulation. Topical formulations are used to combat a multitude of diseased states of the eye. These states may include bacterial infections, eye injury, glaucoma, and dry eye. However, there are many challenges associated with topical delivery of drugs to the cornea of the eye.
Eye drop formulations
Two of the largest challenges faced when using topicals to treat pathological states of the eye include patient compliance and ineffective absorbance of drugs into the cornea due to short contact times, solution drainage, tears turnover, and dilution or lacrimation. In fact, researchers in this field of drug delivery agree that less than 7% of drugs delivered to the eye reach and penetrate the corneal barrier, therefore, increasing the frequency of dosing used for topicals. This is one of the fundamental problem associated with using topicals to deliver drugs to the cornea and therefore leads to the increased demand for patient compliance. Together, these two factors drive a need in the field of scientific research and engineering for a way to better deliver drugs to the cornea of the eye while decreasing dosing frequency and demand for patient compliance. Strategies to achieve a prolonged residence time of drug delivery systems on ocular surface include mucoadhesive and in situ gelling polymers and thiolated cyclodextrins (see thiomers). Besides the logistical problems associated with using topicals, there are also systemic side effects which result from the administration of some drugs used to combat the pathological states of the eye. With the increased concentration of drugs in topicals and the frequent application to the eye, a majority of the drug is drained from the eye via nasolacrimal drainage. This drainage is thought to be the reason that systemic side effects exist from such administration.
Contact lenses as delivery devices
The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) claims that there were "about 41 million contact lens wearers greater than 18 years old in the United States" in 2018. Of all of these wearers, nearly 90% of them wear contact lenses known as 'soft contact lenses' (SCLs). Contact lenses are regulated by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA).
The main approaches that researchers in this field are using today are: molecular imprinting, supercritical soaking, solvent impregnation, and nanoparticle loading. Each of these techniques assists by hoping to deliver drugs at a lower, more sustained, rate that does not require a demand for increased patient compliance nor the systemic side effects from topical drug delivery systems. However, each of these different types of loading techniques results in contact lenses that all have separate physical and chemical challenges when it comes to the sustained release and penetration of specific drugs at the molecular level in regards to the cornea of the eye.
Molecular imprinting
Molecular imprinting is a process by which polymerization of a polymer around template result in the polymer matrix with embedded templates. After the template is removed, a cavity results with the functionalized monomers within the polymer cavity. This cavity is the idealized position for drug loading since this process can be designed specifically to recruit and hold onto drugs due to chemical specificity. This technique can be better visualized by referring to Figure 3.0. This type of drug loading can be used as a way to create a pH responsive system, which releases drug(s) as the pH of the biological system changes. Some drugs that have been successfully loaded via this method are: timolol, norfloxacin, ketotifen, polyvinlypyrrolidone, and hyaluronic acid. The molecular structures of each of these drugs are shown below in the index of important scientific terminology.
Supercritical soaking/solvent impregnation
The supercritical soaking method is commonly used in hydrogel-based contact lenses and is the most common of all types of molecular drug loading techniques. Since this technique requires no special equipment or advanced knowledge of polymer-based hydrogels it is the least complex of all loading types. In order to load the hydrogel matrix with a certain drug, contact lenses are simply placed in a solution of the drug and the drug diffuses into the matrix. Since this loading technique is driven solely by the gradient of the drug concentration surrounding the lens relative to the hydrogel matrix, the diffusion rate and amount of drug that is loaded can be controlled solely by the concentration of the drug solution. Since this process allows for specific amounts of a certain drug to be loaded to the hydrogel matrix, this method of loading has become important for patient-specific (personalized) medicine and treatments.
Nanoparticle loading
The nanoparticle loading technique includes two major parts. The first part of this process is the creation and conjugation of a specific drug into or onto a nanoparticle or other colloidal particle. Next, the nanoparticle is loaded into the hydrogel matrix of the contact lens. In this case, before the drug can diffuse out of the hydrogel matrix to reach the cornea, it must also diffuse or be released out of the nanoparticle.
Physical and chemical challenges of loading
It is important to recognize the positives and negatives associated with each type of drug loading for using contact lenses as drug delivery devices. In order to seriously address the possibility of clinical translation of these devices, it is important to recognize the physical and chemical barriers. By understanding this better, the mechanism of drug loading and the controlled and sustained release of drugs to a patient's eye can be optimized.
Lens transparency
Since contact lenses are used on a part of the body that is important for normal daily functioning (sight) it is critical that scientists take into account the transparency of the lens. As larger and more drugs/objects are loaded to a contact lens it begins to physically crowd the space available, making it more difficult for light to penetrate and reach the eye.
Fundamental Concept Understanding: A simple analogy to this is a crowded versus an uncrowded area while it is raining outside. When individuals are packed tightly the rain falls and lands on people, making its way to the ground slowly but surely in a scattered way. In an uncrowded area, the rain can fall and land on the ground easily and without interference from the people. In this analogy, the rain is analogous to light and the people are analogous to drugs being loaded in a contact lens. The more drugs added to the contact lens, the less light that can penetrate without being randomly scattered. Random scattering of the light can result in unclear and unfocused sight.
Researchers have noted that by using the nanoparticle loading technique, the transparency decreases by nearly 10%. Conversely, researchers have confirmed that by using the molecular imprinting and supercritical soaking methods of drug loading, the lens transparency of the contact lenses has stayed at or above the lens transparency of the contact lenses currently approved by the FDA.
Oxygen permeability
Oxygen permeability is another important feature of all contact lenses and much be optimized to the largest degree possible when creating drug delivery devices for the eye. The contact lens adheres to the external cornea of the eye which is made up of a layer of cells. Cells, being the basic component of living organisms, require sustained and constant access to oxygen in order to survive. The cornea of the eye is not supplied with blood as are most other cells in the body, making this a challenging part of the body to which to deliver drugs. Decreasing oxygenation to the eye can result in undesirable side effects. Researchers in this field have noted that different types of contact lenses have varying degrees of oxygen permeability. For example, it has been shown that SCLs have limited oxygen permeability while silicon-based contact lenses have much better oxygen permeability. Silicon-base contact lenses have also been shown to have some other very important physical parameters.
Researchers have attempted to make the thickness of the contact lenses in order to increase the drug loading capacity of the contact lens. However, for silicon-based lenses this parameter is inversely proportion to oxygen permeability (i.e. as thickness of the contact lens increases the oxygen permeability decreases). Moreover, it has been shown that as water content increases in silicon-based lenses, the oxygen permeability decreases, another relationship that is inversely proportional. Surprisingly, as SCLs increase with water content the oxygen permeability also increases (a directly proportional relationship).
In regards to whether silicon-based lenses or SCLs are a better candidate as an ophthalmic drug delivery device is a question that remains unanswered and is not uniformly agreed upon in the scientific community. For example, Ciolino et al. claim that silicon-based contact lenses are better candidates for patients that are long-term contact lens wearer. Conversely, Kim et al. suggest that SCLs are better candidates because they show the possibility to be able to overcome the difficult of oxygen permeability as well as mechanical integrity of the lens. Kim et al. have shown that the mechanical strength can be increased for SCLs by incorporating a nanodiamond (ND) infrastructure into contact lens matrix.
Additionally, many researchers have investigated the implications of loading vitamin E into the contact lens matrix of SCLs. Although vitamin E incorporation into the matrix has been shown to slow the release of drugs into the eye and onto cornea (a desirable trait of an ophthalmic delivery system), it has also been shown to decrease oxygen permeability. Oxygen permeability continues to be an extremely important factor in the development of these devices and is one of the main reason that much research is beginning to focus on this area of drug delivery.
Water content
The amount of water content that a particular contact lens can retain is another extremely important factor that must be taken into account when these devices are designed. Research in this specific area of design suggests that contact lens wearers find it more comfortable to wear lenses that retain water more than those that deter water. For SCLs, as the water content of a lens increases so does the oxygen permeability. Conversely, as the water content increases in silicon-based contact lenses, the oxygen permeability decreases. In reference to SCLs, higher water content in contact lenses allows for easier loading using the supercritical soaking method. This could be due to the water acting as a lubricant to some drugs and allowing the drug to be more easily facilitated into the matrix. This would essentially allow for more drug to be loaded into contact lenses of this type. This increase in drug loading capacity is an important advancement and would allow for patients wince it may allow for a longer period of drug release time and would hopefully be more sustained.
Furthermore, Guzman-Aranguez et al. has shown that when using the molecular imprinting method for loading drugs such as ketotifen and norfloxacin into the contact lens, the water content is not largely impacted. Additionally, it has been predicted by Peng et al. by using Fickian release kinetic models that although water content changes once contact lenses are inserted onto the cornea of the eye, this will not pose significant challenges when it comes to the release of rugs from SCLs.
Drug release kinetics
The most important factor that must be taken into account when designing any type of drug delivery device, and specifically ocular devices, is the release rate of a drug. As discussed previously, the deliver rate and kinetics associated with drugs to the eye can reach levels that are toxic to the eye or could even cause undesirable side effects. The rate of release of a drug is also important because too slow of a release could have no beneficial outcome for the patient and a release that is too quick could result in negative side effects. Thus, it is important to balance the factors that govern the release of drugs from contact lenses as potential drug delivery devices. Researchers such as C. Alvarez-Lorenzo have tested (with animal models) and have data which supports that molecularly imprinted contact lenses release drugs in a sustained and long period of time. It has also been supported by researchers that the rate of drug release can be controlled by incorporating vitamin E within the hydrogen matrix.
Systemic side effects
Over time, it has been reported that many of the same drugs and eye drops used to treat particular eye diseases do, in fact, result in systemic side effects that could possibly be minimized or limited due to a slower, more sustained release of the drug. The systemic side effects of glaucoma medications such as latanoprost increased heart rate resulting in cardiac arrhythmias, bronchoconstriction, and hypotension. These complications could be life-threatening. Some other drugs that help to reduce the effects of glaucoma in the eye result in vomiting, diarrhea, tachycardia and bronchospasm. It has been found that some drugs delivered in the form of eye drops are highly toxic to children since their total body volume and tissue volumes are much lower than that of an adult for which the drugs are intended for use. In this case, some parents are not aware of these implications and could use the same drug they would use to help treat their children's bacterial infections in the eye. Moreover, some drugs administered to the eye have been shown to result in cardiac depression and propagation of some disorders such as asthma. With continued research in this area, it has become known that skin irritation, itching or rash are commonly associated with drugs used to treat ocular bacterial infections.
Ocular disorders
There are currently four main ocular disorders that have been heavily investigated and have shown success with using contact lenses as possible devices for molecular drug delivery.
Bacterial infection
The drug release rate is extremely important in treating many diseased states of the eye, bacterial infections being one of them. Ciprofloxacin and norfloxacin are drugs that are normally used to treat bacterial infections of the eye. It is of utmost importance that these drugs stay in the therapeutic window for an extended period of time in order to be fully effective and kill bacteria. To keep the specific drug in the therapeutic window using eye drops the topical must be applied approximately every 30 minutes in order to be fully effective. Having to apply eye drops every 30 minutes would be nearly impossible for anyone and is not the ideal mechanism by which to deliver such drugs to the eye. Researchers have gathered data to support the idea that silicon-based contact lenses with ciprofloxacin could release the drug in the therapeutic window for approximately one month. Ana Guzman-Aranguez et al. also confirmed that the contact lens used also retained important properties such as transparency, oxygen permeability, mechanical strength, and zero-order release pharmacokinetics.
Corneal injury
Many factors can result in corneal injury and cause the deterioration or death of cells that make up the cornea of the eye. The epithelial cells that make up the cornea are important in order for normal vision. These cells play a role in creating a physical environment that can correctly bend light rays to help project images to the retina of the eye. There have been successful human clinical trials with using SCLs infused with epidermal growth factor (EGF) that showed increased rate of healing of the epithelial cell layer of the cornea.
Glaucoma
Glaucoma is the leading cause of blindness in the world and is a progressive and irreversible disease of the eye. A poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)-based contact lens was shown to release latanoprost at a sustained release rate of up to a month in animal models by Ciolino et al. at Harvard Medical School and Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Latanoprost is one of the drug interventions used to treat patients with glaucoma, generally in the form of topicals such as eye drops.
Dry eye
More than 50% of all contact lens wearers report that they experience dry eye. In order to help combat this issue and be assured that this does not occur in people that will one day be using drug eluting contact lenses, it is important to make sure that this complication is highly investigated. However, these investigations will not only be beneficial for contact lenses as drug delivery devices, but it will also have positive implications on contact lens wearers who use lenses for vision correction and appearance.
References
Medical terminology
Routes of administration | Ophthalmic drug administration | [
"Chemistry"
] | 3,378 | [
"Pharmacology",
"Routes of administration"
] |
65,899,964 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waikiki%20Biltmore%20Hotel | The Waikiki Biltmore Hotel was a resort hotel in Waikīkī, Honolulu, Hawaiʻi, that operated from 1955 to 1974. The Biltmore was the first high-rise hotel on Waikīkī but operated for only 19 years, after which it was demolished and replaced with the Hyatt Regency.
History
Permits were filed for an eight-story hotel in March 1953, with groundbreaking taking place in November of that year. Joseph Greenbach constructed the building, which opened on February 19, 1955. Construction cost $4 million. The hotel was built on the site of Canlis Charcoal Broiler, the first restaurant opened by Peter Canlis, which opened in 1947. The opening was met with great fanfare, including a flight from California chartered by Greenbach.
The hotel opened with 247 rooms, featuring amenities such as the Top of the Isle club on the 11th floor, the Kiki Room, and the Luau Lounge. D.N. Ivanitsky and R.G. Wanabe were the architects of record.
In late 1955, Greenbach sold the hotel to Massaglia Hotels, Inc.
The hotel was sold again to the Kimi chain, operator of the Hukilau hotels, in 1966 for $2.5 million. The Kimi owners spent $100,000 on a renovation, but a planned renaming never occurred.
In 1973, a man fired a shot at a woman sitting at an adjacent hotel from a room at the Biltmore.
The hotel suffered a small fire on the 10th floor in August 1973 caused by a discarded cigarette, and a larger fire in November 1973 that destroyed the second-story Port O' Paradise nightclub.
Closure and demolition
The King's Alley shopping center opened near the hotel in 1972, and after the hotel's purchase by developer Christopher Hemmeter there were plans to renovate the hotel as part of a $20 million area rejuvenation. In 1973, the hotel began offering monthly rentals due to an oversupply of hotel rooms. By 1974, the plans had changed to redevelop the hotel as two 40-story towers, which became the Hyatt Regency.
The hotel was imploded at 8 a.m. on May 28, 1974.
References
1955 establishments in Hawaii
1974 disestablishments in Hawaii
Buildings and structures demolished by controlled implosion
Buildings and structures demolished in 1974
Demolished hotels in the United States
Demolished buildings and structures in Hawaii
Hotel buildings completed in 1955
Waikiki
Defunct hotels in the United States | Waikiki Biltmore Hotel | [
"Engineering"
] | 514 | [
"Buildings and structures demolished by controlled implosion",
"Architecture"
] |
65,900,412 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Beutenmuller | William Beutenmuller (March 31, 1864 - February 24, 1934), was an American entomologist who served as curator of entomology at the American Museum of Natural History (1888-1912), editor of the Journal of the New York Entomological Society (1893-1903), and president of the New York Entomological Society (1900). He published numerous scientific articles on many insect groups, including beetles, flies, gall wasps, and butterflies and moths.
Beutenmuller was born in Hoboken, New Jersey, and attended school in New York. He was married to scientific illustrator Edna Hyatt. He lived his later years in Tenafly, New Jersey, and died of heart disease at Englewood Hospital in 1934.
References
1864 births
1934 deaths
American entomologists
American academic journal editors
People associated with the American Museum of Natural History
Scientists from New Jersey
People from Hoboken, New Jersey
People from Tenafly, New Jersey
Taxon authorities | William Beutenmuller | [
"Biology"
] | 204 | [
"Taxon authorities",
"Taxonomy (biology)"
] |
65,900,419 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sundo | Sundo - also known as Kouk Sun Do (국선도) - is a Korean Taoist art based on meditation, and which aims at the personal development of its practitioners, both at the physical, mental and spiritual levels.
Through the practice of meditation, abdominal breathing and holding positions, the practitioner cultivates his “Ki” (vital energy, also called Qi in Chinese), and develops flexibility, physical ease, health and serenity.
Rather similar to Indian Yoga or Chinese Qigong arts like Tai chi, Sundo has its origins in the mountains of present-day Korea, millennia ago; The particularity of this art is the extreme richness of the exercises according to the level of the practitioner, which allows a smooth progression adapted to the rhythm of life of modern humans.
Sundo (Hangul: 선도; Hanja: 仙道) should not be confused with Sunmudo (Hangul: 선무도; Hanja: 禅 武 道). Although their pronunciations appear similar, the former is a Taoist health practice based on static postures and meditation, while the latter is a Buddhist martial art based on dynamic movements.
History and development
The Sundo has very ancient roots, which go back to ancient Korea, in Northeast Asia.
Practiced for centuries under the name of "Taoism of the Mountain" (San Saram), it recently took the name of Kouk Sun Do (or Kukson-do, the characters Hangeul and Hanja being the same for both spellings) in homage to its institutionalization in the Kingdom of Paekche by the order of Samrang (also called "Kukson") in 320 A.D - after the unification of the Three Kingdoms (Koguryo, Silla and Paekche) by the order of Hwarang, some practitioners of Kouk Sun Do retired to the mountains in order to freely practice their art and thus ensure its sustainability.
Since then, the practice of Kouk Sun Do has been passed down secretly among Taoist mountain monks, from teacher to student, for generations. It was not until 1967 that the monk Chung-Woon sent his disciple Be-Kyung to teach Kouk Sun Do to the rest of the world.
Be-kyung
Be-Kyung's original name was Chung-San (Eng. "the Blue Mountain"). In the late 1940s, as a child, Chung-San encountered a Taoist monk on the mountain named Chung-Woon (Eng. "Clear Clouds"). Legend has it that Chung-Woon offered to teach Chung-San how to break stones with his bare hands if he agreed to follow him, who would have agreed.
Thus began the training of Chung-San in Kouk Sun Do with Chung-Woon and his master Moo-Woon (Without Cloud). In 1967, after twenty years of Asceticism and training, Chung-Woon asked Chung-San to leave the mountain to go and spread the ancient wisdom of Kouk Sun Do to the world. On this occasion, Chung-San was renamed Be-Kyung (the Secret Frontier) by his master. Following some demonstrations of the benefits of his art, Be-Kyung opened the first Kouk Sun Do school in 1970 in Seoul.
Initially, Be-Kyung taught all of the practices he had inherited from the Kukson monks: martial arts (Su Sul) and internal arts (Kouk Sun Do); then he concentrated on the internal practice, the most important to him. During this period, he wrote two books available only in Korea: one chronicling his life as a hermit with Chung-Woon, the other containing more information about the Kouk Sun Do itself.
In 1983, after making sure that his former students would disseminate his art in turn, Be-Kyung returned peacefully to his life as a Taoist monk in the mountains. Among the twelve masters trained by Be-Kyung, Hyun-moon Kim is the one who spread the Sundo the most beyond the borders of Korea.
Hyun-moon Kim
In 1979, after several years of training under the direction of Be-Kyung, Hyun-moon Kim introduced the Sundo to the West, particularly the United States, Canada and Europe.
Doctor of Philosophy, Master Hyun-moon Kim combines ancestral Korean wisdom and modern Western psychology to teach Sundo Taoist principles, with a view to personal development aimed at improving the quality of life of his students. He is the author of a book on Taoism and related practices, titled "The Tao of Life".
He has opened a Sundo school in West Hartford, Connecticut, and holds numerous Instructor training retreats in Barnet, Vermont. Master Kim divides his time between his Sundo dojang in the United States and the courses he gives at the Hanseo University in South Korea. He is also president of the International Institute for Sundo-Taoist Cultural Research (IISCR) in Tangjin, South Korea.
International spread
Sundo is one of the largest health and wellness entities in South Korea, with significant bases in France and Eastern European countries, like Czech, Romania and Russia.
Nowadays, Sundo has spread throughout South Korea, this tradition has become a national treasure of the country. It is practiced by a wide variety of people, regardless of their religious and political beliefs and type of activity: heads of large enterprises and students, monks and politicians, blue-collar workers and celebrities.
The organizations promoting Sundo are Kuksundo World Federation, World Kuksundo Federation, and Deokdang Kukseondo.
In South Korea
The World Kukseondo Federation currently has about 300 dojangs across South Korea, which trains body and mind based on Korean Danjeon breathing, meditation, and martial arts. The organization is seeking international expansion.
France
The main mover of Sundo in France is Philippe Lewkowicz - who is currently the representative for France of the International Sundo Federation. He has been practicing martial arts since 1980 and it was in 1987 that he was introduced to Sundo with Master Hyunmoon Kim. Having lived twenty years in the United States, Master Philippe Lewkowicz spent several years learning and mastering Sundo techniques from Master Hyunmoon Kim, and he finally obtained the Sundo Master degree in 1996 in Korea. Back in France for professional reasons, Philippe Lewkowicz continued to work on the development of Sundo.
Nicolas Tacchi is also another major mover of the art. Tacchi is an expert in Korean martial arts: he is the president of the Francophone Federation of Sin Moo Hapkido, Sundo and associated disciplines. He began practicing Sundo with Master Philippe Lewkowicz in the early 2000s, then with Master Hyunmoon Kim, with whom he took part in several courses in France as well as a retreat in Vermont, in order to become an instructor of Sundo.
Tacchi is also a professional musician at the Opéra National de Lorraine since 1985 and has spread the Sundo among professional musicians and students in the prevention of pathologies due to the performing arts in general and to the practice of a musical instrument in particular. As part of this project, he worked between 2008 and 2012 at INSET Nancy. Many conservatories around the world have already included internal practices similar to Sundo in their curriculum to improve the breathing and posture of musicians. More generally, Sundo is a highly beneficial internal practice in a context of regular stress related to professional activity, and can therefore be recommended as part of campaigns to fight against anxiety within a company, or quite simply for the well-being of employees. He currently teaches in Nancy, at MJC Lillebonne.
Czech
The European SunDo Association is based in the Czech Republic which can be found via the www.sundo5.cz website. Master Hyunmoon Kim is coming to the Czech Republic and Romania for twice yearly retreats to correct and guide the practice.
As breathing is becoming more needed as a tool to help the mental and physical health, parts of the Sundo breathing meditation can be used for different activities/classes with adults, youth and seniors to help balance the mind-body-spirit system. Sundo is providing very complex and useful techniques for different needs - postural, stretching and strengthening for the body, calming the mind, and mainly centering for the energy, getting the body organised then in harmony knowing its centre.
Nurturing lower danjeon is long term deep transformation for practitioners dedicated to regular practice of sundo, which can be considered part of neigong inner qigong family practices.
Russia
Practice of Sundo
Sundo is a technique aimed at stimulating internal energy (called "Ki" by the Japanese and Koreans, "Qi" or "Chi" by the Chinese), through breathing exercises, postures and to meditation. The energy thus gathered is then used to establish and maintain the various balances: physical, emotional and spiritual.
Sundo's theoretical approach is the same as in acupuncture: by acting on the meridians of the body, you achieve a state of relaxation, inner calm, and you also strengthen your immune system, thus balancing the body and mind. The basic Sundo exercises, although very gentle, also greatly improve flexibility and physical ease, which allows the practitioner to feel their best in their body. Finally, at the end of assiduous learning, the practitioner tackles the deep meditation exercises, which complete their inner development.
The purpose is to actually develop the strength of the mind and improve the personality that can control oneself through the practice of Sundo. It is not actually the purpose of performing danjeon breathing to exert instantaneous powers such as accumulating and destroying energy through breathing.
Typical session
A Sundo session begins with a "long warm-up" (about half an hour), consisting of stretching and self-massage, designed to relax the body and prepare it for the exercises that follow.
Then comes the part "Meditation" (the heart of the work), lasting 40 minutes, during which the practitioner stimulates his energy and his body by exercises of holding positions (25 positions for beginners, only one for masters), coupled with deep abdominal breathing called "Danjeon breathing", the difficulty of which varies according to the level of practice.
Finally, the session ends with a series of stretching and twisting exercises intended to circulate energy through the meridians to each internal organ, and to free the body and muscles from all the blockages related to sedentary life. This third and final part also includes some rhythmic muscle strengthening exercises.
While Sundo practice is optimal when done daily, performing two or three sessions per week is already enough to experience major improvements in physical and mental well-being.
Practitioners are also invited to take part in retreats organized by the Instructors several times a year. The pedagogical progression of Sundo is done through "forms" (akin to taolu), which correspond to the sequence of postures to be performed in the second part of the session. Regularly, a change of Tableau leads to a change of belt, up to the black belt, like many Korean and Japanese martial arts.
Progression
Sundo can be practiced at all ages, at all levels, whatever the initial physical condition. As they progress through the forms, the students approach, step by step, and without ever forcing, exercises of increasing difficulty.
The progression varies according to the frequency and the quality of the practice. Once a red belt, the practitioner can be awarded the title of Instructor, then Senior Instructor, and finally Teacher (Sa Bom Nim). There are five levels of practice in the Sundo:
Jung Ki Dan Boup - white belt then white and yellow: "Refocus" → 2 forms of 25 postures
Keon Gon Dan Boup - yellow belt: "Uniting the Energy of Heaven and Earth" → 1 form of 23 postures
Won Ki Dan Boup - red belt, red and blue belt and blue belt: "Working with the Primordial Energy of the Universe" → 3 x 10 form of 12 postures
Chook Ki Dan Boup - gray belt: "Feed the Primordial Energy" → 1 form of 5 postures
Jin Ki Dan Boup - black belt: "Working with Transformed, Pure Energy" → one posture.
The first three tables correspond to the beginner, intermediate and advanced levels, up to the yellow belt. Then come another 31 forms.
Advantages
From the general point of view, Sundo practice and yoga practice have similarities. The fundamental is a method of regaining health through balance and harmony of the body through the way of moving the body while properly breathing, which is the source of human life.
See also
Choi Kwang-Do
Sin Moo Hapkido
Falun Gong
Body & Brain / Dahn Yoga
Neijia
Notes
References
Personal development
Qigong
Meditation
South Korean martial arts
Traditional Chinese medicine | Sundo | [
"Biology"
] | 2,649 | [
"Personal development",
"Behavior",
"Human behavior"
] |
65,901,128 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic%20age | The academic age is the time that a scientist has been in the research field and performed active research.
The academic age of a scientist may be computed as the span of years from their first published work up until the present.
Another definition regards the academic age as the time since their doctoral degree.
When the academic age is computed in formal settings, the academic age may be adjusted taking into account maternity and paternity leave, long-term illness, clinical training and/or national service.
The academic age may be used as one of the components in scientometrics studies, particularly author-level metrics.
The academic age may be a strict criterion for certain grant applications.
For instance, the European Research Council has several funding schemes restricted to specific academic ages:
So-called Starting Grants require an academic age of 2 to 7 years,
Consolidator grants require an academic age of 7 to 12 years
and Advanced Grants require "a track-record of significant research achievements in the last 10 years".
See also
Author-level metrics
Scientometrics
References
Bibliometrics
Age
Ageing | Academic age | [
"Mathematics",
"Technology"
] | 224 | [
"Bibliometrics",
"Quantity",
"Science and technology studies",
"Metrics"
] |
65,901,537 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppo%20Joy | The Oppo Joy is the first in a short series of Oppo phones aimed at the budget segment of the smartphone market in India. These phones focused on delivering good battery life and cameras at the cost of other features.
References
Joy
Mobile phones introduced in 2014
Android (operating system) devices
Discontinued smartphones
Mobile phones with user-replaceable battery | Oppo Joy | [
"Technology"
] | 70 | [
"Mobile technology stubs",
"Mobile phone stubs"
] |
65,904,768 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom%20and%20constraint%20topologies | Freedom and constraint topologies (a.k.a., freedom, actuation, and constraint topologies; or simply FACT) is a mechanical design framework developed by Dr. Jonathan B. Hopkins. The framework offers a library of vector spaces with visual representations to guide the analysis and synthesis of flexible systems. Flexible systems are devices, mechanisms, or structures that deform to achieve desired motion such as compliant mechanisms, flexures, soft robots, and mechanical metamaterials.
History
The FACT design approach was created in 2005 by Jonathan Brigham Hopkins while a Master’s student in Professor Martin L. Culpepper’s Precision Compliant Systems Laboratory at MIT. FACT was first published in a short conference paper in the 2006 proceedings of the 21st Annual Meeting of the American Society for Precision Engineering and was later published in depth in Hopkins’ 2007 Master's thesis. FACT has been expanded in later works such as Hopkins' 2010 PhD Thesis.
Alternatives
Other compliant mechanism design methods include generative design, pseudo-rigid-body analysis, and other constraint-based and [screw theory]-based design approaches. See the main article for pros and cons of kinematics and structural optimization.
Fundamentals
FACT combines principles of screw theory, linear algebra, projective geometry, and exact-constraint design. The methodology employs a library of vector spaces derived from these principles and represented by geometric shapes. These shapes are categorized into freedom spaces, constraint spaces, and actuation spaces, each serving a unique purpose in the design process.
Freedom Spaces represent the allowed deformations of a system; the system's degrees of freedom (DOF). They are modeled as twist vectors.
Constraint Spaces guide the arrangement of flexible elements within a system to ensure it deforms only as intended. Each constraint space is complementary to a freedom space. They are modeled as wrench vectors.
Actuation Spaces guide the arrangement, number, and kind of actuators within a flexible system so that the system deforms as desired under load. Like constraint spaces, they are modeled as wrench vectors
FACT synthesis
The FACT library allows traversal of the complete solution space of flexible systems for any combination of degrees of freedom. The rules of FACT vary depending on the configuration of the flexible system desired. Here are the basic steps to design a parallel flexure bearing.
Determine how the stage should move. What degrees of freedom (DOF) are needed? (Fig 1)
Find the matching freedom space in the FACT library (Fig 2)
Identify the constraint space matching the required freedom space (Fig 2)
Select and arrange flexible elements that satisfy the constraint space. According to Maxwell, the degrees of constraint and degrees of freedom must sum to 6 for the system to be exactly constrained (Fig 3)
Design the rigid bodies and connect each flexture to each body at their ends. When one body is held fixed, it becomes the "ground". The other body (the "stage") then attains the chosen DOF.
Sometimes it may be desireable to over-constrain the system by adding redundant constraints within the constraint space. This adds stiffness and may be required for symmetry, which can improve thermal stability.
Limitations
All flexible systems can be organized according to three primary configurations – parallel, serial, and hybrid. FACT alone covers parallel, serial, and some hybrid systems.
Parallel systems consist of two rigid bodies connected directly together by parallel flexible elements.
Serial systems consist of two or more parallel systems stacked or nested in a chain from one rigid body to the next.
Hybrid systems consist of any other configuration of parallel and serial system combinations.
Interconnected hybrid systems are a special kind of hybrid configuration where intermediate rigid bodies are also interconnected together by flexible elements, which create internal loops within the system. FACT must be supplemented with Graph theory in order to handle such systems. Mechanical metamaterials fall in this category.
Further Learning
FACT is covered in various educational resources:
It is taught in a graduate class at UCLA by Dr. Hopkins.
The course is available on YouTube via the channel "The FACTs of Mechanical Design" as a free lecture series.
The book "Handbook of Compliant Mechanisms" discusses FACT within the context of compliant mechanism design.
See Also
Mechanism (engineering)
Degrees of freedom
Six degrees of freedom
Compliant mechanism
Engineering analysis
Engineering design
Kinematics
General topology
Axiomatic design
Overconstrained mechanism
References
External links
Flexible Research Group
UCLA: Jonathan Hopkins
Engineering concepts
Mechanical engineering
Kinematics
Conceptual modelling | Freedom and constraint topologies | [
"Physics",
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 900 | [
"Machines",
"Kinematics",
"Physical phenomena",
"Applied and interdisciplinary physics",
"Classical mechanics",
"Physical systems",
"Motion (physics)",
"Mechanics",
"Mechanical engineering",
"nan"
] |
65,905,268 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppo%20Neo | The Oppo Neo is the first phone in Oppo's Neo series. The phone was sold in two colors: white and black, for a price of €160.
References
Oppo smartphones
Android (operating system) devices
Discontinued smartphones
Mobile phones with user-replaceable battery | Oppo Neo | [
"Technology"
] | 60 | [
"Mobile technology stubs",
"Mobile phone stubs"
] |
65,905,524 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thurandina | Thurandina is a Devonian genus from Alken, Germany. It was initially described by Leif Størmer as a chelicerate arthropod possibly belonging to the order Eurypterida. Nowadays, it is classified as incertae sedis inside Euchelicerata.
References
Cited bibliography
Controversial taxa
Devonian animals of Europe
Devonian arthropods
Euchelicerata
Fossils of Germany
Fossil taxa described in 1974 | Thurandina | [
"Biology"
] | 93 | [
"Biological hypotheses",
"Controversial taxa"
] |
65,905,815 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppo%20Neo%203 | The Oppo Neo 3 is the second phone in Oppo's Neo Series. It went on sale for an initial pricing of ₹8577 in India in August 2014.
References
Neo 3
Mobile phones introduced in 2014
Android (operating system) devices
Discontinued smartphones
Mobile phones with user-replaceable battery | Oppo Neo 3 | [
"Technology"
] | 63 | [
"Mobile technology stubs",
"Mobile phone stubs"
] |
65,906,611 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near%20future%20%28grammar%29 | Some languages have grammatical categories to represent near future, a subcategory of the future tense.
Going-to future in English may express near future.
Similarly to English, the French verb (to go) can be used as an auxiliary verb to create a near-future tense (le futur proche). Whereas English uses the continuous aspect (to be going), French uses the simple present tense; for example, the English sentence "I am going to do it tomorrow" would in French be « Je vais le faire demain ». As in English, this form can generally be replaced by the present or future tense: "I am doing it tomorrow", "I shall do it tomorrow", « Je le fais demain », « Je le ferai demain ».
Chichewa tenses can be divided into present, recent past, remote past, near future, and remote future. The dividing line between near and remote tenses is not exact, however. Remote tenses cannot be used of events of today, but near tenses can be used of events earlier or later than today.
Mizo language uses conjugational suffixes dáwn mék for forming near future.
