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68,755,485 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20fungi%20of%20South%20Africa%20%E2%80%93%20P | This is an alphabetical list of the fungal taxa as recorded from South Africa. Currently accepted names have been appended.
Pa
Genus: Pachyphiale
Pachyphiale cornea (Ach.) Poetsch (1872)accepted as Bacidia cornea (Ach.) A. Massal. (1852)
Genus: Paecilomyces
Paecilomyces aureo-cinnamomeum Thom.
Paecilomyces varioti Bain.
Paecilomyces sp.
Genus: Palawania
Palawania dovyalidis Nel.
Palawania eucleae Nel.
Palawania halleriae Doidge
Palawania orbiculata Doidge
Genus: Palawaniella
Palawaniella doryalidis Doidge
Palawaniella eucleae Doidge
Palawaniella orbiculata Doidge
Genus: Panaeolus
Panaeolus caliginosus Gill.
Panaeolus campanulatus Quel. accepted as Panaeolus papilionaceus (Bull. ex Fries) Quélet
Panaeolus fimicola Quel.
Panaeolus papilionaceus (Bull. ex Fries) Quélet
Panaeolus retirugis Gill. accepted as Panaeolus papilionaceus (Bull. ex Fries) Quélet
Panaeolus solidipes Peck.
Genus: Pannaria
Pannaria capensis Steiner.
Pannaria coenileobadia Massal.
Pannaria hookeri Nyl. var. leucolepis Th.Fr.
Pannaria leucolepis Nyl.
Pannaria leucosticta Tuck. var. isidiopsis Nyl.
Pannaria lurida Nyl.
Pannaria phloeodes Stirt.
Pannaria rubiginosa Del.
Pannaria rubiginosa var. conoplea Korb.
Pannaria rubiginosa var. lanuginosa Zahlbr.
Pannaria rubiginosa var. phloeodes Stizenb.
Pannaria triptophylla Massal.
Family: Pannariaceae
Genus: Pannularia
Pannularia leucosticta Stizenb. var. isidiopsis Nyl.
Genus: Panus
Panus conchatus Fr.
Panus melanophyllus Fr.
Panus quaquaversus Berk.
Panus rudis Fr.
Panus stipticus Fr.
Panus stipticus var. farinaceus Rea.
Panus torulosus Fr.
Panus wrightii Berk. & Curt.
Genus: Papularia
Papularia sphaerosperma v. Hohn.
Genus: Paranectria
Paranectria minuta Hansf.
Paranectria parasitica Wint.
Genus: Parasterells (sic)
Genus: Parasterina
Parasterina africana v.d.Byl
Parasterina brachystoma Theiss.
Parasterina brachystoma var. laxa Doidge
Parasterina implicata Doidge
Parasterina laxa Doidge
Parasterina reticulata Doidge
Parasterina rigida Doidge
Parasterina sp.
Genus: Parastigmatea
Parastigmatea nervisita Doidge
Genus: Paratheliaceae
Paratheliaceae
Genus: Parathelium
Parathelium trichosporum Stizenb.
Genus: Parendomyces
Parendomyces zeylanicus Doidge
Genus: Parenglerula
Parenglerula henningsii Petrak.
Parenglerula macowaniana v. Hohn.
Parenglerula macowaniana var. elaeodendri Werd.
Genus: Parmelia (Lichens)
Parmelia abessinica Nyl. ex Kremp. (1877),accepted as Parmotrema abessinicum (Nyl. ex Kremp.) Hale (1974)
Parmelia abessinica var. sorediosa Müll.Arg.
Parmelia abyssinica Nyl.
Parmelia abyssinica var. sorediosa Müll.Arg.
Parmelia adhaerens Nyl.
Parmelia aleuriza Vain.
Parmelia amphixanthoides Steiner & Zahlbr.
Parmelia amplexa Stirt.
Parmelia angolensis Wain.
Parmelia atrichoides Nyl.
Parmelia austro-africana Stirt.
Parmelia austroafricana Zahlbr.
Parmelia borreri Turn.
Parmelia borreri var. stictica Duby.
Parmelia borreri var. ulophvlla Nyl.
Parmelia brachyphylla Müll.Arg.
Parmelia brunnthaleri Steiner & Zahlbr.
Parmelia brunnthaleri f. irregularis Gyeln.
Parmelia bylii Gyeln.
Parmelia bylii Vain.
Parmelia caesia Ach.
Parmelia caifrorum Zahlbr.
Parmelia capensis Ach.
Parmelia capensis Nyl.
Parmelia caperata (L.) Ach. (1803),accepted as Flavoparmelia caperata (L.) Hale (1986)
Parmelia centrifuga Ach.
Parmelia ceresina Vain.
Parmelia cetrarioides Del.
Parmelia cetrata Ach.
Parmelia cetrata f. ciliosa Viaud-Gr. Marais.
Parmelia cetrata f. sorediifera Wain.
Parmelia chlorea Stizenb.
Parmelia citrinireagens Gyeln.
Parmelia citrinireagens var. angustior Gyeln.
Parmelia colorata Gyeln.
Parmelia concolor Spreng.
Parmelia concolor var. multifida Zahlbr.
Parmelia concolor var. platyphylla Zahlbr.
Parmelia concrescens Wain.
Parmelia conspersa(Ehrh. ex Ach.) Ach. (1803) accepted as Xanthoparmelia conspersa (Ehrh. ex Ach.) Hale (1974)
Parmelia conspersa f. isidiata Anzi.
Parmelia conspersa polita, polyphylla Mey.Flotow.
Parmelia conspersa var. austroafricana Stizenb.
Parmelia conspersa var. benguellensis Wain.
Parmelia conspersa var. constrictans Müll.Arg.
Parmelia conspersa var. endomiltoides Müll.Arg.
Parmelia conspersa var. eradicata Müll.Arg.
Parmelia conspersa var. hypoclista Nyl.
Parmelia conspersa var. hypoclistoides Müll.Arg.
Parmelia conspersa var. hypomelaena Vain.
Parmelia conspersa var. incisa Zahlbr.
Parmelia conspersa var. lacinulata Gyeln.
Parmelia conspersa var. laxa Müll.Arg.
Parmelia conspersa var. leonora Linds.
Parmelia conspersa var. multifida Flotow.
Parmelia conspersa var. polita Flotow.
Parmelia conspersa var. polyphylla Müll.Arg.
Parmelia conspersa var. stenophylla Ach.
Parmelia conspersa var. subconspersa Stein.
Parmelia conspersa var. thamnidiella Stizenb.
Parmelia conspersula Nyl.
Parmelia constrictans Nyl.
Parmelia constrictans var. eradicata Nyl.
Parmelia conturbata Müll.Arg.
Parmelia conturbata var. exomata Zahlbr.
Parmelia cooperi Steiner & Zahlbr.
Parmelia coronata Fee var. denudata Wain.
Parmelia cristifera Tayl.
Parmelia cuprea Pers.
Parmelia digitula Nyl. var. citrinireagens Gyeln.
Parmelia digitulata var. esaxicola Gyeln.
Parmelia digitulata var. esaxicola f. mitrovicensis Gyeln.
Parmelia domokosii Gyeln.
Parmelia dregeana Hampe.
Parmelia dubia Schaer.
Parmelia ecaperata Müll.Arg.
Parmelia endomiltodes Nyl.
Parmelia euneta Stirt.
Parmelia fas igii'a (sic) Ach.
Parmelia fissurina Zahlbr.
Parmelia formosa Fee var. latifolia Flotow.
Parmelia fraxinea Ach.
Parmelia fuliginosa Nyl.
Parmelia glabra Nyl.
Parmelia gracilescens Wain. var. angolensis Wain.
Parmelia granatensis Nyl.
Parmelia hababiana Gyeln.
Parmelia hildenbrandtii Krempelh. f. nuda Stizenb.
Parmelia hildenbrandtii f. sorediosa Stizerb.
Parmelia hildebrandtii var. nuda Müll.Arg.
Parmelia hildebrandtii var. sorediosa Müll.Arg.
Parmelia hottentotta Ach.
Parmelia hottentotta var. diachrosta Stirt.
Parmelia hottentotta var. pachythalla Nyl.
Parmelia hottentotta var. phalacrum Zahlbr.
Parmelia hypocrea Wain.
Parmelia hypoleia Nyl.
Parmelia hypoleia f. crenata Nyl.
Parmelia hypoleia var. crenata Nyl.
Parmelia hypoleia var. tenuifida Nyl.
Parmelia hypoleioides Wain.
Parmelia hyporysalea Vain.
Parmelia imitans Gyeln. f. protoimbricatoides Gyeln.
Parmelia incisa Tayl.
Parmelia insignata Stizenb.
Parmelia interrupts (sic) Stizenb.
Parmelia isidiza Nyl.
Parmelia junodii Steiner.
Parmelia laceratula Nyl. f. phricoides Stirt.
Parmelia laevigata (Sm.) Ach. (1814), accepted as Hypotrachyna laevigata (Sm.) Hale (1975)
Parmelia latissima Fee.
Parmelia laxa Gyeln. f. laciniata Gyeln.
Parmelia lecanoracea Müll.Arg.
Parmelia leonora Spreng.
Parmelia leonora var. multifida Flotow.
Parmelia leonora var. platyphylla Massal.
Parmelia lichinoidea Nyl.
Parmelia lugubris Pers.
Parmelia macleyana Müll.Arg.
Parmelia majoris Wain.
Parmelia melancholica Stainer & Zahlbr.
Parmelia molliuscula Ach.
Parmelia mottusca Ach.
Parmelia molybdiza Nyl.
Parmelia mougeotii Schaer.
Parmelia mougeotii var. dealbata Massal.
Parmelia mougeotii var. obscurata Müll.Arg.
Parmelia mougeotina Nyl.
Parmelia mutabilis Tayl.
Parmelia namaensis Steiner & Zahlbr.
Parmelia natalensis Steiner & Zahlbr.
Parmelia nilgherrensis Nyl. (1874) accepted as Parmotrema arnoldii (Du Rietz) Hale (1974)
Parmelia nitens Müll.Arg.
Parmelia obscura Fr.
Parmelia oleagina Stizenb.
Parmelia olivacea Nyl.
Parmelia olivacea Ach.
Parmelia olivaria Th.Fr.
Parmelia olivetorum Nyl.
Parmelia olivetorum var. hyporysalea Wain.
Parmelia omphalodes Ach. var. panniformis Ach.
Parmelia omphalodes var. panniformis f. crinalis Hepp.
Parmelia ostracoderma Ach.
Parmelia owaniana Stirt.
Parmelia pachythala Spreng.
Parmelia parietina Ach.
Parmelia perfissa Steiner & Zahlbr.
Parmelia perforata Ach.
Parmelia perforata f. ciliata Flotow.
Parmelia perforata var. cetrata Fr.
Parmelia perforata var. ciliata Nyl.
Parmelia perisidiosa Nyl.
Parmelia perlata (Huds.) Ach. (1803) accepted as Parmotrema perlatum (Huds.) M.Choisy (1952)
Parmelia perlata var. ciliata Duby. f. sorediifera Müll.Arg.
Parmelia perlata f. sorediifera Stizenb.
Parmelia perplexa Stizenb.
Parmelia perrugata Nyl.
Parmelia perspersa Stizenb.
Parmelia persulphurata Nyl.
Parmelia phaeophana Stirt.
Parmelia phaeophana var. stenotera Stirt.
Parmelia pilosa Stizenb.
Parmelia pilosella Hue.
Parmelia plumbea Ach.
Parmelia praetervisa Müll.Arg.
Parmelia proboscidea Tayl.
Parmelia proboscidea var. sorediifera Müll.Arg.
Parmelia prolixa Rohl.
Parmelia prolixa f. dendritica Nyl.
Parmelia prolixa var. applicata Stizenb.
Parmelia prolixula Nyl.
Parmelia pseudoconspersa Gyeln.
Parmelia quercina Ach.
Parmelia quercina f. cupiseda Wain.
Parmelia quercina var. rimulosa Zahlbr.
Parmelia resupina Stirt.
Parmelia reterimulosa Steiner & Zahlbr.
Parmelia reticulata Tayl.
Parmelia revoluta Floerke.
Parmelia roccella var. hypomecha Ach.
Parmelia rubiginosa Ach.
Parmelia rudecta Ach. (1814) accepted as Punctelia rudecta (Ach.) Krog (1982)
Parmelia rudecta var. microphyllina Nyl.
Parmelia saxatilis Ach.
Parmelia saxeti Stizenb.
Parmelia scabrosa Taylor (1847) accepted as Xanthoparmelia scabrosa (Taylor) Hale (1974)
Parmelia sehenckiana Müll.Arg.
Parmelia schenckiana f. imperfecta Gyeln.
Parmelia schenckiana f. perfecta Gyeln.
Parmelia schenckiana var. chalybaeizans Steiner & Zahlbr.
Parmelia schreuderiana Gyeln.
Parmelia scopulorum f. cornuata Ach.
Parmelia scortea Ach.
Parmelia sinuosa Ach.
Parmelia soredians Nyl.
Parmelia sphaerospora Nyl.
Parmelia squamans Stizenb.
Parmelia squamariata Nyl.
Parmelia squamariata f. cinerascens Nyl.
Parmelia standaertii Gyeln. var. africana Gyeln.
Parmelia steineri Gyeln.
Parmelia stellaris Ach.
Parmelia stenophylla du Rietz f. hypomelaena Vain.
Parmelia stenophylloides Wain.
Parmelia stictella Massal.
Parmelia subaequans Nyl.
Parmelia subcaperatula Nyl.
Parmelia subconspersa Nyl.
Parmelia subconspersa f. lobulifera Gyeln.
Parmelia subconspersa var. africana Gyeln.
Parmelia subconspersa var. benguellensis Wain
Parmelia subconspersa var. incisa Stizenb.
Parmelia subconspersa var. thamnidiella Stizenb.
Parmelia subcrustacea Gyeln.
Parmelia subdecipiens Vain.
Parmelia subflabellata Steiner.
Parmelia sublaevigata Nyl.
Parmelia subquercina Müll.Arg.
Parmelia subrudecta Nyl. (1886) accepted as Punctelia subrudecta (Nyl.) Krog (1982)
Parmelia subschenckiana Gyeln.
Parmelia subsinuosa Nyl.
Parmelia suffixa Stirt.
Parmelia synestia Stirt.
Parmelia terricola Steiner & Zahlbr.
Parmelia texana Tuck.
Parmelia thamnidiella Stirt.
Parmelia tiliacea Ach.
Parmelia tiliacea var. rimulosa Müll.Arg.
Parmelia tiliacea var. revoluta Krempelh.
Parmelia tiliacea var. scortea Ducy.
Parmelia tinctoria var. hypomecha Ach.
Parmelia tinctorum Despr.
Parmelia tortuosa Ach.
Parmelia toxodes Stirt. (1878) accepted as Punctelia toxodes (Stirt.) Kalb & M.Götz (2007)
Parmelia vanderbylii Zahlbr.
Parmelia verruculifera Nyl.
Parmelia worcesteri Steiner & Zahlbr.
Parmelia xanthotropa Stirt.
Parmelia zambesica Müll.Arg.
Parmelia zollingeri Hepp (1854) accepted as Parmotrema zollingeri (Hepp) Hale (1974)
Family: Parmeliaceae (Lichens)
Genus: Parmeliella (Lichens)
Parmeliella coelistina Zahlbr.
Parmeliella corallinoides Zahlbr.
Parmeliella plumbea Müll.Arg. accepted as Degelia plumbea (Lightf.) P.M.Jørg. & P.James (1990)
Genus: Parmentaria
Parmentaria capensis Zahlbr.
Genus: Parmotrema (Lichens)
Parmotrema perforata Massal.
Genus: Parodiella
Parodiella brachystegiae P.Henn.
Parodiella circinata Sacc.
Parodiella congregata Syd.
Parodiella grammodes Cooke
Parodiella paraguayensis Speg.
Parodiella perisporioides Speg.
Parodiella perisporoiodes var. microspora Theiss. & Syd.
Parodiella puucta Sacc.
Parodiella schimperi P.Henn.
Family: Parodiellinaceae
Family: Parodiellineae
Genus: Parodiellinopsis
Parodiellinopsis transvaalensis Hansf.
Family: Parodiopsidineae
Genus: Parodiopsis
Parodiopsis brachystegiae Am.
Genus: Passalora
Passalora protearum Kalchbr. & Cooke
Genus: Patella
Patella albida Seaver.
Patella coprinaria Seaver.
Patella lusatiae Seaver.
Patella scutellata Morg.
Genus: Patellaria
Patellaria atrata Fr.
Patellaria incamata Ach.
Patellaria leprolyta Müll.Arg.
Family: Patellariaceae
Genus: Patouillardia
Patouillardia rumicis Verw. & du Pless.
Genus: Paxillus
Paxillus atraetopus Kalchbr.
Paxillus extenuatus Fr.
Paxillus involutus Fr.
Paxillus panuoides Fr. accepted as Tapinella panuoides (Batsch) E.-J.Gilbert (1931)
Pe
Genus: Peccania
Peccania minuscula Zahlbr.
Genus: Peltigera (Lichens)
Peltigera canina Willd.
Peltigera canina f. leucorrhiza Floerke.
Peltigera canina f. membranacea Duby.
Peltigera ceranoides Spreng.
Peltigera malacea Funck.
Peltigera membranacea Nyl.
Peltigera polydactyla Hoffm.
Peltigera polydactyla f. hymenina Flotow.
Family:Peltigeraceae (Lichens)
Genus: Penicillium
Penicillium acidoferum Sopp.
Penicillium adametzi Zal.
Penicillium brevi-compactum Dierckx.
Penicillium citrinum Thom.
Penicillium coryphilum Dierckx.
Penicillium cyclopium Westling, (1911), accepted as Penicillium aurantiogriseum Dierckx, (1901)
Penicillium digitatum Sacc.
Penicillium digitatum var. californicum Thom
Penicillium divaricatum Thom
Penicillium duclauxii Delacr.
Penicillium elongatum Dierckx. accepted as Penicillium rugulosum Thom, C. 1910
Penicillium expansum Link emend. Thom
Penicillium funiculosum Thom.
Penicillium gilmanii Thom accepted as Penicillium restrictum Gilman, J.C.; Abbott, E.V. 1927
Penicillium gladioli Machacek.
Penicillium glaucum Link.
Penicillium gratioti Sartory.
Penicillium guttulosum Abbott. accepted as Penicillium simplicissimum Thom, C. 1930
Penicillium hagemi K.M. Zalessky (1927), accepted as Penicillium brevicompactum Dierckx, 1901
Penicillium intricatum Thom. acceptes as Penicillium westlingii Zalessky, K.M. 1927
Penicillium italicum Wehm.
Penicillium janthinellum Biourge. accepted as Penicillium simplicissimum Thom, C. 1930
Penicillium lanosum Westling. accepted as Penicillium kojigenum Smith, G. 1961
Penicillium luteo-viride Biourge.
Penicillium luteum Zukal.
Penicillium luteum (series).
Penicillium notatum Westling. accepted as Penicillium chrysogenum Thom (1910)
Penicillium oxalicum Currie & Thom.
Penicillium palitans Westling.
Penicillium petchii Sartory & Bain.
Penicillium pinophilum Hedgcock.
Penicillium purpurogenum Stoll.
Penicillium putterillii Thom
Penicillium roqueforti Thom
Penicillium roseo-citrinum Biourge.
Penicillium roseum Link. accepted as Clonostachys rosea f. rosea (Link) Schroers, (1999)
Penicillium rugulosum var. aureomarginatum
Penicillium simplicissimum Thom.
Penicillium solitum Westling.
Penicillium tardum Thom
Penicillium verrucosum Dierckx.
Penicillium viridicatum (series).
Penicillium sp.
Genus: Peniophora
Peniophora arenata Talbot.
Peniophora atrocinerea Mass.
Peniophora camosa Burt.
Peniophora cinerea Cooke.
Peniophora cremea Sacc. & Syd.
Peniophora gigantea Mass.
Peniophora glebulosa Sacc. & Syd.
Peniophora incarnata Karst.
Peniophora nuda Bres.
Peniophora papyrina Cooke.
Peniophora pruinata Burt.
Peniophora purpurea Lloyd.
Peniophora roumeguerii Bres.
Peniophora setigera Bres. ex Bourd & Galz.
Peniophora velutina (DC.) Cooke (1879) accepted as Phanerochaete velutina (DC.) Parmasto (1968)
Genus: Penzigia
Penzigia discolor Miller.
Penzigia verrucosa Miller.
Genus: Perichaena
Perichaena corticalis Rost.
Perichaena depressa Libert.
Perichaena populina Fr.
Genus: Periconia
Periconia doidgeae Hansf.
Periconia pycnospora Fres.
Periconia velutina Wint.
Genus: Periconiella
Periconiella velutina Sacc.
Genus: Perischizon
Perischizon oleifolium Syd.
Genus: Perisporina
Perisporina melioliicola Doidge
Genus: Perisporium
Perisporium irenicolum Doidge
Genus: Peroneutypella
Peroneutypella cylindrica Berl.
Peroneutypella infinitissima Doidge
Genus: Peronoplasmopora
Peronoplasmopora cubensis Clint.
Genus: Pertusaria (Lichens)
Pertusaria alpina Hepp.
Pertusaria amara Nyl.
Pertusaria amara var. capensis Steiner.
Pertusaria ambigens Tuck.
Pertusaria aperta Stizenb.
Pertusaria casta Zahlbr.
Pertusaria ceuthocarpa Fr.
Pertusaria coccodes Nyl.
Pertusaria commutans Vain.
Pertusaria coriacea Th.Fr. var. obducens Zahlbr.
Pertusaria cryptostoma Müll.Arg.
Pertusaria diaziana Massal.
Pertusaria dispersa Vain.
Pertusaria duplicata Wain.
Pertusaria elatior Stirt.
Pertusaria enterostigmoides Zahlbr.
Pertusaria euglypta Tuck.
Pertusaria eyelpistia Massal.
Pertusaria flavens Nyl.
Pertusaria flavicunda Tuck.
Pertusaria granulata Müll.Arg.
Pertusaria granulata var. variolarioides Flotow.
Pertusaria inquinata Th.Fr.
Pertusaria laevigata Am
Pertusaria laevigata var. laevigata Steiner.
Pertusaria leioplaca DC.
Pertusaria leioplaca var. octospora Nyl.
Pertusaria leioplaca var. pycnocarpa Nyl
Pertusaria leioplaca var. trypetheliiformis Nyl
Pertusaria leioplaeella Nyl.
Pertusaria leonina Stizenb.
Pertusaria leucosoroides Nyl.
Pertusaria limosa Zahlbr.
Pertusaria mamillana Müll.Arg.
Pertusaria melaleuca Duby.
Pertusaria melanospora Nyl.
Pertusaria microthelia Wain.
Pertusaria multiplicans Vain.
Pertusaria nivea Merrill.
Pertusaria obducens Nyl.
Pertusaria orbiculata Zahlbr.
Pertusaria pustulata Duby.
Pertusaria rhodesica Vain.
Pertusaria spaniostoma Vain.
Pertusaria subdealbata Nyl.
Pertusaria subvelatula Vain.
Pertusaria thiostoma Nyl.
Pertusaria tropica Wain.
Pertusaria trypetheliiformis Nyl.
Pertusaria variolosa Müll.Arg.
Pertusaria velata Nyl.
Pertusaria vepallida Nyl.
Pertusaria verrucosa Fee f. oligopyrena Wallr.
Pertusaria wawreana Massal.
Pertusaria wawreanoides Nyl.
Pertusaria wilmsii Stizenb.
Pertusaria xanthomelaena Müll.Arg.
Pertusaria xanthothelia Müll.Arg.
Family: Pertusariaceae (lichens)
Genus: Pestalotia
Pestalotia aloes Trinch.
Pestalotia burchelliae Laughton.
Pestalotia caffra Syd.
Pestalotia camelliae Pass.
Pestalotia cassinis Laughton.
Pestalotia disseminata Thuem.
Pestalotia encephalartos Laughton.
Pestalotia evansii P.Henn.
Pestalotia funerea Desm.
Pestalotia oossypii Hori.
Pestalotia guepini Desm.
Pestalotia laughtonae Doidge.
Pestalotia laurophvlli Laughton.
Pestalotia maerochaeta Guva.
Pestalotia mangiferae Henn., (1907), accepted as Pestalotiopsis mangiferae (Henn.) Steyaert, (1949)
Pestalotia micheneri Guva. accepted as Pestalotiopsis microspora (Speg.) G.C. Zhao & N. Li
Pestalotia milletiae Laughton.
Pestalotia neglecta Thuem.
Pestalotia ocoteae Laughton.
Pestalotia palmarum Cooke (1876), accepted as Pestalotiopsis palmarum (Cooke) Steyaert, (1949)
Pestalotia pelargonii Laughton
Pestalotia peregrina Ell. & Mart.
Pestalotia podocarpi Laughton
Pestalotia psidii Pat.
Pestalotia pterocelastri Laughton
Pestalotia quercina Guba.
Pestalotia rapaneae Laughton
Pestalotia theae Shaw. (sic} possibly Sawada, (1915) accepted as Pseudopestalotiopsis theae (Sawada) Maharachch., K.D. Hyde & Crous, in Maharachchikumbura, Hyde, Groenewald, Xu & Crous, (2014)
Pestalotia trichocladi Laughton
Pestalotia versicolor Speg., (1879), accepted as Pestalotiopsis versicolor (Speg.) Steyaert, (1949)
Pestalotia virgatula Kleb.
Pestalotia watsoniae Verw. & Dipp.
Pestalotia zahlbruckneriana P.Henn.
Pestalotia sp.
Pestalozzia, see Pestalotia
Peyritschiellaceae
Genus: Peziza
Peziza abietina Pers.
Peziza africana v.d.Byl.
Peziza aluticolor Berk.
Peziza calyculaeformis Schum.
Peziza cinerea Batsch ex Fr.
Peziza coccinea Jacq.
Peziza columbina Kalchbr. & Cooke
Peziza cupularis Linn.
Peziza cypliellum Kalchbr.
Peziza epitricha Berk
Peziza ferruginea Fr.
Peziza lachnoderma Berk.
Peziza Lusatiae Cooke
Peziza nilgherrensis Cooke
Peziza repanda Pers.
Peziza rubella Pers.
Peziza vesiculosa Bull.
Family: Pezizaceae
Order: Pezizales
Ph
Family: Phacidiaceae
Order: Phacidiales
Genus: Phacidium
Phacidium litigiosum Desm.
Phacidium nitidum Welw. & Curr.
Genus: Phaeochorella
Phaeochorella parinarii Theiss. & Syd.
Genus: Phaeodimeriella
Phaeodimeriella asterinarum Theiss.
Phaeodimeriella asterinicola Doidge
Phaeodimeriella capensis Doidge
Phaeodimeriella grewiae Hansf.
Phaeodimeriella parvulum Hansf.
Phaeodimeriella plumbea Doidge
Phaeodimeriella psilostomatis Theiss.
Genus: Phaeodothis
Phaeodothis lebeckiae Nel.
Phaeodothis stenostoma Theiss. & Syd.
Phaeodothis tristachyae Syd.
Genus: Phaeographina (lichens)
Phaeographina caesiopruinosa Müll.Arg.
Phaeographina limbata Müll.Arg.
Phaeographina subfarinacea Zahlbr.
Genus: Phaeographis (lichens)
Phaeographis conjungens Aahlbr.
Phaeographis cryptica Zahlbr.
Phaeographis inusta Müll.Arg.
Phaeographis mesographa Müll.Arg.
Genus: Phaeophragmeriella
Phaeophragmeriella meliolae Hansf.
Phaeophragmeriella irenicola Hansf.
Phaeophragmeriella transvaalensis Hansf.
Genus: Phaeospherella
Phaeospherella eongregata Doidge
Phaeospherella prinarii Theiss. & Syd.
Phaeospherella senniana Sacc.
Genus: Phaeostigme
Phaeostigme circumsedens Doidge
Family: Phallaceae
Order: Phallales
Genus: Phallus
Phallus aurantiacus Mont.
Phallus aurantiacus var. gracilis Fisch.
Phallus campanulatus Berk.
Phallus gracilis Lloyd.
Phallus impudicus Linn, ex Pers.
Phallus indusiatus Vent, ex Pers.
Phallus rubicundus Fr.
Phallus rugulosus Lloyd
Phallus tunicatus Schlecht.
Genus: Pharcidia
Pharcidia psorae Wint.
Genus: Phellorina
Phellorina delastrei Ed.Fisch.
Phellorina inquinans Berk.
Phellorina squamosa Kalchbr. & MacOwan
Phellorina strobilina Kalchbr.
Genus: Phillipsia
Phillipsia domingensis Berk.
Phillipsia kermesina Kalchbr. & Cooke
Genus: Philonectria
Philonectria ugandensis Hansf.
Genus: Phlebia
Phlebia strigoso-zonata Lloyd
Genus: Phlebopus
Phlebopus capensis Sing.
Genus: Phlyctella
Phlyctella andensis Nyl.
Phlyctella capillaris Stizenb.
Genus: Phlyctidia
Phlyctidia boliviensis Müll.Arg.
Genus: Phlyctis (lichens)
Phlyctis argena Flotow.
Phlyctis boliviensis Nyl.
Phlyctis candida Zahlbr.
Phlyctis capillaris Stirt.
Genus: Pholiota
Pholiota aurivella Quel.
Pholiota cylindracea Gill.
Pholiota dura Quel.
Pholiota flammans Quel.
Pholiota mutabilis Quel. (sic) could be (Schaeff.) P.Kumm. (1871),accepted as Kuehneromyces mutabilis (Schaeff.) Singer & A.H.Sm. (1946)
Pholiota mycenoides Quel.
Pholiota spectabilis Quel.
Pholiota togularis Quel.
Pholiota unicolor Gill.
Genus: Phoma
Phoma agapanthi Sacc.
Phoma ampelinum de Bary.
Phoma artemisiae Kalchbr. & Cooke
Phoma betae A.B. Frank, (1892), accepted as Pleospora betae Björl., (1915)
Phoma brassicae Sacc.
Phoma caricina Hopkins.
Phoma citricarpa McAlpine, (1899), accepted as Guignardia citricarpa Kiely, (1948)
Phoma cyclospora Sacc.
Phoma destructiva Plowr.
Phoma fici-caricae Verw. & du Pless.
Phoma flaccida McAlp.
Phoma gaillardiae du Pless.
Phoma geasteropsidis Hollos.
Phoma glumarum Ell. & Tracy.
Phoma insidiosa Tassi.
Phoma lantanae Verw. & du Pless.
Phoma lingam (Tode) Desm. (1849), accepted as Leptosphaeria maculans (Sowerby) P.Karst. 1873
Phoma macrothecia Thuem.
Phoma oleracea Sacc.
Phoma omithogali Thuem.
Phoma passiflorae Penz. & Sacc.
Phoma persicae Sacc.
Phoma pinastrella Sacc.
Phoma pomi Pass.(sic), maybe Schulzer & Sacc. (1884), accepted as Mycosphaerella pomi (Pass.) Lindau, (1897)
Phoma rostrupii Sacc. (1895),accepted as Leptosphaeria libanotis (Fuckel) Niessl (1876)
Phoma sanguinolenta Rostr.accepted as Plenodomus libanotidis (Fuckel) Gruyter, Aveskamp & Verkley, in Gruyter, Woudenberg, Aveskamp, Verkley, Groenewald & Crous 2012
Phoma stapeliae Kalchbr. & Cooke
Phoma straminella
Phoma subcircinata Ellis & Everh. (1893), accepted as Phomopsis phaseoli (Desm.) Sacc., (1915)
Phoma tatulae Kalchbr. & Cooke
Phoma terrestris H.N. Hansen, (1929),accepted as Pyrenochaeta terrestris (H.N. Hansen) Gorenz, J.C. Walker & Larson, (1948)
Phoma tingens Cooke & Mass.
Phoma welwitschiae Mass.
Phoma zantedeschiae Dipp.
Phoma sp.
Genus: Phomopsis
Phomopsis cinerescens Trav.
Phomopsis citri H.S. Fawc. (1912), accepted as Diaporthe citri F.A. Wolf
Phomopsis daturae Sacc.
Phomopsis juniperovora Hahn.
Phomopsis mali Roberts (1912), accepted as Phomopsis prunorum (Cooke) Grove, (1917)
Phomopsis oxalina Syd.
Phomopsis papayae Frag. & Cif.
Phomopsis perniciosa Grove.
Phomopsis phaseolorum Grove.
Phomopsis samarorum v. Hohn.
Phomopsis sp.
Genus: Phragmidium
Phragmidium albidum Ludw.(sic) possibly (J.G. Kühn) Lagerh. (1888)accepted as Kuehneola uredinis (Link) Arthur (1906)
Phragmidium disciflorum James.
Phragmidium longissimum Thuem.
Phragmidium obtusum Tul.
Phragmidium rosarum Fuckel, (1870), accepted as Phragmidium mucronatum (Pers.) Schltdl., (1824)
Phragmidium subcorticium (Schrank) G. Winter, (1882), accepted as Phragmidium mucronatum (Pers.) Schltdl., (1824)
Phragmidium violaceum Wint.
Genus: Phragmoeauma
Phragmoeauma viventis Theiss. & Syd.
Genus: Phragmodothella
Phragmodothella nervisequens Doidge
Genus: Phragmodothis
Phragmodothis asperata Syd.
Genus: Phragmosperma
Phragmosperma marattiae Theiss. & Syd.
Genus: Phragmothyriella
Phragmothyriella parenchymatica Doidge
Genus: Phragmothyrium
Phragmothyrium trichamanis v. Hohn.
Genus: Phycopsis
Phycopsis africana Syd.
Genus: Phyllachora
Phyllachora aberiae P.Henn.
Phyllachora albizziae Cooke
Phyllachora amaniensis P.Henn.
Phyllachora anthistiriicola Syd.
Phyllachora arundinellae Doidge.
Phyllachora baumii P.Henn.
Phyllachora bottomleyae Doidge
Phyllachora brachypodii Roum. (1885),accepted as Phyllachora graminis (Pers.) Fuckel, (1870)
Phyllachora brachystegiae Doidge
Phyllachora burgessiae Doidge
Phyllachora caffra Syd.
Phyllachora capensis Doidge
Phyllachora chloridicola Speg.
Phyllachora chrysopogonis Syd.
Phyllachora circinata Theiss. & Syd.
Phyllachora crotonis Sacc.
Phyllachora cynodontis Niessl.
Phyllachora cynodontis var. chloridis P.Henn
Phyllachora digitariae Syd.
Phyllachora digitaricola Doidge.
Phyllachora doidgeae Syd.
Phyllachora dombeyae Syd.
Phyllachora elyonuri Doidge.
Phyllachora eragrostidicola Doidge
Phyllachora eragrostidis Doidge
Phyllachora evansii Syd.
Phyllachora ficuum Niessl.
Phyllachora gentilis Speg.
Phyllachora goyazensis P.Henn.
Phyllachora graminis Pers. (sic) (Pers.) Fuckel, (1870),
Phyllachora grammica P.Henn.
Phyllachora grewiae Theiss. & Syd.
Phyllachora halsei Doidge.
Phyllachora heterospora P.Henn.
Phyllachora hieronymi P.Henn.
Phyllachora howardiana Petrsk.
Phyllachora kniphofiae Sacc.
Phyllachora leptocarydii Syd.
Phyllachora lessertiae Doidge.
Phyllachora loudetiae Doidge.
Phyllachora lucens Sacc.
Phyllachora melianthi Sacc.
Phyllachora melinicola Syd.
Phyllachora microstegia Syd.
Phyllachora minuta P.Henn.
Phyllachora miscanthidii Doidge.
Phyllachora morganae Doidge
Phyllachora myrsinicola Doidge
Phyllachora nervisequens Petrak.
Phyllachora osyridis Cooke
Phyllachora peglerae Doidge
Phyllachora peltophori Syd.
Phyllachora penniseti Syd.
Phyllachora permutata Petrak.
Phyllachora perotidis Doidge.
Phyllachora plaeida Theiss.
Phyllachora pretoriae Doidge.
Phyllachora proteae Wakef.
Phyllachora pterocarpi Syd.
Phyllachora puncta Doidge
Phyllachora repens Sacc.
Phyllachora rikatliensis Petrak.
Phyllachora sanguinolenta Theiss. & Syd.
Phyllachora sanguinolenta var. microspora Syd.
Phyllachora schizachyrii Doidge.
Phyllachora schotiae Doidge.
Phyllachora strelitziae Sacc. emend. Doidge
Phyllachora striatula Theiss. & Syd.
Phyllachora superba Doidge.
Phyllachora tecleae Doidge.
Phyllachora tephrosiae Syd.
Phyllachora transvaalensis Doidge.
Phyllachora tricholaenae P.Henn.
Phyllachora winkleri Syd.
Phyllachora woodiana Doidge.
Phyllachora sp.
Family: Phyllachoraceae
Genus: Phyllachorella
Phyllachorella rikatliensis Doidge
Genus: Phyllactinia
Phyllactinia acaciae Syd.
Phyllactinia combreti Doidge.
Phyllactinia eorylea Karst.
Phyllactinia erythrinae Doidge.
Phyllactinia evansii Doidge.
Phyllactinia rhoina Doidge.
Phyllactinia sphenostylidis Doidge
Genus: Phyllopsora (lichens)
Phyllopsora breviuscula Müll.Arg.
Phyllopsora corallina Müll.Arg.
Phyllopsora parvifolia Müll.Arg.
Phyllopsora parvifolia var. fibrillifera Müll.Arg.
Phyllopsora parvifolia var. pulvinata Steiner.
Phyllopsora parvifoliella Müll.Arg.
Family: Phyllopsoraceae
Genus: Phyllosticta
Phyllosticta aloes Kalchbr.
Phyllosticta antirrhini Syd.
Phyllosticta asplenii Jaap.
Phyllosticta auriculata Kalchbr. & Cooke.
Phyllosticta bauhiniae-reticulatae P.Henn.
Phyllosticta begoniae Brun.
Phyllosticta betae Oudem., (1877), accepted as Pleospora betae Björl., (1915)
Phyllosticta brassicae West. accepted as Leptosphaeria maculans (Sowerby) P.Karst. 1873
Phyllosticta canavaliae v.d.Byl
Phyllosticta caricae-papayae Alleseh.
Phyllosticta carissae Kalchbr. & Cooke
Phyllosticta cepae Verw. & du Pless.
Phyllosticta cephalariae Wint.
Phyllosticta colae Verw. & du Pless.
Phyllosticta degenerans Syd.
Phyllosticta delphinii Clem.
Phyllosticta dianthi West.
Phyllosticta dioscoreae Cooke.
Phyllosticta doxanthae Verw. & du Pless.
Phyllosticta dryopteris Verw. & du Pless.
Phyllosticta eriobotrvae Thuem.
Phyllosticta ficicola Pat.
Phyllosticta gossypina Ell. & Mart.
Phyllosticta helvola Tassi.
Phyllosticta hesperidearum Penz.
Phyllosticta hibiscina Ell. & Everth.
Phyllosticta idaecola Cooke.
Phyllosticta latospora Verw. & du Pless.
Phyllosticta magnoliae Saec.
Phyllosticta mali Prill. & Delacr., (1890), accepted as Mycosphaerella pomi (Pass.) Lindau, (1897)
Phyllosticta malkoffii Bubak.
Phyllosticta medicaginis Sacc.
Phyllosticta nemophilae Dipp.
Phyllosticta nepenthecearum Tassi.
Phyllosticta nicotianae Ell. & Everh.
Phyllosticta odinae P.Henn. & Evans.
Phyllosticta orbicularis Ell. & Everh.
Phyllosticta owaniana Wint.
Phyllosticta perseae Ell. & Mart.
Phyllosticta persicae Sacc.
Phyllosticta phaseolina Sacc.
Phyllosticta prunicola Sacc.
Phyllosticta psidii Tassi.
Phyllosticta pyrina Sacc.
Phyllosticta rhoina Kalchbr. & Cooke.
Phyllosticta richardiae Halst.
Phyllosticta rumicis Kalchbr.
Phyllosticta solitaria Ell. & Everh.
Phyllosticta sorghina Sacc. accepted as Leptosphaeria sacchari Breda de Haan, (1892)
Phyllosticta stanhopiae Alleseh.
Phyllosticta straminella Bres.
Phyllosticta tabaci Pass.
Phyllosticta terminaliae P.Henn.
Phyllosticta theobromae Aim. & Cam.
Phyllosticta violae Desm.
Phyllosticta sp.
Genus: Phyllostictina
Phyllostictina concentrica v. Hohn. var. lusitanica J.V. Almeida, (1903), accepted as Phyllosticta concentrica Sacc., (1876)
Genus: Physalospora
Physalospora bersamae Syd.
Physalospora bylii du Pless.
Physalospora caffra Syd.
Physalospora chaenostoma Sacc.
Physalospora cliviae Syd.
Physalospora cydoniae G. Arnaud, (1911)accepted as Peyronellaea obtusa (Fuckel) Aveskamp, Gruyter & Verkley, in Aveskamp, Gruyter, Woudenberg, Verkley & Crous, (2010)
Physalospora dombeyae Syd.
Physalospora malorum Shear, N.E. Stevens & Wilcox, (1924)accepted as Peyronellaea obtusa (Fuckel) Aveskamp, Gruyter & Verkley, in Aveskamp, Gruyter, Woudenberg, Verkley & Crous, (2010)
Physalospora obtusa (Schwein.) Cooke, (1892), accepted as Peyronellaea obtusa (Fuckel) Aveskamp, Gruyter & Verkley, in Aveskamp, Gruyter, Woudenberg, Verkley & Crous, (2010)
Physalospora perseae Doidge.
Physalospora placida Syd.
Physalospora sapii Doidge.
Genus: Physalosporina
Physalosporina sutherlandiae Petrak.
Genus: Physarella
Physarella oblonga Morg.
Genus:Physcia
Physcia adglutinata Nyl.
Physcia adglutinata var. pyrithrocardia Müll.Arg.
Physcia adscendens Oliv.
Physcia aegiliata Nyl.
Physcia affixa Nyl.
Physcia africana Müll.Arg.
Physcia aipolia Hampe.
Physcia aipolia var. acrita Hue.
Physcia aipolia var. alnophila Vain.
Physcia applanata Zahlbr.
Physcia astroidea Nyl.
Physcia eaesia Hampe.
Physcia capensis deNot.
Physcia chrysopkthalma DC.
Physcia chrysophthalma var. capensis Nyl.
Physcia chrysophthalma var. dijatata Stizenb.
Physcia chrysopkthalma var. pubera Nyl.
Physcia clementiana Kickx.
Physcia confluens Nyl.
Physcia crispa Nyl.
Physcia crispa f. melanothalma Wain.
Physcia dilatata Nyl.
Physcia dimidiata Nyl.
Physcia ectanoides Nyl.
Physcia endoohrysea Hampe.
Physcia endococcinea Nyl.
Physcia erythrocardia Vain.
Physcia exilis Michx.
Physcia fibrosa Nyl.
Physcia flammea Nyl.
Physcia flammula Nyl.
Physcia flavicans DC.
Physcia flavicans var. exilis Nyl.
Physcia flavicans var. minor Cromb.
Physcia flavicans var. crocea Jatta.
Physcia hispida Frege.
Physcia holoxantha Nyl.
Physcia hypoglauca Nyl.
Physcia hypoleuca Tuck.
Physcia hypoleuca var. granulifera Hue.
Physcia integrata Nyl.
Physcia integrata var. obsessa Vain.
Physcia leucomela Michx.
Physcia leucomela var. angustifolia Nyl.
Physcia leicomela var. subcomosa Nyl.
Physcia lychnea Nyl. var. semigranularis Stizenb.
Physcia macryphylla Stizenb.
Physcia melanocarpoides Vain.
Physcia obesa Pers. f. caesiocrocata Nyl.
Physcia obesa f. tenuior Stizenb.
Physcia obscura Hampe.
Physcia obscura var. chloantha Rabenh.
Physcia obscura var. glaucovirens Zahlbr.
Physcia ochroleuca Müll.Arg.
Physcia parietina deNot.
Physcia parietina f. albicans Müll.Arg.
Physcia parietina var. aureola Korb.
Physcia parietina var. ectanea Nyl.
Physcia parietina var. rutilans Stizenb.
Physcia perrugosa Stizenb.
Physcia picta Nyl.
Physcia picta f. erythrocardia Stizenb.
Physcia picta f. isidiifera Nyl.
Physcia picta var. erythrocardia Tuck.
Physcia picta var. sorediata Müll.Arg.
Physcia podocarpa Nyl.
Physcia pulverulenta Hampe.
Physcia pusilla Massal.
Physcia setosa Nyl.
Physcia setosa f. deminuta Cromb.
Physcia setosa f. virella B.de Lesd.
Physcia speciosa Nyl.
Physcia speciosa var. dactyliza Nyl.
Physcia speciosa var. granulifera Tuck.
Physcia speciosa var. hypoleuca Nyl.
Physcia stellaris Nyl.
Physcia stellaris var. aipolia f. acrita Nyl.
Physcia subpicta Nyl.
Physcia syncolla Nyl.
Physcia tenella DC.
Physcia tribacoides Nyl.
Physcia venustula Stizenb.
Physcia villosa Duby.
Physcia zuluensis Vain.
Family: Physeiaceae
Genus: Physma
Physma byrsinum Müll.Arg.
Physma calliearpum Hue.
Genus: Physoderma
Physoderma maydis Miyabe.
Physoderma zeae-maydis Shaw.
Genus: Physopella
Physopella fici Arth.
Genus: Physospora
Physospora rubiginosa Fr.
Genus: Phytophthora
Phytophthora cactorum Schroet.
Phytophthora citricola Sawada.
Phytophthora cambivora Petri.
Phytophthora cinnamomi Rands.
Phytophthora citrophthora Leon.
Phytophthora cryptogea Pethybr. & Lalf.
Phytophthora hibernalis Came.
Phytophthora infestans de Bary.
Phytophthora parasitica Dast.accepted as Phytophthora nicotianae Breda de Haan, (1896)
Phytophthora parasitica var. rhei G.H.Godfrey, 1923,accepted as Phytophthora nicotianae Breda de Haan, (1896)
Phytophthora syringae Kleb.
Pi
Genus: Piggotia
Piggotia filicina Thuem.
Genus: Pilidium
Pilidium eucleae Kalchbr. & Cooke.
Genus: Piline
Piline africana Syd.
Family: Pilobolaceae
Genus: Pilobolus
Pilobolus crystallinus Tode.
Family: Pilocarpaceae (Lichens)
Genus: Pilocarpon
Pilocarpon leucoblepharum Wain. f. confluens Wain.
Genus: Pilophoron
Pilophoron aciculare Nyl.
Genus: Pilula
Pilula straminea Mass.
Family: Piptocephalaceae
Genus: Piricularia
Piricularia oryzae Br. & Cav.
Genus: Pisolithus
Pisolithus tinctorius (Pers.) Coker & Couch (1928), accepted as Pisolithus arhizus (Scop.) Rauschert (1959)
Pl
Genus: Placosterella
Placosterella rehmii Theiss. & Syd.
Genus: Placodium
Placodium acaciae Vain.
Placodium benguellense Wain.
Placodium cinnabarinum Nyl.
Placodium deminutum Müll.Arg.
Placodium domingense Vain.
Placodium elcgans DC.
Placodium elegantissimum Vain.
Placodium ferrugineovirens Vain.
Placodium ferrugineum Hepp var. benguellensis Wain.
Placodium ferrugineum var. miniaceum Tuck.
Placodium ferrugineum var. pyrithromoides Vain.
Placodium flavidulum Vain.
Placodium flavorubens Nyl.
Placodium leptopismum Vain.
Placodium leptopismum f. discreta Vain.
Placodium mastophorum Vain.
Placodium perexiguum Müll.Arg.
Placodium perexiguum Vain.
Placodium poloterum Vain.
Placodium psorothecioides Vain.
Placodium punicae Vain.
Placodium pyropoecilium Vain.
Placodium scoriophilum Massal.
Placodium sophodes Vain.
Placodium subcerinum Vain.
Placodium subranulosum Wain.
Placodium sympageellum Vain.
Placodium testacea-rufum Vain.
Placodium thaeodes Müll.Arg.
Placodium xanthophanum Müll.Arg.
Genus: Placynthiopsis (lichens)
Placynthiopsis africana Zahlbr.
Genus: Plasmodiophora (cercozoa)
Plasmodiophora brassicae Woronin, 1877,
Fanily: Plasmodiophoraceae
Genus: Plasmopora
Plasmopora viticola Berl. & de Toni
Genus: Platygrapha (lichens)
Platygrapha dirinea Nyl.
Platygrapha septenaria Stizenb.
Genus: Plectania
Plectania coccinea Puck.
Plectania occidentalis Seaver.
Genus: Plectodiscella
Plectodiscella veneta Burkh.
Genus: Pleiostomella
Pleiostomella Halleriae Doidge
Genus: Pleomassaria
Pleomassaria gigantea Syd.
Pleomassaria grandis Syd.
Pleomassaria peddieae Doidge
Genus: Pleonectria
Pleonectria pseudotrichia (Schwein.) Wollenw. (1926) accepted as Nectria pseudotrichia (Schwein.) Berk. & M.A. Curtis, (1853)
Genus: Pleoravenelia
Pleoravenelia deformans Maubl.
Genus: Pleospora
Pleospora bilbergiae Verw. & du Pless.
Pleospora camelliae Dipp.
Pleospora dianthi de Not.
Pleospora disrupta McAlp.
Pleospora doidgeae Petdak.
Pleospora dyeri Doidge.
Pleospora gerberae Dipp.
Pleospora gramineum Died.
Pleospora herbarum Rabenh.
Pleospora kentiae Maubl.
Pleospora lanceolata Sacc.
Pleospora ozyzae Catt.
Pleospora refracta Sace.
Pleospora tropaeoli Halst.
Pleospora vulgatissima Speg.
Genus: Pleurage
Pleurage Brassicae Kuntze.
Genus: Pleurotrema
Pleurotrema trichosporum Müll.Arg.
Genus: Pleurotus
Pleurotus applicatus Quel.
Pleurotus atrocaeruleus Gill.
Pleurotus aureo-tomentosus Sacc.
Pleurotus eaveatus Sacc.
Pleurotus olusilis Sacc.
Pleurotus contrarius Sacc.
Pleurotus flabellatus Sacc.
Pleurotus gilvescens Sacc.
Pleurotus limpidus Gill.
Pleurotus olearius Gill.
Pleurotus ostreatus Quel.
Pleurotus perpusillus Gill.
Pleurotus petaloides Quel.
Pleurotus radiatim-plicatus Sacc.
Pleurotus rudis Pilat.
Pleurotus sciadium Sacc.
Pleurotus sciadeum var. salmoneus Sacc.
Pleurotus septicus Quel.
Pleurotus striatulus Quel.
Genus: Plicaria
Plicaria leiocarpa Curr.
Genus: Pluteolus
Pluteolus reticulatus Gill.
Genus: Pluteus
Pluteus cervinus Quel.
Pluteus pustulosus Killerm.
Po
Genus: Podaxis
Podaxis aegyptica Mont.
Podaxis carcinomalis Fr.
Podaxis indica Spreng.
Podaxis pistillaris Fr.
Podaxis aegypticus Mont.
Podaxis carcinomalis Fr.
Podaxis elatus Welw. & Curr.
Podaxis mossamedensis Welw. & Curr.
Podaxis pistillaris Fr.
Genus: Podocrea
Podocrea transvaalii Lloyd.
Genus: Podonectria
Podonectria coccicola Petch.
Genus: Podosphaera
Podosphaera leucotricha Salm.
Genus: Polyblastia (lichens)
Polyblastia alba Müll.Arg.
Polyblastia transvaalensis Müll.Arg.
Genus: Polyblastiopsis
Polyblastiopsis alba Zahlbr.
Polyblastiopsis transvaalensis Zahlbr.
Genus: Polycephalum
Polycephalum aurantiacum Kalchbr. & Cooke
Genus: Polyplocium
Polyplocium inquinans Berk.
Family: Polyporaceae
Family: Polyporoideae
Genus: Polyporus
Polyporus acaciae Van der Byl, (1925), accepted as Schizopora flavipora (Berk. & M.A. Curtis ex Cooke) Ryvarden, (1985)
Polyporus adustus Fr.
Polyporus affinis Blume & T.Nees (1826), accepted as Microporus affinis (Blume & T.Nees) Kuntze (1898)
Polyporus anebus Berk.
Polyporus aneirinus Cooke (sic) possibly accepted as Oxyporus corticola (Fr.) Ryvarden, (1972)
Polyporus aratoides Lloyd
Polyporus aratus Berk.
Polyporus arcularius Fr.
Polyporus arenobasus Lloyd
Polyporus argenteofulvus v.d.Byl
Polyporus australiensis Wakef. accepted as Piptoporus australiensis (Wakef.) G. Cunn.
Polyporus australis Fr., (1828), accepted as Ganoderma tornatum (Pers.) Bres., (1912)
Polyporus baurii Kalchbr.
Polyporus biformis Kiotzsch.
Polyporus brumalis Fr.
Polyporus caesius Fr.
Polyporus callosus Fr.
Polyporus capensis Lloyd.
Polyporus carneo-fulvus Berk, ex Fr.
Polyporus carneo-pallens Berk.
Polyporus chilensis Fr.
Polyporus chioneus Fr. (1815), accepted as Tyromyces chioneus (Fr.) P.Karst. (1881)
Polyporus cinnabarinus Fr.
Polyporus cladonia Berk.
Polyporus clemensiae Sacc. & Trott.
Polyporus colossus Fr.
Polyporus conchatus Lloyd.
Polyporus conchoides Lloyd.
Polyporus confluens Fr.
Polyporus confragosus v.d.Byl.
Polyporus conjunctus Lloyd.
Polyporus corticola Fr. (1821), accepted as Oxyporus corticola (Fr.) Ryvarden, (1972)
Polyporus crispus Fr.
Polyporus cristatus Fr.
Polyporus cuticularis Fr.
Polyporus devians Bres.
Polyporus dichrous Fr. (1815),accepted as Gloeoporus dichrous (Fr.) Bres. (1912)
Polyporus dictyopus Mont.