See also
Crastinal tense
References
Time in linguistics
Grammatical tenses
Grammatical aspects | Near future (grammar) | [
"Physics"
] | 264 | [
"Spacetime",
"Time in linguistics",
"Physical quantities",
"Time"
] |
65,906,702 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum%20clock%20model | The quantum clock model is a quantum lattice model. It is a generalisation of the transverse-field Ising model . It is defined on a lattice with states on each site. The Hamiltonian of this model is
Here, the subscripts refer to lattice sites, and the sum is done over pairs of nearest neighbour sites and . The clock matrices and are generalisations of the Pauli matrices satisfying
and
where is 1 if and are the same site and zero otherwise. is a prefactor with dimensions of energy, and is another coupling coefficient that determines the relative strength of the external field compared to the nearest neighbor interaction.
The model obeys a global symmetry, which is generated by the unitary operator where the product is over every site of the lattice. In other words, commutes with the Hamiltonian.
When the quantum clock model is identical to the transverse-field Ising model. When the quantum clock model is equivalent to the quantum three-state Potts model. When , the model is again equivalent to the Ising model. When , strong evidences have been found that the phase transitions exhibited in these models should be certain generalizations of Kosterlitz–Thouless transition, whose physical nature is still largely unknown.
One-dimensional model
There are various analytical methods that can be used to study the quantum clock model specifically in one dimension.
Kramers–Wannier duality
A nonlocal mapping of clock matrices known as the Kramers–Wannier duality transformation can be done as follows:
Then, in terms of the newly defined clock matrices with tildes, which obey the same algebraic relations as the original clock matrices, the Hamiltonian is simply . This indicates that the model with coupling parameter is dual to the model with coupling parameter , and establishes a duality between the ordered phase and the disordered phase.
Note that there are some subtle considerations at the boundaries of the one dimensional chain; as a result of these, the degeneracy and symmetry properties of phases are changed under the Kramers–Wannier duality. A more careful analysis involves coupling the theory to a gauge field; fixing the gauge reproduces the results of the Kramers Wannier transformation.
Phase transition
For , there is a unique phase transition from the ordered phase to the disordered phase at . The model is said to be "self-dual" because Kramers–Wannier transformation transforms the Hamiltonian to itself. For , there are two phase transition points at and . Strong evidences have been found that these phase transitions should be a class of generalizations of Kosterlitz–Thouless transition. The KT transition predicts that the free energy has an essential singularity that goes like , while perturbative study found that the essential singularity behaves as where goes from to as increases from to . The physical pictures of these phase transitions are still not clear.
Jordan–Wigner transformation
Another nonlocal mapping known as the Jordan Wigner transformation can be used to express the theory in terms of parafermions.
References
Mathematical modeling
Quantum lattice models | Quantum clock model | [
"Physics",
"Mathematics"
] | 618 | [
"Applied mathematics",
"Mathematical modeling",
"Quantum mechanics",
"Quantum lattice models"
] |
65,906,832 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppo%20Neo%205 | The Oppo Neo 5 is the 3rd phone in the Oppo Neo Series. It is also known by the alias Oppo Neo 5 (4G) to distinguish it from other variants of the Neo 5 (Oppo Neo 5 (2015), Oppo Neo 5s). One of the selling points of the phone, as mentioned by the phones' official website, is a "Double-layer Metallic Structure" which Oppo claims gives the phone a thinner chassis and better heat dissipation.
References
Oppo smartphones
Android (operating system) devices
Discontinued smartphones
Mobile phones with user-replaceable battery | Oppo Neo 5 | [
"Technology"
] | 126 | [
"Mobile technology stubs",
"Mobile phone stubs"
] |
65,907,401 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppo%20Neo%205%20%282015%29 | The Oppo Neo 5 (2015) and Oppo Neo 5s are refreshes of the Oppo Neo 5. The key difference between the refreshed 5 and 5s models is the 4G connectivity in the 5s, which the 5 lacks. The 5 and 5s cost €70 and €160, respectively.
References
Oppo smartphones
Mobile phones introduced in 2015
Android (operating system) devices
Discontinued smartphones | Oppo Neo 5 (2015) | [
"Technology"
] | 89 | [
"Mobile technology stubs",
"Mobile phone stubs"
] |
65,909,127 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brave%20Robot | Brave Robot is a brand of vegan ice cream made using Perfect Day's synthesized milk proteins. It has no lactose, but does include synthetic molecules reproducing those found in milk.
The ice cream comes in 8 flavors: Raspberry White Truffle, Blueberry Pie, A Lot of Chocolate, Peanut Butter 'n Fudge, Hazelnut Chocolate Chunk, Buttery Pecan, Vanilla 'n Cookies, and Vanilla.
By the end of 2021, the company had sold one million pints of ice-cream. By 2022 the product was available in 8000 stores across the USA.
In 2023, the company’s parent group, The Urgent Company, was bought by Superlatus; Superlatus announced plans for Brave Robot to launch a line of pulse protein snacks in 2024.
See also
Coolhaus
References
Dairy-free frozen dessert brands
Vegan cuisine
Cellular agriculture
American companies established in 2020
Food and drink companies of the United States | Brave Robot | [
"Engineering",
"Biology"
] | 197 | [
"Biological engineering",
"Cellular agriculture"
] |
65,911,292 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodo%20saltans%20virus | The Bodo saltans virus is a giant virus of the Mimiviridae family that infects the protozoa Bodo saltans. It has a genome of 1.39 megabases, one of the largest known viral genomes.
References
Mimiviridae | Bodo saltans virus | [
"Biology"
] | 54 | [
"Virus stubs",
"Viruses"
] |
65,911,528 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppo%20Neo%207 | The Oppo Neo 7 is the last phone in the Oppo Neo Series, before the series became known under different aliases, such as the Oppo A Series. The phone was available in two configurations: a 3G and a 4G model. Besides network connectivity differences, these models also had different chipsets. Oppo says the reflective back on the phone, which is made by a "special laminating process" is inspired by Chinese bronze mirrors. The phone is aimed at people who value the looks of a phone over the raw specs, since the price (₹9990) is higher than other phones with similar specs.
This phone was released later as Oppo A33 in November 2015 but with 146g of weight, Snapdragon 410 chipset, 2 GB of RAM and a less 2400 mAh battery.
References
Neo 7
Mobile phones introduced in 2015
Android (operating system) devices
Discontinued smartphones | Oppo Neo 7 | [
"Technology"
] | 189 | [
"Mobile technology stubs",
"Mobile phone stubs"
] |
65,912,284 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutorial%20%28video%20games%29 | In the context of video game design, a tutorial is any tool that teaches player or non-player characters the rules, control interface, and mechanics of the game. Some tutorials are integrated into the game, while others are completely separate and optional. Games can have both of these at once, offering a basic mandatory tutorial and optional advanced training. Tutorials have become increasingly common due to the decline of printed video game manuals as a result of cost cutting and digital distribution. Tutorials can be important since they are a player's first impression of a game, and an overly tedious tutorial or one that does not allow for player freedom can negatively affect their view of a game. However, the lack of a tutorial can also harm a game by causing the player to become frustrated, since they cannot figure out essential game mechanics.
Design
Tutorials range from gently easing the player into the experience, to forcing them to learn via trial and error, only allowing them to proceed when they have mastered the game-play. The former type is often framed as guidance from a mentor character, such as a wise old man or elderly master, and sometimes even literally depicts the main character growing from a child into an adult as they learn their skills, as in Horizon Zero Dawn. The latter type of tutorial presents the player with increasingly difficult enemies that demonstrate techniques required to overcome them. Other types of tutorials include slowly giving players information over the course of the entire game, as in the Legend of Zelda series.
Game designers have also pointed out ways in which a game can be designed with tutorial elements without being obvious. In the original Super Mario Bros., World 1-1 is designed so that when the player jumps over the first enemy, they are likely to accidentally hit a question mark block, which teaches the player where power-ups come from. The first level in the original Half-Life is often considered a tutorial in disguise. It has since become common to think of the first level of a game as a tutorial, whether or not they explicitly give players instructions. In essence, an easy level can act as a tutorial. In strategy games like Age of Empires, an entire single player campaign can be seen as a tutorial to prepare a player for multiplayer battle.
Game designers have been critical of tutorial levels and recommend providing instructions during ordinary gameplay. Playtesting usually helps define what instructions a player needs as they begin a game. A common tutorial design is to provide instructions where a mechanic might be used, such as when the player gains a new item or ability. In several The Legend of Zelda games, the player has a fairy companion who provides tutorials and hints at key moments. In games like Stellaris, tutorials take the form of elaborate tooltips, as well as occasional quests to nudge the player towards helpful actions. Tutorials can also be achieved by giving the player natural cues with intelligent use of graphic design. Some Star Wars games have re-appropriated film dialog as in-game hints about what the player needs to do. Games have also increasingly made use of video tutorials and wikis for players to review on their own time.
Other games have broken the fourth wall with their tutorials, using them as a source of comedy or parody. Examples include Far Cry 3: Blood Dragon, in which the main character demonstrates his annoyance at being forced to undergo a tutorial. Another example is in Undertale in which the tutorial character Toriel is named after tutorials and is shown to be literally holding the protagonist's hand the way a tutorial would.
Tutorials vs. discoverability
Some critics believe that a good tutorial should necessarily allow the player to discover game mechanics for themselves without being told how to do them, as is the case with the original Metroid, as well as Minecraft, although the latter does have a set of tutorial worlds available on the Legacy Console Edition, varying based on the game version, that provide a more traditional tutorial to players who chose to use them.
References
Video game terminology
Usability | Tutorial (video games) | [
"Technology"
] | 828 | [
"Computing terminology",
"Video game terminology"
] |
68,746,568 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time%20in%20Sierra%20Leone | Time in Sierra Leone is given by Greenwich Mean Time (GMT; UTC+00:00). Sierra Leone has never observed daylight saving time. Sierra Leone adopted its current time zone in 1939, switching from UTC−01:00.
IANA time zone database
In the IANA time zone database, Sierra Leone is given one zone in the file zone.tab – Africa/Freetown. "SL" refers to the country's ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code. Data for Sierra Leone directly from zone.tab of the IANA time zone database; columns marked with * are the columns from zone.tab itself:
References
External links
Current time in Sierra Leone at Time.is
Time in Sierra Leone at TimeAndDate.com
Time by country
Geography of Sierra Leone
Time in Africa | Time in Sierra Leone | [
"Physics"
] | 163 | [
"Spacetime",
"Physical quantities",
"Time",
"Time by country"
] |
68,747,705 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research%20Organization%20Registry | Research Organization Registry (ROR) is a community-led dataset that aims to provide a persistent identifier for every research organization in the world. It complements other commonly used identifiers such as ORCID for researchers and DOI for research output.
Initially the registry was seeded by the data from Global Research Identifier Database (GRID). In 2021 it was announced that ROR will take over the role of the leading open organization identifier from GRID. ROR's first release after separating from GRID was published in March 2022.
The data can be accessed via the official website, an open API or as a downloadable data dump. All ROR IDs and metadata are provided under the CC0 license.
References
External links
Official website
Identifiers
Open data
Creative Commons-licensed databases
Metadata
Semantic Web
Library cataloging and classification
Research organizations | Research Organization Registry | [
"Technology"
] | 175 | [
"Metadata",
"Data"
] |
68,748,543 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeralis%20Advanced%20Jet%20Trainer | The Aeralis Advanced Jet Trainer (ADJ) is an advanced jet trainer aircraft designed by Aeralis in the United Kingdom. It is the initial variant of a family of modular aircraft which are reconfigurable to cover a variety of roles, including operational training, basic jet training, aerobatics/display and light combat.
Work on the ADJ began during the early 2010s; the project was publicly announced in June 2015 under the initial name of Dart. Funding was sought from various sources, both within Britain and internationally; in February 2021, the Rapid Capabilities Office of the Royal Air Force (RAF) awarded a three-year contract for the further development of the aircraft; the service is reviewing the aircraft for various purposes, including the Future Combat Air System (FCAS) initiative and as a potential replacement for its aging BAE Systems Hawk aircraft. Aeralis had partnered with various organisations to develop the ADJ, including the engineering consultancy company Atkins, the multinational propulsion specialist International Turbine Engine Company (ITEC), and the German conglomerate Siemens.
During October 2022, wind tunnel testing was performed by Airbus UK. Aeralis plan to carry out a first flight of the advanced jet trainer variant in 2024.
Development
The Advanced Jet Trainer (AJT) project originated in the work of Tristan Crawford during the early 2010s. Crawford sought to develop a capable new trainer aircraft that would be suited to a various of purposes via the use of modular sections. It has been claimed that the modular approach would achieve a 30 percent reduction in both acquisition and maintenance costs in comparison to traditional flight training counterparts. Early market research was collected from Royal Air Force (RAF) pilots, Fielding Aerospace Consultants, and the British government via UK Trade & Investment; additional expertise was intentionally sought outside of the conventional players in the British aerospace sector, such as Formula One suppliers.
During June 2015, the existence of the project was revealed to the public, at which point it was referred to as the Dart Jet. In 2018, Aeralis sought £1 million ($1.32 million) via crowdfunding to fund the design of a concept fuselage demonstrator to be presented at trade shows. During September 2019, it was announced that Aeralis had partnered with engineering and design consultancy firm Atkins to work on two out of three planned variants of the aircraft: the advanced jet trainer and the basic jet trainer.
During February 2021, Aeralis was awarded a three-year contract with the RAF's Rapid Capabilities Office for the further development of the aircraft. Additional external funding was also actively being sought to accelerate the program; according to a spokesperson, the company aimed to reach the preproduction stage prior to the middle of the decade. In March 2021, the company signed a teaming agreement with Thales UK for the latter to support development of training and simulation systems.
In September 2021, Aeralis showcased a number of potential future variants of the type, including an uncrewed combat model and an uncrewed refuelling aircraft. The company also announced that it had received a £10.5 million cash injection from an unnamed Middle Eastern nation, later revealed to be the Qatar-based Barzan Holdings, which it stated was an indication that the AJT was gaining international interest. During that same month, Aeralis also signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with Rolls-Royce to supply engines for the aircraft; under this agreement, the preproduction aircraft will be powered by Rolls-Royce powerplants. Atkins and Siemens also agreed to collaborate with Aeralis on Aerside, the aircraft's digital system. Also in September 2021, Aeralis stated that it was scheduled to perform the first flight of the ADJ sometime during 2024.
During March 2022, a pair of full-scale mock-ups of the aircraft were presented at the DIMDEX conference in Qatar; these mock-ups were unveiled by the Emir of Qatar, Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani, in a ceremony attended by representatives of Barzan Holdings and senior figures of the British and Qatari governments; international delegations from India, South Korea and Indonesia were also in attendance. Two months later, Aeralis received another significant investment from the RAF, initiating Phase 2 of the programme which evaluated the potential of PYRAMID, the UK Ministry of Defence's (MOD) open mission architecture. Aeralis also engaged with the MOD and its procurement arm, Defence Equipment and Support (DE&S) to explore the potential of Aeralis within the framework of the RAF's Future Combat Air System (FCAS) initiative. During July 2022, the company signed a MoU with Ascent Flight Training to develop a future flying training system and explore collaboration opportunities in the provision of military flying training.
During October 2022, wind tunnel testing of a scale model of the AJT was performed by Airbus UK at Filton. Two months later, Aeralis was awarded a £9 million (US$11 million) contract from the MOD to provide digital engineering services. During June 2023, Aeralis signed a MoU with International Turbine Engine Company (ITEC), a joint venture between Honeywell and Aerospace Industrial Development Corporation (AIDC), to develop powerplant solutions for the AJT; the agreement also covers collaboration on the designing of electrical and thermal management systems.
Design
The Aeralis Advanced Jet Trainer (AJT) is the initial variant of a family of light jet aircraft which share approximately 85% of their components, including avionics, digital systems and core fuselage. The rest of the aircraft, including engine pods, wings and tail, can be interchanged to fulfil different roles. According to Aeralis, this system of modularity and fleet rationalisation is intended to deliver lower costs and increased flexibility to its end-user. The roles deliverable by the Aeralis system include advanced jet trainer, basic jet trainer, operational trainer, aerobatics/display and light combat. In a basic trainer configuration, it is to be fitted with straight wings and straight tailplanes, possess a maximum take-off weight (MTOW) of around 7,700 pounds, and be capable of a maximum speed of 350 knots; in an advanced configuration, the aircraft is fitted with swept wing and tailplanes, an MTOW of roughly 11,000 pounds and a top speed of Mach 0.90.
It is intended for a range of powerplants to be available for the AJT, delivering different thrust outputs and other performance criteria to suit the diverse mission roles of the operator. Aeralis has formed agreements with multiple engine manufacturers, such as Rolls-Royce and the International Turbine Engine Company (ITEC), to provide propulsion and other systems for the AJT.
References
External links
Aeralis website
PYRAMID Programme
Proposed aircraft of the United Kingdom
Proposed military aircraft | Aeralis Advanced Jet Trainer | [
"Engineering"
] | 1,386 | [
"Proposed military aircraft",
"Military projects"
] |
68,748,660 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AppleToo | #AppleToo was a movement at Apple Inc. that started in August 2021 during a period of employee unrest centered primarily on the maltreatment of women at the company. Since the early 1990s, Apple has been criticized over a lack of women in leadership. In 2016, employees made anonymous allegations of sexual harassment and sexual assault, discrimination, and mismanagement of concerns by human resources at Apple. In 2021 and 2022, women at the company began speaking on the record to the press and on social media. After an employee-run wage survey found a 6-percent gender-based wage gap, employees began sharing personal stories under the hashtag #AppleToo, inspired by the #MeToo movement, which in turn spawned other corporate movements, such as #GeToo at General Electric.
Several legal actions were taken due to Apple's response to the employee activism. On June 13, 2024, a lawsuit seeking class status was filed in California. In September and October 2024, the National Labor Relations Board's prosecuting attorney filed charges against Apple for unlawful rules, shutting down discussions of gender-based pay equity, and for illegally firing Cher Scarlett and Janneke Parrish, the co-leaders of #AppleToo.
History
In early 2016, a pay study at Apple found gender-based and racial-based wage gaps. That August, Apple said they achieved equal pay for all US-based employees. At the same time, reports showed that Apple was over-represented by white men, especially in technical and leadership positions. A month later, Mic published emails from two anonymous women that the publication said revealed a toxic work environment for women involving sexual harassment, rape jokes, and discrimination. Other anonymous employees spoke out with similar concerns, alleging that the human resources (HR) department was corrupt and had a practice of retaliating against employees who make reports of misconduct.
In May 2021, women at Apple began speaking out against the company on the record for the first time through the press and on the social media site Twitter. After the hiring of Antonio García Martínez, the author of Chaos Monkeys (2016), thousands of employees questioned his hiring in an open letter to Eddy Cue. In the book, García Martínez wrote that women in the San Francisco bay area were "soft and weak" and "useless baggage you'd trade for a box of shotgun shells or a jerry can of diesel." The letter was leaked to The Verge, and resulted in the departure of García Martínez shortly afterward. Other open letters followed including asking leadership for public support of Palestine during the 2021 Israel–Palestine crisis, long-term remote work during the COVID-19 pandemic, and public denouncing of anti-abortion laws amidst Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization.
In August 2021, one of the authors of the open letter about García Martínez, security engineer Cher Scarlett, started a wage transparency survey after other employees were told such surveys were prohibited, which labor lawyers said was illegal. Analysis of the preliminary results showed a 6% wage disparity between men and women. The survey also showed that white men had an outsized share of leadership and technical roles. She tweeted charts shared by The Verge she said were "alarming" that showed Apple's own demographic statistics were misleading; hiding that racial demographics among women were more balanced than men, and that women of color were most likely to be working in non-leadership roles in support, marketing, and retail. As a result of this, Scarlett was harassed, doxed, and stated that co-workers told her that their managers told them not to engage with her.
Lack of women in leadership
In September 1991, Macworld reported employee criticism of Apple's failure to promote women as often as men on a tool called AppleLink. At the time, the company only had four women in department leadership roles, of which there are about 100. In 2014, a developer found only two women in 16 hours of WWDC footage since 2007. The following year, Quartz reported only one woman took the stage at any Apple event between 2013 and 2015, including Apple's annual Worldwide Developers Conference (WWDC) keynote, which prompted questions about the lack of gender diversity at Apple. MIC reported in 2017 women accounted for only 7% of stage time at the WWDC keynote, nine minutes out of two hours. Apple shareholders demanded Apple add more women and minorities to leadership and Vox reported only 29% of all leadership were women. The following September, at the iPhone X announcement, only one woman took the stage to account for six minutes of the two-hour event.
In 2020, the virtual WWDC keynote included rank-and-file employees, which included 11 women and 8 men. On International Women's Day in 2022, a video Apple event promoting Apple M1 featured women developers at the company was criticized by current and former employees. They said it misrepresented the company's gender diversity and response to sexism. Scarlett tweeted that the 2021 wage survey found that less than 10% of Apple's female workforce were in technical roles in software or hardware. Lauren Goode, a female tech reporter, said in a Wired podcast that the change to a virtual event hid the lack of diversity at WWDC. Commenting on the reality behind a joke about there being no lines at the women's restrooms in tech she said, "There's very rarely a line for the women's restroom because there are so few women at this conference."
In September 2022, Computerworld reported just two of Apple's 12 most senior executives were women. Two months later, CEO Tim Cook told the BBC there were not enough women in tech, including at Apple, and there was "no good excuse" for it.
#AppleToo event
#AppleToo is a reference to the #MeToo movement and the sharing of personal stories — in the case of Apple, about alleged sexual harassment and assault, gender and racial discrimination, verbal abuse, retaliation, ableism, and the mishandling of complaints by HR and management.
In August 2021, after encouraging other women on Twitter to come forward about a culture of sexual harassment and abuse at her former employer, Activision Blizzard, Cher Scarlett organized a similar movement at Apple. When employees came to her looking for support, Scarlett and other anonymous Apple employees launched a website called #AppleToo on August 23, 2021, with a tag line "It's time to Think Different". Program manager Janneke Parrish joined as a co-leader and published some of the personal stories of past and current Apple workers including contractors. According to Scarlett, by the end of August they had received nearly 500 reports from workers, with more than 300 shared the first 48 hours. In the first few days, Scarlett reported that nearly half of the stories involved sexism and HR's mishandling of the reports, including retaliation. In an analysis done by Parrish, 40% of the stories involved discrimination based on gender.
On September 3, 2021, the group published an open letter to Cook and the rest of the executive team, calling for signatures from fellow workers. The letter made five requests including increased privacy of personal information; transparent and fair compensation; an audit of all third-party relationships; increased accountability across leadership and human resource teams; and a process for sharing group concerns.
On September 17, 2021, a recording from a company-wide meeting was leaked to the press. Parrish was investigated for the leak and instructed not to delete anything from Apple's property. She was fired after she removed personal applications and work-related files from her company phone and computer. Her personal devices were not confiscated. She said she was fired in retaliation for her role in #AppleToo.
The details in the press from the meeting were related to the allegations made by #AppleToo participants, pay equity, vaccination rules, and restrictive abortion rules concerning the impending overturning of Roe v. Wade. Wired criticized the company's response to the questions about abortions, saying Apple feigned support for women employees seeking to escape states where abortion was illegal with a "cop-out." In response to the leak, Cook sent a company-wide memo that people who leak details of confidential meetings "do not belong at Apple."
More than a dozen additional women went to the press, including program manager Ashley Gjøvik, both on the record and anonymously, about alleged gender pay gaps, discrimination, and the mishandling of sexual harassment and assault at Apple. Several reported a practice of being asked to resign in exchange for severance and signing non-disclosure agreements (NDAs).
#AppleToo spawned similar corporate-based #MeToo movements, such as #GeToo, which refers to General Electric.
Legal actions
Federal labor complaints
In late 2021, Cher Scarlett filed three charges with the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) against Apple for stifling employees from collecting wage data and discussing their salaries, for fostering a culture of harassment and abuse with unlawful rules, and for the memo sent by Cook to staff. Ashley Gjøvik filed two NLRB charges, one about the memo and another that challenged several policies in the employee handbook that she said illegally inhibit staff from exercising their federally-protected rights to talk to the press, discuss wages, and post on social media in a second charge. The memo was criticized for conflating product leaks with employee activism around workplace conditions, and for including the line, "people who leak confidential information do not belong here," which some interpreted as threatening. In November 2021, Janneke Parrish filed wrongful termination charge with the NLRB in which she alleged the investigation and firing for leaking a recording of the townhall was "based upon false and pretextual reasons" and retaliation for her work with #AppleToo.
On November 19, 2021, Apple posted a memo affirming employees' rights to discuss pay and working conditions. While not an official response to one of the group's requests about a company-wide statement clarifying employee rights, Parrish referred to the memo as a victory for the group, and said it would "help end a systemic culture of silence around our working culture and pay equity". Veena Dubal, a law professor, stated, "This is a win for workers because it shows that Apple knows they would have lost had this been adjudicated", referring to Scarlett's first NLRB charge and the penalty that would have been assessed by the NLRB. Dubal also highlighted how little the enforcement of the NLRA does to deter employers from violating these laws. Scarlett later tweeted that she had made four demands to Apple on September 2, 2021, the day after she filed the NLRB charge, one of which had been for the affirmation Apple had posted.
In December 2021, Forbes reported that the NLRB had rejected the withdrawal request with the non-board settlement asking Apple to make 22 changes to the language in the document, including language suppressing Scarlett from helping other Apple employees organize and file charges against Apple for a period of one year. She also confirmed that the memo posted in November was a part of the settlement she reached, but that Apple had only left it up for the week Apple had given the company off for Thanksgiving, which she said did not uphold the agreement's requirement of the memo being published "in a prominent and visible location". In a statement to The Verge, she said she would have been "interested in [withdrawing the charge without the settlement] to avoid witnesses having to give testimony", but that she and other employees decided to follow through with the charges in the face of potential retaliation because of how the company handled the posting of the memo.
All five charges brought by Scarlett and Gjøvik were found to have merit in January 2023. On September 30, 2024, the NLRB charged Apple with forcing employees to sign "illegal" NDAs that "restrained" and "interfered" with their federal rights under labor laws, based on the charges brought by Scarlett and Gjøvik. In October 2024, the NLRB charged Apple with illegally firing Scarlett and Parrish for their advocacy. The prosecutor also charged Apple with restricting employee social media and Slack usage and for suppressing discussions of a gender-based wage gap in violation of the National Labor Relations Act of 1935 (NLRA).
Shareholder and securities complaints
The wage transparency survey and #AppleToo event prompted several instances of shareholder activism. A "civil-rights audit," an investigation into the use of NDAs, and a "workers' rights assessment," were proposed and approved by shareholders. They were the first shareholder actions approved in ten years. Reporters at Politico said that it was "bigger than Apple" and such actions set the tone for other large companies. Investment firms said that attempts to block such shareholder actions would put brand equity at companies with progressive values at risk.
In response to a no-action request filed by Apple with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) which claimed that it was not Apple's practice to use NDAs in employment contracts that inhibit an employee's ability to speak about working conditions, Cher Scarlett filed a whistleblower tip with the agency and shared a severance agreement that stipulated what she was allowed to say about her departure, which was validated by Business Insider. A group of treasurers then called on the SEC to investigate Apple's use of NDAs. The shareholder-prompted audit found that instances existed where NDAs would infringe on an employee's right to speak on unlawful conduct and agreed to remove all concealment clauses from employment contracts retroactively. Laws enacted in California and Washington after the #AppleToo event barred the use of NDAs in employment contracts in relation to harassment, discrimination, and other unlawful activity.
2024 gender discrimination lawsuit
On June 13, 2024, two women filed a lawsuit alleging gender pay bias and sexual harassment on behalf of 12,000 current and former women at Apple in California against the company seeking class status. The suit alleges that Apple circumvents laws prohibiting potential employers from asking about a potential employee's salary history by instead asking for salary expectations, which it states "has had a disparate impact on women," and, separately, that the performance review system is biased against women. In its coverage, Ars Technica quoted the lawsuit as alleging, "The longer a woman works at Apple, the larger the gap in compensation she receives compared to similarly situated men." In a contribution to Forbes, a psychologist and professor of gender studies at the University of California, Los Angeles, Kim Elsesser, attributed the link between salary expectations and history to the anchoring effect, a phenomenon that causes people to value their worth on previous pay. Elsesser shared research that indicates women are impacted by additional social factors when they negotiate for higher pay or promotions; instead of being rewarded, women are penalized and evaluated as aggressive or unlikable.
Related activity
In early 2022, some corporate employees involved in #AppleToo started a solidarity union called Apple Together. They also helped several retail stores organize into unions.
In 2023, a report from Communications Workers of America found that the majority of Apple's diversity was found in Apple Retail, working in low-level jobs, according to an analysis of government-mandated reports. Apple says it does not use such reports to measure its diversity, equity, and inclusion progress. A retail employee started a wage transparency survey that year which found similar results. Apple settled a discrimination lawsuit the following November for $25 million.
See also
Criticism of Apple Inc.
Sexism in the technology industry
Believe women
References
2021 protests
Apple Inc. employees
Apple Inc. litigation
Criticisms of companies
Discrimination
Labor relations by company
MeToo movement
Sexual harassment in the United States
Sexual misconduct allegations
Slogans
Violence against women in the United States
Hashtags | AppleToo | [
"Biology"
] | 3,252 | [
"Behavior",
"Aggression",
"Discrimination"
] |
68,748,996 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth%20P.%20Carpenter | Elizabeth P. Carpenter is a British structural biologist who is a professor at the Nuffield Department of Medicine in Oxford. She solved the three-dimensional structure of human membrane proteins using X-ray crystallography. Carpenter uses X-ray crystallography to understand the atomic positions within proteins.
Early life and education
Carpenter studied biochemistry at the University of Cambridge. She moved to Birkbeck, University of London for doctoral research, where she studied biochemistry and crystallography. After completing her doctorate, Carpenter moved to the National Institute for Health Research, which was based at Imperial College London and solved the structures of proteins involved in DNA repair. She also investigated toxoplasmosis and muste movement.
Research and career
Carpenter is interested in understanding the structure and function of proteins. She studies proteins embedded within cell membranes. The proteins are large hydrophobic surfaces, and understanding their structure is an important step in unravelling the processes of molecules and signals across cell membranes. She established the Membrane Protein Laboratory at the Diamond Light Source in 2007. In 2009, she moved to the Structural Genomics Consortium at the University of Oxford.
Carpenter was the first to describe the structure of the human ABC-transporter ABC10. ABC10 is a mitrochonridal protein that is important in the production of heme. She has studied premature ageing syndromes that are caused by failure of the lamin proteins, and the role of the metalloprotease ZMPSTE24. She has also studied human ion channels, including TREK-2, a K2P protein that gives rise to the background leak current that contributes to membrane potential.
Selected publications
References
Living people
Alumni of the University of Cambridge
Alumni of Birkbeck, University of London
English biologists
Year of birth missing (living people)
Structural biologists
Membrane proteins
X-ray crystallography
21st-century British women scientists
English women biologists | Elizabeth P. Carpenter | [
"Chemistry",
"Materials_science",
"Biology"
] | 384 | [
"Protein classification",
"Crystallography",
"Structural biologists",
"Structural biology",
"Membrane proteins",
"X-ray crystallography"
] |
68,749,580 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agatha%20Jassem | Agatha Jassem is a Canadian clinical microbiologist and the program head of the Virology Lab at the British Columbia Centre for Disease Control Public Health Laboratory, and a clinical associate professor in the Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
Jassem obtained her PhD at the University of British Columbia, followed by a fellowship in Clinical Microbiology at the National Institutes of Health. Her research focuses the detection of healthcare-and community-associated infections, emerging pathogens, and drug resistance determinants.
During the COVID-19 pandemic response, Jassem led research efforts on COVID-19 breakthrough infections from vaccinated individuals, SARS-CoV-2 population level seroprevalence, antibody response as well as collaborating on research on securing reagents for COVID-19 during world-wide shortages, and the role of ACEII.
References
Canadian microbiologists
Academic staff of the University of British Columbia
COVID-19 drug development
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
Place of birth missing (living people)
Canadian women biologists
Women microbiologists
University of British Columbia alumni
Canadian medical researchers
Women medical researchers
21st-century Canadian biologists
21st-century Canadian women scientists | Agatha Jassem | [
"Chemistry"
] | 259 | [
"COVID-19 drug development",
"Drug discovery"
] |
68,749,668 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active%20Asteroids%20%28citizen%20science%20project%29 | Active Asteroids is a NASA partner citizen science project that successfully discovered active asteroids, including main-belt comets, quasi-Hilda objects, and Jupiter family comets. The project is hosted on the Zooniverse platform and is funded by a NSF Graduate Research Fellowship Program. It uses images from the Dark Energy Camera (DECam) to search for tails around asteroids and other minor planets. The research team is led by Colin Orion Chandler. As of April 2024 about 8300 volunteers carried out 6.7 million classifications of 430 thousand images. At the time only 60 active asteroids were known and 16 new active objects were discovered by this project, significantly increasing the sample of known objects.
Pre-launch preparation
Before the team launched the project, the team gained experience with DECam and published three papers. These include detection of activity around previously known active asteroid (62412) 2000 SY178, revealing 6 years of avtivity on (6478) Gault and activity discovered on the centaur 2014 OG392.
Discoveries
The project uses a pipeline called HARVEST, which compares metadata from astronomical image archives with the data from the Minor Planet Center and produces images at positions of minor planets. It also excludes images with no detection or images that cannot detect asteroids. Since February 2024 the team also used a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN), called TailNet, to filter out bad images before they are shown to volunteers and to identify high-likely candidates. This CNN uses classification-labels made by the volunteers and is constantly improved with new classifications. One of the first discovery was made in September 2022, when the team published a paper describing that 282P/(323137) 2003 BM80 showed sustained activity over 15 months in 2021-2022. Activity was previously reported in 2012-2013 and the team analysed the orbit, finding that it is an outbursting quasi-Hilda object.
List of discoveries
See also
other citizen science projects researching minor planets:
Asteroid Zoo inactive
Stardust@home
Catalina Outer Solar System Survey inactive
other citizen science projects
Zooniverse citizen science platform
BOINC volunteer computing platform
Planet Hunters: exoplanet discovery project
Backyard Worlds: brown dwarf discovery project
References
Astronomy websites
Astronomy projects
Human-based computation
Citizen science
Internet properties established in 2021 | Active Asteroids (citizen science project) | [
"Astronomy",
"Technology"
] | 463 | [
"Works about astronomy",
"Information systems",
"Astronomy projects",
"Human-based computation",
"Astronomy websites"
] |
68,750,333 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine%20passports%20during%20the%20COVID-19%20pandemic | A vaccine passport or proof of vaccination is an immunity passport employed as a credential in countries and jurisdictions as part of efforts to control the COVID-19 pandemic via vaccination. A vaccine passport is typically issued by a government or health authority, and usually consists of a digital or printed record. Some credentials may include a scannable QR code, which can also be provisioned via mobile app. It may or may not use a COVID-19 vaccine card as a basis of authentication.
The use of vaccine passports is based on the general presumption that a vaccinated individual would be less likely to transmit SARS-CoV-2 to others, and less likely to experience a severe outcome (hospitalization or death) if they were to be infected, thus making it relatively safer for them to congregate. A vaccine passport is typically coordinated with policies enforced by individual businesses, or enforceable public health orders, that require patrons to present proof of vaccination for COVID-19 as a condition of entry or service.
Government-mandated use of vaccine passports typically applies to discretionary public spaces and events (such as indoor restaurants, bars, or large-scale in-person events, such as concerts and sports), and not essential businesses, such as retail stores or health care. In France, Italy, Ireland, and Canada, vaccine uptake increased after various levels of governments announced plans to introduce vaccine passports. An intention by some jurisdictions is to prevent future lockdowns and restrictions.
Vaccine passports are controversial and have raised scientific, ethical and legal concerns. Critics have also argued that vaccine passports violate civil liberties via coercion. In the United States, there is no vaccine passport at a federal level, and some US states have preemptively banned vaccine passports in certain public and private sector contexts, citing discrimination and privacy concerns. England initially decided against mandating vaccine passports due to worries that discrimination and economic harm would occur, but later joined the other nations of the United Kingdom in mandating vaccine passports due to the threat of the Omicron variant.
History and background
Many governments, including Finland and Germany, expressed early interest in the concept. Vaccine passports were seen as a potential way to permit a faster economic recovery from large-scale lockdowns that apply to all residents (especially within the travel and tourism industries), improve the confidence of patrons concerned for their health and safety, and to incentivize vaccination in order for a population to potentially reach "herd immunity".
In May 2020, Chile started issuing "release certificates" to patients who had recovered from COVID-19, but "the documents will not yet certify immunity". Many governments including Finland, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States expressed interest in the concept.
The Royal Society published a report on 19 February 2021 where a lead author of the report, Professor Melinda Mills, Director of the Leverhulme Centre for Demographic Science at the University of Oxford said: “Understanding what a vaccine passport could be used for is a fundamental question – is it literally a passport to allow international travel or could it be used domestically to allow holders greater freedoms? The intended use will have significant implications across a wide range of legal and ethical issues that need to be fully explored and could inadvertently discriminate or exacerbate existing inequalities.” The report lists 12 essential criteria for an international standard.
On 12 March 2021, Ecma International announced its intention to create an international standard which prevents counterfeits and protects private data as much as possible in a "Call for Participation on Vaccine Passports International Standardization" that referenced the earlier report from the UK's Royal Society. In August 2021, Ecma International announced revisions to Ecma-417 (Architectures for distributed real-time access systems) relevant to standards for vaccine passports.
An early advocate of immunity passports during the COVID-19 pandemic was Sam Rainsy, the Cambodian opposition leader. In exile and under confinement in Paris, he proposed immunity passports as a way to help restart the economy in a series of articles which he began in March 2020 and published in The Geopolitics and The Brussels Times. The proposals were also published in French. The idea became increasingly relevant as evidence of lasting acquired immunity became clear.
Proponents of the idea such as Sam Rainsy, co-founder of the opposition Cambodia National Rescue Party (CNRP) have argued that immunity, whether acquired naturally or through vaccination, is a resource which needs to be used to limit the impact of the pandemic on the global economy. Many people in Cambodia depend entirely for their living on a tourism industry which has been wiped out. Poor countries can also benefit from recording immunological status as this will reduce wastage of scarce vaccines. The immunity passport proposed by Rainsy was effectively adopted in the EU under the name of "health pass".
it was not yet clear whether vaccinated people that remain asymptomatic are still contagious and are thus silent spreaders of the virus putting unvaccinated people at risk. "A lot of people are thinking that once they get vaccinated, they’re not going to have to wear masks anymore," said Michal Tal, an immunologist at Stanford University. "It’s really going to be critical for them to know if they have to keep wearing masks, because they could still be contagious."
In January 2021, Israel announced that Israelis who had received their second vaccination and those who had proof of recovery from infection would be eligible for a Green Pass, exempting them from isolation requirements and mandatory COVID-19 tests, including those on arrival from overseas. In February 2021, Israel became one of the first countries to implement a vaccine passport system, dubbed the Green Pass. They are required in order to access venues such as gyms, hotels, bars, and restaurants. In October 2021, Israel announced an update to its guidelines, requiring that the most recent vaccine dose (or proof of recovery) to have been during the past six months. This change made Israel the first country to make a booster shot a requirement for its vaccine passport system.
By region
Africa
Morocco
In August 2021, Morocco established a nightly curfew between 23:00 and 04:30, exempting those fully vaccinated. The curfew was lifted in November 2021.
Asia
Azerbaijan
Beginning on 1 September 2021, Azerbaijan required proof of vaccination for people over 18 to enter virtually all public spaces, and a national mandate of 1 October required vaccination of all state-regulated workers.
China
In February 2020, China started to use digital "health codes", available on a variety of platforms including WeChat and Alipay with scannable QR barcodes displaying a "traffic light" system of colours to enter public transport, shops, restaurants and malls. It was used 40 billion times between February and March.
In March 2021, an "International Travel Health Certificate" was created. In March 2021, the government of China rolled out the world's first COVID-19 vaccine passport system through a partnership with Alipay and WeChat. The system provides a health certificate that includes an individual's vaccine status and the results of COVID-19 testing. Initially, the system would only indicate that an individual had been vaccinated if they received a Chinese-made coronavirus vaccine, leading to criticism, though by April 2021 the system began to accept records of receiving the Pfizer-BioNTech, Moderna, and Janssen vaccines. As of March 2021, the app was optional and its use was restricted to Chinese citizens. The digital health passport is intended to better facilitate travel. Privacy advocates and Chinese netizens have expressed concerns regarding the potential invasive data collection and the use of data for non-health monitoring purposes.
Iran
According to Minister of health and education requires passport number, Iranian national ID card code for issuing vaccine digital foreign travel card.
Israel
Israel was one of the first countries to issue what is known as a Green Pass in February 2021. The pass was discontinued on 1 June 2021, but following a surge of new infections, it was reinstated on 29 July 2021. In October 2021, all existing Green Passes were voided if the most recent shot was administered more than 6 months ago. A new pass would be issued upon proof of a third (booster) dose or a recovery within the past 6 months. A temporary Green Pass could also be obtained with a negative viral test, but must be paid for by the individual unless ineligible for vaccination. Starting 1 March 2022, most COVID-19 regulations were relaxed, and a Green Pass is now only required to enter old age homes.
Japan
On 19 July 2021, Japan began accepting applications for its COVID-19 vaccination passport program. When issued, the passports will be in paper form in both Japanese and English, showing the holder's date(s) of inoculation and the vaccine type, and are available free of charge. As of 20 December 2021, entry restrictions were relaxed for Japan vaccine passport holders in 76 countries.
Saudi Arabia
Residents attending restaurants, cafes and public spaces like malls, shopping centres and markets must be fully vaccinated. The country uses the Tawakkalna app which includes information for health appointments, vaccination status and alerts users to COVID-19 exposure for contact tracing purposes.
Singapore
Since 10 August 2021, all residents dining out must be fully vaccinated by showing proof of vaccination using the TraceTogether or HealthHub app, or use the TraceTogether token. Proof of vaccination has been progressively implemented in almost all public venues since 13 October 2021, starting with shopping malls, retail shops, entertainment venues except bars, nightclubs and karaoke parlours, attractions, cruises and eateries. It has since been expanded to include large events, public libraries, selected events at community buildings and will be expanded to tertiary institutions, places of lodging, small events and workplaces from January 2022.
South Korea
On 1 November 2021, a vaccine passport system went into effect in South Korea as part of a "living with COVID-19" strategy, requiring vaccination of all residents wishing to access high-risk areas such as bars, restaurants, gyms and saunas must be vaccinated.
Taiwan
On 25 October 2021, the Taiwanese government announced that the digital COVID certificate system in the country had been completed. In December 2021, the system was also recognised by the EU as an equivalent of the EU Digital Covid Certificate. On 20 January 2022, Taiwan officially released the certificate and implemented rules that it be required before entering bars or karaoke alike.
Europe
European Union
The European Union offers an EU Digital COVID Certificate (EUDCC), also known as the Green Pass, a digitally-signed proof of vaccination, proof of a recent recovery, or a recent negative test, for use when travelling within the Schengen area with fewer restrictions.
Bulgaria
On 19 October 2021, the caretaker Minister of Health of Bulgaria, Stoycho Katsarov, introduced the Green Certificate (Bulgarian: Зелен Сертификат). Since 21 October 2021, all visitors to cinemas, theaters, concerts, museums, galleries, supermarkets over 300 square meters, fitness centers, gyms, restaurants and entertainment centers in Bulgaria have to prove that they are vaccinated, have a valid negative test from last 72 hours or have been ill recently. The restrictions ended on 10 March 2022.
Denmark
Denmark introduced a Coronapas on 21 April 2021. Those unvaccinated with a recently negative test of 72 hours or previous infection of COVID-19 of up to 12 weeks prior were included in the pass system. Due to the high uptake of vaccines, Denmark retired their system on 10 September 2021.
France
France issued a Health Pass (or Pass Sanitaire in French) on 9 August 2021, for use in non-essential settings for those 18 and older. To obtain the pass people must be fully vaccinated or undertake a test within 72 hours of attending a non-essential space or have recovered recently from an infection of the virus. The initial announcement of the pass system is believed to have encouraged an additional one million people to sign up for vaccination the day following the announcement, and is credited to encouraging a further 3.7 million people to sign up for vaccination in the following week. Starting 1 October 2021, those age 12 and older will require a Pass Sanitaire to enter public sites like restaurants, cinemas, and sporting events.
Germany
In Germany, proof of COVID vaccinations or recent recovery, is typically entered in the International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis (), similar to how other vaccinations for other diseases are recorded. The entry in this booklet can be used to acquire an EU Digital COVID Certificate, in accordance with EU Directive 2021/953, effective 1 July 2021.
Hungary
Outside of the application of the EUDCC, Hungary recognises Kazakh and Indian vaccine passports.
Ireland
In July 2021, Ireland introduced a vaccine certificate program (EU Digital COVID Certificate) which allowed vaccinated individuals to attend cafes, bars and restaurants. Due to one of the highest uptakes of COVID-19 vaccines in the world, the Republic of Ireland (but not Northern Ireland) had plans to retire their vaccine passport program on 22 October 2021 however this was postponed due to increased COVID-19 cases and hospital numbers. On 22 January 2022, the Republic of Ireland's vaccine passport programme was retired, except for international travel.
Italy
In August 2021 the Italian government extended the requirement of the EU Digital COVID Certificate, also known as a Green Pass, to the participation in sports events and music festivals, but also to access to indoor places like bars, restaurants and gyms, as well as to long-distance public transportation. On 15 October 2021, Italy became the first country in the world to require its entire workforce, public and private, to have a government-issued health pass.
Sweden
On 1 December 2021 the Swedish government introduced vaccine passports for indoor events with more than 100 people. Indoor events with more than 100 participants who do not use vaccination certificates must follow specific guidelines to avoid spreading the disease.
Ukraine
In Ukraine, citizens with at least one dose of a vaccine are allowed to attend certain high-risk indoor settings which would normally be closed or heavily restricted in hot spots.
United Kingdom
Proof of vaccination programs exist in the Home Nations of the United Kingdom, with England and Wales referring to them as "NHS COVID Pass", Scotland as "NHS Scotland Covid Status", and Northern Ireland as "COVIDCert NI". By December 2021, all four nations had mandated proof of vaccination or a recent negative test in specific settings. The exact rules vary by nation, but they primarily applied to venues such as cinemas, nightclubs, and venues hosting large organized events (including but not limited to concerts and sporting events).
In September 2021, Secretary of Health Sajid Javid stated that England would not implement a mandate for proof of vaccination, following pushback from Conservative members of parliament and business leaders over potential discrimination and economic harm. Prime Minister Boris Johnson subsequently stated that England would focus on a strategy of contact tracing, rapid testing, and the rollout of vaccine boosters, and only included mandatory proof of vaccination in a package of "plan B" measures (including a reintroduction of mask mandates) in the event of another surge of COVID-19 cases. The spread of Omicron variant in England would lead to the implementation of "plan B", resulting in proof of vaccination for nightclubs and large events becoming mandatory beginning 15 December. These restrictions ended on 27 January 2022.
North Macedonia
Residents wishing to attend events, bars, restaurants, and other dining establishments must present proof of vaccination.
North America
Canada
The implementation of digital proof of vaccination in Canada has largely been conducted at the provincial and territorial level, with the federal government specifying the SMART Health Card document and QR code standard designed to be suitable for international travel.
As of November 2021, all ten provinces in Canada, and two of the three territories, had implemented or announced plans to implement a provincially-regulated vaccine passport.
Federal requirements and mandates
Beginning 30 October 2021 proof of vaccination became mandatory for all passengers aged 12 and older boarding domestic and/or international commercial airplanes departing from most Canada-based airports, and those riding on the cross-country Via Rail services.
Travellers by land (via the United States border) are required to be fully vaccinated to enter Canada and must provide a negative test 72-hours before land crossing. An exception was made for essential workers, until January 15, 2022 when essential workers (mainly truckers) were required to be fully vaccinated to re-enter the country. In late-January 2022, a convoy to and demonstration in the federal capital of Ottawa—supported primarily by far-right activists and groups—was held to protest this change.
Alberta
Alberta implemented the Restrictions Exemption Program (REP) from 20 September 2021 to 8 February 2022, after re-establishing a state of emergency on 15 September 2021. The government described the program as an opt-in system, allowing establishments to operate with fewer restrictions. Visitors at these establishments were required to present a proof of vaccination or a recent negative test. If a facility does not participate, or is prohibited from participating, it was required to comply with all public health orders, such as reduced capacity and/or being prohibited from offering indoor dining.
Due to Omicron variant, even establishments participating in REP became subject to restrictions in December 2021, including restrictions on the capacity of large venues (50%), and restaurants subject to limits on table sizes, a prohibition on entertainment, and operating hours.
The city of Calgary passed a municipal bylaw on 23 September 2021 to mandate participation in REP by all industries that are eligible to do so. The bylaw ceased on 9 February 2022 due to the lifting of the REP by the provincial government. The city considered reimplementing the mandate at the municipal level (as haveseveral U.S. cities) but such a proposal was rejected by the city council committee.
Manitoba
Manitoba was the first province to introduce a passport system in Canada on 17 July 2021. The passport requirement was removed for movie theatres, museums and galleries on 7 August 2021, only to be reinstated on 3 September 2021, upon Manitoba expanding its passport system. The province utilized physical Immunization Cards which faced supply shortages in production.
Quebec
Quebec was the second province to implement a vaccine passport system on 1 September 2021, using QR codes.
Northwest Territories
The Northwest Territories will implement an opt-in vaccine passport system on 22 October 2021 using original vaccination receipts.
Other provinces
British Columbia has created a Proof of vaccination system which utilises a QR code. The system initially relied on paper receipts of the BC vaccine receipt and gradually migrated to a digital system. The QR code can also be physically printed out.
New Brunswick requires a Proof of Vaccination system using original immunisation records.
Newfoundland and Labrador has plans to release a QR code based system for their vaccine passport.
Nova Scotia has a Proof of Full Vaccination Policy using original government issued proof of vaccination.
Ontario introduced a vaccine passport system on 22 September 2021. The system initially relied on original vaccine paper receipts, but gradually began switching over to verifiable QR codes along with the introduction of the "Verify Ontario" mobile app on 22 October 2021. As of 4 January 2022, only vaccine receipts with verifiable QR codes and the "Verify Ontario" mobile app will be accepted at venues where proof of vaccine is required.
Prince Edward Island uses the PEI Vax Pass Program using original government issued vaccination information.
Saskatchewan has a Proof of vaccination mandate, effective from 1 October 2021 to 13 February 2022.
Yukon territory will implement a passport system on 30 November 2021 to access non-essential indoor facilities.
United States
Although the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) issues a COVID-19 vaccine card that may be accepted as proof of vaccination (but is vulnerable to forgery and counterfeiting, and thus not a verifiable proof of vaccination), the United States does not have a federal framework for a digital vaccine passport, and federal officials explicitly ruled out doing so, citing privacy and human rights concerns. This leaves their implementations up to individual states and territories.
Prior to the issue becoming politicised, public views on vaccine passports were evenly split and the divide crossed, rather than followed, political and ideological lines. Since then, criticism and conspiracy theories surrounding the vaccines in general, and in turn vaccine mandates, largely came from the political right; for example, U.S. representative for Georgia's 14th congressional district Marjorie Taylor Greene, a Republican, asserted that requesting the disclosure of one's vaccine status was a violation of data privacy rules for the health care industry, even though said rules only apply to entities such as health insurers.
The state governments of California, Hawaii, Louisiana, New York, North Carolina, Delaware, and Virginia have each rolled out mechanisms where residents can choose to receive proof of COVID-19 vaccination in the form of a scannable QR code by linking to records within each state's immunization registry. Illinois has a Vax Verify website, where residents can download proof of COVID-19 vaccination for businesses that require it. In New Jersey, residents can obtain a digital COVID-19 vaccination record through its mobile app Docket; Governor Phil Murphy specifically avoided using the term "vaccine passport" to describe the service.
Each state credential has varying degrees of interoperability with other state and foreign governments; some states have closed systems, with QR codes that are only usable within the issuing state, and others have broad interoperability, with New York offering both types of credentials for its residents. Arizona, Maryland, Mississippi, North Dakota, Washington, West Virginia, Puerto Rico, and the District of Columbia have contracted with the organization MyIR that interfaces with governmental vaccination records to produce a PDF proof of vaccination, but has also moved toward scannable QR codes. Health departments in Indiana, Colorado, and Georgia can provide proof of vaccination in PDF form but not via a QR code.
At least 20 states have prohibited public agencies from issuing or requiring a vaccine passport, while Alabama, Florida, Iowa, Montana, and Texas also made it illegal for any private entity to request proof of vaccination as a condition of service, under the assertion that they discriminate against those who have made a personal choice to not receive the vaccine.
Los Angeles County
Los Angeles County began a proof of vaccination system for indoor bars, restaurants, venues and nightclubs on 7 October 2021.
New York City
New York City began its Excelsior Pass or Key to NYC vaccine passport system for dining, fitness, events and indoor entertainment on 13 September 2021.
New Orleans
New Orleans began to require proof of vaccination or a negative test to enter indoor bars, restaurants, events, fitness, and sporting events on 16 August 2021.
South America
Brazil
In December 2020, the Brazilian Senate approved a document giving digital proof of all vaccinations – not just those in respect of COVID-19. However, the urgency for creating such a digital proof of vaccination came from the COVID-19 pandemic.
Chile
In May 2021, then Health Ministry Subsecretary, Paula Daza, mandated the "mobility pass" (pase de movilidad) in gyms, restaurants and swimming pools. This document was given to people with two doses of the COVID-19 vaccine, later it was upscaled to three doses and later on in the same year four doses were required, being one of the most drastic vaccines passports in the world. Chile is the only country in the world with entry procedures such as requiring homologation of vaccines to travel to.
Oceania
New Zealand
On 17 November 2021, the New Zealand Government launched a vaccine certificate called My Vaccine Pass for individuals who have been vaccinated against COVID-19. The vaccine pass is required to enter hospitality venues, community, sport and faith-based gatherings as defined by the COVID-19 Protection Framework.
They came into force on 29 November 2021. On 23 November, the New Zealand Government launched the NZ Pass Verifier to scan the passes.
On April 5, 2022, vaccine passes will no longer be required for most venues.
On June 1, 2022, all vaccine passes will become invalid, and will no longer be required for any venue.
Arguments and controversy
As of September 2021, the World Health Organization (WHO) acknowledged that mandatory COVID-19 vaccine passports would be discriminatory against countries with little access to vaccinations, but could eventually be considered for international travel when vaccine access improves.
Effect on vaccine uptake
In some jurisdictions, vaccine uptake increased after various levels of governments announced plans to mandate their use.
Ethical and social issues
The ethical issues that arise in the acceptability of vaccine passports revolve around the policy objectives and the intended use. The public health restriction on implementing vaccine passports limits the freedom of an individual to perform social activities.
People who are privileged to receive the vaccination will have gained access to going back to normal life while low-income populations will remain disproportionately low on vaccinations which hinders their ability to participate in non-essential activities.
Due to the imbalance in the distribution of vaccines in the developing world, there are concerns about the inequity of vaccine passports for travellers. On 15 April 2021, the World Health Organization's emergency committee opposed vaccination passports, saying, "States parties are strongly encouraged to acknowledge the potential for requirements of proof of vaccination to deepen inequities and promote differential freedom of movement".
However, many countries may increasingly consider the vaccination status of travellers when deciding to allow them entry or whether to require them to quarantine. "Some sort of vaccine certificate will be important" to reboot travel and tourism, according to Dr. David Nabarro, special envoy on COVID-19 for the WHO, in February 2021.
In March 2021, Bernardo Mariano, the WHO's Director of Digital Health and Innovation, said that "We don't approve the fact that a vaccination passport should be a condition for travel." Lawmakers in several US states are also considering legislation to prohibit COVID-19 vaccination passports.
Ethical concerns about vaccine passports have been raised by Human Rights Watch (HRW). According to HRW, requiring vaccine passports for work or travel could force people into taking tests or risk losing their jobs, create a perverse incentive for people to intentionally infect themselves to acquire immunity certificates, and risk creating a black market of forged or otherwise falsified vaccine cards.
By restricting social, civic, and economic activities, vaccine passports may "compound existing gender, race, ethnicity, and nationality inequities." Immunity certificates also face privacy and human rights concerns.
Digital privacy
A security vulnerability in the app used by New Jersey and Utah briefly made it possible to request the QR codes of other users, containing encoded name, date of birth, and vaccination history information. On 24 September 2021, Saskatchewan Health Authority stated that digital vaccine records obtained in the province between 19 and 24 September may have accidentally contained the wrong QR code for the specific user.
Vaccination certificates
Natural immunity
People may acquire a degree of natural immunity from SARS-CoV-2 when they are exposed to the live virus, and develop a primary immune response which produces antibodies that can recognize specific variants. As of May 2021, the WHO reported that more than 90% of individuals established recognizable antibodies within four weeks after an infection. For most people, these detectable antibodies roughly stay for at least 6–8 months. However, antibodies may not guarantee immunity from novel variants and mutations of SARS-CoV-2. The uncertainty of the science behind immunity to SARS-CoV-2 has raised issues over their applicability within passport frameworks.
It has been argued that the primary difference is that vaccination certificates such as the Carte Jaune incentivize individuals to obtain vaccination against a disease, while immunity passports incentivize individuals to get infected with and recover from a disease.
See also
COVID-19 vaccine card
COVID-19 vaccine
Deployment of COVID-19 vaccines
Electronic health record
Living with COVID-19
Patient record access
Vaccination requirements for international travel
References
Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic
Passports
Immunology
Software associated with the COVID-19 pandemic | Vaccine passports during the COVID-19 pandemic | [
"Biology"
] | 5,931 | [
"Immunology"
] |
68,750,728 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Rig%20%28TV%20series%29 | The Rig is a British supernatural thriller television series created by David Macpherson for Amazon Prime Video. The series is directed by John Strickland, and is the first Amazon Original to be filmed entirely in Scotland. The series was released on 6 January 2023 and consists of six episodes. In February 2023, The Rig was renewed for a second series which premiered on 2 January 2025.
Premise
A Scottish oil rig in the North Sea is enveloped in an unnatural fog that cuts them off from outside communications. Spores found in the fog cause infected crew members to experience behavioural changes. After examining the spores, a scientist onboard the oil rig suspects that an ancient parasite has been unleashed from the ocean floor.
Cast and characters
Emily Hampshire as Rose Mason: The oil company representative and scientist, and a fresh face on-board the rig.
Iain Glen as Magnus MacMillan: The leader of the crew and the offshore installation manager of the rig.
Martin Compston as Fulmer Hamilton, the radio and communications officer on the Kinlock Bravo crew
Mark Bonnar as Alwyn Evans, an older and experienced crew member with an interest in history, archaeology, and reading (series 1)
Rochenda Sandall as Cat Braithwaite, the medic on the rig
Owen Teale as Lars Hutton, a crew member who's been stationed on the rig for a long time, and who begins to sow tension and division on the rig
Richard Pepple as Grant Dunlin (series 1)
Calvin Demba as Baz Roberts, a young, relatively inexperienced crew member who wants to get off the rig (series 1)
Emun Elliott as Alec "Leck" Longman (series 1)
Abraham Popoola as Easter Ayodeji
Stuart McQuarrie as Colin Murchison, the rig's cook
Molly Vevers as Heather Shaw
Dougie Rankin as William Johnson (series 1)
Nikhil Parmar as Harish, a survivor from Kinloch Charlie
Mark Addy as David Coake, Pictor's research head
Neshla Caplan as Kacey, Cat’s wife
Ross Anderson as Kyle Cameron (series 2), the Stac's diver
Alice Krige as Morgan Lennox (series 2), Pictor's CEO
as Askel (series 2), the Stac's scientist
Jacob Fortune-Lloyd as Darian York (series 2), an investor at Pictor, later becomes its CEO
Phil McKee as Bremner (series 2), Coake's assistant
Episodes
Series 1
Series 2
Production
Development
David Macpherson first came up with the idea for the series in 2018, based in part on the stories his father told him about working in the oil and gas industry. He sent a one-page pitch to producer Derek Wax, and began writing it in December 2018. In November 2020, it was announced that Amazon had greenlit The Rig. The series is written and created by David Macpherson, and directed and executive produced by John Strickland. Derek Wax also executive produces, while Suzanne Reid produces. Wax's company Wild Mercury Productions produces the series. On 22 February 2023, Amazon renewed it for a second series.
Writing
Work started on the series' scripts in December 2018. Meg Salter and Matthew Jacobs Morgan serve as writers.
Casting
In mid-March 2021, Emily Hampshire, Martin Compston, and Mark Bonnar were cast in key roles. The next day, Iain Glen, Rochenda Sandall, Owen Teale, Richard Pepple, Calvin Demba, Emun Elliott, Abraham Popoola, Stuart McQuarrie, and Molly Vevers were cast. Kelly Valentine-Hendry serves as the casting director for the series.
Filming
Filming started on 29 March 2021 at FirstStage Studios in Edinburgh. at which a three storey oil rig stage was built, with some additional filming at a real oil rig in Scotland. The series is the first Amazon Original to be filmed entirely in Scotland. Filming wrapped in August 2021. The first three episodes were directed by John Strickland, and the final three were directed by Alex Holmes.
Filming for series 2 had begun by July 2023.
Reception
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports a 67% approval rating and an average rating of 6.2/10 based on 18 critic reviews. The website's critics consensus reads, "The Rig may not plumb its full potential thanks to too many crude clichés, but this supernatural eco-thriller has enough ambience and appealing performances to make for a solid binge." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, gave a score of 69 out of 100 based on 7 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".
Release
The official trailer was released on 29 November 2022. The first episode premièred at Everyman cinema in Edinburgh, Scotland, on 6 December 2022. The six-episode series was released on 6 January 2023.
The second series was released on 2 January 2025.
References
External links
2020s British drama television series
2020s supernatural television series
2023 British television series debuts
Amazon Prime Video original programming
British supernatural television shows
British thriller television series
British English-language television shows
Psychological thriller television series
Television shows filmed in Scotland
Television series by Banijay
Television series by Amazon MGM Studios
Works about petroleum | The Rig (TV series) | [
"Chemistry"
] | 1,069 | [
"Petroleum",
"Works about petroleum"
] |
68,754,688 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selectivity%20%28circuit%20breakers%29 | Selectivity, also known as circuit breaker discrimination, is the coordination of overcurrent protection devices so that a fault in the installation is cleared by the protection device located immediately upstream of the fault. The purpose of selectivity is to minimize the impact of a failure on the network. Faults in an installation are, for example, overload and short circuit.
There are four ways in which selectivity is achieved:
Current selectivity: different breaking capacities
Time selectivity: time delay before tripping of a breaker
Energy based selectivity: analysis of the current waves
Zone selective interlocking: communication between the breakers, forwarding a time delay instruction
References
Electrical engineering
Electrical safety | Selectivity (circuit breakers) | [
"Engineering"
] | 136 | [
"Electrical engineering"
] |
68,754,709 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20fungi%20of%20South%20Africa%20%E2%80%93%20A | This is an alphabetical list of fungal taxa as recorded from South Africa. Currently accepted names have been appended.
Ab
Genus Abrothallus Pérez-Ort. & Suija (2013), Abrothallaceae (Lichenicolous fungi)
Abrothallus parmeliarum Nyl. probably (Sommerf.) Arnold 1874
Ac
Genus Acarospora A.Massal. (1852) Acarosporaceae (Lichenised fiungi)
Acarospora angolensis H. Magn. 1929
Acarospora austroafricana (Zahlbr.) H. Magn. 1933
Acarospora bella Jatta 1906
Acarospora bylii H. Magn. 1933
Acarospora calviniensis H. Magn. 1933
Acarospora capensis Zahlbr. 1926
Acarospora cervina A. Massal. (1852),
Acarospora citrina (Taylor) Zahlbr. (1913).
Acarospora crassilabra (Müll. Arg.) Zahlbr. 1927
Acarospora deserticola Zahlbr. 1926
Acarospora finckei Zahlbr. 1927
Acarospora finckei var. lobulata H. Magn. ex Zahlbr. 1932
Acarospora fuscata (Ach.) Arnold (1871)
Acarospora immixta H. Magn. 1929
Acarospora initialis H. Magn. 1929
Acarospora initialis var. perfectior H. Magn. 1933
Acarospora insculpta H. Magn. 1933
Acarospora intermixta H. Magn. 1933
Acarospora intrusa H. Magn. 1933
Acarospora laeta H. Magn. 1933
Acarospora laeta var. annularis H. Magn. 1933
Acarospora laevigata H. Magn. 1933
Acarospora longispora H. Magn. 1933
Acarospora lucida H. Magn. 1929
Acarospora luderitzensis H. Magn. 1933
Acarospora macrospora (Hepp ex Nyl.) A. Massal. ex Bagl. (1857)
Acarospora meridionalis H. Magn. 1932
Acarospora negligens H. Magn. (1929)
Acarospora ochrophaea H. Magn. 1933
Acarospora ortendahlii H.Magn.*
Acarospora perexigua (Müll. Arg.) Hue 1909
Acarospora porinoides (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1927
Acarospora rhodesiae H. Magn. 1933
Acarospora socialis H. Magn. 1929
Acarospora steineri H. Magn. 1933
Acarospora subbadia H. Magn. 1933
Acarospora subochracea H. Magn. 1932
Acarospora subtersa H. Magn. 1929
Acarospora sulphurata var. austroafricana Zahlbr. 1926
Acarospora tenuis (Vain.) H. Magn. 1929
Acarospora tersa Zahlbr. probably (Fr.) J. Steiner 1897
Acarospora tersa var. bella (Ach.) Vain. ex Van der Byl 1931
Acarospora tersa var. tenuis Wain probably Vain. 1901
Acarospora tersa var. thaeodes Wain probably Vain. 1901
Acarospora tersa var. thaeodes Zahlbr.*
Acarospora thaeodes A. Massal. 1861
Acarospora xanthophana (Nyl.) Jatta 1906
Family: Acarosporaceae Zahlbr. 1906
Genus: Achorion Remak 1845
Achorion schoenleinii Remak ex Guég. 1845, accepted as Trichophyton schoenleinii (Lebert) Langeron & Miloch. ex Nann., (1934)
Genus: Acremoniella Sacc. 1886
Acremoniella sp.
Genus: Acremonium Link 1809
Acremonium verticillatum Link 1809, accepted as Cladobotryum verticillatum (Link) S. Hughes, (1958)
Acremonium sp.