Polyporus doidgeae Wakef.
Polyporus durbanensis v.d.Byl
Polyporus durus Jungh.
Polyporus elegans Fr.
Polyporus emerici Berk.
Polyporus epilinteus Berk. & Br.
Polyporus eylesii v.d.Byl
Polyporus favoloides P.Henn.
Polyporus ferruginosus Rostr.
Polyporus fiabelliformis Fr.
Polyporus flexilis v.d.Bylaccepted as Coriolopsis floccosa (Bull.) Murrill, (1903)
Polyporus focalis Kalchbr.
Polyporus fragilis Fr.
Polyporus fruticum Berk. & Curt.
Polyporus fumosus Fr.
Polyporus gallo-pavonis Berk. & Br.
Polyporus gibbosus Nees.
Polyporus gilvus Fr.
Polyporus glauco-effusus v.d.Byl.
Polyporus glaucoporus v.d.Byl.
Polyporus glirinus Kalchbr.
Polyporus goetzii P.Henn.
Polyporus grammocephalus Berk.
Polyporus helvolus (Fr.)
Polyporus heteroporus Fr.
Polyporus hirsutulus Schw.
Polyporus hirsutus (Wulfen) Fr. (1821),accepted as Trametes hirsuta (Wulfen) Lloyd (1924)
Polyporus hirtellus Fr.
Polyporus hispidus Fr. accepted as Inonotus hispidus (Bull.) P. Karst., (1880)
Polyporus iqniarius Linn, ex Fr.
Polyporus immaculatus Lloyd.
Polyporus inconstans Kalehbr.
Polyporus intactilis Lloyd
Polyporus isidioides Berk.
Polyporus leoninus Klotzsch.
Polyporus livingstoniensis v.d.Byl accepted as Coriolopsis floccosa (Bull.) Murrill, (1903)
Polyporus lucidus Leyss. ex Fr.
Polyporus luteo-olivaceus Berk. & Br.
Polyporus luteus Blume & Nees.
Polyporus macowani Kalchbr.
Polyporus mastoporus Lev.
Polyporus megaloporus Mont.
Polyporus tncleagris Berk.
Polyporus mollicarnosus Lloyd
Polyporus molluscus Karst
Polyporus murinus Cooke
Polyporus nanus Mass.
Polyporus natalensis Fr.
Polyporus nidulans Fr.
Polyporus nigro-applanatus v.d.Byl
Polyporus nigrolucidus Lloyd
Polyporus occidentalis Klotzsch.
Polyporus ochraceus Pers.
Polyporus ochroleucus Berk.
Polyporus ochroporus v.d.Byl.
Polyporus osfreiformis Berk.
Polyporus pancheri Pat.
Polyporus patouillardi Theiss.
Polyporus pectunculus Lloyd.
Polyporus phocinus Berk. & Br.
Polyporus picipes Fr.
Polyporus pinsitus Fr.
Polyporus pocula Berk. & Curt.
Polyporus proteus Berk. accepted as Coriolopsis floccosa (Bull.) Murrill, (1903)
Polyporus proteus var. imbricatus Berk. accepted as Coriolopsis floccosa (Bull.) Murrill, (1903)
Polyporus pruinatus Klotzsch.
Polyporus pubeseens Schum. ex. Fr.
Polyporus raphanipes Wakef.
Polyporus reniformis Morgan.
Polyporus resinaceust Lloyd
Polyporus reticulatosporus v.d.Byl
Polyporus rheades Pers.
Polyporus rhipidius Berk
Polyporus robiniophila Lloyd
Polyporus rudis Lloyd (sic)
Polyporus rufescens Fr.
Polyporus rugulosus Lev.
Polyporus rusticus Lloydaccepted as Coriolopsis floccosa (Bull.) Murrill, (1903)
Polyporus sacer Fr.
Polyporus salisburiensis v.d.Byl
Polyporus sanguineus (L.) Fr. (1821), accepted as Pycnoporus sanguineus (L.) Murrill (1904)
Polyporus sanguinolentus Alb. Schw. ex Fr.
Polyporus schreuderi v.d.Byl
Polyporus schweinitzii Fr.
Polyporus scruposus Fr.
Polyporus sector Fr.accepted as Trichaptum sector (Ehrenb.) Kreisel (1971)
Polyporus spadiceus Jungh.
Polyporus subliberalus Berk. & Curt.
Polyporus subpictilis v.d.Byl
Polyporus subradiatus Lloyd
Polyporus sulphureus (Bull.) Fr., (1821), accepted as Laetiporus sulphureus (Bull.) Murrill (1920)
Polyporus tabacinus Mont.
Polyporus telfairii Klotzsch.
Polyporus trabeus (Pers.) Rostk. (1830), accepted as Gloeophyllum trabeum (Pers.) Murrill (1908)
Polyporus transvaalensis v.d.Byl
Polyporus trichiliae Van der Byl, (1922), accepted as Schizopora flavipora (Berk. & M.A. Curtis ex Cooke) Ryvarden, (1985)
Polyporus umbraculum Fr.
Polyporus undatus Pers.
Polyporus undulatus Torrend.
Polyporus vallatus Berk.
Polyporus vaporarius Fr.
Polyporus varius Fr.
Polyporus veluticeps Cooke
Polyporus velutinosus Lloyd
Polyporus velutinus Pers. ex Fr.
Polyporus vernicipes Berk.
Polyporus versicolor (L.) Fr. (1821), accepted as Trametes versicolor (L.) Lloyd (1920)
Polyporus versiporus Pers.
Polyporus vibecinus Fr.
Polyporus vibecinus var. antilopum Kalchbr.
Polyporus vicinus Bres.
Polyporus vicinus Lloyd (1924), accepted as Vanderbylia vicina (Lloyd) D.A.Reid (1973)
Polyporus villosus sw. ex Fr.
Polyporus vinctus Berk. (1852),accepted as Rigidoporus vinctus (Berk.) Ryvarden (1972)
Polyporus vinosus Berk. (1852), accepted as Nigroporus vinosus (Berk.) Murrill (1905)
Polyporus virgatus Berk. & Curt.
Polyporus vittatus Berk.
Polyporus vulgaris Fr.
Polyporus xanthopus Fr.
Polyporus zambesianus Lloyd
Polyporus zonalus Fr.
Genus: Polyrhizon
Polyrhizon bewsii Doidge
Polyrhizon celastri Doidge
Polyrhizon pterocelastri Doidge
Genus: Polysaccum
Polysaccum crassipes DC.
Genus: Polystictus Fr. (1851)
Polystictus affinis Fr.
Polystictus affinis-concinnus Lloyd
Polystictus aratus Cooke
Polystictus argenteus Lloyd
Polystictus azureus Fr.
Polystictus baurii Cooke
Polystictus beharensis Cooke
Polystictus biformis Fr.
Polystictus bulbipes Fr.
Polystictus cinnabarinus Cooke
Polystictus circinatus Cooke
Polystictus coccineus Lloyd
Polystictus cryptomeriae P.Henn.
Polystictus detonsus Fr.
Polystictus discipes Fr.
Polystictus doidgei Lloyd
Polystictus dybowskii Lloyd
Polystictus elongatus Fr.
Polystictus ecklonii Berk, ex Cooke accepted as Coriolopsis floccosa (Bull.) Murrill, (1903)
Polystictus fergussoni Berk, ex Cooke
Polystictus flavus Fr.
Polystictus floccosus Fr. accepted as Coriolopsis floccosa (Bull.) Murrill, (1903)
Polystictus funalis Fr.
Polystictus gallo-pavonis Cooke
Polystictus glaueo-effusus Lloyd
Polystictus glaucoporus Lloyd
Polystictus glirinus Cooke
Polystictus helvolus Fr.
Polystictus hirsutulus Cooke
Polystictus hirsutus (Wulfen) Fr. (1821), accepted as Trametes hirsuta (Wulfen) Lloyd (1924)
Polystictus hirtellus Fr.
Polystictus inconstans Cooke
Polystictus iodinus Fr.
Polystictus lanatus Fr.
Polystictus leoninus Fr.
Polystictus luteus Fr.
Polystictus macounii Lloyd
Polystictus meleagris Cooke
Polystictus meyenii Cooke
Polystictus mimetes Wakef.
Polystictus obstinatus Cooke
Polystictus occidentalis Fr.
Polystictus ochraoeus Lloyd
Polystictus pectunculus Lev.
Polystictus perennis Fr.
Polystictus perennis var. simillimus Lloyd
Polystictus pergameus Fr.
Polystictus phooinus Cooke
Polystictus pinsitus Fr.
Polystictus polyzonus Cooke
Polystictus proteus Cooke
Polystictus pubescens Fr.
Polystictus radiato-rugosus Bres.
Polystictus regius Cooke
Polystictus rugosissimus Torrend.
Polystictus sacer Fr.
Polystictus sanguineus Fr. accepted as Pycnoporus sanguineus (L.) Murrill (1904)
Polystictus scorteus Fr.
Polystictus spadiceus Cooke
Polystictus stereinus Berk. & Curt.
Polystictus stereoides Berk.
Polystictus sjubiculoides Lloyd
Polystictus subpictilis P.Henn.
Polystictus tabacinus Fr.
Polystictus torridus Fr.
Polystictus ursinus Cooke (sic) (Link) Fr., (1821), accepted as Hexagonia hydnoides (Sw.) M.Fidalgo
Polystictus vellereus Fr. (sic) (Berk.) Fr. (1851) accepted as Trametes hirsuta (Wulfen) Lloyd (1924)
Polystictus velutinus Cooke
Polystictus versicolor Fr.
Polystictus villosus Cooke
Polystictus vinosus Cooke (sic), (Berk.) Sacc. (1888) accepted as Nigroporus vinosus (Berk.) Murrill (1905)
Polystictus vittatus Fr.
Polystictus xanthopus Fr.
Polystictus xanthopus-concinnus Lloyd
Polystictus zonatus Fr.
Genus: Polystomella
Polystomella caulicola Doidge
Genus: Poria
Poria aneirina Cooke
Poria attenuata Peck.
Poria callosa Cooke
Poria citrina Mass.
Poria contigua Cooke
Poria corticola Cooke (sic) possibly (Fr.) Sacc., (1886), accepted as Oxyporus corticola (Fr.) Ryvarden, (1972)
Poria epilintea Cooke
Poria epimiltina Lloyd
Poria ferruginosa Karst.
Poria lacticolor Murr.
Poria laevigata Karst.
Poria mollusca Cooke
Poria obliqua Karst.
Poria radula Cooke
Poria ravenelae Cooke
Poria rufitincta Berk. & Curt.
Poria sanguinolenta Cooke
Poria spissa (Schwein. ex Fr.) Cooke (1886), accepted as Ceriporia spissa (Schwein. ex Fr.) Rajchenb. (1983)
Poria subliberata Cooke (sic), possibly (Berk. & M.A.Curtis) Sacc. (1888) accepted as Rigidoporus lineatus (Pers.) Ryvarden (1972)
Poria umbrina Cooke
Poria vaporaria Cooke
Poria versipora Lloyd
Poria vincta Cooke accepted as Rigidoporus vinctus (Berk.) Ryvarden (1972)
Poria vulgaris Cooke
Genus: Porina (Lichens)
Porina albella Müll.Arg.
Porina dissipans Nyl.
Porina euryspermum Zahlbr.
Porina ferruginosa Müll.Arg.
Porina knysnana Zahlbr.
Porina tetracerae Müll.Arg.
Porina variegata Fee.
Genus: Poronia
Poronia doumetii Pat.
Poronia oedipus Mont.
Poronia punctata Linn, ex Fr.
Poronia ustorum Pat.
Genus: Porothelium
Porothelium incanum Sacc.
Pr
Genus: Prillieuxina
Prillieuxina acokantherae Ryan.
Prillieuxina burchelliae Ryan.
Prillieuxina mimusopsidis Ryan.
Prillieuxina pterocelastri Stevens.
Prillieuxina woodiana Ryan.
Genus: Protomyces
Protomyces physalidis Kalchbr.
Family: Protomycetaceae
Genus: Protostegia
Protostegia eucleae Kalchbr. & Cooke
Family: Protothyriae
Genus: Protothyrium
Protothyrium tricalysiae Doidge
Genus: Protubera
Protubera africana Lloyd
Ps
Genus: Psaliota
Psaliota abruptibulba Kauffm.
Psaliota africana Fayod.
Psaliota ambdensis Fayod.
Psaliota arvensis Quel.
Psaliota arvensis var. grossa Berk.
Psaliota augusta Quel.
Psaliota campestris Qu.
Psaliota capestris var. alba W.G.Sm.
Psaliota campestris var. pratensis Vitt.
Psaliota campestris var. rufescens W.G.Sm.
Psaliota comtula Qu.
Psaliota dialeri Bres. & Torrend.
Psaliota dulcidula Schulz.
Psaliota exserta Rea.
Psaliota kiboga P.Henn.
Psaliota placomyces Kauffm.
Psaliota pratensis Quel.
Psaliota pratensis var. australis Berk.
Psaliota rodmani Kauffm.
Psaliota silvatica Quel.
Psaliota sylvicola Morot.
Genus: Psathyra
Psathyra corrugis Quel.
Psathyra disseminata Fr.
Psathyra noli-tangere Fr.
Psathyra spadiceo-grisea Quel.
Genus: Psathyrella
Psathyrella disseminata Quel
Psathyrella gracilis (Fr.) Quél., (1872), accepted as Psathyrella corrugis (Pers.) Konrad & Maubl. 1949
Psathyrella hydrophora Quel.
Psathyrella prona Gill.
Psathyrella subtilis Quel.
Psathyrella trepida Gill.
Psathyrella sp.
Genus: Pseudobalsamea
Pseudobalsamea microspora Diehl & Lamb.
Genus: Pseudocyphellaria (lichens)
Pseudocyphellaria aurata Wain.
Pseudocyphellaria crocata var. isidialia Gyeln.
Pseudocyphellaria gilva Malme.
Genus: Pseudographis
Pseudographis chrysophylli Doidge.
Genus: Pseudodiscosia
Pseudodiscosia dianthi Höst. & Laub.
Genus: Pseudopeziza
Pseudopeziza medacsginis Sacc.
Pseudopeziza ranunculi Fuck. f. ranunculi-pinnati Thuem.
Pseudopeziza trifolii Fuck.
Genus: Pseudophyscia
Pseudophyscia hypoleuca Hue var. colorata Zahlbr.
Pseudophyscia speciosa Müll.Arg. f. sorediosa Müll.Arg.
Genus: Pseudopyrenula (Lichens)
Pseudopyrenula papulosa Müll.Arg.
Genus: Pseudothis
Pseudothis Pterocarpi Syd.
Genus: Pseudothyridaria
Pseudothyridaria moroides Syd.
Genus: Pseudovalsa
Pseudovalsa longipes Sacc.
Genus: Psilocybe
Psilocybe areolata Sacc.
Psilocybe atro-rufa Quel.
Psilocybe atro-rufa var. montanus Pers. ex Fr.
Psilocybe ericaea Quel.
Psilocybe foenisecii Quel.
Psilocybe semilanceata Quel.
Psilocybe squalens Karst.
Psilocybe taediosa Sacc.
Psilocybe uda Gill.
Genus: Psoroma (Lichens)
Psoroma asperellum Nyl.
Psoroma sphinctrinum Nyl.
Genus: Psorotichia
Psorotichia cataractae Zahlbr.
Psorotichia fuliginella Wain.
Pt
Genus: Pterula
Pterula multifida Fr.
Pterula penicellata Berk.
Genus: Ptychogaster
Ptychogaster sp.
Pu
Genus: Puccinella
Puccinella eragrostidis Syd.
Genus: Puccinia (Rusts)
Puccinia absinthii DC.
Puccinia abutili Berk. & Br.
Puccinia acalyphae Doidge
Puccinia advena Syd.
Puccinia aecidiiformis Thuem.
Puccinia aethiopica Kalchbr. & Cooke
Puccinia afra Wint.
Puccinia africana Cooke.
Puccinia alepideae Doidge
Puccinia allii Rud.
Puccinia amadelpha Syd.
Puccinia amphilophidis Doidge
Puccinia anomala Rostr. accepted as Puccinia hordei G.H.Otth (1871)
Puccinia anthospermi Syd.
Puccinia antirrhini Diet. & Holw.
Puccinia aristidicola P.Henn.
Puccinia arundinellae Barcl.
Puccinia asparagi DC.
Puccinia atropae Mont.
Puccinia aurea Wint.
Puccinia bakoyana Pat. & Har.
Puccinia batatae Syd.
Puccinia becii Doidge.
Puccinia behenis Otth.
Puccinia berkheyicola Doidge.
Puccinia blasdalei Diet. & Holw.
Puccinia blepharidis P.Henn.
Puccinia borreriae Syd.
Puccinia bottomleyae Doidge
Puccinia bromina Erikss. 1899, accepted as Puccinia recondita Dietel & Holw. (1857)
Puccinia bulbostylidis Doidge
Puccinia bylianum Dipp.
Puccinia callistea Syd.
Puccinia canaliculate Lagerh. var. tenuis Doidge
Puccinia capensis Diet.
Puccinia capensis Syd.
Puccinia carbonacea Kalchbr. & Cooke
Puccinia caricina DC.
Puccinia caricis-cemuae Doidge.
Puccinia cephalandrae Thuem.
Puccinia chaetacanthi Doidge
Puccinia chloridis Speg.
Puccinia chrysanthemi Roze.
Puccinia cichorii Bell.
Puccinia contecta Syd.
Puccinia cookei de Toni.
Puccinia coronata Corda.
Puccinia coronifera Kleb.
Puccinia cryptica Cooke
Puccinia cyani Pass.
Puccinia cynodontis Desm.
Puccinia cyperi Arth.
Puccinia cyperi-fastigiati Doidge.
Puccinia cyperi-tagetiformis Kern.
Puccinia cyperi-tagetifonnis var. africana Doidge
Puccinia deformans Wint.
Puccinia dehiscens Syd.
Puccinia desertorum Syd.
Puccinia dichondrae Mont.
Puccinia dieramae Syd.
Puccinia digitariae Pole Evans.
Puccinia dimorpha Syd.
Puccinia dimorphothecae Pole Evans.
Puccinia discoidearum Link.
Puccinia dispersa Erikss. & Henning 1894, accepted as Puccinia recondita Dietel & Holw. (1857)
Puccinia drimiae v.d.Byl.
Puccinia duthiei v.d.Byl.
Puccinia eragrostidis-chalcanthae Doidge
Puccinia eragrostidis-superbae Doidge
Puccinia erythraeensis Pazschke.
Puccinia eucomi Doidge
Puccinia euphorbiae P.Henn.
Puccinia evansii P.Henn.
Puccinia exanthematica MacOwan.
Puccinia exhauriens Thuem.
Puccinia eylesii Doidge
Puccinia fagarae Doidge
Puccinia feliciae Doidge
Puccinia fuirenella Doidge
Puccinia galeniae Diet.
Puccinia galerita Doidge
Puccinia galiorum Link.
Puccinia galopinae Cooke
Puccinia gerberae Pole Evans.
Puccinia gerbericola Doidge
Puccinia gladioli Cast.
Puccinia gladioli-crassifolii Doidge
Puccinia glechomatis DC.
Puccinia gnidiae Doidge
Puccinia graminis Pers. (1794),
Puccinia granularis Kalchbr. & Cooke
Puccinia helianthi Schw.
Puccinia helichrysi Kalchbr. & Cooke
Puccinia hennopsiana Doidge
Puccinia heterospora Berk. & Curt.
Puccinia holosericea Cooke
Puccinia hydrocotyles Cooke
Puccinia hyperici Doidge
Puccinia hypochoeridis Oud.
Puccinia imperatae Doidge
Puccinia inflorescenticola Pole Evans
Puccinia ipomoeae Cooke
Puccinia ipomoeae-panduratae Syd.
Puccinia iridis Wallr.
Puccinia isoglossae Doidge
Puccinia junci Wint. var. africana Doidge
Puccinia junci-oxycarpi Doidge
Puccinia kalchbrenneri de Toni.
Puccinia kalchbrenneri var. valida Doidge
Puccinia kalchbrenneriana de Toni.
Puccinia kentaniensis Pole Evans
Puccinia koedoeensis Doidge
Puccinia kraussiana Cooke
Puccinia krookii P.Henn.
Puccinia kuhnii Butler.
Puccinia kyllingicola Doidge
Puccinia lebeekiae P.Henn.
Puccinia lemanensis Doidge
Puccinia leonotidicola P.Henn.
Puccinia letestui Maubl.
Puccinia leucadis Syd.
Puccinia liebenbergii Doidge
Puccinia lindaviana P.Henn.
Puccinia lippiivora Syd.
Puccinia lolii E.Nielsen (1875), accepted as Puccinia coronata Corda (1837)
Puccinia luandensis Syd.
Puccinia luxuriosa Syd.
Puccinia lychnidearum Puck.
Puccinia lycii Kalchbr.
Puccinia macowani Wint.
Puccinia magnusiana Koem.
Puccinia malvacearum Mont.
Puccinia maydis Bereng.
Puccinia mccleanii Doidge
Puccinia melanida Syd.
Puccinia menthae Pers.
Puccinia menthae f. leonotidis Kalchbr.
Puccinia mesembryanthemi MacOwan.
Puccinia miscanthidii Doidge
Puccinia momordicae Kalchbr.
Puccinia monsoniae Doidge
Puccinia moraeae P.Henn.
Puccinia morganae Doidge
Puccinia myrsiphylli Wint.
Puccinia natalensis Diet. & Syd.
Puccinia natalensis var. evansii Doidge
Puccinia oahuensis Ell. & Everh.
Puccinia ocimi Doidge
Puccinia oedipus Cooke
Puccinia oenotherae Vize.
Puccinia ornilhogali Kalchbr.
Puccinia ornithogali-thyrsoides Diet.
Puccinia osyridicarpi Grove.
Puccinia othonnae Doidge
Puccinia pachycarpi Kalchbr. & Cooke
Puccinia pallens Syd.
Puccinia pallida Mass.
Puccinia pegleriana Doidge
Puccinia pelargonii Syd.
Puccinia pelargonii-zonalis Doidge
Puccinia penniseti Zimm.
Puccinia pentactina Doidge
Puccinia pentanisiae Cooke
Puccinia pentanisiae var. pentagynae P.Henn
Puccinia phragmitis Koem.
Puccinia phyllocladiae Cooke
Puccinia pienaarii Pole Evans.
Puccinia plectranthi Thuem.
Puccinia poarum Niels.
Puccinia pogonarthriae Hopkins.
Puccinia pole-evansii Doidge
Puccinia polycampta Syd.
Puccinia polygoni-amphibii Pers.
Puccinia popowiae Cooke
Puccinia pottsii Doidge
Puccinia pretoriensis Doidge
Puccinia printziae Thuem.
Puccinia pruni-spinosae Pers.
Puccinia pulla Kalchbr.
Puccinia pulvinata Mass.
Puccinia punctata Link.
Puccinia purpurea Cooke
Puccinia ranulipes Doidge
Puccinia rhynchosiae Kalchbr. & Cooke
Puccinia rottboelliae Syd.
Puccinia rubigo-vera Wint. f. sp. tritici Eriks. & Henn.
Puccinia rubiae Kalchbr. & Cooke
Puccinia rufipes Diet.
Puccinia salviae Ung.
Puccinia salviae-runcinata Doidge
Puccinia satyrii Syd.
Puccinia schlechteri P.Henn.
Puccinia schoenoxyphii Doidge
Puccinia scleriae-dregeana Doidge
Puccinia sorghi Schw.
Puccinia spermacoces Berk. & Curt.
Puccinia stellenboschiana v.d.Byl.
Puccinia stoboeae MacOwan.
Puccinia stoboeae var. woodii Syd.
Puccinia stonemanniae Syd. & Evans.
Puccinia striaeformis West.
Puccinia tabernaemontanae Berk. & Br.
Puccinia tabernaemontanae Cooke
Puccinia tandaaiensis Hopkins.
Puccinia tetragoniae McAlp. var. austro-africana Doidge
Puccinia thunbergiae Cooke
Puccinia torosa Thuem.
Puccinia tosta Arth.
Puccinia tragiae Cooke
Puccinia transvaalensis Doidge
Puccinia tristachyae Doidge
Puccinia triticina Erikss. (1899),
Puccinia trochomeriae Cooke
Puccinia urgines Kalchbr.
Puccinia vangueriae Doidge
Puccinia vernoniae Cooke
Puccinia vernoniicola P.Henn.
Puccinia versicolor Diet. & Holw.
Puccinia verwoerdiana v.d.Byl.
Puccinia woodiana Doidge.
Puccinia woodii Syd.
Puccinia zeae Bereng.
Puccinia zorniae McAlp.
Family: Pucciniaceae (Rusts)
Genus: Pucciniastrum
Pucciniastrum agrimoniae Tranzsch.
Genus: Pucciniopsis
Pucciniopsis caffra Wakef.
Pucciniopsis sp.
Genus: Pucciniosira
Pucciniosira dissotidis Wakef.
Genus: Pullularia
Pullularia pullulans (de Bary & Löwenthal) Berkhout (1923), accepted as Aureobasidium pullulans (de Bary) G. Arnaud (1918)
Py
Genus: Pycnocarpon
Pycnocarpon amicta Xel.
Family: Pyrenidiaceae
Family: Pyrenocarpeae
Genus: Pyrenochaeta
Pyrenochaeta vanillae Verw. & du Pless.
Genus: Pyrenodesmia
Pyrenodesmia hampeana Massal.
Genus: Pyrenophora
Pyrenophora avenae Ito
Pyrenophora gramineum Ito
Pyrenophora horrida Syd.
Pyrenophora teres Drechsl.
Family: Pyrenopsidaceae
Genus: Pyrenopsis
Pyrenopsis mackenziei Jones.
Pyrenopsis robustula Müll.Arg.
Genus: Pyrenula (Lichens)
Pyrenula aspistea Ach.
Pyrenula cerina Eschw. f. expallens Zahlbr.
Pyrenula cinerea Zahlbr.
Pyrenula emergens Vain.
Pyrenula henatomma Ach.
Pyrenula knightiana Müll.Arg.
Pyrenula laevigata Am. var. incusa Zahlbr.
Pyrenula mamillana Trevis.
Pyrenula marginata Hook.
Pyrenula mastophora Müll.Arg.
Pyrenula nitida Ach.
Pyrenula nitidella Müll.Arg.
Pyrenula obtecta Merrill.
Pyrenula pleiomeriza Zahlbr.
Pyrenula subducta Müll.Arg.
Pyrenula subglabriuscula Vain. var. natalensis Vain.
Pyrenula tesselata Ach.
Pyrenula transparens Zahlbr.
Pyrenula wilmsiana Müll.Arg.
Family: Pyrenulaceae
Genus: Pyronema
Pyronema confluens Tul.
Pyronema omphaloides Fuck.
Pyronema sp.
Genus: Pyrenophora
Pyrenophora avenae Ito
Pyrenophora horrida Syd.
Family: Pyrenopsidaceae
Genus: Pyrenopsis
Pyrenopsis mackenziei Jones.
Pyrenopsis robustula Müll.Arg.
Family: Pyrenulaceae
Genus: Pythiacystis
Pythiacystis citrophthora R.E. & E.H.Smith (1906), accepted as Phytophthora citrophthora (R.E. Sm. & E.H. Sm.) Leonian, (1906)
Genus: Pyxine (Lichens)
Pyxine cocoes Nyl.
Pyxine endoleuca Vain.
Pyxine eschweileri Vain.
Pyxine meissneri Tuck.
Pyxine meissneri var. endoleuca Müll.Arg.
Pyxine meissneri var. sorediosa Müll.Arg.
Pyxine meissneri var. subobscurans Malme.
Pyxine petricola Nyl.
Pyxine rhodesiaca Vain.
References
Sources
See also
List of bacteria of South Africa
List of Oomycetes of South Africa
List of slime moulds of South Africa
List of fungi of South Africa
List of fungi of South Africa – A
List of fungi of South Africa – B
List of fungi of South Africa – C
List of fungi of South Africa – D
List of fungi of South Africa – E
List of fungi of South Africa – F
List of fungi of South Africa – G
List of fungi of South Africa – H
List of fungi of South Africa – I
List of fungi of South Africa – J
List of fungi of South Africa – K
List of fungi of South Africa – L
List of fungi of South Africa – M
List of fungi of South Africa – N
List of fungi of South Africa – O
List of fungi of South Africa – P
List of fungi of South Africa – Q
List of fungi of South Africa – R
List of fungi of South Africa – S
List of fungi of South Africa – T
List of fungi of South Africa – U
List of fungi of South Africa – V
List of fungi of South Africa – W
List of fungi of South Africa – X
List of fungi of South Africa – Y
List of fungi of South Africa – Z
Further reading
Kinge TR, Goldman G, Jacobs A, Ndiritu GG, Gryzenhout M (2020) A first checklist of macrofungi for South Africa. MycoKeys 63: 1-48. https://doi.org/10.3897/mycokeys.63.36566
South Africa
Fungi P | List of fungi of South Africa – P | [
"Biology"
] | 22,087 | [
"Fungi",
"Lists of fungi"
] |
68,756,030 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20fungi%20of%20South%20Africa%20%E2%80%93%20L | This is an alphabetical list of the fungal taxa as recorded from South Africa. Currently accepted names have been appended.
La
Order: Laboulbeniales
Family: Laboulbeniaceae
Genus: Laboulbenia
Laboulbenia anomala Thaxt.
Laboulbenia bilabiata Thaxt.
Laboulbenia dryptae Thaxt.
Genus: Laccaria
Laccaria laccata Berk. & Br.
Genus: Lacellina
Lacellina graminicola Petch.
Genus: Lachnea
Lachnea capensis v.d.Byl.
Lachnea capensis Lloyd
Lachnea hemispherica Gill.
Lachnea lusatiae Cooke
Genus: Lachnocladium
Lachnocladium cristatum Lloyd
Lachnocladium furcellatum Lev.
Lachnocladium semivestitum Berk. & Curt.
Lachnocladium zenkeri P.Henn.
Genus: Lactarium
Lactarium deliciosus S.F.Gray
Lactarium piperatus S.F.Gray
Lactarium scrobiculatus Fr.
Genus: Lagenula
Lagenula fructicola Amaud.
Genus: Lamprospora
Lamprospora leiocarpa Seaver.
Genus: Lanopila
Lanopila capensis Lloyd
Lanopila radloffiana Verw.
Lanopila wahlbergii Fr.
Genus: Laschia
Laschia auriscalpium Mont.
Laschia cucullata Bres.
Laschia duthiei Lloyd
Laschia friesiana P.Henn.
Laschia rubella Sacc.
Laschia tenerrima Kalchbr.
Laschia thwaitesii Berk. & Br.
Laschia sp.
Genus: Lasiobolus
Lasiobolus equinus Karst.
Genus: Lasiosphaeria
Lasiosphaeria capensis Kalchbr. & Cooke
Lasiosphaeria hispida Fuck.
Genus: Lasmeniella
Lasmeniella globulifera Petrak & Syd.
Lasmeniella pterocarpi Petrak.
Genus: Laternea
Laternea angolensis Welw. & Curr.
Le
Family: Lecanactidaceae
Genus: Lecanactis (Lichens)
Lecanactis bullata Zahlbr.
Lecanactis develans Nyl.
Lecanactis diversa Nyl.
Lecanactis emersa Stizenb.
Lecanactis ulcerata Zahlbr.
Genus: Lecania (Lichens)
Lecania arenaria Flagey
Lecania cyrtella Th.Fr.
Lecania fructuosa Zahlbr.
Lecania punicea Müll.Arg.
Genus: Lecanora (Lichens)
Lecanora aequata Stizenb.
Lecanora albella Ach.
Lecanora albella f. angulosa Nyl.
Lecanora albospersa Stizenb.
Lecanora allophana Rohl.
Lecanora allophana var. glabrata Steiner.
Lecanora amphidoxa Stizenb.
Lecanora angulosa Ach.
Lecanora arenaria Nyl.
Lecanora armstrongiae Stizenb.
Lecanora asperella Nyl.
Lecanora aspersa Stizenb.
Lecanora atra Ach.
Lecanora atra var. americana Fee.
Lecanora atraeformis Vain.
Lecanora atrorimata Nyl.
Lecanora atrosulphurea Ach.
Lecanora atrosulphurea f. leptococca Stizenb.
Lecanora atrosulphurea f. livens Stizenb.
Lecanora aurantiaca Flotow.
Lecanora aurantiaca var. erythrella Nyl.
Lecanora aurantiaca var. fulva Nyl.
Lecanora aurantiaca var. placidium Stizenb.
Lecanora aureola Stirt.
Lecanora badia (Hoffm.) Ach. (1810) var. cinerascens Flot. (1849), accepted as Protoparmelia badia (Hoffm.) Hafellner (1984)
Lecanora benguellensis Nyl.
Lecanora bicincta Ram.
Lecanora blanda Nyl.
Lecanora bogotana Nyl.
Lecanora breuteliana Massal.
Lecanora bylii Vain.
Lecanora bylii Zahlbr.
Lecanora caesiopallens Vain.
Lecanora caesiorubella Ach.
Lecanora cancriformis Vain.
Lecanora candidata Stizenb.
Lecanora cameoflava Müll.Arg.
Lecanora carpinea Vain.
Lecanora cateileoides Vain.
Lecanora cervina Ach.
Lecanora chlarona Nyl.
Lecanora chlarona f. geographica Nyl.
Lecanora chlarona f. pinastri Cromb.
Lecanora chlarona var. bogotana Vain.
Lecanora chlarotera Nyl.
Lecanora chondroplaca Zahlbr.
Lecanora cinefacta Stizenb.
Lecanora cinerea Rohl.
Lecanora cinereocamea Stizenb.
Lecanora cinnabarina Ach.
Lecanora cinnabarina var. haematodes Stizenb.
Lecanora cinnabarina var. pallidior Stizenb.
Lecanora cinnabarina var. opaca Stizenb.
Lecanora cinnabarina var. perminiata Nyl.
Lecanora cinnabariza Nyl.
Lecanora clavulus Stizenb.
Lecanora coarctata Ach.
Lecanora coarctata f. cotaria Ach.
Lecanora coarctata f. fulgiana Zahlbr.
Lecanora coarctata var. argilliseda Duf.
Lecanora coarctata var. fossulans Stizenb.
Lecanora coccinella Stizenb.
Lecanora coilocarpa Nyl.
Lecanora confluens Stizenb.
Lecanora confragulosa Nyl.
Lecanora conspersa Stizenb.
Lecanora constans Nyl.
Lecanora crassildbra Müll.Arg.
Lecanora cruda Stizenb.
Lecanora deminuta Stizenb.
Lecanora deminutula Stizenb.
Lecanora detecta Stizenb.
Lecanora diffusilis Nyl.
Lecanora dispersa Rohl. f. nana Vain.
Lecanora dispersa f. testacea Vain.
Lecanora domingensis Ach.
Lecanora elaeophaea Nyl.
Lecanora elapheia Stizenb.
Lecanora elegantissima Nyl.
Lecanora epichlora Vain.
Lecanora erythrella Ach.
Lecanora erythroleuca var. subcerina Nyl.
Lecanora eudoxa Stizenb.
Lecanora euelpis Stizenb.
Lecanora exigua Rohl.
Lecanora expallens Ach.
Lecanora expallens var. lutescens Nyl.
Lecanora fenzliana Stizenb.
Lecanora ferruginea Link.
Lecanora ferruginea f. erysibe Stizenb.
Lecanora fibrosa Stizenb.
Lecanora ficta Stizenb.
Lecanora flava Stizenb.
Lecanora flavocrea Nyl.
Lecanora flavorubens Stizenb.
Lecanora flavovirens Fee.
Lecanora flexuosa Stizenb.
Lecanora fructuosa Stizenb.
Lecanora frustulosa Ach.
Lecanora galactiniza Nyl.
Lecanora gibbosa Nyl. var. subdepressa Nyl.
Lecanora glaucolivescens Nyl.
Lecanora glaucoma Ach.
Lecanora granulosa Wedd.
Lecanora helva Stizenb.
Lecanora homaloplaca Nyl.
Lecanora hufferiana Stizenb.
Lecanora hypocrocina Nyl.
Lecanora imponens Stizenb.
Lecanora impressa Zahlbr.
Lecanora labiosa Stizenb.
Lecanora laciniosa Nyl.
Lecanora lamprocheila Nyl.
Lecanora leprosa Fee.
Lecanora leptoplaca Zahlbr.
Lecanora leucoxantha Müll.Arg.
Lecanora leueoxantha Stizenb.
Lecanora leucoxanthalla Stizenb.
Lecanora lithagogo Nyl.
Lecanora lugens Stizenb.
Lecanora massula Stizenb.
Lecanora microlepida Stizenb.
Lecanora microps Stizenb.
Lecanora murorum Ach.
Lecanora murorum var. pusilla Wedd.
Lecanora nidulans Stizenb.
Lecanora nubila Stizenb.
Lecanora obvirescens Stizenb.
Lecanora ochracea Nyl. var. parvula Stizenb.
Lecanora odoardi Stizenb.
Lecanora oveina Ach.
Lecanora orichalcea Stizenb.
Lecanora ostracoderma Ach.
Lecanora pallescens Rohl.
Lecanora pallida Rabenh.
Lecanora parella Ach.
Lecanora perexigua Stiz.
Lecanora phlogina Nyl.
Lecanora placodina Zahlbr.
Lecanora poliotera Nyl.
Lecanora polytypa Vain.
Lecanora porinoides Stizenb.
Lecanora praemicans Nyl.
Lecanora prosecha Ach. var. homaloplaca Vain.
Lecanora psaromela Nyl.
Lecanora punicea Ach.
Lecanora punicea var. brevicula Stizenb.
Lecanora punicea var. collata Stirt.
Lecanora pyracea Nyl. f. picta Nyl.
Lecanora pyracea f. pyrithroma Nyl.
Lecanora pyracea var. picta Stizenb.
Lecanora pyropoecila Nyl.
Lecanora rehmannii Stizenb.
Lecanora robiginans Stizenb.
Lecanora roboris Nyl.
Lecanora rupicola Zahlbr.
Lecanora scorigena Nyl.
Lecanora scoriophila Stizenb.
Lecanora seductrir Stizenb.
Lecanora smaragdula Nyl.
Lecanora sophodes Nyl.
Lecanora sophodes var. atroalbida Nyl.
Lecanora sophodes var. roboris Duf.
Lecanora sphinctrina Nyl.
Lecanora subcarnea Ach.
Lecanora subcarnosa Ach.
Lecanora subdepressa Nyl.
Lecanora subfulgescens Nyl.
Lecanora subfusca Ach.
Lecanora subfusca var. allophana Ach.
Lecanora subfusca var. campestris Rabenh.
Lecanora subfusca var. cinereocarnea Müll.Arg.
Lecanora subfusca var. glabrata Sch.
Lecanora subfusca var. subcrenulata Nyl.
Lecanora subfusca var. subgranulata Nyl.
Lecanora subgranulata Nyl.
Lecanora subpunicea Stizenb.
Lecanora subsoluta Nyl.
Lecanora subunicolor Nyl.
Lecanora sylvestris Stizenb.
Lecanora teichophiloides Stizenb.
Lecanora tersa Nyl.
Lecanora thaeodes Stizenb.
Lecanora thiocheila Stizenb.
Lecanora varia Ach.
Lecanora vascesia Stizenb.
Lecanora vincentina Nyl.
Lecanora vitellina Ach.
Lecanora vulpina Nyl.
Lecanora xanthophana Nyl.
Lecanora zambesica Stizenb.
Family: Lecanoraceae (Lichens)
Genus: Lecidea (Lichens)
Lecidea acervata Stizenb.
Lecidea achristella Vain.
Lecidea aemula Stizenb.
Lecidea aeneola Vain. var. fuscoatrata Zahlbr.
Lecidea aethalea Nyl.
Lecidea aethaloessa Stizenb.
Lecidea affine Merrill.
Lecidea afra Stizenb.
Lecidea africana Tuck.
Lecidea albinea Stizenb.
Lecidea albocoerulescens Arn.
Lecidea albocoerulescens var. flavocoerulescens Schaer.
Lecidea albula Nyl.
Lecidea ambusta Stizenb.
Lecidea anatalodia Krempelb.
Lecidea angolensis Müll.Arg.
Lecidea anomala Ach.
Lecidea anteposita Nyl.
Lecidea aporetica Stizenb.
Lecidea armstrongiae Jones.
Lecidea atroalha Ach.
Lecidea atroalbella Nyl.
Lecidea alrovirens Ach.
Lecidea aurantiaca Ach.
Lecidea aureola Tuck.
Lecidea aurigera Fee.
Lecidea breviuscula Nyl.
Lecidea brugierae Vain.
Lecidea bumamma Nyl.
Lecidea buxea Stiz.
Lecidea caesiopallida Nyl.
Lecidea caledonica Zahlbr.
Lecidea callaina Stizenb.
Lecidea capensis Zahlbr.
Lecidea capreolina Stizenb.
Lecidea carneola Ach.
Lecidea caruncula Stizenb.
Lecidea caudata Nyl.
Lecidea chalybeia Borr.
Lecidea chlorophaeata Nyl.
Lecidea ckloropoliza Nyl.
Lecidea chlorotica Nyl.
Lecidea cinnamomea Stizenb.
Lecidea coccinella Hue.
Lecidea coeruleata Stizenb.
Lecidea confluens Hue.
Lecidea contingens Nyl.
Lecidea coroniformis Krempelh.
Lecidea crassa Stizenb.
Lecidea crenata Stizenb.
Lecidea crenata var. coroniformis Zahlbr.
Lecidea crenata var. speirea Stizenb.
Lecidea crustulata Sprengl.
Lecidea cyanocentra Nyl.
Lecidea cyrtocheila Stizenb.
Lecidea deceptoria Nyl.
Lecidea decipiens Ach.
Lecidea decrustulosa Vain.
Lecidea disciformis Nyl.
Lecidea disciformis var. sanguinea Stizenb.
Lecidea discolor Stizenb.
Lecidea dispersula Stizenb.
Lecidea distrata Nyl.
Lecidea domingensis Nyl.
Lecidea domingensis var.inexplicata Nyl.
Lecidea elaeochroma Ach.
Lecidea elaeochroma f. flavicans Th.Fr.
Lecidea elaeochroma f. geographica Zahlbr.
Lecidea elaeochroma var. hyalina Zahlbr.
Lecidea endoleuca Nyl.
Lecidea endoleucella Stizenb.
Lecidea enteroleuca Ach.
Lecidea enteroleuca var. geographica Bagl.
Lecidea elginensis Zahlbr.
Lecidea epichromatica Zahlbr.
Lecidea esuriens Zahlbr.
Lecidea euelpis Hue.
Lecidea exigua Chaub.
Lecidea exiguella Vain.
Lecidea finckei Zahlbr.
Lecidea flavocrocea Nyl.
Lecidea fucina Stizenb.
Lecidea fumosa Ach.
Lecidea fumosa var. mosigii Ach.
Lecidea fuscoatra Ach.
Lecidea fuscoatrata Nyl.
Lecidea fuscorubella Rohl.
Lecidea fuscorubescens Nyl.
Lecidea fuscolutea Ach.
Lecidea fuscotabulata Stizenb.
Lecidea geina Stizenb.
Lecidea geographica Rebent.
Lecidea geographica f. intermedia Stizenb.
Lecidea glebaria Stizenb.
Lecidea glencairnensis Zahlbr.
Lecidea glomerulosa Steud.
Lecidea goniophila Floerke.
Lecidea gouritzensis Vain.
Lecidea graniferna Wain.
Lecidea granulosula Nyl.
Lecidea grisella Floerke f. mosigii Zahlbr.
Lecidea griseofusciuscula Vain.
Lecidea guamensis Vain.
Lecidea halonia Ach.
Lecidea hereroensis Zahlbr.
Lecidea hereroensis f. genuina Zahlbr.
Lecidea hereroensis f. depauperata Zahlbr.
Lecidea howickensis Vain.
Lecidea hysbergensis Vain.
Lecidea icmadophila Ach.
Lecidea imponens Hue.
Lecidea impressa Krempelh.
Lecidea inconsequens Nyl.
Lecidea inconveniens Nyl.
Lecidea incretata Stizenb.
Lecidea incuriosa Nyl.
Lecidea inquilina Stizenb.
Lecidea inscripta Stizenb.
Lecidea insculpta Flotow.
Lecidea insculpta f. oxydata Flotow.
Lecidea intermedia Nyl.
Lecidea intermixta f. cyanocentra Nyl.
Lecidea italica Wedd.
Lecidea italica var. debanensis Stizenb.
Lecidea italica var. recobarina Stizenb.
Lecidea lactaria Stizenb.
Lecidea lactea Floerke.
Lecidea lactens Stizenb.
Lecidea langbaanensis Vain.
Lecidea laurocerasi Nyl. var. amylothelia Wain
Lecidea lenticularis var. nigroclavata Stizenb.
Lecidea leptobola Nyl.
Lecidea leucina Stizenb.
Lecidea leucostephana Stizenb.
Lecidea leucoxantha Spreng.
Lecidea lithagogo Wain.
Lecidea lutata Stizenb.
Lecidea lutea Tayl.
Lecidea luteola Ach.
Lecidea luteola var. chlorotica Ach.
Lecidea luteola f. conspondens Nyl.
Lecidea massula Hue.
Lecidea medialis Tuck.
Lecidea meiospora Nyl.
Lecidea melampepla Tuck.
Lecidea melanthina Stizenb.
Lecidea millegrana Nyl.
Lecidea minutula Nyl.
Lecidea montaqnei Flotow.
Lecidea mortualis Stizenb.
Lecidea mossamedana Wain.
Lecidea mutabilis Fee.
Lecidea myriocarpa Rohl.
Lecidea myriocarpa f. marcidula Nyl.
Lecidea nanosperma Stizenb.
Lecidea natalensis Nyl.
Lecidea nesiotis Stizenb.
Lecidea nigrella Stizenb.
Lecidea nigropallida Nyl.
Lecidea nitidula Fr.
Lecidea norrlinii Lamy.
Lecidea obumbrata Nvl.
Lecidea ocellata Floerke.
Lecidea ochriodea Stizenb.
Lecidea ochroplaca Zahlbr. var. intermedia Zahlbr.
Lecidea ochroplaca var. leprosa Zahlbr.
Lecidea ochroplaca var. polita Zahlbr.
Lecidea ochroxantha Nyl. f. aethiopica Stizenb.
Lecidea oligocheila Zahlbr.
Lecidea olivacea Massal.
Lecidea olivacea var. ambigua Lettau.
Lecidea olivacea Stizenb.
Lecidea opacata Stizenb.
Lecidea opalina Stizenb.
Lecidea orbiculata Stizenb.
Lecidea orichalcea Hue.
Lecidea owaniana Müll.Arg.
Lecidea pachnodes Stizenb.
Lecidea pachycarpa Fr.
Lecidea pallidonigra Ach.
Lecidea palmeti Stizenb.
Lecidea pantherina Ach.
Lecidea parasema Ach.
Lecidea parasema var. areolata Duf.
Lecidea parasema var. areolata Merrill.
Lecidea parasema var. atropurpurea Flotow.
Lecidea parasema var. elaeochroma Ach.
Lecidea parasema var. exigua Nyl.
Lecidea paraspeirea Stizenb.
Lecidea parmeliarum Sommerf.
Lecidea parvifolia Pers.
Lecidea parvifolia var. fibrillifera Nyl.
Lecidea parvifoliella Nyl.
Lecidea patellaria Stizenb.
Lecidea peltasta Stirt.
Lecidea peltoloma Müll.Arg.
Lecidea peltulidea Stirt.
Lecidea perforans Stizenb.
Lecidea perigrapta Stizenb.
Lecidea permodica Stizenb.
Lecidea phalerata Stizenb.
Lecidea placodina Nyl.
Lecidea porphyrea Mey.
Lecidea praelata Stizenb.
Lecidea praemicans Hue.
Lecidea procellarum Stizenb.
Lecidea promontorii Zahlbr.
Lecidea proposita Nyl.
Lecidea punieea Hue.
Lecidea quartzina Stizenb.
Lecidea remota Vain.
Lecidea rhynsdorpensis Zahlbr.
Lecidea rhyparoleuca Stizenb.
Lecidea rivulosa Ach.
Lecidea rudis Stizenb.
Lecidea rufata Stizenb.
Lecidea russula Ach.
Lecidea rusticorum Stizenb.
Lecidea sabuletorum Ach.
Lecidea santensis Tuck.
Lecidea schinziana Stizenb.
Lecidea speirea Ach.
Lecidea spuria Schaer.
Lecidea spuria var. insulans Stizenb.
Lecidea squamifera Stizenb.
Lecidea squamifera var. Bylii Zahlbr.
Lecidea stellans Stizenb.
Lecidea stellenboschiana Vain.
Lecidea stellulata Tayl.
Lecidea stellulata f. albosparsa Stizenb.
Lecidea stellulata f. hybrida Stizenb.
Lecidea stellulata f. murina Stizenb.
Lecidea stenospora Nyl. var. acutata Stizenb.
Lecidea stictella Stirt.
Lecidea stupparia Stizenb.
Lecidea styloumena Stirt.
Lecidea subalbicans Nyl.
Lecidea subalbula Nyl.
Lecidea subattingens Merrill.
Lecidea subceresina Zahlbr.
Lecidea subdisciformis Leight.
Lecidea subexigua Vain.
Lecidea subexiguella Vain.
Lecidea subfuscata Nyl.
Lecidea subinquinans Nyl.
Lecidea sublucida Stizenb.
Lecidea subluteola Nyl.
Lecidea subspadicea Stizenb.
Lecidea subsquamifera Zahlbr.
Lecidea subrussula Steiner.
Lecidea substylosa Zahlbr.
Lecidea subtristis Nyl.
Lecidea sulfurosula Stizenb.
Lecidea tenebrieosa Nyl.
Lecidea terrena Nyl.
Lecidea thaleriza Stirt.
Lecidea theichroa Vain.
Lecidea theiphoriodes Vain.
Lecidea tragorum Zahlbr.
Lecidea transvaalica Stizenb.
Lecidea trichiliae Zahlbr.
Lecidea trifaria Stizenb.
Lecidea triphragmia Nyl.
Lecidea tuberculosa Fee.
Lecidea tuberculosa f. geotropa Stizenb.
Lecidea valida Stizenb.
Lecidea vasquesia Hue.
Lecidea vemalis Ach.
Lecidea vernalis S.F.Gray.
Lecidea versicolor Nyl.
Lecidea vesicularis Ach.
Lecidea vestita Nyl.
Lecidea viridans Lamy var. nigrella Steiner.
Lecidea viridiatra Stizenb.
Lecidea volvarioides Stizenb.
Lecidea vorticosa Korb.
Lecidea vulgata Zahlbr.
Lecidea vulpina Tuck.
Lecidea woodii Stizenb.
Lecidea zeyheri Zahlbr.
Family: Lecideaceae(lichens)
Genus: Lecidella(lichens)
Lecidella nigrella Massal.
Genus: Lecideola
Lecideola flavescens Massal.
Genus: Lembosia
Lembosia congesta Wint.
Lembosia durbana v.d.Byl.
Lembosia natalensis Doidge
Lembosia phillipsii Doidge
Lembosia piriensis Doidge
Lembosia radiata Doidge
Lembosia wageri Doidge
Genus: Lembosina
Lembosina Rawsoniae Doidge
Genus: Lembosiopsis
Lembosiopsis eucalyptina Petrak & Syd.
Genus: Lentinus
Lentinus albidus Berk.
Lentinus capronatus Berk.
Lentinus cirrosus Fr.
Lentinus dactyliophorus Lev.
Lentinus fastuosus Kalchbr. & MacOwan
Lentinus flabelliformis Fr.
Lentinus hyracinus Kalchbr.
Lentinus lecomtei Fr.
Lentinus lepideus Fr.
Lentinus miserculus Kalchbr.
Lentinus murrayi Kalchbr. & MacOwan.
Lentinus natalensis v.d.Byl.
Lentinus nigripes Fr.
Lentinus phillipsii v.d.Byl.
Lentinus sajor-caju Fr.
Lentinus sajor-caju var. sparsifolius Pilat.
Lentinus sajor-caju var. typicus Pilat.
Lentinus strigosus Fr.
Lentinus stupeus Klotzsch.
Lentinus tigrinus Fr.
Lentinus tuber-regium Fr.
Lentinus ursinus Fr.
Lentinus velutinus Fr.
Lentinus villosus Klotzsch.
Lentinus villosus var. zeyheri Pilat.
Lentinus woodii Kalchbr.
Lentinus zeyheri Berk.
Genus: Lenzites
Lenzites abietina Fr.
Lenzites alborepanda Lloyd.
Lenzites applanata Fr.
Lenzites aspera Klotszch.
Lenzites betulina (L.) Fr., (1838), accepted as Trametes betulina (L.) Pilát (1939)
Lenzites deplanata Fr.
Lenzites guineensis Fr.
Lenzites junghuhnii Lev.
Lenzites ochracea Lloyd
Lenzites palisoti Fr.
Lenzites repanda Fr.
Lenzites trabea (Pers.) Fr. (1838), accepted as Gloeophyllum trabeum (Pers.) Murrill (1908)
Lenzites tricolor Fr.
Genus: Leotia
Leotia elegantula Kalchbr.
Genus: Lepiota
Lepiota acutesquamosa Gill.
Lepiota africana Kalchbr.
Lepiota atricapilla Sacc.
Lepiota cinereo-bubella Kalchbr. & MacOwan
Lepiota cristata Quél.
Lepiota cuculliformis Sacc.
Lepiota excoriata Quél.
Lepiota flava Beeli.
Lepiota goossensiae Beeli.
Lepiota gracilenta Quél.
Lepiota hispida Gill.
Lepiota ianthina Mass.
Lepiota kunzei Sacc.
Lepiota lutea (Bolton) Godfrin, (1897), accepted as Leucocoprinus birnbaumii (Corda) Singer, (1962)
Lepiota magnannulata Sacc.
Lepiota montagnei Sacc.
Lepiota morgani Peck.