Genus: Acrospeira Berk. & Broome 1857
Acrospeira macrosporoidea (Berk. & Broome) Wiltshire 1938, accepted as Monodictys castaneae (Wallr.) S. Hughes, (1958)
Genus: Actinonema
Actinonema rosae (Lib.) Fr. 1849, accepted as Diplocarpon rosae (Lib.) F.A. Wolf, (1912)
Genus: Actinopeltella
Actinopeltella nitida Doidge 1924, accepted as Actinopeltis nitida (Doidge) Arx, (1962)
Ae
Genus: Aecidium Pers. 1796, accepted as Puccinia Pers., (1794), (Rust fungi)
Aecidium acalyphicolum Doidge*
Aecidium acanthopsidis Syd. & P. Syd. 1915
Aecidium albilabrum Kalchbr. 1871
Aecidium albo-atrum P.Henn.*
Aecidium anceps Syd. & P. Syd. 1901
Aecidium ancylanthi Henn. 1903
Aecidium antholyzae Bubak*
Aecidium ari Desm. 1823 accepted as Puccinia sessilis J. Schröt., (1870) [1869]
Aecidium aroideum Cooke 1879
Aecidium australe Berk. 1843
Aecidium banketense Hopk. 1938 recorded as Aecidium banketensis
Aecidium barleriae Doidge 1948
Aecidium baumanianum Henn. 1903,
Aecidium baumii P.Henn.*
Aecidium benguellense Lagerh. 1889
Aecidium berkleyae Henn. & Pole-Evans 1908
Aecidium bicolor Sacc. 1899
Aecidium brideliae Henn. & Pole-Evans 1908
Aecidium brunswigiae Henn. 1898
Aecidium bulbines Henn. & Pole-Evans 1908
Aecidium burtt-davyi Doidge 1939
Aecidium bylianum Syd. 1924
Aecidium capense Berk. & M.A. Curtis 1860
Aecidium cardiospermi Cooke 1882 accepted as Dietelia cardiospermi (Cooke) Berndt & A.R. Wood, (2012)
Aecidium cephalandrae Cooke 1884
Aecidium cephalariae Syd. & P. Syd. 1912
Aecidium chlorophyti Kalchbr. probably Har. & Pat. 1909
Aecidium clarum Syd. & P. Syd. 1912
Aecidium clematidis-brachiatae Doidge 1927
Aecidium clerodendricola Henn. 1903
Aecidium clutiae Doidge 1927 recorded as Aecidium cluytiae
Aecidium compositarum DC. , possibly Mart. 1817 accepted as Puccinia lapsanae Fuckel [as 'lampsanae'], (1860), or Rabenh. 1851
Aecidium conyzae-pinnatilobatae P. Syd. & Syd. 1923
Aecidium cookeanum De Toni 1888
Aecidium corycii Doidge 1927
Aecidium crini Kalchbr. 1882
Aecidium crypticum Kalchbr. & Cooke 1880
Aecidium cussoniae Kalchbr. 1882
Aecidium davyi Syd. & P. Syd. 1912,
Aecidium decipiens Syd. & P. Syd. 1923
Aecidium denekiae Doidge 1927
Aecidium dielsii Henn. 1902
Aecidium dinteri Doidge 1939
Aecidium diospyri A.L. Sm. 1898
Aecidium dipcadi-viridis Doidge 1948
Aecidium dissotidis Cooke 1882
Aecidium doidgeae Syd. & P. Syd.(1912) recorded as Aecidium doidgei
Aecidium dolichi Cooke 1882 accepted as Synchytrium dolichi (Cooke) Gäum., (1927)
Aecidium dubiosum Syd. & P. Syd. 1901
Aecidium elegans Dietel 1888 accepted as Endophyllum macowanii Pole-Evans as 'macowani' (1909) [1908]
Aecidium elytropappi Henn. 1898 accepted as Endophyllum elytropappi (Henn.) A.R. Wood & Crous, (2005)
Aecidium englerianum Henn. & Lindau 1893
Aecidium eriospermi Henn. 1897
Aecidium evansii Henn. 1908
Aecidium fluggeae Doidge 1927
Aecidium flustra Berk. ex Syd. & P. Syd. 1923
Aecidium garckeanum Henn. 1891
Aecidium gomphostigmae Doidge 1927
Aecidium habunguense Henn. 1903 accepted as Puccinia agrophila Syd., (1937)
Aecidium hartwegiae Thüm. 1877
Aecidium helichrysi Doidge 1927
Aecidium heliotropicola P.H.B. Talbot (1948) recorded as Aecidium heliotropicolum
Aecidium hoffmanni P. Syd. & Syd. 1923
Aecidium hibisci Cooke 1892
Aecidium impatientis-capensis Doidge 1927
Aecidium incertum Syd. & P. Syd. 1901
Aecidium inornatum Kalchbr. 1882 accepted as Ravenelia inornata (Kalchbr.) Dietel, (1894)
Aecidium ipomoeae Thüm. 1840 accepted as Albugo ipomoeae-panduratae (Schwein.) Swingle, (1892)
Aecidium kakelense Henn. 1903
Aecidium kraussiae P. Syd. & Syd. 1923
Aecidium lebeckiae Henn. 1898
Aecidium leguminosarum Rabenh. probably Opiz 1836, accepted as Uromyces viciae-fabae (Pers.) J. Schröt., (1875)
Aecidium leiocarpum Syd. & P. Syd. 1917
Aecidium leonotidis Henn. 1895 accepted as Puccinia leonotidis (Henn.) Arthur,(1921)
Aecidium litakunense Doidge 1939
Aecidium longaense Henn. 1903
Aecidium loranthi Cooke 1885
Aecidium macarangae P.Henn.*
Aecidium macowanianum Thüm. 1875
Aecidium macowanianum f. conyzae-pinnatilobatae Thüm. 1875 accepted as Endophyllum macowanianum (Thüm.) Pole-Evans, (1907)
Aecidium menthae DC., (1815), accepted as Puccinia menthae Pers. (1801)
Aecidium menyharthi Henn. 1906
Aecidium metalasiae Syd. & P. Syd. 1912, accepted as Endophyllum metalasiae (Syd. & P. Syd.) A.R. Wood & Berndt, (2012)
Aecidium moggii Doidge 1939
Aecidium myrsiphylli Kalchbr. 1882
Aecidium nestlerae Doidge 1948
Aecidium nidorellae Doidge 1927
Aecidium ornamentale Kalchbr. 1875 accepted as Ravenelia ornamentalis (Kalchbr.) Dietel, (1906)
Aecidium ornithogaleum Bubák 1905, accepted as Puccinia hordei G.H.Otth (1871)[1870]
Aecidium ornithogali Kalchbr. possibly *Aecidium ornithogaleum Bubák 1905,
Aecidium osteospermi Doidge 1927 accepted as Endophyllum osteospermi (Doidge) A.R. Wood, (1998)
Aecidium osyridicarpi Massee 1911 accepted as Puccinia osyridicarpi (Massee) Grove [as osyridocarpi], (1916)
Aecidium oxalidis Thüm. 1876 accepted as Puccinia sorghi Schwein., (1832) [1834]
Aecidium pachystigmae Doidge 1927,
Aecidium pelargonii Thüm. 1877, accepted as Puccinia pelargonii (Thüm.) P. Syd. & Syd., (1904)
Aecidium pentziae-globosae Doidge 1948
Aecidium permultum Syd. & P. Syd. 1912
Aecidium pienarii Doidge (1927)
Aecidium plectranthi Barclay 1890 accepted as Coleosporium plectranthi (Barclay) Sacc., (1891)
Aecidium plectroniae Cooke 1882
Aecidium plectroniicola Henn. 1903
Aecidium pottsii Doidge 1927
Aecidium pretoriense Doidge 1927
Aecidium pychnostachydis Syd. possibly Aecidium pycnostachydis (Kalchbr.) Doidge 1927,
Aecidium rafniae MacOwan
Aecidium ranunculacearum DC. 1815, accepted as Uromyces dactylidis G.H. Otth, (1861)
Aecidium relhaniae Dippen. 1931
Aecidium resinaecola (F. Rudolphi) G. Winter 1884 recorded as Aecidium resinicolum
Aecidium resinaecola var. tumefaciens G. Winter 1884 recorded as Aecidium resinicolum var. tumefaciens
Aecidium rhamni Pers. may be Aecidium rhamni J.F. Gmel. (1792), accepted as Puccinia coronata Corda (1837)
Aecidium rhamni f. Rhamni prinoides Thuem.*
Aecidium rhynchosiae Cooke 1882 accepted as Synchytrium dolichi (Cooke) Gäum., (1927)
Aecidium royenae Cooke & Massee 1889
Aecidium rubellum Pers. ex J.F. Gmel. 1792 accepted as Puccinia phragmitis (Schumach.) Tul., (1854)
Aecidium rumicis f. Rumicis eckloniana Thuem.*
Aecidium schlechterianum Henn. 1898
Aecidium senecionis Desm. 1836
Aecidium senecionis f. Senecionis mikanoides Thuem.*
Aecidium senecionis f. Senecionis napifolii Thuem.*
Aecidium senecionis f. Senecionis quinquelobi Thuem.*
Aecidium senecionum Desm.*
Aecidium serrae Syd. & P. Syd. 1912
Aecidium spinicolum Doidge Aecidium spinicola Doidge [as 'spinicolum'], (1948)
Aecidium stobaeae Kalchbr. & Cooke 1879 Puccinia stobaeae MacOwan [as 'stobeae'], (1882)
Aecidium talinophilum P. Syd. & Syd. 1923
Aecidium tetragonii Doidge Aecidium tetragoniae Doidge, (1939)
Aecidium thunbergiae Cooke 1882 accepted as Puccinia thunbergiae Cooke, (1882)
Aecidium tinneae Henn. 1903
Aecidium transvaaliae Henn. & Pole-Evans 1908
Aecidium truncatum Kalchbr.
Aecidium tubulosum Pat. & Gaillard 1889
Aecidium tylophorae Cooke 1890
Aecidium uleanum Pazschke 1892
Aecidium urgineae Henn. & Pole-Evans 1908
Aecidium urtica Schw. possibly one of: Aecidium urticae Schumach. 1803, acceprted as Puccinia urticata; Aecidium urticae DC. 1815; or Aecidium urticae Sawada 1944;
Aecidium vangueriae Cooke 1882
Aecidium vernoniae-monocephalae Doidge 1927
Aecidium vernoniae-podocomae Doidge 1927
Aecidium viborgiae P.Henn. Aecidium wiborgiae Henn. [as 'viborgiae'], (1898)
Aecidium vignae Cooke
Aecidium vitis A.L.Sm.
Aecidium welwitschii Lagerh.
Aecidium wiborgiae Henn. (1898) recorded as viborgiae
Aecidium withaniae Thüm. 1877
Aecidium woodianum Doidge 1927
Aecidium sp.
Genus: Aegerita Pers. 1794,
Aegerita penniseti Henn., (1904), accepted as Beniowskia sphaeroidea (Kalchbr. & Cooke) E.W. Mason, (1928)
Ag
Family: Agaricaceae Chevall. 1826
Genus: Agaricus L. 1753
Agaricus (Amanita) muscarius Linn, ex Fr. L. 1753, accepted as Amanita muscaria (L.) Lam., (1783)
Agaricus (Amanita) praetorius Fr. 1838 basionym Agaricus praetorius Fr., (1838)
Agaricus campestris L. 1753
Agaricus comtulus Fr. 1838
Agaricus dialeri (Bres. & Torrend) Sacc. & Trotter 1912 accepted as Leucoagaricus dialeri (Bres. & Torrend) D.A. Reid, (1975)
Agaricus (Clitocybe) amarus (Alb. & Schwein.) Fr. 1821 accepted as Lepista amara (Alb. & Schwein.) Maire, (1930)
Agaricus (Clitocybe) expallens Pers. 1801 accepted as Pseudoclitocybe expallens (Pers.) M.M. Moser, (1967)
Agaricus (Clitocybe) fragrans Sow. ex Fr. Fr. 1815?
Agaricus (Clitocybe) gentianeus Quel*
Agaricus (Clitocybe) laccata Scop, ex Fr. probably Agaricus laccatus Scop., (1772)
Agaricus (Clitocybe) membranaceus Fr. possibly one of; Agaricus membranaceus Hoffm. 1787; Agaricus membranaceus Scop. 1788, accepted as Homophron cernuum; Agaricus membranaceus Bolton 1788; Agaricus membranaceus Vahl 1790, accepted as Infundibulicybe gibba; Agaricus membranaceus Cooke & Massee 1892, accepted as Lepiota membranacea
Agaricus (Clitocybe) sinopicus Fr. 1818 accepted as Bonomyces sinopicus (Fr.) Vizzini, (2014)
Agaricus (Clitocybe) splendens Pers. 1801accepted as Paralepista splendens (Pers.) Vizzini, (2012)
Agaricus (Clitocybe) trullaeformis Fr. Agaricus trulliformis Fr. [as 'trullaeformis'], (1821) accepted as Infundibulicybe trulliformis (Fr.) Gminder, (2016)
Agaricus (Clitocybe) zizyphinus Vivian Agaricus ziziphina Viv., (1834) syn. Clitocybe ziziphina (Viv.) Sacc., (1887)
Agaricus (Collybia) acervatus Fr. 1821accepted as Connopus acervatus (Fr.) K.W. Hughes, Mather & R.H. Petersen 2010
Agaricus (Collybia) alveolatus Kalchbr. 1881accepted as Hymenopellis alveolata (Kalchbr.) R.H. Petersen [as alveolatus], (2010)
Agaricus (Collybia) butyraceus Bull. 1792accepted as Rhodocollybia butyracea (Bull.) Lennox, (1979)
Agaricus (Collybia) chortophilus Berk. 1843 accepted as Neoclitocybe chortophila (Berk.) D.A. Reid, (1975)
Agaricus (Collybia) confluens Pers. 1796 accepted as Collybiopsis confluens (Pers.) R.H. Petersen,(2021)
Agaricus (Collybia) dryophilus Bull. 1790 accepted as Gymnopus dryophilus (Bull.) Murrill, N. (1916)
Agaricus (Collybia) extuberans Fr. 1838 accepted as Gymnopus ocior (Pers.) Antonín & Noordel., (1997)
Agaricus (Collybia) homotrichus Berk. possibly Agaricus hemitrichus Pers. 1801, accepted as Cortinarius hemitrichus (Pers.) Fr., (1838)
Agaricus (Collybia) macilentus Fr. 1821 accepted as Agaricus macilentus Fr., (1821)
Agaricus (Collybia) melinosarcus Kalchbr. 1876 accepted as Agaricus melinosarcus Kalchbr., 1876)
Agaricus (Collybia) radicatus Relhan 1786 accepted as Hymenopellis radicata (Relhan) R.H. Petersen, (2010)
Agaricus (Collybia) radicatus var. brachypus Kalchbr. 1881 accepted as Hymenopellis radicata (Relhan) R.H. Petersen, (2010)
Agaricus (Collybia) stridulus Fr. 1870 accepted as Melanoleuca stridula (Fr.) Singer, (1943)
Agaricus (Collybia) velutipes Fr. possibly Curtis 1782, accepted as Flammulina velutipes (Curtis) Singer, (1951) [1949]
Agaricus (Coprinus) ephemerus Bull. 1786 accepted as Coprinellus ephemerus (Bull.) Redhead, Vilgalys & Moncalvo, (2001)
Agaricus (Crepidotus) applanatus Pers. 1796 accepted as Crepidotus applanatus (Pers.) P. Kumm., (1871)
Agaricus (Crepidotus) episphaeria Berk. 1846 accepted as Agaricus episphaeria Berk. 1846
Agaricus (Crepidotus) inandae Cooke 1890 accepted as Agaricus inandae Cooke 1890
Agaricus (Crepidotus) pogonatus Kalchbr. 1881 accepted as Agaricus pogonatus Kalchbr. 1881
Agaricus (Crepidotus) proteus Kalchbr. 1876 accepted as Melanotus proteus (Sacc.) Singer, (1946)
Agaricus (Crepidotus) scalaris var. lobulatus Kalchbr. 1881 Agaricus scalaris var. lobulatus Kalchbr., (1881)
Agaricus cretaceus Fr. *
Agaricus (Entoloma) sagittaeformis Kalchbr. & Cooke (Agaricus sagittiformis Kalchbr. & Cooke [as sagittaeformis], (1881) accepted as Termitomyces sagittiformis (Kalchbr. & Cooke) D.A. Reid [as sagittaeformis], (1975)
Agaricus (Flammula) alnicola Fr. 1821 accepted as Flammula alnicola (Fr.) P. Kumm., (1871)
Agaricus (Flammula) flavidus Schaeff. 1774 accepted as Pholiota flavida (Schaeff.) Singer, (1951) [1949]
Agaricus (Flammula) harmoge Fr. 1838 accepted as Agaricus harmoge Fr. 1838
Agaricus (Flammula) janus Berk. & Br. accepted as Agaricus janus Berk. & Broome 1871
Agaricus (Flammula) tilopus Kalchbr. & MacOwan 1881accepted as Pholiota tilopus (Kalchbr. & MacOwan) D.A. Reid, (1975)
Agaricus (Galera) eatoni Berk. 1876accepted as Agaricus eatonii Berk. 1876
Agaricus (Galera) hypnorum Schrank 1789 accepted as Galerina hypnorum (Schrank) Kühner, (1935)
Agaricus (Galera) peroxydatus Berk. 1843 accepted as Conocybe peroxydata (Berk.) D.A. Reid, (1975)
Agaricus (Galera) tener Schaeff. 1774 accepted as Conocybe tenera (Schaeff.) Kühner, (1935)
Agaricus (Hebeloma) spoliatus Fr. 1838 accepted as Hebeloma spoliatum (Fr.) Gillet, [1878]
Agaricus (Hypholoma) candolleanus Fr. 1818 accepted as Psathyrella candolleana (Fr.) Maire, (1937)
Agaricus (Hypholoma) capnolepis Kalchbr. 1881 accepted as Agaricus capnolepis Kalchbr., (1881)
Agaricus (Hypholoma) fascicularis Huds. 1778 accepted as Hypholoma fasciculare (Huds.) P. Kumm., (1871)
Agaricus (Lepiota) africamus Kalchbr. possibly Agaricus africanus (Fayod) Sacc. 1895
Agaricus (Lepiota) atricapillus Cooke & Massee 1888 accepted as Agaricus atricapillus Cooke & Massee 1888
Agaricus (Lepiota) cuculliformis Fr. 1849 accepted as Agaricus cuculliformis Fr. 1849
Agaricus (Lepiota) excoriatus Schaeff. 1774 accepted as Macrolepiota excoriata (Schaeff.) Wasser, (1978)
Agaricus (Lepiota) kunzei Fr. 1849 accepted as Agaricus kunzei Fr., (1849) [1848]
Agaricus (Lepiota) magnannulatus Kalchbr. 1881 accepted as Agaricus magnannulatus Kalchbr. 1881
Agaricus (Lepiota) montagnei Kalchbr. 1881 accepted as Agaricus montagnei Kalchbr. 1881
Agaricus (Lepiota) polysarcos Kalchbr. & MacOwan (1881)accepted as Agaricus polysarcos Kalchbr. & MacOwan, (1881)
Agaricus (Lepiota) procerus Scop, 1772 accepted as Agaricus procerus Scop., (1772)
Agaricus (Lepiota) pteropus Kalchbr. & MacOwan 1880 accepted as Agaricus pleropus Kalchbr. & MacOwan [as pteropus], (1880)
Agaricus (Lepiota) rubricatus Berk. & Br. 1871 accepted as Agaricus rubricatus Berk. & Broome, (1871)
Agaricus (Lepiota) sulfurellus Kalchbr. & MacOwan accepted as Agaricus sulfurellus Kalchbr. 1879
Agaricus (Lepiota) various Kalchbr. & MacOwan. possibly one of: Agaricus varius Schaeff., (1774) accepted as Cortinarius varius (Schaeff.) Fr., (1838) [1836-1838] or Agaricus varius Bolton,(1788) accepted as Panaeolus fimicola (Pers.) Gillet, (1878)
Agaricus (Lepiota) zeyheri Berk. 1843 accepted as Leucocoprinus zeyheri (Berk.) Singer, (1943)
Agaricus (Lepiota) zeyheri var. telosus Kalchbr. & MacOwan 1881
Agaricus (Lepiota) zeyheri var. verrucellosus Kalchbr. possibly Miq. ex Kalchbr. 1881
Agaricus muscarius Linn. 1753 accepted as Amanita muscaria (L.) Lam., (1783)
Agaricus (Mycena) actiniceps Kalchbr. & Cooke 1881 accepted as Marasmius actiniceps (Kalchbr. & Cooke) D.A. Reid, (1975)
Agaricus (Mycena) argutus Kalchbr. 1881 Agaricus argutus Kalchbr., (1881)
Agaricus (Mycena) capillaris Schumach. 1803 accepted as Mycena capillaris (Schumach.) P. Kumm., (1871)
Agaricus (Mycena) clavicularis Fr. 1821 accepted as Mycena clavicularis (Fr.) Gillet, (1876) [1878]
Agaricus (Mycena) corticola Fr. 1821 accepted as Mycena clavicularis (Fr.) Gillet, (1876) [1878]
Agaricus (Mycena) debilis Fr. 1838 Agaricus debilis Fr. 1838
Agaricus (Mycena) dilatatus Fr. 1815 accepted as Mycena stylobates (Pers.) P. Kumm., (1871)
Agaricus (Mycena) dregeanus Lév. 1846 Agaricus dregeanus Lév. 1846
Agaricus (Mycena) galeropsis Fr. 1877 Agaricus galeropsis Fr. 1877
Agaricus (Mycena) heliscus Berk. & Broome 1871 accepted as Gloiocephala helisca (Berk. & Broome) Pegler, (1986)
Agaricus (Mycena) hiemalis Osbeck 1788 accepted as Phloeomana hiemalis (Osbeck) Redhead, (2016)
Agaricus (Mycena) macrorrhizus Fr. 1848 Agaricus macrorrhizus Fr. 1848
Agaricus (Mycena) rhodiophyllus Kalchbr. 1881 Agaricus rhodiophyllus Kalchbr. 1881
Agaricus (Mycena) sciolus Kalchbr. 1881 Agaricus sciolus Kalchbr. 1881
Agaricus (Mycena) tintinnabulum (Paulet) Fr. 1838 Agaricus tintinnabulum (Paulet) Fr. 1838
Agaricus (Mycena) vitreus Fr. 1821 Mycena vitrea (Fr.) Quél., (1872)
Agaricus (Naucoria) arenicola Berk. 1843 accepted as Agrocybe pediades (Fr.) Fayod, (1889)
Agaricus (Naucoria) furfuraceus Pers. 1801 accepted as Tubaria furfuracea (Pers.) Gillet, (1876) [1878]
Agaricus (Naucoria) pediades Fr. 1821 accepted as Agrocybe pediades (Fr.) Fayod, (1889)
Agaricus (Naucoria) pygmaeus Bull. 1791 accepted as Psathyrella pygmaea (Bull.) Singer, (1951) [1949]
Agaricus (Naucoria) semiorbicularis Bull. 1789 accepted as Agrocybe pediades (Fr.) Fayod, (1889)
Agaricus (Naucoria) undulosus Jungh. possibly Agaricus undulosus Fr., (1838) [1836-1838]
Agaricus (Nolanea) castus MacOwan 1881 accepted as Mycena casta (MacOwan) D.A. Reid, (1975)
Agaricus (Omphalia) griseo-pallidus Desm. (1826) accepted as Arrhenia griseopallida (Desm.) Watling, (1989) [1988]
Agaricus (Omphalia) integrellus Pers. 1800 accepted as Delicatula integrella (Pers.) Fayod, (1889)
Agaricus (Omphalia) linopus Kalchbr. 1881 accepted as Agaricus linopus Kalchbr., (1881)
Agaricus (Omphalia) micromeles Berk. & Broome 1871 accepted as Agaricus micromeles Berk. & Broome, (1871)
Agaricus (Omphalia) paurophyllus Berk. 1876 accepted as Agaricus paurophyllus Berk., (1876)
Agaricus (Omphalia) polypus Kalchbr. 1877 accepted as Marasmius polypus (Kalchbr.) D.A. Reid, (1975)
Agaricus (Omphalia) rusticus Fr. 1838 accepted as Arrhenia rustica (Fr.) Redhead, Lutzoni, Moncalvo & Vilgalys, (2002)
Agaricus (Omphalia) scyphiformis Fr. 1818 accepted as Agaricus scyphiformis Fr., (1818)
Agaricus (Omphalia) scyphoides Fr. 1821 accepted as Clitopilus scyphoides (Fr.) Singer, (1946)
Agaricus (Omphalia) syndesmius Kalchbr. 1881 accepted as Agaricus syndesmius Kalchbr., (1881)
Agaricus (Omphalia) umbelliferus Linn, ex Fr. var. cinnabarinus Berk. possibly Agaricus umbellifer L., (1753) (Checked to here on Index Fungorum)
Agaricus (Panaeolus) caliginosus Jungh. 1830 accepted as Agaricus caliginosus Jungh., (1830)
Agaricus (Panaeolus) campanulatis L. 1753 accepted as Panaeolus papilionaceus (Bull.) Quél., (1872)
Agaricus (Panaeolus) fimicolus Fr. accepted as Agaricus fimicola Fr., (1821)
Agaricus (Panaeolus) papilionaceus Bull. 1781 accepted as Panaeolus papilionaceus (Bull.) Quél., (1872)
Agaricus (Panaeolus) separatum Linn, ex Fr. Agaricus separatus L. 1753 accepted as Panaeolus semiovatus (Sowerby) S. Lundell & Nannf. (1938)
Agaricus (Pholiota) aurivellus Batsch ex Fr.*
Agaricus (Pholiota) mycenoides Fr.*
Agaricus (Pholiota) spectabilis Fr. possibly Weinm. 1824, accepted as Gymnopilus junonius (Fr.) P.D. Orton, (1960)
Agaricus (Pholiota) togularis Bull, 1793 accepted as Agrocybe praecox (Pers.) Fayod, (1889)
Agaricus (Pholiota) unicolor Vahl 1792 accepted as Galerina marginata (Batsch) Kühner, (1935)
Agaricus (Pleurotus) atrocaeruleus Fr. accepted as Agaricus atrocoeruleus Fr. [as atrocœruleus], (1815), accepted as Hohenbuehelia atrocoerulea (Fr.) Singer [as atrocaerulea], (1951) [1949]
Agaricus (Pleurotus) aureo-tomentosus Kalchbr. Agaricus aureotomentosus Kalchbr. [as aureo-tomentosus], (1880)
Agaricus (Pleurotus) caveatus Berk. & M.A. Curtis 1868, accepted as Crepidotus caveatus (Berk. & M.A. Curtis) Murrill, (1916)
Agaricus (Pleurotus) clusilis Kalchbr. 1880 accepted as Marasmiellus clusilis (Sacc.) D.A. Reid, (1975)
Agaricus (Pleurotus) contrarius Kalchbr. 1881 accepted as Marasmiellus contrarius (Sacc.) D.A. Reid, (1975)
Agaricus (Pleurotus) flahellatus Berk. & Broome 1871, accepted as Pleurotus flabellatus Sacc., (1887)
Agaricus (Pleurotus) gilvescens Kalchbr. 1881 accepted as Agaricus gilvescens Kalchbr. 1881
Agaricus (Pleurotus) limpidus Fr. 1838 accepted as Agaricus limpidus Fr., (1838) [1836-1838]
Agaricus (Pleurotus) olearius DC. 1815 accepted as Omphalotus olearius (DC.) Singer, (1948) [1946]
Agaricus (Pleurotus) perpusillus Fr. possibly Agaricus perpusillus Lumn. 1791
Agaricus (Pleurotus) radiatim-plicatus Kalchbr. 1881 accepted as Marasmiellus radiatim-plicatus (Kalchbr.) D.A. Reid, (1975)
Agaricus (Pleurotus) sciadeum Kalchbr. & MacOwan 1881 Agaricus sciadeum Kalchbr. & MacOwan 1881, accepted as Hohenbuehelia sciadium (Kalchbr. & MacOwan) Singer [as sciadea], (1951) [1949]
Agaricus (Pleurotus) sciadeum var. salmoneus Kalchbr. & MacOwan, (1881) accepted as Phyllotopsis salmonea (Kalchbr. & MacOwan) D.A. Reid [as Phylotopis salmoneus], (1975)
Agaricus (Pleurotus) septicus Fr. 1821 accepted as Agaricus septicus Fr., (1821)
Agaricus (Pleurotus) striatulus Fr. nay be one of: Agaricus striatulus J.F. Gmel. 1792, accepted as Gloeophyllum striatum (Fr.) Murrill, Bull. (1905); Agaricus striatulus Pers. 1801, accepted as Resupinatus striatulus (Pers.) Murrill, (1915) or Agaricus striatulus Schumach. 1803
Agaricus (Pluteus) cervinus Schaeff. 1774 accepted as Pluteus cervinus (Schaeff.) P. Kumm., (1871)
Agaricus (Psalliota) arvensis Schaeff. 1774 accepted as Agaricus arvensis Schaeff., (1774)
Agaricus (Psalliota) arvensis var. grossus Berk.*
Agaricus (Psalliota) campestris L. 1753 accepted as Agaricus campestris L. [as campester], (1753)
Agaricus (Psalliota) campestris (b) praticola. probably Agaricus campestris var. praticola Vittad. ex Fr. 1838, accepted as Agaricus campestris L. [as campester], (1753)
Agaricus (Psalliota) pratensis var. australis Berk. 1843 accepted as Cuphophyllus pratensis(Pers.) Bon, (1985) [1984]
Agaricus (Psalliota) sylvaticus Schaeff. 1774 accepted as Agaricus sylvaticus Schaeff., (1774)
Agaricus (Psathyra) corrugis Pers. 1794 accepted as Psathyrella corrugis (Pers.) Konrad & Maubl., (1949) [1948]
Agaricus (Psathyra) spadiceo-griseus Schaeff. 1774 accepted as Psathyrella spadiceogrisea (Schaeff.) Maire, (1937)
Agaricus (Psathyrella) disseminatus Pers. 1801 accepted as Coprinellus disseminatus (Pers.) J.E. Lange [as disseminata], (1938)
Agaricus (Psathyrella) gracilis Fr. 1821, accepted as Psathyrella corrugis (Pers.) Konrad & Maubl., (1949) [1948]
Agaricus (Psathyrella) pronus Fr. 1838 accepted as Psathyrella prona (Fr.) Gillet, (1878)
Agaricus (Psathyrella) subtilis Fr. 1821 accepted as Agaricus subtilis Fr., (1821)
Agaricus (Psathyrella) sp.
Agaricus (Psilocybe) atrorufus Schaeff. 1774 accepted as Deconica montana (Pers.) P.D. Orton, (1960)
Agaricus (Psilocybe) atrorufus var. montanus Pers. ex Fr.*
Agaricus (Psilocybe) ericaeus Pers. 1801 accepted as Hypholoma ericaeum (Pers.) Kühner, Bull. (1936)
Agaricus (Psilocybe) foenisecii Pers. 1800 accepted as Panaeolina foenisecii (Pers.) Maire, (1933)
Agaricus (Psilocybe) semilanceatus Fr. 1818 accepted as Psilocybe semilanceata (Fr.) P. Kumm., (1871)
Agaricus (Psilocybe) squalens Fr. 1838 accepted as Agaricus squalens Fr.,(1838) [1836-1838]
Agaricus (Psilocybe) taediosus Kalchbr. 1880 accepted as Stropharia taediosa (Kalchbr.) D.A. Reid, (1975)
Agaricus (Psilocybe) udus Pers. 1801 accepted as Bogbodia uda (Pers.) Redhead, (2013)
Agaricus purpuratus Kalchbr. var. cinerea possibly Agaricus purpuratus Cooke & Massee 1890
Agaricus (Schulzeria) umkowaani Cooke & Massee, 1889 accepted as Termitomyces umkowaan (Cooke & Massee) D.A. Reid [as umkowaani], (1975)
Agaricus (Stropharia) melaspermus Bull, ex Fr. possibly Agaricus melaspermus Fr., (1838) [1836-1838]
Agaricus (Stropharia) obturatus Fr. 1821 accepted as Psilocybe coronilla (Bull.) Noordel., (1995)
Agaricus (Stropharia) olivaceo-flava Kalchbr. & MacOwan accepted as Agaricus olivaceoflavus Kalchbr. & MacOwan [as olivaceo-flavus], (1881)
Agaricus (Stropharia) semiglobatus Batsch 1786 accepted as Protostropharia semiglobata (Batsch) Redhead, Moncalvo & Vilgalys, (2013)
Agaricus (Tricholoma) caffrorum Kalchbr. & MacOwan 1881 accepted as Lepista caffrorum (Kalchbr. & MacOwan) Singer, (1951) [1949]
Agaricus (Tricholoma) caffrorum var. sulonensis Kalchbr. & MacOwan 1881 accepted as Lepista caffrorum (Kalchbr. & MacOwan) Singer, (1951) [1949]
Agaricus (Tricholoma) georgii Clus. ex Fr. possibly L. 1753, accepted as Calocybe gambosa (Fr.) Donk, (1962)
Agaricus (Tricholoma) melaleucus var. porphyroleucus (Bull.) Fr. 1821 accepted as Melanoleuca polioleuca (Fr.) Kühner & Maire, Bull. (1934)
Agaricus (Tricholoma) ustalis Fr. 1818 accepted as Tricholoma ustale (Fr.) P. Kumm., (1871)
Agaricus (Volvaria) bombycinus Schaeff. 1774 accepted as Volvariella bombycina (Schaeff.) Singer, (1951) [1949]
Ai
Genus: Aithaloderma Syd. & P. Syd. 1913
Aithaloderma capense [as capensis] Doidge 1927 accepted as Chaetothyrium capense (Doidge) Hansf. (1950)
Al
Genus: Alectoria Ach. 1809?(lichens)
Alectoria chalybeiformis (L.) Röhl. 1813 f. terrestris Stizenb. 1890
Alectoria jubata (L.) Ach. 1810
Alectoria usneoides (Ach.) Ach. 1810 accepted as Ramalina usnea (L.) R. Howe, (1914)
Genus: Aleurodiscus
Aleurodiscus acerinus (Pers.) Höhn. & Litsch. 1907 accepted as Dendrothele acerina (Pers.) P.A. Lemke, (1965)
Aleurodiscus acerinus var. longisporus Höhn. & Litsch. 1907 accepted as Dendrothele acerina (Pers.) P.A. Lemke, (1965)
Aleurodiscus capensis Lloyd 1920 accepted as Aleurocystis capensis (Lloyd) Lloyd,(1920) [1921]
Aleurodiscus cerussatus [as cerrussatus] (Bres.) Höhn. & Litsch. 1907
Aleurodiscus corneus Lloyd 1920,
Aleurodiscus disciformis (DC.) Pat. 1894
Genus: Allantonectria Earle 1901, accepted as Thyronectria Sacc., (1875), Sordariomycetes
Allantonectria miltina (Durieu & Mont.) Weese 1910
Genus: Allarthothelium (Vain.) Zahlbr. 1908, accepted as Arthonia Ach., (1806) (Ramalinaceae C. Agardh [as 'Ramalineae'], (1821)
Allarthothelium minimum Vain. 1926, accepted as Bilimbia minima (Vain.) Räsänen, (1943)
Genus: Allomyces E.J. Butler 1911
Allomyces arbusculus E.J. Butler 1911
Genus: Aloysiella Mattir. & Sacc. 1908, accepted as Metacapnodium Speg., (1918)
Aloysiella ruwenzorensis Mattir. & Sacc. 1908
Genus: Alternaria Nees 1816
Alternaria allii Nolla. (1927), accepted as Alternaria solani Sorauer, (1896)
Alternaria brassicae (Berk.) Sacc. 1880
Alternaria brassicae f. phaseoli [as var. phaseoli] Brunaud 1894 accepted as Alternaria brassicae (Berk.) Sacc., (1880)
Alternaria circinans (Berk. & M.A. Curtis) P.C. Bolle 1924 accepted as Alternaria brassicicola (Schwein.) Wiltshire, (1947)
Alternaria citri Ellis & N. Pierce 1902
Alternaria crassa (Sacc.) Rands (1917)
Alternaria cucumerina (Ellis & Everh.) J.A. Elliott 1917
Alternaria dianthi F. Stevens & J.G. Hall 1909
Alternaria gossypina (Thüm.) J.C.F. Hopkins 1931
Alternaria herculea (Ellis & G. Martin) J.A. Elliott (1917),accepted as Alternaria brassicae (Berk.) Sacc., (1880)
Alternaria longipes Tisd. & Wadk possibly (Ellis & Everh.) E.W. Mason 1928,
Alternaria macrospora Zimm. (1904),
Alternaria macrospora (group) possibly accepted as Alternaria brassicae (Berk.) Sacc. (1880)
Alternaria solani (Ellis & G. Martin) L.R. Jones & Grout 1896
Alternaria solani (group)
Alternaria tabacina (Ellis & Everh.) Hori (1903)
Alternaria tenuis Nees (1817), accepted as Alternaria alternata (Fr.) Keissl. (1912)
Alternaria violae L.D. Galloway & Dorsett 1900
Alternaria sp.
Am
Genus: Amanita
Amanita mappa Quel. possibly (Batsch) Bertill. 1866, accepted as Amanita citrina Pers., Tent. (1797)
Amanita muscaria S.F.Gray possibly (L.) Lam., (1783)
Amanita pantherina Quel possibly (DC.) Krombh. 1846
Amanita phalloides Secr. 1833
Amanita rubescens (Pers. ex Fr.) Gray (1797) possibly Pers. 1797
Amanita solitaria Secr
Genus: Amanitopsis Roze accepted as Amanita Pers. (1794)
Amanitopsis praetoria (Fr.) Sacc. 1887 basionym Agaricus praetorius Fr. 1838
Family: Amaurochaetaceae Rostaf. ex Cooke 1877
Genus: Amaurochaete Rostaf. 1873
Amaurochaete fuliginosa (Sowerby) T. Macbr. 1899,
Genus: Amauroderma Murrill, (1905)
Amauroderma argenteofulvum (Van der Byl) Doidge 1950
Amauroderma fuscoporia Wakef. 1948 accepted as Amauroderma fuscoporium Wakef. [as 'fuscoporia'], (1948)
Amauroderma rugosum Lloyd possibly (Blume & T. Nees) Torrend 1920, accepted as Sanguinoderma rugosum (Blume & T. Nees) Y.F. Sun, D.H. Costa & B.K. Cui, (2020)
Genus: Amazonia Theiss. 1913
Amazonia asterinoides (G. Winter) Theiss. 1913,
Amazonia goniomae Doidge 1924
Genus: Amphiloma Nyl. (1855), accepted as Lepraria Ach. (1803)
Amphiloma elegans (Link) Körb. 1855 accepted as Xanthoria elegans (Link) Th. Fr., (1860)
Amphiloma elegantissimum (Nyl.) Müll. Arg. 1888, accepted as Stellarangia elegantissima (Nyl.) Frödén, Arup & Søchting, (2013)
Amphiloma eudoxum Müll. Arg. 1888, accepted as Teloschistopsis eudoxa (Müll. Arg.) Frödén, Arup & Søchting, (2013)
Amphiloma leucoxanthum Müll. Arg. 1888
An
Genus: Anaptychia Körb. 1848
Anaptychia corallophora Wain. probably Anaptychia coralliphora (Taylor) Zahlbr. [as 'corallophora'], (1931), accepted as Polyblastidium corallophorum (Taylor) Kalb, (2015)
Anaptychia dactyliza (Nyl.) Zahlbr. 1924
Anaptychia granulifera (Ach.) A. Massal. 1853
Anaptychia hypoleuca (Ach.) A. Massal. 1860, accepted as Polyblastidium hypoleucum (Ach.) Kalb, (2015)
Anaptychia hypoleuca var. colorata Zahlbr. 1927
Anaptychia leucomela Massal. Anaptychia leucomelos (L.) A. Massal. [as 'leucomela'], (1890) accepted as Leucodermia leucomelos (L.) Kalb, (2015)
Anaptychia leucomelaena Vain.*
Anaptychia leucomelaena var. angustifolia Müll.Arg. possibly Anaptychia leucomelos var. angustifolia (Meyen & Flot.) Müll. Arg., (1894) accepted as
Anaptychia leucomelaena var. multifida f. squarrosa Vain. possibly Anaptychia leucomelos f. squarrosa Vain. [as Anaptychia leucomelaena f. squarrosa], (1901) or Anaptychia leucomelos var. multifida (Meyen & Flot.) Vain., (1890)
Anaptychia obesa f. caesiocrocata (Nyl.) Zahlbr. 1931
Anaptychia palpebrata (Taylor) Vain. 1898
Anaptychia podocarpa (Bél.) A. Massal. 1860 accepted as Heterodermia podocarpa (Bél.) D.D. Awasthi, (1973)
Anaptychia speciosa (Wulfen) A. Massal. 1853 accepted as Heterodermia speciosa (Wulfen) Trevis., (1868)
Anaptychia speciosa f. sorediosa (Müll. Arg.) Zahlbr. 1931
Anaptychia speciosa var. esorediata Vain. 1901
Anaptychia speciosa var. lobulifera Vain. 1901
Genus: Anelleria
Anelleria separata Karst.*
Genus: Angelina Fr. 1849
Angelina nigrocinnabarina (Schwein.) Berk. & M.A. Curtis 1868 accepted as Blitridium nigrocinnabarinum (Schwein.) Sacc., (1889)
Genus: Antennaria Link 1809
Antennaria (Goleroa) engleriana v.Hohn.*
Genus: Anthostomella Sacc. 1875
Anthostomella africana Berl. & Vogl. possibly (Kalchbr. & Cooke) Sacc. 1882
Anthostomella capensis Doidge 1948
Anthostomella cassinopsidis Rehm 1906
Anthostomella cassinopsidis (Kalchbr. & Cooke) Petr. & Syd. 1925
Anthostomella nigroannulata Sacc. 1882
Anthostomella salaciae Doidge 1948
Genus: Anthracophyllum Ces. 1879
Anthracophyllum nigritum (Lév.) Kalchbr., (1881)as Anthracophyllum nigrita
Genus: Anthracothecium Hampe ex A. Massal. 1860
Anthracothecium biferum Zahlbr. 1932
Anthracothecium duplicans (Nyl.) Müll. Arg. 1880 accepted as Pyrenula duplicans (Nyl.) Aptroot, (2008)
Anthracothecium pyrenuloides (Mont.) Müll. Arg. 1880 accepted as Pyrenula pyrenuloides (Mont.) R.C. Harris, (1989),
Anthracothecium thelomorphum (Tuck.) Zahlbr. (1922) [as thelemorphum]
Anthracothecium thwaitesii(Leight.) Müll. Arg. 1880
Anthracothecium variolosum (Pers.) Müll. Arg. 1880
Genus: Anthurus Kalchbr. & MacOwan 1880
Anthurus archeri (Berk.) E.Fisch.,(1886) accepted as Clathrus archeri (Berk.) Dring 1980
Anthurus macowani Marloth 1913
Anthurus woodii MacOwan 1880
Ap
Genus: Aphysa Theiss. & Syd. 1917, accepted as Coleroa Rabenh., (1850)
Aphysa lebeckiae (Verwoerd & Dippen.) Doidge 1942, accepted as Coleroa lebeckiae (Verwoerd & Dippen.) Arx, (1962)
Aphysa rhynchosiae (Kalchbr. & Cooke) Theiss. & Syd. 1917, accepted as Coleroa rhynchosiae (Kalchbr. & Cooke) E. Müll., (1962)
Aphysa senniana (Sacc.) Doidge 1941, accepted as Coleroa senniana (Sacc.) Arx, (1962)
Genus: Appendiculella Höhn. 1919
Appendiculella calostroma (Desm.) Höhn. 1919
Ar
Family: Arachniaceae Coker & Couch 1928
Genus: Arachnion Schwein. 1822
Arachnion alborosellum Verwoerd 1926 [as alborosella]
Arachnion album Schwein. 1822
Arachnion firmoderma Verwoerd 1926
Arachnion giganteum Lloyd*
Arachnion scleroderma Lloyd 1915
Genus: Arcangeliella Cavara 1900 accepted as Lactarius Pers., (1797)
Arcangeliella africana (Lloyd) Zeller & C.W. Dodge 1935 accepted as Neosecotium africanum (Lloyd) Singer & A.H. Sm., (1960)
Genus: Arctomia Th. Fr. 1861 (lichens)
Arctomia muscicola A.L. Sm. 1932
Genus: Armillaria (Fr.) Staude 1857
Armillaria mellea Quel. possibly (Vahl) P. Kumm. 1871
Armillaria ramentacea Quel. possibly (Bull. ex Pers.) Gillet 1874, accepted as Tricholoma ramentaceum (Bull. ex Pers.) Ricken, (1915)
Genus: Arrhenia Fr. 1849
Arrhenia cucullata
Family: Arthoniaceae Rchb. 1841
Genus: Arthonia Ach. 1806
Arthonia albida (Müll. Arg.) Willey 1890
Arthonia angulata Fée 1837
Arthonia angulosa Müll. Arg. 1887
Arthonia antillarum (Fée) Nyl. 1867
Arthonia argentea Stizenb. 1891
Arthonia calospora Müll. Arg. 1882
Arthonia capensis Stizenb. 1891 accepted as Tryblidaria capensis (Stizenb.) Vouaux, (1914)
Arthonia cinnabarina (DC.) Wallr. 1831 accepted as Coniocarpon cinnabarinum DC., (1805)
Arthonia circumscissa Merrill possibly Vain. 1890, accepted as Cyclographina circumscissa (Vain.) Makhija & Patw., (1995)
Arthonia consanguinea (Müll. Arg.) Willey 1890
Arthonia dispersa Nyl. possibly (Schrad.) Dufour 1818, accepted as Naevia dispersa (Schrad.) Thiyagaraja, Lücking & K.D. Hyde, (2020) or Arthonia dispersa subsp. excipienda (Nyl.) Nyl. 1861
Arthonia fusconigra Nyl. 1859
Arthonia gregaria (Weigel) Körb. 1855 accepted as Coniocarpon cinnabarinum DC., (1805)
Arthonia hormidiella Stirt. 1877
Arthonia lecideicarpa Zahlbr. 1932
Arthonia melanopsis Stirt. 1877
Arthonia nana Stizenb. 1891
Arthonia oblongula Müll. Arg. 1887
Arthonia obvelata (Müll. Arg.) Willey 1890
Arthonia palmicola Ach. 1814
Arthonia platygraphidea Nyl. 1863
Arthonia polymorpha Ach. 1814
Arthonia propinqua Nyl. 1863
Arthonia pyrenuloides Müll. Arg. 1887
Arthonia rubrofuscescens Vain. 1926
Arthonia variabilis Müll. Arg. 1887
Arthonia violascens Flot. ex Nyl.
Arthonia wilmsiana Müll. Arg. 1886
Genus: Arthopyrenia A. Massal. 1852
Arthopyrenia alboatra Müll. Arg. 1883
Arthopyrenia capensis Zahlbr. 1921
Arthopyrenia cinchonae (Ach.) Müll. Arg. 1883
Arthopyrenia cinchonae var. fumida (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1921 accepted as Constrictolumina cinchonae (Ach.) Lücking, M.P. Nelsen & Aptroot, (2016)
Arthopyrenia fallax (Nyl.) Arnold 1873 accepted as Pseudosagedia fallax (Nyl.) Oxner, (1956)
Arthopyrenia knysnana Zahlbr. 1932
Arthopyrenia leucanthes (Stirt.) Zahlbr. 1922
Arthopyrenia norata A. Massal. 1861
Arthopyrenia paraphysata Zahlbr. 1932
Arthopyrenia pruinosogrisea (C. Knight) Müll. Arg. 1894
Arthopyrenia recepta Müll. Arg. 1883
Arthopyrenia simulans Müll. Arg. 1887
Genus: Arthothelium A. Massal. 1852 (Lichens)
Arthothelium abnorme (Ach.) Müll. Arg. 1880
Arthothelium albidum Müll. Arg. 1887
Arthothelium album Zahlbr. 1932
Arthothelium argenteum (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1922
Arthothelium consanguineum Müll. Arg. 1888
Arthothelium fusconigrum (Nyl.) Müll. Arg. 1894
Arthothelium melanopsis (Stirt.) Zahlbr. 1922
Arthothelium michylum Vain. 1922
Arthothelium obvelatum Müll. Arg. 1887
Arthothelium phaeosporum Zahlbr. 1936
Arthothelium psyllodes Zahlbr. 1936
Arthothelium psyllodes var. precursum Zahlbr. 1936
Arthothelium violascens (Flot.) Zahlbr. 1922
Genus: Arthrobotryum Ces. 1854
Arthrobotryum melanoplaca Berk. & M.A. Curtis 1868 accepted as Spiropes melanoplaca (Berk. & M.A. Curtis) M.B. Ellis, (1968)
Genus: Arthrosporium Sacc. 1880
Arthrosporium parasiticum G. Winter 1886 accepted as Atractilina parasitica (G. Winter) Deighton & Piroz., (1972)
As
Genus: Ascobolus Pers. ex J.F. Gmel. 1792
Ascobolus ciliatus Berk. possibly J.C. Schmidt 1817 accepted as Lasiobolus papillatus (Pers.) Sacc., (1884) or Ascobolus ciliatus var. ciliatus Berk. 1836
Ascobolus ciliatus Schum.*
Ascobolus furfuraceus Pers. 1794
Ascobolus stercorarius (Bull.) J. Schröt. 1893 accepted as Ascobolus furfuraceus Pers., (1794)
Genus: Ascochyta Lib. 1830
Ascochyta alkekengi C. Massal. 1900
Ascochyta atropunctata G. Winter 1885
Ascochyta calpurniae G. Winter 1885
Ascochyta caricae Pat. 1891
Ascochyta cherimoliae Thüm. 1879.
Ascochyta citricola McAlpine 1899
Ascochyta dianthi (Alb. & Schwein.) Berk. 1860 accepted as Septoria dianthi (Alb. & Schwein.) Desm., (1849)
Ascochyta kentiae Maubl. 1903
Ascochyta nicotianae Pass. 1881 accepted as Boeremia exigua (Desm.) Aveskamp, Gruyter & Verkley, (2010)
Ascochyta papaveris Oudem. 1885, accepted as Diplodina papaveris (Oudem.) Lind, (1926)
Ascochyta parasitica Fautrey 1891 accepted as Sirococcus conigenus (Pers.) P.F. Cannon & Minter, (1983)
Ascochyta pisi Lib. 1830, accepted as Didymella pisi Chilvers, J.D. Rogers & Peever, (2009)
Genus: Ascophanus Boud. 1869
Ascophanus durbanensis Van der Byl 1925 accepted as Iodophanus durbanensis (Van der Byl) Kimbr., Luck-Allen & Cain, (1969)
Ascophanus granulatus (Bull.) Speg. 1878 accepted as Cheilymenia granulata (Bull.) J. Moravec, (1990)
Ascophanus granuliformis (P. Crouan & H. Crouan) Boud. 1869 accepted as Coprotus granuliformis (P. Crouan & H. Crouan) Kimbr., (1967)
Ascophanus sp.
Genus: Ascostratum Syd. & P. Syd. 1912
Ascostratum insigne Syd. & P. Syd. 1912
Genus: Ascotricha Berk. 1838,
Ascotricha chartarum Berk. 1838
Genus: Aseroe Labill. 1800
Aseroe rubra Labill. 1800
Family: Ashbyaceae C.W. Dodge 1935
Genus: Ashbya Guillierm. 1928
Ashbya gossypii (S.F. Ashby & W. Nowell) Guillierm. (1928), accepted as Eremothecium gossypii (S.F. Ashby & W. Nowell) Kurtzman, J. (1995)
Genus: Aspergillus P. Micheli 1729
Aspergillus amstelodami (L. Mangin) Thom & Church 1926
Aspergillus candidus Link 1809
Aspergillus carbonarius (Bainier) Thom 1916
Aspergillus eburneus Biourge. accepted as Aspergillus neoniveus Samson, S.W. Peterson, Frisvad & Varga, (2011)
Aspergillus flavus Link 1809
Aspergillus fumigatus Fresen. 1863
Aspergillus glaucus (L.) Link 1809
Aspergillus minutus Gilman & Abott probably E.V. Abbott 1927;
Aspergillus niger Tiegh. 1867
Aspergillus ochraceus (series)
Aspergillus melleus Yukawa.
Aspergillus parasiticus Speare
Aspergillus repens (Corda) Sacc. (1882), valid on Species Fungorum accepted as Aspergillus reptans Samson & W. Gams, (1986) per Mycobank
Aspergillus repens-glaucus (series) possibly G. Wilh. 1877
Aspergillus sartoryi Syd. 1913
Aspergillus sulphureus (Fresen.) Thom & Church 1926
Aspergillus sydowi (Bainier & Sartory) Thom & Church 1926
Aspergillus terreus Thom 1918
Aspergillus versicolor (Vuill.) Tirab. 1908
Aspergillus welwitschiae (Bres.) Henn. 1907
Aspergillus sp.
Genus: Aspicilia A. Massal. 1852
Aspicilia nubila (Stizenb.) Hue 1912
Genus: Asterella (may refer to Asterella Rostr. 1888, accepted as Venturia; Venturiaceae, Asterella (Sacc.) Sacc. 1891, accepted as Asterina; Asterinaceae, or Asterella Hara 1936, accepted as Astrosphaeriella; Pleosporales)
Asterella infuscans (G. Winter) Sacc. 1891
Asterella phaeostroma (Cooke) Sacc. 1891
Asterella rehmii Henn. 1893 accepted as Placoasterella rehmii (Henn.) Theiss. & Syd., (1915)
Family: Asterinaceae Hansf. 1946
Genus: Asterina Lév. 1845
Asterina africana (Van der Byl) Doidge 1942
Asterina africana var. kiggelariae Doidge 1942 accepted as Asterina africana (Van der Byl) Doidge, (1942)
Asterina aulica Syd. 1938
Asterina balansae var. africana Theiss.*
Asterina bosmanae Doidge 1942
Asterina bottomleyae Doidge 1942
Asterina capensis Kalchbr. & Cooke 1880 accepted as Meliola capensis (Kalchbr. & Cooke) Theiss., (1912)
Asterina capparicola [as capparidicola] Doidge (1942)
Asterina celtidicola Henn. 1905
Asterina celtidicola var. microspora Doidge 1920 accepted as Asterina celtidicola Henn. 1905
Asterina clausenicola Doidge 1920
Asterina combreti Syd. & P. Syd. 1910
Asterina combreti var. kutuensis v. Hohn*
Asterina confluens Kalchbr. & Cooke 1880
Asterina crotonicola Doidge 1922
Asterina crotoniensis R.W. Ryan 1939
Asterina delicata Doidge 1920
Asterina diplocarpa Cooke 1882
Asterina diplocarpa var. hibisci Doidge 1942 accepted as Asterina hibisci (Doidge) Hosag., (2004)
Asterina dissiliens (Syd.) Doidge 1942 accepted as Prillieuxina dissiliens (Syd.) Arx, (1962)
Asterina dissiliens var. senegalensis Doidge 1942 accepted as Prillieuxina dissiliens (Syd.) Arx, (1962)
Asterina ditricha Kalchbr. & Cooke 1880
Asterina elegans Doidge 1942
Asterina erysiphoides Kalchbr. & Cooke 1880 accepted as Asterostomella erysiphoides (Kalchbr. & Cooke) Bat. & Cif., (1959)
Asterina excoecariae Doidge 1920
Asterina ferruginosa Doidge 1920
Asterina fimbriata Kalchbr. & Cooke 1880
Asterina fleuryae Doidge 1942
Asterina gerbericola Doidge 1924
Asterina gibbosa var. megathyria Doidge 1920, accepted as Asterolibertia megathyria (Doidge) Doidge, (1942)
Asterina grewiae Cooke 1882
Asterina grewiae var. zonata Doidge 1942 accepted as Asterina grewiae Cooke 1882
Asterina hendersoni Doidge 1920
Asterina inconspicua (Doidge) Doidge 1942 accepted as Prillieuxina inconspicua (Doidge) Arx, (1962)
Asterina infuscans G. Winter 1885
Asterina interrupta G. Winter 1884 accepted as Vizella interrupta (G. Winter) S. Hughes, (1953)
Asterina knysnae Doidge 1942
Asterina loranthicola Syd. & P. Syd. 1914
Asterina macowaniana Kalchbr. & Cooke 1880
Asterina myriadea Cooke 1882
Asterina natalensis Doidge 1920
Asterina natalitia Doidge 1942
Asterina nodosa Doidge 1942
Asterina oncinotidis Doidge 1942
Asterina opaca Syd. & P. Syd. 1912
Asterina oxyanthi Doidge 1942
Asterina pavoniae Werderm. 1923
Asterina peglerae Doidge 1920
Asterina pemphidioides Cooke 1876
Asterina peraffinis Speg. 1889
Asterina phaeostroma Cooke 1882
Asterina polythyria Doidge 1920
Asterina punctiformis var. fimbriata (Kalchbr. & Cooke) Theiss
Asterina radiofissilis (Sacc.) Theiss. 1912
Asterina raripoda Doidge 1920 accepted as Maublancia raripoda (Doidge) Arx, (1962)
Asterina reticulata Kalchbr. & Cooke 1880
Asterina rhamnicola Doidge 1920 accepted as Schiffnerula rhamnicola (Doidge) S. Hughes, (1987)
Asterina rinoreae Doidge 1942 accepted as Asteridiella rinoreae (Doidge) Hansf. (1961)
Asterina robusta Doidge 1920
Asterina saniculae Doidge 1942
Asterina scolopiae Doidge 1922
Asterina secamonicola Doidge 1927
Asterina similis Cooke 1882
Asterina solaris Kalchbr. & Cooke 1880 accepted as Asterodothis solaris (Kalchbr. & Cooke) Theiss., (1912)
Asterina sphaerasca Thüm. 1875
Asterina streptocarpi Doidge 1924
Asterina stylospora Cooke 1882 accepted as Capnodiastrum stylosporum (Cooke) Petr., (1952)
Asterina syzygii Doidge 1942
Asterina tenuis G. Winter 1886
Asterina tertia var. africana Doidge 1920 accepted as Asterina tertia Racib. 1913
Asterina toruligena Cooke 1882
Asterina trichiliae Doidge 1920
Asterina trichocladi Doidge 1942 accepted as Maublancia trichocladii (Doidge) Arx, (1962)
Asterina uncinata Doidge 1920
Asterina undulata Doidge 1920
Asterina vagans Speg. 1888
Asterina vagans var. subreticulata Theiss*
Asterina vanderbijlii Werderm. 1923 [as van der Bylii]
Asterina vepridis Doidge 1942
Asterina woodiana (Doidge) Doidge 1942
Asterina woodii Doidge 1942
Asterina xumenensis Doidge 1942
Asterina zeyheri Doidge 1942
Genus: Asterinella Theiss. 1912
Asterinella acokantherae Doidge 1920 accepted as Lembosina acokantherae (Doidge) Arx [as 'acocantherae'], (1962)
Asterinella burchelliae Doidge 1920 accepted as Asterolibertia burchelliae (Doidge) Doidge, (1942)
Asterinella contorta (Doidge) Hansf. 1946
Asterinella dissiliens Syd. 1924 accepted as Prillieuxina dissiliens (Syd.) Arx, (1962)
Asterinella dissiliens var. senegalensis Doidge*
Asterinella inconspicua (Doidge) Hansf. 1948 accepted as Prillieuxina inconspicua (Doidge) Arx, (1962)
Asterinella lembosioides Doidge 1920 accepted as Echidnodes lembosioides (Doidge) Doidge, (1942)
Asterinella mimusopsis Doidge [as 'mimusopsidis'], (1922)
Asterinella pterocelastri Doidge 1924 accepted as Prillieuxina pterocelastri (Doidge) R.W. Ryan, (1939)
Asterinella tecleae Doidge 1942
Asterinella woodiana Doidge 1920,
Genus Asterodothis Theiss. 1912
Asterodothis solaris (Kalchbr. & Cooke) Theiss. 1912
Genus: Asterolibertia G. Arnaud 1918
Asterolibertia burchelliae (Doidge) Doidge 1942
Asterolibertia megathyria (Doidge) Doidge 1942
Asterolibertia megathyria var. randiae Doidge 1942
Genus: Asteroma DC. 1815
Asteroma pallidum Kalchbr. *
Asteroma pullum Kalchbr. 1875
Genus: Asteromyxa Theiss. & Syd. 1918 accepted as Dimeriella Speg., (1908)
Asteromyxa inconspicua Doidge 1924 accepted as Prillieuxina inconspicua (Doidge) Arx, (1962)
Genus: Asterostomella Speg. 1886
Asterostomella eugeniicola Doidge [as 'eugenicola'], (1942)
Asterostomella reticulata v.Hohn.*
Asterostomella visci Doidge 1942
Genus: Asterostroma Massee 1889
Asterostroma cervicolor (Berk. & M.A. Curtis) Massee 1889
Genus: Asterostromella Höhn. & Litsch. 1907 accepted as Vararia P. Karst., (1898)
Asterostromella rumpiana P.H.B. Talbot 1948
Genus: Astrosporina J. Schröt. 1889 accepted as Inocybe (Fr.) Fr., (1863)
Astrosporina maritima (P. Karst.) Rea 1922 accepted as Inocybe impexa (Lasch) Kuyper, (1986)
Family: Astrotheliaceae Zahlbr. 1898
Au
Genus: Auerswaldia possibly Rabenh. 1857, accepted as Melanospora Ceratostomataceae, or Auerswaldia Sacc. 1883; Dothideaceae
Auerswaldia disciformis G. Winter 1884 accepted as Auerswaldiella winteri Arx & E. Müll., (1954)
Auerswaldia examinans (Berk.) Sacc. 1883 accepted as Bagnisiella examinans (Berk.) Arx & E. Müll., (1975)
Auerswaldia scabies (Kalchbr. & Cooke) Sacc. 1883 accepted as Phyllachora scabies (Kalchbr. & Cooke) Cooke, (1885)
Family: Auriculariaceae Fr. 1838
Genus: Auricularia Bull. 1780
Auricularia auricula-judae Seer. possibly (Bull.) Quél. 1886
Auricularia delicata (Mont. ex Fr.) Henn. 1893
Auricularia eminii Henn. 1893 [as Emini]
Auricularia flava Lloyd 1922
Auricularia fuscosuccinea (Mont.) Henn. 1893
Auricularia lobata Sommerf. 1826 accepted as Auricularia mesenterica (Dicks.) Pers., (1822)
Auricularia mesenterica Fr. possibly (Dicks.) Pers. 1822
Auricularia mesenterica var. lobata Quel. *
Auricularia nigra P.Henn. possibly (Sw.) Earle 1899 accepted as Auricularia nigricans (Sw.) Birkebak, Looney & Sánchez-García, (2013)
Auricularia ornata Pers. 1827
Auricularia polytricha (Mont.) Sacc. (1885), accepted as Auricularia nigricans (Sw.) Birkebak, Looney & Sánchez-García, (2013)
Auricularia squamosa Pat. & Har. 1893
See also
List of bacteria of South Africa
List of Oomycetes of South Africa
List of slime moulds of South Africa
List of fungi of South Africa
List of fungi of South Africa – A
List of fungi of South Africa – B
List of fungi of South Africa – C
List of fungi of South Africa – D
List of fungi of South Africa – E
List of fungi of South Africa – F
List of fungi of South Africa – G
List of fungi of South Africa – H
List of fungi of South Africa – I
List of fungi of South Africa – J
List of fungi of South Africa – K
List of fungi of South Africa – L
List of fungi of South Africa – M
List of fungi of South Africa – N
List of fungi of South Africa – O
List of fungi of South Africa – P
List of fungi of South Africa – Q
List of fungi of South Africa – R
List of fungi of South Africa – S
List of fungi of South Africa – T
List of fungi of South Africa – U
List of fungi of South Africa – V
List of fungi of South Africa – W
List of fungi of South Africa – X
List of fungi of South Africa – Y
List of fungi of South Africa – Z
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
Species Fungorum – a nomenclature database
Name search at Index Fungorum
Fungi A
South Africa | List of fungi of South Africa – A | [
"Biology"
] | 17,874 | [
"Fungi",
"Lists of fungi"
] |
68,754,922 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20fungi%20of%20South%20Africa%20%E2%80%93%20C | This is an alphabetical list of the fungal taxa as recorded from South Africa. Currently accepted names have been appended.
Ca
Genus: Caeoma Link 1809, accepted as Puccinia Pers., (1794) (Rusts)
Caeoma clematidis Thüm. 1876
Caeoma heteromorphae Doidge 1927
Caeoma lichtensteiniae Doidge 1941,
Caeoma nervisequum Thüm. 1877 accepted as Milesina nervisequa (Thüm.) P. Syd. & Syd., (1915)
Caeoma (Aecidium) resinaecola Rud. accepted as Caeoma resinicola F. Rudolphi, (1829)
Caeoma ricini Schltdl. 1826
Family: Caliciaceae Chevall. 1826
Genus: Calicium Pers. 1794 (Lichens)
Calicium turbinatum Pers. 1797 accepted as Sphinctrina turbinata Fr., (1825)
Genus: Callopisma De Not. 1847 accepted as Caloplaca Th. Fr., (1860)
Callopisma capense A. Massal. 1861 as capensis
Callopisma cinnabarinum (Ach.) Müll. Arg. 1881 accepted as Brownliella cinnabarina (Ach.) S.Y. Kondr., Kärnefelt, A. Thell, Elix, Jung Kim, A.S. Kondr. & Hur, (2013)
Callopisma cinnabarinum var. opacum Müll. Arg. 1881 accepted as Brownliella cinnabarina (Ach.) S.Y. Kondr., Kärnefelt, A. Thell, Elix, Jung Kim, A.S. Kondr. & Hur, (2013)
Callopisma crocodes A. Massal. 1861
Callopisma flavum Müll. Arg. 1893
Callopisma haematodes A. Massal. 1861;
Callopisma teicophilum A. Massal. 1861
Callopisma zambesicum Müll. Arg. 1893
Genus: Calloriopsis Syd. & P. Syd. 1917
Calloriopsis gelatinosa (Sacc.) Syd. & P. Syd. 1917, accepted as Calloriopsis herpotricha (Berk.) R. Sant., (1951)
Genus: Calocera (Fr.) Fr. 1828
Calocera cornea (Batsch) Fr. 1827
Genus: Calonectria De Not. 1867
Calonectria capensis Doidge 1924, accepted as Byssocallis capensis (Doidge) Rossman, (1979)
Calonectria cephalosporii Hansf. 1946, accepted as Dimerosporiella cephalosporii (Hansf.) Rossman & Samuels, in Rossman, Samuels, Rogerson & Lowen, (1999)
Calonectria decora (Wallr.) Sacc. 1878, accepted as Flammocladiella decora (Wallr.) Lechat & J. Fourn., (2018)
Calonectria leucorrhodina (Mont.) Speg. 1881 accepted as Dimerosporiella leucorrhodina (Mont.) Rossman & Samuels, (1999)
Calonectria meliolae Hansf. 1941
Calonectria rigidiuscula (Berk. & Broome) Sacc., (1878), accepted as Albonectria rigidiuscula (Berk. & Broome) Rossman & Samuels (1999)
Calonectria ugandae Hansf. 1941
Genus: Calopeltis Syd. 1925, accepted as Cyclotheca Theiss., (1914)
Calopeltis jasmini Doidge 1942, accepted as Cyclotheca jasmini (Doidge) Arx, (1962)
Genus: Caloplaca Th. Fr. 1860, (Lichens)
Caloplaca amphidoxa (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1930
Caloplaca aurantiaca (Lightf.) Th. Fr. 1861, accepted as Blastenia ferruginea (Huds.) A. Massal.,(1852)
Caloplaca aurantiaca f. fulva Zahlbr.
Caloplaca benguellensis (Nyl.) Zahlbr. 1930
Caloplaca calviniana Zahlbr. 1932
Caloplaca capensis (A. Massal.) Zahlbr. 1930
Caloplaca cardinalis Zahlbr. 1932
Caloplaca carphinea var. scoriophila (A. Massal.) J. Steiner 1911 accepted as Usnochroma scoriophilum (A. Massal.) Søchting, Arup & Frödén, (2013)
Caloplaca cataschista Zahlbr. 1936 [as catachista]
Caloplaca cerina (Hedw.) Th. Fr. 1861
Caloplaca cinnabarina (Ach.) Zahlbr. 1908, accepted as Brownliella cinnabarina (Ach.) S.Y. Kondr., Kärnefelt, A. Thell, Elix, Jung Kim, A.S. Kondr. & Hur, (2013)
Caloplaca cinnabarina var. opaca (Müll. Arg.) Zahlbr. 1930, accepted as Brownliella cinnabarina (Ach.) S.Y. Kondr., Kärnefelt, A. Thell, Elix, Jung Kim, A.S. Kondr. & Hur, (2013)
Caloplaca cinnabarina var. pallidior (Stizenb.) Jatta 1910
Caloplaca cinnabarina var. subfulgescens (Nyl.) Zahlbr. 1930
Caloplaca cinnabariza (Nyl.) Zahlbr. 1930
Caloplaca coccinella (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1930
Caloplaca conchiliata Zahlbr. 1932
Caloplaca crocodes (A. Massal.) Zahlbr. 1930
Caloplaca delectans Zahlbr. 1932
Caloplaca diploplaca Zahlbr. 1932
Caloplaca diploplaca var. gracilior Zahlbr. 1932
Caloplaca discolorella Zahlbr. 1932
Caloplaca ecklonii (A. Massal.) Zahlbr. 1931
Caloplaca effusa G. Merr. ex Van der Byl 1931
Caloplaca elegans (Link) Th.Fr. (1871), accepted as Xanthoria elegans (Link) Th.Fr. (1860)
Caloplaca elegantissima (Nyl.) Zahlbr. 1931 accepted as Stellarangia elegantissima (Nyl.) Frödén, Arup & Søchting, (2013)
Caloplaca eudoxa (Müll. Arg.) Zahlbr. 1931 accepted as Teloschistopsis eudoxa (Müll. Arg.) Frödén, Arup & Søchting, (2013)
Caloplaca euelpis (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1930
Caloplaca fecunda Zahlbr. 1932
Caloplaca ferruginea (Huds.) Th. Fr. 1861, accepted as Blastenia ferruginea (Huds.) A. Massal., (1852)
Caloplaca ferruginea f. erysibe Jatta 1900
Caloplaca ferrugineovirens (Vain.) Zahlbr. 1932
Caloplaca flava (Müll. Arg.) Zahlbr. 1930
Caloplaca flavorubens (Nyl.) Zahlbr. 1931;
Caloplaca flavovirescens (Wulfen) Dalla Torre & Sarnth. 1902, accepted as Gyalolechia flavovirescens (Wulfen) Søchting, Frödén & Arup, (2013)
Caloplaca gracilescens Zahlbr. 1932
Caloplaca granulosa Jatta. possibly (Müll. Arg.) J. Steiner 1894, accepted as Flavoplaca granulosa (Müll. Arg.) Arup, Frödén & Søchting, (2013)
Caloplaca haematodes (A. Massal.) Zahlbr. 1930
Caloplaca hampeana (A. Massal.) Zahlbr. 1930
Caloplaca lamprocheila Flagey.