Lepiota naucina Quél. (sic) could be Lepiota naucina var. cinerascens (Quél.) Konrad & Maubl. (194) accepted as Leucoagaricus cinerascens (Quél.) Bon & Boiffard, in Gams 1978, or Lepiota naucina (Fr.) P. Kumm. (1871), accepted as Leucoagaricus leucothites (Vittad.) Wasser (1977)
Lepiota nympharum Kalchbr.
Lepiota polysarca Sacc.
Lepiota procera S.F.Grey. (sic) could be Lepiota procera (Scop.) Gray (1821) accepted as Macrolepiota procera (Scop.) Singer (1948)
Lepiota pteropa Sacc.
Lepiota purpurata Kalchbr.
Lepiota sulfurella Sacc.
Lepiota varians Sacc.
Lepiota zeyheri Sacc.
Lepiota zeyheri var. elegantula Sacc.
Lepiota Lepiota zeyheri var. telosa Sacc.
Lepiota zeyheri var. verrucellosa Sacc.
Lepiota sp.
Genus: Lepra
Lepra citrina Schaer.
Lepra lactea DC.
Lepra sulphurea Ehrht.
Genus: Lepraria (Lichens)
Lepraria alba Ach.
Lepraria candelaris Fr.
Lepraria citrina Schaer.
Lepraria crassa Nees.
Lepraria flava Ach.
Lepraria glaucella Ach.
Lepraria xanthina Vain.
Genus: Leproloma
Leproloma lanuqinosum Nyl.
Genus: Leptogiopsis
Leptogiopsis brebissonii Müll.Arg.
Leptogiopsis chloromeloides Müll.Arg.
Genus: Leptogium (Lichens)
Leptogium adpressum Nyl.
Leptogium africanum Zahlbr.
Leptogium azureum Mont.
Leptogium brebissonii Mont.
Leptogium bullatum Mont.
Leptogium bullatum var. dactylinoideum Nyl.
Leptogium burgesii Mont.
Leptogium chloromeloides Nyl.
Leptogium chloromelum Nyl.
Leptogium chloromelum var. caespitosum Zahlbr.
Leptogium chloromelum var. crassius Nyl.
Leptogium daedaleum Nyl.
Leptogium hildenbrandii Nyl.
Leptogium kraussii Zahlbr.
Leptogium marginellum S.F.Gray.
Leptogium menziesii Mont.
Leptogium menziesii f. fuliginosum Müll.Arg.
Leptogium moluccanum Wain.
Leptogium moluccanum var. simplicata Vain.
Leptogium phyllocarpum Mont.
Leptogium phyllocarpum var. coralloideum Hue.
Leptogium phyllocarpum var. daedaleum Nyl.
Leptogium phyllocarpum var. isidiosum Nyl.
Leptogium phyllocarpum var. macrocarpum Nyl.
Leptogium saturninum Nyl.
Leptogium tremelloides S.F.Gray.
Leptogium tremelloides var. azureum Nyl.
Genus: Leptosphaerella
Leptosphaerella helichrysi Cooke.
Genus: Leptosphaeria
Leptosphaeria anceps Sacc.
Leptosphaeria caffra Thuem.
Leptosphaeria cervispora Sacc.
Leptosphaeria cinnamomi Shir. & Hara.
Leptosphaeria coniothyrium Sacc.
Leptosphaeria helichrysi Sacc.
Leptosphaeria owaniae Sacc.
Leptosphaeria protearum Syd.
Leptosphaeria pterocelastri Doidge
Leptosphaeria sacchari van Breda.
Leptosphaeria salvinii Catt., (1879), accepted as Magnaporthe salvinii (Catt.) R.A. Krause & R.K. Webster, (1972)
Leptosphaeria verwoerdiana du Pless.
Family: Leptostromataceae
Genus: Leptostromella
Leptostromella acaciae Syd.
Genus: Leptothyrium
Leptothyrium evansii Syd.
Leptothyrium pomi (Mont. & Fr.) Sacc. (1880),accepted as Schizothyrium pomi (Mont. & Fr.) Arx, (1959)
Genus: Leptotrema (Lichens)
Leptotrema endoxanthellum Zahlbr.
Leptotrema microglaenoides Zahlbr.
Genus: Leveillina
Leveillina arduinae Theiss. & Syd.
Genus: Leveillula
Leveillula taurica Am.
Genus: Levieuxia
Levieuxia natalensis Fr.
Li
Genus: Libertella
Libertella rhois Kalchbr.
Genus: Lichen
Lichen albus Roth.
Lichen atrovirens Linn.
Lichen barbatus Linn.
Lichen capensis Linn.f.
Lichen ceranoides Lam.
Lichen crispus Linn.
Lichen crocatus Linn.
Lichen divaricatus Thunb.
Lichen excavatus Thunb.
Lichen fastigiatus Pers.
Lichen fimbriatus Linn.
Lichen flammeus Linn.f.
Lichen flavicans Sw.
Lichen fragilis Wither.
Lichen fraxineus Linn.
Lichen gilvus Ach.
Lichen helopherus Ach.
Lichen hepaticus (= Endocarpon thunbergii Lam.)
Lichen hotentottus Ach.
Lichen incarnatus Thunb.
Lichen monocarpus Thunb.
Lichen opegraphus Lam.
Lichen pallidoniger Ach.
Lichen peltatus Lam.
Lichen peltatus (= Lecanora ostracoderma Lam.)
Lichen perforatus Wulf.
Lichen pertusus Thunb.
Lichen physodes Linn.
Lichen pulmonarius Linn.
Lichen pyxidatus Linn.
Lichen rangiferinus Linn.
Lichen roccella Linn.
Lichen rubiginosus Thunb.
Lichen scriptus Linn.
Lichen squarrosus Lam.
Lichen tabularis Thunb.
Lichen thunbergii Ach.
Lichen tomentosus Sw.
Lichen torulosus Thunb.
Lichen usnea Linn.
Lichen verruciger Gmel.
Lichen verrucosus Linn.f.
Lichen viridis Linn.f.
Lichenes Imperfectae
Genus: Limacinia
Limacinia nuxiae Doidge
Limacinia transvaalensis Doidge
Genus: Linderiella
Linderiella columnata G.H.Cunn.
Genus: Linochora
Linochora doidgei Syd.
Genus: Linochorella
Linochorella striiformis Syd.
Genus: Lithographa (Lichens)
Lithographa cerealis Stizenb.
Lithographa fumida Nyl.
Ll
Genus: Lloydella
Lloydella retiruga Bres.
Lo
Genus: Lobaria (Lichens)
Lobaria interversans Wain.
Lobaria isidiosa Wain.
Lobaria meridionalis Wain.
Lobaria patinifera Hue.
Lobaria pulnumacea Shirley.
Lobaria pulmonacea var. hypomela Stizenb.
Lobaria prdmonacea var. pleurocarpa Ach.
Lobaria pulmonaria Hoffm.
Lobaria pulmonaria f. hypomela Cromb.
Lobaria pulmonaria f. papillaris Hue.
Lobaria pulmonaria f. pleurocarpa Cromb.
Lobaria quercizans Michx.
Lobaria retigera Trevis.
Lobaria verrucosa Holfm.
Genus: Lobarina
Lobarina retigera Nyl.
Lobarina retigera f. isidiosa Stizenb.
Lobarina scrobiculata Nyl.
Genus: Longia
Longia natalensis Syd.
Genus: Lopadium
Lopadium fuscoluteum Mudd.
Lopadium leucoxanthum Zahlbr.
Lopadium mariae Zahlbr.
Lopadium vulpinum Zahlbr.
Lopadium woodii Zahlbr.
Genus: Lopharia
Lopharia javanica P. Henn. & E.Nym.
Lopharia lirellosa Kalchbr. & MacOwan.
Lopharia mirabilis Pat.
Family: Lophiostomataceae
Genus: Lophodermium
Lophodermium pinastri Chev.
Ly
Genus: Lycogala (amoebozoa)
Lycogala epidendrum Fr.
Lycogala flavo-fuscum Rost.
Lycogala rufo-cinnamomeum Mass.
Family: Lycogalaceae
Family: Lycoperdaceae
Order: Lycoperdales
Family: Lycoperdeae
Genus: Lycoperdon
Lycoperdon asperrimum Welw. & Curr.
Lycoperdon asperum de Toni.
Lycoperdon atroviolaceum Kalchbr.
Lycoperdon bicolor Welw. & Curr.
Lycoperdon bovista Linn.
Lycoperdon caespitosum Welw. & Curr.
Lycoperdon caffrorum Kalchbr. & Cooke
Lycoperdon capense Cooke & Mass.
Lycoperdon capense Fr.
Lycoperdon carcinomale Linn.f.
Lycoperdon cepaeforme Mass.
Lycoperdon curreyi Mass.
Lycoperdon curtisii Berk.
Lycoperdon cyatihiforme Bose.
Lycoperdon djurense P.Henn.
Lycoperdon duthiei Bottomley.
Lycoperdon endotephrum Pat.
Lycoperdon eylesii Verw.
Lycoperdon flavum Mass.
Lycoperdon furfuraceum Schaeff. ex de Toni.
Lycoperdon gardneri Berk.
Lycoperdon gemmatum Batsch.
Lycoperdon glabellum Peck.
Lycoperdon gunnii Berk.
Lycoperdon hyemale Vitt.
Lycoperdon laetum Berk.
Lycoperdon lilacinum Mass.
Lycoperdon multiseptum Lloyd.
Lycoperdon natalense Cooke & Mass.
Lycoperdon natalense Fr.
Lycoperdon oblongisporum Berk. & Curt.
Lycoperdon perlatum Pers.
Lycoperdon polymorphum Vitt.
Lycoperdon pratense Pers.
Lycoperdon pusillum Batsch ex Pers.
Lycoperdon qudenii Bottomley.
Lycoperdon radicatum Welw. & Curr.
Lycoperdon retis Lloyd
Lycoperdon rhodesianum Verw.
Lycoperdon saccatum Vahl.
Lycoperdon subincamatum Peck.
Lycoperdon umbrinum Pers.
Lycoperdon welwitschii de Toni.
Genus: Lysurus
Lysurus borealis P.Henn.
Lysurus corallocephalus Welw. & Curr.
Lysurus gardneri Berk.
Lysurus woodii Lloyd.
References
Sources
See also
List of bacteria of South Africa
List of Oomycetes of South Africa
List of slime moulds of South Africa
List of fungi of South Africa
List of fungi of South Africa – A
List of fungi of South Africa – B
List of fungi of South Africa – C
List of fungi of South Africa – D
List of fungi of South Africa – E
List of fungi of South Africa – F
List of fungi of South Africa – G
List of fungi of South Africa – H
List of fungi of South Africa – I
List of fungi of South Africa – J
List of fungi of South Africa – K
List of fungi of South Africa – L
List of fungi of South Africa – M
List of fungi of South Africa – N
List of fungi of South Africa – O
List of fungi of South Africa – P
List of fungi of South Africa – Q
List of fungi of South Africa – R
List of fungi of South Africa – S
List of fungi of South Africa – T
List of fungi of South Africa – U
List of fungi of South Africa – V
List of fungi of South Africa – W
List of fungi of South Africa – X
List of fungi of South Africa – Y
List of fungi of South Africa – Z
Further reading
Kinge TR, Goldman G, Jacobs A, Ndiritu GG, Gryzenhout M (2020) A first checklist of macrofungi for South Africa. MycoKeys 63: 1-48. https://doi.org/10.3897/mycokeys.63.36566
South Africa
Fungi L | List of fungi of South Africa – L | [
"Biology"
] | 9,537 | [
"Fungi",
"Lists of fungi"
] |
68,756,107 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20fungi%20of%20South%20Africa%20%E2%80%93%20S | This is an alphabetical list of the fungal taxa as recorded from South Africa. Currently accepted names have been appended.
Sa
Genus: Saccharomyces
Saccharomyces acidi-lactici Grotenf.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae Hansen.
Saccharomyces fragilis Jorg.
Saccharomyces sp.
Family: Saccharomycetaceae
Saccharomycetaceae Imperfectae
Genus: Saccobolus
Saccobolus depauperatus Phill.
Genus: Sacidium
Sacidium gomphocarpi Kalchbr. & Cooke
Genus: Sagedia
Sagedia albo-atra Müll.Arg.
Genus: Sarcographa (Lichens)
Sarcographa disjectans Zahlbr.
Genus: Sarcogyne (Lichen)
Sarcogyne austro-africana H.Magn.
Sarcogyne davulus H.Magn.
Sarcogyne lugens H.Magnus.
Sarcogyne robiginans H.Magn.
Genus: Sarcoscypha
Sarcoscypha coccinea Jacq.
Sc
Genus: Schiffnerula
Schiffnerula cissi Hansf.
Schiffnerula compositanium Petrak.
Schiffnerula doidgeae Hansf.
Schiffnerula gymnosporiae Hansf.
Schiffnerula nuxiae Hansf.
Schiffnerula radians Hansf.
Schiffnerula whitfieldiae Hansf.
Schiffnerula sp.
Genus: Schinzinia
Schinzinia pustulosa Fayod (1889),
Genus: Schismatomma (Lichens)
Schismatomma paradoxum Zahlbr.
Schismatomma septenarium Zahlbr.
Genus: Schislodes
Schislodes erysiphina Theiss.
Genus: Schizophyllum
Schizophyllum alneum J.Schröt. (1889), accepted as Schizophyllum commune Fr. (1815)
Schizophyllum commune Fr.
Schizophyllum flabellare Fr.
Genus: Schizosaecharomyces
Schizosaecharomyces ovis Quin.
Genus: Schizothyriella
Schizothyriella eylesiana v.d.Byl.
Genus: Schneepia
Schneepia brachylaenae Rehm
Schneepia radiata Doidge
Genus: Schroeteriaster
Schroeteriaster doidgeae Syd.
Schroeteriaster stratosus Syd.
Genus: Schulzeria Bres. & Schulzer (1886), accepted as Leucoagaricus Locq. ex Singer (1948)
Schulzeria umkowaan Sacc.
Genus: Scleroderma
Scleroderma aurantium Pers. (sic), accepted as Scleroderma citrinum Pers.
Scleroderma bovista Fr.
Scleroderma capensis Lloyd
Scleroderma carcinomale Pers.
Scleroderma cepa Pers.
Scleroderma flavidum Ell. & Everh.
Scleroderma geaster Fr.
Scleroderma laeve Lloyd
Scleroderma lejospermum de Toni
Scleroderma nitidum Berk.
Scleroderma pyramidatum Kalchbr.
Scleroderma rhodesica Verw.
Scleroderma stellenbossiensis Verw.
Scleroderma tenerum Berk. & Curt.
Scleroderma verrucosum Pers.
Scleroderma vulgare Homem. ex Fr.
Order: Sclerodermales
Family: Sclerodermataceae
Genus: Sclerogaster
Sclerogaster africanus Lloyd
Sclerogaster rhodesica Nel.
Sclerogaster salisburiensis Verwoerd
Genus: Sclerospora
Sclerospora butleri Weston.
Sclerospora graminicola Schroet.
Sclerospora indica Butler.
Sclerospora maydis Butler.
Sclerospora sorghi West. & Epp
Genus: Sclerotinia
Sclerotinia fructicola (G.Winter) Rehm (1906), accepted as Monilinia fructicola (G.Winter) Honey (1928)
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum de Bary
Genus: Sclerotium
Sclerotium cepivorum Berk. 1841, accepted as Stromatinia cepivora (Berk.) Whetzel [as 'cepivorum'], (1945)
Sclerotium delphinii Welch.
Sclerotium paspali P.Henn.
Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. (1911), accepted as Athelia rolfsii (Curzi) C.C. Tu & Kimbr.
Sclerotium stipitatum Berk. & Curr.
Sclerotium sp.
Genus: Scolecodothis
Scolecodothis capensis Doidge
Genus: Scolecopeltis
Scolecopeltis cassipoureae Doidge
Scolecopeltis eugeniae Doidge
Scolecopeltis morganae Doidge
Scolecopeltis myrsinis Doidge
Scolecopeltis strauchii Doidge
Genus: Scolecosporium
Scolecosporium pedicellatum Dearn. & Overh.
Genus: Scoleiocarpus
Scoleiocarpus tener Berk.
Genus: Scopulariopsis
Scopulariopsis sphaerospora F.Zach.
Genus: Scorias
Scorias sp.
Genus: Scutellinia
Scutellinia capensis (Nel).
Scutellinia corpinaria (Nel).
Scutellinia hemispherica (Nel).
Genus: Scyphophorum
Scyphophorum monocarpum Ach.
Se
Genus: Sebacina
Sebacina africana Burt.
Family: Secotiaceae
Genus: Secotium
Secotium gueinzii Kunze.
Secotium obtusum Lloyd
Genus: Septobasidium
Septobasidium bagliettoanum Bres.
Septobasidium bogoriense Pat.
Septobasidium carestianum Bres. var. natalense Couch.
Septobasidium curtisii Boedijn & Steinm
Septobasidium grandispinosum Couch.
Septobasidium griseopurpureum Couch.
Septobasidium mompa Rac.
Septobasidium natalense Couch.
Septobasidium pedicellatum Pat.
Septobasidium philippense Couch.
Septobasidium protractum Syd.
Septobasidium pseudopedicellatum Burt.
Septobasidium sp.
Genus: Septogloeum
Septogloeum acaciae Verw. & du Pless.
Septogloeum arachidis Racib., (1898), accepted as Mycosphaerella berkeleyi W.A. Jenkins, (1938)
Septogloeum bullatum Syd.
Septogloeum concentricum Syd.
Septogloeum manihotis Zimm.
Septogloeum mori Bri. & Cav.
Septogloeum punetatum Wakef.
Genus: Septoria
Septoria antirrhini Desm.
Septoria apii Chester.
Septoria apii-graveolentis Dorogin.
Septoria aracearum Sacc.
Septoria ari
Septoria atriplicis Fuck.
Septoria avenae A.B. Frank, (1895), accepted as Phaeosphaeria avenaria f.sp. avenaria O.E. Erikss., (1967)
Septoria asaleae Vogl.
Septoria bambusae Verw. & du Pless.
Septoria buddleiae Kalchbr. & Cooke
Septoria byliana Syd.
Septoria capensis Eint.
Septoria caryophylli Scalia.
Septoria cephalariae Kalchbr.
Septoria cercosporioides Trail.
Septoria chenopodii West.
Septoria chrysanthemella Sacc.
Septoria chrysanthemi Allesch.
Septoria citri Pass.
Septoria citrulli Ell. & Everh.
Septoria commelynes Kalchbr. & Cooke.
Septoria cotyledonis Wakef.
Septoria cucurbitacearum Sacc.
Septoria dianthi Desm.
Septoria doehlii Syd.
Septoria drummondii Ell. & Everh.
Septoria eucleae Kalchbr.
Septoria evansii Syd.
Septoria fructigena Berk. & Curt.
Septoria gerberae Syd.
Septoria gladioli Pass.
Septoria gomphocarpi P.Henn.
Septoria graminum Desm., (1843) accepted as Zymoseptoria tritici (Roberge ex Desm.) Quaedvl. & Crous, (2011)
Septoria gymnosporiae Syd.
Septoria helianthi Ell. & Kellerm.
Septoria helichrysi Syd.
Septoria knowltoniae Verw. & Dipp.
Septoria lactucae Pass.
Septoria lolii Sacc.
Septoria longispora Miyake.
Septoria lycopersici Speg.
Septoria meliae Syd.
Septoria nesodes Kalchbr.
Septoria nodorum (Berk.) Berk., (1845), accepted as Phaeosphaeria nodorum (E. Müll.) Hedjar., (1969)
Septoria oenotherae West.
Septoria oleae Dur. & Mont.
Septoria ornithogali Pass.
Septoria osteospermi Dipp.
Septoria passerini Sacc.
Septoria passiflorae Louw.
Septoria pelargonii Syd.
Septoria perforans McAlp.
Septoria petroselini Desm.
Septoria petroselini var. apii Bri. & Cav.
Septoria pisi West.
Septoria podocarpi Thuem.
Septoria polygoni-lapathifolii v.d.Byl.
Septoria pyricola Desm. accepted as Mycosphaerella pyri (Auersw.) Boerema, (1970)
Septoria ribis Desm.
Septoria richardiae
Septoria rubi Westend.,(1854), accepted as Coryneopsis rubi (Westend.) Grove, (1937)
Septoria scabiosicola Desm.
Septoria schlechteriana P.Henn.
Septoria sparmanniae Verw. & du Pless.
Septoria thuemenii Sacc.
Septoria tritici Desm. (1842), accepted as Zymoseptoria tritici (Roberge ex Desm.) Quaedvl. & Crous, (2011)
Septoria umbelliferarum Kalchbr.
Septoria vignae P.Henn.
Septoria zeina Stout.
Septoria sp.
Genus: Septoriella
Septoriella striiformis Sacc.
Genus: Septosporium
Septosporium heterosporum Ell. & Gal.
Genus: Seynesia
Seynesia balanme Speg. var. africana Sacc.
Seynesia orbiculata Syd.
Si
Genus: Siphula (Lichens)
Siphula ceratites Fr.
Siphula decumbens Kyi.
Siphula dregei
Siphula incrustans Vain.
Siphula minor Vain.
Siphula tabularis Nyl.
Siphula torulosa Nyl.
Genus: Sirothecium
Sirothecium citri Bitanc.
Sk
Genus: Skierka
Skierka robusta Doidge
So
Genus: Solenia
Solenia candida Pers.
Solenia minima Cooke & Phill.
Genus: Solenopezia
Solenopezia columbina Sacc.
Genus: Solorina (Lichens)
Solorina sorediifera Nyl.
Genus: Solorinina
Solorinina sorediifera Stizenb.
Genus: Sordaria
Sordaria anserina Wint.
Sordaria curvula de Bary.
Sordaria pleiospora Wint.
Sordaria setosa Wint.
Sordaria sp.
Family:Sordariaceae
Genus: Sorodiscus
Sorodiscus radicicolus Ivimey Cook
Genus: Sorosporella
Sorosporella uvella Giard.
Sorosporella sp.
Genus: Sorosporium
Sorosporium africanum Syd.
Sorosporium afrum Syd.
Sorosporium austroafricanum Zundel.
Sorosporium brachiariae Hopkins.
Sorosporium cenchri Zundel.
Sorosporium clintonii Zundel.
Sorosporium consanguineum Ell. & Everh.
Sorosporium cryptum McAlp.
Sorosporium everhartii Ell. & Gall.
Sorosporium filiferum Zundel.
Sorosporium flanaganianum Zundel.
Sorosporium harrismithense Zundel.
Sorosporium healdii Zundel.
Sorosporium holstii P.Henn.
Sorosporium hotsonii Zundel.
Sorosporium inconspicuum Zundel.
Sorosporium panici McKinnon.
Sorosporium pretoriaense Zundel.
Sorosporium proliferatum Zundel.
Sorosporium pseudomaranguense Zundel.
Sorosporium reilianum (J.G. Kühn) McAlpine (1910), accepted as Sporisorium reilianum (J.G. Kühn) Langdon & Full.,(1978)
Sorosporium setariae McAlp.
Sorosporium simii Pole Evans.
Sorosporium tembuti P.Henn. & Pole Evans
Sorosporium tristachydis Syd.
Sorosporium verecundum Zundel.
Sorosporium versatilis Zundel.
Sorosporium wildemanianum P.Henn.
Sorosporium zundelianum Ciferri.
Sorosporium sp.
Sp
Genus: Spegazzinia
Spegazzinia meliolae Zimm.
Genus: Sphaceloma
Sphaceloma ampelinum de Bary. (1874), accepted as Elsinoë ampelina Shear (1929)
Sphaceloma fawcetti Jenkins.
Sphaceloma perseae Jenkins.
Sphaceloma poinsettiae Jenkins.
Sphaceloma rosarum (Pass.) Jenkins, (1932), avccepted as Elsinoë rosarum Jenkins & Bitanc., (1957)
Sphaceloma violae Jenkins.
Sphaceloma sp.
Genus: Sphacelotheca
Sphacelotheca amphilophis Syd.
Sphacelotheca andropogonis Bubak.
Sphacelotheca anthephorae Zundel.
Sphacelotheca concentrica Zundel.
Sphacelotheca cruenta (J.G. Kühn) Potter, (1912), accepted as Sporisorium cruentum (J.G. Kühn) Vánky, (1985)
Sphacelotheca densa Ciferri.
Sphacelotheca dinteri Zundel.
Sphacelotheca doidgeae Zundel.
Sphacelotheca evansii Zundel.
Sphacelotheca flagellata Zundel.
Sphacelotheca modesta Zundel.
Sphacelotheca moggii Zundel.
Sphacelotheca monilifera Clint.
Sphacelotheca natalensis Zundel.
Sphacelotheca panici-miliacei Bubak.
Sphacelotheca pappophori Zundel.
Sphacelotheca pretoriense Zundel.
Sphacelotheca reiliana Clint. accepted as Sporisorium reilianum (J.G. Kühn) Langdon & Full., (1978)
Sphacelotheca ruprechtii Syd.
Sphacelotheca sorghi (Ehrenb. ex Link) G.P.Clinton (1902)accepted as Sporisorium sorghi Ehrenb. ex Link (1825)
Sphacelotheca tenuis Zundel.
Sphacelotheca transvaalensis Zundel.
Sphacelotheca vryburgii Zundel.
Sphacelotheca zilligii Zundel.
Genus: Sphaerella
Sphaerella agapanthi Kalchbr. & Cooke
Sphaerella brassicicola de Bary.(sic) possibly (Duby) Ces. & De Not. (1863), accepted as Mycosphaerella brassicicola (Duby) Lindau (1897)
Sphaerella cassinopsidis Kalchbr. & Cooke
Sphaerella geicola Kalchbr. & Cooke
Sphaerella macowaniana Wint.
Sphaerella maculicola Wint.
Sphaerella myrsinis Kalchbr. & Cooke
Genus: Sphaeria
Sphaeria africana Kalchbr. & Cooke
Sphaeria brachiata Kalchbr. & Cooke
Sphaeria caffra Kalchbr. & Cooke
Sphaeria capensis Lev.
Sphaeria cervispora Kalchbr. & Cooke
Sphaeria cumana Sacc. & Speg.
Sphaeria graminis Pers. var. ehrhartae Berk.possibly accepted as Phyllachora graminis (Pers.) Fuckel, (1870)
Sphaeria hypoxylon Linn.
Sphaeria intercepta Kalchbr. & Cooke
Sphaeria lanceolata Kalchbr. & Cooke
Sphaeria lichenoides Berk.
Sphaeria metidoidea Kalchbr. & Cooke
Sphaeria nesodes Berk. & Br. f. hydrocotles asiatcae.
Sphaeria nigro-annulata Berk. & Curt.
Sphaeria owaniae Kalchbr. & Cooke
Sphaeria refracta Kalchbr. & Cooke
Sphaeria tremelloides Linn.
Sphaeria turbinaia Pers.
Sphaeria urticae Rabenh.
Genus: Sphaericeps
Sphaericeps lignipes Welv. & Curr.
Family: Sphaeriaceae
Order: Sphaeriales
Family: Sphaerioidaceae
Family: Sphaerobolaceae
Genus: Sphaerobolus
Sphaerobolus stellatus Tode ex Pers.
Genus: Sphaerodothis
Sphaerodothis parinarii Nel.
Genus: Sphaeronema
Sphaeronema pistillare Wallr.
Family: Sphaerophcraceae
Genus: Sphaerophoron
Sphaerophoron compressum Ach.
Genus: Sphaerophorus
Sphaerophorus inelanocarpus DC.
Genus: Sphaerophragmium
Sphaerophragmium artabotrydis Doidge
Sphaerophragmium dalbergiae Diet.
Order: Sphaeropsidales
Genus: Sphaeropsis
Sphaeropsis abnormis Berk. & Thuem.
Sphaeropsis cassinopsidis Pazschke.
Sphaeropsis congesta Lev.
Sphaeropsis enormis Sacc.
Sphaeropsis corticalis Sacc.
Sphaeropsis malorum Peck.(sic), possibly (Berk.) Berk. (1860), accepted as Botryosphaeria stevensii Shoemaker, (1964)
Sphaeropsis mappae Cooke
Sphaeropsis pinicola Speg.
Sphaeropsis rafniicola P.Henn.
Sphaeropsis sp.
Genus: Sphaerostilbe
Sphaerostilbe coccophila Tul.
Sphaerostilbe flammea Tul.
Sphaerostilbe hypocreoides Kalchbr. & Cooke
Sphaerostilbe incarnata Kalchbr.
Sphaerostilbe macowani Cooke
Sphaerostilbe nigrescens Kalchbr. & Cooke
Sphaerostilbe pseudotrichia (Schwein.) Berk. & Broome, (1873), accepted as Nectria pseudotrichia (Schwein.) Berk. & M.A. Curtis, (1853)
Sphaerostilbe rosea Kalchbr.
Genus: Sphaerotheca
Sphaerotheca fuliginea Salm. (sic) (Schltdl.) Pollacci, (1913), accepted as Podosphaera fuliginea (Schltdl.) U. Braun & S. Takam., (2000)
Sphaerotheca humuli Burr. accepted as Podosphaera macularis (Wallr.) U. Braun & S. Takam., (2000)
Sphaerotheca humuli var. fuliginea Salm. probably accepted asPodosphaera macularis (Wallr.) U. Braun & S. Takam., (2000)
Sphaerotheca macularis Jacz. (sic) probably accepted asPodosphaera macularis (Wallr.) U. Braun & S. Takam., (2000)
Sphaerotheca pannosa (Wallr.) Lév. (1851), accepted as Podosphaera pannosa (Wallr.) de Bary, (1870)
Sphaerotheca pannosa var. persicae Woron. (1914), accepted as Podosphaera pannosa (Wallr.) de Bary, (1870)
Genus: Sphaerulina
Sphaerulina eucalypti Verw. & du Pless.
Sphaerulina oleifolia v.d. Byl.
Sphaerulina worsdellii Mass.
Genus: Sphinctrina
Sphinctrina fuscescens Nyl.
Sphinctrina gelasinata Zahlbr.
Sphinctrina meridionalis Stizenb.
Sphinctrina microcephala Nyl.
Sphinctrina turbinaia deNot.
Genus: Spondylocladium
Spondylocladium atrivirens Harz.
Genus: Spongospora
Spongospora subterranea Lagerh.
Genus: Sporidesmium
Sporidesmium celastri Thuem.
Sporidesmium polymorphum Corda.
Genus: Sporopodium
Sporopodium leucoxanthemum Vain.
Genus: Sporormia
Sporormia ambigua Niessl.
Sporormia intermedia Auersw.
Sporormia minima Auersw.
Sporormia pascua Niessl.
Sporormia transvaalensis Doidge
Genus: Sporotrichum
Sporotrichum beurmanni Matruchot & Ramond. accepted as Sporothrix schenckii Hektoen & C.F.Perkins (1900)
Sporotrichum carougeaui Langeron.
Sporotrichum citri Butl.
Sporotrichum epiphyllum Link.
Sporotrichum globuliferum Speg.
Sporotrichum paranense Marchion.
Sporotrichum roseum Link.
Sporotrichum schencki Matruchot.
Sporotrichum schencki var. beurmanni Doidge
Sporotrichum sp.
Genus: Spumaria
Spumaria alba DC.
Sq
Genus: Squamaria
Squamaria speciosa Frege.
St
Genus: Stachybotrys
Stachybotrys atra Corda. accepted as Stachybotrys chartarum (Ehrenb.) S.Hughes
Stachybotrys subsimplex Cooke
Genus: Stachylidium
Stachylidium theobromae Turcz.
Genus: Staganospora
Staganospora atriplicis Lindau.
Staganospora cryptogea Syd.
Staganospora kentiae Maubl.
Staganospora nerinicola Dipp.
Genus: Staurothele
Staurothele clopima Th.Fr.
Genus: Stemphylium
Stemphylium eugeniae Verw, & du Pless
Stemphylium phyllogenum Sacc.
Stemphylium sp.
Genus: Stephanophoron
Stephanophoron phyllocarpum var. daedaleum Stizenb.
Genus: Stephanophorou
Stephanophorou phyllocarpum var. isidiosum Stizenb.
Genus: Stephanophorus
Stephanophorus kraussii Flotow.
Genus: Stereocaulon (Lichen)
Stereocaulon proximum Nyl.
Stereocaulon pulvinatum Ach.
Stereocaulon tabulare Ach.
Genus: Stereum
Stereum acerinum Pets, ex Fr.
Stereum adnatum Lloyd.
Stereum affine Lev.
Stereum albo-badium Fr.
Stereum amoenum Kalchbr. & MacOwan.
Stereum atrocinereum v.d. Byl.
Stereum australe Lloyd.
Stereum bellum Sacc.
Stereum bicolor (Pers.) Fr., (1838), accepted as Laxitextum bicolor (Pers.) Lentz, 1956
Stereum bresadoleanum Lloyd.
Stereum caperatum Lloyd.
Stereum cinerascens Mass.
Stereum cinereum Lev.
Stereum concolor Sacc.
Stereum cyphelloides Berk. & Curt.
Stereum diaphanum Cooke ex Saec.
Stereum durbanense v.d.Byl.
Stereum duriusculum Berk. & Br.
Stereum elegans Mey.
Stereum fasciatum Fr.
Stereum friesii Lev.
Stereum fulvum Sacc.
Stereum fuscum Quel. (sic), possibly (Schrad.) P.Karst., (1883) accepted as Laxitextum bicolor (Pers.) Lentz, 1956
Stereum glabrescens Berk.& Curt.
Stereum hirsutum Fr.
Stereum hirsutum f. kalchbrenneri
Stereum involutum Klotzsch ex Fr.
Stereum kalchbrenneri Sacc.
Stereum laxum Lloyd, (1915) accepted as Laxitextum bicolor (Pers.) Lentz, 1956
Stereum lobatum Fr.
Stereum lobatum var. cinereum Lloyd.
Stereum luteo-badium Fr.
Stereum membranaceum Fr.
Stereum murrayi Burt.
Stereum nitidulum Berk.
Stereum notatum Berk. & Br.
Stereum ochraeeo-flavum Peck.
Stereum ostrea Fr.
Stereum percome Berk. & Br.
Stereum perlatum Berk.
Stereum proximum Lloyd.
Stereum pulverulentum Lev.
Stereum purpureum Fr. (sic), possibly Pers. (1794), accepted as Chondrostereum purpureum (Pers.) Pouzar (1959)
Stereum pusillum Berk.
Stereum radicans Burt.
Stereum ravenelii Berk. & Curt.
Stereum retirugum Cooke
Stereum rimosum Berk.
Stereum rimosum var. africanum Talbot.
Stereum rubiginosum Fr.
Stereum rugosum Fr.
Stereum sanguinolentum Fr.
Stereum schomburgkii Berk.
Stereum spadiceum Fr.
Stereum subpileatum Berk.,
Stereum tabacinum Sow. ex Fr. var. australis Mont.
Stereum tenebrosum Lloyd.
Stereum thozetii Berk.
Stereum tomentosum v.d.Byl.
Stereum transvaalium v.d.Byl.
Stereum turgidum Lloyd.
Stereum umbrinum Berk. & M.A. Curtis, (1873), accepted as Lopharia crassa (Lév.) Boidin, (1959)
Stereum vellereum Berk.
Stereum versicolor Fr.
Stereum villosum Lev.
Stereum vitile Fr.
Stereum vorticosum Fr. accepted as Chondrostereum purpureum (Pers.) Pouzar (1959)
Genus: Sterrebeckia
Sterrebeckia geaster Fr.
Sterrebeckia lejosperma Fr.
Genus: Stichodothis
Stichodothis disciformis Petrak.
Genus: Stichomyces
Stichomyces capensis Thaxt.
Genus: Stichospora
Stichospora disciformis Petrsk.
Genus: Sticta (Lichens)
Sticta ambavillaria Ach.
Sticta argyracea Del.
Sticta argyracea f. rigidula Zahlbr.
Sticta argyracea var. aspera Krempelh.
Sticta argyracea var. flavescens Zahlbr.
Sticta aspera Laur.
Sticta aurata Ach.
Sticta aurata var. pallens Nyl.
Sticta carpoloma Del. var. albocyphellata Nyl
Sticta clathrata deNot.
Sticta elathrata var. subhirsuta Vain.
Sticta crocata Ach.
Sticta crocata var. gilva Ach.
Sticta crocata var. isidialia Gyeln.
Sticta damaeeomis Ach.
Sticta ecklonii Spreng.
Sticta endochrysea Del.
Sticta erythroscypha Tayl.
Sticta fuliginosa Aeh.
Sticta gilva Ach.
Sticta gilva var. angustilobata Gyeln.
Sticta gilva var. lanata Gyeln.
Sticta gilva var. pseudogilva Gyeln.
Sticta homemanni Fr.
Sticta hottentotta Ach.
Sticta hottentotta var. umbilicata Del.
Sticta intricata Del.
Sticta intrieata var. hesseana Zahlbr.
Sticta limbata Aeh.
Sticta mougeotiana Del.
Sticta mougeotiana var. aurigera Nyl.
Sticta pulmonacea Ach.
Sticta pulmonaria var. hypomela (Delise) Duby (1830), accepted as Lobaria pulmonaria (L.) Hoffm. (1796)
Sticta guercizans Ach.
Sticta subcrocata Gyeln.
Sticta sylvatica Ach.
Sticta retigera Ac.
Sticta thouarsii Del.
Sticta tomentosa Ach.
Sticta variabilis Ach.
Sticta weigelii Ach.
Sticta weigelii var. sublimbata Steiner.
Family: Stictaceae
Genus: Stictina
Stictina argyracea Nyl.
Stictina argyracea var. flavescens Nyl.
Stictina argyracea var. rigidula Nyl.
Stictina aurata Aeh.
Stictina carpoloma Nyl. var. albocyphellata Nyl.
Stictina crocata Nyl.
Stictina fuliginosa Nyl.
Stictina gilva Nyl.
Stictina hesseana Krempelh.
Stictina intricata Nyl.
Stictina intricata var. thouarsii Nyl.
Stictina limbata Nyl.
Stictina membranacea Müll.Arg.
Stictina mougeotiana var. aurigera Nyl.
Stictina quercizans Nyl.
Stictina quercizans Stizenb.
Stictina sylvatica Nyl.
Stictina tomentosa Nyl.
Genus: Stictis
Stictis bella Kalchbr. & Cooke.
Stictis radiata Pers. ex Fr.
Stictis thelotremoides Phill.
Genus: Stigmatea
Stigmatea grewiae P.Henn.
Stigmatea platylophi Verw. & du Pless.
Stigmatea rhynchosiae Kalchbr. & Cooke.
Stigmatea sutherlandiae Kalchbr. & Cooke.
Family:Stigmateaceae
Genus: Stigmatidium
Stigmatidium capense Stizenb.
Stigmatidium venosum Nyl.
Genus: Stigmatolemina
Stigmatolemina incanum Kalchbr.
Genus: Stigmatopeltis
Stigmatopeltis royenae Doidge
Genus: Stigmatida
Stigmatida rhynchosiae Syd.
Stigmatida sutherlandiae Syd.
Genus: Stigmella
Stigmella graminicola Linder.
Genus: Stigmina
Stigmina verruculosa Syd.
Family:Stilbaceae
Genus: Stilbospora
Stilbospora faureae Syd.
Genus: Stilbum
Stilbum aurantio-cinnabarinum Speg.
Stilbum caespitosum Welw. & Curr.
Stilbum cineripes Kalchbr. & Cooke.
Stilbum cinnabarinum Mont. (1837), accepted as Tubercularia lateritia (Berk.) Seifert (1985)
Stilbum connatum Kalchbr. & Cooke.
Stilbum fimetarium Pers.
Stilbum fimetarium var. simiarum Kalchbr.
Stilbum kalchbrenneri Sacc.
Stilbum lateritium Berk. (1840), accepted as Tubercularia lateritia (Berk.) Seifert (1985)
Stilbum physarioides Kalchbr.
Genus: Stomiopeltella
Stomiopeltella africana Doidge
Genus: Stomiopeltis
Stomiopeltis citri Bitanc.
Stomiopeltis petiolaris Doidge
Genus: Streptothrix
Streptothrix sp.
Genus: Strigula (Lichens)
Strigula actinoplacoides Vain.
Strigula africana Wain. var. natalensis Vain.
Strigula argyronema Müll.Arg.
Strigula complanata Nyl.
Strigula complanata var. virescens Nyl.
Strigula elegans Müll.Arg.
Strigula nemathora Mont.
Strigula pallida Kalchbr.
Strigula virescens Trevis.
Family: Strigulaceae (Lichens)
Genus: Strobilomyces
Strobilomyces strobilaceus Berk.
Genus: Stropharia
Stropharia albomaculata Kalchbr. & MacOwan
Stropharia coronilla Quel.
Stropharia melanosperma Quel.
Stropharia obturata Quel.
Stropharia olivaceo-flava Sacc.
Stropharia semiglobata (Batsch) Quél. (1872), accepted as Protostropharia semiglobata (Batsch) Redhead, Moncalvo & Vilgays (2013)
Sy
Genus: Synalissa (lichens)
Synalissa austroafricana Zahlbr.
Synalissa aminuscula Nyl.
Genus: Syncephalastrum
Syncephalastrum racemosum Schroet.
Family: Synchytriaceae
Genus: Synchytrium
Synchytrium cotulae du Pless.
Synchytrium dolichi Gaiimann.
Synchytrium endobioticum Perc.
Genus: Synechoblastis
Synechoblastis redundans Müll.Arg.
Genus: Systremma
Systremma pterocarpi Doidge
References
Sources
See also
List of bacteria of South Africa
List of Oomycetes of South Africa
List of slime moulds of South Africa
List of fungi of South Africa
List of fungi of South Africa – A
List of fungi of South Africa – B
List of fungi of South Africa – C
List of fungi of South Africa – D
List of fungi of South Africa – E
List of fungi of South Africa – F
List of fungi of South Africa – G
List of fungi of South Africa – H
List of fungi of South Africa – I
List of fungi of South Africa – J
List of fungi of South Africa – K
List of fungi of South Africa – L
List of fungi of South Africa – M
List of fungi of South Africa – N
List of fungi of South Africa – O
List of fungi of South Africa – P
List of fungi of South Africa – Q
List of fungi of South Africa – R
List of fungi of South Africa – S
List of fungi of South Africa – T
List of fungi of South Africa – U
List of fungi of South Africa – V
List of fungi of South Africa – W
List of fungi of South Africa – X
List of fungi of South Africa – Y
List of fungi of South Africa – Z
Further reading
Kinge TR, Goldman G, Jacobs A, Ndiritu GG, Gryzenhout M (2020) A first checklist of macrofungi for South Africa. MycoKeys 63: 1-48. https://doi.org/10.3897/mycokeys.63.36566
South Africa
Fungi S | List of fungi of South Africa – S | [
"Biology"
] | 8,285 | [
"Fungi",
"Lists of fungi"
] |
68,756,183 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20fungi%20of%20South%20Africa%20%E2%80%93%20U | This is an alphabetical list of the fungal taxa as recorded from South Africa. Currently accepted names have been appended.
Um
Genus: Umbilicaria (Lichens)
Umbilicaria flavovirescens Leight.
Umbilicaria galuca Stizenb.
Umbilicaria hottentotta Fee.
Umbilicaria lecanorocarpa Krempelh.
Umbilicaria membranacea Laur.
Umbilicaria papulosa Nyl.
Umbilicaria pustulata Hoffm. f. minor Cromb.
Umbilicaria pustulata var. papillata Hampe.
Umbilicaria pustulata var. papulosa Tuck.
Umbilicaria rubiginosa Pers.
Umbilicaria thunbergii Reinke
Un
Genus: Uncinula
Uncinula aspera Doidge
Uncinula circinata Cooke & Peck.
Uncinula combreticola Doidge
Uncinula eylesii Doidge
Uncinula incrassata Salm
Uncinula necator Burr.
Uncinula pterocarpi Doidge
Uncinula polvchaeta Berk. & Curt, ex Ellis.
Uncinula sp.
Ur
Genus: Urceolaria
Urceolaria actinostoma Pers. ex Ach.
Urceolaria actinostoma var. aenea Müll.Arg.
Urceolaria actinostoma var. caesiopluinbea Nyl
Urceolaria capitata Nees.
Urceolaria cinerea Ach.
Urceolaria cinereocaesia Ach.
Urceolaria deuteria Syd.
Urceolaria excavata Ach.
Urceolaria scruposa β arenaria Schaer.
Urceolaria scruposa f. arenaria Ach.
Urceolaria subcuprea Nyl.
Order: Uredinales
Genus: Uredinopsis
Uredinopsis macrosperma P.Magn.
Genus: Uredo
Uredo africana Lagerh.
Uredo aloes Cooke.
Uredo alysicarpi Doidge.
Uredo ancylanthi P.Henn.
Uredo asclepiadis-fruticosi Doidge.
Uredo aterrima Thuem.
Uredo augeae Pole Evans.
Uredo augeae Syd.
Uredo balsamodendri Cooke.
Uredo brachylaenae Doidge.
Uredo brideliae Doidge.
Uredo caricis-petitianae Doidge.
Uredo carpodini P.Henn.
Uredo cassiae-mimosoides Doidge.
Uredo celastrineae Cooke & Mass.
Uredo cephalandrae Thuem.
Uredo clematidis Berk.
Uredo combreticola Doidge.
Uredo commelinae Kalchbr.
Uredo compositarum var. melantherae Cooke.
Uredo crotalariicola P.Henn.
Uredo cryptolepidis Cooke.
Uredo cussoniae Cooke.
Uredo cypericola P.Henn.
Uredo detergibilis P.Henn.
Uredo digitariaecola Thuem.
Uredo disae v.d.Byl
Uredo dissotidis Cooke.
Uredo dissolidis-longicaudae P.Henn.
Uredo dolichospora Kalchbr.
Uredo dombeyae Doidge.
Uredo ectadiopsis Cooke.
Uredo ecteinanthi Kalchbr.
Uredo ehrartae-calycinae Doidge.
Uredo eriospermi MacOwan.
Uredo fici Cast.
Uredo filicum Klotzsch.
Uredo fuirenae P.Henn.
Uredo gardeniae-thunbergiae P. Henn.
Uredo geranii DC., (1806) f. pelargonii-alchemilloides Thuem. accepted as Puccinia pelargonii-zonalis Doidge (1926)
Uredo geranii f. pelargonii-zonalis Thuem. accepted as Puccinia pelargonii-zonalis Doidge (1926)
Uredo gliae Lindr.
Uredo grewiae Pat. & Har.
Uredo harmsiana P.Henn.
Uredo heteromorphae MacOwan.
Uredo homeriae Bubak.
Uredo hyperici-leucoptychodis Doidge.
Uredo hypoestis de Toni
Uredo indigoferae Doidge.
Uredo ixiae Lev.
Uredo ixiae Rud.
Uredo kaempferiae Syd.
Uredo kampuluvensis P.Henn.
Uredo leguminosarum Link.
Uredo lepisclinis Thuem.
Uredo leucadis Syd.
Uredo linearis Pers.
Uredo lonchocarpi Doidge.
Uredo longaenis P.Henn.
Uredo lotononi Doidge.
Uredo lucida Theum.
Uredo lupini Berk. & Curt.
Uredo macrosperum Cooke.
Uredo mixta Duby f. Salicis capensis Thuem.
Uredo monsoniae Syd.
Uredo moraeae Kalchbr.
Uredo myrsiphylli Thuem.
Uredo pelargonii Thuem.
Uredo phaseolorum de Bary.
Uredo pilulaeformis Berk.
Uredo plectranthi Kalchbr.
Uredo pogonarthriae Syd.
Uredo polygalae Kalchbr.
Uredo polypodii DC.
Uredo pretoriensis Syd.
Uredo psoraleae-polystictae Doidge.
Uredo pychnostachydis Kalchbr.
Uredo rhoina Syd.
Uredo rhynchosiae Cooke.
Uredo ricini Biv. Bern.
Uredo rottboelliae Diet.
Uredo rabigo-vera DC. f. digitariae-sanguinalis Thuem.
Uredo rumicum DC.
Uredo rumicum f. Rumicis obtusifolii capensis Thuem.
Uredo satyrii Mass.
Uredo schizachyrii Doidge.
Uredo scholzii P.Henn.
Uredo scirpi-corymbosi Doidge.
Uredo scirpi-maritimi Doidge.
Uredo sempertecta Thuem.
Uredo stenotaphri Syd.
Uredo stylosanthis P.Henn.
Uredo transversalis Thuem.
Uredo valerianae DC. f. valerianae-capensis Thuem.
Uredo vangueriae Cooke.
Uredo viborgiae P.Henn.
Uredo zehneriae Thuem.
Uredo sp.
Genus: Urocystis
Urocystis agropyri Schroet.
Urocystis gladioli Wemh.
Urocystis hypoxidis Thaxt.
Urocystis occulta Rabenh.
Urocystis ornithoglossi Zundel.
Urocystis tritici Körn., (1877), accepted as Urocystis agropyri (Preuss) A.A. Fisch. Waldh., (1867)
Genus: Uromyces
Uromyces albucae Kalchbr. & Cooke.
Uromyces alchemillae Lev.
Uromyces aloes P.Magn.
Uromyces aloicola P.Henn.
Uromyces alysicarpi Wakef. & Hansf.
Uromyces anomathecae Cooke.
Uromyces antholyzae Syd.
Uromyces appendiculatus Link.
Uromyces argyrolobii Doidge.
Uromyces avicularae Schroet.
Uromyces babianae Doidge.
Uromyces badius Syd.
Uromyces barbeyanus P.Henn.
Uromyces betae Lev. accepted as Uromyces beticola (Bellynck) Boerema (1987)
Uromyces bidentis Lagerh.
Uromyces bolusii Mass.
Uromyces bona-spei Bubak.
Uromyces bulbinis Theum.
Uromyces bylianus Doidge
Uromyces capensis Doidge
Uromyces caryophyllinus Wint. (sic) possibly (Schrank) J. Schröt., (1884) accepted as Uromyces dianthi (Pers.) Niessl, (1872)
Uromyces cassiae-mimosoides Doidge
Uromyces chloridis Doidge
Uromyces circinalis Kalchbr. & Cooke
Uromyces clignyi Pat. & Har.
Uromyces cluytiae Kalchbr. & Cooke
Uromyces commelinae Cooke
Uromyces comptus Syd.
Uromyces cyperi P.Henn.
Uromyces delagoensis Bubak.
Uromyces dieramatis Doidge
Uromyces dolichi Cooke
Uromyces dolichi Syd.
Uromyces dolicholi Arth.
Uromyces drimiopsidis Doidge
Uromyces ecklonii Bubak.
Uromyces ehrhartae-giganteae Doidge
Uromyces eragrostidis Tracy.
Uromyces eriospermi Kalchbr. & Cooke
Uromyces ermelensis Doidge
Uromyces erythronii Pass.
Uromyces erythronii Pass. v. drimiopsidis
Uromyces euphorbias Cooke & Peck.
Uromyces euphorbiicola Tranzsch.
Uromyces fabae (Pers.) de Bary, (1879), accepted as Uromyces viciae-fabae var. viciae-fabae (Pers.) J. Schröt., (1875)
Uromyces ferrariae Doidge
Uromyces fiorianus Sacc.
Uromyces freesiae Bubak.
Uromyces geissorhizae P.Henn.
Uromyces geranii (DC.) G.H. Otth & Wartm., (1847), accepted as Puccinia pelargonii-zonalis Doidge (1926)
Uromyces gladioli P.Henn.
Uromyces greenstockii Doidge
Uromyces harmsianus Doidge
Uromyces heteromorphae Thuem.
Uromyces hobsoni Vize.
Uromyces holubii Doidge
Uromyces hyperici-frondosi Arth.
Uromyces hypoxidis Cooke
Uromyces inaequialtus Lasch.
Uromyces ipomoeae Berk.
Uromyces ixiae Wint.
Uromyces junci (Schwein.) Tul. & C.Tul (1854), accepted as Stegocintractia junci (Schwein.) M.Piepenbr. (2000)
Uromyces kentaniensis Doidge
Uromyces krantzbergensis Doidge
Uromyces lachenaliae Doidge
Uromyces leptodermus Syd.
Uromyces liliacearum Ung.
Uromyces limonii Lev.
Uromyces lugubris Kalchbr.
Uromyces macowani Bubak.
Uromyces maireanus Syd.
Uromyces massoniae Doidge
Uromyces medicaginis Pass., (1872), accepted as Uromyces striatus J. Schröt., 1870
Uromyces melantherae Cooke
Uromyces melasphaerulae Syd.
Uromyces microsorus Kalchbr. & Cooke
Uromyces mimusopsidis Cooke
Uromyces moraeae Syd.
Uromyces mucunae Rabenh.
Uromyces natalensis P.Magn.
Uromyces oxalidis Lév.
Uromyces papillatus Kalchbr. & Cooke
Uromyces paradoxus Syd.
Uromyces pedicellata Pole Evans.
Uromyces peglerae Pole Evans.
Uromyces phaseolorum DC.
Uromyces polemanniae Kalchbr. & Cooke
Uromyces polygoni Fuck.
Uromyces pretoriensis Doidge
Uromyces proeminens Lev.
Uromyces prunorum Link. var. amygdali Kalchbr.
Uromyces pseudarthriae Cooke
Uromyces psoraleae Peck.
Uromyces pulvinatus Kalchbr. & Cooke
Uromyces rhodesicus Wakef.
Uromyces rhynchosiae Cooke emend. Doidge
Uromyces ricini Biv.
Uromyces romouleae v.d.Byl & Werd.
Uromyces romuleae Doidge
Uromyces rumicis Wint.
Uromyces saginatus Syd.
Uromyces sanguinalis Evans.
Uromyces schinzianus P.Henn.
Uromyces scillarum Wint.
Uromyces scrophulariae DC.
Uromyces setariae-italicae Yoshino.
Uromyces sparaxidis Syd.
Uromyces stellenbossiensis v.d.Byl.
Uromyces strauchii Doidge
Uromyces striatus J. Schröt., (1870),
Uromyces stylochitonis Doidge
Uromyces tenuicutis McAlp.