Caloplaca leptopisma (Nyl.) Zahlbr. 1931
Caloplaca leucoxantha (Müll. Arg.) Zahlbr. 1931
Caloplaca massula (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1930
Caloplaca mastophora (Vain.) Zahlbr. 1932
Caloplaca mastophora var. flavorubescens Vain
Caloplaca murorum Th. Fr. 1871, accepted as Calogaya saxicola (Hoffm.) Vondrák,(2016)
Caloplaca neethlingii Zahlbr. 1936
Caloplaca nideri var. pruinosula Zahlbr. 1926
Caloplaca nolens Zahlbr. 1932
Caloplaca odoardii (Bagl.) Zahlbr. 1930
Caloplaca orichalcea (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1931
Caloplaca pallidior (Müll. Arg.) Zahlbr. 1931
Caloplaca pallidior f. opaca (Müll. Arg.) Zahlbr. 1932 accepted as Brownliella cinnabarina (Ach.) S.Y. Kondr., Kärnefelt, A. Thell, Elix, Jung Kim, A.S. Kondr. & Hur, (2013)
Caloplaca perexigua Zahlbr. 1932
Caloplaca phlogina (Ach.) Flagey 1886, accepted as Scythioria phlogina (Ach.) S.Y. Kondr., Kärnefelt, Elix, A. Thell & Hur, (2014)
Caloplaca placidia (A. Massal.) J. Steiner 1916
Caloplaca platyna Zahlbr. 1936
Caloplaca poliotera (Nyl.) J. Steiner 1897
Caloplaca punicea (Müll. Arg.) Jatta 1910
Caloplaca pyracea Th.Fr. , possibly (Ach.) Zwackh 1862, accepted as Athallia pyracea (Ach.) Arup, Frödén & Søchting, (2013)
Caloplaca pyracea f. pyrithromoides (Nyl.) H. Olivier 1909
Caloplaca pyracea f. subpicta Zahlbr. 1931
Caloplaca pyracea var. pyrithroma (Ach.) Flagey 1888, accepted as Athallia pyracea (Ach.) Arup, Frödén & Søchting, (2013)
Caloplaca pyropoecila (Nyl.) Zahlbr. 1931
Caloplaca pyropoeciloides Zahlbr. 1932
Caloplaca regalis (Vain.) Zahlbr. 1931 accepted as Polycauliona regalis (Vain.) Hue, (1908)
Caloplaca regalis f. prostrata (Hue) Zahlbr. 1931 accepted as Polycauliona prostrata (Hue) C.W. Dodge, (1973)
Caloplaca sophodes (Vain.) Zahlbr. 1932
Caloplaca subcerina (Nyl.) Zahlbr. 1924
Caloplaca subseptata Zahlbr. 1932
Caloplaca subsoluta (Nyl.) Zahlbr. 1931 accepted as Squamulea subsoluta (Nyl.) Arup, Søchting & Frödén, (2013)
Caloplaca subpunicolor Zahlbr.*
Caloplaca sympageella (Vain.) Zahlbr. 1932
Caloplaca tegularis (Ehrh.) Sandst. 1912
Caloplaca teicophila (A. Massal.) Zahlbr. 1931
Caloplaca theloschistoides Zahlbr. 1921 accepted as Polycauliona theloschistoides (Zahlbr.) C.W. Dodge, (1971)
Caloplaca zambesica (Müll. Arg.) Zahlbr. 1931
Family: Caloplacaceae Zahlbr. 1908
Genus: Calosphaeria Tul. & C. Tul. 1863
Calosphaeria cylindrica (Kalchbr. & Cooke) Sacc. 1882, accepted as Peroneutypa cylindrica (Kalchbr. & Cooke.) Berl., (1902)
Calosphaeria princeps Tul. & C. Tul. 1863,
Genus: Calospora
Calospora arausiaca (Fabre) Sacc. 1883, accepted as Coryneum arausiacum (Fabre) Senan., Maharachch. & K.D. Hyde [as 'arausiaca'], (2017)
Calospora bottomleyae Doidge 1941,
Genus: Calothyrium Theiss. 1912, accepted as Asterinella Theiss., (1912)
Calothyrium psychotriae Doidge 1922, accepted as Schiffnerula psychotriae (Doidge) S. Hughes, (1987)
Genus: Calvatia Fr. 1849
Calvatia caelata (Bull.) Morgan (1890), accepted as Bovistella utriformis (Bull.) Demoulin & Rebriev, (2017)
Calvatia candida (Rostk.) Hollós 1902
Calvatia fontanesii Lloyd*
Calvatia gigantea (Batsch) Lloyd 1904
Calvatia incerta Bottomley 1948
Calvatia lepidophora Lloyd possibly (Ellis & Everh.) Coker & Couch 1928;
Calvatia lilacina (Mont. & Berk.) Henn. 1904
Calvatia macrogemmae Lloyd 1923
Calvatia olivacea (Cooke & Massee) Lloyd 1905
Calvatia pachyderma (Peck) Morgan 1890, accepted as Langermannia pachyderma (Peck) Kreisel, (1962)
Calvatia saccata (Vahl) Morgan 1890, accepted as Lycoperdon excipuliforme (Scop.) Pers., (1801)
Genus: Campanella Henn. 1895,
Campanella buettneri Henn. [as büttneri], (1895)
Campanella cucullata (Fr.) Lloyd 1919, accepted as Campanella junghuhnii (Mont.) Singer, (1945)
Genus: Campbellia Cooke & Massee 1890, accepted as Gyrodon Opat., (1836)
Campbellia africana Cooke & Massee 1890, accepted as Gyrodon africanus (Cooke & Massee) Singer, (1951)
Genus: Candelaria A. Massal. 1852 (Lichens)
Candelaria concolor (Dicks.) Arnold 1879
Candelaria fibrosa (Fr.) Müll. Arg. 1887
Candelaria stellata (Tuck.) Müll. Arg. 1887, accepted as Coccocarpia stellata Tuck., (1862)
Genus: Candelariella Müll. Arg. 1894(Lichens)
Candelariella elaeophaea (Nyl.) Zahlbr. 1928
Candelariella glaucolivescens (Nyl.) Zahlbr. 1928
Candelariella vitellina (Hoffm.) Müll. Arg. 1894
Candelariella vitellina f. athallina (Wedd.) Zahlbr. 1928
Genus: Candida Berkhout 1923(Yeasts)
Candida albicans (C.P. Robin) Berkhout, (1923) recorded as Candida bethaliensis (Pijper) C.W. Dodge, 1935 and Candida triadis (Langeron & Talice) Langeron & Guerra 1938,
Candida bethaliensis (Pijper) C.W. Dodge 1935 accepted as Candida albicans (C.P. Robin) Berkhout, (1923)
Candida krusei Basgal. possibly (Castell.) Berkhout 1923, accepted as Issatchenkia orientalis Kudryavtsev, (1960)
Candida triadis (Langeron & Talice) Langeron & Guerra 1938, accepted as Candida albicans (C.P. Robin) Berkhout, (1923)
Genus: Cantharellus Adans. ex Fr. 1821
Cantharellus capensis Berk. 1844, accepted as Campanella capensis (Berk.) D.A. Reid, (1975)
Cantharellus cinnabarinus (Schwein.) Schwein. 1832
Cantharellus foliolum Kalchbr. 1881
Cantharellus leucophaeus (Pers.) Nouel 1831, accepted as Faerberia carbonaria (Alb. & Schwein.) Pouzar, (1981)
Family: Capnodiaceae Höhn. ex Theiss. 1916
Genus: Capnodium Mont. 1849,
Capnodium australe Mont. 1849
Capnodium citricola McAlpine [as citricolum], (1896)
Capnodium citri Berk. & Desm., in Berkeley, (1849)
Capnodium fuligo Berk. & Desm. 1849, accepted as Microxyphiella fuligo (Berk. & Desm.) Speg., (1918)
Capnodium salicinum Mont. 1849, accepted as Capnodium citri Berk. & Desm., (1849)
Genus: Castellania C.W. Dodge 1935, accepted as Candida Berkhout, (1923)
Castellania balcanica (Castell. & Chalm.) C.W. Dodge 1935, accepted as Issatchenkia orientalis Kudryavtsev, (1960)
Castellania linguae-pilosae (Lucet) C.W. Dodge 1935, accepted as Candida tropicalis (Castell.) Berkhout, (1923)
Castellania pseudolondinensis (Castell. & Chalm.) C.W. Dodge 1935, accepted as Candida albicans (C.P. Robin) Berkhout, (1923)
Castellania pseudotropicalis (Castell.) C.W. Dodge 1935, accepted as Kluyveromyces marxianus (E.C. Hansen) Van der Walt, (1971)
Castellania sp.
Genus: Catacauma Theiss. & Syd. 1914,accepted as Phyllachora Nitschke ex Fuckel, (1870)
Catacauma goyazense (Henn.) Theiss. & Syd. 1915, accepted as Phyllachora goyazensis Henn., (1895)
Catacauma grammicum (Henn.) Theiss. & Syd. 1915, accepted as Phyllachora grammica Henn., (1907)
Catacauma peglerae Doidge 1921, accepted as Phyllachora peglerae (Doidge) Doidge, (1942)
Catacauma pterocarpi (Syd. & P. Syd.) Syd. 1915, accepted as Phyllachora pterocarpi Syd. & P. Syd., (1912)
Catacauma punctum (Cooke) Theiss. & Syd. 1917 [as puncta] accepted as Phyllachora puncta (Cooke) Cooke, (1885)
Catacauma schotiae Doidge 1922, [as schotii], accepted as Phyllachora schotiae (Doidge) Doidge, (1942)
Genus: Catalechia *
Catalechia africana Müll.Arg.*
Genus: Catastoma Morgan 1892, accepted as Disciseda Czern. (1845)
Catastoma anomalum (Cooke & Massee) Lloyd 1905, accepted as Disciseda anomala (Cooke & Massee) G. Cunn., (1927)
Catastoma castaneum Lloyd*
Catastoma circumscissum Morgan possibly Berk. & M.A. Curtis 1892
Catastoma duthiei Lloyd*
Catastoma juglandiforme Lloyd , [as juglandiformis], possibly (Berk. ex Massee) Lohwag 1930, accepted as Disciseda juglandiformis (Berk. ex Massee) Hollós, (1902)
Catastoma magnum Lloyd*
Catastoma pedicellatum Morgan 1892, accepted as Disciseda pedicellata (Morgan) Hollós, (1902)
Catastoma zeyheri Lloyd*
Genus: Catillaria A. Massal. 1852(Lichens)
Catillaria chalybeia (Borrer) A. Massal. 1852
Catillaria finckei Zahlbr. 1921
Catillaria intermixta (Nyl.) Arnold 1870, accepted as Megalaria intermixta (Nyl.) Kalb, (2007)
Catillaria intermixta f. cyanocentra Zahlbr.
Catillaria lenticularis (Ach.) Th. Fr. 1874,
Catillaria lenticularis f. chloropoliza (Nyl.) Boistel 1903, accepted as Catillaria chalybeia (Borrer) A. Massal., (1852)
Catillaria lutea*
Catillaria melampepla (Tuck.) Zahlbr. 1926
Catillaria mortualis (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1926
Catillaria nigroclavata Schuler. , possibly (Nyl.) J. Steiner 1898
Catillaria opacata (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1926
Catillaria rhyparoleuca A. Massal. 1861
Catillaria stellenboschiana Vain. 1926
Catillaria stictella (Stirt.) Zahlbr. 1926
Catillaria subfuscata (Nyl.) Zahlbr. 1926
Ce
Genus: Celidium Tul. 1852, accepted as Arthonia (1806)
Celidium stictarum (De Not.) Tul. 1852, accepted as Plectocarpon lichenum (Sommerf.) D. Hawksw.,(1984)
Genus: Cenangium Fr. 1818
Cenangium pelidnum (Kalchbr. & Cooke) Sacc. 1889
Genus: Cephalosporiopsis Peyronel 1916,
Cephalosporiopsis parasitica Hansf. 1943
Genus: Cephalosporium accepted as Acremonium Link (1809)
Cephalosporium sacchari E.J. Butler & Hafiz Khan, (1913), accepted as Fusarium sacchari (E.J. Butler & Hafiz Khan) W. Gams, (1971)
Cephalosporium sp.
Genus: Cephalothecium Corda 1838, accepted as Trichothecium Link, (1809)
Cephalothecium roseum (Pers.) Corda (1838), accepted as Trichothecium roseum (Pers.) Link (1809)
Genus: Cephatelium *
Cephatelium macowanianum Syd.*
Genus: Ceratium Alb. & Schwein. 1805, accepted as Ceratiomyxa J. Schröt., (1897) (Protozoa/slime moulds)
Ceratium hydnoides (Jacq.) Alb. & Schwein. 1805
Ceratium arbuscula Berk. & Broome 1873, accepted as Ceratiomyxa fruticulosa T. Macbr., (1899)
Ceratium sphaeroideum Kalchbr. & Cooke (1880), accepted as Beniowskia sphaeroidea (Kalchbr. & Cooke) E.W. Mason, (1928)
Genus: Ceratosphaeria Niessl 1876
Ceratosphaeria crinigera (Cooke) Sacc. 1883, accepted as Lentomitella crinigera (Cooke) Réblová, (2006)
Genus: Ceratostoma
Ceratostoma cylindrica Kalchbr. & Cooke 1880, accepted as Peroneutypa cylindrica (Kalchbr. & Cooke.) Berl., (1902)
Genus: Ceratostomella Sacc. 1878,
Ceratostomella paradoxa Dade 1928, accepted as Ceratocystis paradoxa (Dade) C. Moreau, (1952)
Ceratostomella pilifera (Fr.) G. Winter 1885, accepted as Ceratocystis pilifera (Fr.) C. Moreau, (1952)
Genus: Cercoseptoria Petr. 1925, accepted as Pseudocercospora Speg., (1910)
Cercoseptoria egenula Syd. 1935, accepted as Pseudocercospora egenula (Syd.) U. Braun & Crous, (2003)
Genus: Cercospora Fresen. ex Fuckel 1863,
Cercospora apii Fresen. 1863,
Cercospora apii var. pastinacae Sacc. 1886, accepted as Passalora pastinacae (Sacc.) U. Braun, (1992)
Cercospora arachidicola Hori 1917,
Cercospora argyrolobii Chupp & Doidge 1948, accepted as Pseudocercospora argyrolobii (Chupp & Doidge) Deighton, (1976)
Cercospora bauhiniae Syd. & P. Syd. 1914, accepted as Pseudocercospora bauhiniae (Syd. & P. Syd.) Deighton, (1976)
Cercospora beticola Sacc. 1876,
Cercospora bolleana (Thüm.) Speg., (1879), accepted as Mycosphaerella bolleana B.B.Higgins, (1920)(?)
Cercospora byliana Syd. 1924, accepted as Pseudocercospora byliana (Syd.) J.M. Yen, (1980)
Cercospora caffra Syd. & P. Syd. 1914, accepted as Stigmina knoxdaviesii Crous & U. Braun, (1996)
Cercospora canescens Ellis & G. Martin 1882
Cercospora capensis (Thüm.) Sacc. 1886, accepted as Pleurophragmium capense (Thüm.) S. Hughes, (1958)
Cercospora carotae Solh. possibly (Pass.) Kazn. & Siemaszko 1929
Cercospora caryae Chupp & Doidge 1948
Cercospora cassinopsidis G. Winter 1885
Cercospora cichorii Davis 1919
Cercospora circumscissa Sacc. (1878), accepted as Pruniphilomyces circumscissus (Sacc.) Crous & Bulgakov, (2020)
Cercospora clerodendri I. Miyake 1913, accepted as Pseudocercospora clerodendri (I. Miyake) Deighton, (1976)
Cercospora clutiae Kalchbr. & Cooke [as cluytiae],(1880) accepted as Pseudocercospora clutiae (Kalchbr. & Cooke) Deighton [as cluytiae], (1976)
Cercospora coffeicola Berk. & Cooke 1881
Cercospora columnaris Ellis & Everh. 1894, accepted as Pseudocercospora griseola (Sacc.) Crous & U. Braun, (2006)
Cercospora commelinae Kalchbr. & Cooke [as commelynae], (1880)
Cercospora corchori Sawada 1919
Cercospora cruenta Sacc., (1880), accepted as Mycosphaerella cruenta (Sacc.) Latham, (1934)
Cercospora curtisiae Chupp & Doidge 1948, accepted as Pseudocercospora curtisiae (Chupp & Doidge) Crous & U. Braun, (1996)
Cercospora delicatissima Kalchbr. & Cooke 1880 accepted as Passalora delicatissima (Kalchbr. & Cooke) U. Braun & Crous,(2003)
Cercospora demetrioniana G. Winter 1884 {as demetrionana]
Cercospora dissotidis Chupp & Doidge 1948, accepted as Pseudocercospora dissotidis (Chupp & Doidge) Crous & U. Braun, (1996)
Cercospora dovyalidis Chupp & Doidge 1948, accepted as Pseudocercospora dovyalidis (Chupp & Doidge) Deighton, (1976)
Cercospora egenula (Syd.) Chupp & Doidge 1948, accepted as Pseudocercospora egenula (Syd.) U. Braun & Crous, (2003)
Cercospora faureae Chupp & Doidge 1948, accepted as Podosporiella faureae (Chupp & Doidge) M.B. Ellis, (1976)
Cercospora fici Heald & F.A. Wolf 1911 accepted as Pseudocercospora fici (Heald & F.A. Wolf) X.J. Liu & Y.L. Guo, (1991)
Cercospora fukushiana (Matsuura) W. Yamam. 1934
Cercospora fusca F.V. Rand 1914
Cercospora fusimaculans G.F. Atk. 1892, accepted as Catenulocercospora fusimaculans (G.F. Atk.) C. Nakash., Videira & Crous, (2017)
Cercospora gossypina Cooke (1883), accepted as Mycosphaerella gossypina (Cooke) Everh.
Cercospora haemanthi Kalchbr. & Cooke 1880
Cercospora grandissima Rangel 1915
Cercospora guliana Sacc. 1913
Cercospora halleriae Chupp & Doidge 1948, accepted as Pseudocercospora halleriae (Chupp & Doidge) Deighton, (1976)
Cercospora Allesch. (1895) accepted as Clarohilum henningsii (Allesch.) Videira & Crous, (2017)
Cercospora heteromalla Syd. 1924, accepted as Pseudocercospora heteromalla (Syd.) Deighton, (1987)
Cercospora insulana Chupp possibly Sacc. 1915,
Cercospora juglandis Kellerm. & Swingle 1889, accepted as Pseudocercospora juglandis (Kellerm. & Swingle) U. Braun & Crous, (2003)
Cercospora jussiaeae G.F. Atk. 1892, [as jussieuae], accepted as Pseudocercospora jussiaeae (G.F. Atk.) Deighton, (1976)
Cercospora kiggelariae Syd. 1924, accepted as Pseudocercospora kiggelariae (Syd.) Crous & U. Braun, (1994)
Cercospora koepkei W. Krüger 1890, [as kopkei] accepted as Passalora koepkei (W. Krüger) U. Braun & Crous, (2003)
Cercospora latimaculans Wakef. 1918
Cercospora leoni Săvul. & Rayss 1935
Cercospora leonotidis Cooke 1879, accepted as Passalora leonotidis (Cooke) U. Braun & Crous, (2003)
Cercospora liebenbergii Syd. 1935, accepted as Cercostigmina liebenbergii (Syd.) Crous & U. Braun, (1996)
Cercospora longipes E.J. Butler 1906,
Cercospora malayensis F. Stevens & Solheim 1931, as mayalensis
Cercospora melaena Syd. 1924, accepted as Pseudocercospora melaena (Syd.) Deighton, (1976)
Cercospora melanochaeta Ellis & Everh. 1894, accepted as Passalora melanochaeta (Ellis & Everh.) U. Braun, (1999)
Cercospora momordicae McRae 1929
Cercospora musae Massee 1914
Cercospora musae Zimm. 1902 accepted as Pseudocercospora musae (Zimm.) Deighton, (1976)
Cercospora myrti Erikss. 1885,
Cercospora myrticola Speg. 1886, accepted as Pseudocercospora myrticola (Speg.) Deighton, (1976)
Cercospora nicotianae Ellis & Everh. 1893,
Cercospora oblecta Syd. 1935, accepted as Pseudocercospora oblecta (Syd.) Crous & U. Braun, (2008)
Cercospora occidentalis Cooke 1878, accepted as Passalora occidentalis (Cooke) U. Braun, (2000)
Cercospora oliniae Verwoerd & Dippen. 1930, accepted as Pseudocercospora oliniae (Verwoerd & Dippen.) Crous & U. Braun, (1996)
Cercospora omphacodes Ellis & Holw. 1885, accepted as Passalora omphacodes (Ellis & Holw.) Crous & U. Braun, (1996)
Cercospora pachycarpi Chupp & Doidge 1948, accepted as Passalora pachycarpi (Chupp & Doidge) Crous & U. Braun, (1996)
Cercospora pareirae Speg. 1910, accepted as Pseudocercospora pareirae (Speg.) Crous & U. Braun, (1996)
Cercospora pastinacae (Sacc.) Peck 1912, accepted as Passalora pastinacae (Sacc.) U. Braun, (1992)
Cercospora persicariae W. Yamam. 1934, accepted as Pseudocercospora persicariae (W. Yamam.) Deighton, (1976)
Cercospora personata (Berk. & M.A. Curtis) Ellis, (1885), accepted as Nothopassalora personata (Berk. & M.A. Curtis) U. Braun, C. Nakash., Videira & Crous, (2017)
Cercospora phaeocarpa Mitter 1937, accepted as Scolecostigmina phaeocarpa (Mitter) U. Braun, (1999)
Cercospora pouzolziae Syd. 1935, accepted as Pseudocercospora pouzolziae (Syd.) Y.L. Guo & X.J. Liu, (1992)
Cercospora pretoriensis Chupp & Doidge 1948
Cercospora protearum Cooke 1883, accepted as Pseudocercospora protearum (Cooke) U. Braun & Crous, (2002)
Cercospora protearum var. leucadendri Cooke 1883, accepted as Pseudocercospora leucadendri (Cooke) U. Braun & Crous, (2012)
Cercospora protearum var. leucospermi Cooke 1883
Cercospora punctiformis Sacc. & Roum. 1881
Cercospora purpurea-cincta Nel.*
Cercospora resedae Fuckel 1866,
Cercospora rhoicissi Syd. & P. Syd. 1912, accepted as Pseudocercospora rhoicissi (Syd. & P. Syd.) Deighton, (1976)
Cercospora riachueli Speg. 1880, accepted as Pseudocercospora riachueli (Speg.) Deighton, (1976)
Cercospora richardiicola G.F. Atk. [as richardiaecola], (1892)
Cercospora ricinella Sacc. & Berl. 1885,
Cercospora rubrotincta Ellis & Everh. 1887,
Cercospora scitula Syd. 1935, accepted as Pseudocercospora scitula (Syd.) Deighton, (1976)
Cercospora sesami Zimm. 1904,
Cercospora solani-melongenae Chupp 1948,
Cercospora solani-melongenae Hori.*
Cercospora sorghi Ellis & Everh. 1887,
Cercospora sphaeroidea Speg. 1880, accepted as Phaeoisariopsis sphaeroidea (Speg.) L.G. Br. & Morgan-Jones, (1976)
Cercospora stizolobii Syd. & P. Syd. 1913, accepted as Pseudocercospora stizolobii (Syd. & P. Syd.) Deighton, (1976)
Cercospora transvaalensis Syd. 1935, accepted as Pseudocercospora transvaalensis (Syd.) Deighton, (1976)
Cercospora tremae Chupp. possibly Cercospora trematis (F. Stevens & Solheim) Chupp, in Chardón & Toro, (1934), accepted as Passalora trematis (F. Stevens & Solheim) U. Braun & Crous, (2003)
Cercospora vaginae W. Krüger, (1896),accepted as Passalora vaginae (W. Krüger) U. Braun & Crous, (2003)
Cercospora violae Sacc. 1876,
Cercospora viticola (Ces.) Sacc. [as viticolum], (1886), accepted as Pseudocercospora vitis (Lév.) Speg., (1910)
Cercospora vitis Sacc. (1881), accepted as Pseudocercospora vitis (Lév.) Speg., (1910)
Cercospora withaniae Syd. & P. Syd. 1912, accepted as Pseudocercospora withaniae (Syd. & P. Syd.) Deighton, (1976)
Cercospora ziziphi Petch 1909, [as zizphyi], accepted as Pseudocercospora ziziphi (Petch) Crous & U. Braun [as zizyphi], (1996)
Cercospora sp.
Genus: Cercosporella Sacc. 1880
Cercosporella brassicae (Fautrey & Roum.) Höhn. 1924, accepted as Neopseudocercosporella capsellae (Ellis & Everh.) Videira & Crous, (2016)
Cercosporella delicatissima (Kalchbr. & Cooke) Chupp 1948, accepted as Passalora delicatissima (Kalchbr. & Cooke) U. Braun & Crous, (2003)
Cercosporella ekebergiae Syd. & P. Syd. 1914, accepted as Phaeophloeosporella ekebergiae (Syd. & P. Syd.) Crous & B. Sutton, (1997)
Cercosporella gossypii Speg. 1886, accepted as Ramularia gossypii (Speg.) Cif., (1962)
Cercosporella herpotrichoides Fron 1912, [asherpotrichioides], accepted as Oculimacula yallundae (Wallwork & Spooner) Crous & W. Gams, (2003)
Genus: Cercosporina Speg. 1910, accepted as Cercospora Fresen. ex Fuckel, (1863)
Cercosporina ricinella (Sacc. & Berl.) Speg. 1910, accepted as Cercospora ricinella Sacc. & Berl., (1885)
Genus: Cerebella Ces. 1851, accepted as Epicoccum Link, (1816)
Cerebella cynodontis Syd. & P. Syd. 1912
Cerebella sp.
Genus: Cerotelium Arthur 1906
Cerotelium fici (Castagne) Arthur 1917
Cerotelium gossypii (Lagerh.) Arthur, (1917), accepted as Phakopsora desmium (Berk. & Broome) Cummins, (1945)
Genus: Cetraria Ach. 1803
Cetraria aculeata (Schreb.) Fr. 1826
Genus: Ceuthospora Fr. 1825, accepted as Phacidium Fr., (1815)
Ceuthospora foliicola (Lib.) Cooke 1879, accepted as Phacidium foliicola (Lib.) W.J. Li & K.D. Hyde, (2020)
Ceuthospora oleae Kalchbr. & Cooke 1880
Ch
Genus: Chaetodimerina Hansf. 1946 accepted as Rizalia Syd. & P. Syd., (1914)
Chaetodimerina schiffnerulae Hansf. 1946, accepted as Rizalia schiffnerulae (Hansf.) E. Müll., (1962)
Genus: Chaetomella Fuckel 1870
Chaetomella artemisiae Cooke 1882
Chaetomella tritici Tehon & E.Y. Daniels 1925
Genus: Chaetominum , probably Chaetomium Kunze 1817
Chaetomium chartarum Ehrenb. 1818, [as Chaetominum chartarum] accepted as Chaetomium globosum Kunze, (1817)
Chaetomium elatum Kunze 1818, as Chaetominum elatum
Chaetomium funicola Cooke 1873, as Chaetominum funicolum accepted as Dichotomopilus funicola (Cooke) X.Wei Wang & Samson, (2016)
Chaetomium globosum Kunze 1817, [as Chaetominum globosum]
Chaetomium indicum Corda 1840, [as Chaetominum indicum] accepted as Dichotomopilus indicus (Corda) X.Wei Wang & Samson, (2016)
Genus: Chaetopeltopsis Theiss. 1913, accepted as Chaetothyrina Theiss., (1913)
Chaetopeltopsis sp.
Genus: Chaetosphaeria Tul. & C. Tul. 1863
Chaetosphaeria insectivora Hansf. 1946, accepted as Koordersiella insectivora (Hansf.) D. Hawksw. & O.E. Erikss., (1987)
Genus: Chaetostigmella Syd. & P. Syd. 1917, accepted as Dimerium (Sacc. & P. Syd.) McAlpine, (1903)
Chaetostigmella asterinicola Doidge*
Chaetostigmella capensis (Doidge) Toro 1934, accepted as Chaetothyrium capense (Doidge) Hansf., (1950)
Family: Chaetothyriaceae Hansf. ex M.E. Barr 1979
Genus: Chaetothyrium Speg. 1888
Chaetothyrium capense (Doidge) Hansf. 1950,
Chaetothyrium syzygii Hansf. 1946,
Chaetothyrium transvaalensis v.d.Byl.*
Genus: Cheilymenia Boud. 1885,
Cheilymenia coprinaria (Cooke) Boud. 1907
Cheilymenia pulcherrima (P. Crouan & H. Crouan) Boud. 1907
Genus: Chiodecton Ach. 1814
Chiodecton capense (A. Massal.) Zahlbr. 1923, accepted as Chiodecton colensoi (A. Massal.) Müll. Arg., (1894)
Chiodecton direnium Nyl.*
Chiodecton galactinum Zahlbr. 1932
Chiodecton natalense Nyl. 1869
Chiodecton sanguineum f. roseocinctum (Fr.) Vain. 1890, [as f. rosaceocinctum], accepted as Herpothallon roseocinctum (Fr.) Aptroot, Lücking & G. Thor, (2009)
Chiodecton subnanum Vain. 1930
Chiodecton vanderbylii Zahlbr. 1932
Chiodecton venosum (Pers.) Zahlbr. 1905, accepted as Enterographa crassa (DC.) Fée, (1825)
Family: Chiodectonaceae Zahlbr. 1905
Genus: Chlamydopus Speg. 1898,
Chlamydopus meyenianus (Klotzsch) Lloyd 1903,
Genus: Chloridium Link 1809, accepted as Chaetosphaeria Tul. & C. Tul.,(1863)
Chloridium meliolae Hansf. 1946, accepted as Ramichloridium meliolae (Hansf.) de Hoog, (1977)
Genus: Chlorociboria Seaver 1936,
Chlorociboria aeruginosa (Oeder) Seaver (1958)
Genus: Chlorodothis Clem. 1909, accepted as Tomasellia A. Massal., (1856)
Chlorodothis lahmii (Müll. Arg.) Clem. 1909
Genus: Chlorosplenium Fr. 1849
Chlorosplenium aeruginosum (Oeder) De Not. 1863, accepted as Chlorociboria aeruginosa (Oeder) Seaver, (1936)
Family: Choanephoraceae J. Schröt. 1897
Genus: Chondrioderma Rostaf. 1873, accepted as Diderma Pers., (1794) Protozoa
Chondrioderma difforme (Pers.) Rostaf. 1873, accepted as Didymium difforme (Pers.) Gray, (1821)
Chondrioderma subdictyospermum Rostaf. 1876 as subdictyosperum; Protozoa
Genus: Chondromyces Berk. & M.A. Curtis 1874
Chondromyces aurantiacus Thaxter.*
Genus: Chroolepus C. Agardh 1824, accepted as Cystocoleus Thwaites, (1849)
Chroolepus afrum Massal. possibly Müll. Arg. 1861
Genus: Chrysomyces Theiss. & Syd. 1917, accepted as Perisporiopsis Henn., (1904)
Chrysomyces brachystegiae (Henn.) Theiss. & Syd. 1917, [as brachtystegiae], accepted as Perisporiopsis brachystegiae (Henn.) Arx, (1962)
Family: Chrysothricaceae*
Order Chytridiales Cohn 1879
Ci
Genus: Cicinnobella Henn. 1904, accepted as Perisporiopsis Henn., (1904)
Cicinnobella sp.
Genus: Cicinnobolus Ehrenb. 1853, accepted as Ampelomyces Ces. ex Schltdl., (1852)
Cicinnobolus cesatii de Bary, 1870, accepted as Ampelomyces quisqualis Ces., 1852[
Genus: Cienkowskia Rostaf. 1873, accepted as Willkommlangea Kuntze, (1891)
Cienkowskia reticulata (Alb. & Schwein.) Rostaf. 1875, accepted as Willkommlangea reticulata (Alb. & Schwein.) Kuntze, (1891)
Genus: Ciliciopodium Corda 1831
Ciliciopodium caespitosum (Welw. & Curr.) Sacc. 1886
Genus: Cintractia Cornu 1883
Cintractia axicola (Berk.) Cornu 1883
Cintractia capensis (Reess) Cif. 1931, accepted as Bauerago capensis (Reess) Vánky, (1999)
Cintractia caricicola Henn. 1895
Cintractia crus-galli (Tracy & Earle) Magnus 1896, accepted as Ustilago crus-galli Tracy & Earle, (1895)
Cintractia leucoderma (Berk.) Henn. 1895, accepted as Leucocintractia leucoderma (Berk.) M. Piepenbr., (2000)
Cintractia melinidis Zundel [as melinis], (1938)
Cintractia piluliformis (Berk.) Henn. 1898, accepted as Heterotolyposporium piluliforme (Berk.) Vánky, (1997)
Cintractia sorghi-vulgaris (Tul. & C.Tul.) G.P.Clinton (1897), accepted as Sporisorium sorghi Ehrenb. ex Link (1825)
Cintractia togoensis Henn. 1905, accepted as Cintractia limitata G.P. Clinton, (1904)
Genus: Circinella Tiegh. & G. Le Monn. 1873
Circinella sydowii Lendn. 1913, accepted as Circinella muscae (Sorokīn) Berl. & De Toni, (1888)
Cl
Genus: Cladia Nyl. 1870,
Cladia aggregata (Sw.) Nyl. 1870
Family: Cladochytriaceae J. Schröt. 1897
Genus: Cladoderris Pers. ex Berk. 1842, accepted as Cymatoderma Jungh., (1840)
Cladoderris australica Berk. 1888, accepted as Cymatoderma elegans Jungh., (1840)
Cladoderris elegans (Jungh.) Fr., (1849) accepted as Cymatoderma elegans Jungh. 1840
Cladoderris funalis Henn. 1905, accepted as Pterygellus funalis (Henn.) D.A. Reid, (1976)
Cladoderris infundibuliformis (Klotzsch) Fr. 1845, accepted as Cymatoderma infundibuliforme (Klotzsch) Boidin, (1959)
Cladoderris spongiosa Fr. 1845, accepted as Cymatoderma elegans Jungh., (1840)
Cladoderris spongiosa var. subsessilis Fr. 1849, accepted as Cymatoderma elegans Jungh., (1840)
Cladoderris thwaitesii Berk. & Broome 1873, accepted as Stereopsis radicans (Berk.) D.A. Reid, (1965)
Family: Cladoniaceae Zenker 1827,
Genus: Cladonia P. Browne 1756,
Cladonia aggregata Ach. possibly (Sw.) Spreng. 1827, accepted as Cladia aggregata (Sw.) Nyl., (167) (1870)
Cladonia bacillaris Nyl. possibly (Ach.) Genth 1835
Cladonia bacillaris f. pityropoda Nyl. ex Cromb. 1894, accepted as Cladonia macilenta Hoffm., [1795]
Cladonia caespiticia Floerke. possibly (Pers.) P. Gaertn., B. Mey & Scherb. 1802
Cladonia centrophora Müll. Arg. 1887
Cladonia chlorophaea (Flörke ex Sommerf.) Spreng. 1827
Cladonia chordalis Ach. possibly (Flörke) Nyl.