Uromyces thwaitesii Berk. & Br.
Uromyces transversalis Wint.
Uromyces trichoneurae Doidge
Uromyces trifolii Lev.
Uromyces trollipi Kalchbr. & MacOwan.
Uromyces urgines Kalchbr.
Uromyces valerianae Fuck.
Uromyces ventosa Syd.
Uromyces vignae Barcl.
Uromyces walsoniae Syd.
Uromyces zeyheri Bubak.
Genus: Uropyxis
Uropyxis gerstneri Doidge
Uropyxis steudneri P.Magn. var. rhodesica Doidge
Us
Genus: Usnea (Lichens)
Usnea acanthera Vain.
Usnea aequatoriana Motyka.
Usnea africana Motyka.
Usnea amplissima Stirt.
Usnea angulata Ach.
Usnea angulata f. gonioides Hue.
Usnea angulata var. flaccida Müll.Arg.
Usnea arthroclada Fee subsp. arthrodadodes Vain.
Usnea articulata Hoffm.
Usnea articulata f. minor Krempelh.
Usnea australis Fr.
Usnea baileyi Zahlbr.
Usnea barbata Fr.
Usnea barbata f. ceratina Ach.
Usnea barbata f. florida Fr.
Usnea barbata var. articulata Ach.
Usnea barbata var. australis Müll.Arg.
Usnea barbata var. farinosa Müll.Arg.
Usnea barbata var. florida f. australis Vain.
Usnea barbata* Usnea florida var. comosa Wain.
Usnea barbata var. scabrosa Müll.Arg.
Usnea capensis Hoffm.
Usnea capensis Motyka.
Usnea cartiliginea Laur.
Usnea ceratina Ach.
Usnea ceratina var. picta Steiner.
Usnea ceratina var. scabrosa Aoh.
Usnea comosa Rohl.
Usnea contorta Jatta.
Usnea comuta Korb.
Usnea dasypoga Rohl.
Usnea dasypoga var. plicata Crorab.
Usnea dasypoga var. plicata f. annulata Hue.
Usnea dasypoga var. plicata f. dasypogoides Hue.
Usnea dasypogoides Nyl.
Usnea delicata Vain.
Usnea densirostra Tayl.
Usnea diffracta Vain.
Usnea distensa Stirt.
Usnea farinosa Zahlbr.
Usnea flaccida Motyka.
Usnea flexilis Stirt.
Usnea florida Wigg.
Usnea florida var. asperrima Müll.Arg.
Usnea florida var australis Sitzenb.
Usnea florida var. comosa Biroli.
Usnea florida var. densirostra Stizenb.
Usnea florida var. farinosa Stizenb.
Usnea florida var. ochrophora.
Usnea florida var. pulverulenta Müll.Arg.
Usnea florida var. rubiginea Michx.
Usnea florida var. scabrosa Wain.
Usnea florida var. strigosa Ach.
Usnea florida var. subelegans Vain.
Usnea flotowii Zahlbr. var. subhispida Zahlbr.
Usnea foveolata Stirt.
Usnea fusca Motyka.
Usnea gonioides Stirt.
Usnea gracilis var. subplicata Vain.
Usnea havaasii Motyka.
Usnea hirta Wigg.
Usnea hirta var. horridula Stizenb.
Usnea hispidula Zahlbr.
Usnea horridula Motyka.
Usnea implioita Zahlbr.
Usnea intercalaris Krempelh.
Usnea laevis Nyl.
Usnea leprosa Motyka.
Usnea longissima Ach.
Usnea longissima var. horridula Müll.Arg.
Usnea maculata Stirt.
Usnea malacea Zahlbr. var. subelegans Zahlbr.
Usnea molliuscula Stirt.
Usnea moniliformis Motyka.
Usnea mutabilis Stirt.
Usnea ochrophora Motyka.
Usnea perspinosa Motyka.
Usnea picata Motyka.
Usnea plicata Wigg.
Usnea poliotrix Krempelh.
Usnea praelonga Stirt.
Usnea primitiva Motyka.
Usnea promontorii Motyka.
Usnea pulverulenta Motyka.
Usnea pulvinata fr.
Usnea rubescens Stirt. var. rubrotincta Motyka
Usnea rubicunda Stirt.
Usnea rubiginea Massal.
Usnea rubrotincta Stirt.
Usnea sorediosula Motyka.
Usnea spilota Stirt.
Usnea steineri Zahlbr.
Usnea steineri var. tincta f. sorediosa Zahlbr.
Usnea strigosa Eaton.
Usnea strigosella Steiner.
Usnea sublurida Stirt.
Usnea submusciformis Vain.
Usnea sulcata Motyka.
Usnea transvaalensis Vain.
Usnea trichina Motyka.
Usnea trichodea Ach.
Usnea trichodeoides Vain, emend. Motyka
Usnea undulata Stirt.
Usnea sp.
Family: Usneaceae
Family: Ustilaginaceae
Order: Ustilaginales
Genus: Ustilaginoidea
Ustilaginoidea mossambicensis P.Henn.
Ustilaginoidea setariae Bref.
Genus: Ustilago
Ustilago affinis Ell. & Everh.
Ustilago andropogonis-finitimi Maubl.
Ustilago anthephorae Syd.
Ustilago avenae Jens. (sic), possibly (Pers.) Rostr., (1890)
Ustilago bromivora Fisch.
Ustilago capensis Reess.
Ustilago carbo Tul. f. Cynodontis dactylonis Thuem.
Ustilago cesatii Fisch. de Waldh.
Ustilago crameri Korn.
Ustilago crus-galli Tracy & Earle.
Ustilago cynodontis P.Henn.
Ustilago dactyloctaenii P.Henn.
Ustilago danthoniae Kalchbr.
Ustilago digitariae Rabenh.
Ustilago dinteri Syd.
Ustilago dregeana Tul.
Ustilago ehrhartana Zundel.
Ustilago elionuri P.Henn. & Evans.
Ustilago eragostidis-japonicana Zundel.
Ustilago evansii P.Henn.
Ustilago fingerhuthiae Syd.
Ustilago flagellata Syd.
Ustilago gigaspora Mass.
Ustilago henningsii Sacc. & Syd.
Ustilago heterospora P. Henn.
Ustilago holubii Syd.
Ustilago hordei (Pers.) Lagerh. (1889)
Ustilago hyparrheniae Hopkins.
Ustilago inconspicua Pole Evans.
Ustilago ischaemi Fuck.
Ustilago jensenii Rostr. accepted as Ustilago avenae (Pers.) Rostr., (1890)
Ustilago kelleri Wille.
Ustilago levis (Kellerm. & Swingle) Magnus (1896), accepted as Ustilago hordei (Pers.) Lagerh., (1889)
Ustilago liebenbergii Zundel.
Ustilago mariscana Zundel.
Ustilago maydis Tul. (sic) possibly Ustilago maydis (DC.) Corda, (1842)
Ustilago modesta Syd.
Ustilago neglecta Niessl.
Ustilago nuda (C.N. Jensen) Kellerm. & Swingle (1890)
Ustilago pappophori Syd.
Ustilago peglerae Bubak & Syd.
Ustilago piluliformis Tul.
Ustilago pretoriense Pole Evans.
Ustilago puellaris Syd.
Ustilago rabenhorstiana Kuhn.
Ustilago sacchari Rabenh.
Ustilago schlechteri P.Henn.
Ustilago scitaminea Syd., (1924), accepted as Sporisorium scitamineum (Syd.) M. Piepenbr., M. Stoll & Oberw. 2002
Ustilago scitaminea var. sacchari—barberi.
Ustilago segetum (Bull.?) Dittm. (sic) (species complex?)
Ustilago sladenii Pole Evans.
Ustilago sorghi Pass. accepted as Sporisorium sorghi Ehrenb. ex Link (1825)
Ustilago stenotaphri P.Henn.
Ustilago stenotaphricola
Ustilago trachypogonis Zundel.
Ustilago tragana Zundel.
Ustilago trichoneurana Zundel.
Ustilago trichophora Kunze.
Ustilago tritici Rostr.
Ustilago urochloana Zundel.
Ustilago verruculosa Wakef.
Ustilago vaillantii Tul.
Ustilago verecunda Syd.
Ustilago versatilis Syd.
Ustilago welwitschiae Bres.
Ustilago zeae Unger.
Ustilago sp.
Genus: Ustulina
Ustulina vulgaris Tul.
References
Sources
See also
List of bacteria of South Africa
List of Oomycetes of South Africa
List of slime moulds of South Africa
List of fungi of South Africa
List of fungi of South Africa – A
List of fungi of South Africa – B
List of fungi of South Africa – C
List of fungi of South Africa – D
List of fungi of South Africa – E
List of fungi of South Africa – F
List of fungi of South Africa – G
List of fungi of South Africa – H
List of fungi of South Africa – I
List of fungi of South Africa – J
List of fungi of South Africa – K
List of fungi of South Africa – L
List of fungi of South Africa – M
List of fungi of South Africa – N
List of fungi of South Africa – O
List of fungi of South Africa – P
List of fungi of South Africa – Q
List of fungi of South Africa – R
List of fungi of South Africa – S
List of fungi of South Africa – T
List of fungi of South Africa – U
List of fungi of South Africa – V
List of fungi of South Africa – W
List of fungi of South Africa – X
List of fungi of South Africa – Y
List of fungi of South Africa – Z
Further reading
Kinge TR, Goldman G, Jacobs A, Ndiritu GG, Gryzenhout M (2020) A first checklist of macrofungi for South Africa. MycoKeys 63: 1-48. https://doi.org/10.3897/mycokeys.63.36566
South Africa
Fungi U | List of fungi of South Africa – U | [
"Biology"
] | 5,440 | [
"Fungi",
"Lists of fungi"
] |
68,756,266 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20fungi%20of%20South%20Africa%20%E2%80%93%20M | This is an alphabetical list of the fungal taxa as recorded from South Africa. Currently accepted names have been appended.
Ma
Genus: Macowania
Macowania agaricina Berk.
Genus: Macowaniella
Macowaniella congesta Doidge
Macowaniella myrsinicola Doidge
Genus: Macowanites Kalchbr. (1882), accepted as Russula Pers. (1796)
Macowanites agarieinum Kalchbr.
Genus: Macrodiplodia
Macrodiplodia corticale Kalchbr. & Cooke
Genus: Macrophoma
Macrophoma agapanthi Trav.
Macrophoma aloes Scalia.
Macrophoma artemisiae Berl. & Vogl
Macrophoma cattleyicola P.Henn.
Macrophoma clematidis Togn.
Macrophoma curvispora Peek. accepted as Neofabraea malicorticis H.S.Jacks., (1913)
Macrophoma dryopteris Verw. & du Pless.
Macrophoma falconieri P.Henn.
Macrophoma oleae Berl. & Vogl.
Macrophoma palnuirum Berl. & Vogl.
Macrophoma pinea Petrak & Syd.
Macrophoma sp.
Genus: Macrophomina
Macrophomina limbalis Syd.
Macrophomina phaseoli (Maubl.) S.F. Ashby (1927) accepted as Macrophomina phaseolina (Tassi) Goid. (1947)
Genus: Macrosporium
Macrosporium camelliae Cooke & Mass.
Macrosporium carotae Ellis & Langl., (1890), accepted as Alternaria dauci (J.G.Kühn) J.W.Groves & Skolko, (1944)
Macrosporium citri McAlp.
Macrosporium cladosporioides Desm.
Macrosporium commune Rabenh., (1870), accepted as Pleospora herbarum (Pers.) Rabenh. (1857)
Macrosporium cucumerinum Ellis & Everh., (1895) accepted as Alternaria cucumerina, (Ellis & Everh.) J.A.Elliott, (1917)
Macrosporium eucalypti P.Henn.
Macrosporium iridis Cooke & Ell.
Macrosporium lanceolatum Mass.
Macrosporium longipes Ell. & Everh.
Macrosporium maydis Cooke & Ell.
Macrosporium nigricantium Atk.
Macrosporium nobile Vize.
Macrosporium oleae Berl. & Vogl.
Macrosporium phaseoli Fautr.
Macrosporium porri Ell.
Macrosporium punctatum Kalchbr. & Cooke
Macrosporium sarcinula Berk.(1838), accepted as Pleospora herbarum (Pers.) Rabenh. (1857)
Macrosporium solani Ell. & Mart. accepted as Alternaria solani Sorauer, (1896)
Macrosporium tabacinum Ell. & Mart.
Macrosporium tomato Cooke
Macrosporium vitis Sorok.
Macrosporium sp.
Genus: Madurella
Madurella sp.
Genus: Malacaria
Malacaria meliolieola Syd.
Genus: Malassezia
Malassezia furfur Baillon.
Genus: Marasmius
Marasmius calopus Fr.
Marasmius candidus Fr.
Marasmius delectans Morgan.
Marasmius epiphyllus Fr.
Marasmius filaris Kalchbr. & MacOwan.
Marasmius haematocephalus Mont. ex Fr.
Marasmius hariolorum Quel.
Marasmius helvolus Berk.
Marasmius oreadoides Pass.
Marasmius petalinus Berk. & Curt.
Marasmius rotula Fr.
Marasmius saccharinu Fr.
Marasmius scorodonius (Fr.) Fr., 1826 accepted as Mycetinis scorodonius (Fr.) A.W.Wilson & Desjardin, 2005
Marasmius siccus Fr.
Marasmius splachnoides Fr.
Marasmius tener Berk. & Curt.
Marasmius togoensis P.Henn.
Marasmius thwaitesii Berk. & Br.
Marasmius torquescens Quel.
Marasmius ustorum Berk.
Marasmius sp.
Genus: Maronea (Lichen)
Maronea constans Hepp.
Maronea crassilabra H.Magn.
Maronea horizoides Wain.
Genus: Marssonina
Marssonia castagnei Sacc.
Marssonina fragariae (Lib.) Kleb., (1918) accepted as Diplocarpon earlianum (Ellis & Everh.) F.A.Wolf [as 'earliana'], (1924)
Marssonina juglandis (Lib.) Magnus, (1906) accepted as Ophiognomonia leptostyla (Fr.) Sogonov, Stud. Mycol. 62: 62 (2008)
Marssonina populi Magn.
Marssonina sp.
Genus: Massecella
Massecella flueggeae Syd. (sic)
Me
Genus: Medusula
Medusula disjectans Nyl.
Genus: Megalonectria
Megalonectria nigrescens Sacc.
Megalonectria pseudotrichia (Schwein.) Speg., (1881). accepted as Nectria pseudotrichia (Schwein.) Berk. & M.A. Curtis, (1853)
Genus: Megalospora
Megalospora lutea Flotow.
Megalospora stellenboschiana Zahlbr.
Megalospora versicolor Zahlbr.
Genus: Megatrichophyton
Megatrichophyton roseum Doidge
Family: Melampsoraceae (Rusts)
Genus: Melampsora
Melampsora aecidioides Schroet.
Melampsora helioscopiae Wint.
Melampsora hyperici Schroet.
Melampsora hypericorum Wint. var. australis Doidge
Melampsora junodii Doidge
Melampsora lini Lev.
Melampsora mixta Schroet.
Melampsora puccinioides Wint.
Melampsora ricini Pass.
Melampsora stratosa Cooke
Melampsora tremulae Tul.
Melampsora vitellinae Thuem.
Genus: Melampsorella
Melampsorella ricini de Toni
Genus: Melampydium
Melampydium metabolum Müll.Arg. subsp. africanum Zahlbr.
Genus: Melanaspicilia
Melanaspicilia aethalea Wain.
Melanaspicilia epichlora Vain.
Genus: Melanconiaceae
Melanconiaceae
Genus: Melanconiales
Melanconiales
Genus: Melanconium
Melanconium fourcroyae Syd.
Melanconium sacchari Massee, (1896), accepted as Phaeocytostroma sacchari (Ellis & Everh.) B. Sutton, (1964)
Genus: Melanogaster
Melanogaster ambiguus Tul.
Melanogaster owanianum Kalchbr.
Genus: Melanops
Melanops perseae Petrak.
Genus: Melanopsamma
Melanopsamma parasitica Sacc.
Genus: Melanopsichium
Melanopsichium austro-americanum G.Beck
Genus: Melanospora
Melanospora parasitica (Tul.) Tul. & C.Tul. (1865)accepted as Syspastospora parasitica (Tul.) P.F.Cannon & D.Hawksw. (1982)
Genus: Melanotheca
Melanotheca oculea Stizenb.
Genus: Melasmia
Melasmia confluens v.Hohn.
Melasmia parinarii P.Henn.
Genus: Melaspilea (Lichens and lichenocolous)
Melaspilea gemella Nyl.
Genus: Melastiza
Melastiza charteri Boud.
Genus: Meliola
Meliola acanthacearum Hansf.
Meliola acridocarpi Doidge
Meliola allophyli Doidge
Meliola amphitricha Fr.
Meliola apodytis v.d.Byl
Meliola arcuata Doidge
Meliola argentina Speg.
Meliola atalayae Doidge
Meliola atra Doidge
Meliola azimae Doidge
Meliola behniae Syd.
Meliola bifida Cooke
Meliola bosciae Doidge
Meliola braehyodonta Syd.
Meliola buxicola Doidge
Meliola campylotricha Syd.
Meliola capensis Theiss.
Meliola capnodioides Thuem.
Meliola carissae Doidge
Meliola celtidicola v.d.Byl
Meliola choristylidis Doidge
Meliola cladophila Syd.
Meliola chidotricha Lev.
Meliola clavieulata Doidge
Meliola cluytiae v.d.Byl.
Meliola cnestidis Doidge
Meliola comata Doidge
Meliola conferta Doidge
Meliola cryptocaryae Doidge
Meliola cylindripoda Doidge
Meliola dactylipoda Syd.
Meliola ditricha Doidge
Meliola doidgeae Syd.
Meliola draeaenicola Pat. & Har.
Meliola dummeri Hansf. var. brachyodonta Hansf.
Meliola evansii Doidge
Meliola excoecariae Doidge
Meliola falcata Syd.
Meliola furcillata Doidge
Meliola ganglifera Kalchbr.
Meliola gemellipoda Doidge
Meliola geniculata Syd. & Butler var. macrospora Doidge
Meliola glabra Berk. & Curt.
Meliola gloriosa Doidge
Meliola goniomae Doidge
Meliola heudeloti Gaill.
Meliola hippocrateae Doidge
Meliola impatientis Doidge
Meliola indigoferae Syd.
Meliola inermis Kalchbr. & Cooke.
Meliola jasminicola P. Henn.
Meliola kentaniensis Doidge
Meliola knowltoniae Doidge
Meliola knysnae Doidge
Meliola leptidea Syd.
Meliola littoralis Syd.
Meliola loxostylidis Doidge
Meliola macowaniana Thuem.
Meliola malacotricha Speg.
Meliola manca Ell. & Mart.
Meliola merrillii Syd.
Meliola microspora var. africana Doidge
Meliola microthecia Thuem.
Meliola natalensis Doidge
Meliola natalensis var. conferta Doidge
Meliola natalensis var. lara Doidge
Meliola ochnae Doidge
Meliola oleicola Doidge
Meliola oleicola var. jasmini Doidge
Meliola oliniae Kalchbr.
Meliola oncinotidis Doidge
Meliola osyridis Doidge
Meliola palmieola Wint.
Meliola panici Earle.
Meliola peddieicola Hansf.
Meliola peglerae Doidge
Meliola peltata Doidge
Meliola perpusilla Syd. var. congoensis Beeli.
Meliola petiolaris Doidge
Meliola podocarpi Doidge
Meliola polytrieha Kalchbr. & Cooke
Meliola popowiae Doidge
Meliola psilostomae Thuem.
Meliola psychotriae Earle.
Meliola ptaeroxyli Doidge
Meliola puiggarii Speg.
Meliola quinquespora Thuem.
Meliola rhoina Doidge
Meliola rhois P.Henn.
Meliola rhois var. tenuis Doidge
Meliola rigida Doidge
Meliola sapindacearum Speg.
Meliola scabra Doidge
Meliola sclerochitoni Kalchbr.
Meliola scolopiae Doidge
Meliola sinuosa Doidge
Meliola speciosa Doidge
Meliola strophanthi Doidge
Meliola thuemeniana Stev.
Meliola toddaliae Doidge
Meliola torta Doidge
Meliola transvaalensis Doidge
Meliola varia Doidge
Meliola woodiana Sacc.
Meliola xumenensis Doidge
Meliola zehneriae v.d.Byl.
Meliola sp. var. M. capnodioides Thuem.
Meliola sp.
Family: Meliolaceae
Genus: Meliolaster
Meliolaster mackenzii Doidge
Genus: Meliolina
Meliolina arborescens Syd.
Meliolina cladotricha Syd.
Meliolina irenicolum Stevens.
Genus: Melogramma
Melogramma eucalypti Kalchbr. & Cooke
Family: Melogrammataceae
Genus: Memnoniella
Memnoniella echinata Gall.
Genus: Menispora
Menispora cylindrica Kalchbr. & Cooke
Merulioidea
Genus: Merulius
Merulius alneus (L.) J.F.Gmel. (1792), accepted as Schizophyllum commune Fr. (1815)
Merulius corium Fr.
Merulius gelatinosus Lloyd
Merulius himantoides Fr.
Merulius lacrymans Fr.
Merulius pinastri Burt.
Merulius rufus Pers. ex Fr.
Merulius serpens Tode ex Fr.
Merulius squalidus Fr.
Merulius tremellosus Schrad. (1794), accepted as Phlebia tremellosa (Schrad.) Nakasone & Burds. (1984)
Genus: Metarrhizium
Metarrhizium anisopliae Sorokin
Genus: Metasphaeria
Metasphaeria brachiata Sacc.
Metasphaeria caffra Petrak.
Metasphaeria cumana Sacc.
Metasphaeria metuloidea Sacc.
Mi
Genus: Microcallis
Microcallis nuxiae Hansf.
Microcallis oleae Hansf.
Genus: Microcyclus
Microcyclus kentaniensis Doidge
Microcyclus osyridis (Cooke) Sacc. (1904), accepted as Microcyclus amphimelaenus (Mont.) Arx [as amphimelaena], in Müller & von Arx,(1962)
Microcyclus tassianus (Sacc.) Syd. & P. Syd. (1904), accepted as Microcyclus amphimelaenus (Mont.) Arx [as amphimelaena], in Müller & von Arx,(1962)
Genus: Microdiplodia
Microdiplodia rikatliensis Petrak.
Genus: Micropeltis
Micropeltis maratliae P.Henn.
Micropeltis stigma Cooke
Micropeltis trichomanis P.Henn.
Genus: Microphiale
Microphiale lutea Zahlbr.
Genus: Microsphaera
Microsphaera alni (DC. ex Wallr.) G. Winter, (1884), accepted as Microsphaera penicillata (Wallr.) Lév., (1851)
Microsphaera polonica Siemaszko.
Genus: Microsporon
Microsporon furfur Robin.
Genus: Microsporum
Microsporum audouinii Gruby.
Genus: Microstroma
Microstroma albizziae Syd.
Microstroma album Sacc.
Microstroma quercinum Niessl.
Microstroma quercinum f. roboris Thuem.
Genus: Microthelia
Microthelia confluens Müll.Arg.
Microthelia macrocarpoides Zahlbr.
Microthelia micula Korb.
Microthelia uniserialis Zahlbr.
Fanily: Microthyriaceae
Family: Microthyriae
Order: Microthyriales
Genus: Microthyriella
Microthyriella transvaalensis Doidge
Genus: Microthyrium
Microthyrium annuliforme Syd.
Microthyrium maculicolum Doidge
Microthyrium ranulisporum Doidge
Genus: Milesina
Milesina dieteliana P.Magn.
Milesina nervisequa Syd.
Mo
Genus: Mollisia
Mollisia aquosa Phill.
Mollisia cinerea Karst.
Mollisia subgilva Kalchbr. & Cooke
Genus: Monascus
Monascus ruber van Tiegh.
Genus: Monilia accepted as Monilinia
Monilia balcanica Castellani & Chalmers.
Monilia bethaliensis Pijper
Monilia fimicola Cost. & Matr.
Monilia krusei Castellani & Chalmers
Monilia pseudolondinensis Castellani & Chalmers
Monilia pseudotropicalis Castellani & Chalmers
Monilia rugosa Castellani & Chalmers
Monilia sitophila Sace.
Monilia zeylanica Castellani & Chalmers
Monilia sp.
Genus: Monochaetia
Monochaetia camelliae Miles.
Monochaetia cydoniae Pole Evans & Doidge
Genus: Monoicomyces
Monoicomyces zealandicus Thaxt.
Genus: Montagnella
Montagnella asperata Syd.
Montagnella maxima Mass.
Montagnella peglerae Pole Evans
Family: Montagnellaceae
Genus: Montagnites
Montagnites candollei Fr.
Genus: Morphella
Morphella conica Pers.
Morphella esculenta Pers.
Genus: Morenoella
Morenoella oxyanthae Doidge
Morenoella phillipsii Doidge
Genus: Morenoina
Morenoina africana Doidge
Morenoina dracaenae Doidge
Family:Mortierellaceae
Mu
Family:Mucedinaceae
Genus: Mucor
Mucor clavatus Linn.
Mucor exitiosus Mass.
Mucor hiemalis Wehm.
Mucor mucedo Linn.
Mucor racemosus Pres.
Mucor rouxii Calm.
Mucor stercorius Link.
Family: Mucoraceae
Family: Mucorales
Genus: Mucronella
Mucronella aggregata Fr.
Genus: Mutinus
Mutinus bambusinus Ed.Fisch.
Mutinus curtisii Ed.Fisch.
Mutinus simplex Lloyd.
My
Mycelia sterilia
Genus: Mycena
Mycena acicula Quel.
Mycena alcalina Quel.
Mycena actiniceps Sacc.
Mycena arguta Sacc.
Mycena capillaris Quel.
Mycena elavicularis Gill.
Mycena corticola Quel.
Mycena debilis Quel.
Mycena dilatata Gill.
Mycena dregeana Sacc.
Mycena galericulata S.F.Gray
Mycena heliscus Sacc.
Mycena hiemalis Quel.
Mycena macrorrhiza Sacc.
Mycena rhodiophylla Sacc.
Mycena sciola Sacc.
Mycena tenerrima (Fr.) Quél. (1874),accepted as Mycena adscendens (Lasch) Maas Geest. (1981)
Mycena tintinnabula Quel.
Mycena vitrea Quel.
Mycena vulgaris Quel.
Mycena sp.
Genus: Mycenastrum
Mycenastrum corium (Guers.) Desv. (1842),
Mycenastrum lejospermum Mont.
Mycenastrum phaeotrichum Berk.
Genus: Mycobilimbia (Lichens)
Mycobilimbia aeervata Vouaux.
Mycobilimbia quatemella Vouaux.
Genus: Mycoderma
Mycoderma pararugosum Dodge
Genus: Mycogone
Mycogone aurantiaca da Cam.
Mycogone sp.
Genus: Mycolangloisia
Mycolangloisia nitida Hansf.
Genus: Mycoleptodon Pat. (1897), accepted as Steccherinum Gray (1821)
Mycoleptodon ochraeeum Pat.
Family:Mycoporaceae
Genus: Mycoporellum
Mycoporellum lahmii Müll.Arg.
Genus: Mycoporum
Mycoporum lahmii Stizenb.
Mycoporum pycnocarpum Nyl.
Genus: Mycosphaerella
Mycosphaerella agapanthi Lindau.
Mycosphaerella aloes Syd.
Mycosphaerella areola Ehrlich & Wolf.
Mycosphaerella brassicaecola Lindau.
Mycosphaerella byliana Syd.
Mycosphaerella citrullina (C.O. Sm.) Grossenb., (1909), accepted as Didymella bryoniae (Fuckel) Rehm, (1881)
Mycosphaerella dichrostachydis v.d.Byl
Mycosphaerella fragariae (Tul.) Lindau, 1897,
Mycosphaerella gibelliana Pass.
Mycosphaerella gossypina Atk.
Mycosphaerella loranthi Syd.
Mycosphaerella maculiformis (Pers.) J. Schröt., (1894), accepted as Mycosphaerella punctiformis (Pers.) Starbäck, (1889)
Mycosphaerella moelleriana Lindau.
Mycosphaerella moricola Linn.
Mycosphaerella nemesiae Dipp.
Mycosphaerella pinodes Stone. (sic), possibly (Berk. & A. Bloxam) Vestergr., (1912)accepted as Didymella pinodes (Berk. & A. Bloxam) Petr., (1924)
Mycosphaerella plectranthi Doidge
Mycosphaerella rubi Roark
Mycosphaerella schoenoprasi Schroet. (sic) possibly Rabenh., (1894) [1897], accepted as Davidiella tassiana (De Not.) Crous & U. Braun, (2003)
Mycosphaerella sentina (Fr.) J. Schröt., (1894), accepted as Mycosphaerella pyri (Auersw.) Boerema, (1970)
Mycosphaerella theae Shaw
Family: Mycosphaerellaceae
Genus: Mycotoruloides
Mycotoruloides triades Langeron & Talice.
Family: Myriangiaceae
Order:Myriangiales
Genus: Myriangium
Myriangium montagnei Berk.
Genus: Myriostoma
Myriostoma coliformis Corda.
Genus: Myrothecium
Myrothecium verrucaria Alb. & Schw.
Genus: Mystrosporium
Mystrosporium alliorum Berk.
Mystrosporium aterrimum Berk. & Curt.
Mystrosporium polytrichum Cooke
Mystrosporium velutinum Kalchbr. & Cooke
Genus: Myxosporium
Myxosporium corticola Edgert.
References
Sources
See also
List of bacteria of South Africa
List of Oomycetes of South Africa
List of slime moulds of South Africa
List of fungi of South Africa
List of fungi of South Africa – A
List of fungi of South Africa – B
List of fungi of South Africa – C
List of fungi of South Africa – D
List of fungi of South Africa – E
List of fungi of South Africa – F
List of fungi of South Africa – G
List of fungi of South Africa – H
List of fungi of South Africa – I
List of fungi of South Africa – J
List of fungi of South Africa – K
List of fungi of South Africa – L
List of fungi of South Africa – M
List of fungi of South Africa – N
List of fungi of South Africa – O
List of fungi of South Africa – P
List of fungi of South Africa – Q
List of fungi of South Africa – R
List of fungi of South Africa – S
List of fungi of South Africa – T
List of fungi of South Africa – U
List of fungi of South Africa – V
List of fungi of South Africa – W
List of fungi of South Africa – X
List of fungi of South Africa – Y
List of fungi of South Africa – Z
Further reading
Kinge TR, Goldman G, Jacobs A, Ndiritu GG, Gryzenhout M (2020) A first checklist of macrofungi for South Africa. MycoKeys 63: 1-48. https://doi.org/10.3897/mycokeys.63.36566
South Africa
Fungi M | List of fungi of South Africa – M | [
"Biology"
] | 5,495 | [
"Fungi",
"Lists of fungi"
] |
68,756,355 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Let%27s%20Count%20Goats%21 | Let's Count Goats! is a 2010 children's picture book by Mem Fox and illustrated by Jan Thomas. It is a counting book with the narrator inviting the reader to count goats that appear in the pictures as they engage in humanlike behaviour.
Reception
In a review of Let's Count Goats!, School Library Journal wrote "Fox and Thomas draw viewers in through catchy phrases and amusing pictures of goats that appear in a variety of shapes, sizes, and numbers", and called it "a clever counting lesson".
Let's Count Goats! has also been reviewed by Kirkus Reviews, Publishers Weekly, Booklist, Horn Book Guides, and Magpies.
References
External links
Library holdings of Let's Count Goats!
Australian picture books
2010 children's books
Picture books by Mem Fox
Mathematics fiction books
Children's books about goats | Let's Count Goats! | [
"Mathematics"
] | 173 | [
"Recreational mathematics",
"Mathematics fiction books"
] |
68,756,381 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initial%20IMO%20Strategy%20on%20the%20reduction%20of%20GHG%20emissions%20from%20ships | The Initial IMO Strategy on the reduction of GHG emissions from ships, or Initial IMO GHG Strategy, is the framework through which the International Maritime Organization (IMO) aims to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from international maritime shipping. GHG emissions from shipping are about 3% of total GHG emissions, and under this strategy the IMO envisions their elimination within this century. However many companies and organizations say shipping should be decarbonized by 2050.
International shipping was not covered by the 2015 Paris Agreement, which seeks to limit climate change. With emissions from shipping expected to increase both in absolute and relative terms, there was pressure on the IMO to take action. In 2016, an agreement was reached to develop a strategy, which culminated in the adoption of the initial strategy in 2018. This is seen as a first step, with a revised strategy expected in 2023.
While the policy of the IMO, the strategy is not legally binding upon members. It suggests a variety of measures which can be adopted along different time frames for member states to adopt. The strategy also envisions cooperation through which more developed countries can support those less able to adapt.
Background and development
While the topic was discussed at the Paris Conference, international maritime shipping, along with international civil aviation, was not covered by the 2015 Paris Agreement. These emissions are difficult to attribute, as the "flag state" (where a ship is registered), owner, crew, and ports of call can all be different countries. In addition to carbon dioxide, ships emit short-lived climate forcers such as black carbon and sulfur dioxide, as well as NOx. Understanding of how these interact is poor, making it difficult to fully assess the impact of shipping on climate change. Nonetheless, shipping is already the most efficient way to transport goods.
Under the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, responsibility for the regulation of shipping emissions was assigned to the International Maritime Organization (IMO). (This was not replicated in the Paris Agreement, which did not allocate responsibility for international transport emissions. In July 2007, the IMO began discussing potential market-based mechanisms. In 2009, the EU said shipping should aim to cut emissions by 20% compared to 2005 levels by 2020. In January 2010, Norway proposed potential targets intended to put shipping in line with expectations for other economic sectors. While no targets of market-based mechanisms were adopted following these proposals, in 2011 the Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI) was adopted. This implemented a set of energy efficiency standards for ships built after 2013. The same year, the Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan was adopted, which required ship energy efficiency to be monitored. These were included in Annex VI of MARPOL 73/78. That the new regulations would apply equally to all countries regardless of economic development was a source of dispute relating to the principles of Common But Differentiated Responsibilities and No More Favourable Treatment. This meant they were passed by majority, rather than the usual consensus process. The EEDI has been expanded and clarified since its first implementation. While there were some efficiency improvements due to the EEDI and general economic incentives to improve efficiency, little significant action was taken by the IMO, in part due to disputes between companies from developing and developed nations. In 2012, international maritime transport made up 2.2% of global emissions.
In 2014, the IMO calculated that the shipping industry produced 3.1% of all emissions, and that shipping emissions would rise as much as 250% by 2050, at which point they could make up 17% of all emissions. In May 2015 a proposal by the Marshall Islands to create an emissions target was discussed by the IMO, but no agreement was reached. In September 2015, the IMO Secretary-General argued against an emissions cap, stating that it would harm economic growth. By 2016, regulations were in place that would apply carbon efficiency standards to newly built ships beginning in 2019, but these would not be retroactive to existing ships. In November 2015, the European Union published an analysis suggesting that although complete decarbonisation by 2050 was unrealistic, annual emissions would have to end up lower than the expected 2020 emissions by that time to meet the Paris Agreement goal of temperatures rising no more than 2 °C.
In April 2016, the IMO’s Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) agreed only that ships weighing 5,000 tons or more should submit fuel use data. Stronger measures had been supported by the European Union, Liberia, and the Marshall Islands, (the latter being two of the three largest flag states): opposition was led by Brazil, China, India, Russia, and the third of the three largest flag states, Panama. At this time, pressure on the IMO was increasing, especially as the aviation industry was moving towards establishing an emissions cap. Some large shipping companies supported IMO action, fearing external action bypassing the IMO if none was taken (the aviation agreement followed an agreement that the European Union would withdraw a plan to add a carbon price to incoming flights). Previously a 2013 EU proposal for the monitoring the emissions of ships entering EU ports that was adopted in late 2014 stimulated an IMO agreement to develop a data collection system. Fuel consumption reporting was added to MARPOL in October 2016, coming into force in March 2018. A number of countries submitted Nationally Determined Contributions which pledged whole economy reductions, including a reduction of emissions per unit of GDP. Shipping contributes to GDP, and so is indirectly covered by these pledges.
In October 2016, the MEPC agreed on a roadmap to develop a strategy for emissions reduction. Following its development, it was approved by the MEPC in April 2018. During this approval, the IMO also agreed to revise this strategy by Spring of 2023. The initial strategy was adopted by majority rather than consensus. There were disputes about whether decarbonisation should occur in the first or second half of the 21st century. There was also debate on whether the treaty should have quantifiable targets. The agreement on quantifiable targets happened in part due to the idea that a target provided better certainty, an argument advanced by the Marshall Islands and Solomon Islands.
Contents
The IMO strategy as passed is explicitly constructed with reference to the Paris Agreement. It sets an overall framework for future development, but is not legally binding. Within the overall aim of decarbonisation there are smaller targets for different time periods, which use 2008 as a baseline year. Emissions intensity (the emissions produced to transport unit goods per unit distance) is targeted to drop 40% by 2030, with the aim of "pursuing efforts towards 70% by 2050". At the same time, the overall emissions are expected to peak "as soon as possible", alongside a specific target of "at least 50% by 2050 compared to 2008".
Along with setting an overall vision and general principles, the IMO strategy also includes different suggested measures that can be taken to reduce emissions. These are classified as short-term (applying from 2018-2023), medium-term (2023-2030), and long-term (2030 onwards). To meet the short term goals, it is thought there will need to be rapid adoption of technical (e.g. new ship standards under the EEDI) and operational (e.g. ship speed reduction) changes, as well as the creation of implementation and enforcement mechanisms for the strategy. To achieve the stated long-term targets, it is expected that the industry will have to power ships with hydrogen, ammonia or biofuels (but shipping may be outbid by aviation biofuels), and develop new more efficient propulsion technology.
The strategy envisions significant capacity building and technical cooperation between IMO states, in order to support Least Developed Countries and Small Island Developing States. While the measures and targets apply to all ships, the Common But Differentiated Responsibilities and No More Favourable Treatment principles were referenced in regards to the implementation of these measures. While there is no detail on how exactly these sometimes conflicting principles would apply in practice, eight criteria were identified that should be taken into consideration when identifying responsibilities: remoteness and connectivity, the type of cargo, the country’s dependence on transport, the costs of transport, food security, disaster response, cost-effectiveness, and level of development. To assess these for each situation, the MEPC has developed a process which cites the principles of simplicity, inclusiveness, transparency, flexibility, an evidenced-based approach, and measure-specific consideration. To facilitate implementation in less developed countries, in July 2019 the IMO established a fund supplied through voluntary donations to support capacity building and technical cooperation. Changes in the shipping sector are envisioned as occurring alongside changes in the port sector, which for example would need to adapt to provide onshore power and alternative fuels.
Implementation
Following approval of the strategy, the MEPC adopted eight follow-up programs to be implemented before 2023. Three of these focused on potential short-term actions, including those already regulated by the IMO. One program was to develop a fourth IMO GHG study, focused on the period from 2012-2018, to help inform the 2023 revision of the strategy.
While market-based mechanisms have been repeatedly discussed in MEPC meetings, strong opposition to their use has meant there has been no agreement on their use. Reasons raised in opposition include providing an advantage to developed economies, and potential incompatibility with World Trade Organization rules. One possible market-based mechanism would be a carbon tax charged on ships weighing over 5000 tonnes, to help fund bunkering for cleaner fuels such as hydrogen and ammonia. The European Union designed a Regional Emissions Trading System, to be put into effect if it was felt the IMO did not move far enough. In September 2020, it was decided that maritime transport would be included in the European Union Emissions Trading System from 2022. Many companies and organizations say shipping should be decarbonized by 2050.
See also
Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation
References
External links
International Maritime Organization
International water transport
Greenhouse gas emissions
Climate change adaptation | Initial IMO Strategy on the reduction of GHG emissions from ships | [
"Chemistry"
] | 2,047 | [
"Greenhouse gases",
"Greenhouse gas emissions"
] |
68,756,880 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rathjen%27s%20psi%20function | In mathematics, Rathjen's psi function is an ordinal collapsing function developed by Michael Rathjen. It collapses weakly Mahlo cardinals to generate large countable ordinals. A weakly Mahlo cardinal is a cardinal such that the set of regular cardinals below is closed under (i.e. all normal functions closed in are closed under some regular ordinal ). Rathjen uses this to diagonalise over the weakly inaccessible hierarchy.
It admits an associated ordinal notation whose limit (i.e. ordinal type) is , which is strictly greater than both and the limit of countable ordinals expressed by Rathjen's . , which is called the "Small Rathjen ordinal" is the proof-theoretic ordinal of , Kripke–Platek set theory augmented by the axiom schema "for any -formula satisfying , there exists an addmissible set satisfying ". It is equal to in Rathjen's function.
Definition
Restrict and to uncountable regular cardinals ; for a function let denote the domain of ; let denote , and let denote the enumeration of . Lastly, an ordinal is said to be to be strongly critical if .
For and :
If for some , define using the unique . Otherwise if for some , then define using the unique , where is a set of strongly critical ordinals explicitly defined in the original source.
For :
Explanation
Restrict to uncountable regular cardinals.
is a unique increasing function such that the range of is exactly .
is the closure of , i.e. , where denotes the class of non-zero limit ordinals.
Rathjen originally defined the function in more complicated a way in order to create an ordinal notation associated to it. Therefore, it is not certain whether the simplified OCF above yields an ordinal notation or not. The original functions used in Rathjen's original OCF are also not so easy to understand, and differ from the functions defined above.
Rathjen's and the simplification provided above are not the same OCF. This is partially because the former is known to admit an ordinal notation, while the latter isn't known to admit an ordinal notation. Rathjen's is often confounded with another of his OCFs which also uses the symbol , but they are distinct notions. The former one is a published OCF, while the latter one is just a function symbol in an ordinal notation associated to an unpublished OCF.
References
Mathematical logic
Ordinal numbers
Cardinal numbers | Rathjen's psi function | [
"Mathematics"
] | 554 | [
"Ordinal numbers",
"Cardinal numbers",
"Mathematical logic",
"Mathematical objects",
"Infinity",
"Order theory",
"Numbers"
] |
68,756,978 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virosphere | Virosphere (virus diversity, virus world, global virosphere) was coined to refer to all those places in which viruses are found or which are affected by viruses. However, more recently virosphere has also been used to refer to the pool of viruses that occurs in all hosts and all environments, as well as viruses associated with specific types of hosts (prokaryotic virosphere, archaeal virosphere, Invertebrate virosphere), type of genome (RNA virosphere, dsDNA virosphere) or ecological niche (marine virosphere).
Viral genome diversity
The scope of viral genome diversity is enormous compared to cellular life. Cellular life including all known organisms have double stranded DNA genome. Whereas viruses have one of at least 7 different types of genetic information, namely dsDNA, ssDNA, dsRNA, ssRNA+, ssRNA-, ssRNA-RT, dsDNA-RT. Each type of genetic information has its specific manner of mRNA synthesis. Baltimore classification is a system providing overview on these mechanisms for each type of genome. Moreover, in contrast to cellular organisms, viruses don't have universally conserved sequences in their genomes to be compared by.
Viral genome size varies approximately 1000 fold. Smallest viruses may consist of only from 1–2 kb genome coding for 1 or 2 genes and it is enough for them to successfully evolve and travel through space and time by infecting and replicating (make copies of their own) in its host. Two most basic viral genes are replicase gene and capsid protein gene, as soon as virus has them it represents a biological entity able to evolve and reproduce in cellular life forms. Some viruses may have only replicase gene and use capsid gene of other e.g. endogenous virus. Most viral genomes are 10-100kb, whereas bacteriophages tend to have larger genomes carrying parts of genome translation machinery genes from their host. In contrast, RNA viruses have smaller genomes, with maximum 35kb by coronavirus. RNA genomes have higher mutation rate, that is why their genome has to be small enough in order not to harbour to many mutations, which would disrupt the essential genes or their parts. The function of the vast majority of viral genes remain unknown und the approaches to study have to be developed. The total number of viral genes is much higher, than the total number of genes of three domains of life all together, which practically means viruses encode most of the genetic diversity on the planet.
Viral host diversity
Viruses are cosmopolites, they are able to infect every cell and every organism on planet earth. However different viruses infect different hosts. Viruses are host specific as they need to replicate (reproduce) within a host cell. In order to enter the cell viral particle needs to interact with a receptor on the surface of its host cell. For the process of replication many viruses use their own replicases, but for protein synthesis they are dependent on their host cell protein synthesis machinery. Thus, host specificity is a limiting factor for viral reproduction.
Some viruses have extremely narrow host range and are able to infect only 1 certain strain of 1 bacterial species, whereas others are able to infect hundreds or even thousands of different hosts. For example cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) can use more than 1000 different plant species as a host. Members of viral families like Rhabdoviridae infect hosts from different kingdoms e.g. plants and vertebrates. And members of genera Psimunavirus and Myohalovirus infect hosts from different domains of life e.g. bacteria and archaea.
Viral capsid diversity
Capsid is the outer protecting shell or scaffold of a viral genome. Capsid enclosing viral nucleic acid make up viral particle or a virion. Capsid is made of protein and sometimes has lipid layer harboured from the host cell while exiting it. Capsid proteins are highly symmetrical and assemble within a host cell by their own due to the fact, that assembled capsid is more thermodynamically favourable state, than separate randomly floating proteins. The most viral capsids have icosahedral or helical symmetry, whereas bacteriophages have complex structure consisting of icosahedral head and helical tail including baseplate and fibers important for host cell recognition and penetration. Viruses of archaea infecting hosts living in extreme environments like boiling water, highly saline or acidic environments have totally different capsid shapes and structures. The variety of capsid structures of Archaeal viruses includes lemon shaped viruses Bicaudaviridae of family and Salterprovirus genus, spindle form Fuselloviridae, bottle shaped Ampullaviridae, egg shaped Guttaviridae.
Capsid size of a virus differs dramatically depending on its genome size and capsid type.Icosahedral capsids are measured by diameter, whereas helical and complex are measured by length and diameter. Viruses differ in capsid size in a spectrum from 10 to more than 1000 nm. The smallest viruses are ssRNA viruses like Parvovirus. They have icosahedral capsid approximately 14 nm in diameter. Whereas the biggest currently known viruses are Pithovirus, Mamavirus and Pandoravirus. Pithovirus is a flask-shaped virus 1500 nm long and 500 nm in diameter, Pandoravirus is an oval-shaped virus1000nm (1 micron) long and Mamavirus is an icosahedral virus reaching approximately 500 nm in diameter. Example of how capsid size depends on the size of viral genome can be shown by comparing icosahedral viruses - the smallest viruses are 15-30 nm in diameter have genomes in range of 5 to 15 kb (kilo bases or kilo base pairs depending on type of genome), and the biggest are near 500 nm in diameter and their genomes are also the largest, they exceed1Mb (million base pairs).
Viral evolution
Viral evolution or evolution of viruses presumably started from the beginning of the second age of RNA world, when different types of viral genomes arose through the transition from RNA- RT –DNA, which also emphasises that viruses played a critical role in the emergence of DNA and predate LUCA The abundance and variety of viral genes also imply that their origin predates LUCA. As viruses do not share unifying common genes they are considered to be polyphyletic or having multiple origins as opposed to one common origin as all cellular life forms have. Virus evolution is more complex as it is highly prone to horizontal gene transfer, genetic recombination and reassortment. Moreover viral evolution should always be considered as a process of co-evolution with its host, as a host cell is inevitable for virus reproduction and hence, evolution.
Viral abundance
Viruses are the most abundant biological entities, there are 10^31 viruses on our planet. Viruses are capable of infecting all organisms on earth and they are able to survive in much harsher environments, than any cellular life form. As viruses can not be included in the tree of life there is no separate structure illustrating viral diversity and evolutionary relationships. However, viral ubiquity can be imagined as a virosphere covering the whole tree of life.
Nowadays we are entering the phase of exponential viral discovery. The genome sequencing technologies including high-throughput methods allow fast and cheap sequencing of environmental samples. The vast majority of the sequences from any environment, both from wild nature and human made, reservoirs are new. It practically means that during over 100 years of virus research from the discovery of bacteriophages - viruses of bacteria in 1917 until current time we only scratched on a surface of a great viral diversity. The classic methods like viral culture used previously allowed to observe physical virions or viral particles using electron microscope, they also allowed to gathering information about their physical and molecular properties. New methods deal only with the genetic information of viruses.
See also
virus
virology
Virome
viral evolution
virus classification
list of virus families
list of virus genera
list of virus species
References
External links
Welcome to the Virosphere
Virolution
A Planet of Viruses, Carl Zimmer
Pathogen genomics
Viruses | Virosphere | [
"Biology"
] | 1,677 | [
"Viruses",
"Tree of life (biology)",
"Molecular genetics",
"DNA sequencing",
"Microorganisms",
"Pathogen genomics"
] |
68,757,083 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20fungi%20of%20South%20Africa%20%E2%80%93%20T | This is an alphabetical list of the fungal taxa as recorded from South Africa. Currently accepted names have been appended.
Ta
Genus: Taphrina
Taphrina aurea Sade.
Taphrina deformans Tul.
Taphrina mume Nish.
Taphrina Pruni Tul.
Family: Taphrinaceae
Order: Taphrinales
Te
Genus: Teleutospora
Teleutospora ventosa Syd.
Genus: Telimena
Telimena corticicola Doidge.
Telimena viventis
Family: Teloschistaceae (Mostly lichens)
Genus: Teloschistes (Lichens)
Teloschistes africanus Zahlbr.
Teloschistes capensis Malme.
Teloschistes capensis f. puber Malme.
Teloschistes chrvsocarpoides Wain.
Teloschistes chrysophthalmus Beltr.
Teloschistes chrysophthalmus f. armatus Hillm.
Teloschistes chrysophthalmus f. cinereus Müll.Arg.
Teloschistes chrysophthalmus var. dilatatus Hillm.
Teloschistes chrysophthalmus var. pulvinaris Zahlbr.
Teloschistes controversus var. semigranularis Müll.Arg.
Teloschistes costatus Hillm.
Teloschistes derelictus Zahlbr.
Teloschistes exilis Wain.
Teloschistes exilis var. dealbatus Hillm.
Teloschistes exilis var. pulvinatus Hillm.
Teloschistes flavicans Norm .
Teloschistes flavicans f. minor Cromb.
Teloschistes flavicans var. costatus Steiner
Teloschistes flavicans var. croceus Müll.Arg.
Teloschistes flavicans var. dealbatus Zahlbr.
Teloschistes flavicans var. exilis Müll.Arg.
Teloschistes flavicans var. intermedius Müll.Arg.
Teloschistes flavicans var. maximus Zahlbr.
Teloschistes flavicans var. puber Hillm.
Teloschistes flavicans var. puberus Müll. Arg.
Teloschistes flavicans var. pulvinatus Zahlbr.
Teloschistes flavicans var. validus Miill.Arg.
Teloschistes hypoglaucus Zahlbr.
Teloschistes perrugosus Müll.Arg.
Teloschistes scorigenus Wain.
Teloschistes validus Hillm.
Teloschistes verrucosus Hillm.
Teloschistes villosus Norm.
Genus: Teratosphaeria
Teratosphaeria fibrillosa Syd.
Genus: Terfezia
Terfezia boudieri Chat.
Terfezia claveryi Chat.
Terfezia pfeilii P.Henn.
Genus: Tetracium
Tetracium rectisporum Petch.
Genus: Tetraploa
Tetraploa aristata Berk. & Br.
Th
Genus: Theissenula
Theissenula woodiana Doidge
Genus: Thelephora Ehrh. ex Willd., (1787)
Thelephora biennis Fr.
Thelephora fulva Lev.
Thelephora fuscoviolascens Mont. (1847)
Thelephora hirsuta Willd.
Thelephora intybacea Pers. ex Fr.
Thelephora laciniata Pers, ex Fr.
Thelephora palmata Fr.
Thelephora pedicellata Schvr.
Thelephora penicillata Lloyd.
Thelephora pnlverulenta Lev.
Thelephora punicea Alb. & Schw. ex Fr.
Thelephora terrestris Ehrh. ex Fr.
Family: Thelephoraceae
Genus: Theleporus
Theleporus cretaceus Fr.
Genus: Thelotrema (Lichens)
Thelotrema capense Zahlbr.
Thelotrema cavatum Ach.
Thelotrema diplochistoidea Vain.
Thelotrema henatomma Ach.
Thelotrema leioplacoides Nyl.
Thelotrema lepadinum Ach.
Thelotrema microglaenoides Wain.
Thelotrema muscigenum Stizenb.
Thelotrema variolarioides Ach.
Family: Thelotremaceae
Genus: Thielavia
Thielavia basicola Zopf.
Genus: Thielaviopsis
Thielaviopsis basicola Ferraris.
Thielaviopsis paradoxa (De Seynes) Höhn., (1904), accepted as Ceratocystis paradoxa (Dade) C. Moreau, (1952)
Genus: Thyrinula
Thyrinula eucalyptina Petrak & Syd.
Genus: Thyriopsis
Thyriopsis proteae v.d.Byl
Genus: Thyrococcum
Thyrococcum humicola Buchanan
Ti
Genus: Tilletia
Tilletia ayresii Berk, ex Mass.
Tilletia caries Tul.
Tilletia echinosperma Ains.
Tilletia foetans Trel.
Tilletia heterospora Zundel.
Tilletia laevis Kuhn.
Tilletia transvaalensis Zundel.
Tilletia tritici Wint.
Tilletia verrucosa Cooke & Mass.
Tilletia viennotii Syd.
Family:Tilletiaceae
Genus: Tilmadoche
Tilmadoche mutabilis Rost.
Tilmadoche nutans Rost.
Tilmadoche viridis
Genus: Tilotus
Tilotus lenzitiformis Kalchbr.
Genus: Titaea
Titaea doidgeae Hansf.
Genus: Titanella
Titanella grandis Syd.
To
Genus: Togninia
Togninia quaternarioides Berl.
Genus: Tolyposporium
Tolyposporium chloridis P.Henn.
Tolyposporium penicillariae Bref. accepted as Moesziomyces bullatus (J. Schröt.) Vánky, (1977)
Tolyposporium tristachydis Zundel.
Genus: Tomasellia
Tomasellia africana Zahlbr.
Genus: Toninia (Lichens)
Toninia bumamma Zahlbr.
Toninia caerulonigricans Th.Fr.
Toninia caesiopallida Zahlbr.
Toninia flava Zahlbr.
Toninia incretata Zahlbr.
Toninia verrucosa Flagey.
Genus: Tornabenia
Tornabenia africana Massal.
Tornabenia capensis Massal.
Tornabenia flavicans Massal.
Genus: Torula Pers., (1795)
Torula fusidium Thuem.
Torula glutinis Pringsh. & Bilewsky.
Torula herbarum Link.
Torula histolyca Stoddard & Cutler.
Torula sacchari Corda.
Genus: Torulopsis
Torulopsis glutinis Doidge.
Torulopsis mucilaginosa Ciferri & Redaelli.
Torulopsis utilis (Henneberg) Lodder, (1934), accepted as Cyberlindnera jadinii (Sartory, R. Sartory, J. Weill & J. Mey.) Minter (2009)
Tr
Genus: Trabutia
Trabutia evansii Theiss. & Syd.
Trabutia ficuum Theiss. & Syd.
Trabutia nervisequens Theiss. & Syd.
Genus: Trametes
Trametes albotexta Lloyd
Trametes ambigua Fr.
Trametes aratoides Pat. & Har.
Trametes balanina Fr.
Trametes capensis Lloyd.
Trametes captiosa Mont. accepted as Coriolopsis floccosa (Bull.) Murrill, (1903)
Trametes cervina Bres.
Trametes cingulata Berk.
Trametes circinatus Fr.
Trametes corrugata Bres.
Trametes detonsa Fr.
Trametes devexa
Trametes dregeana
Trametes fibrosa Fr.
Trametes funalis Fr.
Trametes gibbosa Fr.
Trametes glabrescens Fr.
Trametes griseo-lilacina v.d.Byl.
Trametes heteromorpha Lloyd.
Trametes hispida Bagl.
Trametes hydnoides (Sw.) Fr., (1838), accepted as Hexagonia hydnoides (Sw.) M.Fidalgo
Trametes hystrix Cooke.
Trametes incerta Curr.
Trametes incondita Fr.
Trametes isidioides Fr.
Trametes keetii v.d.Byl.
Trametes lactea (Fr.) Pilát (1940), accepted as Irpex lacteus (Fr.) Fr. (1828)
Trametes lactinea Fr.
Trametes lanata Fr.
Trametes meyenii Lloyd.
Trametes moesta Kalchbr.
Trametes natalensis Fr.
Trametes obstinatus Cooke.
Trametes ochraceus Lloyd.
Trametes ochrolignea Llovd.
Trametes persoonii Pat.
Trametes pertusa Fr.
Trametes pictus
Trametes proteus Fr.
Trametes rigida Berk. & Mont. accepted as Coriolopsis floccosa (Bull.) Murrill, (1903)
Trametes robiniophila Murr.
Trametes roseola Pat. & Har.
Trametes salebrosa v.d.Byl.
Trametes scalaris Fr.
Trametes sceleton Fr.
Trametes scleroderma Fr.
Trametes sepium Berk.
Trametes serialis Fr.
Trametes serpens Fr.
Trametes suaveolens Fr.
Trametes subflava Lloyd.
Trametes sycomori P.Henn.
Trametes tomentosa v.d.Byl.
Trametes torrida Fr.
Trametes trabea (Pers.) Bres. (1897), accepted as Gloeophyllum trabeum (Pers.) Murrill (1908)
Trametes umbrina Fr.
Trametes ursina (Link) Fr., (1849), accepted as Hexagonia hydnoides (Sw.) M.Fidalgo
Trametes varians v.d.Byl.
Trametes violacea Lloyd.
Trametes wahlbergii Fr.
Trametes zimmermannii Bres.
Genus: Tranzschelia
Tranzschelia punctata Arth.
Genus: Tremella
Tremella alba Kalchbr.
Tremella corrugis Fr.
Tremella crassa Lloyd.
Tremella epigaea Berk. & Br.
Tremella frondosa Fr.
Tremella fuciformis Berk.
Tremella hemifoliacea Lloyd.
Tremella lutescens Pers. ex Fr.
Tremella mesenterica Retz. ex Fr.
Tremella micropera Kalchbr. & Cooke.
Tremella microspora Lloyd.
Tremella moriformis Berk.
Family: Tremellaceae
Family: Tremellineae
Genus: Treubiomyces
Treubiomyces celastri Doidge
Genus: Trichamphora
Trichamphora pezizoides Jungh.
Genus: Trichasterina
Trichasterina popowiae Doidge
Genus: Trichobasis
Trichobasis cichoracearum Lev. accepted as Coleosporium tussilaginis (Pers.) Lév. (1849)
Trichobasis hypoestis Cooke
Trichobasis labmtarum Lev.
Trichobasis rubigo-vera (DC.) Lév. (1849), accepted as Puccinia recondita Dietel & Holw. (1857)
Trichobasis vernoniae Cooke.
Trichobasis zehneriae Thuem.
Genus: Trichoderma
Trichoderma lignorum (Tode) Harz, (1871), accepted as Trichoderma viride Pers., (1794)
Trichoderma viride Pers. (1794),
Genus: Trichodochium
Trichodochium disseminatum Syd.
Genus: Trichoglossum
Trichoglossum hirsutum Boud.
Genus: Tricholoma
Tricholoma album Quel.
Tricholoma amarum Rea.
Tricholoma caffrorum Sacc.
Tricholoma caffrorum var. sulonense Sacc.
Tricholoma cerinum Quel.
Tricholoma gambosum Gill.
Tricholoma gambosum var. capense Kalchbr. & MacOwan.
Tricholoma georgii Quel.
Tricholoma melaleucum Quel.
Tricholoma melaleucum var. adstringens Quel.
Tricholoma melaleucum var. prophyroleucum Gill.
Tricholoma nudum Quel. (sic) possibly (Bull.) P.Kumm. (1871), accepted as Clitocybe nuda (Bull.) H.E.Bigelow & A.H.Sm. (1969)
Tricholoma personatum Quel.
Tricholoma russula Gill.
Tricholoma saponaceum Quel.
Tricholoma ustale Quel.
Genus: Trichopeltaceae
Trichopeltaceae
Genus: Trichopeltula
Trichopeltula carissae Doidge
Trichopeltula kentaniensis Doidge
Genus: Trichophyton
Trichophyton mentagrophytes Gedoelst.
Trichophyton purpureum Bang.
Trichophyton roseum Sabouraud.
Trichophyton sulfureum Sabouraud.
Trichophyton violaceum Sabouraud.
Family: Trichophytoneae
Genus: Trichospaeria
Trichospaeria vandae Verw. & du Pless.
Genus: Trichosporium
Trichosporium purpureum Mass.
Genus: Trichothecium
Trichothecium roseum Link.
Fanily: Trichothyriaceae
Genus: Trichothyrium
Trichothyrium dubiosum Theis.
Trichothyrium elegans Doidge
Trichothyrium robustum Doidge
Genus: Trichotrema
Trichotrema trichosporum Clements
Genus: Tripospora
Tripospora cookei Sacc.
Tripospora tripos Lindau.
Genus: Triposporium
Triposporium stapeliae du Pless.
Genus: Trochodium
Trochodium ipomoeae Syd.
Genus: Tryblidaria
Tryblidaria breutelii Rehm .
Tryblidaria capensis Vouaux.
Genus: Tryblidiella
Tryblidiella rufula (Spreng.) Sacc. (1883), accepted as Rhytidhysteron rufulum (Spreng.) Speg. (1920)
Genus: Tryblidium
Tryblidium rufulum Spreng.
Family: Trypetheliaceae (Mostly lichens)
Genus: Trypethelium (Lichens)
Trypethelium austroafricanum Zahlbr.
Trypethelium bicolor Taylor.
Trypethelium eluteriae Spreng.
Trypethelium phlyctaena Fee.
Trypethelium sprengelii Ach.
Trypethelium verrucosum Fee.
Tu
Family: Tuberaceae
Order: Tuberales
Genus: Tubercularia
Tubercularia fici Edgert.
Tubercularia minor Link.
Tubercularia persicina Ditm.
Tubercularia vulgaris Tode. accepted as Nectria cinnabarina (Tode) Fr. (1849)
Family: Tuberculariaceae
Genus: Tuberculina
Tuberculina malvacearum Speg.
Tuberculina persicina Sacc.
Family: Tubulinaceae
Genus: Tubercinia
Tubercinia eriospermi Syd.
Tubercinia ornithoglossi Syd.
Genus: Tulostoma
Tulostoma adherens Lloyd.
Tulostoma albicans White.
Tulostoma album Mass.
Tulostoma angolense Welw. & Curr.
Tulostoma australianum Lloyd.
Tulostoma bonianum Pat.
Tulostoma brumale Pers.
Tulostoma cyclophorum Lloyd.
Tulostoma lacticeps Bres.
Tulostoma lesliei v.d.Byl.
Tulostoma macowani Bres.
Tulostoma mammosum Fr.
Tulostoma mammosum var. squamosum Fr.
Tulostoma obesum Cooke & Ellis.
Tulostoma poculatum White.
Tulostoma purpusii P.Henn.
Tulostoma squamosum Pers.
Tulostoma transvaalii Lloyd
Family: Tulostomataceae E.Fisch. (1900), accepted as Agaricaceae Chevall. (1826)
Ty
Genus: Tylophoron
Tylophoron africanum Vain.
Tylophoron bylii Merrill
Genus: Tympanopsis
Tympanopsis euomphala Starb.
References
Sources
See also
List of bacteria of South Africa
List of Oomycetes of South Africa
List of slime moulds of South Africa
List of fungi of South Africa
List of fungi of South Africa – A
List of fungi of South Africa – B
List of fungi of South Africa – C
List of fungi of South Africa – D
List of fungi of South Africa – E
List of fungi of South Africa – F
List of fungi of South Africa – G
List of fungi of South Africa – H
List of fungi of South Africa – I
List of fungi of South Africa – J
List of fungi of South Africa – K
List of fungi of South Africa – L
List of fungi of South Africa – M
List of fungi of South Africa – N
List of fungi of South Africa – O
List of fungi of South Africa – P
List of fungi of South Africa – Q
List of fungi of South Africa – R
List of fungi of South Africa – S
List of fungi of South Africa – T
List of fungi of South Africa – U
List of fungi of South Africa – V
List of fungi of South Africa – W
List of fungi of South Africa – X
List of fungi of South Africa – Y
List of fungi of South Africa – Z
Further reading
Kinge TR, Goldman G, Jacobs A, Ndiritu GG, Gryzenhout M (2020) A first checklist of macrofungi for South Africa. MycoKeys 63: 1-48. https://doi.org/10.3897/mycokeys.63.36566
South Africa
Fungi T | List of fungi of South Africa – T | [
"Biology"
] | 4,233 | [
"Fungi",
"Lists of fungi"
] |
68,757,180 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20fungi%20of%20South%20Africa%20%E2%80%93%20H | This is an alphabetical list of the fungal taxa as recorded from South Africa. Currently accepted names have been appended.
Ha
Genus: Hadotrichum
Hadotrichum phragmitis Fuck.
Genus: Haematomma (Lichens)
Haematomma coccineum Korb. var. porphyricum Th.Fr.
Haematomma fenzlianum Massal
Haematomma fenzlianum var. pulvinare Zahlbr.
Haematomma puniceum Massal.
Haematomma puniceum f. rufopallens Wain.
Haematomma puniceum var. africanum Steiner.
Haematomma puniceum var. breviculum Zahlbr.
Haematomma puniceum var. collatum Zahlbr.
Haematomma puniceum var. rufidulum Zahlbr.
Haematomma puniceum var. subarthonioideum Zahlbr.
Genus: Hamaspora (Rusts)
Hamaspora longissima Koem.
Genus: Hanseniospora
Hanseniospora guillermondii Pijper.
Genus: Haplodothella
Haplodothella chaenostoma Werd.
Genus: Haplodothis
Haplodothis chaenostoma Theiss.
Genus: Haploravenelia
Haploravenelia baumiana Syd.
Haploravenelia inornata Diet.
Haploravenelia natalensis Diet.
Genus: Haplosporangium
Haplosporangium bisporale Thaxt.
Genus: Haplosporella
Haplosporella hesperidica Speg.
Haplosporella mali Petrak & Syd.
Genus: Harknessia
Harknessia uromycoides Speg.
He
Genus: Helbeloma
Helbeloma nudipes Karst.
Helbeloma spoliatum Gill.
Genus: Helicobasidium
Helicobasidium compactum Boedyn.
Helicobasidium mompa Tan.
Helicobasidium purpureum Pat.
Genus: Helicomyces
Helicomyces cinereus Mass.
Genus: Helminthocarpon
Helminthocarpon natalense Vain.
Genus: Helminthosporium
Helminthosporium accedens Syd.
Helminthosporium bicolor Mitra.
Helminthosporium brizae Nisikado.
Helminthosporium capense Thuem.
Helminthosporium crustaceum P.Henn.
Helminthosporium cynodontis Marign.
Helminthosporium dematoideum Bubak & Wrobl.
Helminthosporium dolichi Syd.
Helminthosporium dorycarpum Mont. (group)
Helminthosporium gramineum Rabenh.
Helminthosporium halodes Drechsl.
Helminthosporium leersii Atk.
Helminthosporium leucostylum Drechsl.
Helminthosporium miyakei Nisikado.
Helminthosporium oryzai Breda de Haan.
Helminthosporium palmetto Gerard
Helminthosporium ravenelii Berk. & Curt.
Helminthosporium rostratum Drechsl.
Helminthosporium sacchari Butler.
Helminthosporium sativum Pammel, King & Bakke.
Helminthosporium sigmoideum Cab.
Helminthosporium stenospilum Drechsl.
Helminthosporium teres Sacc.
Helminthosporium turcicum Pass.
Helminthosporium sp.
Family: Helotiaceae
Order:Helotiales
Genus: Helotium
Helotium aeruginosum Fr.
Helotium capense Kalchbr. & Cooke
Helotium claro-flavum Berk.
Helotium conformatum Karst.
Helotium epihyllum Fr.
Helotium ferrugineum Fr.
Helotium purpuraturn Kalchbr.
Helotium scutellatum Kalchbr. & Cooke
Genus: Helvella
Helvella mitra Linn.
Family: Helvellaceae
Genus: Hemiarcyria
Hemiarcyria clavata Rost.
Family: Hemihysteriae
Genus: Hemileia
Hemileia ancylanthi Syd.
Hemileia canthii Berk. & Br.
Hemileia evansii Syd.
Hemileia fadogiae Syd.
Hemileia scholzii Syd.
Hemileia vastatrix Berk. & Br.
Hemileia woodii Kalchbr. & Cooke
Family: Hemisphaericeae
Genus: Hendersonia
Hendersonia magnoliae Sacc.
Hendersonia osteospermi Wakef.
Hendersonia rubi West.
Hendersonia sparsa Wint.
Hendersonia wistariae Cooke
Genus: Hendersonula
Hendersonula toruloidea Nattrass.
Genus: Heppia (Lichens)
Heppia azurea Vain
Heppia guepini Nyl.
Heppia guepini var. nigrolimbata Nyl
Heppia mossamedana Wain
Heppia nigrolimbata Nyl.
Family: Heppiaceae
Genus: Heterochaete
Heterochaete andina Pat. & Lagerh.
Family: Heterodermaceae
Genus: Heterosporium
Heterosporium avenae Oud.
Heterosporium echinuiatum Cooke
Heterosporium gracile Sacc.
Heterosporium groenlandicum Allesch.
Heterosporium munduleae Syd.
Heterosporium ornithogali Klotzsch.
Heterosporium secalis Dipp.
Genus: Heterothecium
Heterothecium marine Müll.Arg.
Genus: Hexagona
Hexagona albida Berk.
Hexagona crinigera Fr.
Hexagona decipiens Berk.
Hexagona dermatiphora Lloyd.
Hexagona discopoda Pat. & Har.
Hexagona dregeana Lev.
Hexagona dybowskii Pat.
Hexagona friesiana Speg.
Hexagona glabra Lev.
Hexagona hystrix Har. & Pat.
Hexagona orbiculata Fr.
Hexagona peltata Fr.
Hexagona phaeopora Pat.
Hexagona pobeguini Har.
Hexagona polygramma Mont. ex Fr.
Hexagona rigida Berk.
Hexagona sacleuxii Har.
Hexagona similis Berk.
Hexagona sinensis Fr.
Hexagona speciosa Fr.
Hexagona stuhlmanni P.Henn.
Hexagona subvelutina Wakef.
Hexagona tenuis Fr.
Hexagona tenuis var. natalensis Fr.
Hexagona thollonis Pat. & Har.
Hexagona tricolor Fr.
Hexagona umbrinella Fr.
Hexagona zambesiana Torrend.
Hi
Genus: Himantia
Himantia stellifera Johnston.
Genus: Hirneola
Hirneola auricula-judae Berk.
Hirneola auricularis Fr.
Hirneola auriformis Fr.
Hirneola cochleata Fr.
Hirneola delicata Bres.
Hirneola fusco-succinea P.Henn.
Hirneola hemispierica Fr.
Hirneola nigra Fr.
Hirneola nigra var. fusco-succinea Fr.
Hirneola rufa Fr.
Hirneola polytricha Mont.
Hirneola squamosa Lloyd.
Hirneola vitellina Fr.
Genus: Histoplasma
Histoplasma capsulatum Darling.
Ho
Genus: Holstiella
Holstiella usambarensis P.Henn.
Genus: Homostegia
Homostegia albizziae Herl. & Vogl.
Homostegia amphimelaena Sacc.
Homostegia piggottii Karst.
Genus: Hormodendron
Hormodendron cladosporioides Sacc.
Hormodendron pedrosoi Brumpt.
Hormodendron resinae Lindau.
Genus: Hormomyces
Hormomyces aurantiacus Bon.
Hormomyces calloriodies Sacc.
Hu
Genus: Humaria
Humaria epitricha Berk.
Genus: Humarina
Humarina leucoloma Seaver.
Humarina sp.
Hy
Genus: Hyalinia
Hyalinia crystallina Boud.
Genus: Hyalodema
Hyalodema evansii Magn.
Family: Hyaloscyphaceae
Family: Hydnaceae
Genus: Hydnangium
Hydnangium cameum Wallr.
Hydnangium nigricans Kalchbr.
Genus: Hydnum
Hydnum ambiguum Berk. & Br.
Hydnum auriscalpium Linn, ex Fr.
Hydnum cinnabarinum Fr.
Hydnum coralloides Scop, ex Fr.
Hydnum tiavidum Lloyd.
Hydnum henningsii Bres.
Hydnum longispinosum Lloyd ex v.d.Bvl
Hydnum mucidum Pers.
Hydnum ochraceum Pers. ex Fr.
Hydnum pudorinum Fr.
Hydnum pulcher Lloyd
Hydnum pulchrum Lloyd
Hydnum sclerodontium Berk. & Mont.
Hydnum setosum Bres.
Genus: Hydrophora
Hydrophora stercoraria Tode.
Genus: Hygrophorus
Hygrophorus atro-coccineus Kalchbr.
Hygrophorus coccineus Fr.
Hygrophorus conicus Fr.
Hygrophorus discolor Kalchbr. & MacOwan
Hygrophorus virgineus Fr.
Genus: Hymenochaete
Hymenochaete dregeana Mass.
Hymenochaete fasciculata Talbot.
Hymenochaete fulva Burt.
Hymenochaete fusco-violascens v.d.Byl.
Hymenochaete luteo-badia v.Hohn. & Litsch
Hymenochaete nigricans Bres.
Hymenochaete ochromarginata Talbot.
Hymenochaete pellicula Berk. & Br.
Hymenochaete rubiginosa Lev.
Hymenochaete semistupposa Petch.
Hymenochaete tabacina Lev.
Hymenochaete tabacina var. australis Mont.
Hymenochaete tenuissima Berk.
Hymenochaete tristicula Mass.
Genus: Hymenogaster
Hymenogaster albellus Mass. & Rodway.
Hymenogaster arenarius Tul.
Hymenogaster levisporus Mass. & Rodway.
Hymenogaster lilacinus Tul.
Hymenogaster radiatus Lloyd
Hymenogaster zeylanicus Petch.
Family: Hymenogastraceae
Order:Hymenogastrales
Order:Hymenomycetales
Family: Hymenomyceteae
Genus: Hyphaster
Hyphaster kutuensis P.Henn.
Genus: Hyphoderma
Hyphoderma laetum Karst.
Genus: Hypholoma
Hypholoma candolleanum Quel.
Hypholoma capnolepis Sacc.
Hypholoma capnoides Quel.
Hypholoma fasciculare Quel.
Hypholoma hydrophilum Quel.
Hypholoma noli-tangere Fr.
Family: Hypochnaceae
Genus: Hypochnus
Hypochnus evlesii v.d.Byl.
Hypochnus puniceus Sacc.
Genus: Hypocrea
Hypocrea camea Kalchbr. & Cooke.
Hypocrea chrysostigrna Kalchbr. & Cooke.
Hypocrea citrina Fr.
Hypocrea inandae Cooke
Hypocrea lycogalae Kalchbr. & Cooke
Hypocrea rufa Fr.
Hypocrea subcitrina Kalchbr. & Cooke
Hypocrea sulphurella Kalchbr. & Cooke
Hypocrea traehycarpa Syd.
Hypocrea sp.
Family:Hypocreaceae
Genus: Hypomyces
Hypomyces chrysospermus Tul.
Hypomyces ipomoeae Wollenw.
Genus: Hyponectria
Hyponectria sutherlandiae Theiss.
Genus: Hypoxylon
Hypoxylon africanum v.d.Byl
Hypoxylon annulatum Mont.
Hypoxylon argillaceum Fr.
Hypoxylon cetrarioides Welw. & Curr.
Hypoxylon clypeus Schw.
Hypoxylon colliculosum Nitschke.
Hypoxylon concentricum Fr.
Hypoxylon cornutum Hoffm.
Hypoxylon deustum (Hoffm.) Grev., (1828), accepted as Kretzschmaria deusta (Hoffm.) P.M.D.Martin, (1970)
Hypoxylon exutans Cooke.
Hypoxylon fuscum Fr.
Hypoxylon gilletianum Sacc.
Hypoxylon glomeratum Cooke.
Hypoxylon haematostroma Mont.
Hypoxylon hypomiltum Mont.
Hypoxylon kalchbrenneri Sacc.
Hypoxylon lepidum v.d.Byl.
Hypoxylon malleolus Berk. & Rav.
Hypoxylon mediterraneum Miller.
Hypoxylon multiforme Fr.
Hypoxylon natalense Berk.
Hypoxylon placenta Kalchbr.
Hypoxylon punctulatum Berk. & Rav.
Hypoxylon rubiginosum Pers. ex Ft.
Hypoxylon serpens (Pers.) Fr., (1835), accepted as Nemania serpens (Pers.) Gray, (1821)
Hypoxylon stygium Sacc.
Hypoxylon suborbiculare Welw. & Curr.
Hypoxylon truncatum Miller.
Genus: Hypsilophora
Hypsilophora calloeioides Kalchbr. & Cooke
Genus: Hysterangium
Hysterangium niger Lloyd
Family: Hysteriaceae
Order: Hysteriales
Genus: Hysterographium
Hysterographium acaciae Doidge
Hysterographium fraxini de Not. var. oleastri Desm.
Hysterographium spinicolum Doidge
Genus: Hysterostoma
Hysterostoma acocantherae Theiss. & Syd.
Hysterostoma areolata Nel.
Hysterostoma capense Syd.
Hysterostoma colae Hansf.
Hysterostoma faureae Doidge.
Hysterostoma microspora Doidge.
Hysterostoma orbiculata Syd.
Genus: Hysterostomella
Hysterostomella bosciae Doidge.
Hysterostomella concentrica Syd.
Hysterostomella opaca Doidge
Hysterostomella oxyanthae Doidge
Hysterostomella tenella Syd.
Genus: Hysteromina
Hysteromina euclea v.d.Byl.
Hysteromina opaca Syd.
Hysteromina oxyanthae Doidge
Hysteromina tenella Syd.
References
Sources
See also
List of bacteria of South Africa
List of Oomycetes of South Africa
List of slime moulds of South Africa
List of fungi of South Africa
List of fungi of South Africa – A
List of fungi of South Africa – B
List of fungi of South Africa – C
List of fungi of South Africa – D
List of fungi of South Africa – E
List of fungi of South Africa – F
List of fungi of South Africa – G
List of fungi of South Africa – H
List of fungi of South Africa – I
List of fungi of South Africa – J
List of fungi of South Africa – K
List of fungi of South Africa – L
List of fungi of South Africa – M
List of fungi of South Africa – N
List of fungi of South Africa – O
List of fungi of South Africa – P
List of fungi of South Africa – Q
List of fungi of South Africa – R
List of fungi of South Africa – S
List of fungi of South Africa – T
List of fungi of South Africa – U
List of fungi of South Africa – V
List of fungi of South Africa – W
List of fungi of South Africa – X
List of fungi of South Africa – Y
List of fungi of South Africa – Z
Further reading
Kinge TR, Goldman G, Jacobs A, Ndiritu GG, Gryzenhout M (2020) A first checklist of macrofungi for South Africa. MycoKeys 63: 1-48. https://doi.org/10.3897/mycokeys.63.36566
South Africa
Fungi H | List of fungi of South Africa – H | [
"Biology"
] | 3,827 | [
"Fungi",
"Lists of fungi"
] |
68,758,427 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Joseph%20Kapeller | Jean-Joseph Kapeller (24 July 1706 – 29 November 1790) was a French painter, architect and geometer. Born in Marseille he was influenced by Jean-Baptiste de La Rose and Joseph Vernet, mainly producing landscapes and seascapes such as his 1756 masterwork Embarcation of the Expeditionary Corps for Minorca at the Port of Marseille under the command of the Duke of Richelieu. He and his contemporary Charles François Lacroix de Marseille produced seascapes which marked a step-change in the appreciation of seascapes in Provence in the second half of the 18th century.
Kapeller and Michel-François Dandré-Bardon co-founded Marseille's Académie de peinture et de sculpture, with Kapeller becoming its director-rector in 1771 and giving classes in drawing and gemotery there which were attended by his main pupil Henry d'Arles. Kapeller was also a major figure in freemasonry in the city, becoming grand master of the Chevaliers de l'Orient lodge. He also became rector of the third order Franciscans at the Récollets in 1745 and a member of a chapel of penitents. Famous in Marseille in his own time, he seems to have never become much known outside Provence and most of his works are now lost, though some now hang in public collections in Toulon and Marseille.
Life
Early life
His father Jean-Georges had been born in Meilen, Zurich and married Marie-Anne Daignan in Marseille on 11 January 1701, the year before Jean-Joseph's birth. Jean-Georges was also a painter and seems to have been highly regarded by contemporary art critics, who referred to "the ardour of his zeal for everything which concerned the school, artists and matters of art". Jean-Georges died before 1723, possibly during the bout of plague which affected Marseille in 1723, according to Joseph Billioud.
Jean-Joseph Kapeller married Anne-Marie Mouren on 24 January 1723 in the collegiate church of Saint-Martin. The couple had two children, Marie-Eugénie (called "widow Mullard" in Jean-Joseph's will of 1778) and Pierre-Paul (a painter and teacher who was made an associate of the Académie in 1753 and settled in the Spanish colonies in South America, specialising in still lives of shellfish and exhibiting at the Académie de peinture in 1757).
Founder-member of the Académie de peinture de Marseille
Teacher
Kapeller's knowledge of architecture caused the Académie's permanent director Dandré-Bardon to make him its permanent professor of geometry, teaching classes which comprised "elementary geometry, transcendental geometery and sublime geometry which applied differential calculus, principally integral calculus to the knowledge of curves and surfaces". These classes were compulsory for all the Académie's pupils, including the future seascape painter Antoine Roux (1765 - 1835), since such knowledge was just as necessary to painters and sculptors as to astronomers and architects. These classes constituted an initial training in the field, which Kapeller also running a secondary course in the orders of architecture. Only after taking these preparatory classes could pupils move on to drawing the head and ornamentation.
Kapeller was lastly professor of "mechanics" (what is now known as orthography) according to the terms in the Académie's lists. The previous years' issues of the Almanach historique de Marseille by Grosson showed that Kappeler already ran a "school of mathematics, drawing and of civilian and military architecture" in his home on rue d'Aubagne.
According to professor Régis Bertrand, Kapeller seems to have retained his roles at the Académie until 1787 : an octogenarian, he was thus replaced by architect Jacques Dageville (1723–1794).
Pupils
In Marseille he combined his roles at the Académie with that of police commissioner (a purely honorary and unpaid role) for 16 years.
Masonic Grandmaster
Member of religious associations
Works
Paintings
In public collections
Unknown location
Collector
Architect and geometer
Legacy
Contemporary mentions
Exhibitions
Art sales
References
18th-century French painters
French landscape painters
French marine artists
1706 births
1790 deaths
People from Marseille
18th-century French architects
Geometers | Jean-Joseph Kapeller | [
"Mathematics"
] | 862 | [
"Geometers",
"Geometry"
] |
68,760,591 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time%20in%20Togo | Time in Togo is given by Greenwich Mean Time (GMT; UTC+00:00). Togo has never observed daylight saving time and adopted this time zone in 1907.
IANA time zone database
In the IANA time zone database, Togo is given one zone in the file zone.tab – Africa/Lome. "TG" refers to the country's ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code. Data for Togo directly from zone.tab of the IANA time zone database; columns marked with * are the columns from zone.tab itself:
References
External links
Current time in Togo at Time.is
Time in Togo at TimeAndDate.com
Time by country
Geography of Togo
Time in Africa | Time in Togo | [
"Physics"
] | 146 | [
"Spacetime",
"Physical quantities",
"Time",
"Time by country"
] |
54,532,744 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/17776 | 17776 (also known as What Football Will Look Like in the Future) is a serialized speculative fiction multimedia narrative by Jon Bois, published online through SB Nation. Set in the distant future in which all humans have become immortal and infertile, the series follows three sapient space probes that watch humanity play an evolved form of American football in which games can be played for millennia over distances of thousands of miles. The series debuted on July 5, 2017, and new chapters were published daily until the series concluded with its twenty-fifth chapter on July 15, 2017.
Bois began developing 17776 in 2016. Because the story incorporates text, animated GIFs, still images, and videos hosted on YouTube, new tools were developed to allow it to be hosted efficiently on the SB Nation website. The work explores themes of consciousness, hope, despair, and why humans play sports. 17776 was well received by critics, who praised it for its innovative use of its medium and for the depth of emotion it evoked. In 2018, the story won a National Magazine Award for Digital Innovation and was longlisted for both the Hugo Awards for Best Novella and Best Graphic Story.
It is followed by a sequel series: 20020, released from September to October 2020, which Bois intends to follow up with a further series entitled 20021. The sequel series follows a 111-team game of college football on fields spanning 130,000 miles across the United States.
Premise
The story takes place on a future Earth where humans stopped dying, aging, and being born in 2026. All social ills were subsequently eliminated, and technology preventing humans from any injury was developed. In the United States, American football evolved to include new rules, including those that allow fields thousands of miles long, hundreds of in-game players, and games millennia long. Over time, computers gained sentience due to constant exposure to broadcast human data.
By the year 17776, the space probe Pioneer 9 (called Nine) has gained sentience and made contact with Pioneer 10 (called Ten) and the Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer (called Juice). As Nine adjusts to a world radically different from that of the 20th century, the three space probes watch multiple football games occurring across the United States: a game using the entirety of Nebraska as a field in which the next point scored wins the game; a game in which players strive to possess every existing football autographed by obscure NFL player Koy Detmer; a game played between the Canadian border and the Mexican border deadlocked for 13,000 years at the bottom of a gorge in Arizona; an NFL regulation game between the Denver Broncos and the Pittsburgh Steelers that changed over 15,000 years into 58 playing teams owning and capitalizing upon portions of the field while the ball is lost; a 500 game that results in the destruction of the Centennial Light; and a game in which the possessing player is attempting to score an automatic win by hiding in his team's end zone for 10,000 years.
Format
17776 is read by scrolling through pages occupied by large GIF images and colored dialogue text, interspersed with occasional YouTube videos. The story is divided into chapters, which were originally published in daily installments between July 5 and 15, 2017. Much of the GIF and video content of the series uses Google Earth satellite imagery, 3D buildings, and other tools within Google Earth to create animations and visual effects.
Development
Bois wrote and illustrated 17776 for Vox Media's sports news website SB Nation, of which he is creative director. Aside from 17776, Bois produces two other recurring, humorous video essay programs for the site: Pretty Good, which focuses on unusual sports topics and stories, and Chart Party, which focuses on statistics and has an emphasis on Bois' use of visual art in his journalism and storytelling. Bois is also known for the Breaking Madden series, in which he attempted unusual scenarios in the Madden NFL series of video games.
In early 2016, Bois began developing an "anti-sci fi" project as a possible sequel to The Tim Tebow CFL Chronicles, an earlier work for SB Nation, and set the story in a year far enough in the future that "nobody ever thinks about it." Although he liked the concept and the visuals, he believed the project would not connect with readers and shelved it. Later, he realized that the story needed a centering character; he wrote one in the form of a small town, AM radio talk show host before coming up with the characters of the probes. Development renewed in May 2016, and the project solidified after SB Nation published its article "The Future of Football." Bois described it as the biggest project he ever attempted.
The series was developed by Graham MacAree, who used a Vox Media tool that creates custom packages from standard article sets to give Bois creative leeway and to accommodate the series' weight on the SB Nation website. MacAree found that there were few resources online for achieving the desired effects.
Themes
Bois has stated that he had "conceived [17776] to give the reader a good time," asserting that this "was literally the whole point."
William Hughes writing for The A.V. Club described 17776 as concerned with why humans play sports: "That is, given the massive resources, time, and information at our disposal (not to mention those available to our descendants), why does communal game-playing still hold such an important place in society?" He also listed consciousness, hope, and despair as among the work's themes. Beth Elderkin of io9 described it as "a deep thought experiment into what we consider humanly possible". She also felt that Ten and Juice take on the role of angel and devil, and she suggested the two may be unreliable narrators. Ian Crouch of The New Yorker felt that the work had a "tonal echo" of Don DeLillo's 1972 novel End Zone due to thematic similarities "with the way that the order and logic of football might act as a counterbalance to the chaos of the real world".
Reception
According to the communications director at Vox Media, 17776 garnered over 2.3 million pageviews by July 10. Two days later, it had received more than 2.9 million pageviews. Average engagement time was over nine minutes, and 43 percent of readers finished each installment of the series published by July 7. On July 19, Bois claimed that 17776 received 700,000 unique visitors and 4 million total pageviews, with an average engagement time of 11 minutes.
Thu-Huong Ha for Quartz described 17776 as "part Italo Calvino, part Peter Heller [author of The Dog Stars], with humor seemingly from within the depths of Reddit," saying that the story would appeal to fans of both sports and literature. Tor.com described the first chapter as full of tension and felt that receiving answers is a "surprisingly heartbreaking" experience "lessened by a gleeful bouncing immaturity" one would not expect from the characters. Beth Elderkin at io9 said the series is "akin to Homestuck" and described it as "weird, complex, and pretty spectacular". William Hughes writing for The A.V. Club felt that 17776 is a "truly innovative piece of work". After reading the first three chapters, Agatha French of the Los Angeles Times stated that she was "impressed and excited by the innovation" of what she saw, and that she was intrigued despite not knowing what the work is or is saying. She felt the work took full advantage of its online medium and suggested that it "may also be a glimpse into the future of reading on the Internet". Ian Crouch of The New Yorker described the series as, "despite its seemingly meagre parts, a thing of startling beauty". Of the chapters published by July 12, he felt "the most striking chapter" to be one that used audio of Verne Lundquist calling the end of a 2013 game between the University of Alabama and Auburn University over a video panning over Earth. He also noted that the series was compared to Homestuck and relayed additional comparisons to Thomas Pynchon novels and "a Reddit thread hijacked by robot trolls".
The series won the inaugural National Magazine Award for Digital Innovation from the American Society of Magazine Editors; this was the first National Magazine Award nomination and win for SB Nation. It was described by the judges as "an extraordinary combination of art, fiction and technology, an online acid trip that had to be experienced to be believed." It was also longlisted for the Hugo Awards for Best Novella and Best Graphic Story in 2018, ultimately finishing in 11th place in both categories.
Sequel series
On September 28, 2020, a sequel titled 20020 was launched on Secret Base, a branch of SB Nation; on October 13, it was revealed to be the first part of a two-part continuation with the second half, 20021, originally planned for release in the winter or spring of 2021, though later delayed. One chapter of 20020 was released every Monday, Wednesday, and Friday beginning on September 28, 2020, and ending on October 23. Both parts of the series are expected to run for twelve chapters.
It focuses on a similarly lengthy, interconnected, 111-team competition based on college football. The sentient space probes featured in 17776 return, with Juice serving as the game's designer and commissioner. 20020s format largely resembles 17776s with a more involved use of Google Earth–based YouTube video storytelling interspersed regularly into the narrative.
See also
Hypertext fiction
References
Further reading
External links
Wayback Machine link
20020: The Future of College Football
20020: Questions and answers
2017 works
American football mass media
American speculative fiction works
Existentialist works
Fiction about artificial intelligence
Fiction about immortality
Fiction set in the 7th millennium or beyond
Multimedia works
SB Nation
Science fiction comedy
Sports fiction
Web fiction
Works set in outer space
Works set in the United States
Novels about American football | 17776 | [
"Technology"
] | 2,028 | [
"Multimedia",
"Multimedia works"
] |
54,532,965 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landscape%20%28magazine%29 | Landscape was a magazine of human geography founded by J.B. Jackson in 1951 and published three times a year in Berkeley, California until 1999.
The magazine's original subtitle was "Human Geography of the Southwest"; this was later dropped.
The first five issues consisted largely of Jackson's own essays. Jackson was the magazine's publisher and editor until 1968. Publication was suspended from 1971–1974.
Its ISSN was 0023-8023.
Notes
Human geography
Urban planning
Landscape architecture
Magazines established in 1951
Defunct magazines published in the United States
Magazines published in California
Magazines disestablished in 1999
Triannual magazines published in the United States
Architecture magazines
Mass media in Berkeley, California | Landscape (magazine) | [
"Engineering",
"Environmental_science"
] | 140 | [
"Landscape architecture",
"Environmental social science stubs",
"Urban planning",
"Environmental social science",
"Human geography",
"Architecture"
] |
54,533,486 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential%20testing | Differential testing, also known as differential fuzzing, is a software testing technique that detect bugs, by providing the same input to a series of similar applications (or to different implementations of the same application), and observing differences in their execution. Differential testing complements traditional software testing because it is well-suited to find semantic or logic bugs that do not exhibit explicit erroneous behaviors like crashes or assertion failures. Differential testing is also called back-to-back testing.
Differential testing finds semantic bugs by using different implementations of the same functionality as cross-referencing oracles, pinpointing differences in their outputs over the same input: any discrepancy between the program behaviors on the same input is marked as a potential bug.
Application domains
Differential testing has been used to find semantic bugs successfully in diverse domains like SSL/TLS implementations, C compilers, JVM implementations, Web application firewalls, security policies for APIs, antivirus software, and file systems. Differential testing has also been used for automated fingerprint generation from different network protocol implementations.
Input generation
Unguided
Unguided differential testing tools generate test inputs independently across iterations without considering the test program’s behavior on past inputs. Such an input generation process does not use any information from past inputs and essentially creates new inputs at random from a prohibitively large input space. This can make the testing process highly inefficient, since large numbers of inputs need to be generated to find a single bug.
An example of a differential testing system that performs unguided input generation is "Frankencerts". This work synthesizes Frankencerts by randomly combining parts of real certificates. It uses syntactically valid certificates to test for semantic violations of SSL/TLS certificate validation across multiple implementations. However, since the creation and selection of Frankencerts are completely unguided, it is significantly inefficient compared to the guided tools.
Guided
Guided input generation process aims to minimize the number of inputs needed to find each bug by taking program behavior information for past inputs into account.
Domain-specific evolutionary guidance
An example of a differential testing system that performs domain-specific coverage-guided input generation is Mucerts. Mucerts relies on the knowledge of the partial grammar of the X.509 certificate format and uses a stochastic sampling algorithm to drive its input generation while tracking the program coverage.
Another line of research builds on the observation that the problem of new input generation from existing inputs can be modeled as a stochastic process. An example of a differential testing tool that uses such a stochastic process modeling for input generation is Chen et al.’s tool. It performs differential testing of Java virtual machines (JVM) using Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) sampling for input generation. It uses custom domain-specific mutations by leveraging detailed knowledge of the Java class file format.
Domain-independent evolutionary guidance
NEZHA is an example of a differential testing tool that has a path selection mechanism geared towards domain-independent differential testing. It uses specific metrics (dubbed as delta-diversity) that summarize and quantify the observed asymmetries between the behaviors of multiple test applications. Such metrics that promote the relative diversity of observed program behavior have shown to be effective in applying differential testing in a domain-independent and black-box manner.
Automata-learning-based guidance
For applications, such as cross-site scripting (XSS) filters and X.509 certificate hostname verification, which can be modeled accurately with finite-state automata (FSA), counter-example-driven FSA learning techniques can be used to generate inputs that are more likely to find bugs.
Symbolic-execution-based guidance
Symbolic execution is a white-box technique that executes a program symbolically, computes constraints along different paths, and uses a constraint solver to generate inputs that satisfy the collected constraints along each path. Symbolic execution can also be used to generate input for differential testing.
The inherent limitation of symbolic-execution-assisted testing tools—path explosion and scalability—is magnified especially in the context of differential testing where multiple test programs are used. Therefore, it is very hard to scale symbolic execution techniques to perform differential testing of multiple large programs.
See also
Software testing
Software diversity
References
Software testing | Differential testing | [
"Engineering"
] | 883 | [
"Software engineering",
"Software testing"
] |
54,534,627 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%207070 | NGC 7070 is a spiral galaxy located about 100 million light-years away in the constellation of Grus. It has a close companion galaxy called NGC 7070A. NGC 7070 was discovered by astronomer John Herschel on September 5, 1834.
NGC 7070 is a member of a group of galaxies known as the NGC 7079 Group.
See also
NGC 7083
References
External links
Unbarred spiral galaxies
Grus (constellation)
7070
66869
Astronomical objects discovered in 1834
NGC 7079 Group | NGC 7070 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 106 | [
"Grus (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
54,536,108 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EBLM%20J0555-57 | EBLM J0555-57 is a triple star system approximately 670 light-years from Earth. The system's discovery was released on July 12, 2017. EBLM J0555-57Ab, the smallest star in the system, orbits its primary star with a period of 7.8 days, and currently is the smallest known star with a mass sufficient to enable the fusion of hydrogen in its core.
System
EBLM J0555-57, also known as CD−57 1311, is a triple star system in the constellation Pictor, which contains a visual binary system consisting of two sun-like stars separated by 2.5": EBLM J0555-57Aa, a magnitude 9.98 spectral type F8 star, and EBLM J0555-57B, a magnitude 10.76 star. No orbital motion has been detected but they have almost identical radial velocities and are assumed to be gravitationally bound.
Component A of the system is itself an eclipsing binary (EBLM J0555-57Ab orbiting EBLM J0555-57Aa). Eclipses, also known as transits in the context of planetary searches, have been detected in the near infrared, with brightness drops of 0.05% during the eclipse. The shape and duration of the transits allow the radii of the two stars to be determined. A full solution of the orbit gives a period of 7 days and 18 hours, with a low eccentricity of 0.09, an almost edge-on inclination of 89.84°, and a semi-major axis of 0.08 AU.
EBLM J0555-57Ab
EBLM J0555-57Ab has a mass of about Jupiter masses, or 0.084 solar masses. Its radius is 0.084 solar radii (about ), comparable to Saturn, which has an equatorial radius of 60,268 km. The star is about 290 times more massive than Saturn. Current stellar models put its mass at the lower limit for hydrogen-burning stars. EBLM J0555-57Ab was discovered by a group of scientists at the University of Cambridge associated with the EBLM project (Eclipsing Binary, Low Mass), using data collected by the WASP project. WASP (Wide Angle Search for Planets) is searching for exoplanets using the transit method. The findings were released on July 12th, 2017, though the exact date of the discovery is unknown. Additional properties of the star were determined using Doppler spectroscopy, to measure the periodic radial velocity variation of the primary star due to the gravitational influence of its companion. EBLM J0555-57Ab is the smallest hydrogen burning star currently known.
See also
2MASS J0523−1403
OGLE-TR-122 - This binary stellar system contained one of the smallest red dwarfs known when it was discovered.
OGLE-TR-123
TRAPPIST-1
SSSPM J0829-1309
GJ 1245
List of smallest stars
References
External links
Smallest ever star discovered by astronomers University of Cambridge
J05553262-5717261
Durchmusterung objects
Triple star systems
Eclipsing binaries
Pictor
F-type main-sequence stars
TIC objects | EBLM J0555-57 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 694 | [
"Pictor",
"Constellations"
] |
54,536,319 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HPA-23 | HPA-23, sometimes known as antimonium tungstate, is an antiretroviral drug that was used for the treatment of HIV infection. It achieved widespread publicity as an effective treatment for HIV and AIDS beginning in 1984, just one year after HIV was first identified. Later testing failed to demonstrate any efficacy and some patients suffered serious side effects from the drug, including liver failure.
History
HPA-23 was developed by Rhône-Poulenc at the Pasteur Institute in the 1970s and used in France on an experimental basis to treat HIV and AIDS patients beginning in 1984. The inventors of the drug, as listed in its patent, were Jean-Claude Chermann, Dominique Dormont, Etienne Vilmer, Bruno Spire, Françoise Barré-Sinoussi, Luc Montagnier, and Willy Rozenbaum. While the drug was not presented as a cure for HIV/AIDS, it was suggested it could arrest replication and spread of the virus.
The United States, which had a more stringent drug approval process than France, delayed authorizing use of HPA-23 even for clinical trials, prompting an angry outcry and an exodus of more than 100 American AIDS patients to France to seek treatment, encouraged in part by a French call for American volunteers.
Bill Kraus, who received HPA-23 dosages in France as a medical tourist, "pinned his entire hope for survival" on the drug, even to the exclusion of other experimental medications then in development. After actor Rock Hudson received treatment at a Paris hospital with HPA-23, a representative of the National Gay Task Force declared that "something is wrong with the health-care system when a wealthy man and a friend of the President has to go to Europe for treatment". At the same time, however, some within the American scientific community cautioned AIDS sufferers against putting too much hope in HPA-23 and generally supported the Food and Drug Administration's (FDA) conservative approach to certification. William A. Haseltine commented that reports of the drug's success in France were based on "the crummiest kind of anecdotal stories – they don't do the scientifically controlled trials". Physicians at San Francisco General Hospital's AIDS Clinic echoed Haseltine's concerns, noting that French testing of the drug was done without any type of control group and that the drug's high toxicity made it potentially dangerous to patients already suffering serious infections. Public Citizen, which was often critical of FDA decisions, also came out in support of the agency's timeline for certification.
In August 1985, under increasing public pressure to fast track approval of the drug, the United States Food and Drug Administration permitted the use of HPA-23 in extremely limited human testing. In the ensuing clinical trials no improvement in the condition of the test subjects was observed, with some even showing increased levels of HIV replication and three patients suffering liver failure triggered by the drug. By 1986, the National Academy of Sciences had concluded that no therapeutic benefits for persons infected with HIV could be attributed to HPA-23. It was subsequently abandoned as a treatment option.
See also
Ammonium paratungstate
References
HIV/AIDS
French inventions
Tungstates
Withdrawn drugs
Antimony compounds
Sodium compounds
Ammonium compounds
1984 in science | HPA-23 | [
"Chemistry"
] | 667 | [
"Ammonium compounds",
"Drug safety",
"Withdrawn drugs",
"Salts"
] |
54,537,321 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random%20sequential%20adsorption | Random sequential adsorption (RSA) refers to a process where particles are randomly introduced in a system, and if they do not overlap any previously adsorbed particle, they adsorb and remain fixed for the rest of the process. RSA can be carried out in computer simulation, in a mathematical analysis, or in experiments. It was first studied by one-dimensional models: the attachment of pendant groups in a polymer chain by Paul Flory, and the car-parking problem by Alfréd Rényi. Other early works include those of Benjamin Widom. In two and higher dimensions many systems have been studied by computer simulation, including in 2d, disks, randomly oriented squares and rectangles, aligned squares and rectangles, various other shapes, etc.
An important result is the maximum surface coverage, called the saturation coverage or the packing fraction. On this page we list that coverage for many systems.
The blocking process has been studied in detail in terms of the random sequential adsorption (RSA) model. The simplest RSA model related to deposition of spherical particles considers irreversible adsorption of circular disks. One disk after another is placed randomly at a surface. Once a disk is placed, it sticks at the same spot, and cannot be removed. When an attempt to deposit a disk would result in an overlap with an already deposited disk, this attempt is rejected. Within this model, the surface is initially filled rapidly, but the more one approaches saturation the slower the surface is being filled. Within the RSA model, saturation is sometimes referred to as jamming. For circular disks, saturation occurs at a coverage of 0.547. When the depositing particles are polydisperse, much higher surface coverage can be reached, since the small particles will be able to deposit into the holes in between the larger deposited particles. On the other hand, rod like particles may lead to much smaller coverage, since a few misaligned rods may block a large portion of the surface.
For the one-dimensional parking-car problem, Renyi has shown that the maximum coverage is equal to
the so-called Renyi car-parking constant.
Then followed the conjecture of Ilona Palásti, who proposed that the coverage of d-dimensional aligned squares, cubes and hypercubes is equal to θ1d. This conjecture led to a great deal of work arguing in favor of it, against it, and finally computer simulations in two and three dimensions showing that it was a good approximation but not exact. The accuracy of this conjecture in higher dimensions is not known.
For -mers on a one-dimensional lattice, we have for the fraction of vertices covered,
When goes to infinity, this gives the Renyi result above. For k = 2, this gives the Flory result .
For percolation thresholds related to random sequentially adsorbed particles, see Percolation threshold.
Saturation coverage of k-mers on 1d lattice systems
Asymptotic behavior:
.
Saturation coverage of segments of two lengths on a one dimensional continuum
R = size ratio of segments. Assume equal rates of adsorption
Saturation coverage of k-mers on a 2d square lattice
Asymptotic behavior:
.
Saturation coverage of k-mers on a 2d triangular lattice
Saturation coverage for particles with neighbors exclusion on 2d lattices
.
Saturation coverage of squares on a 2d square lattice
For k = ∞, see "2d aligned squares" below.
Asymptotic behavior:
.
See also
Saturation coverage for randomly oriented 2d systems
2d oblong shapes with maximal coverage
Saturation coverage for 3d systems
Saturation coverages for disks, spheres, and hyperspheres
Saturation coverages for aligned squares, cubes, and hypercubes
See also
Adsorption
Particle deposition
Percolation threshold
References
Chemistry
Materials science
Colloidal chemistry | Random sequential adsorption | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry",
"Materials_science",
"Engineering"
] | 789 | [
"Colloidal chemistry",
"Applied and interdisciplinary physics",
"Materials science",
"Colloids",
"Surface science",
"nan"
] |
54,539,305 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GDC%20Observatory | The GDC Observatory is an astronomical observatory dedicated to the exploration and science of the night sky. Located in Gingin, Western Australia, the observatory is a part of the Gingin Gravity Precinct. The Observatory is open to the public on a regular basis.
Southern Cross Cosmos Centre
The observatory is located in the Southern Cross Cosmos Centre, a purpose built facility opened in 2001, with a slide-off roof housing five telescopes available for public use on astronomical viewing nights.
The largest telescope is a Obsession telescope named "Brodie-Hall", donated to the observatory by Laurence and Jean Brodie-Hall.
The facility is located next-door to the Zadko telescope run by the University of Western Australia, which is actively involved in scientific research.
See also
List of astronomical observatories
List of astronomical societies
Lists of telescopes
References
External links
Astronomical observatories in Western Australia
Public observatories
Education in Western Australia
Wheatbelt (Western Australia)
Astronomy museums | GDC Observatory | [
"Astronomy"
] | 193 | [
"Astronomy museums",
"Astronomy education",
"Astronomy organizations",
"History of astronomy"
] |
54,541,552 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cristina%20S%C3%A1nchez%20%28molecular%20biologist%29 | Dr. Cristina Sánchez is a Spanish molecular biologist.
She was born in Madrid, Spain in 1971.
She started her scientific career as an undergraduate student at the laboratory of Dr. Ramos and Dr. Fernández-Ruiz at the Complutense University of Madrid in 1994.
She obtained her PhD with Honors in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at Complutense University in 2000 and went into postdoc studying the antitumoral and other properties of medical cannabis, especially cancer and the therapeutic qualities of cannabinoids.
She has been vocal about popularizing the healing apoptotic effect of cannabinoids on cannabinoid receptor containing cancer cells while leaving the healthy cannabinoid receptor containing cells be.
References
1971 births
Spanish biologists
Living people
Women molecular biologists
Spanish women scientists
Molecular biologists
21st-century Spanish biologists
21st-century women scientists
Complutense University of Madrid alumni | Cristina Sánchez (molecular biologist) | [
"Chemistry"
] | 184 | [
"Molecular biologists",
"Biochemists",
"Molecular biology"
] |
71,715,388 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyber%20range | Cyber ranges are virtual environments used for cybersecurity, cyberwarfare training, simulation or emulation, and development of technologies related to cybersecurity. Their scale can vary drastically, from just a single node to an internet-like network.
See also
National Cyber Range
References
Computer security
Computer network security | Cyber range | [
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 64 | [
"Computer security stubs",
"Cybersecurity engineering",
"Computer networks engineering",
"Computer network security",
"Computing stubs"
] |
71,715,967 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Version%20history%20for%20TLS/SSL%20support%20in%20web%20browsers | Version history for TLS/SSL support in web browsers tracks the implementation of Transport Layer Security protocol versions in major web browsers.