Cladonia didyma var. muscigena (Eschw.) Vain. 1887
Cladonia didyma var. muscigena f. subulata Sandst.*
Cladonia fimbriata (L.) Fr. 1831
Cladonia fimbriata f. abortiva (Flörke) Harm. 1896
Cladonia fimbriata var. balfourii (Cromb.) Vain. 1894, accepted as Cladonia subradiata (Vain.) Sandst., (1922)
Cladonia fimbriata var. chlorophaeoides (Vain.) C.W. Dodge 1950;
Cladonia fimbriata var. chondroidea Vain. 1894
Cladonia fimbriata var. chondroidea f. balfourii*
Cladonia fimbriata var. chondroidea f. chlorophaeoides Wain.*
Cladonia fimbriata var. chondroidea f. subradiata Wain.*
Cladonia fimbriata var. coniocraea Wain. possibly (Flörke) Nyl. 1858, accepted as Cladonia coniocraea (Flörke) Spreng., (1827)
Cladonia fimbriata var. fibula Stizenb. possibly (Hoffm.) Nyl. 1861
Cladonia fimbriata var. nemoxyna (Ach.) Coem. ex Vain. 1894, accepted as Cladonia rei Schaer., (1823)
Cladonia fimbriata var. nemoxyna f. fibula Wain.*
Cladonia fimbriata var. ochrochlora Wain. possibly (Flörke) Schaer. 1833, accepted as Cladonia ochrochlora Flörke, (1827)
Cladonia fimbriata var. radiata Coem. possibly (Schreb.) Cromb. 1831, accepted as Cladonia subulata (L.) Weber ex F.H. Wigg., (1780)
Cladonia fimbriata var. radiata f. nemoxyna Flotow.*
Cladonia fimbriata var. simplex (Weiss) Flot. ex Vain. 1894
Cladonia fimbriata var. subcornuta Nyl. ex Arnold 1875, accepted as Cladonia subulata (L.) Weber ex F.H. Wigg., (1780)
Cladonia fimbriata var. subradiata Vain. 1894,
Cladonia fimbriata var. subulata (L.) Vain. 1894, accepted as Cladonia subulata (L.) Weber ex F.H. Wigg., (1780)
Cladonia fimbriata var. subulata f. abortiva Harm.*
Cladonia fimbriata var. subulata f. chordalis Ach.*
Cladonia fimbriata var. subulata f. subcornuta Zahlbr.*
Cladonia fimbriata var. tubaeformis Ach. possibly (Hoffm.) Fr. 1831
Cladonia flabelliformis f. tenella (Müll. Arg.) Zahlbr. 1926
Cladonia fiabelliformis var. tenella Müll. Arg. 1891
Cladonia floerkeana Sommerf. possibly (Fr.) Flörke 1828
Cladonia furcata Sehrad. possibly (Huds.) Baumg. 1790
Cladonia gorgonina var. subrangiferina (Nyl.) Vain. 1887, accepted as Cladia aggregata (Sw.) Nyl., (1870)
Cladonia macilenta Hoffm. 1796
Cladonia macilenta var. corticata (Vain.) Doidge 1950
Cladonia multiformis Merrill f. subascypha Evans.*
Cladonia neglecta (Flörke) Spreng. 1827, accepted as Cladonia pyxidata (L.) Hoffm., (1796) [1795]
Cladonia ochrochlora Flörke 1827
Cladonia pityrea (Flörke) Fr. 1826, accepted as Cladonia ramulosa (With.) J.R. Laundon, (1984)
Cladonia pityrea f. scyphifera (Delise) Vain. 1894, accepted as Cladonia ramulosa (With.) J.R. Laundon, (1984)
Cladonia pityrea var. subareolata Vain. 1894
Cladonia pityrea var. zwackii Vain. 1894 f. scyphifera Vain.*
Cladonia pungens Floerke possibly (Ach.) Gray 1821, accepted as Cladonia pertricosa Kremp., (1881) [1880]
Cladonia pungens f. foliolosa Nyi. possibly (Flörke) Leight. 1879
Cladonia pycnoclada (Pers.) Nyl. 1867,
Cladonia pycnoclada f. exalbescens (Vain.) Petr. 1948, accepted as Cladonia confusa R. Sant., (1942)
Cladonia pyxidata Fr. possibly (L.) Hoffm. 1796
Cladonia pyxidata f. staphylea Nyl. possibly (Ach.) Harm. 1896
Cladonia pyxidata var. chlorophaea (Flörke ex Sommerf.) Flörke 1894, accepted as Cladonia chlorophaea (Flörke ex Sommerf.) Spreng., (1827)
Cladonia pyxidate var. chlorophaea f. staphylea Harm.*
Cladonia pyxidata var. pocillum (Ach.) Flot. ex Vain. 1894, accepted as Cladonia pocillum (Ach.) O.J. Rich., (1877)
Cladonia rangiferina (L.) Weber 1780,
Cladonia rangiformis var. foliosa Flörke ex Vain. 1887
Cladonia rangiformis var. pungens (Ach.) Vain. 1887, accepted as Cladonia pertricosa Kremp., (1881) [1880]
Cladonia squamosa Hoffm. 1796
Cladonia subcornuta Stizenb. possibly (Nyl. ex Arnold) Cromb. 1880, accepted as Cladonia subulata (L.) Weber ex F.H. Wigg., (1780)
Cladonia sylvatica (L.) Hoffm. 1796, accepted as Cladonia portentosa (Dufour) Coem., (1865)
Cladonia verticillata (Hoffm.) Ach. 1799, accepted as Cladonia cervicornis (Ach.) Flot., (1849)
Cladonia sp.
Genus: Cladosporium Link 1816
Cladosporium aphidis Thüm. 1877
Cladosporium asteromatoides Sacc. 1885
Cladosporium baccae Verwoerd & Dippen. 1930
Cladosporium berkheyae Syd. & P. Syd. 1914, accepted as Passalora berkheyae (Syd. & P. Syd.) U. Braun & Crous, (2003)
Cladosporium carpophilum Thüm. (1877), accepted as Venturia carpophila E.E.Fisher (1961)
Cladosporium citri possibly Massee 1899
Cladosporium cucumerinum Ellis & Arthur 1889
Cladosporium elatum (Harz) Nannf. 1934
Cladosporium fulvum Cooke 1883 accepted as Fulvia fulva (Cooke) Cif., (1954)
Cladosporium herbarum (Pers.) Link 1816
Cladosporium laxum Kalchbr. & Cooke 1880, accepted as Passalora laxa (Kalchbr. & Cooke) U. Braun & Crous, (2003)
Cladosporium macrocarpum Preuss 1848
Cladosporium melanophloei Thüm. 1877
Cladosporium pisicola W.C. Snyder [as pisicolum], (1934)
Cladosporium tenuissimum Cooke 1878
Cladosporium vignae Rac. possibly M.W. Gardner 1925,
Cladosporium zeae Peck 1894
Cladosporium sp.
Genus: Clasterosporium Schwein. 1832
Clasterosporium carpophilum (Lév.) Aderh. (1901), accepted as Stigmina carpophila (Lév.) M.B. Ellis, (1959)
Clasterosporium celastri (Thüm.) Sacc. 1886
Clasterosporium clavatum (Lév.) Sacc. 1886
Clasterosporium densum Syd. & P. Syd. 1912 accepted as Annellophorella densa (Syd. & P. Syd.) Subram., (1962)
Family: Clathraceae Chevall. 1826
Genus: Clathroporina Müll. Arg. 1882
Clathroporina locuples (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1922
Genus: Clathrus P. Micheli ex L. 1753, (formerly Clathrella)
Clathrus angolensis (Welw. & Curr.) E. Fisch. 1886, accepted as Blumenavia angolensis (Welw. & Curr.) Dring, (1980)
Clathrus baumii Henn. 1903
Clathrus camerunensis Henn. 1890
Clathrus cancellatus Tourn. ex Fr. 1823, accepted as Clathrus ruber P. Micheli ex Pers., (1801)
Clathrus cibarius (Tul. & C. Tul.) E. Fisch. 1886, accepted as Ileodictyon cibarium Tul. & C. Tul. [as 'cibaricum'], (1844)
Clathrus gracilis (Berk.) Schltdl. 1862, accepted as Ileodictyon gracile Berk., (1845)
Clathrus pseudocancellatus (E. Fisch.) Lloyd 1909, [as pseudocancellata]
Clathrus sp.
Genus: Claudopus Gillet 1876, accepted as Entoloma (Fr.) P. Kumm., (1871)
Claudopus proteus Kalchbr. possibly Sacc. 1887, accepted as Melanotus proteus (Sacc.) Singer, (1946)
Claudopus variabilis (Pers.) Gillet 1876, accepted as Crepidotus variabilis (Pers.) P. Kumm., (1871)
Family: Clavariaceae Chevall. 1826
Genus: Clavaria P. Micheli 1729
Clavaria abietina Pers. 1794, accepted as Phaeoclavulina abietina (Pers.) Giachini, (2011)
Clavaria byssiseda Pers. 1796
Clavaria capensis Thunb. 1800
Clavaria cinerea Bull. 1788, accepted as Clavulina cinerea (Bull.) J. Schröt., (1888)
Clavaria cladoniae Kalchbr. 1882, accepted as Ramaria cladoniae (Kalchbr.) D.A. Reid, (1974)
Clavaria contorta Holmsk. 1790, accepted as Typhula contorta (Holmsk.) Olariaga, (2013)
Clavaria corniculata Schaeff. 1774, accepted as Clavulinopsis corniculata (Schaeff.) Corner, (1950)
Clavaria corniculata var. pratensis (Pers.) Cotton & Wakefield 1919, accepted as Clavulinopsis corniculata (Schaeff.) Corner, (1950)
Clavaria cristata (Holmsk.) Pers. 1801, accepted as Clavulina coralloides (L.) J. Schröt., (1888)
Clavaria cyanocephala Berk. & M.A. Curtis 1868, accepted as Phaeoclavulina cyanocephala (Berk. & M.A. Curtis) Giachini, (2011)
Clavaria dealbata Berk. 1856, accepted as Ramariopsis dealbata (Berk.) R.H. Petersen, (1984)
Clavaria dichotoma Kalchbr. 1882, accepted as Ramaria saccardoi (P. Syd.) Corner, (1950)
Clavaria durbana Van der Byl 1932, accepted as Scytinopogon pallescens (Bres.) Singer, (1945)
Clavaria fastigiata L. 1753, accepted as Clavulinopsis corniculata (Schaeff.) Corner, (1950)
Clavaria flaccida Fr. 1821, accepted as Phaeoclavulina flaccida (Fr.) Giachini, (2011)
Clavaria furcellata Fr. 1830
Clavaria inaequalis O.F. Müll. 1780
Clavaria kalchbrenneri Sacc. 1888
Clavaria kunzei Fr. (1821), accepted as Ramariopsis kunzei (Fr.) Corner (1950)
Clavaria laeticolor Berk. & M.A. Curtis 1868, accepted as Clavulinopsis laeticolor (Berk. & M.A. Curtis) R.H. Petersen, (1965)
Clavaria ligula Schaeff. 1774, accepted as Clavariadelphus ligula (Schaeff.) Donk, (1933)
Clavaria lorithamnus Berk. 1872, accepted as Ramaria lorithamnus (Berk.) R.H. Petersen,
Clavaria miniata Berk. (1843), accepted as Clavulinopsis sulcata Overeem (1923)
Clavaria muscoides L. 1753
Clavaria persimilis Cotton 1910, accepted as Clavulinopsis laeticolor (Berk. & M.A. Curtis) R.H. Petersen, (1965)
Clavaria pistillaris L. 1753, accepted as Clavariadelphus pistillaris (L.) Donk, (1933)
Clavaria pulchra Peck 1876, accepted as Clavulinopsis laeticolor (Berk. & M.A. Curtis) R.H. Petersen, (1965)
Clavaria semivestita Berk. & Broome 1873, accepted as Clavulinopsis semivestita (Berk. & Broome) Corner, (1950)
Clavaria setacea Kalchbr. 1882, accepted as Pterula setacea (Kalchbr.) Corner, (1950)
Clavaria stricta Pers. 1795, accepted as Ramaria stricta (Pers.) Quél., (1888)
Clavaria vermicularis Fr. , possibly Sw. (1811), accepted as Clavaria fragilis Holmsk. (1790)
Clavaria zippelii Lév. 1844, accepted as Phaeoclavulina zippelii (Lév.) Overeem, (1923)
Genus: Claviceps Tul. 1853
Claviceps digitariae Hansf. 1941
Claviceps microcephala (Wallr.) Tul. 1853, accepted as Claviceps purpurea (Fr.) Tul., (1853)
Claviceps paspali F. Stevens & J.G. Hall 1910
Claviceps purpurea (Fr.) Tul. 1853
Claviceps sp.
Genus: Clitocybe (Fr.) Staude 1857,
Clitocybe amara Quel. (Alb. & Schwein.) P. Kumm. 1871, accepted as Lepista amara (Alb. & Schwein.) Maire, (1930)
Clitocybe expallens Quel. (Pers.) P. Kumm. 1871, accepted as Pseudoclitocybe expallens (Pers.) M.M. Moser, (1967)
Clitocybe fragrans Quel. (With.) P. Kumm. 1871
Clitocybe gentianea Quél. 1873, accepted as Leucopaxillus gentianeus (Quél.) Kotl. (1966)
Clitocybe infundibuliformis var. membranacea Gill. (Vahl) Massee 1893, accepted as Infundibulicybe gibba (Pers.) Harmaja, (2003)
Clitocybe membranacea Fr. (Vahl) Sacc. 1887, accepted as Infundibulicybe gibba (Pers.) Harmaja, (2003)
Clitocybe sinopica Gill. (Fr.) P. Kumm. 1871, accepted as Bonomyces sinopicus (Fr.) Vizzini, (2014)
Clitocybe splendens (Pers.) Gillet 1874, accepted as Paralepista splendens (Pers.) Vizzini, (2012)
Clitocybe trulliformis (Fr.) P. Karst. [as trullaeformis] accepted as Infundibulicybe trulliformis (Fr.) Gminder 2016
Clitocybe ziziphina (Viv.) Sacc. (1887), [as zizyphina].
Genus: Clitopilus (Fr. ex Rabenh.) P. Kumm. 1871
Clitopilus prunulus Quel. (Scop.) P. Kumm. 1871
Genus: Clypeolella Höhn. 1910, accepted as Sarcinella Sacc. (1880)
Clypeolella psychotriae (Doidge) Doidge 1942, accepted as Schiffnerula psychotriae (Doidge) S. Hughes, (1987)
Clypeolella rhamnicola (Doidge) Doidge 1942, accepted as Schiffnerula rhamnicola (Doidge) S. Hughes, (1987)
Genus: Clypeosphaeria Fuckel 1870
Clypeosphaeria natalensis Doidge 1922,
Co
Genus: Cochliobolus Drechsler 1934, accepted as Bipolaris Shoemaker, (1959)
Cochliobolus stenospilus T. Matsumoto & W. Yamam. 1936, [as Cochliobilus stenospilus] accepted as Bipolaris stenospila (Drechsler ex Faris) Shoemaker, (2018)
Family: Coccidioidaceae Cif. 1932
Genus: Coccocarpia Pers. 1827
Coccocarpia pellita var. parmelioides (Hook.) Müll. Arg. 1887, accepted as Coccocarpia erythroxyli (Spreng.) Swinscow & Krog (1976)
Genus: Coccochora Höhn. 1909,
Coccochora lebeckiae Verwoerd & Dippen. 1930, accepted as Coleroa lebeckiae (Verwoerd & Dippen.) Arx, (1962)
Genus: Cocconia Sacc. 1889
Cocconia capensis Doidge 1921, accepted as Cycloschizon capense (Doidge) Arx, (1962)
Cocconia concentrica (Syd. & P. Syd.) Syd. 1915
Cocconia porrigo (Cooke) Sacc. 1889, accepted as Cycloschizon porrigo (Cooke) Arx, (1962)
Family: Coenogoniaceae Stizenb. 1862
temp
Genus: Coenogonium
Coenogonium afrum Massal.
Coenogonium interplexum Nyl.
Genus: Coleophoma
Coleophoma Oleae Petr. & Syd.
Genus: Coleosporium
Coleosporium clematidis Bare.
Coleosporium detergibile Thuem.
Coleosporium hedyotidis Kalchbr. & Cooke
Coleosporium ipomoeae Burr.
Coleosporium ochraceum Bon.
Family: Collemaceae
Genus: Collema
Collema aggregatum Rohl.
Collema bullatum Ach.
Collema byrsinum Ach.
Collema caespitosum Tayl.
Collema crispum Wigg.
Collema fuliginellum Nyl.
Collema furvum DC.
Collema lanatum Pers.
Collema nigrescens DC.
Collema pulposum Ach. var. tenax Nyl.
Collema redundans Nyl.
Collema satuminum DC.
Collema tenax Ach.
Collema thysaneum Ach.
Collema tremelloides Ach.
Genus: Colletotrichum
Colletotrichum agaves Cav.
Colletotrichum anonicola Speg.
Colletotrichum antirrhini Stew.
Colletotrichum atramentarium Taubenh.
Colletotrichum brachytrichum Del.
Colletotrichum cameiliae Mass.
Colletotrichum carica Stev. & Hall.
Colletotrichum cereale Manns.
Colletotrichum circinans Vogl.
Colletotrichum coffeanum Noack.
Colletotrichum dematium Grove.
Colletotrichum falcatum Went.
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Penz.
Colletotrichum glycines Hori.
Colletotrichum gossypii Edgert.
Colletotrichum graminicolum Wilson.
Colletotrichum kickxiae Verw. & du Pless.
Colletotrichum lagenarium Ell. & Halst.
Colletotrichum lindemuthianum Shear
Colletotrichum malvarum Braun & Casp.
Colletotrichum nigrum Ell. & Halst.
Colletotrichum omnivorum Halst.
Colletotrichum orchidearum Allesch.
Colletotrichum papayae Syd.
Colletotrichum phomoides Chester.
Colletotrichum pterocelastri Wakef.
Colletotrichum rhodocyclum Petrak.
Colletotrichum trifolii Bain & Essary.
Colletotrichum sp.
Genus: Colonnaria
Colonnaria columnata Ed.Fisch.
Genus: Collybia
Collybia acervata Gill.
Collybia albuminosa Petch.
Collybia alveolata Sacc.
Collybia butyracea Quel.
Collybia chortophila Sacc.
Collybia confluens Quel.
Collybia dryophila Quel.
Collybia dryophila var. oedipus Quel.
Collybia extuberans Quel.
Collybia fusipes Quel. var. contorta Gill. & Lucand.
Collybia homotricha Sacc.
Collybia macilenta Gill.
Collybia melinosarca Sacc.
Collybia radicata Quel.
Collybia radicata var. brachypus Sacc.
Collybia ratticauda Fayod.
Collybia stipulincola Kalchbr.
Collybia stridula Quel.
Collybia velutipes Quel.
Collybia sp.
Genus: Comatricha
Comatricha irregularis Peck.
Comatricha longa Peck.
Comatricha nigra Schroet.
Comatricha nigra var. alta Lister.
Comatricha tenerrima G. Lister.
Comatricha typhoides Rost.
Genus: Combea
Combea mollusca Ach.
Combea pruinosa de Not.
Genus: Coniocybe
Coniocybe owanii Korb.
Genus: Coniodictyum
Coniodictyum evansii Höhn.
Genus: Coniophora
Coniophora atrocinerea Karst.
Coniophora betulae Karst.
Coniophora cerebella Pers.
Coniophora papillosa Talbot.
Coniophora pulverulenta Mass.
Coniophora puteana Karst.
Coniophora olivacea Karst.
Genus: Coniothorium
Coniosporium schiraianum Bubak.
Genus: Coniothecium
Coniothecium chomatosporum Corda.
Coniothecium citri McAlp.
Coniothecium macowanii Sace.
Coniothecium punctiforme Wint.
Coniothecium scabrum McAlp.
Coniothecium sp.
Genus: Coniothyrina
Coniothyrina agaves Petrak & Syd.
Genus: Coniothyrium
Coniothyrium fuckelii Sacc.
Coniothyrium insigne Syd.
Coniothyrium occultum Syd.
Coniothyrium palmicolum Starb.
Coniothyrium rafniicola Petrak.
Genus: Conotrema
Conotrema volvarioides Müll.Arg.
Genus: Cookeina
Cookeina colensoi Seaver
Genus: Coprinus
Coprinus atramentarius Fr. (= Coprinopsis atramentaria)
Coprinus cheesmani Th.Gibbs
Coprinus cinereus S.F.Gray (= Coprinopsis cinerea)
Coprinus comatus S.F.Gray
Coprinus comatus var. ovatus Quel.
Coprinus curtus Kalchbr.
Coprinus digitalis Fr.
Coprinus ephemerus Fr.
Coprinus flocculosus Fr.
Coprinus macrorhizus Rea.
Coprinus micaceus Fr. (= Coprinellus micaceus)
Coprinus micaceus var. truncorum Quel.
Coprinus niveus Fr. Schaeff. ex Fr. (= Coprinellus niveus)
Coprinus plicatilis Fr.
Coprinus punctatus Kalchbr. & Cooke
Coprinus radiatus S.F.Gray (= Coprinopsis radiata)
Coprinus stercorarius Fr.
Coprinus truncorum Fr.
Coprinus sp.
Genus: Cordana
Cordana musae Höhn.
Cordana pauciseptata Preuss.
Cordana sp.
Genus: Cordyceps
Cordyceps flabella Berk. & Curt.
Cordyceps velutipes Mass.
Cordyceps sp.
Genus: Cornicularia
Cornicularia tenuissima Zahlbr.
Genus: Corollospora
Corollospora maritima Werd.
Genus: Corticium
Corticium abeuns Burt.
Corticium argillaceum Höhn. & Litsch
Corticium armeniacum Sacc. (= Cerocorticium molle)
Corticium atrocinereum Kalchbr.
Corticium bombycinum Bres.
Corticium caeruleum Fr.
Corticium calceum Fr. emend. Romell & Burt
Corticium calceum Fr.
Corticium calceum var. lacteum Fr.
Corticium ceraceum Berk. & Rav. (= Cerocorticium molle)
Corticium cinereum Fr. (= Peniophora cinerea)
Corticium confluens Fr.
Corticium dregeanum Berk.
Corticium gloeosporum Talbot
Corticium lacteum Fr. (= Phanerochaete tuberculata)
Corticium laetum Bres.
Corticium luteocystidiatum Talbot
Corticium nudum Fr.
Corticium pelliculare Karst.
Corticium portentosum Berk. & Curt.
Corticium pulverulentum Cooke
Corticium salmonicolor Berk. & Br. (= Phanerochaete salmonicolor)
Corticium scutellare Berk. & Curt.
Corticium solani Bourd. & Galz
Corticium tumulosum Talbot
Corticium vagum Berk. & Curt.
Corticium vagum var. solani Burt.
Corticium sp.
Genus: Cortinarius
Cortinarius argutus Fr.
Cortinarius camurus Fr.
Cortinarius castaneus Fr.
Cortinarius fusco-tinctus Rea.
Cortinarius lepidopus Cooke.
Cortinarius multiformis Fr.
Family: Coryneliaceae
Genus: Corynelia
Corynelia carpophila Syd.
Corynelia clavata Sacc.
Corynelia clavata f. fructicola Rehm.
Corynelia fructicola Höhn.
Corynelia tripos Cooke
Corynelia uberata Fr. ex Ach.
Genus: Coryneliospora
Coryneliospora fructicola Fitz.
Genus: Coryneum
Coryneum beyerinckii Oud. (Stigmina carpophila)
Coryneum cocoes P.Henn.
Coryneum disciforme Kunze & Schum.
Coryneum dovyalidis v.d.Byl.
Coryneum kunzei Corda.
Cr
Genus: Craterellus
Craterellus comucopioides Pers.
Genus: Craterium
Craterium aureum Rost.
Craterium eonfusum Mass.
Craterium leucocephalum Ditm. var. scyphoides Lister.
Craterium minutum Fr.
Genus: Crepidotus
Crepidotus applanatus Karst.
Crepidotus episphaeria Sacc.
Crepidotus inandae Sacc.
Crepidotus mollis Quel.
Crepidotus pogonatus Sacc.
Crepidotus scalaris Karst, var. lobulatus Sacc.
Genus: Cribraria
Cribraria argillacea Pers.
Cribraria intricata Schrad.
Cribraria tenella Schrad.
Genus: Crocynia
Crocynia membranacea Zahlbr.
Genus: Cronartium
Cronartium bresadoleanum P.Henn.
Cronartium bresadoleanum var. eucleae P.Henn.
Cronartium gilgianum P.Henn.
Cronartium zizyphi Syd. & Butl.
Genus: Crossopsora
Crossopsora gilgiana Syd.
Genus: Crucibulum
Crucibulum vulgare Tul.
Genus: Cryptococcus
Cryptococcus histolycus Stoddard & Cutler.
Cryptococcus linguae-pilosa Castellani & Chalmers.
Cryptococcus sp.
Genus: Cryptodidymosphaeria
Cryptodidymosphaeria clandestina Syd.
Genus: Cryptogene
Cryptogene parodiellae Syd.
Genus: Cryptogenella
Cryptogenella parodiellae Syd.
Genus: Cryptomyces
Cryptomyces eugeniacearum Sacc.
Cryptomyces melianthi Sacc.
Cryptomyces myricae Sacc.
Genus: Cryptosporella
Cryptosporella umbrina Wehm.
Genus: Cryptosporium
Cryptosporium fatale Kalchbr.
Genus: Cryptostictus
Cryptostictis dryopteris Verw. & du Pless.
Genus: Cryptothecia
Cryptothecia subnidulans Stirt.
Family: Cryptotheciaceae
Cu
Genus: Cunninghamiella
Cunninghamella sp.
Genus: Curvularia
Curvularia intermedia Boedijn.
Curvularia lunata Boedijn. (= Cochliobolus lunatus)
Curvularia maculans Boedijn.
Curvularia spicifera Boedijn. (= Cochliobolus spicifer)
Curvularia sp.
Cy
Genus: Cyanisticta
Cyanisticta crocata Gyeln.
Cyanisticta crocata var. isidiata Gyeln.
Cyanisticta gilva Gyeln.
Cyanisticta gilva var. angustilobata Gyeln.
Cyanisticta gilva var. lanata Gyeln.
Cyanisticta gilva var. pseudogilva Gyeln.
Cyanisticta subcrocata Gyeln.
Cyanisticta thouarsii Gyeln.
Genus: Cyathus
Cyathus berkeleyanus Lloyd
Cyathus dasypus Nees
Cyathus hookeri Berk.
Cyathus laevis Thunb.
Cyathus microsporus Tul.
Cyathus minutosporus Lloyd
Cyathus montagnei Tul.
Cyathus olla Pers.
Cyathus pallidus Berk. & Curt.
Cyathus plicatulus Poepp.
Cyathus poeppigii Tul.
Cyathus rufipes Ellis.
Cyathus stercoreus de Toni.
Cyathus stercoreus f. leseurii Tul.
Cyathus sulcatus Kalchbr.
Cyathus verrucosus DC.
Genus: Cyeloconium
Cyeloconuim oleaginum Cast.
Genus: Cycloschizon
Cycloschizon brachylaenae P.Henn.
Cycloschizon fimbriatum Doidge
Genus: Cyclotheca
Cyclotheca bosciae Doidge
Genus: Cylindrocarpon
Cylindrocarpon album Wollenw. var. crassum Wollenw.
Genus: Cylindrocladium
Cylindrocladium scoparium Morgan
Genus: Cylindrosporium
Cylindrosporium castanicolum Berl.
Cylindrosporium chrysanthemi Ell. & Dearn.
Cylindrosporium juglandis Wolf
Cylindrosporium kilimandscharicum Allesch.
Cylindrosporium padi Karst.
Cylindrosporium ribis Davis.
Genus: Cymatoderma
Cymatoderma elegans Jungh.
Family: Cyphellaceae
Genus: Cyphella
Cyphella alboviolascens Karst.
Cyphella cheesmanni Mass.
Cyphella farinacea Kalchbr. & Cooke
Cyphella friesii Crouan.
Cyphella fulvodisca Cooke & Mass.
Cyphella pelargonii Kalchbr.
Cyphella punetiformis Karst.
Cyphella tabacina Cooke & Phil.
Cyphella variolosa Kalchbr.
Genus: Cystingophora
Cystingophora deformans Syd.
Genus: Cystopus
Cystopus amaranthi Berk.
Cystopus austro-africanus Sacc. & Trott.
Cystopus austro-africanus Wakef.
Cystopus bliti de Bary.
Cystopus candidus de Bary.
Cystopus cubicus de Bary.
Cystopus evansii Sacc. & Trott.
Cystopus evansii Wakef.
Cystopus impomoeae-panduranae Stev. & Swing.
Cystopus portulacae de Bary.
Cystopus quadratus Kalchbr. & Cooke
Cystopus schlechteri Syd.
Cystopus tragopogonis Schroet.
Genus: Cystotelium
Cystotelium inornatum Syd.
Genus: Cytidea
Cytidea cornea Lloyd
Cytidea flocculenta Höhn. & Litsch
Cytidea habgallae Martin
Cytidea simulans Lloyd
Genus: Cytoplea
Cytoplea adeniae du Pless.
Genus: Cytospora
Cytospora australiae Speg.
Cytospora chrysosperma Fr.
Cytospora foliicola Libert
Cytospora leucostoma Sacc.
Cytospora sacchari Butl.
Cytospora verrucula Saco. & Berl.
Cytospora xanthosperma Fr.
Genus: Cytosporella
Cytosporella aloes du Pless.
References
Sources
See also
List of fungi of South Africa
List of fungi of South Africa – A
List of fungi of South Africa – B
List of fungi of South Africa – D
List of fungi of South Africa – E
List of fungi of South Africa – F
List of fungi of South Africa – G
List of fungi of South Africa – H
List of fungi of South Africa – I
List of fungi of South Africa – L
List of fungi of South Africa – M
List of fungi of South Africa – P
List of fungi of South Africa – R
List of fungi of South Africa – S
List of fungi of South Africa – T
List of fungi of South Africa – U
Further reading
Fungi C
South Africa | List of fungi of South Africa – C | [
"Biology"
] | 19,481 | [
"Fungi",
"Lists of fungi"
] |
68,754,925 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20fungi%20of%20South%20Africa%20%E2%80%93%20B | This is an alphabetical list of the fungal taxa as recorded from South Africa. Currently accepted names have been appended.
Ba
Genus: Bacidia De Not. 1846 (Lichens)
Bacidia aemula (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1926
Bacidia amylothelia Vain. 1926
Bacidia bacillifera (Nyl.) Branth & Rostr. 1869
Bacidia beckhausii Körb. 1860
Bacidia beckhausii var. stenospora (Hepp) Arnold 1871 f. acutata Zahlbr.
Bacidia capreolina (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1926
Bacidia caruncula (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1926
Bacidia chlorophaeata (Nyl.) Zahlbr. 1926
Bacidia cyrtocheila (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1926
Bacidia effusa var. intermedia (Hepp ex Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1926
Bacidia endoleuca (Nyl.) J. Kickx f. 1867
Bacidia endoleucella (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1926
Bacidia epicyanea Vain. 1926
Bacidia friesiana var. norrlinii (Lamy) Vain. 1922
Bacidia fuscorubella (Hoffm.) Bausch 1869 accepted as Bacidia polychroa (Th. Fr.) Körb., (1860)
Bacidia heteroloma Zahlbr. f. firmior Vain*
Bacidia inconsequens (Nyl.) Zahlbr. 1926
Bacidia inconveniens (Nyl.) Zahlbr. 1926
Bacidia intermedia Hampe ex A. Massal. 1861
Bacidia laurocerasi var. amylothelia (Vain.) Zahlbr. 1926
Bacidia leucostephana (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1926
Bacidia lugubris (Sommerf.) Zahlbr. 1905 accepted as Schaereria lugubris (A. Massal.) Körb., (1855)
Bacidia luteola (Schrad.) Mudd 1861 accepted as Bacidia rubella (Hoffm.) A. Massal., (1852)
Bacidia luteola f. chlorotica (Ach.) Zahlbr. 1926 accepted as Pseudosagedia chlorotica (Ach.) Hafellner & Kalb, (1995)
Bacidia luteola f. conspondens (Nyl.) Zahlbr. 1926
Bacidia medialis (Tuck.) Zahlbr. 1927
Bacidia millegrana (Taylor) Zahlbr. 1888
Bacidia polychroa (Th. Fr.) Körb., (1860) reported as Bacidia fuscorubella (Hoffm.) Bausch 1869
Bacidia proposita (Nyl.) Zahlbr. 1926
Bacidia rubella (Hoffm.) A. Massal., (1852) reported as Bacidia luteola (Schrad.) Mudd 1861
Bacidia rufata (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1926
Bacidia sabuletorum (Schreb.) Lettau 1912 accepted as Bilimbia sabuletorum (Schreb.) Arnold, (1869)
Bacidia stupposa (A. Massal.) Zahlbr. 1905
Bacidia subluteola (Nyl.) Zahlbr. 1902
Bacidia subspadicea (Müll. Arg.) Zahlbr. 1926
Bacidia trifaria (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1926
Genus: Bactridium Kunze 1817
Bactridium flavum Kunze 1817
Genus: Baeomyces Pers. 1794 (Lichens)
Baeomyces capensis Taylor 1847
Baeomyces monocarpus (Ach.) Ach. 1803
Baeomyces roseus Pers. 1794 accepted as Dibaeis rosea (Pers.) Clem., (1909)
Genus: Bagnisiopsis Theiss. & Syd. 1915, accepted as Coccodiella Hara, (1910)
Bagnisiopsis disciformis (Wint).*
Genus: Balansia Speg. 1885
Balansia cynodontis Syd. 1935
Balansia trachypogonis Doidge 1948
Balansia sp.