Notes
References
Transport Layer Security
History of computer networks
History of the Internet | Version history for TLS/SSL support in web browsers | [
"Technology"
] | 43 | [
"History of computer networks",
"History of computing"
] |
71,716,179 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20TESS-Keck%20Survey | The TESS-Keck Survey or TKS is an exoplanet search project that uses the Keck I and the Automated Planet Finder (APF) to conduct ground-based follow-up of planet candidates discovered by the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite. The TKS aims to measure the mass for about 100 exoplanets and has been awarded some of the largest time allocations in the histories of Keck I and APF. The program has four main science themes:
the bulk compositions of small planets
dynamical temperatures and system architectures
a larger, more refined sample for future atmospheric studies
planets orbiting evolved stars
List of discoveries
Follow-up works by TKS studied the already discovered planets TOI-1726 c and WASP-107b.
References
Exoplanet search projects | The TESS-Keck Survey | [
"Astronomy"
] | 163 | [
"Astronomy projects",
"Exoplanet search projects"
] |
71,716,208 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incas%20%28parakeet%29 | Incas (before 1885 – February 21, 1918) was a male Carolina parakeet and the last member of his species known with certainty. Though probable sightings of wild Carolina parakeets continued into the 1930s, and the American Ornithologists Union accepted a sighting in 1920, no specimens were collected after 1904 and he is often cited as the last individual in existence. Incas died in the Cincinnati Zoo in 1918, in the same enclosure as Martha, the last passenger pigeon, who died in 1914. He died within one year of his mate, Lady Jane.
Background
The Carolina parakeet was the only parrot species historically native to eastern North America and was documented to be plentiful in early accounts. Over the centuries following European colonization of the Americas, a combination of factors including collection for hat feathers, the pet trade, and eradication by farmers due to their reputation as crop predators led the Carolina parakeet to become increasingly rare by the mid 19th century. As numbers declined, conservationists and bird interest groups became increasingly concerned about the species' trajectory. By 1900, multiple breeding programs had been established for the Carolina parakeet with limited success, but there was allegedly no coordination between zoos with captive birds. As the number of individual wild birds dwindled, the only certain locations of the Carolina parakeet were in captivity.
Life
Incas was brought to the Cincinnati Zoo in 1885 in an attempt to establish a captive breeding population there. He was purchased along with 15 other birds for a sum of $40 (equivalent to $1,200 in 2022). Around that time, captive birds were often sold to Europe and the majority of Carolina parakeets in the pet trade were sourced in Florida with dozens at a time captured into the 1890s. At the zoo, Incas was housed in an aviary in the style of a Japanese pagoda that was built in 1875.
Incas was eventually paired with a female bird named Lady Jane who arrived in the same cohort. They were successful in laying eggs regularly over 32 years together, but they consistently rolled the eggs from their nest. While the couple was still together, the London Zoo offered $400 (over $10,000 in 2022) for the pair. Given established knowledge about Carolina parakeet breeding habits, it is most likely that the birds produced two or three eggs per clutch once each year. Lady Jane, the penultimate captive bird reportedly died aged at least 32 in late summer 1917. Zookeepers in Cincinnati alleged that afterwards Incas became "listless and mournful". At some point after September 1914, possibly after Lady Jane's death, Incas was allegedly moved into the same pagoda enclosure that Martha died in. In the 48 hours before Incas's death on the evening of February 21, 1918, Cincinnati experienced unseasonably cold weather with snowfall and night-time temperatures down to .
Legacy
After dying, like Martha, Incas was supposed to be sent in a block of ice to the Smithsonian Museum of Natural History. For unclear reasons, his skin never arrived there. Though it is likely that he was preserved (as his skin would have had considerable value to a museum), it appears associated records were never kept and the current location of his body is unknown. Some have speculated that his remains are unlabeled at the Cincinnati Museum of Natural History. Others have considered that in the closing year of World War I, the loss of the last captive Carolina parakeet was simply too demoralizing to pay close attention to. Incas's status as the last member of his species is often repeated without scrutiny of the highly probable persistence of wild populations into the 1930s. His death date is also periodically miscited as that of the last passenger pigeon.
See also
List of individual birds
References
External links
Forever Gone: The Tale of the Carolina Parakeet By J. Drew Lanham
Cincinnati Zoo Blog: Conservation Responsibility
Carolina Parakeets: Gone but not Forgotten in The Sun Journal
1918 animal deaths
Animal deaths in the United States
Endlings
Individual birds in the United States
Individual parrots | Incas (parakeet) | [
"Biology"
] | 827 | [
"Individual organisms",
"Endlings"
] |
71,716,640 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RT%20Virginis | RT Virginis is a variable star in the equatorial constellation of Virgo, abbreviated RT Vir. It ranges in brightness from an apparent visual magnitude of 7.7 down to 9.7, which is too faint to be visible to the naked eye. Based on parallax measurements made with the VLBI, the distance to this star is approximately 740 light years. It is receding from the Sun with a radial velocity of 17 km/s.
The long period variability of this star was discovered by W. P. Fleming in 1896, based on photographic plates taken between 1886 and 1895. It was listed with its variable star designation, RT Virginis, in Annie Jump Cannon's 1907 work Second Catalog of Variable Stars. A. H. Joy in 1942 categorized it as an irregular variable with a stellar classification of M8III. In 1969 it was classified as a semiregular variable star of the SRb type. The period was determined to be 155 days by P. N. Kholopov and associates in 1985, then re-evaluated as 375 days based on AAVSO light curves in 1997. This is an oxygen-rich red giant star on the asymptotic giant branch of its evolution, and is undergoing mass loss due to thermal pulsation.
Water vapor emission in the vicinity of the star was detected in the microwave band by D. F. Dickinson in 1973. This is originating from strong maser emission in a circumstellar gas-dust shell. The flux density of these water masers is over . The star is losing mass at a rate of M☉·yr−1; the equivalent of the Sun's mass in 3.3 million years. The velocity of the spherically expanding gas is as high as in the water maser region, at a radius of . In a SiO emitting region located from the star, the gas velocity is . This outflow appears clumpy and asymmetrical with a strong temporal variation.
References
Further reading
Red giants
Asymptotic-giant-branch stars
Semiregular variable stars
Virgo (constellation)
Durchmusterung objects
113285
064407
Virginis, RT | RT Virginis | [
"Astronomy"
] | 449 | [
"Virgo (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
71,718,196 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WZ%20Columbae | WZ Columbae, also known as HD 38170, is a solitary, bluish-white hued star located in the southern constellation Columba, the dove. It has an apparent magnitude of 5.28, allowing it to be faintly visible to the naked eye. Based on parallax measurements from the Gaia spacecraft, the object is about 365 light years distant. It appears to be receding from the Solar System, having a heliocentric radial velocity of .
WZ Columbae was originally listed as a slowly pulsating B-type star by the General Catalogue of Variable Stars. However, observations from Hempel & Howlger (2003) reveal it to be overabundant in strontium and barium. Combined with Hipparcos photometry, this led to the object being reclassified as an Alpha2 Canum Venaticorum variable. Based on data collected in the Hipparcos passband, it fluctuates between magnitudes 5.27 and 5.29 over 1.38 days. However, TESS data suggests a period of days; double that of the earlier data.
The stellar classification of WZ Columbae is B9/9.5 V — a main-sequence star with the characteristics of a B9 and B9.5 star. It has 3.07 times the mass of the Sun and is estimated to be 394 million years old, having completed 89.2% of its main sequence lifetime. It has a slightly enlarged radius of and an effective temperature of . This yields a luminosity 124 times that of the Sun from its photosphere. Like most chemically peculiar stars, WZ Columbae has a relatively slow projected rotational velocity at .
References
B-type main-sequence stars
Columbae, WZ
Alpha2 Canum Venaticorum variables
038170
CD-34 02401
026868
1973
Columbae, 42
Columba (constellation) | WZ Columbae | [
"Astronomy"
] | 404 | [
"Columba (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
71,719,880 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time%20in%20the%20Central%20African%20Republic | The Central African Republic (CAR) observes a single time zone year-round, denoted as West Africa Time (WAT; UTC+01:00).
IANA time zone database
In the IANA time zone database, the Central African Republic is given one zone in the file zone.tab—Africa/Bangui. "CF" refers to the country's ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code. Data for the Central African Republic directly from zone.tab of the IANA time zone database; columns marked with * are the columns from zone.tab itself:
See also
Time in Africa
List of time zones by country
References
External links
Current time in the Central African Republic at Time.is
Time in the Central African Republic at TimeAndDate.com
Time by country
Geography of the Central African Republic
Time in Africa | Time in the Central African Republic | [
"Physics"
] | 167 | [
"Spacetime",
"Physical quantities",
"Time",
"Time by country"
] |
71,722,032 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cortinarius%20violaceocystidiatus | Cortinarius violaceocystidiatus is a species of purple pouch fungus in the genus Cortinarius. It is endemic to Aotearoa New Zealand.
Taxonomy
Cortinarius violaceocystidiatus was described by Andy Nilsen and David Orlovich in 2020. The holotype was collected by Andy Nilsen in 2017 near Harwoods Hole in the Abel Tasman National Park, in the north-west of the South Island, New Zealand. Cortinarius violaceocystidiatus is in Section Cuphomorphi along with C. cuphomorphus and C. juglandaceus.
Description
This species produces secotioid fruit bodies. The pileus ranges from 20 to 35 mm in diameter. It is broadly rounded with an incurved margin that is not attached to stipe at maturity. The pileus margin is entire to cracked, occasionally appendiculate, tending to be slimy, dark violet to almost black, not hygrophanous, with pale violet mottling. The hymenophore locules are up to 3 mm long, ellipsoid in shape and coloured brown, attached to the upper section of the stipe then becoming free. The columella is percurrent. The stipe ranges from 25 to 80 mm long and 7 to 12 mm wide, centrally attached, equal to tapering, white to pale violet in colour with longitudinal striations, occasionally with tufts toward the base. The stipe has a fragile attachment to the pileus. The stipe context is white with a violaceus sheen to violet. Neither the cuticle of the pileus nor the stipe exhibit a colour change upon application of potassium hydroxide.
Cortinarius violaceocystidiatus is unique in Section Cuphomorphi in being secotioid, whereas the other two species C. cuphomorphus and C. juglandaceus are both agaricoid.
Cortinarius violaceocystidiatus is distinguished from the other purple secotioid fungi of New Zealand in having a dark violet to almost black pileus with pale violet mottling, presence of infrequent violet cystidia, and narrower basidiospores (12–15 × 5–7 μm).
Habitat and distribution
Cortinarius violaceocystidiatus is known only from the Tasman region in the South Island of New Zealand. It is an ectomycorrhizal fungus, associated with Nothofagus species including silver beech (Nothofagus menziesii) and red beech (Nothofagus fusca).
Etymology
The specific epithet violaceocystidiatus derives from the Latin violaceo meaning violet and cystidiatus meaning cystidia. This refers to the infrequent purple cystidia.
See also
List of Cortinarius species
External links
Cortinarius violaceocystidiatus in Biota of New Zealand
References
violaceocystidiatus
Fungi of New Zealand
Fungus species | Cortinarius violaceocystidiatus | [
"Biology"
] | 637 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
71,725,016 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collusion%20%28psychology%29 | The concept of collusion in couples' relations with two partners is a psychological term for behavioral patterns in relationships for couples therapy. In contemporary psychotherapeutical practice, collusion often refers to a failure of the therapist to maintain neutrality or objectivity, such as when the therapist aligns too closely with a client's distorted perspectives or defenses. It highlights the importance of self-awareness and reflective practice for the therapist.
Introduction
Karl Jaspers introduced ideas relevant to collusion in his seminal work General Psychopathology (Allgemeine Psychopathologie), first published in 1913. However, Jaspers did not use the term "collusion" explicitly in the way it is commonly understood today. Instead, his work laid the groundwork for understanding interpersonal dynamics and the therapist's influence on the therapeutic relationship.
The term "collusion" in psychotherapy was first introduced by Sándor Ferenczi in 1933. He described collusion as an unconscious process linking the transference reactions of the patient with the countertransference reactions of clinicians, leading to specific and often complex dynamics in the therapeutic relationship.
Later, in 1967, Henry V. Dicks expanded on this concept in his work Marital Tensions, where he explored collusion within marital relationships. Dicks defined collusion as an unconscious, unresolved issue shared by two or more participants, who become interlocked in a defensive maneuver.
In 1975, Jürg Willi further explored the concept in his book The Dyadic Relationship (Die Zweierbeziehung). In this book he introduces his concept of collusion. He interprets collusion to be the unconscious interaction between partners. He delivers an overview of classical phases of two partner couples' relationships. The book is centered around the avoidance of conflicts in these phases. The avoidance is triggering the emergence of collusions. The author understands conflicts of couples as joint neurotic disturbance of the conflict parties. Not every couples' conflict is a collusion, but every destructive attempt of clarification can lead to a collusion. The suggested collusion concept tries to unite different therapy schools in a single theory. He combines different aspects of psychoanalytical (Psychoanalysis), family therapeutic (Family therapy) and communication therapeutic methods. He derives four collusion patterns:
Love as to be one in the narcissistic collusion.
Love as caring for each other in the oral collusion.
Love as totally belonging to each other in the anal-sadistic collusion.
Love as test of masculinity in the phallic-oedipal collusion.
The author understands the dyad as a half-open system and describes the function of third persons in the collusion conflict. For the advancement of a couple, relationships with third persons are necessary. The author restricts himself to considering only those forms, that contribute to not carry out a conflict. He describes different the roles, third persons can take and their effect on the couples' dynamic. Furthermore, he considers psychosomatic couple illness and their consequences for the collusion. A psychosomatic illness has a similar meaning as a third person. Finally, the author describes therapeutic aspects of couples therapy and their effect and application of the collusion concept. A complex topic, which itself fills a second book „Therapie der Zweierbeziehung“.
Narcissistic collusion
Ideally the relationship of a narcissistic collusion presents as follows: Partner A, mostly the male, shows himself grandiose, his partner (complementary narcissistic) reacts adoringly. She herself feels small and not worthy of love, she is fixated on him or a third person and presents herself unobtrusive, with a tendency to self-destructive behavior, for example overloading or drug use. He sees her as a decorative part of himself, she seeks a substitute self in him. He represses thereby, that he identifies with a foreign determined replacement self, she represses her claim of an own ideal self.
Oral collusion
In the oral collusion one partner takes the role of the caretaker and one partner takes the role of the fosterling. Because the couple is committed to their roles, the conflict develops, where the caretaker perceives the fosterling to be insatiable and ungrateful and the caretaker is perceived accusing and dismissive by the fosterling. The fosterling often reacts depressive. Basically, both partners agree, that the meaning of love is to take care of each other. Their joint resistance, the common fear directs against the idea, that the fosterling must take nursing tasks towards the caretaker. Counseling can help the couple to practice their roles and to reflect experiences and resistances.
Anal-sadistic collusion
Both partners have the common resistance against the idea, to question that the relationship would break, if both partners behaved freely and autonomously. This leads to power struggles, sadomasochism, and jealousy-infidelity patterns. These actions serve the purpose, of secure bonding and being related to each other.
Phallic-oedipal collusion
From a psychological point of view every human goes through a complex developing process as a small child, that leads to a sexual identity as boy or girl. Background for the phallic-oedipal collusion of couples are the difficulties, that can arise throughout this process. If the theme of the marriage is the search for confirmation, then most likely both partners have an unresolved relationship to their opposite sex parent and did not have a model in the same sex parent.
In the phallic collusion the male partner follows inflated male claims, while he stays passive-reserved. The frequency and the shaping of sexual encounters are entrusted with the female partner. Not uncommonly there is no sex at all. As a compensation the male partner seek confirmation for example in extreme or dangerous sports. The female partner delegates responsibility and initiative to him, but does not have to be afraid of male expectations from his side.
The mating choice in the oedipal collusion is more directly tied to the opposite sex parent. Often a much older partner is chosen and sometimes the son stays with the mother, or the daughter stays with the father. Sometimes a partner is chosen, who is completely unlike the opposite sex parent, to avoid the tight connectedness from childhood. Humans in deep oedipal entanglement tend to invade the marriages of other humans.
References
Sources
Therapy
Psychology | Collusion (psychology) | [
"Biology"
] | 1,317 | [
"Behavioural sciences",
"Behavior",
"Psychology"
] |
71,728,134 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiodarone%20induced%20thyrotoxicosis | Amiodarone induced thyrotoxicosis (AIT) is a form of hyperthyroidism due to treatment with antiarrhythmic drug, amiodarone.
Amiodarone induced thyroid dysfunction more commonly results in hypothyroidism, estimated to occur in 6-32% of patients, whereas hyperthyroidism from amiodarone use is estimated at 1-12%. However, the prevalence of AIT varies based on geographical region, and is more common in areas with low dietary iodine intake, where it occurs in 10-12% of patients. In the United States, clinical manifestations of AIT occur in 3-5% of patients.
AIT may present clinically early after initiation of amiodarone or can be delayed even up several years. Symptoms associated with AIT are similar to those of other forms of hyperthyroidism, including new-onset or recurrence of arrhythmias, worsening of pre-existing heart conditions such as ischemic heart disease or heart failure, unattributed weight loss, and fever. Development of AIT is associated with an increased risk for major adverse cardiovascular events, and increased mortality specifically in patients with AIT and underlying heart failure.
Pathophysiology
Amiodarone has both direct and indirect effects on thyroid function. The most notable indirect thyroid altering property is that the drug is approximately one-third iodine by weight. As a result, amiodarone therapy elevates free circulating iodine levels up to 40 times greater than the iodine intake from the average American diet. Iodine plays a role in thyroid production, and excess iodine levels within the body can result in overproduction of thyroid hormone. Initially, the thyroid reacts according to the auto-regulatory Wolff-Chaikoff effect to prevent an excess of thyroid hormone production. Usually, the thyroid normalizes within 24-48 hours. In some cases, the thyroid responds with an alternative "escape" mechanism from the Wolff-Chaikoff auto-regulatory effect called the Jod-Basedow phenomenon. This usually occurs in response to exogenous iodine, and they develop hyperthyroidism instead. This Jod-Basedow phenomenon is considered one of the contributing factors for AIT.
Amiodarone additionally alters the thyroid pathway through acting as a thyroid hormone analog and subsequently affecting the other enzymes involved in thyroid hormone production. It also causes direct cytotoxicity and damages thyroid tissues.
AIT often has a delayed clinical presentation, and studies have shown that the average delayed presentation is 2 years. The pharmacology of the drug results in a prolonged half-life within the body as a result of its lipid solubility and distribution into tissues. This leads to a slow clearance of amiodarone from the body and a prolonged toxicity. Other factors affecting AIT include pre-existing heart conditions such as dilated cardiomyopathy and cardiac sarcoidosis, and both have been suggested to be predictive factors for developing AIT.
Subtypes
AIT type 1 results from the Jod-Basedow phenomenon, in which the iodine contained in amiodarone is used by the thyroid gland for excess production of thyroid hormones. It primarily occurs in patients with pre-existing thyroid disease such as nodular goiter or latent autoimmune Graves' disease. These pre-existing thyroid diseases involve thyroid tissue which have lost their auto-regulation and function independently in the presence of excess iodine from amiodarone. AIT type 1 commonly occurs in iodine-deficient regions, and usually appears within weeks-months after patients start amiodarone.
AIT type 2 is a form of an immune system response to the cytotoxic properties of amiodarone and results in a destructive thyroiditis (inflammation in the thyroid). This causes pre-existing thyroid hormones to spill out from damaged cells into the circulation and a resultant immunologic reaction. AIT type 2 usually occurs in patients with a normal thyroid gland and could appear even several years after starting amiodarone.
Mixed/indefinite AIT (or AIT type 3) is used when subtype classification is unclear or when both AIT types occur at once.
Diagnosis
The effects of AIT as mentioned above can be especially dangerous for those with heart disease. Some cases can spontaneously improve, but AIT should generally be diagnosed and treated until normal levels of hormone have been reached, otherwise known as the euthyroid state.
Differentiating AIT sub-types can be difficult and multiple diagnostics are usually used including: thyroid hormone levels, radionucleotide scans such as radioactive iodine or sestamibi, thyroid ultrasonography with color-flow-doppler and levels of circulating interleukin-6 or beta-glucoronidase, though none are considered the single gold-standard. Imaging studies can demonstrate the presence of pre-existing thyroid disease and examine the activity levels of the thyroid gland.
Treatment
Due to the underlying differences in pathophysiology, there will be different treatment options according to the subtype of AIT.
AIT type 1 is initially treated with thionamides and sodium perchlorate to reduce production of thyroid hormones. Definitive treatment with radioiodine or thyroidectomy can be initiated after thyroid hormones levels are stabilized and returned to a euthyroid state.
AIT type 2 is treated with a different regime due to its immunologic pathophysiology. The thyrotoxic phase in AIT type 2 is usually self-limited but treatment with glucocorticoids can reduce its length through their anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effect.
AIT type 3 treatment usually combines both modalities with subsequent revaluation based on the response to treatment.
Persistent AIT that does not respond to treatment regardless of the subtype will likely have to consider alternatives such as plasmapheresis or surgery.
Monitoring is highly recommended for patients taking amiodarone, and thyroid function should be regularly evaluated during treatment and for at least one year following drug cessation.
References
Further reading
External links
Thyroid disease
Drug-induced diseases | Amiodarone induced thyrotoxicosis | [
"Chemistry"
] | 1,261 | [
"Drug-induced diseases",
"Drug safety"
] |
71,730,468 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AH%20Virginis | AH Virginis is a contact binary star system in the equatorial constellation of Virgo, abbreviated AH Vir. It is a variable star with a brightness that peaks at an apparent visual magnitude of 9.18, making it too faint to be viewed with the naked eye. The distance to this system is approximately 338 light years based on parallax measurements, and it is drifting further away with a mean radial velocity of 7 km/s. O. J. Eggen in 1969 included this system as a probable member of the Wolf 630 group of co-moving stars.
In 1905, this source was identified as an optical double star by W. J. Hussey, with the pair showing an angular separation of along a position angle of 15.2°. Gaia Data Release 3 astrometry for the companion is flagged as potentially unreliable but shows a similar parallax and proper motion to AH Virginis.
The brighter visual component was found to be variable by P. Guthnick and R. Prager in 1929, and designated AH Vir. This component was determined to be a W Ursae Majoris variable, and an orbital period of was found by F. Lause in 1934–1935. Y. C. Chang computed orbital elements of this close binary in 1948 and found the system is eclipsing.
In 1960, L. Binnendijk interpreted the particular shape of the light curve for AH Vir as being due to a sub-luminous region on the primary. Multiple observers noted frequent changes to the light curve and period over time, and in 1977 G. A. Bakos found emission in the calcium K line that suggested mass transfer is taking place. The amplitude of these changes compared to the overall brightness variation is among the largest known among W UMa-type variables. The primary eclipse is total with a duration of around 43 minutes. It was proposed in 1991 that the observed variations in the light curve may be caused by magnetic activity and magnetic interactions between the components.
There has been uncertainty as to whether the two stars are in direct contact with each other, or if the system is semi-detached with only the primary being close to its Roche lobe. The evidence now suggests that they are an overcontact system. The orbital period is showing a increase over time of , combined with a cyclical variation with a period of 37.19 years. The system shows a strong level of magnetic activity, with the primary being the more active component. The mean magnetic field strength of the primary is estimated as . The cyclical variation in orbital period may be related to the activity on the primary.
References
Further reading
G-type main-sequence stars
W Ursae Majoris variables
Eclipsing binaries
Virgo (constellation)
Durchmusterung objects
106400
059683
Virginis, AH | AH Virginis | [
"Astronomy"
] | 574 | [
"Virgo (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
71,731,023 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A9lix%20I | Félix I (officially "F-360-BD") was a Brazilian Army Technical School (today's Military Institute of Engineering) project led by Lieutenant Colonel Manoel dos Santos Lage which aimed, in 1959, to launch the Flamengo cat into space. But the project was canceled due to pressure from animal advocacy groups, and the launch never took place.
History
Origins
The project, also known as "Operation Meow", with limited financial resources, was part of the graduation class of 1958 of the Army Technical School that aimed to create a sounding rocket, something unheard of in Brazil at the time. The official name was "Rocket Sonda 360-BD", unrelated to the later .
The rocket had an outer diameter of 400 mm, a length of 4.3 meters, and a total mass of 350 kg with the payload, and it used only a single stage and was propelled by gunpowder, reaching a maximum speed of 1.950 m/s. Lieutenant-Colonel Myearel dos Santos Lage's ultimate goal, head of the Rocket Program and leader of the project, but not shared by the institution, was to develop a satellite launch vehicle. The project also had the collaboration of scientists Carlos Chagas Filho and César Lattes. Carlos Chagas Filho was responsible for the idea of choosing a cat, because he was interested in observing how these animals reacted under laboratory conditions. Most of the material used to build the rocket was obtained from the War Arsenal.
The project, which aimed to test a guided missile costing Cr$600,000, was nicknamed "Felix I" by the Rio de Janeiro press after they discovered their intention to launch a cat, Flamengo, into space. Originally they planned for the rocket to reach the 300 km mark, but this was abandoned due to difficulties in the calculations. The final decision was that the class of 1958 would develop a rocket that reached an apogee of 120 km and the class of 1950 would work on one that reached 300 km, with the ultimate goal of developing a Thor-type rocket that would reach orbits greater than 500 km by June 1960.
Initially the rocket was to be launched in 1957, but it was delayed twice and by December 1958 they hoped to launch in early January 1959.
Flight plan
The rocket would be launched from a base in Cabo Frio. Its accelerometer would be connected to a transmitter at a frequency of 73 Mc/s. César Lattes was responsible for building three transmitters and the instruments aimed at cosmic ray detection; Lieutenant-Colonel Carlos Alberto Braga Coelho built the electronics of the rocket; Carlos Chagas Filho (IBCCF) developed the instruments for monitoring the cat's health; and astronomer Mário Ferreira Dias, from the Valongo Observatory, developed the calculations related to the flight.
The combustion chamber was built by the Army War Arsenal in company with the students of the Armaments Course, with the carbon steel plate produced by the Companhia Siderúrgica Nacional. The rocket was painted silver with red stripes in a spiral, to help the visibility of the rocket in flight, as the process would be monitored by the National Observatory.
The rocket thrust was predicted to be 1,920 kgf with 6G of acceleration, 19.3s of combustion, and a final velocity of 1,960 m/s. The propellant, developed by the Army Technical School, was called "BD 1000C Gunpowder". The rocket would carry a 180-kilogram payload of gunpowder to reach the ionosphere.
The payload fairing, with a final mass of 30 kg, would contain an acrylic chamber for the cat, as well as the other instruments for the mission. The chamber, with the return speed estimated at 1,800 m/s, would initially be rescued by two air braking devices, and would be followed by a 68 kg parachute developed by the Army Air Ground Division Core, open at an altitude of 5,000 meters, all in an automatic way. The cat would have four hours of oxygen and would be placed face up on a nylon mattress. The flight would last 40 minutes, falling into the sea 30 kilometers from the launch pad, off Angra dos Reis, and would be rescued by the Brazilian Navy. Rescuing the cat alive was considered the greatest challenge of the project. The rocket stages would be rescued by two parachutes. Finally, the flight date would be analyzed by César Lattes.
If the mission was successful, the future rockets would be made available to the National Nuclear Energy Council and the for scientific research.
Flamengo
Flamengo, popularly known as "Meow", the tomcat of Lieutenant-Colonel Lage's daughters, was one of the twelve candidates for the flight. He was the leading candidate and would only be released if he was in good health on the day of the flight and his presence on the flight was already confirmed in December 1958. But in October 1958, the Diário do Paraná announced that Carlos Chagas Filho would replace the animal with an amoeba, arguing that a microscopic animal would be of greater scientific use in the study of cosmic rays. Despite this, Colonel Lage kept the cat in the project and when asked in 1959 about the reason for launching the cat, he replied: "... the recovery of this cat, alive, will be an extraordinary achievement". On 19 December 1958 the cat posed for the media inside the Technical School. If the launch had taken place, it would have been Latin America's first living being in space.
Controversy
Carlos Chagas Filho, when the experiment began to gain visibility in the media, renounced any renewed interest in sending a cat on the mission and the possibility of any scientific learning, besides citing that the acrylic capsule would face difficulties with drastic temperature changes.
In addition to the disagreement with Carlos Chagas Filho, the project team received protests from the "North American Feline Society," something that the project manager disregarded, believing in the safety of the vehicle. The also opposed the use of the cat.
Members of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and other experts were also skeptical of Flamengo's chances of survival, and Leo Rosen, vice president of SUIPA, also reiterated the group's position against the experiment SUIPA also sent an appeal and a petition, signed by, among others, Rachel de Queiroz and Carlos Drummond de Andrade, to the Commander of the Army Technical School and to the Minister of War, General Teixeira Lott, against launching the cat in the rocket. On the issue of animal experiments, SUIPA only advocated when extremely necessary, and was skeptical of the need for the cat experiment. The Brazilian government received thousands of letters protesting against the experiment, but the Army ignored them. And despite all the protests, including from Europe, the project leader continued with his plans.
In November 1958 it was announced that the launch would be held in secret to "avoid sensationalism" and in the same month Colonel João Luís Vieira Maldonado, director of the Meteorology Service, said that the rocket would only carry sounding devices, and no longer the cat. However, in January 1959, Colonel Lage still hoped to make the launch with the cat and in February of the same year they planned to launch in March. However, in May 1959, the launch had not yet occurred and freshmen from the National Engineering School held a parade where, among other things, they criticized and satirized the project. In December 1958 the Army announced that it would test a prototype of the rocket before the official launch.
End of project
In January 1959 the rocket was on display at the Armament Museum of the Army Technical School. By 1961 it was already clear that the launch had not taken place. It was the last rocket project that Colonel Lage participated in and was terminated without flying. Finally, on 18 October 1963, the cat Félicette made a suborbital flight as part of the French space program, returned alive, and was sacrificed after two months for an autopsy and study of her brain. Colonel Lage was transferred from the Army Technical School in 1960 and all the equipment related to the rocket was disassembled. Myearel Lage, already a General, born on 4 June 1910, died on 5 August 1977. The Army Technical School was abolished in favor of the Military Institute of Engineering.
Because of the project, at that time Brazil was considered one of the three countries with space technology, alongside the United States and the Soviet Union. In terms of satellite launch capabilities, years later Brazil developed the unsuccessful VLS project, terminated in 2016. The country is currently working on the VLM project.
See also
Félicette
Animals in space
Notes
References
Bibliography
(Chronological order)
1958 in Brazil
1958 in spaceflight
Animals in space
Astronomical controversies
Individual cats
Cancelled space missions
Brazilian Army
Space program of Brazil
Sounding rockets of Brazil
Suborbital spaceflight | Félix I | [
"Chemistry",
"Astronomy",
"Biology"
] | 1,814 | [
"Animal testing",
"Space-flown life",
"History of astronomy",
"Animals in space",
"Astronomical controversies"
] |
71,731,723 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2-Iodophenol | 2-Iodophenol (o-iodophenol) is an aromatic organic compound with the formula IC6H4OH. It is a pale yellow solid that melts near room temperature. It undergoes a variety of coupling reactions in which the iodine substituent is replaced by a new carbon group ortho to the hydroxy group of the phenol, which can be followed by cyclization to form heterocycles.
It can be prepared by treatment of 2-chloromercuriphenol with iodine:
Direct reaction of phenol with iodine gives a mixture of 2- and 4-iodo derivatives.
References
Cited sources
2-Iodophenyl compounds
2-Hydroxyphenyl compounds | 2-Iodophenol | [
"Chemistry"
] | 159 | [
"Organic chemistry stubs"
] |
71,731,753 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4-Iodophenol | 4-Iodophenol (p-iodophenol) is an aromatic organic compound. A colorless solid, it is one of three monoiodophenols. 4-Iodophenol undergoes a variety of coupling reactions in which the iodine substituent is replaced by a new carbon group para to the hydroxy group of the phenol. It is also used to enhance chemiluminescence for detection of cancer cells and in the Eclox assay.
4-Iodophenol can be prepared from 4-aminophenol via the diazonium salt. An alternative synthesis involves reaction of salicylic acid with iodine, followed by decarboxylation.
References
Cited sources
4-Iodophenyl compounds
4-Hydroxyphenyl compounds | 4-Iodophenol | [
"Chemistry"
] | 173 | [
"Organic chemistry stubs"
] |
71,731,755 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3-Iodophenol | 3-Iodophenol (m-iodophenol) is an aromatic organic compound. 3-Iodophenol participates in a variety of coupling reactions in which the iodide substituent is displaced. Well cited examples include thiolate and amine nucleophiles.
3-Iodophenol can be prepared by oxidative decarboxylation of 3-iodobenzoic acid:
References
Cited sources
3-Iodophenyl compounds
3-Hydroxyphenyl compounds | 3-Iodophenol | [
"Chemistry"
] | 115 | [
"Organic chemistry stubs"
] |
64,425,095 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress%20triaxiality | In continuum mechanics, stress triaxiality is the relative degree of hydrostatic stress in a given stress state. It is often used as a triaxiality factor, T.F, which is the ratio of the hydrostatic stress, , to the Von Mises equivalent stress, .
Stress triaxiality has important applications in fracture mechanics and can often be used to predict the type of fracture (i.e. ductile or brittle) within the region defined by that stress state. A higher stress triaxiality corresponds to a stress state which is primarily hydrostatic rather than deviatoric. High stress triaxiality (> 2–3) promotes brittle cleavage fracture as well as dimple formation within an otherwise ductile fracture. Low stress triaxiality corresponds with shear slip and therefore larger ductility, as well as typically resulting in greater toughness. Ductile crack propagation is also influenced by stress triaxiality, with lower values producing steeper crack resistance curves. Several failure models such as the Johnson-Cook (J-C) fracture criterion (often used for high strain rate behavior), Rice-Tracey model, and J-Q large scale yielding model incorporate stress triaxiality.
History
In 1959 Davies and Connelly introduced so called triaxiality factor, defined as the ratio of Cauchy stress first principal invariant divided by effective stress , cf. formula (35) in Davies and Conelly (1959). The denotes first invariant of Cauchy stress tensor, denote principal values of Cauchy stress, denotes mean stress, is second invariant of Cauchy stress deviator, denote principal values of Cauchy stress deviator, denotes effective stress.
Davies and Conelly were motivated in this proposal by supposition, correct in view of their own and later research, that negative pressure (spherical tension) called by them rather exotically triaxial tension, has a strong influence on the loss of ductility of metals, and the need to have some parameter to describe this effect.
Wierzbicki and collaborators adopted a slightly modified definition of triaxiality factor than the original one , , cf. e.g. Wierzbicki et al (2005).
The name triaxiality factor is rather unfortunate, inadequate, because in physical terms the triaxiality factor determines the calibrated ratio of pressure forces relative to shearing forces or the ratio of isotropic (spherical) part of stress tensor in relation to its anisotropic (deviatoric) part both expressed in terms of their moduli, ; , .
The triaxiality factor does not discern triaxial stress states from states of lower dimension.
Ziółkowski proposed to use as a measure of pressure towards shearing forces another modification of the index , not burdened with whatever strength effort hypothesis, in the form , cf. formula (8.2) in Ziółkowski (2022). In the context of material testing a reasonable mnemonic name for could be, e.g. pressure index or pressure factor.
Stress Triaxiality factor in biaxial tests
The triaxiality factor gained considerable attention and popularity when Wierzbicki and his collaborators pointed out that not only pressure () but also Lode angle can considerably influence ductile fracture and other properties of metals, cf. e.g. Wierzbicki et al (2005).
The class of biaxial tests is defined by the condition that always one of the principal values of the stress tensor is equal to zero (). In 2005 Wierzbicki and Xue found that in the class of biaxial tests a unique constraint relation exists between normalized principal third invariant of deviator and triaxiality factor in the form , cf. formula (23) in Wierzbicki et al (2005).
The normalized third invariant of stress deviator is defined as , , where denotes third invariant of stress deviator .
In presentation of material testing results, the most frequently at present, it is used so called Lode angle . The Lode angle is defined with the relation . However, the Lode angle does not have clear (lucid) physical interpretation. From a mathematical standpoint, the Lode angle describes the angle between projection of Cauchy stress on the octahedral plane and projection of the greatest principal stress on the octahedral plane.
Ziółkowski proposed to use a skewness angle defined with the following relation , for characterization of mode of shearing forces, cf. formula (4.2) in Ziółkowski (2022). The skewness angle has several cogent and useful physical-statistical interpretations. It describes the departure of the actual Cauchy stress deviator from the corresponding reference pure shear , i.e., deviator with the same modulus as but with third invariant equal to zero .
In micromechanical context the skewness angle can be understood as a macroscopic measure of the magnitude of internal entropy of the (macroscopic) Cauchy stress tensor. In this sense that its value determines degree of order of the population of micro pure shears (directional dipoles) generating the specific macroscopic stress state. The smaller is absolute values of skewness angle the smaller is internal entropy of Cauchy stress tensor.
The skewness angle enters as a parameter in a measure of anisotropy factor (degree) of stress tensor, which can be expressed with the formula , cf. formula (4.5) in Ziółkowski (2022). The formula elucidates that the greater is internal order of pure shears population generating specific macroscopic stress state, i.e. the lower its entropy, the larger is anisotropy of the macroscopic stress tensor.
The denotes isotropy angle defined with the formula , , , .
The isotropy angle enables extraction of the spherical (isotropic) part and deviatoric (anisotropic) part of the stress tensor in a very straightforward and convenient manner.
The measure of tensor anisotropy , introduced by Rychlewski (1985) and actually applicable to tensors of any degree, is defined with the formula , .
The denotes diameter of tensor orbit defined as follows, , where denotes distance generated by the usual tensorial norm , is any second order proper orthogonal (rotation) tensor . The diameter of tensor orbit is simply a maximum distance between any two members in the orbit of a tensor .
A very simple (linear) connection exists between Lode angle and skewness angle .
The Wierzbicki's constraint relation , valid for biaxial stress states can be solved with respect to skewness angle to obtain the following explicit relations linking triaxiality factor and skewness angle, cf. Ziółkowski (2022).
The above relations are three bijections (one to one relations) in three sharing edges but otherwise separate subdomains, which altogether make the entire two parameter domain (half-plane) of biaxial tests stress states.The explicit reverse relations , easily obtainable from the above formulae, are very convenient for numerical computations, because they enable determination of the value of skewness (Lode) angle (shearing mode of stress) only from the value of the triaxiality factor without the necessity to compute determinant of stress deviator, what delivers large computational savings. Selection of the correct subformula is very easy because it can be decided only upon the value of falling into a specific range of values. For example, when , then it belongs to the range ; hence .
The relations allowed for formulation and proof of the following important theorems and corollary, cf. Ziółkowski (2022).
Theorem I. The radial lines (rays) coming out from the origin of the coordinates frame of the biaxial tests domain, i.e., half-plane , are lines of constant values of triaxiality factor and at the same time, lines of constant values of skewness angle .
Theorem II. The relations , , , valid for plane stress conditions, are bijections (one to one relations) in three sharing edges but otherwise separate subdomains of the whole domain of biaxial tests stress states, except on the line , on which for any value of .
Corollary. In the case of convex critical surface, with the aid of any type of biaxial (plane) stress test, for any fixed value of mean stress (pressure) , critical effective stress can be determined for only a single value of the skewness (Lode) angle , and thus corresponding to it single value of triaxiality factor .
In the case of convex critical surface, with the aid of any type of biaxial (plane) stress test, for any fixed value of skewness (Lode) angle , critical effective stresses can be determined for only three values of mean stress (pressure) , and thus three values of triaxiality factor corresponding to in three subdomains.
The Corrollary indicates for limitations of the class of biaxial (plane) tests in experimental examination of the influence of skewness (Lode) angle and pressure on materials behavior submitted to multiaxial loadings. This is so, because upon executing only biaxial tests no adequate experimental data results can be collected to reliably separate the influence of mean stress and/or skewness angle on the possible variations of critical effective stresses. One value of skewness angle for any fixed pressure and/or three values of pressure for any fixed skewness angle deliver skimpy information for such purpose.
Triaxialy factor as convenient indicator showing transition from two-dimensional (plane) stress to full three-dimensional state of stress
Relations valid for biaxial (plane) stress states show that in such a case, the values of the triaxiality factor must always remain in the range , while in the general case of three-dimensional multiaxial tests, the triaxiality factor can take any value from the range . In many experimental mechanics publications, in which results from biaxial tests are presented, values of triaxiality factor exceeding the two-third value can be encountered which may seem to be incorrect. However, experimental observation of the triaxiality factor greater than rather indicates that the biaxiality condition of the plane stress test was lost, and in the sample three-dimensional stress state started to exist, cf. Ziółkowski (2022).
References
Continuum mechanics | Stress triaxiality | [
"Physics"
] | 2,190 | [
"Classical mechanics",
"Continuum mechanics"
] |
64,425,995 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1%2C2-Dioxolane | 1,2-Dioxolane is a chemical compound with formula C3H6O2, consisting of a ring of three carbon atoms and two oxygen atoms in adjacent positions. Its condensed structural formula is .
The compound is an organic peroxide, specifically an endoperoxide, and a structural isomer of the much more common 1,3-dioxolane, which is often called simply "dioxolane".
Synthesis
Synthesis methods for the 1,2-dioxolane core structure include oxidation of cyclopropane derivatives with singlet oxygen or molecular oxygen with a suitable catalyst, the use of autooxidation, nucleophilic displacement with hydrogen peroxide, treatment with mercury(II) nitrate, photolysis of extended π-systems, reaction of a bis-silylperoxide and an alkene, or reaction with a 2-perhydroxy 4-alkene with diethylamine or mercury(II) acetate.
Occurrence
Some derivatives occur naturally, for example in Calophyllum dispar and from the seeds of the mamey (Mammea americana). Plakinic acid A (3,5-peroxy 3Z,5Z,7,11-tetramethyl 13-phenyl-8E,12E-tridecadienoic acid) and similar compounds were isolated from sponges of the Plakortis genus. Nardosinone is a sesquiterpene derivative with a 1,2-dioxolane element isolated from the plant Adenosma caeruleum.
Uses
Synthetic and natural dioxolane derivatives have been used or considered as antimalarial drugs. Plakinic acid A and related compounds showed antifungal action.
See also
1,2-Dioxane
1,2-Dioxetane
1,2-Dithiolane
References
Oxygen heterocycles
Organic peroxides | 1,2-Dioxolane | [
"Chemistry"
] | 404 | [
"Organic compounds",
"Organic peroxides"
] |
64,426,633 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Jakob%20Burckhardt | Johann Jakob Burckhardt (13 July 1903 – 5 November 2006) was a Swiss mathematician and crystallographer. He was an invited speaker at the International Congress of Mathematicians in 1936 in Oslo.
Biography
Johann Jakob Burckhardt was born on 13 July 1903 in Basel. He came from an old Basel family. His ancestors include a brother (Hieronimus) of Jacob Bernoulli and Johann Bernoulli. The son of a lawyer and legal advisor to the German consulate in Basel, J. J. Burckhardt attended in Basel the Gymnasium am Münsterplatz (the second oldest Gymnasium in Switzerland) and the Oberrealschule. In 1922 he matriculated at the University of Basel.
He studied in 1923 in the summer semester at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, where Arnold Sommerfeld, Oskar Perron, Friedrich Hartogs and Wilhelm Wien taught, and in 1924 at the University of Hamburg, where Hans Rademacher and Erich Hecke taught.
Inspired by reading Andreas Speiser's group theory textbook, which includes applications to crystallography and decorative ornaments, Burckhardt continued his studies in 1924 at the University of Zurich. There he heard lectures by Andreas Speiser, Rudolf Fueter, Erwin Schrödinger, and the astronomer Alfred Wolfer (1854–1931). At ETH Zurich Burckhardt listened to Hermann Weyl, George Pólya (whose seminar he attended), and the mineralogist Paul Niggli. Buckhardt also studied crystallography with Leonhard Weber (1883–1968).
In 1927 Burckhardt passed the qualifying examination for teaching in higher education and received his doctorate in mathematics with advisor Andreas Speiser and thesis Die Algebren der Diedergruppen (The algebras of dihedral groups). In late 1927 he continued his studies at the University of Paris with Jacques Hadamard and then in 1928 at the University of Göttingen, where he attended the seminars of Emmy Noether and Richard Courant and heard Gustav Herglotz's lectures on geometry. At Göttingen he also met Bartel Leendert van der Waerden and Otto Neugebauer, both of whom later became well-known mathematicians. At the University of Zurich, van der Waerden and Burckhardt later became colleagues.
Since he did not like the political climate with the advent of the National Socialists in Germany, he declined the offer of an assistant position in Göttingen and went back to Basel, where he was an assistant teacher at the lower Realschule. He then moved to the University of Zurich as Fueter's assistant.
After Burckhardt habilitated in 1933 at the University of Zurich with the work Zur Theorie der Bewegungsgruppen (Theory of space groups), he was a Vertreter (visiting teacher) at the Zurich University of Applied Sciences/ZHAW and at the Höhere Töchterschule der Stadt Zürich (later renamed the Kantonsschule Hohe Promenade). He declined a professorship at the University of Cairo. In 1942 he was a Titularprofessor (honorary professor) at the University of Zurich. In 1943/1944 he was a Lehrstuhlvertreter (visiting professor) in the professorial chair of Otto Spiess (1878–1966) at the University of Basel. From 1945 until his retirement in 1970, Burckhardt was an Oberassistent (senior assistant) at the Mathematical Institute of the University of Zurich.
Burckhardt died on 5 November 2006 in Zürich.
Burckhardt was an honorary member of the Swiss Mathematical Society, of which he was the president from 1954 to 1955. He also served as the president of the Naturforschende Gesellschaft in Zürich.
He was an avid hiker and mountaineer.
Research and other work
Burckhardt is known for his derivation of the crystallographic space groups, the subject of a standard work written by him. The 230 spaces groups had been published in 1888 by Schoenflies and, independently, in 1891 by Fedorov. The two-dimensional case had been dealt with mathematically by Pólya and Niggli in 1924. Burckhardt solved the three-dimensional case mathematically in the 1930s, that is, he specified an algebraic determination method. He used the results of Frobenius and Bieberbach on space groups in n-dimensional spaces and introduced the concept of the Arithmetische Kristallklasse (arithmetic crystal class). His method can also be used in higher dimensions.
At the urging of Speiser and Fueter, Burckhardt wrote a description of the set theory of Paul Finsler. This was done at the suggestion of Fueter and Speiser in order to explain Finsler's mostly obscure ideas to other mathematicians in an understandable way.
Burckhardt also published on the history of mathematics. Among his other works on the history of mathematics, he dealt with the mathematics of Ludwig Schläfli and was a member of the Steiner-Schläfli Committee, responsible for publishing Schläfli's collected works. Burckhardt wrote the article about Schläfli for the Dictionary of Scientific Biography and a biography of Schläfli for the journal Elemente der Mathematik.
In addition to his studies concerning Schläfli, he wrote mathematical biographies for the Neue Deutsche Biographie and the Dictionary of Scientific Biography on Fueter, Marcel Grossmann, Heinz Hopf, Karl Heinrich Gräffe, Ferdinand Rudio, Carl Friedrich Geiser, Rudolf Wolf, and Jakob Steiner.
Burckhardt investigated (partly with van der Waerden) medieval Islamic astronomers' writings (such as the planet tables of Al-Khwarizmi.).
He was a member from 1957 to 1975 of the Swiss Euler Commission (1952-1975), whose vice president he was from 1957 to 1975. He was the editor, with Karl Matter and Edmund Hoppe, of volume III/2, Rechenkunst (Geneva 1942), of Euler's collected works. In this context, he edited some of Euler's physical treatises and was involved in the compilation of the list of correspondence (Series IV A, Volume 1, 1975).
From 1950 to 1982 he was an editor of the Commentarii Mathematici Helvetici.
Burckhardt also wrote a book on the history of crystallography and essays on the history of the discovery of space groups by Schoenflies and Fedorov. In 1966 he published a facsimile reprint of Ulrich Wagner's 1483 Bamberger Rechenbuch (Bamberg arithmetic book), of which he had access to a copy in the Zentralbibliothek Zürich. (Only two copies of the 1483 edition are known. The other copy is in Zwickau.)
Burckhardt also worked as a translator. He, in collaboration with Emil Schubarth, translated Leonard Dickson's 1923 Algebras and their arithmetics into German as Algebren und ihre Zahlentheorie (Orell Füssli, Zürich 1927) — as an assignment from Andreas Speiser. Dickson's book had a big influence on the development of algebraic theory and algebraic number theory in Germany. Burckhardt translated the well-known 1961 geometry textbook Introduction to Geometry by Coxeter into German as Unvergängliche Geometrie (Birkhäuser, Basel 1963) with new & revised 2nd edition in 1981.
Selected publications
Die Bewegungsgruppen der Kristallographie. Birkhäuser, Basel 1947; new & revised 2nd edition. 1966.
Ludwig Schläfli: 1814 - 1895. In: Elemente der Mathematik, Beiheft (Supplement) 4, 1948, Online
Lesebuch zur Mathematik. Quellen von Euklid bis heute. Räber, Luzern 1968.
Die Mathematik an der Universität Zürich 1916–1950 unter den Professoren R. Fueter, A. Speiser, P. Finsler. In: Elemente der Mathematik. Beiheft (Supplement) 16, 1980, Online.
as editor with Emil Fellmann, Walter Habicht: Leonhard Euler 1707–1783. Beiträge zu Leben und Werk. Gedenkband des Kantons Basel-Stadt. Birkhäuser, Basel 1983 (The book contains Burkhardt's article Die Euler-Kommission der Schweizerischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft – ein Beitrag zur Editionsgeschichte, pp. 501–510, and Burckhardt's article Euleriana – Verzeichnis des Schrifttums über Leonhard Euler, pp. 511–552).
Die Symmetrie der Kristalle. Von René-Just Haüy zur kristallographischen Schule in Zürich. (The symmetry of crystals from René-Just Haüy to the crystallographic school in Zurich) With a contribution from Erhard Scholz). Birkhäuser, Basel 1988. (See René-Just Haüy.)
Sources
Günther Frei: Johann Jakob Burckhardt zum hundertsten Geburtstag am 13. Juli 2003. In: Elemente der Mathematik. vol. 58, 2003, pp. 134–140, (The issue of Elemente der Mathematik is dedicated to Burkhardt.)
Ralph Strebel: Burckhardtsche Bestimmung der Raumgruppen I. In: Elemente der Mathematik. vol. 58, 2003, pp. 141–155, .
Ralph Strebel: Burckhardtsche Bestimmung der Raumgruppen II. In: Elemente der Mathematik. vol. 59, 2004, pp. 1–18, .
References
External links
Manuskripte und Korrespondenz aus seinem Besitz (fonds), Johann Jakob Burckhardt — ETH Zürich
Autoren-Profil in der Datenbank zbMATH
Martin Huber: Zum Tod des Mathematikers Johann Jakob Burckhardt In: NZZ 16. November, 2006
20th-century Swiss mathematicians
Crystallographers
Swiss historians of mathematics
University of Zurich alumni
Academic staff of the University of Zurich
Swiss men centenarians
Scientists from Basel-Stadt
1903 births
2006 deaths | Johann Jakob Burckhardt | [
"Chemistry",
"Materials_science"
] | 2,194 | [
"Crystallographers",
"Crystallography"
] |
64,426,662 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon%20Pall | Gordon Pall (26 December 1907 – December 1987) was a Canadian mathematician. In 1945, he and Lloyd Williams founded the Canadian Mathematical Congress.
Education and career
Gordon Pall got a B.A. at the University of Manitoba in 1926, an M.A. at the University of Toronto in 1927, and a Ph.D. in 1929 under Leonard Eugene Dickson with the dissertation "Problems in Additive Theory of Numbers" at the University of Chicago, Ph.D., 1929.
In 1931, he became a Lecturer in Mathematics at McGill University, becoming an Assistant Professor in 1934. In 1946, he was appointed to a professorship at Illinois Institute of Technology.
Selected publications
On Generalized Quaternions Transactions of the American Mathematical Society, 59 (1946), pp. 280–332
Discriminantal Divisors of Binary Quadratic Forms, Journal of Number Theory, Vol 1, Issue 4, October 1969, Pages 525-533
References
External links
Academic staff of McGill University
Illinois Institute of Technology faculty
University of Chicago alumni
University of Manitoba alumni
University of Toronto alumni
20th-century Canadian mathematicians
Number theorists
1907 births
1987 deaths | Gordon Pall | [
"Mathematics"
] | 228 | [
"Number theorists",
"Number theory"
] |
64,427,824 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tailscale | Tailscale Inc. is a software company based in Toronto, Ontario. Tailscale develops a partially open-source software-defined mesh virtual private network (VPN) and a web-based management service. The company provides a zero config VPN as a service under the same name.
History
Founded in 2019 by Google engineers Avery Pennarun, David Crawshaw, David Carney, and Brad Fitzpatrick, the company secured funding of $12 million in a Series A round in November 2020 led by Accel with seed investors, Heavybit and Uncork Capital participating. In May 2022, the company became a unicorn, raising a $100 million Series B round, led by CRV and Insight Partners, with participation from existing investors.
The company's name is inspired from a research paper The Tail at Scale published by Google.
Software
The open-source software acts in combination with the management service to establish peer-to-peer or relayed VPN communication with other clients using the WireGuard protocol. Tailscale can open direct connection to the peer using NAT traversal techniques such as STUN or request port forwarding via UPnP IGD, NAT-PMP or PCP. If the software fails to establish direct communication it falls back to using DERP (Designated Encrypted Relay for Packets) protocol relays provided by the company. The IPv4 addresses given to clients are in the carrier-grade NAT reserved space. This was chosen to avoid interference with existing networks. The configuration also allows routing of traffic to networks behind the client on some clients.
Supported platforms
The Tailscale client software supports a number of operating systems and embedded software systems, including:
Windows
macOS
iOS and tvOS
Linux
Android
Synology
QNAP
A Kubernetes operator and Docker images are also available.
See also
LogMeIn Hamachi
ZeroTier
Notes
References
External links
Virtual private network services
Mesh networking
Software companies of Canada | Tailscale | [
"Technology"
] | 397 | [
"Wireless networking",
"Mesh networking"
] |
64,428,950 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nora%20Brambilla | Nora Brambilla (February 19, 1964) is an Italian and German theoretical particle physicist known for her research on quarkonium, particles composed of two quarks instead of the more usual three. She is a professor of theoretical particle and nuclear physics at the Technical University of Munich.
Education and career
Brambilla is originally from Milan, and holds both Italian and German citizenship. She studied particle physics at the University of Milan, completing her PhD there in 1993. In 1999, she earned a habilitation in theoretical physics at the University of Vienna.
After various research positions, she became a tenured faculty member at the University of Milan in 2002, before moving to Munich in 2008. She is currently the head of a research group at the Physik-Department of the Technical University of Munich.
Recognition
In 2012, Brambilla was named a Fellow of the American Physical Society "for her contributions to the theory of heavy-quark-antiquark-systems, including the development of new effective field theories, and for contributions to the field of heavy-quarkonium physics through the founding and leadership of the Quarkonium Working Group".
References
External links
Research group home page
20th-century Italian women scientists
20th-century German women scientists
20th-century German physicists
20th-century Italian physicists
21st-century Italian women scientists
21st-century German women scientists
21st-century German physicists
21st-century Italian physicists
Living people
German women physicists
Italian women physicists
University of Milan alumni
Academic staff of the University of Milan
Academic staff of the Technical University of Munich
Fellows of the American Physical Society
Particle physicists
Scientists from Milan
1964 births
University of Vienna alumni | Nora Brambilla | [
"Physics"
] | 340 | [
"Particle physicists",
"Particle physics"
] |
64,429,395 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atsukashiyama%20Barrier | The was a defensive fortification consisting of embankments and moats, erected in the late Heian period by the Northern Fujiwara in what is now the town of Kunimi, Fukushima in the Tōhoku region of Japan. It was the location of a major battle during the conquest of Hiraizumi by the forces of the Kamakura shogunate in 1189. The site was designated a National Historic Site of Japan in 1981.
Overview
The Atsukashiyama Barrier was a defensive structure built by Fujiwara no Kunihira, the son of Fujiwara no Yasuhira for the purpose of thwarting the invasion of Ōshū by the forces of Minamoto no Yoritomo in 1189. The embankment consisted of a triple set of earthen ramparts, protected by a double set of dry moats, yagura and siege crossbows, which extended for a three-kilometer length between the Atsukashi River and the Atsukashi Mountains. The location was a chokehold on the main route to northern Japan, and was identified by the Northern Fujiwara as critical for the defense of Hiraizumi. Even today the route of Japan National Route 4, the Tōhoku Expressway and the Tōhoku Main Line railway must pass through this gap.
Although one of the largest and most impressive structures of its kind attempted in Japan, Atsukashiyama Barrier only stalled the Minamoto advance for a short period, and Fujiwara Kunihira was killed in the battle.
The site came to scholarly attention during construction work on the Tōhoku Expressway in 1971, although its location was clearly stated in the medieval Azuma Kagami chronicle. Despite the significance of the site, the Fukushima Prefectural government planned a large-scale land improvement project would have effectively destroyed all trace of the ruins. The Fukushima Prefectural Board of Education conducted a rescue archaeology excavation at nine locations along the embankment in 1979, finding numerous artifacts and discovering that the moats had a width of 15 meters, and depth of 1.5 meters in shallow places, and 2.8 meters in deep places. Based on the results of these surveys, the ruins received protection as a National Historic Site in 1981. The site is located approximately 10 minutes by car from Fujita Station on the JR East Tōhoku Main Line.
See also
List of Historic Sites of Japan (Fukushima)
References
External links
Kunimi Town home page
Kunimi, Fukushima
Tourist attractions in Fukushima Prefecture
Historic Sites of Japan
Fortification lines
Ruined castles in Japan
History of Fukushima Prefecture
11th-century establishments in Japan
Mutsu Province | Atsukashiyama Barrier | [
"Engineering"
] | 524 | [
"Fortification lines"
] |
64,431,963 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alain%20Goriely | Alain Goriely is a Belgian mathematician, currently holding the statutory professorship (chair) of mathematical modelling at the University of Oxford, Mathematical Institute. He is director of the Oxford Centre for Industrial Mathematics (OCIAM), of the International Brain and Mechanics Lab (IBMTL) and Professorial Fellow at St Catherine's College, Oxford. At the Mathematical Institute, he was the director of external relations and public engagement, from 2013 until 2022, initiating the Oxford Mathematics series of public lectures. In 2022, he was elected to the Royal Society, and Gresham Professor of Geometry at the Gresham College (London) in 2024.
Education and early life
Born and raised in Brussels, Goriely obtained his B.Sc. in 1989 and Ph.D. in 1994 from the Université Libre de Bruxelles where he became lecturer in the Mathematics Department. Shortly after, he moved to the University of Arizona to take the positions of Research Associate (1994-1997), Assistant Professor (1998-2002), Associate Professor (2002-2007) and Professor (2007-2010). In Tucson, he also served as acting head for the Program in Applied Mathematics in 2006-2007 and 2007–2008. In 2010, he moved to Oxford to take up the inaugural chair of Mathematical Modelling and to become Director of the Oxford Centre for Collaborative Applied Mathematics (OCCAM). He is a Senior Fellow of the Oxford Martin School and received a M.A. in 2010 from the University of Oxford (by resolution). He has held a number of positions, including visiting professorships at the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, the École normale supérieure (Paris), and the Pierre and Marie Curie University. He also held the Timoshenko professorial fellowship and the Poincaré visiting professorship at Stanford University, the Springer professorship at Berkeley University and the Distinguished Rothschild Visiting Fellowship at the Isaac Newton Institute.
Research and career
Goriely works in the field of applied mathematics and he is interested in a broad range of problems including dynamical systems; the mechanics of biological growth; the modelling of the brain, the theoretical foundations of mechanics; the dynamics of curves, knots, and rods; the modelling of cancer; the development of new photovoltaic devices; the modelling of lithium-ion batteries and, more generally the study and development of mathematical methods for applied sciences.
Differential equations and dynamical systems
In his doctoral research on singularities, integrability theory, and dynamical systems, he established deep connections between the analytic and geometric approaches of differential equations by showing that the local behavior of the solutions of differential equations in complex time is connected to their global geometric properties in phase space. In particular, he developed new tests to prove the integrability and non-integrability for systems of differential equations and discrete mappings, based on the so-called Painlevé expansions in complex time. More importantly, he derived a new form of the Melnikov distance from the local Painleve property that can be used to prove the existence of transverse homoclinic connections, thereby directly relating local multivaluedness in complex time to chaotic dynamics in real-time. He also gave sufficient conditions for the existence of open sets of initial conditions leading to finite-time singularities which cosmologists use to explore possible singularities in cosmological models (such as the expanding general-relativistic Friedmann universe, brane singularity). These results are summarized in his monograph.
Curves and filaments
Over the years, Goriely has made important contributions to the modeling and analysis of filaments. Elastic curves can be modeled through the Kirchhoff equations that take into account bending, shearing, and extension. Within this context, in 1998 he identified a new type of instability driven by curvature. He showed that a torsional instability of filaments under tension can result in the formation of structures with opposite chirality for which he coined the word tendril perversion. Other contributions in this area include a complete classification of static solutions, the discovery of new exact dynamical solutions for the Kirchhoff elastic rods, and the development of new geometric methods to prove stability through the positive definiteness of the second variation. With colleagues, he provided a complete classification of uniform equilibria, and built the first three-dimensional theory for the nonlinear dynamics of elastic tubes conveying a fluid, studied the twining of vines, proved the existence of compact waves traveling on nonlinear rods, the inversion of curvature in bacteria, the growth of stems, the mechanics of seed expulsion, the shape and mechanics of proteins, and a full theory of growing and remodeling elastic rods suitable to describe many biological structures. With colleagues, he used this framework to develop a theory of plant tropism that include multiple stimuli.
Morphoelasticity
Goriely has worked in the applications of nonlinear mechanics to the field of biological materials and biological growth. Through his work, he was central in the development of a general mechanical theory of biological growth. This theory, for which he coined the word morphoelasticity, deals with the physical forces and shapes generated during development, homeostasis, or pathology. At the mathematical level, it is based on the general theory of nonlinear anelasticity. While the basic theoretical framework was understood as early as 1994, in 2005 with Martine Ben Amar, he developed a general stability method for morphoelastic solids and demonstrated that patterns and instabilities can be driven exclusively through growth. He further expanded this aspect of his research to demonstrate the occurrence of growth-induced patterns in many biological and physiological systems such as fungi, bacteria, and microbial cellular blebbing. Together with Derek Moulton and Régis Chirat, he developed a theory to describe morphological patterns for seashells, such as spikes and commarginal ornamentation. His theory of morphoelasticity is developed in his 2017 monograph on growth.
Mathematical foundations of mechanics
Goriely made several contributions to the foundations of classical mechanics and nonlinear elasticity. With his collaborators, he has given a general exact theory of Euler buckling within three-dimensional nonlinear elasticity, developed new fundamental adscititious inequalities for materials exhibiting the negative Poynting effect, and studied the nonlinear dynamics of shear waves in elastic solids. Since 2012, he initiated, with Arash Yavari, a research programme related to the geometric foundations of mechanics for nonlinear solids. In the absence of defects, solids can be described through the mapping of a reference configuration in the Euclidean space to a current configuration that also sits in Euclidean space. In the presence of defects, the correct underlying mathematical structure that describes the reference configuration is a non-Euclidean manifold. These ideas, first presented in the work of Kazuo Kondo in the 1940s, were known by the mechanics community but had never been used directly to build an effective theory of continuous defects. In this fully geometric theory, first described in their 2012 paper, they show that pure dislocations, disclinations, and point defects are, respectively, associated with Weitzenbock, Riemann, and
Weyl manifolds. Further, they used Cartan's moving frames theory to formulate a complete theory of defects which can be used to obtain exact solutions for a number of important problems in nonlinear dislocation theory and anelasticity. They used this theory to obtain the exact nonlinear analogue of Eshelby's celebrated inclusion problem for a spherical inclusion in an isotropic incompressible nonlinear solid. They also introduced the concept of discombinations to describe sources of incompatibility related to multiple origins (point, lines, and edge defects).
Energy and materials
Goriely has done work in the field of materials science and renewable energy, ionic liquids, nano-particles fabrication, supercapacitors, and lithium-ion batteries. In 2013, he initiated a collaboration with Henry Snaith on the development of a new generation of perovskite solar cell. In their 2014 paper, they developed a mathematical model to predict coverage and morphology during the annealing of a thin solid film of a perovskite absorber. This model predicts the optimum film thickness and annealing temperature ensuring that it has exactly the right degree of transparency.
Brain modeling
Since 2012, Goriely has done some work related to the brain modeling. With his collaborators, he has developed models for axon growth based on the combined mechanics of microtubules extension, growth cone connection,. At the tissue level, with his collaborators, he developed new constitutive models for brain tissue validated on multi-axial shear experiments using human brain tissues. This work forms the basis for his models of swelling initiation and propagation showing that the Donnan effect is not sufficient and that swelling is also caused by an osmotic pressure increase driven by non-permeating solutes released by necrotic cells. At the organ level, he proposed the first mechanical models of craniectomy and craniosynostosis through systematic mathematical modeling, analysis and computational simulations in fully segmented brain geometry and explained the thickness asymmetry between gyri and sulci first noted more than 100 years ago by Brodmann. More recently, they developed a model for dementia propagation and showed that atrophy could be modeled through a multiplicative decomposition of the deformation gradient coupling mass removal to toxic proteins and studied the related cognitive decay.
Publications
Goriely is the author of three books
Goriely A. Integrability and nonintegrability of dynamical systems. World Scientific; 2001.
Goriely A. The mathematics and mechanics of biological growth. Springer; 2017
Goriely A. Applied Mathematics: A very short introduction. Oxford University Press; 2017
His most cited papers are:
Eperon GE, Burlakov VM, Docampo P, Goriely A, Snaith HJ. Morphological control for high performance, solution-processed planar heterojunction perovskite solar cells. Advanced Functional Materials. 2014 Jan;24(1):151-7. According to Google Scholar, it has been cited 1922 times.
Saidaminov MI, Abdelhady AL, Murali B, Alarousu E, Burlakov VM, Peng W, Dursun I, Wang L, He Y, Maculan G, Goriely A. High-quality bulk hybrid perovskite single crystals within minutes by inverse temperature crystallization. Nature Communications. 2015 Jul 6;6(1):1-6. According to Google Scholar, this article has been cited 1159 times
Noel NK, Abate A, Stranks SD, Parrott ES, Burlakov VM, Goriely A, Snaith HJ. Enhanced photoluminescence and solar cell performance via Lewis base passivation of organic–inorganic lead halide perovskites. ACS Nano. 2014 Oct 28;8(10):9815-21. According to Google Scholar, this article has been cited 1131 times
Stranks SD, Burlakov VM, Leijtens T, Ball JM, Goriely A, Snaith HJ. Recombination kinetics in organic-inorganic perovskites: excitons, free charge, and subgap states. Physical Review Applied. 2014 Sep 11;2(3):034007. According to Google Scholar, this article has been cited 950 times
Ben Amar M, Goriely A. Growth and instability in elastic tissues. Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids. 2005 Oct 1;53(10):2284-319. According to Google Scholar, this article has been cited 353 times
Goriely A, Geers MG, Holzapfel GA, Jayamohan J, Jérusalem A, Sivaloganathan S, Squier W, van Dommelen JA, Waters S, Kuhl E. Mechanics of the brain: perspectives, challenges, and opportunities. Biomechanics and Modeling in Mechanobiology. 2015 Oct;14(5):931-65. According to Google Scholar, this article has been cited 271 times
Cangelosi R, Goriely A. Component retention in principal component analysis with application to cDNA microarray data. Biology Direct. 2007 Dec;2(1):1-21. According to Google Scholar, this article has been cited 255 times
References
Living people
Fellows of the Royal Society
Fellows of the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics
Belgian mathematicians
Year of birth missing (living people) | Alain Goriely | [
"Mathematics"
] | 2,600 | [
"Applied mathematics",
"Applied mathematicians"
] |
64,433,437 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversazione | A conversazione is a "social gathering [predominantly] held by [a] learned or art society" for conversation and discussion, especially about the arts, literature, medicine, and science.
It would not be easy to devise a happier way [than the conversazione] of bringing novelties at once under practical criticism—of making the outliers of science acquainted with the centre, of enabling investigators to compare operations and discuss facts and speculations, and of giving occasion for renewal of intercourse and removal of misunderstandings. …[The] tangible gain to science [from the coversazione is that] inventors and experimentalists … hear [directly] what contemporaries say of their schemes and experiments, and much can be said and done with advantage amid the free talk of a general gathering which could not be permitted in the formal meeting of a scientific society. (Nature, 5 May 1870.)
Origin
The writer Horace Walpole is credited with the first recorded English use of conversazione in a letter written (from Italy) on 11 November 1739 to Richard West (1716–1742) in which he writes, "After the play we were introduced to the assembly, which they [viz., the Italians] call the conversazione".
Historical usage in Britain
In Italy, the term generally refers to a gathering for conversation; and was first used in English to identify the sort of private social gathering more generally known today as an "At Home".<ref>For example, in her diary entry for Sunday, 10 November 1782, Fanny Burney, a.k.a. Madame d'Arbay noted that "The Honourable Miss Monckton [was] one of those who stand foremost in collecting all extraordinary or curious people to her London conversaziones, which, like those of Mrs. Vesey, mix the rank and the literature, and exclude all beside." ([https://books.google.com/books?id=w3oVAAAAYAAJ&q=conversazione&pg=PA460 Barrett, Charlotte (ed.), Diary and Letters of Madame d'Arbay, Volume I: 1778 to 1784 (New Edition), Bickers and Son, (London), 1876, p.460.]</ref>
In England, however, it soon came to be far more widely used to denote the gatherings of a far more intellectual character and was applied in the more specific sense of a scientific, artistic, or literary assembly/soirée, generally held at night.According to Alberti (2003), p.217, the implicit demand for formal dress suggests that it tended to exclude the lower middle- and working-class and, thereby, tended to ensure that only well-off audiences attended such gatherings.
A conversazione like everything else has undergone conspicuous development in these days.Formerly the word was applicable only to a meeting of cognoscenti, who were themselves proficient in some art or science which might be the immediate subject of learned interest.At the present time the materials for discussion are supplied by the proficients, and the general public are invited to provide the talk or the criticism.Moreover a "conversation" of this kind is not limited to a specific subject, but may comprise topics incidental to any branch of science and art whatever. (New Zealand Herald, 17 September 1880.)
In its report on the first conversazione ever conducted by the Lambeth Literary Institution (on 22 June 1836), The Gentleman's Magazine noted that,
the principal object [of the Lambeth Literary Institution's inaugural conversazione] has been—by the collection of articles of virtù, antiquity, science, or art, and by the reading of original papers, conversation, and music,— to unite its members, at stated periods, into one focus of neighbourly community; where all may be on a footing of social equality,—the aristocracy of mind, united with urbanity of manners, alone maintaining its ascendancy here; where the high attainments of the classical scholar,—the lofty imaginings of the poet,—the deep researches of the man of science,—and the sturdy intelligence of the skilful artizan [sic], may all be amalgamated under one roof; and the rough energies of manly intellect be thus softened and refined by the amenities of the social circle.
Knowledge dissemination
According to Yeates (2018):
In Victorian England, the conversazione was one of the most important educational, cultural, and recreational means through which scientific knowledge was disseminated and explanations of technical innovation were delivered to the general public.Conducted by individuals, institutions, or learned bodies, a (usually mixed amateur/expert, male/female) audience was enlightened by explanations, two-way interactions with participants, experiments, demonstrations, hands-on displays of equipment, and/or the exhibition of specimens (see Alberti, 2003; and Plunkett & Sullivan, 2012).The conversazione’s lectures/explanations delivered knowledge by description, and its experiments, demonstrations, hands-on displays of equipment, and exhibition of specimens delivered knowledge by acquaintance (with the concomitant psychological ownership of the knowledge so-acquired).
Other uses
University of Cambridge
The intellectual society at Cambridge University known as the Apostles was founded in 1820 as the Conversazione Society by George Tomlinson.
The Cambridge University Natural History Society continues to call its annual public exhibition a Conversazione.
Conversazione.org
The arts-oriented social media website Conversazione.org takes its name from the English meaning.
See also
Le Conversazioni - an anglophone literary festival held on the island of Capri.
Public awareness of science
Science communication
The Cambridge Apostles also known as The Cambridge Conversazione Society
Sacra conversazione - (holy or sacred conversation), a genre developed in Italian Renaissance painting, with a depiction of the Virgin and Child amidst a group of saints.
References
Bibliography
Alberti, Samuel J.M.M. (2003), "Conversaziones and the Experience of Science in Victorian England". Journal of Victorian Culture 8.2): 208-30.
de Clerq, Peter (2003), "Scientific instruments displayed at the Royal Society conversazioni or soirées in the nineteenth century", in Marco Beretta, Paolo Galluzzi and Carlo Triarico (eds.), Musa Musaei: Studies on Scientific Instruments and Collections in Honour of Mara Miniati, (Florence), Biblioteca di Nuncius Studi e Testi XLIX, pp.395–405.
Hartrick, Elizabeth (2008), "'Curiosities and rare scientific instruments': Colonial conversazioni in Australia and New Zealand in the 1870s and 1880s", pp.11.1–11.19 in Seize the Day: Exhibitions, Australia and the World, edited by Kate Darian-Smith, Richard Gillespie, Caroline Jordan, and Elizabeth Willis, Elizabeth, Monash University ePress, (Melbourne).
Plunkett, J., & Sullivan, J.A. (2012), "Fetes, Bazaars and Conversaziones: Science, Entertainment and Local Civic Elites", in J. Kember, J. Plunkett, and J.A. Sullivan (eds.), Popular Exhibitions, Science and Showmanship, 1840-1910, (pp.41–60). Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.
Wood, Jane (2006), "A Culture of Improvement: Knowledge, Aesthetic Consciousness, and the Conversazione", Nineteenth Century Studies'', Vol.20, pp.79-97.
Yeates, Lindsay B., "James Braid (II): Mesmerism, Braid’s Crucial Experiment, and Braid’s Discovery of Neuro-Hypnotism", Australian Journal of Clinical Hypnotherapy and Hypnosis, Vol.40, No.1, (Autumn 2018), pp.40-92.
External links
History of science
Social events
Citizen science
Science and culture
Science exhibitions
Science festivals
Science in society
Popular education
Literary festivals
Literary terminology
Cultural education | Conversazione | [
"Technology"
] | 1,690 | [
"History of science",
"History of science and technology"
] |
64,433,626 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism%20of%20Twitter | Twitter, now rebranded as X, has faced various criticisms over the years, particularly concerning content moderation, censorship, and platform management.
X has faced intensified controversy since the company's acquisition by Elon Musk (in October 2022). Issues such as handling of misinformation and disinformation, proliferation of hate speech, suspension of journalists' accounts, and temporary measures like labeling media outlets as "state-affiliated" and restricting their visibility have sparked criticism. X continues to struggle with challenges such as viral misinformation, hate speech, and antisemitism controversies.
Twitter is also blocked by several governments. Currently, Twitter is blocked in eight countries around the world: China, Iran, Myanmar, North Korea, Pakistan, Russia, Turkmenistan and Venezuela.
Older Twitter criticisms and controversies
In June 2009, after being criticized by Kanye West and sued by Tony La Russa over unauthorized accounts run by impersonators, the company launched their "Verified Accounts" program.
In 2016, Twitter announced the creation of the Twitter Trust & Safety Council to help "ensure that people feel safe expressing themselves on Twitter". The council's inaugural members included 50 organizations and individuals. The announcement of Twitter's "Trust & Safety Council" was met with objection from parts of its userbase. Critics accused the member organizations of being heavily skewed towards "the restriction of hate speech" and a Reason article expressed concern that "there's not a single uncompromising anti-censorship figure or group on the list".
Twitter's policies have been described as subject to manipulation by users who may coordinate to flag politically controversial tweets as allegedly violating the platform's policies, resulting in deplatforming of controversial users or users who made tweets they object to. The platform has long been criticized for its failure to provide details of underlying alleged policy violations to the subjects of Twitter suspensions and bans.
In 2018, Twitter rolled out a "quality filter" that hid content and users deemed "low quality" from search results and limited their visibility, leading to accusations of shadow banning. After conservatives claimed it censors users from the political right, Alex Thompson, a writer for VICE, confirmed that many prominent Republican politicians had been "shadow banned" by the filter. Twitter later acknowledged the problem, stating that the filter had a software bug that would be fixed in the near future.
In October 2020, Twitter prevented users from tweeting about a New York Post article about the Biden–Ukraine conspiracy theory, relating to emails about Hunter Biden allegedly introducing a Ukrainian businessman to his father, Joe Biden. Senators Marsha Blackburn and Ted Cruz described the blocking of the New York Post on Twitter as "election interference". The New York Times reported in September 2021 that a Federal Election Commission inquiry into a complaint about the matter found Twitter had acted with a valid commercial reason, rather than a political purpose. The FEC inquiry also found that allegations Twitter had violated election laws by allegedly shadow banning Republicans and other means were "vague, speculative and unsupported by the available information."
Criticisms and controversies since acquisition by Elon Musk
Criticism of rebranding
The rebranding itself (which happened in July 2023) has been criticized on the basis that the trademarkability of the name and logo is weak: there are almost 900 companies in the U.S. that own an X trademark, including an existing social media-related logo owned by Meta Platforms.
Handling of misinformation and disinformation
Elon Musk himself had been critical of Twitter's moderation of misinformation prior to his acquisition of the company. However, since the acquisition of Twitter by Elon Musk, the platform has been criticized for enabling the increased spread of disinformation. After the transition, Musk eliminated the misinformation moderation team, and stopped enforcing its policy on labeling tweets with misleading information about coronavirus. Algorithm changes promoted viral disinformation about the Russian invasion of Ukraine, and led to significant gains in followers for media outlets affiliated with Russia, China and Iran. While Twitter had joined a voluntary program under the European Union's to fight disinformation in June 2022, Musk pulled the company out of the program in May 2023.
As of September 2023, Twitter relied exclusively on its Community Notes program to combat misinformation, leading to failures in labeling misinformation. The program has become responsible for spreading misinformation as well as delays in fact-checking. A European Commission study found that disinformation was most prevalent and received the highest relative engagement on Twitter, compared to other major social networks, leading to warnings of a potential ban or fines by the EU for non-compliance with the Digital Services Act.
In October 2023, media outlets and experts observed significant disinformation related to the 2023 Israel–Hamas war. A BBC journalist described a "deluge" of false information, including by "blue tick" accounts, and CNBC found that while some videos were flagged as "misleading or false", identical re-posts remained unflagged. Despite Hamas being banned on Twitter as a terrorist organization, some of its propaganda videos have circulated on the platform.
An analysis from NewsGuard found that Verified users, described as "superspreaders of misinformation", produced 74% of the most viral misinformation related to the Israel-Hamas war during the first week of the conflict. The study analyzed 250 of the most-engaged posts on Twitter, based on the most popular false or unsubstantiated claims, that had received over 100 million views and one million engagements from users. On December 18, 2023, the European Union announced it would be taking action against Twitter over the spread of disinformation.
Increase in hate speech
Following Musk's acquisition of Twitter, multiple organizations reported a rise in hate speech on the platformand, including the Center for Countering Digital Hate, the Anti-Defamation League, and a research group at Tufts University. The Center for Countering Digital Hate report found that anti-Black slurs appeared on Twitter at nearly three times the rate they had prior to the acquisition and that homophobic and transphobic slurs had risen by 52% and 62% respectively. Academics and researchers studied the spread of hate speech on Twitter primarily by accessing the Twitter API, which was shut down in February 2023. According to a Reuters survey, this removal led to the modification or cancellation of more than 100 ongoing studies.
According to the Institute of Strategic Dialogue (ISD), from June 2022 to February 2023, the number of anti-semitic tweets doubled on the platform, with removal of such content also increasing, while the number of Islamic State accounts had also increased by 70%. In March, a study from the BBC found a third of the 1,100 reinstated accounts appeared to have violated Twitter guidelines. Twitter insiders told BBC Panorama they were struggling to protect users from trolling and harassment, including misogynistic online hate, and the targeting of rape survivors.
From a study of over 1 million tweets since 2022, the Center for Countering Digital Hate (CCDH) reported that posts associating LGBT people with "grooming" increased by 119 percent since October 2022, with advertising also appearing alongside what many deemed anti-LGBT rhetoric. The study featured five high-profile accounts including Libs of TikTok, Christopher Rufo, Tim Pool, and James Lindsay. Media monitoring group GLAAD described Twitter as "the most dangerous platform for LGBTQ people" with X ranking lowest on its Social Media Safety Index.
In November 2023, the CCDH released a new report claiming 98% of misinformation, antisemitism, Islamophobia, and other hate speech, in relation to the Israel-Hamas war, remained on X after 7 days of reporting, generating over 24 million views. X responded by detailing the removal of 3,000 accounts and taking action against 325,000 pieces of content, such as restricting the reach of a post. On November 24, the European Union halted advertisements on X referring to an "alarming increase" in hate speech and misinformation. A spokesperson for the European Commission confirmed that X is affected by the EU rules, and has advised European institutions to abstain from advertising on the platform.
Following the Dublin riots in Ireland on November 23, X faced criticism for allowing "vile messages" on the platform, described as hate speech, while other social media platforms, TikTok, Instagram, and Facebook, complied with Garda requests for taking down content. After Prime Minister Leo Varadkar called for incitement to hatred legislation to be updated, Musk responded by stating "the Irish PM hates the Irish people".
Child sexual abuse material
In August 2023, it was reported that child sexual abuse material (CSAM) on Twitter was still an issue, despite statements by Musk that removing it was a top priority. As of June 2023, an investigation by the Stanford Internet Observatory at Stanford University reported "a lapse in basic enforcement" against CSAM by Twitter within "recent months". The number of staff on Twitter's trust and safety teams were reduced, for example, leaving one full-time staffer to handle all child sexual abuse material in the Asia-Pacific region in November 2022. A 2023 investigation by BBC Panorama found concerns that child sexual abuse was rising, following the layoffs and changes at Twitter since Musk's takeover.
Malicious and fake accounts
In March 2024, The Intelligencer reported on the proliferation of spam posts containing the phrase "░P░U░S░S░Y░I░N░B░I░O░", or similar references to pornographic content appearing in the poster's bio, apparently formatted so as to evade counter-spam measures. The commonality of "pussy in bio" or "PIB" spam made it fodder for jokes, including one posted by Elon Musk himself. The Intelligencer further noted that most of the accounts that posted this spam were short-lived throwaway accounts, and that links provided by the accounts typically routed users through several layers of redirecting websites, ultimately landing on a provider of simulated sex chats.
Account suspensions and reinstatements
Within hours of the takeover in October 2022, the far-right Britain First account, previously banned in 2017, was reinstated. Account bans continued to be lifted in late November 2022, beginning with Jordan Peterson, Kathy Griffin, The Babylon Bee, and Donald Trump. Multiple accounts were suspended, many of which had been named by far-right figures who urged Musk to take action. Among those banned include a group that provided security to LGBTQ+ events, and several accounts parodying Musk.
In November, Twitter analytics firm Bot Sentinel calculated that around 877,000 accounts were deactivated and 497,000 were suspended between October 28 and November 1, over double the usual number. In December, neo-Nazi and founder of The Daily Stormer Andrew Anglin was reinstated, within 24 hours of Kanye West's suspension after posting an antisemitic tweet. Kanye's account was later restored in July 2023.
In May 2023, Musk announced Twitter would delete accounts that have been inactive for several years, including accounts of dead people. This led to criticism, mainly from those who charged it would disallow them from reading tweets written by their deceased loved ones.
In June 2023 Twitter suspended the accounts of Musk/Tesla critic Aaron Greenspan and his legal transparency company PlainSite. PlainSite had released a number of Musk/Tesla-related documents over the years. In February 2023 Musk had sued Greenspan over communications between the two being published.
In January 2024, X banned accounts belonging to several journalists and left-leaning accounts, including Ken Klippenstein.
In August 2024, a Brazilian Supreme Court judge cautioned that social media platform X might face suspension if Elon Musk did not appoint a new legal representative for Brazil within 24 hours, in relation to issues over the reinstatement of Brazilian accounts that had been suspended under a court order. Musk had earlier paused X's business operations in the country and criticized Judge Alexandre de Moraes for his efforts against disinformation. If Musk failed to comply, the platform could be suspended, which happened on late August 2024, being lifted after the municipal elections on early October 2024, after the social network appointed a representative in Brazil, blocked the accounts as requested by justice and paid R$28.6 past due in fines applied to X.
ElonJet and journalists suspended
On December 14, Musk suspended ElonJet, a Twitter bot account operated by Jack Sweeney which tracked Musk's private jet in real-time using publicly accessible data, in addition to several of Sweeney's other accounts. He had previously stated, "My commitment to free speech extends even to not banning the account following my plane, even though that is a direct personal safety risk." Defending his decision to suspend the accounts, Musk declared a ban on doxxing real-time location data, and Twitter followed suit by updating its policies page.
The next day, Twitter banned the accounts of multiple journalists who had been covering the ElonJet incident, as well as the Mastodon account on Twitter, on the grounds that they had violated the new doxing policy. Some of the suspended journalists joined a Twitter Spaces mass audio call with Musk, where Musk was asked about their suspensions; Musk quit the call, and the call was abruptly ended before the entire Twitter Spaces service was temporarily taken down. Musk attributed the shutdown to a software bug, while a Twitter senior software engineer said that Spaces had been "taken offline". Most suspended journalists were later reinstated, but found themselves unable to post new tweets until their policy-violating tweets had been taken down.
State-affiliated media labeling
On April 6, 2023, Twitter reversed its official policy stating that the platform would not "recommend or amplify" the content of state-controlled media entities. According to an analysis by the Digital Forensic Research Lab, the change had already taken effect since around March 29, when Twitter stopped filtering government accounts in Russia, China and Iran. These accounts, such as those managed by Russia's RT, have a significant presence on the platform. Following the change, which enabled the accounts to be algorithmically promoted by Twitter, their follower count quickly rose.
Also in April 2023, Twitter designated National Public Radio's main account as "US state-affiliated media", a label that was typically reserved for foreign media outlets that directly represented the point of view of their respective governments, like Russia's RT and China's Xinhua. Twitter's decision was controversial; though established by an act of Congress, NPR is an independent news organization that only receives a fraction of its funding through government programs. Twitter's previous policy had explicitly mentioned NPR, as well as the United Kingdom's BBC, as examples of networks that were not considered state-affiliated due to their editorial independence. NPR ceased activity on its main Twitter account in response to the designation. As of October 2023, NPR still no longer uses Twitter, with the media outlet describing the effects on traffic as negligible.
On April 8, 2023, Twitter changed the designation of NPR's account from "state-affiliated" to "government-funded". On April 10, after managing to get in contact with Musk himself, NPR reporter Bobby Allyn tweeted that Musk said he was relying on a list accessible through a Wikipedia category page, named ":Category:Publicly funded broadcasters", to determine which news organizations' accounts should be deemed as "government-funded media". Twitter then added the label to other sources such as PBS, the BBC, and Voice of America, which all three objected to.
On April 12, NPR announced that its accounts would no longer be active on Twitter, citing the platform's "inaccurate and misleading" labeling of NPR as "government-funded media" despite the fact that it receives "less than 1 percent of its $300 million annual budget" from the Corporation for Public Broadcasting. As their last post on the platform, the network shared links to their alternative newsletters, websites and social media profiles. In an email to the staff explaining the decision, CEO John Lansing allowed individual NPR journalists and staffers to choose for themselves whether to keep using Twitter, while noting that remaining on the site "would be a disservice to the serious work you all do here".
On April 17, Canadian public broadcaster CBC was designated as "government-funded media" by Twitter, in response to a letter from Conservative Party of Canada leader Pierre Poilievre. On April 18, the label was changed to "70% government-funded media", referring to outdated data from the CBC's 2020–2021 report; shortly afterwards, Musk tweaked the percentage in the label to "69%". Musk tweeted "Canadian Broadcasting Corp said they're 'less than 70% government-funded', so we corrected the label". In response, CBC announced they would pause Twitter activity.
On April 21, Twitter stopped labeling state-affiliated media entirely, with neither Western publicly funded outlets such as NPR, BBC and CBC, nor China's Xinhua and Russia's RT, displaying the label on their accounts.
Hateful conduct and language regarding transgender people
After previously indicating his intention to review Twitter's policy against "misgendering or deadnaming of transgender individuals", Musk relaxed the platform's hate speech policies in November 2022, with Gizmodo describing the policy protecting transgender people as "effectively dead". While previously tweets would be removed, Twitter announced it would instead place warning labels on tweets that are "potentially" in violation of its hateful conduct policy in April 2023.
On June 1, the first day of Pride Month, Musk confirmed that a policy against misgendering wouldn't be enforced, and that in his opinion "Whether or not you agree with using someone’s preferred pronouns, not doing so is at most rude and certainly breaks no laws".
In June, Musk promoted the film What Is a Woman? by The Daily Wire, after a Twitter review determined the content promoted hateful conduct, and was therefore in violation of abuse and harassment policies. Musk claimed the objection to the film was "a mistake", but that it wouldn't be promoted across the platform. After a pressure campaign from users, the restrictions were reduced to simply not being placed next to advertising. Shortly after, Musk declared that the words "cis" and "cisgender" are considered slurs on Twitter, within the context of repeated and targeted harassment. In October, the ability to report allegations of transphobic abuse had been scrapped.
In November, PragerU would buy a "timeline takeover" advertising spot, which forces an advertisement and accompanying hashtag to be seen by most Twitter users regardless of demographics or preferences for 24 hours, to promote their short film Detrans: The Dangers of Gender-Affirming Care; the "timeline takeover" spot was part of PragerU's estimated $1 million marketing budget for the short film. The Nation describes "anti-trans hatred" as one of Twitter's "core features".
API-related issues
In January 2023, Twitter ended third-party access to its APIs, forcing all third-party Twitter clients to shut down. This broke the third-party clients, but the change was not acknowledged until a week later, when the company cited unspecified "long-standing API rules" as the reason for the change. By January 19, Twitter had retroactively updated its developer agreement, barring developers from creating products similar to Twitter's own app. On February 2, Twitter announced it would be removing the free tier of its API by February 9 and replace it with a "basic paid tier". Musk later clarified on February 5, that bot accounts that provided "good content" would be permitted to continue using Twitter's API.
This was controversial among the developer community, as many third-party apps predated the company's official apps, and the change was not announced beforehand. Twitterrific's Sean Heber confirmed in a blog post that the 16-year-old app has been discontinued. "We are sorry to say that the app's sudden and undignified demise is due to an unannounced and undocumented policy change by an increasingly capricious Twitter – a Twitter that we no longer recognize as trustworthy nor want to work with any longer."
Promotion of Elon Musk's tweets
On February 7, 2023, Elon Musk convened a meeting of Twitter engineers and advisors to address the decline in engagement with his own tweets. One of the company's two principal engineers, after suggesting that public interest in Musk was waning following a peak during his acquisition of the platform, was fired. A Google Trends chart presented by employees had showed a decline in popularity. The following week, after the Super Bowl LVII, Twitter employee James Musk, who is Elon's paternal cousin, sent a message to the company's engineers concerning a "high urgency" matter: that Elon Musk's tweet about the Super Bowl had received less impressions than one sent by US president Joe Biden. By that afternoon, Twitter's algorithm had been altered to artificially boost Musk's tweets by a factor of 1,000. Many users observed an overwhelming promotion of his posts in the "For You" tab. Following criticism, the boost was lessened to a smaller factor.
Government blocking of Twitter access
Twitter is also blocked by several governments. Currently, Twitter is blocked in eight countries around the world: China, Iran, Myanmar, North Korea, Pakistan, Russia, Turkmenistan and Venezuela.
Response from Twitter/X
In response to allegations it deemed unfair, X Corp. has pursued legal action against nonprofit organizations such as Media Matters and the Center for Countering Digital Hate.
See also
Criticism of Facebook
Criticism of Tesla, Inc.
References
Twitter
Twitter | Criticism of Twitter | [
"Technology"
] | 4,589 | [
"Criticisms of software and websites"
] |
64,434,437 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North-south%20traffic | In computer networking, north-south traffic is network traffic flowing into and out of a data center.
Traffic
Based on the most commonly deployed network topology of systems within a data center, north–south traffic typically indicates data flow that either enters or leaves the data center from/to a system physically residing outside the data center, such as user to server.
Southbound traffic is data entering the data center (through a firewall and/or other networking infrastructure). Data exiting the data center is northbound traffic, commonly routed through a firewall to Internet space.
The other direction of traffic flow is east-west traffic which typically indicates data flow within a data center.
See also
Virtual private network
References
Data processing
Computer data | North-south traffic | [
"Technology"
] | 143 | [
"Computer data",
"Data"
] |
64,435,183 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reticulocyte%20binding%20protein%20homologs | Reticulocyte binding protein homologs (RHs) are a superfamily of proteins found in Plasmodium responsible for cell invasion. Together with the family of erythrocyte binding-like proteins (EBLs) they make up the two families of invasion proteins universal to Plasmodium. The two families function cooperatively.
This family is named after the reticulocyte binding proteins in P. vivax, a parasite that only infects reticulocytes (immature red blood cells) expressing the Duffy antigen. Homologs have since been identified in P. yoelii and P. reichenowi.
A P. falciparum protein complex called PfRH5-PfCyRPA-PfRipr (RCR) is known to bind basigin via the tip of RH5. The trimeric complex forms an elongated structure with RH5 and Ripr on distal ends and CyRPA in the middle. The RCR complex has been identified as a promising malaria vaccine target with each individual component capable of inducing strain transcending immunity in in vitro assays of parasite growth. Of the entire family of RHs, only RH5 appears to be essential for invasion and functions downstream of the other RHs during invasion.
PfRH4 is known to bind complement receptor 1.
RHs do not express any significant sequence feature for specific domains, except for a set of transmembrane helices at the C-terminal. From experimentation on partial proteins, RHs are known to contain enterocyte-binding and nucleotide-sensing domains (EBD and NBD) that may partially overlap. The structure of the EBD has been experimentally observed in 2011 by small angle X-ray scattering. A much better crystal structure for an N-terminal receptor-binding domain (presumably the same as EBD) was published in 2014.
References
Proteins
Plasmodium | Reticulocyte binding protein homologs | [
"Chemistry"
] | 404 | [
"Proteins",
"Biomolecules by chemical classification",
"Molecular biology stubs",
"Molecular biology"
] |
64,435,256 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collabora%20Online | Collabora Online is an open source online office suite based on LibreOffice, enabling web-based collaborative real-time editing of word processing documents, spreadsheets, presentations, and vector graphics. Optional apps are available for desktops, laptops, tablets, smartphones, and Chromebooks.
Collabora Online is developed by Collabora Productivity, a division of Collabora, which is a commercial partner of LibreOffice's parent organization, The Document Foundation (TDF). TDF states that a majority of the LibreOffice software development is done by its commercial partners, Collabora, Red Hat, CIB, and Allotropia.
Features
Collabora Online can be accessed from modern web browsers without plug-ins or add-ons. Documents, spreadsheets, presentations and vector graphics can be edited collaboratively.
Collaborative functions include comments which other users can respond to, document version history which enables the comparison of documents and restoring, etc. Collaborative functions may also include integrated video calls or chat whilst collaboratively editing documents, features like these are possible with integrations with enterprise cloud solutions such as Nextcloud, ownCloud, Seafile, EGroupware and others. Collabora Online can be integrated with any application.
Device support
Client apps are not required to access Collabora Online which only needs a web browser; However, optional apps are available for most devices that run the following operating systems: Android, ChromeOS, iOS, iPadOS, Windows, macOS and Linux.
These optional apps share the same core LibreOffice Technology software with Collabora Online, resulting in document consistency between them. Software development of the LibreOffice core therefore normally benefits the source code of Collabora Online server and all of the client apps simultaneously. The apps work offline without the need for a connection to a local server or the cloud, support for integrations with cloud storage services is still possible. The mobile apps have touch-optimized interfaces that scale across varying screen sizes. The ChromeOS app which is used in Chromebooks, Chromeboxes and tablets, edits documents in the Play files folders.
File formats
Collabora Online supports ISO/IEC international standard ISO/IEC 26300 Open Document Format for Office Applications (ODF – odt, odp, ods, odg). It also supports Microsoft's XML formats (docx, pptx, xlsx) and Microsoft's legacy binary formats (doc, ppt, xls). Other formats supported include pdf, png, csv, rtf, and epub. Microsoft Visio, Microsoft Publisher, Apple Keynote, Numbers, Pages, and other file formats can be imported, the same as LibreOffice supported file formats.
Applications
The following applications are included in online and the apps for desktops, laptops and mobile (tablets, smartphones and Chromebooks).
Collabora Writer word processor supporting .odt, .docx, .doc, .docm, .rtf and other formats. It has WYSIWYG editing, format and style options, comments, and is capable of tracking changes.
Collabora Calc spreadsheet editor supporting .ods, .xlsx, .xls, .xlsm, .csv and other formats. Advanced formulas, pivot tables, HTML formula input, conditional formatting and data validation. Spreadsheets with up to 16k columns, charts, sparklines and hyperlinks. Advanced multi-column sort and filter advanced options. When enabled, VBA macro compatibility.
Collabora Impress presentation editor supporting .odp, .pptx, .ppt. Master slides, ability to add text, images, tables, SmartArt, speaker notes, custom timings and transitions.
Collabora Draw vector graphics editor supporting .odg, .vsd. For flyers, newsletters, brochures, diagramming, drawing shapes. (Version 6.4.7+). Ability to add text, charts, tables, links, fields, FontWork, text rotation, comments. Options to download as an image or pdf. In Online, Draw functionality is integrated into Writer and Impress.
Server
Collabora Online allows collaborative real-time editing of word processing documents, spreadsheets, presentations and vector graphics. The server or servers can be hosted locally or with a provider, privately hosted cloud services allow applications and data to remain under the control of the respective users. Collabora Productivity supports Collabora Online server instances for Debian, Ubuntu CentOS, openSUSE, Univention Virtual Machines and Docker images. It is often integrated with file sharing and collaboration cloud platforms, such as Nextcloud, ownCloud, Seafile and EGroupware, which are functionally similar to Dropbox, Google Drive and Microsoft 365, these typically include email, contacts, calendar, file synchronization and sharing, calls, chat and video, with apps stores. Close integrations are possible, enabling things like the possibility to edit documents within a chatroom or a video call, as with Nextcloud's built-in video-conferencing tool Nextcloud Talk. Collabora Online server can integrate simultaneously with several cloud solutions such as aforementioned and also Alfresco, Kolab, Mattermost, Moodle, Nuxeo, SharePoint and others.
The server can be installed from packages, or during development, for simplicity, from a docker image. The Docker website indicates that the Collabora Online Development Edition (CODE) Docker image has been downloaded 50 million times. A software development kit (SDK) including API specifications and integration instructions is available, along with sample integration code snippets for several programming languages.
Collaborative functions include comments which other users can respond to and document version history enabling the comparison of documents and their restoration, and other things.
In 2021 a remote work solution was made available by Canonical, Collabora, and Nextcloud which includes the Collabora Online office suite, it installs on Intel NUCs or ARM based Raspberry Pi 4s, it is preconfigured and automatically updates itself, it is called Nextcloud Ubuntu Appliance.
In 2022 support for the OpenPOWER architecture was added, complementing existing support for x86-64 and ARM64, this was the result of a partnership with IT service provider 21unity who offer a Nextcloud Enterprise solution called 21unity CLOUD.
Digital sovereignty
Collabora Online is fully auditable open source software, uses open standards, is self-hostable and does not require an account from a third party provider to edit files. In July 2020, the European parliament published a briefing titled Digital sovereignty for Europe, detailing concerns that citizens, businesses and Member States of the European Union (EU) are losing control over their data, it explains the economic model used by Apple, Amazon, Facebook, Google and Microsoft is largely based on the collection and exploitation of online users' data. Judgements such as “Schrems II” show that it is delicate to rely on solutions from the large cloud providers when it comes to processing and storing sensitive personal data. Digital sovereignty has been an increasing concern in the EU for several reasons since the Patriot Act enacted in October 2001, the continuing legal privacy conflicts between the US CLOUD Act enacted March 2018, and the EU's General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) implemented May 2018.
The French Ministry's IT infrastructure director stated safety of the data of their citizens and employees as a reason for deploying Nextcloud-based private cloud for the French Ministry of Interior. The Dutch Ministry of Education, the German federal government, and the Swedish federal government agencies are deploying Nextcloud-based private cloud for similar reasons and to increase competition.
Technology
The core of Collabora Online is written in C++. It uses the LibreOfficeKit, a programming interface that allows the reuse of most of the existing LibreOffice code and the saving, loading and rendering of documents. The basic principle of Collabora Online is that documents never leave the server. The parties working on the documents see tile-rendered images of the document and send their changes back to the server. The visible user interface of Collabora Online is written in JavaScript. For file access and authentication with a file hosting services, Collabora Online uses the WOPI protocol developed by Microsoft. This means that Collabora Online can – in theory – be used with any instance allowing a Microsoft 365 integration.
Reviews
Various online and print publications have discussed Collabora Online. In December 2016 the technology website Softpedia mentioned the availability of collaborative editing in version 2.0 and the integration with ownCloud, Nextcloud, and other FSS solutions. The technology website ZDNET reported in June 2020 that Collabora Online from version 19 of Nextcloud will be delivered as a standard office package and that within the native video conferencing software Talk direct editing of documents is now possible. The technology blog OMG! Ubuntu! covered the release of the Android and iOS apps pointing out the possibility to use them in offline mode. In September 2020 Linux Magazine compared Collabora Online with OnlyOffice, mentioning the flexibility and platform independence of both tools and pointing out the large set of features Collabora Online draws from LibreOffice.
History
The former LibreOffice development team from SUSE joined Collabora in September 2013, forming the subsidiary Collabora Productivity. In 2015 Collabora and IceWarp announced the development of an enterprise-ready version of LibreOffice Online to compete with Google Docs and Office 365 (now called Microsoft 365). In December 2015, the company's partnership with ownCloud and release of CODE (Collabora Online Development Edition) was announced on Joinup. In November 2016, Nextcloud announced their work and integration with v2.0 of CODE and their future work plans for improving performance, scalability, security and capabilities with Collabora Online. In October 2020, Collabora announced the move of its work on Collabora Online from The Document Foundation infrastructure to GitHub. A development version of Collabora Online is available called Collabora Online Development Edition (CODE).
See also
Comparison of office suites
Comparison of word processors
Comparison of spreadsheet software
Collaborative software
Online office suite
Comparison of desktop publishing software
List of desktop publishing software
Notes
References
External links
2016 software
Android (operating system) software
Cloud computing
Collabora
Collaborative real-time editors
Collaborative software
Cross-platform free software
Cross-platform software
Desktop publishing software
Desktop publishing software for Linux
Desktop publishing software for macOS
Desktop publishing software for Windows
Document management systems
Formerly proprietary software
Free desktop publishing software
Free groupware
Free PDF software
Free presentation software
Free software for cloud computing
Free software programmed in C++
Free software programmed in JavaScript
Free spreadsheet software
Free vector graphics editors
IOS software
IPadOS software
LibreOffice
Linux word processors
MacOS software
MacOS word processors
Office software that uses GTK
Office suites
Office suites for Linux
Office suites for macOS
Office suites for Windows
Online office suites
Online spreadsheets
Online word processors
Open-source cloud applications
Open-source office suites
Presentation software
Presentation software for macOS
Presentation software for Windows
Rich Internet Applications
Software forks
Software using the Mozilla Public License
Spreadsheet software
Spreadsheet software for macOS
Spreadsheet software for Windows
Unix software
Web applications
Windows word processors
Word processors | Collabora Online | [
"Mathematics",
"Technology"
] | 2,369 | [
"Collaborative real-time editors",
"Spreadsheet software",
"Mathematical software"
] |
64,435,458 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GCIRS%2016SW | GCIRS 16SW, also known as S97, is a contact binary star located in the Galactic Center. It is composed of two hot massive stars of equal size that orbit each other with a period of 19.5 days. The stars are so close that their atmospheres overlap, and the two stars form an eclipsing binary varying in brightness by 0.35 magnitudes at infrared wavelengths.
GCIRS 16SW orbits Sagittarius A* at approximately 19,000 AU, with a period of approximately 1,270 years. At the stars' estimated mass of about 50 solar masses, they are predicted to have a lifespan of about 4 million years, indicating that the system formed within of Sagittarius A*, instead of having migrated inward from a greater distance.
GCIRS 16SW was classified as a candidate luminous blue variable on the basis of its spectrum and physical properties. This was before it was identified as an eclipsing binary, but it is still treated as a candidate LBV.
Each star is strongly distorted by the gravity of the other star. The polar radius is calculated to be , while the radius along the direction of orbital motion is . The radius along the line joining the two stars is , while the separation of the centres of the two stars is . A calculation of properties treating the binary as a single star gave an effective temperature of . The secondary component is found to have a temperature 96% of that of the primary. However, these temperatures yield a luminosity over a million times that of the sun, uncomfortably close to the Eddington luminosity for each star, and it is suspected the actual temperatures are slightly lower.
References
Sagittarius (constellation)
Galactic Center
O-type supergiants
Wolf–Rayet stars
Eclipsing binaries | GCIRS 16SW | [
"Astronomy"
] | 366 | [
"Sagittarius (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
59,500,418 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SN%2035210 | SN 35210 is an arylcyclohexylamine dissociative anesthetic drug. It was derived from ketamine with the intention of producing a shorter acting agent more suitable to be used as a stand-alone drug, whereas ketamine itself generally has to be used in combination with other drugs such as midazolam to minimise the occurrence of emergence reactions due to its hallucinogenic side effects. In common with other short-acting anaesthetic drugs such as remifentanil and remimazolam, SN 35210 has had the chemical structure modified to incorporate a methyl ester group which is rapidly metabolised to a carboxylic acid, producing an inactive compound and thus rapidly terminating the effects of the drug. It was selected for development from a series of structurally related alkyl esters due to having the shortest duration of action and the most similar pharmacological profile to ketamine itself.
References
Arylcyclohexylamines
Dissociative drugs
NMDA receptor antagonists | SN 35210 | [
"Chemistry"
] | 221 | [
"Pharmacology",
"Pharmacology stubs",
"Medicinal chemistry stubs"
] |
59,500,886 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification%20of%20low-dimensional%20real%20Lie%20algebras | This mathematics-related list provides Mubarakzyanov's classification of low-dimensional real Lie algebras, published in Russian in 1963. It complements the article on Lie algebra in the area of abstract algebra.
An English version and review of this classification was published by Popovych et al. in 2003.
Mubarakzyanov's Classification
Let be -dimensional Lie algebra over the field of real numbers
with generators , . For each algebra we adduce only non-zero commutators between basis elements.
One-dimensional
, abelian.
Two-dimensional
, abelian ;
, solvable ,
Three-dimensional
, abelian, Bianchi I;
, decomposable solvable, Bianchi III;
, Heisenberg–Weyl algebra, nilpotent, Bianchi II,
, solvable, Bianchi IV,
, solvable, Bianchi V,
, solvable, Bianchi VI, Poincaré algebra when ,
, solvable, Bianchi VII,
, simple, Bianchi VIII,
, simple, Bianchi IX,
Algebra can be considered as an extreme case of , when , forming contraction of Lie algebra.
Over the field algebras , are isomorphic to and , respectively.
Four-dimensional
, abelian;
, decomposable solvable,
, decomposable solvable,
, decomposable nilpotent,
, decomposable solvable,
, decomposable solvable,
, decomposable solvable,
, decomposable solvable,
, unsolvable,
, unsolvable,
, indecomposable nilpotent,
, indecomposable solvable,
, indecomposable solvable,
, indecomposable solvable,
, indecomposable solvable,
, indecomposable solvable,
, indecomposable solvable,
, indecomposable solvable,
, indecomposable solvable,
, indecomposable solvable,
Algebra can be considered as an extreme case of , when , forming contraction of Lie algebra.