Genus: Balladyna Racib. 1900
Balladyna leonensis Syd. 1939
Balladyna tenuis Hansf. 1941
Balladyna ugandensis Syd. 1939
Balladyna velutina (Berk. & M.A. Curtis) Höhn. 1910
Genus: Balladynastrum Hansf. 1941, accepted as Balladynopsis Theiss. & Syd., (1918)
Balladynastrum glabrum Hansf. 1946 accepted as Balladynocallia glabra (Hansf.) Bat., (1965)
Genus: Balladynella Theiss. & Syd. 1918, accepted as Dysrhynchis Clem., (1909)
Balladynella confusa (Doidge) Hansf. 1946 accepted as Rizalia confusa Doidge, (1924)
Genus: Balladynocallia Bat. 1965
Balladynocallia glabra (Hansf.) Bat., (1965) reported as Balladynastrum glabrum Hansf. 1946
Genus: Basisporium Molliard 1902, accepted as Nigrospora Zimm., (1902)
Basisporium gallarum Molliard 1902 accepted as Nigrospora oryzae (Berk. & Broome) Petch, (1924)
Genus: Battarrea Pers. 1801
Battarrea diguetii Pat. & Har. 1896 [as diqueti] accepted as Battarreoides diguetii (Pat. & Har.) R. Heim & T. Herrera, (1962)
Battarrea phalloides Pers.
Battarrea stevenii Fr.
Genus; Battarreoides T. Herrera 1953
Battarreoides diguetii (Pat. & Har.) R. Heim & T. Herrera, (1962) reported as Battarrea diguetii Pat. & Har. 1896 [as diqueti]
Genus: Baumiella Henn. 1903, accepted as Leptosphaeria Ces. & De Not. (1863)
Baumiella caespitosa Henn. 1903
Be
Genus: Beauveria Vuill. 1912
Beauveria bassiana (Bals.-Criv.) Vuill. 1912
Beauveria globulifera (Speg.) F. Picard 1914 accepted as Beauveria bassiana (Bals.-Criv.) Vuill., (1912)
Genus: Belonidium Mont. & Durieu 1848, accepted as Lachnum Retz., (1769)
Synonymy:
Belonidium capense (Kalchbr. & Cooke) Sacc. 1889,
Genus: Beniowskia Racib. 1900
Beniowskia penniseti Wakef., (1916), accepted as Beniowskia sphaeroidea (Kalchbr. & Cooke) E.W. Mason, (1928))
Beniowskia sphaeroidea (Kalchbr. & Cooke) E.W. Mason, (1928)),
Bi
Genus: Biatora (Lichens)
Biatora decipiens (Hedw.) Fr. 1831, accepted as Psora decipiens (Hedw.) Hoffm., (1794)
Biatora melampepla (Tuck.) Tuck. 1888
Biatora triptophylla corallinoides Floerke possibly Biatora thriptophylla var. corallinoides (Hoffm.) Fr., (1845) or Biatora thriptophylla var. coralloides Rabenh. [as Biatora triptophylla var. coralloides], (1845)
Biatora zeyheri A. Massal. 1861
Genus: Biatorella De Not. 1846,
Biatorella armstrongiae Zahlbr. , possibly (T.A. Jones) Stizenb. 1927
Biatorella austroafricana Zahlbr. 1926
Biatorella clavulus (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1927
Biatorella lugens (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1927
Biatorella palmeti (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1927
Biatorella robiginans (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1927
Genus: Bispora Corda 1837
Bispora effusa Peck 1891
Bl
Genus: Blastenia A. Massal. 1852
Blastenia acaciae (Vain.) Zahlbr. 1932
Blastenia aspicilioidea Zahlbr. 1936, accepted as Huea aspicilioidea (Zahlbr.) C.W. Dodge, (1971)
Blastenia brunnthaleri Zahlbr. 1932
Blastenia capensis Trevis.*
Blastenia confluens Müll. Arg. 1888 accepted as Huea confluens (Müll. Arg.) C.W. Dodge, (1971)
Blastenia ferruginea (Huds.) A. Massal. 1852
Blastenia imponens (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1930
Blastenia laingsbergensis Zahlbr.*
Blastenia leptospora Zahlbr. 1926, accepted as Huea leptospora (Zahlbr.) C.W. Dodge, (1971)
Blastenia ochracea var. parvula (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1930
Blastenia poliotera (Nyl.) Müll. Arg. 1880
Blastenia praemicans (Nyl.) Zahlbr. 1930
Blastenia psorothecioides (Vain.) Zahlbr. 1932
Blastenia punicae (Vain.) Zahlbr. 1932, accepted as Huea punicae (Vain.) C.W. Dodge, (1971)
Blastenia punicea Müll.Arg.*
Blastenia sedutrix (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1930. [as seductric] accepted as Huea sedutrix (Stizenb.) C.W. Dodge, (1971)
Blastenia subsalicina Zahlbr. 1932
Blastenia testaceorufa (Vain.) Zahlbr. 1930
Blastenia vasquesia A. Massal. 1861
Family: Blastocladiaceae H.E. Petersen 1909
Bo
Genus: Bolbitius Fr. 1838
Bolbitius boltonii (Pers.) Fr. 1838 accepted as Bolbitius titubans (Bull.) Fr., (1838)
Bolbitius bulbillosus (Fr.) Gillet 1876
Bolbitius fragilis (L.) Fr. 1838, accepted as Bolbitius titubans (Bull.) Fr., (1838)
Bolbitius liberatus Kalchbr. 1879, accepted as Agrocybe liberata (Kalchbr.) E.F. Malysheva,(2019)
Bolbitius macowani Kalchbr.*
Bolbitius mitriformis Berk., (1844) [as mitraeformis] accepted as Galeropsis mitriformis (Berk.) R. Heim [as 'mitraeformis'], (1950)
Family: Boletoideae
Genus: Boletus L. 1753
Boletus bovinus L. 1753 accepted as Suillus bovinus (L.) Roussel (1806))
Boletus collinitus Fr. 1838 accepted as Suillus collinitus (Fr.) Kuntze, (1898)
Boletus cutipes Mass.*
Boletus edulis Bull. 1782
Boletus elegans Fr. possibly B. elegans Bull. 1782, accepted as Cerioporus varius (Pers.) Zmitr. & Kovalenko, (2016), B. elegans Bolton 1788, accepted as Grifola frondosa (Dicks.) Gray, (1821), or B. elegans Schumach. 1803, accepted as Suillus grevillei (Klotzsch) Singer,(1945)
Boletus eximius Peck (1887) accepted as Sutorius eximius (Peck) Halling, Nuhn, & Osmundson (2012)
Boletus flavidus Fr. 1815, accepted as Suillus flavidus (Fr.) J. Presl, (1846)
Boletus granulatus L. 1753, accepted as Suillus granulatus (L.) Roussel, (1796)
Boletus grevillei Klotzsch 1832 accepted as Suillus grevillei (Klotzsch) Singer,(1945)
Boletus luteus Linn. (1753), accepted as Suillus luteus (L.) Roussel (1796)
Boletus sanguineus Linn. (1763), accepted as Pycnoporus sanguineus (L.) Murrill (1904)
Boletus stellenbossiensis Van der Byl 1925
Boletus subflammeus Berk. 1876 accepted as Chalciporus subflammeus (Berk.) Klofac & Krisai, (2006)
Boletus versicolor L. 1753 accepted as Trametes versicolor (L.) Lloyd, (1921)
Boletus sp.
Genus: Bombyliospora De Not. 1852
Bombyliospora aureola (Tuck.) Zahlbr. 1930, accepted as Letrouitia aureola (Tuck.) Hafellner & Bellem., (1982)
Bombyliospora domingensis (Pers.) Zahlbr. 1888 accepted as Letrouitia domingensis (Pers.) Hafellner & Bellem., (1982)
Bombyliospora domingensis var. colorata Vain. 1921
Bombyliospora domingensis var. flavidula*
Bombyliospora domingensis var. flavocrocea (Nyl.) Zahlbr. 1930 accepted as Letrouitia flavocrocea (Nyl.) Hafellner & Bellem., (1982)
Bombyliospora domingensis var. glaucotropa (Nyl.) Vain. 1921
Bombyliospora domingensis var. inexplicata (Nyl.) Malme 1923
Bombyliospora domingensis var. inspersa Steiner possibly (Nyl.) Malme 1923
Bombyliospora flavidula (Tuck.) Zahlbr. 1930 accepted as Letrouitia flavidula (Tuck.) Hafellner, (1983)
Bombyliospora flavocrocea A. Massal. 1860 accepted as Letrouitia flavocrocea (Nyl.) Hafellner & Bellem., (1982)
Bombyliospora incana A.L. Sm. 1911 accepted as Megalospora tuberculosa (Fée) Sipman, (1983)
Bombyliospora leprolyta (Nyl.) Zahlbr. 1930, accepted as Letrouitia leprolyta (Nyl.) Hafellner, (1983)
Bombyliospora tuberculosa (Fée) A. Massal. 1852 accepted as Megalospora tuberculosa (Fée) Sipman, (1983)
Bombyliospora tuberculosa f. geotropa (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1930
Bombyliospora zuluensis Vain. 1926
Genus: Borrera Ach. 1809
Borrera capensis (L. f.) Ach. 1810
Borrera chrysophthalma (L.) Ach. 1810 accepted as Teloschistes chrysophthalmus (L.) Th. Fr., (1861)
Borrera flavicans (Sw.) Ach. 1810 accepted as Teloschistes flavicans (Sw.) Norman, (1852)
Borrera leucomelos (L.) Ach. [as 'leucomela'], (1810) accepted as Leucodermia leucomelos (L.) Kalb, 2015
Borrera pubera Ach. 1810
Borrera pubera var. capensis (L. f.) Ach. 1814
Genus: Botryodiplodia Sacc. 1884
Botryodiplodia oncidii (Henn.) Petr. & Syd., (1926) accepted as Sphaeropsis oncidii (Henn.) Died., (1914)
Botryodiplodia palmarum (Cooke) Petr. & Syd. 1927
Botryodiplodia theobromae Pat. 1892accepted as Lasiodiplodia theobromae (Pat.) Griffon & Maubl. (1909)
Genus: Botryosphaeria Ces. & De Not. 1863
Botryosphaeria mali V.A. Putterill 1919, accepted as Neofusicoccum ribis (Slippers, Crous & M.J. Wingf.) Crous, Slippers & A.J.L. Phillips, (2006)
Botryosphaeria ribis Shear, Stev. & Wilcox possibly Grossenb. & Duggar 1911, accepted as Neofusicoccum ribis (Slippers, Crous & M.J. Wingf.) Crous, Slippers & A.J.L. Phillips, (2006)
Botryosphaeria ribis var chromogena Shear, N.E. Stevens & Wilcox 1924 accepted as Neofusicoccum ribis (Slippers, Crous & M.J. Wingf.) Crous, Slippers & A.J.L. Phillips, (2006)
Botryosphaeria vitis (Schulzer) Sacc. 1882 accepted as Echusias vitis (Schulzer) Hazsl., (1873)
Genus: Botrytis
Botrytis allii Munn 1917
Botrytis cinerea Pers. 1801
Botrytis fabae Sardiña 1929
Botrytis sp.
Genus: Bottaria A. Massal. 1856
Bottaria pyrenuloides (Mont.) Trevis. 1861accepted as Pyrenula pyrenuloides (Mont.) R.C. Harris,(1989)
Bottaria thelomorpha (Tuck.) Vain., [as thelemorpha],(1901)
Bottaria thwaitesii (Leight.) Vain. ex Van der Byl 1931 accepted as Anthracothecium thwaitesii (Leight.) Müll. Arg., (1880)
Genus: Bovista Pers. 1794
Bovista castanea Lév. 1846 accepted as Disciseda castanea (Lév.) Bottomley, (1948)
Bovista cervina Berk. 1842 accepted as Disciseda cervina (Berk.) Hollós, (1902)
Bovista citrina (Berk. & Broome) Bottomley 1948,
Bovista juglandiformis Berk. ex Massee 1888 accepted as Disciseda juglandiformis (Berk. ex Massee) Hollós, (1902)
Bovista lilacina Mont. & Berk. 1845 accepted as Calvatia lilacina (Mont. & Berk.) Henn., (1904)
Bovista oblongispora (Lloyd) Bottomley 1948
Bovista pusilla de Toni possibly (Batsch) Pers. 1801
Bovista umbrina Bottomley 1948
Bovista zeyheri Berk. ex Massee 1888
Genus: Bovistella Morgan 1892, accepted as Lycoperdon Pers., (1794)
Bovistella aspera (Lév.) Lloyd 1905 accepted as Lycoperdon asperum (Lév.) Speg., (1881)
Bovistella oblongispora Lloyd 1917 accepted as Bovista oblongispora (Lloyd) Bottomley, (1948)
Genus: Bovistoides Lloyd 1919, accepted as Myriostoma Desv., (1809)
Bovistoides simplex Lloyd 1919
Br
Genus: Brachysporium Sacc. 1886
Brachysporium faureae Henn. 1903 accepted as Annellophorella faureae (Henn.) M.B. Ellis, (1963)
Brachysporium pulviniforme Syd. & P. Syd. 1914 accepted as Stigmina pulviniformis (Syd. & P. Syd.) S. Hughes, (1952)
Genus: Brigantiaea Trevis. 1853 (Lichens)
Brigantiaea mariae Trevis. 1853
Genus: Broomeia Berk. 1844
Broomeia congregata Berk. 1844
Broomeia ellipsospora Höhn. 1905
Bu
Family: Buelliaceae Zahlbr. 1908
Genus: Buellia De Not. 1846 (Lichens and lichenocolous)
Buellia abstracta (Nyl.) H. Olivier 1903 accepted as Buellia sequax (Nyl.) Zahlbr., (1931)
Buellia aethalea (Ach.) Th. Fr. 1874,
Buellia aethaloessa (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1931
Buellia afra (Stizenb.) Vain. 1901
Buellia africana Müll. Arg. 1879
Buellia africana (Tuck.) Tuck. 1866
Buellia albinea Müll. Arg. 1882
Buellia albula (Nyl.) Müll. Arg. 1894
Buellia ambuta (Stizenb.) Zahlbr., (1931) [as ambusta]
Buellia anatolodia A. Massal. 1861
Buellia angulosa J. Steiner 1926
Buellia antarctica A. Massal. 1861
Buellia antarctica var. effusa A. Massal. 1861
Buellia antarctica var. insularis A. Massal. 1861
Buellia brugierae Vain. 1926 accepted as Amandinea brugierae (Vain.) Marbach, (2000)
Buellia brunnthaleri Zahlbr. 1931
Buellia callaina (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1931
Buellia callispora var. tetrapla (Nyl.) J. Steiner 1907 accepted as Buellia tetrapla (Nyl.) Müll. Arg., (1888)
Buellia callisporoides Vain. ex Lynge 1937
Buellia cangoensis Vain. 1926
Buellia catalipa A. Massal. 1861
Buellia coeruleata Zahlbr. 1931
Buellia contingens (Nyl.) Zahlbr. 1931
Buellia dialytella Vain. 1926
Buellia diorista (Nyl.) Zahlbr. 1931, accepted as Amandinea diorista (Nyl.) Marbach, (2000)
Buellia disciformis (Fr.) Mudd 1861
Buellia disciformis f. vulgata H. Olivier 1884
Buellia disciformis var. cinereopruinosa Vain. ex Van der Byl 1931
Buellia disciformis var. lecanactina J. Steiner 1907
Buellia disciformis var. sanguinea (Müll. Arg.) Zahlbr. 1931
Buellia discolorans Zahlbr. 1931
Buellia dispersa A. Massal. 1856
Buellia distrahens Vain. 1926
Buellia distrata (Nyl.) Zahlbr. 1931
Buellia durbana Vain. 1926
Buellia endorhodina Vain. ex Lynge 1937
Buellia epichlora (Vain.) Zahlbr. 1932
Buellia glencairnensis Zahlbr. 1936
Buellia halonia (Ach.) Tuck. 1866
Buellia incrustans J. Steiner 1926, accepted as Amandinea incrustans (J. Steiner) Marbach, (2000)
Buellia incuriosa (Nyl.) Zahlbr. 1931
Buellia indissimilis (Nyl.) B. de Lesd. 1914
Buellia inquilina Tuck. 1866, accepted as Sclerococcum inquilinum (Tuck.) Ertz & Diederich, (2018)
Buellia insidians (Nyl.) Zahlbr. 1931
Buellia italica A. Massal. 1856
Buellia italica var. debanensis Bagl. 1875
Buellia italica var. recobarina A. Massal. 1856
Buellia langbaanensis Vain. 1926
Buellia lauri-cassiae (Fée) Müll. Arg. 1887,
Buellia lauri-cassiae var. macrosperma Zahlbr. 1932
Buellia leucina Müll. Arg. 1888
Buellia lutata (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1931
Buellia meizocarpa Vain. 1926
Buellia melanthina (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1931
Buellia micromera Vain. 1926 accepted as Baculifera micromera (Vain.) Marbach, (2000)
Buellia microsperma Müll. Arg. 1886
Buellia minutula (Körb.) Arnold 1870
Buellia myriocarpa (DC.) De Not. 1846 accepted as Amandinea punctata (Hoffm.) Coppins & Scheid., (1993)
Buellia myriocarpella (Nyl.) H. Olivier 1903
Buellia natalensis Vain. 1926, accepted as Amandinea natalensis (Vain.) Marbach, (2000)
Buellia nesiotis (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1931
Buellia ocoteae Vain. 1926
Buellia ocellata (Flörke ex Flot.) Körb., (1855) recorded as Buellia verruculosa (Sm.) Mudd 1861,
Buellia oleicola (Nyl.) Zahlbr. 1931 accepted as Amandinea oleicola (Nyl.) Giralt & van den Boom, (2012)
Buellia olivacea Müll. Arg. 1893
Buellia pachnodes (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1931
Buellia pachysporoides Vain. 1931
Buellia parasema var. disciformis Th.Fr. probably (Fr.) Arnold 1858, accepted as Buellia disciformis (Fr.) Mudd, (1861)
Buellia parasema var. sanguinea Müll. Arg. 1888
Buellia parasema var. vulgata Th. Fr. 1874 accepted as Buellia disciformis (Fr.) Mudd, (1861)
Buellia perigrapta (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1931
Buellia permodica (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1931
Buellia perspersa J. Steiner 1926
Buellia praelata (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1931
Buellia procellarum A. Massal. 1861
Buellia procellarum var. continuior J. Steiner 1926
Buellia procellarum var. repens J. Steiner 1926
Buellia proserpens var. continuior J. Steiner 1926.
Buellia proserpens var. repens J. Steiner 1926
Buellia protothallina (Kremp.) Vain. 1903
Buellia protothallina var. indissimilis Vain. 1903
Buellia punctata (Hoffm.) A. Massal. 1852
Buellia punctata f. marcidula (Nyl.) Zahlbr. 1931
Buellia punctata f. punctiformis (DC.) Hazsl. 1884
Buellia punctata var. aequata (Ach.) Zahlbr. 1931
Buellia punetiformis (DC.) A. Massal. 1852
Buellia pura Vain. 1926
Buellia quaterna Zahlbr. 1936
Buellia rhodesiaca Zahlbr. 1932
Buellia rinodinea A. Massal. 1861
Buellia rudis (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1931
Buellia rusticorum (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1931
Buellia schinziana Müll. Arg. 1888
Buellia sequax (Nyl.) Zahlbr., (1931) recorded as Buellia abstracta (Nyl.) H. Olivier 1903
Buellia spuria (Schaer.) Anzi 1860,
Buellia spuria var. ferruginea (Schaer.) Anzi 1860,
Buellia spuria var. insularis (A. Massal.) Jatta 1900
Buellia stellulata (Taylor) Mudd 1861,
Buellia stellulata f. albosparsa (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1931
Buellia stellulata f. hybrida (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1931
Buellia stellulata f. murina (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1931
Buellia stizenbergeri Zahlbr. 1931
Buellia subalbula (Nyl.) Müll. Arg. 1880
Buellia subcinerascens (Nyl.) Zahlbr. 1931 accepted as Lecidea subcinerascens Nyl., (1877)
Buellia subdisciformis Vain. probably (Leight.) Jatta 1900,
Buellia subtristis (Nyl.) Zahlbr. 1931
Buellia tetrapla (Nyl.) Müll. Arg., (1888) recorded as Buellia callispora var. tetrapla (Nyl.) J. Steiner 1907
Buellia transvaalica (Stizenb.) Zahlbr. 1931
Buellia triplicans Zahlbr. 1932
Buellia vernicoma (Tuck.) Tuck. 1866
Buellia verruculosa (Sm.) Mudd 1861, accepted as Buellia ocellata (Flörke ex Flot.) Körb., (1855)
Buellia viridiatra (Wulfen) H. Olivier 1901 accepted as Rhizocarpon viridiatrum (Wulfen) Körb., (1855)
Genus: Bulgariastrum Syd. & P. Syd. 1913 accepted as Dermea Fr., (1825)
Bulgariastrum africanum Syd. & P. Syd. 1915
Bulgariastrum bullatum Doidge 1948
Genus: Bulliardella (Sacc.) Paoli 1905 accepted as Actidium Fr., (1815)
Bulliardella capensis Doidge 1948,
By
Genus: Byliana Dippen. 1930, accepted as Palawaniella Doidge, (1921)
Byliana halleriae Dippen. 1930 accepted as Palawaniella halleriae (Dippen.) Arx, (1962)
Genus: Byssochlamys Westling 1909
Byssochlamys lagunculariae (C. Ram) Samson, Houbraken & Frisvad, (2009) recorded as Byssochlamys nivea Westling 1909
Byssochlamys nivea Westling 1909 accepted as Byssochlamys lagunculariae (C. Ram) Samson, Houbraken & Frisvad, (2009)
Genus: Byssoloma Trevis. 1853
Byssoloma tricholomum f. confluens Vain. ex Van der Byl 1931
Genus: Byssospora *
Byssospora stupposa Massal.*
References
Sources
See also
List of bacteria of South Africa
List of Oomycetes of South Africa
List of slime moulds of South Africa
List of fungi of South Africa
List of fungi of South Africa – A
List of fungi of South Africa – C
List of fungi of South Africa – D
List of fungi of South Africa – E
List of fungi of South Africa – F
List of fungi of South Africa – G
List of fungi of South Africa – H
List of fungi of South Africa – I
List of fungi of South Africa – J
List of fungi of South Africa – K
List of fungi of South Africa – L
List of fungi of South Africa – M
List of fungi of South Africa – N
List of fungi of South Africa – O
List of fungi of South Africa – P
List of fungi of South Africa – Q
List of fungi of South Africa – R
List of fungi of South Africa – S
List of fungi of South Africa – T
List of fungi of South Africa – U
List of fungi of South Africa – V
List of fungi of South Africa – W
List of fungi of South Africa – X
List of fungi of South Africa – Y
List of fungi of South Africa – Z
Further reading
Fungi B
South Africa | List of fungi of South Africa – B | [
"Biology"
] | 7,222 | [
"Fungi",
"Lists of fungi"
] |
68,754,991 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20fungi%20of%20South%20Africa%20%E2%80%93%20D | This is an alphabetical list of the fungal taxa as recorded from South Africa. Currently accepted names have been appended.
Da
Genus: Dacryomitra
Dacryomitra dubia Llovd.
Genus: Dacryomyces
Dacryomyces australis Lloyd.
Dacryomyces deliquescens Duby.
Dacryomyces digressus Lloyd.
Dacryomyces tortus Fr.
Genus: Dactylina (Lichens)
Dactylina mollusca Tuck.
Genus: Daedalea
Daedalea biennis Fr.
Daedalea dregeana Mont.
Daedalea eatoni Berk.
Daedalea fuscospora Lloyd.
Daedalea hobbsii v.d.Byl.
Daedalea ligneotexta v.d.Byl.
Daedalea macowani Kalchbr. ex Thuem.
Daedalea ochracea Kalchbr. ex Thuem.
Daedalea quercina Fr.
Daedalea rhodesica v.d. Byl.
Daedalea stereoides Fr.
Daedalea unicolor Fr.
Genus: Daldinia
Daldinia bakeri Lloyd.
Daldinia concentrica Ces. & De Not.
Daldinia concentrica var. eschscholzii Ehrenb. ex Fr.
Daldinia eschscholzii Rehm.
Genus: Darluca
Darluca filum Cast.
Darluca vagans Cast.
Genus: Dasyscypha
Dasyscypha calyculaeformis Rehm.
Dasyscypha lachnoderma Rehm.
De
Genus: Deconica
Deconica atro-rufa Sacc.
Genus: Delitschia
Delitschia bisporula Hans.
Delitschia sp.
Family: Dematiaceae
Genus: Dendroecia
Dendroecia evansii Syd.
Genus: Dendrogaster
Dendrogaster radiatus Zeller & Dodge
Genus: Dendryphium
Dendryphium macowanianum Thuem.
Genus: Depazea
Depazea briddleyae Thuem.
Depazea nesodes Thuem.
Genus: Dermatea
Dermatea pelidna Kalchbr. & Cooke
Dermatea rufa Cooke
Family: Dermateaceae
Genus: Dermatina
Dermatina pyrenocarpa Zahlbr.
Genus: Dermatiscum (Lichens)
Dermatiscum thunbergii Nyl
Dermatiscum viride Zahlbr.
Family: Dermatocarpaceae
Genus: Dermatocarpon (Lichens)
Dermatocarpon deserti Zahlbr.
Dermatocarpon finckei Zahlbr.
Dermatocarpon hepaticum Th.Fr.
Dermatocarpon peltatum Zahlbr.
Di
Genus: Diacham
Diacham elegans Fr.
Genus: Diachaea
Diachaea leucopoda Rost.
Genus: Diachora
Diachora lessertiae Petrak.
Genus: Diathrypton
Diathrypton radians Syd.
Genus: Diaporthe
Diaporthe citri Wolf.
Diaporthe pemiciosa E.Marchal.
Family: Diaportheae
Genus: Diatrype
Diatrype auristroma Doidge
Diatrype bona-spei Berl.
Diatrype caminata Kalchbr. & Cooke
Diatrype capensis Kalchbr. & Cooke
Diatrype caulina Syd.
Diatrype conferta Doidge
Diatrype congesta Kalchbr. & Cooke
Diatrype dovyalidis Doidge
Diatrype durieui Mont.
Diatrype leonotidis Doidge
Diatrype macowaniana Thuem.
Diatrype xumenensis Doidge
Genus: Diatrypella
Diatrypella agaves Syd.
Diatrypella morganae Doidge
Diatrypella natalensis Doidge
Diatrypella oligostroma Syd.
Diatrypella pretoriensis Doidge
Genus: Dicaeoma
Dicaeoma arundinellae Syd.
Dicaeoma rottboelliae Syd.
Genus: Dichlamys
Dichlamys trollipi Syd.
Genus: Dichodium
Dichodium byrsinum Nyl.
Dichodium subluridum Nyl.
Genus: Dictothrix
Dictothrix erysiphina Theiss.
Genus: Dictyocephalos
Dictyocephalos attenuatus Long & Plunkett.
Genus: Dictyochorella
Dictyochorella andropogonis Doidge
Genus: Dictyophora
Dictyophora indusiata Desv.
Dictyophora phalloidea Desv.
Genus: Diderma (Slime moulds)
Diderma effusum Morg.
Diderma hemisphericum Homem.
Diderma subdictyospermum Lister.
Genus: Didymella
Didymella intercepta Sacc.
Didymella lycopersici Kleb.
Didymella maculiformis Wint.
Didymella zuluensis Doidge.
Genus: Didvmellina
Didvmellina dianthi Burt.
Genus: Didymosphaeria
Didymosphaeria clavata du Pless.
Didymosphaeria opulenta Sacc.
Didymosphaeria populina Vuill.
Didymosphaeria rafniae Verw. & du Pless.
Didymosphaeria spatharum Wint.
Genus: Didymosporina
Didymosporina africana Syd.
Genus: Didymosporium
Didymosporium congestum Syd.
Didymosporium latum Syd.
Genus: Dimeriella
Dimeriella annulata Syd.
Dimeriella claviseta Doidge
Dimeriella grewiae Theiss.
Dimeriella woodii Hansf.
Genus: Dimerina
Dimerina osyridis Theiss.
Dimerina parasitica Hansf.
Dimerina verrucicola Theiss.
Genus: Dimerium
Dimerium africanum Hansf.
Dimerium baccharidicolum Sacc.
Dimerium englerianum Sacc. & D.Sacc.
Dimerium erysiphinum Sacc.
Dimerium gymnosporiae Syd.
Dimerium intermedium Syd.
Dimerium langloisii Theiss.
Dimerium leonense Hansf.
Dimerium lepidogathis Sacc.
Dimerium leptosporum Speg.
Dimerium macowanianum Doidge
Dimerium minutum Sacc.
Dimerium myriadeum Theiss.
Dimerium piceum Theiss.
Dimerium psilostomatis Sacc.
Dimerium pulveraceum Theiss.
Dimerium radio-fissilis Sacc.
Dimerium subferrugineum Syd.
Genus: Dimerosporiopsis
Dimerosporiopsis engleriana P.Henn.
Genus: Dimerosporium
Dimerosporium acocantherae P.Henn.
Dimerosporium englerianum P.Henn.
Dimerosporium erysiphinum P.Henn.
Dimerosporium gymnosporiae P.Henn.
Dimerosporium lepidagathis P.Henn.
Dimerosporium macowanianum Sacc.
Dimerosporium osyridis Wint.
Dimerosporium psilostomatis Sacc.
Dimerosporium verrucicolum Wint.
Dimerosporium sp.
Genus: Diorchidium
Diorchidium tricholaenae Syd.
Diorchidium woodii Kalchbr. & Cooke
Genus: Diplocarpon
Diplocarpon earliana Wolf.
Diplocarpon rosae Wolf.
Genus: Diplochorella
Diplochorella amphimelaena Theiss. & Syd.
Diplochorella burchelliae Syd.
Genus: Diplocystis
Diplocystis junodii Pole Evans & Bottomley
Genus: Diplodia
Diplodia aurantii Catt.
Diplodia cassinopsidis Kalchbr. & Cooke.
Diplodia clematidea Sacc.
Diplodia clematidis Kalchbr. & Cooke
Diplodia herbarum Lev.
Diplodia lichenopsis Cooke & Mass.
Diplodia maydis Sacc.
Diplodia monsterae Verw. & Dipp.
Diplodia natalensis Pole Evans
Diplodia palmicola Thuem.
Diplodia pinea Kickx.
Diplodia sarmentorum Fr.
Diplodia tubericola Taubenh.
Diplodia variispora Died.
Diplodia vignae Sacc.
Family: Diploschistaceae
Genus: Diploschistella
Diploschistella urceolata Vain.
Genus: Diploschistes (Lichens)
Diploschistes actinostomus Zahlbr.
Diploschistes actinostomus var. aeneus Steiner
Diploschistes actinostomus var. caesioplumbeus Steiner
Diploschistes anactinus Zahlbr.
Diploschistes bellus Zahlbr.
Diploschistes cinereocaesius Wain.
Diploschistes deuterius Zahlbr.
Diploschistes isabellinus Zahlbr.
Diploschistes ochroniger Zahlbr.
Diploschistes perispicillatus Zahlbr.
Diploschistes scruposus Norm.
Diploschistes scruposus f. iridatus Zahlbr.
Diploschistes scruposus var. arenarius Müll.Arg.
Diploschistes subcupreus Zahlbr.
Family: Dirinaceae
Genus: Dirina (Lichens)
Dirina capensis Fée.
Genus: Discina
Discina submembranaceae P. Henn.
Genus: Disciseda
Disciseda anomala G.H.Cunn.
Disciseda candida Lloyd.
Disciseda candida Bottomley.
Disciseda cervina Hollos.
Disciseda hypogaea Cunningham.
Disciseda juglandiformis Hollos.
Disciseda pedicellata Hollos.
Disciseda verrucosa G.H.Cunn.
Disciseda zeyheri Hollos.
Genus: Discomyces
Discomyces madurae Gedoelst
Discomyces pijperi Neveu-Lemaire.
Do
Genus: Dothidasteromella
Dothidasteromella contorta Doidge
Dothidasteromella orbiculata Syd.
Family: Dothideaceae
Genus: Dothidea
Dothidea aloicola P.Henn.
Dothidea amphimelaena Mont.
Dothidea arduina Kalchbr. & Cooke
Dothidea circinata Kalchbr. & Cooke
Dothidea crotonis Cooke
Dothidea kniphojiae Kalchbr. & Cooke
Dothidea lucens Cooke
Dothidea melianthi Kalchbr. & Cooke
Dothidea oleifolia Kalchbr. & Cooke
Dothidea perisporioides Berk. & Curt.
Dothidea puncta Cooke
Dothidea repens Berk
Dothidea scabies Kalchbr. & Cooke
Dothidea strelitziae Cooke
Dothidea viventis var. albizziae Cooke
Genus: Dothidella
Dothidella osyridis Berl. & Vogl.
Dothidella osyridis var. tassiana Sacc.
Dothidella welwitschii A.L.Sm.
Genus: Dothidina
Dothidina disciformis Theiss. & Syd.
Genus: Dothiopsis
Dothiopsis stangeriae Verw. & du Pless.
Genus: Dothiorella
Dothiorella congesta Sacc.
Dothiorella mali Ell. & Everh.
Dothiorella reniformis Vi. & Rav.
Dothiorella senecionis Petrak.
Du
Genus: Dufourea
Dufourea flammea Ach.
Dufourea mollusca Ach.
Dufourea physcioides Massal.
Dufourea plumbea Tayl.
References
Sources
See also
List of fungi of South Africa
List of fungi of South Africa – A
List of fungi of South Africa – B
List of fungi of South Africa – C
List of fungi of South Africa – E
List of fungi of South Africa – F
List of fungi of South Africa – G
List of fungi of South Africa – H
List of fungi of South Africa – I
List of fungi of South Africa – J
List of fungi of South Africa – K
List of fungi of South Africa – L
List of fungi of South Africa – M
List of fungi of South Africa – N
List of fungi of South Africa – O
List of fungi of South Africa – P
List of fungi of South Africa – Q
List of fungi of South Africa – R
List of fungi of South Africa – S
List of fungi of South Africa – T
List of fungi of South Africa – U
List of fungi of South Africa – V
List of fungi of South Africa – W
List of fungi of South Africa – X
List of fungi of South Africa – Y
List of fungi of South Africa – Z
Further reading
Kinge TR, Goldman G, Jacobs A, Ndiritu GG, Gryzenhout M (2020) A first checklist of macrofungi for South Africa. MycoKeys 63: 1-48. https://doi.org/10.3897/mycokeys.63.36566
South Africa
Fungi D | List of fungi of South Africa – D | [
"Biology"
] | 2,944 | [
"Fungi",
"Lists of fungi"
] |
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