Over the field algebras , , , , are isomorphic to , , , , , respectively.
See also
Table of Lie groups
Simple Lie group#Full classification
Notes
References
Lie algebras
Mathematics-related lists
Mathematical classification systems | Classification of low-dimensional real Lie algebras | [
"Mathematics"
] | 488 | [
"nan"
] |
59,501,534 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lie%20operad | In mathematics, the Lie operad is an operad whose algebras are Lie algebras. The notion (at least one version) was introduced by in their formulation of Koszul duality.
Definition à la Ginzburg–Kapranov
Fix a base field k and let denote the free Lie algebra over k with generators and the subspace spanned by all the bracket monomials containing each exactly once. The symmetric group acts on by permutations of the generators and, under that action, is invariant. The operadic composition is given by substituting expressions (with renumbered variables) for variables. Then, is an operad.
Koszul-Dual
The Koszul-dual of is the commutative-ring operad, an operad whose algebras are the commutative rings over k.
Notes
References
External links
Todd Trimble, Notes on operads and the Lie operad
https://ncatlab.org/nlab/show/Lie+operad
Abstract algebra
Category theory | Lie operad | [
"Mathematics"
] | 208 | [
"Functions and mappings",
"Mathematical structures",
"Algebra stubs",
"Mathematical objects",
"Fields of abstract algebra",
"Category theory",
"Mathematical relations",
"Abstract algebra",
"Algebra"
] |
59,501,824 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palladacycle | Palladacycle, as a class of metallacycles, refers to complexes containing at least one carbon-palladium bond. Palladacycles are invoked as intermediates in catalytic or palladium mediated reactions. They have been investigated as pre-catalysts for homogeneous catalysis and synthesis.
History of the palladacycle discovery
In the 1960s, Arthur C. Cope and Robert W. Siekman reported the cyclopalladation reaction between aromatic azobenzenes and palladium(II) dichloride. The potential of palladacycles as catalysts was highlighted by Herrmann's catalyst in 1990s. Derivatives of tris(o-tolyl)phosphine proved effective in Heck reactions.
Classes of palladacycles
There are two distinct types of palladacycle: four-electron donor (CY) and six-electron donor (YCY) complexes.
Neutral, cationic and anionic palladacycles
The palladacycles can be neutral, cationic, or anionic. Depending on the nature of the coordinating ligands, the neutral palladacycles can be monomers, dimers, or bis-cyclopalladated.
Palladacycles with various ring-sizes
Palladacycles with ring-sizes range from 3 to 10 have been synthesized and characterized, whereas only 5-/6-membered ones are commonly used. Palladacycles of 3-/4-/>6-membered ring-sizes are usually unstable due to their ring strains.
Palladacycles with various donor groups
The palladacycles could also be classified by the donor atoms. For example, the Herrmann’s catalyst discussed before is a phosphine-derived palladacycle. Other types of palladacycles such as phosphite palladacycle, imine palladacycle, oxime palladacycle, CS-/CO-palladacycles are also effective in catalytic reactions. Palladacycles derived from 2-aminobiphenyl have been used in a variety of cross-coupling reactions.
Synthesis of palladacycles
Several methods are available for the preparation of palladacycles. A simple and direct method is C–H activation. The cyclopalladation of aromatic derivatives is usually considered to go through an electrophilic aromatic substitution pathway. The oxidative addition of aryl halides is another useful method. However, the accessibility of the aryl halides starting material is a major drawback.
Other types of reactions such as transmetalation and nucleopalladation also turned out to be effective methods in the synthesis of palladacycles.
Applications as precatalysts
Palladacycles are used as pre-catalysts, usually by the reductive elimination from palladium(II) to the catalytically active palladium(0). In the example of 2-aminobiphenyl palladacycles, a kinetically active 12-electrons Pd(0) species is formed, allowing for further oxidative addition with reactants. A series of 2-aminobiphenyl bearing various X and L groups were synthesized to better understand the electron/steric effect.
By employing palladacycles as pre-catalysts, high reactivity and selectivity have been achieved in Heck reaction[2] and a variety of cross-coupling reactions, such as Suzuki, Sonogashira, Stille, Buchwald–Hartwig reactions.
Total synthesis containing palladacycles have been demonstrated.
Other applications
Except their abilities in catalyzing organic reactions, palladacycles have also shown their potential in medicinal and biological chemistry after the success of cis-Pt(NH3)2Cl2 as an anticancer agent. Additionally, they can also be used in CO/SCN- sensing.
Further reading
References
Organometallic chemistry
Palladium
Chelating agents
Ligands | Palladacycle | [
"Chemistry"
] | 820 | [
"Ligands",
"Coordination chemistry",
"Chelating agents",
"Organometallic chemistry",
"Process chemicals"
] |
59,503,152 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sink%20test | Sink test is a form of medical laboratory diagnostics healthcare fraud whereby clinical specimens are discarded, via a sink drain, and fabricated results are reported, without the clinical specimen actually being tested.
In the United States, the prevalence of sink test laboratories in the 1980s led in part to regulation following the passage of Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments in 1988.
While this illegal practice still occurs, it is rare within the highly regulated US lab market.
References
Medical crime
Laboratory fraud
Clinical pathology
Laboratory techniques | Sink test | [
"Chemistry"
] | 96 | [
"nan"
] |
59,503,374 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrous%20oxide | Hydrous oxides are inorganic compounds of a metal, hydroxide, and weakly bound water. Some examples include:
Hydrous ferric oxide (HFO)
Hydrous cupric oxide
Hydrous thorium oxide (THO) and hydrous titanium oxide (TiHO)
Hydrous aluminum oxide (HAO)
Some of them, such as HFO and HAO, are precipitated in highly porous poorly crystalline or amorphous forms and therefore are good adsorbents used for example in water treatment.
Some others are gels.
Hydrous oxide films may be used an various applications such as electrocatalysis, supercapacitors, and sensors.
HFO and HAO may also result from oxidative weathering of rocks to produce iron an aluminum hydrous oxide clay soils.
See also
Hydrate
Ferrihydrite
References
inorganic compounds
Oxoacids
Oxygen compounds
Water chemistry | Hydrous oxide | [
"Chemistry"
] | 186 | [
"Inorganic compounds",
"nan",
"Inorganic compound stubs"
] |
59,505,067 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%206445 | NGC 6445, also known as the Little Gem Nebula or Box Nebula, is a planetary nebula in the constellation Sagittarius. It was discovered by William Herschel on May 28, 1786. The distance of NGC 6445 is estimated to be slightly more than 1,000 parsecs based on the parallax measured by Gaia, which was measured at mas.
Characteristics
NGC 6445 has been classified as a bipolar planetary nebula. Its He/H and N/O abundance ratios are consistent with the Type I definition. In optical images, NGC 6445 features a bright, central ring-shaped morphology and open bipolar lobes; the outer envelope emission of NGC 6445 is [N ii]-dominant.
Wide-field optical images obtained by the Nordic Optical Telescope (NOT) Andalucía Faint Object Spectrograph and Camera (ALFOSC) show that NGC 6445 has an irregularly shaped central region with a size of ~40" × 50", where the [O iii] emission dominates, while the [N ii] emission is much more extended and defines an overall bipolar morphology. The bipolar lobes are along the east–west (EW) direction with position angle ~ 80°, stretching to about 1'.6 from the center. There are also many filamentary structures across the nebula, which hint at a more complex morphology of NGC 6445. The breadths of the EW lobes reach ~1'.8 at both ends. This means given the distance of NGC 6445 that the nebula is 4 light years across and is among the largest known. NGC 6445 has a faint halo, seen in residual H2 emission images, which show filamentary features well outside the central region along the north–south (NS) direction. These filaments are located ~1'.3 – 1'.6 from the center. The southern filaments are more extended along the EW direction. There are also rays of faint emission coming from the central region.
A close comparison of the residual H2 image against the Spitzer IRAC 8.0 μm and the NOT ALFOSC [N ii] images shows that along NS direction the H2 emission generally delineates the outer boundary of a broad region where the 8.0 μm emission dominates, while the [N ii] emission is more extended along the EW direction, consistent with the bipolar morphology, and is confined within the 8.0 μm-emitting region along the north–south direction. Along this direction, the H2 emission appears to be slightly farther out than the [N ii] emission. This reinforces the notion that the optical emission may be significantly affected by the illumination of UV photons and cannot represent the intrinsic matter distribution of PNe. The [N ii] image mainly traces the bipolar lobes, while the H2 image reveals the limb-brightened gas extended along the equatorial direction.
The northern and the southern H2-emitting filaments, ~1'.4 – 1'.6 from the center of NGC 6445, might be the outer boundaries of an edge-on-viewed torus of this PN. This torus was ejected in the AGB phase, when the projenitor star was a red giant, and is now being disrupted by interaction with the fast stellar wind that was developed later. The south region of the torus seems to be much more disrupted than its north counterpart. Within the EW bipolar lobes, there seem to be two arcs in the H2 emission, as shown in the residual image: a northeast (NE) arc and a southwest (SW) one, both ~1'.0 from the nebular center. The SW arc seems to be disrupted but matches the position of a giant arc in [N ii]. These two H2 arcs might define another pair of bipolar lobes, which have a PA ~ 56°. This PA generally agrees with that of the [O iii]-right inner nebular region of NGC 6445, suggesting that the smaller bipolar bubbles are of relatively higher excitation and thus might have developed recently.
Observation
NGC 6445 lies 2.1 degrees southwest from the open cluster Messier 23. NGC 6445 can be located by star hopping from Messier 23, by firstly locating an arc of 7th and 8th magnitude stars one degree southwest of M23, with the nebula lying 5 arcminutes west of an 8th magnitude star that lies 40 arcminutes west of the southernmost star of the arc. The globular cluster NGC 6440 lies 23 arcminutes to the south and both objects can be seen in a wide field eyepiece. In low magnification the nebula appears like a fuzzy star and higher magnifications reveal its rectangular disk. The planetary nebula is included in the Herschel 400 Catalogue.
References
External links
Planetary nebulae
Sagittarius (constellation)
6445
Discoveries by William Herschel | NGC 6445 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 1,008 | [
"Sagittarius (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
59,505,168 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell-shaped%20function | A bell-shaped function or simply 'bell curve' is a mathematical function having a characteristic "bell"-shaped curve. These functions are typically continuous or smooth, asymptotically approach zero for large negative/positive x, and have a single, unimodal maximum at small x. Hence, the integral of a bell-shaped function is typically a sigmoid function. Bell shaped functions are also commonly symmetric.
Many common probability distribution functions are bell curves.
Some bell shaped functions, such as the Gaussian function and the probability distribution of the Cauchy distribution, can be used to construct sequences of functions with decreasing variance that approach the Dirac delta distribution. Indeed, the Dirac delta can roughly be thought of as a bell curve with variance tending to zero.
Some examples include:
Gaussian function, the probability density function of the normal distribution. This is the archetypal bell shaped function and is frequently encountered in nature as a consequence of the central limit theorem.
Fuzzy Logic generalized membership bell-shaped function
Hyperbolic secant. This is also the derivative of the Gudermannian function.
Witch of Agnesi, the probability density function of the Cauchy distribution. This is also a scaled version of the derivative of the arctangent function.
Bump function
Raised cosines type like the raised cosine distribution or the raised-cosine filter
Most of the window functions like the Kaiser window
The derivative of the logistic function. This is a scaled version of the derivative of the hyperbolic tangent function.
Some algebraic functions. For example
Gallery
References
Functions and mappings | Bell-shaped function | [
"Mathematics"
] | 326 | [
"Mathematical analysis",
"Functions and mappings",
"Mathematical relations",
"Mathematical objects"
] |
59,508,090 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington%20Glass%20School | The Washington Glass School was founded in 2001 by Washington, DC area artists Tim Tate and Erwin Timmers.
The school teaches classes on how to make kiln cast, fused, and cold worked glass sculptures and art. It is the second largest warm glass school in the United States.
History
Co-Founder Tim Tate's glass sculpture at the 2000 Artomatic art event was acquired by the Smithsonian American Art Museum for the Renwick Gallery's permanent collection. That sale also provided the funds that started the Washington Glass School. Erwin Timmers' artwork was also on exhibit at Artomatic, where after the show, they began to collaborate, later teaming up to start the Washington Glass School & Studio. Michael Janis joined the school in 2003, and became a Co-Director of the Washington Glass School in 2005.
The school was initially located in the neighborhood where Nationals Park now stands, and as a result of the construction of the park, had to relocate to the current location in Mount Rainier, Maryland, just over the border with Washington, D.C.
In 2008, Artomatic organized an exhibit that focused on how three "glass" cities approach the sculptural medium and hosted by the Washington Glass School. The collaborative show was titled "Glass 3″ referencing the invited glass centers of Washington, D.C., Toledo, Ohio, and Sunderland, England.
The exhibit featured nearly 50 glass artists and created an international partnership and strong relationships that led to more international collaborative interactions. Tim Tate and Michael Janis' Fulbright Scholarships were both completed at the University of Sunderland and the UK's National Glass Centre.
Washington Glass Studio
The Washington Glass Studio was established as part of the school in 2001 to create site specific art for architectural and landscape environments. The studio draws on the Washington Glass School Co-director's educational backgrounds in steel and glass sculpture, electronics and video media, architectural design, and ecological sustainability.
Notable public art projects by Washington Glass Studio include the monumental glass doors for the John Adams Building at the Library of Congress. Under the auspices of the Architect of the Capitol, the bronze doors to the John Adams Building were replaced in 2013 with code-complaint sculpted glass panels mirroring the original bronze door sculptures by American artist, Lee Lawrie, designed to commemorate the history of the written word, depicting gods of writing as well as real-life Native American Sequoyah. "
The public art commission for artwork at the entrance to the Laurel Branch Library was awarded to the Washington Glass Studio in 2016. The high glass-and-steel sculpture was made involving the surrounding community and library groups. In a series of glass-making workshops, images of books and stories, education and learning, and shared aspirations were created at the Washington Glass School to be incorporated into the internally illuminated tower. In 2023, a second piece of public art for the Prince George's County Memorial Library system, "Reading the Waters," a fused glass mural, was installed at the Bladensburg Branch Library as part of the facility's renovation.
Faculty
Directors
Michael Janis
Tim Tate
Erwin Timmers
Glass Secessionism
The Washington Glass School championed a new art movement dubbed Glass Secessionism to "underscore and define the 21st Century Sculptural Glass Movement and to illustrate the differences and strengths compared to late 20th century technique-driven glass. While the 20th century glass artists contributions have been spectacular and ground breaking, this group focuses on the aesthetic of the 21st century. The object of the Glass-Secession is to advance glass as applied to sculptural expression; to draw together those glass artists practicing or otherwise interested in the arts, and to discuss from time to time examples of the Glass-Secession or other narrative work."
Reflecting the evolving nature of glass art, the name of the Facebook group was amended in 2017 to "21st Century Glass : Conversations and Images / Glass Secessionism".
References
External links
"Capitol Improvements", American Craft Magazine reviews the process in the school's creation of the new cast glass doors for the US Library of Congress Adams Building. June/July 2013.
"All Things Considered - Interview with Tim Tate: A Tiny Digital Arts Revolution, Encased In Glass." National Public Radio. August 3, 2009.
WETA TV - "Around Town Visits the Washington Glass School." Aired July 16, 2007.
Glassmaking schools | Washington Glass School | [
"Materials_science",
"Engineering"
] | 879 | [
"Glass engineering and science",
"Glassmaking schools"
] |
59,508,796 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20aerospace%20flight%20test%20centres | Flight test centers around the world all have similar missions: to conduct flight research and testing of new aircraft concepts and prototypes. Notable centers are listed below (by year of foundation):
Government establishments
U.K. Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment, based at Boscombe Down, England (founded 1917)
U.S. Navy Air Warfare Test Center, based at Naval Air Station Patuxent River, Maryland, United States (founded 1918, as the Navy's Flight Test Group based at Naval Air Station Anacostia)
Swedish Armed Forces Flight Test and Evaluation Center (FMV:PROV is a part of FMV), based at Linköping, Sweden (founded 1933)
Italian Air Force Flight Test Center (Reparto Sperimentale di Volo), based at Pratica di Mare (founded 1935)
Russian State Flight Research and Test Center, based at Zhukovsky, Russia (founded 1941)
I.N.T.A. Spanish Aerospace Research and Test Center, based at Torrejón de Ardoz, Community of Madrid, Spain (founded 1942)
CLAEX Spanish Air Force Experimentation Center, based at Torrejón de Ardoz, Spain (founded 1992)
U.S. Air Force Test Center, based at Edwards Air Force Base, California, United States (founded 1942, as the new location of 477th Air Base Headquarters and Test Squadron)
Flight Test Center (CEV) of the French Ministry of Armed Forces (CEV is a part of Directorate General of Armaments ), based at 217 Air Base in Brétigny-sur-Orge, France (founded 1945)
NASA Flight Research Center, based at Edwards Air Force Base, California, United States (founded 1946, as the Muroc Flight Test Unit)
NRC Institute for Aerospace Research, based at Ottawa and Montreal, Canada (founded 1951, as the National Aeronautical Establishment - NAE)
Brazilian Air Force Flight Testing and Research Institute (part of CTA), São José dos Campos, Brazil (founded 1953)
Japan Air Self-Defense Force Flight Test Center, based at Gifu Air Field, Japan (founded 1955)
DLR German Aerospace Research and Test Center, based at Braunschweig, Germany (founded 1956)
WTD 61 German Armed Forces Flight Test Center, based at Manching, Germany (founded 1957 as Testing Center for Military Aerial Equipment at Oberpfaffenhofen)
Indian Air Force Test Pilot School, Bangalore, India (founded 1957)
U.S. Army Aviation Technical Test Center, currently based at Redstone Arsenal, Huntsville, Alabama, United States (founded 1957, as the U.S. Army Aviation Test Board based at Fort Rucker)
China Flight Test Establishment, based at Xi'an, China (founded 1959)
Swiss Air Force Flight Test Center (aviation branch of the Swiss Federal Office for Defence Procurement), based at Emmen Air Base, Emmen, Switzerland (founded 1964)
Aerospace Engineering Test Establishment, based at Cold Lake, Alberta, and Ottawa, Ontario, Canada (founded 1967, as the Royal Canadian Air Force Flight Test and Evaluation Squadron No. 448)
Israeli Air Force Flight Test Center (Manat), based at Tel Nof Airbase, Rehovot (founded 1978)
JAXA Flight Research Center, based at Chofu Aerodrome, Nagoya Airfield and Taiki Aerospace Research Field
Corporate establishments
CASA Flight Test Center, based at the Getafe Air Base, Spain (founded 1924)
SAAB Flight Test Center, based at Linköping, Sweden (founded 1932)
BAE Systems Flight Test Center, based at Warton Aerodrome, England (founded 1947)
Airbus Defence and Space Flight Test Center, based at Manching, Germany (founded 1962, as the Messerschmitt Company Flight Test Center)
Sikorsky Development Flight Center, based at West Palm Beach, Florida, United States (founded 1977)
TCOM Corporation production and flight test site (including the historic Weeksville Dirigible Hangar) for development of lighter-than-air technologies and testing airships, located at the former Naval Air Station Weeksville in Elizabeth City, North Carolina, United States (founded 1986)
Bombardier Aerospace Flight Test Center (BFTC), based at the Dwight D. Eisenhower National Airport, Wichita, Kansas, United States (founded 1991, as reconstruction of the acquired in 1990 Learjet facility)
Embraer Flight Test Center, based at Embraer Unidade aerodrome, Gavião Peixoto, Brazil (founded 2001)
Bell Flight Research Center, based at Arlington, Texas, United States
IAI Flight Test Center, based at Ben Gurion Airport, Israel
See also
List of test pilot schools
References
Aerospace research institutes
Aviation research institutes
Space technology research institutes
Aerospace engineering organizations | List of aerospace flight test centres | [
"Engineering"
] | 956 | [
"Aeronautics organizations",
"Aerospace engineering organizations",
"Aerospace engineering"
] |
51,695,114 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blastocladia%20aspergilloides | Blastocladia aspergilloides is a species of fungus in the family Blastocladiaceae.
External links
MycoBank entry
Fungi described in 1937
Blastocladiomycota
Fungus species | Blastocladia aspergilloides | [
"Biology"
] | 42 | [
"Fungus stubs",
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
51,695,411 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanent%20magnet%20motor | A permanent magnet motor is a type of electric motor that uses permanent magnets for the field excitation and a wound armature. The permanent magnets can either be stationary or rotating; interior or exterior to the armature for a radial flux machine or layered with the armature for an axial flux topology. The schematic shows a permanent magnet motor with stationary magnets outside of a brushed armature (a type commonly used on toy slot-cars).
Applications
Electric vehicles
This type of motor is used in GM's Chevrolet Bolt and Volt, and the rear wheel drive of Tesla's Model 3. Recent dual motor Tesla models use a combination of a permanent magnet motor at the back and traditional induction motor at the front.
Permanent magnet motors are more efficient than induction motor or motors with field windings for certain high-efficiency applications such as electric vehicles. Tesla's chief motor designer was quoted discussing these advantages, saying:
Types
Permanent magnet DC motors (powered by direct current)
Permanent-magnet synchronous motors (powered by alternating current)
Permanent magnet motors consist of two main types. Surface permanent magnet motors (SPM) and internal permanent magnet (IPM) motors. The main difference is that SPM motors place the magnets on the outside of the rotor while IPM motors place their magnets inside the motor. Benefits to internal magnets include structural integrity and reducing Back EMF. Since holes must be cut into the rotor for the placement of the magnets this creates areas of high reluctance allowing carmakers to obtain some of the benefits of reluctance motors as well as of permanent magnet motors.
Back electromotive force
Back electromotive force (EMF) is also known as the counter-electromotive force. It is the voltage that occurs in electric motors from the relative motion between the stator windings and the rotor’s magnetic field. The rotor's geometry determines the waveform's shape.
This effect is not unique to permanent magnet motors. Induction motors also suffer from it. However in an induction motor the fields from the rotor decrease as speed increases. A permanent magnet motor generates its own constant field. This means that as speed increases a voltage is induced linearly with the speed on the stator. This voltage is negative to the voltage provided to the motor and thus is a loss to the overall system.
Permanent magnetic motor materials
Many different permanent magnetic materials are used to drive permanent magnetic motors and vary based on multiple factors, principally necessary magnetic strength and cost. The four primary permanent magnetic materials that are found in the vast majority of industrial applications are neodymium iron boron (NdFeB), samarium cobalt (SmCo), aluminum nickel cobalt (Alnico), and strontium carbonate-iron oxide (also known as “ceramic magnet”); furthermore, significant materials science research is ongoing into the development of additional non-rare earth (NRE) permanent magnetic materials.
NdFeB Magnets
NdFeB is the strongest of all permanent magnet materials used in industrial applications and sees wide use in many types of permanent magnetic motors, including in disc drive spindle motors, electric vehicle motors, alternators, and sensors, power tools, electricity generators, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). NdFeB exhibits a Curie temperature of approximately 320 °C, which is significantly above room temperature, as well as very high remanence, coercivity, and energy product which allow it excellent performance in permanent magnetic applications. The most common method of NdFeB magnet production is sintering of alloyed neodymium, iron, and boron, typically in a nominal composition of approximately Nd14Fe78B8 (at%); sintering promotes growth of the Nd2Fe14B phase which is responsible for the characteristic strong magnetic behavior seen in NdFeB magnets. However, this also leads to corrosion vulnerability in NdFeB magnets along sintered grain boundaries, which requires alleviation through the addition of copper-nickel or aluminum-based metallic surface coatings. In addition, the high cost, rarity, and radioactive waste associated with production of the metal neodymium as an input means that NdFeB magnets are very financially and environmentally expensive.
SmCo Magnets
SmCo is a strong permanent magnetic material of comparable strength to NdFeB and is used across range of applications including very high-performance vehicle electric motors, NMR spectrometers, turbomachinery, and frictionless bearings. While NdFeB magnets exhibit a superior magnetic field, SmCo magnets have higher coercivity (i.e., less vulnerability to demagnetization) and better corrosion resistance. Furthermore, SmCo magnets have a Curie temperature exceeding 700 °C and superior temperature stability compared to NdFeB, making them more optimal for permanent magnetic motor applications involving high temperatures or cryogenic conditions. However, SmCo magnets contain a higher fraction of rare earth metals than NdFeB magnets, making them even more expensive and subject to the scarcity and environmental concerns of production; as such, SmCo magnets are now typically only used in specialty application cases where their particular temperature and coercivity advantages are significant.
Alnico Magnets
Alnico is a NRE permanent magnetic material used in permanent magnet motor applications such as magnetic speed and flow sensors, electric generators, and consumer goods. These magnets exhibit weaker performance in comparison to NdFeB and SmCo counterparts but still maintain high coercivity and are far cheaper due to their lack of rare earth metals. Furthermore, the high fraction of both aluminum and iron within these magnets lends them excellent corrosion resistance, electrical conductivity, and high-temperature stability; Alnico has one of the highest Curie temperatures of any known magnetic material at nearly 800°C. Despite this, Alnico’s comparatively low magnetic strength means it is one of the permanent magnets most susceptible to demagnetization, especially at cryogenic temperatures when constituent ferritic iron may transition to superconductivity.
Ceramic Magnets
Strontium carbonate and iron oxide, also known as a “ceramic” or “ferrite” magnet, is a NRE permanent magnetic material found in permanent magnet motor applications such as power tools, industrial magnetic separation processes, and automotive sensors. Ceramic magnets are significantly weaker than either SmCo or NdFeB but are generally stronger than Alnico magnets, in addition to being both more corrosion resistant and lower cost. However, ceramic magnets exhibit poorer temperature stability in comparison to Alnico and lose magnetization relatively easily when exposed to temperature extremes both hot and cold, with a much lower Curie temperature around 450 °C and a susceptibility to the same ferrite-driven demagnetization phenomena as Alnico under cryogenic conditions.
Emerging Permanent Magnetic Motor Materials
Development of non-rare earth, low cost, mechanically robust, and high strength permanent magnetic materials is a vigorous and ongoing area of research. Some notable materials systems of current interest include iron-cobalt-molybdenum ternary alloys, nanostructured cobalt-platinum alloys, and meteoric-type ordered iron-nickel alloys.
Environmental and supply concerns
Rare earth production has the consequence of generating waste with elevated radioactivity compared to the natural radioactivity of the ores (waste that is referred to by the US EPA as TENORM, or Technologically Enhanced Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials). China, the top producer of neodymium, restricted shipments to Japan in 2010 during a controversy over disputed ownership of islands. China imposed strict export quotas on several rare earth metals, saying it wanted to control pollution and preserve resources. The quotas were lifted in 2015. Although neodymium is relatively abundant, global demand for neodymium outstripped production by about 10% in 2017.
See also
Induction motor
References
External links
Electric motors | Permanent magnet motor | [
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 1,613 | [
"Electrical engineering",
"Engines",
"Electric motors"
] |
51,695,563 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gab%20%28social%20network%29 | Gab is an American alt-tech microblogging and social networking service known for its far-right userbase. Widely described as a haven for neo-Nazis, white supremacists, white nationalists, antisemites, the alt-right, supporters of Donald Trump, conservatives, right-libertarians, and believers in conspiracy theories such as QAnon, Gab has attracted users and groups who have been banned from other social media platforms and users seeking alternatives to mainstream social media platforms. Founded in 2016 and launched publicly in May 2017, Gab claims to promote free speech, individual liberty, the "free flow of information online", and Christian values. Researchers and journalists have characterized these assertions as an obfuscation of its extremist ecosystem. Antisemitism is prominent in the site's content and the company itself has engaged in antisemitic commentary. Gab CEO Andrew Torba has promoted the white genocide conspiracy theory. Gab is based in Pennsylvania.
Researchers note that Gab has been "repeatedly linked to radicalization leading to real-world violent events". The site received extensive public scrutiny following the Pittsburgh synagogue shooting in October 2018. The perpetrator of the attack, Robert Gregory Bowers, had a history of making extreme, antisemitic postings on the platform, as well as messages indicating an immediate intent to cause harm before the shooting. After the shooting, Gab briefly went offline when it was dropped by its hosting provider and denied service by several payment processors. In 2021, Gab was among the platforms used to plan the United States Capitol attack on January 6. Also in 2021, Gab suffered from a data breach called "GabLeaks".
Gab's functionality is similar to that of Twitter. Users of Gab can publish posts, initiate private chats, join groups, livestream and buy products. The company also maintains an email service, cloud service, text messaging service, advertisement sales system, server farm, marketplace website, news aggregation website, advertising platform, video-conferencing platform, blog, video hosting, web browser, and browser extension to allow commenting on third-party websites. In July 2019, Gab switched its software infrastructure to a fork of Mastodon, a free and open-source social network platform. Mastodon released a statement in protest, denouncing Gab as trying to "monetize and platform racist content while hiding behind the banner of free speech".
History
2016–2018
Gab was founded in 2016 by chief executive officer (CEO) Andrew Torba and chief technology officer (CTO) Ekrem Büyükkaya, who had previously worked together at advertising technology company Automate Ads (formerly Kuhcoon). Torba started working on the site in May 2016 and on August 15, 2016, Gab launched in private beta, billing itself as a "free speech" alternative to social networking sites Twitter and Facebook. Torba has cited "the entirely left-leaning Big Social monopoly", "social justice bullying", "the rise of online censorship during the 2016 election." and an alleged bias against conservative articles by Facebook as his reasons for creating Gab. Gab AI, Inc. was incorporated on September 9, 2016. Utsav Sanduja later joined Gab as chief operating officer (COO).
Torba said in November 2016 that the site's user base had expanded significantly following censorship controversies involving major social media companies, including the permanent suspensions of several prominent alt-right accounts from Twitter after the 2016 U.S. presidential election. During November 2016, Gab gained 5,000 new users per week. By mid-December 2016, there were 200,000 people on Gab's waiting list. At the time, Torba claimed that Gab had about 130,000 registered users.
On May 8, 2017, Gab exited private beta.
During August and September 2017, immediately following the Unite The Right rally in Charlottesville, Gab experienced another increase in new users, gaining around 3,300 per week.
In early September 2017, Gab faced pressure from its domain registrar Asia Registry to take down a post by The Daily Stormer founder Andrew Anglin, giving Gab 48 hours to do so. Gab later removed the post. Danny O'Brien of the Electronic Frontier Foundation commented that this pressure was part of an increase in politically motivated domain name seizures.
On August 9, 2018, Torba announced that Microsoft Azure, Gab's host, had threatened to suspend the site for "weeks/months" if they failed to remove two antisemitic posts made by Patrick Little, a U.S. Senate candidate who had been ejected from the Republican Party for his antisemitism. According to The Verge, the posts "express intense anti-Semitism and meet any reasonable definition of hate speech". Little said in the posts that Jews should be raised as "livestock" and that he intended to destroy a "holohoax memorial". In response to Azure's threat, Little posted on Gab that "I'll delete the posts, but this is a violation of our rights as Americans". Gab's Twitter account also asserted that Little had self-deleted the posts, but this was contradicted by Torba who said Gab itself had deleted the posts which "unquestionably" broke their "user guidelines". On the same day, Alex Jones interviewed Torba on The Alex Jones Show during his coverage of his own permanent ban from YouTube. Little was suspended indefinitely from Gab in late November 2018 for encouraging harassment of private individuals; Gab claimed that although Little's account had posted hate speech, it was not the cause of the ban.
According to Gab's filings with the SEC, around 635,000 users were registered on Gab by September 10, 2018. On September 12, 2018, Gab purchased the Gab.com domain name from Sedo for $220,000 (~$ in ) on Flippa, an online business marketplace; it had previously been using the domain Gab.ai.
During the 2018 Brazilian presidential election from September to October 2018, many right-wing Brazilian political pages were banned from Facebook for breaching the site's hate speech rules. In response, many administrators of these pages began promoting Gab as an alternative platform; subsequently, Brazilians became the second-largest demographic of Gab users. Jair Bolsonaro's party, the Social Liberal Party, has an official Gab account.
In December 2018, Gab sponsored Turning Point USA's 2018 "Student Action Summit" in Palm Beach, Florida. Days before the event, Turning Point USA removed Gab from the list of sponsors without explanation. Gab later posted a press release protesting the unexplained removal.
2018 Pittsburgh synagogue shooting
Robert Gregory Bowers, the suspected shooter in the attack against a Pittsburgh synagogue on October 27, 2018, maintained an active, verified Gab account where he displayed the neo-Nazi code-phrase "1488" and a bio that said, "jews are the children of satan". Just prior to the shooting, he used this account to post "HIAS likes to bring invaders in that kill our people. I can't sit by and watch my people get slaughtered. Screw your optics, I'm going in".
After Bowers was arrested, Gab suspended his profile, gathered all user data for the account, and contacted the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). On October 27, 2018, the day of the shooting, PayPal, GoDaddy, and Medium terminated their relationship with Gab, and PayPal released a statement that it had it done so based on its review of accounts that may engage in the "perpetuation of hate, violence or discriminatory intolerance". Later on the same day, Gab announced on Twitter that Joyent, Gab's hosting provider, would terminate their service on October 29 at 9:00 am ET. The tweet said that the site expected to be down for weeks. Stripe and Backblaze also terminated their services with Gab after the shooting. On October 29, Gab claimed in a tweet that they "took the site down early on purpose last night because we knew the media would take the bait and have stories on it for this morning".
Following the shooting, Gab received substantial media attention, having been relatively unknown by the general public prior to the attack. The New Republic noted that prior to the shooting: "Despite some attention in the mainstream tech press, Gab was essentially considered a sideshow, an also-ran in the social media wars, destined to fade away like Yo, Ello, or other mostly forgotten platforms that could never hope to compete with Silicon Valley monopolies".
Gab had defended itself from criticism as a result of the shooting, saying that they: "refuse to be defined by the media's narratives about Gab and our community. Gab's mission is very simple: to defend free expression and individual liberty online for all people. Social media often brings out the best and the worst of humanity". Torba called the shooting "a clear act of terror", adding that he "fundamentally believed in freedom of expression", but did not tolerate threats of violence. Torba also said that "I do think that more speech is always going to be the answer to combat bad speech or hate speech".
Ekrem Büyükkaya, Gab's co-founder and CTO, announced his resignation on October 28, citing "attacks from the American press" that "have taken a toll on me personally".
After the site was taken down, Gab's homepage was changed to a message saying it was down due to being "under attack" and being "systematically no-platformed", adding that Gab would be inaccessible for a "period of time". Also after the site was taken down, Torba accused the media of demonizing Gab while ignoring similar problems on mainstream social networks, such as Facebook and Twitter.
Gab returned online on November 4, 2018, after Epik agreed to register the domain. Rob Monster, the CEO of Epik, had defended Gab's neo-Nazi users and also baselessly claimed that neo-Nazis on Gab are "liberal trolls" looking to "give enemies of freedom an excuse". On Gab, Christopher Cantwell replied to Monster's claims, stating: "We're not liberals, nor are the people trying to get us censored. The people trying to censor Gab are (((communists))), and the Nazis are the only ones willing to take them on... Eventually, everyone will have to pick a side". Monster also said of Gab that "I do believe the guys that are on the site are vigilant".
After Gab returned online, the site was immediately flooded with antisemitic posts and comments, including one comment in response to a post from Torba welcoming back users of Gab and asking users to be nice to each other that said "Fuck that, name the Jews who are trying to shut us down". The comment was later deleted. In response to these posts and comments, Torba claimed that "a lot of people are creating brand new accounts and breaking our guidelines on purpose tonight". Torba also called on users of Gab to help police the site for posts that break Gab's user guidelines, including threats of violence.
2019
Gab turned to cryptocurrency payment processing services after being rejected from PayPal and Stripe in the aftermath of the 2018 Pittsburgh synagogue shooting. In January 2019, Coinbase and Square, Inc.'s Cash App closed the accounts held by Gab and Andrew Torba. On January 22, 2019, Gab announced that it had partnered with Second Amendment Processing (SAP), a Michigan-based payment processor. Gab removed SAP's credit card payment functionalities in March 2019, only accepting payment via cryptocurrency or check. The same month, the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC) published an investigation that found that SAP's founder had been convicted of financial crimes in 2007. Gab has not said why it removed the payment processor.
On January 24, 2019, the SPLC reported that Gab had been misrepresenting its services and bloating its user count in its filings and promotional materials. The GabTV service advertised on its StartEngine crowdfunding page was only active very briefly in early 2018, and also , the dedicated page for the service was blank. Unlike other social media companies, Gab did not publish the count of its active users in 2018 and only reported registered accounts. Social media intelligence company Storyful found 19,526 unique usernames had posted content during a seven-day period between January 9 and 16, 2019, far lower than Gab's claimed 850,000 registered users. Users of the site commonly mocked Torba for the site's emptiness, with some accusing him of inflating user numbers. In a December 2018 filing, the company reported that 5,000 users were paying for its subscription services.
Shortly after the SPLC published its January report on Gab's misleading statements and financial struggles, the site made its Twitter account private until January 30, 2019, and switched to an invitation-only mode for new user registrations on January 30. Gab stated that switching to an invitation-only mode was an experiment to improve user experience. Gab previously had intermittent service outages for a week. Gab said that the outages were caused by bot attacks and blamed state actors along with paid "activist bloggers". Torba shared a post from another user that suggested that the "deep state" was responsible. The Daily Beast opined that this was an attempt to further obfuscate its numbers in response to reports that it had inflated its user count.
, Gab paid Sibyl Systems Ltd. $1,175 (~$ in ) a month for web hosting. On February 14, 2019, the SPLC reported that a software engineer for Sibyl Systems had rejected Gab's claim of having more than 835,000 users and estimated the count to be in the range of a few thousands to a few tens of thousands. Sibyl Systems called the report "categorically false", saying that the "employee claimed to leak information that she could not have had access to" and that the employee had been dismissed.
On July 4, Gab switched its software infrastructure to run on a forked version of Mastodon, a free and open-source decentralized social network platform. The change attempted to circumvent the rejection of Gab's mobile app from the Google Play Store and the Apple App Store, as Gab users gained access to the social network through third-party Mastodon apps that did not subsequently block Gab. Mastodon released a statement the same day denouncing Gab as "seek[ing] to monetize and platform racist content while hiding behind the banner of free speech" and "attempt[ing] to hijack our infrastructure", and said that they had "already taken steps to isolate Gab and keep hate speech off the fediverse". Mastodon stated that most Mastodon instances had blocked Gab's domains, preventing interactions between these instances and Gab, and that Tusky and Toot!, two popular Mastodon mobile apps, had already blacklisted Gab's domains and banned Gab users from using their app. Mastodon also stated that by paywalling features that are otherwise freely accessible in other instances, Gab "offer[s] users no incentive to choose their platform" and "puts itself at a disadvantage compared to any Mastodon instance".
According to SimilarWeb, Gab's website traffic grew almost 200% between January and July 2019, and unique visitors to the site increased 180%. In August 2019, Vice News reported that traffic to Gab's website and the rate of new users joining Gab had both significantly increased during the first half of 2019. Also in August 2019, Torba claimed that Gab had over 1 million registered users.
In October 2019, Gab launched Gab Trends, a news aggregate website described by KNTV as being similar to the Drudge Report. Gab Trends provides titles and short summaries of news articles and includes a comment section under each article.
In 2019, Gab launched a browser extension called Dissenter, an aggregation and discussion service which allowed Gab users to make non-moderated comments on any webpage including news articles, YouTube videos, and individual social media posts. Comments made using the Dissenter extension were outside of the webpage owner's control, and the extension could be used to comment on websites with no comment feature or where the comment sections were closed. Dissenter was criticized as an extension which "puts a far-right comments section on every site." The Dissenter extension was subsequently banned from the Google and Mozilla add-on stores for violating hate-speech policies. Following this removal, Gab created their own Dissenter browser, based on a fork of the Brave browser, which has since been discontinued.
2020
In early 2020, Gab launched Gab Chat in beta, an encrypted text messaging service described by Mashable as an alternative to Discord. In late June 2020, hackers leaked a May 26 law enforcement bulletin that was distributed by Distributed Denial of Secrets (DDoSecrets), a whistleblower site that publishes leaked documents. The bulletin was created by the Central Florida Intelligence Exchange Fusion Center, who speculated that Gab Chat's encryption and privacy features for private chatting, such as the service automatically deleting text messages after 30 days of them being sent, could entice white supremacists to use the platform instead of Discord, a platform on which white supremacist groups have been frequently infiltrated by anti-fascists. When reached for a comment by Mashable, Torba responded to the bulletin in an email saying "Encryption does not render law enforcement totally blind" and that "Encryption doesn't cause a user to simply disappear. It doesn't prevent a service provider from seeing who is using its service or when that person is using the service". Torba also deflected from the concern of white supremacists using Gab Chat, saying that law enforcement should instead focus on stopping child exploitation on mainstream text messaging services.
In April 2020, Gab claimed that it had over 1.1 million registered users and that their website was receiving 3.7 million monthly visitors globally.
In July 2020, Slate reported that after Gab was connected to the 2018 Pittsburgh shooting, "Gab never quite recovered". The service's popularity diminished following the attack and the site's subsequent downtime.
In September 2020, Torba wrote that "Gab isn't just building an alternative social network", "We're building an alternative internet".
On October 1, 2020, Reuters broke a story that people associated with the Russian Internet Research Agency, a group known for their interference in the 2016 presidential election, had been operating social media accounts on both mainstream and alt-tech platforms. One of the accounts, which was identified in an FBI probe as a "key asset in an alleged Russian disinformation campaign", had been spreading "familiar—and completely false" information including claims that mail-in voting is prone to fraud, that then-U.S. President Donald Trump was infected with COVID-19 by leftist activists, and that Democratic presidential candidate Joe Biden is a "sexual predator". Axios noted that the account had not found much of an audience on mainstream platforms but had caught on among the alt-tech platforms; the Twitter account had fewer than 200 followers, but the Gab account had 3,000 and the Parler account had 14,000. Facebook, Twitter, and LinkedIn all took actions to suspend the accounts from their platforms. The Washington Post reported on October 7 that Gab had declined to terminate the account after being informed of its connections to the disinformation organization. Torba said to Reuters: "It looks like a blog sharing news stories and opinions. It's irrelevant to us who runs it or why". Speaking to The Washington Post, Torba said: "They can speak freely on Gab just like anyone else".
During the 2020 U.S. presidential election in November, Gab claimed that they experienced record user growth.
In December 2020, Engineering & Technology reported that Gab and other similar platforms could face "huge fines" for spreading misinformation under a new online safety bill in the United Kingdom that was planning on being introduced in 2021.
In late 2020, Torba posted on Gab's blog that the company "Welcomes QAnon Across Its Platforms".
2021
Storming of the United States Capitol
Although early claims were made that Gab was among the platforms used to plan the storming of the United States Capitol on January 6, 2021, a later investigation by the FBI said it "found scant evidence that the January 6 attack on the U.S. Capitol was the result of an organized plot to overturn the presidential election result", and that "ninety to ninety-five percent of these are one-off cases".
Posts about which streets to take in order to run from police, which tools to use to pry open doors, and carrying guns into the halls of Congress, were exchanged on Gab in advance of the storming. During the storming, users of Gab recorded entering offices of members of Congress, including the office of U.S. House Speaker Nancy Pelosi. Users of Gab also posted about searching for then-Vice President Mike Pence. Following the storming and then-President Trump's subsequent permanent suspension from Twitter, Torba said that Gab had experienced a 40% increase in traffic and that Gab was also gaining 10,000 new users per hour as of January 9. After Parler, another alt-tech social network, was pulled offline by its host Amazon Web Services on January 11, former users of that site started migrating to Gab. On January 14, Gab claimed on Twitter that the platform had gained 2.3million new users in the past week. Gab's website experienced an 800% increase in traffic, which forced Torba to order emergency servers to handle the increase in traffic.
On January 12, ABC News reported that experts said that conservative-leaning social networks, including Gab, helped create echo chambers for extremist and violent views, which contributed to the Capitol storming.
After the Capitol storming, on January 13, the Anti-Defamation League (ADL) in an open letter to the United States Department of Justice called for a federal investigation into Gab and Torba to determine if they "intentionally aided" the individuals who were involved in the storming. The ADL cited posts from Torba telling users of Gab "heading to DC" to record "video footage in landscape mode" in anticipation of "communist violence" and also posted on Gab that it "would be a real shame if the people outside stormed the Senate".
In response, Torba denied he and his platform were responsible for the storming, saying that Gab did a "phenomenal job" of mitigating violent content. He also stated that Gab had been removing offending posts and reporting them to federal law enforcement leading up to the storming, saying that "Public safety is our top priority", but declined to say which law enforcement agency they were working with, citing an "ongoing investigation". Torba also deflected attention away from Gab and towards Facebook, saying that the storming was "organized using Facebook's technology, not Gab's". Torba signed off on his response to the ADL by saying that "We will never bend to their demands and we will never censor legal, 1A-protected speech that hurts the ADL's feelings. Ever" and that "Jesus is King."
ADL CEO Jonathan Greenblatt said in response: "It's ironic that, when called out for enabling extremist rhetoric, Gab's response is to craft" a letter "containing thinly veiled antisemitism", adding that "As our open letter makes clear, Gab is not moderating this extremist content, and their CEO seems to be encouraging users to upload it".
Subsequent events
On January 19, Rachel E. Greenspan from Business Insider observed that Gab had tweeted a direct quote from a post by Q, the anonymous individual or group whose messages form the basis of the far-right QAnon conspiracy theory. The tweet was later deleted. She also noted that Gab's Twitter account had posted multiple tweets referencing Jesus, including one tweet posted on January 18 featuring an image of Jesus walking with Pepe the Frog, a cartoon character used by the alt-right.
On February 9, Matt Field from the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists reported that RT, a media outlet owned by the Russian government that Field claims helped Trump win the 2016 presidential election, had created an account on Gab right before the start of Trump's second impeachment trial. Field noted that RT had posted several articles on their Gab account, including one article criticizing The Lincoln Project, an organization run by anti-Trump Republicans.
On August 27, the U.S. House of Representatives select committee investigating the storming of the Capitol demanded records from Gab (alongside 14 other social media companies) going back to the spring of 2020. On September 1, Torba responded by refusing to cooperate with the investigation, saying that Gab does not track misinformation or disinformation, has no retention policies, keeps no records of internal discussion about concerns of an insurrection, and has no way of knowing that an account is run by a foreign government. Torba and Gab also refused to hand over private user communications to the select committee (communications that Gab has already shared with law enforcement), arguing that the U.S. Congress would need a subpoena or warrant under the Stored Communications Act (SCA). Also in September 2021, Whitney Kimball of Gizmodo noted that Gab "might not even agree that an insurrection happened at all", noting an email from the company titled "New Video From Jan 6th Destroys 'Insurrection' Hoax".
In late September, the Federal Office of Justice in Bonn, Germany imposed a fine of €30,000 on Gab for not naming a contact person for questions about the deletion of criminal content, despite a provision from the Network Enforcement Act. Gab has objected to the fine. In a blog post, Torba accused the German authorities of having no intention of removing criminal content and did not mention that the fine was imposed for not naming a contact person. Torba also asked for financial support to combat the fine.
Also in late September, Torba announced that the Gab website's online infrastructure would be upgraded to "preserve a parallel Christian society on the internet for generations to come". On September 22, Torba wrote that "Our vision for Gabvertising and the parallel economy we are building is to empower families and freedom-loving business owners to free themselves from the slavery of Woke Capital" and that "The natural evolution of free speech is free markets, and that's what is forming right now on Gab. An actual free market, not one rigged by a handful globalist big bankers and hedge funds".
Hacks and data leaks
On the evening of February 19, Gab's website briefly went offline, originally without explanation. In response, several Twitter users posted images showing Gab accounts run by right-wing media outlets, such as The Gateway Pundit and National File, asking people to donate funds to a suspicious URL. After the site was restored, Torba responded in a blog post saying that Gab themselves had taken the site offline at around 6:25 pm EST, sixteen minutes after they "became aware of several accounts that were posting bitcoin wallet spam and related content". According to Torba, fewer than 20 accounts were affected, Gab "have no indication that any sensitive account information was breached or accessed by any unauthorized users", and that "Because of our quick action zero bitcoin was sent". Torba did not specify which accounts were affected. Torba also said that Gab had "identified and patched a security vulnerability in our codebase" and that "Our engineering team is conducting a full audit of our logs and infrastructure".
On February 26, around a week after Gab briefly went offline, the company published a blog post denying a data breach had taken place. In the post, they wrote that they had been contacted by unnamed reporters who asked about a data breach that may have exposed an archive of posts, direct messages, profiles, and hashed passwords on Gab. Torba wrote in the blog post that there was no independent confirmation that a breach had taken place, and that Gab collects "very little from our users in terms of personal information". He also accused the reporters of working with a hacker to hurt the company and its users. However, a reporter linked to DDoSecrets tweeted "Yes, we have the data" and promised more information "soon enough".
On February 28, DDoSecrets revealed "GabLeaks", a collection of more than 70 gigabytes of data from Gab, including more than 40 million posts, passwords, private messages, and other leaked information. The data was given to the group by a hacktivist self-identifying as "JaXpArO and My Little Anonymous Revival Project", who retrieved the data from Gab's back-end databases to expose the platform's largely right-wing userbase. DDoSecrets co-founder Emma Best called GabLeaks "another gold mine of research for people looking at militias, neo-Nazis, the far right, QAnon and everything surrounding January 6". DDoSecrets said that they would not release the data publicly due to the data containing a large amount of private and sensitive information and will instead share the data with select journalists, social scientists, and researchers. Andy Greenberg from Wired confirmed that the data "does appear to contain Gab users' individual and group profiles—their descriptions and privacy settings—public and private posts, and passwords".
In response, Torba acknowledged the data breach, said that his Gab account had been "compromised", and that "the entire company is all hands investigating what happened and working to trace and patch the problem". He also used a transphobic slur to insult the hackers "attacking" Gab and referred to them as "demon hackers". On March 1, Torba revealed in a post on Gab's blog that the company had received a ransom demand of $500,000 in Bitcoin for the data, and wrote in response that they would not be paying it. Also on March 1, Torba said in a Gab post that "I want to make clear that we have zero tolerance for any threats of violence including against the wicked people who are attacking Gab. We need to pray for these people. I am."
Dan Goodin reported in Ars Technica on March 2 that Gab's CTO, Fosco Marotto, had in February introduced a SQL vulnerability that may have led to the data breach, and that Gab had subsequently scrubbed the commit from Git history. The company had previously open sourced Gab's source code in a Git repository which included all historical commits; on March 1, they took the repository offline and replaced it with a zipfile that did not include commit history.
On March 8, JaXpArO again compromised verified accounts on Gab, posting a message to their feeds addressed to Torba, which said the service had been "fully compromised" the previous week and accused him of lying to Gab's users. Gab briefly went offline again the same day, and the company wrote on Twitter that they had taken their site offline "to investigate a security breach". Torba posted a statement in response to the attack, claiming that "The attacker who stole data from Gab harvested OAuth2 bearer tokens during their initial attack" and that "Though their ability to harvest new tokens was patched, we did not clear all tokens related to the original attack. By reusing these old tokens, the attacker was able to post 177 statuses in an 8-minute period today".
In May, The Intercept used GabLeaks to solicit donations. Former Intercept reporter Glenn Greenwald criticized the publication for exploiting what he called an invasion of privacy, which he said contrasted with The Intercept's origins during the Snowden leaks. In response, a spokesperson for The Intercept said that "We do not apologize for our interest in reporting on fascist activity."
In early December, Torba claimed that Gab's back-end system was under a cyberattack by "porn bots". Torba called it "the most sophisticated attack we have seen in five years", adding that "the timing of it is incredibly interesting given that Truth Social and Rumble both raised a boatload of cash this week from hedge funds to compete with Gab". On December 4, Torba said that "All new Gab accounts must now be manually approved by our team until further notice". According to The Daily Beast, "It is unclear whether such a cyberattack took place or what specific "bots" the Gab CEO was referring to, but a casual search of the platform did show numerous accounts advertising "escort" services."
2022
On January 24, 2022, Torba announced that Gab would sponsor the America First Political Action Conference (AFPAC) run by white nationalist commentator Nick Fuentes. Torba also criticized the Conservative Political Action Conference and Turning Point USA, saying that "CPAC is sponsored by Facebook and Google among other billionaires" and "TPUSA is sponsored by atheist libertarian billionaires." Torba has also entered into a partnership with Fuentes' livestreaming service. Torba received backlash from Gab users over the sponsorship, with many pointing out that Fuentes had recently made harsh comments about Gab users, including one comment calling users "fucking retarded" and another comment stating: "Average IQ on Gab is like 50". Many of Gab's donors said that they would stop funding Gab. In response to the backlash, Torba said that "Controversy is attention. Attention is influence" and that "The point of marketing is to influence people to get off Big Tech and get on Gab. In order to do that I need their attention." It was later announced that Torba would be a guest speaker at the AFPAC. Torba also created an account on Fuentes' livestreaming service.
In March 2022, Vice News reported that RT had started a channel on Gab's video sharing platform Gab TV, which describes itself as a "free speech broadcasting platform." Vice News also noted Torba's support for Russia's invasion of Ukraine and Torba publicly supporting RT, claiming that they are being subject to the same censorship as American conservatives "by Big Tech and the globalist regime". Torba also falsely claimed that Gab is "the one place on the internet where you can find RT News" when RT also has a presence on video sharing platform Rumble.
In April 2022, Torba offered Elon Musk a board seat along with equity in Gab in exchange for Musk selling his Twitter shares and investing $2 billion into Gab. This came after Musk sent Twitter an offer to buy the entire company for $43 billion. Also in April, Torba made another offer to Musk, saying "What we are missing at the moment is an ISP. I fear that the next big leap of censorship is at the ISP level, with ISP's blocking access to Gab.com. You solve that problem with Starlink. Together we can build infrastructure for a free speech internet."
On May 15, 2022, after the Buffalo shooting that killed seven Black people, Torba told his followers that procreation is the best solution to the great replacement and White genocide conspiracy theories.
In an email to The New York Times regarding a July 2022 article about the rise of white Christian nationalism, Torba wrote, "Jesus Christ is King of Kings and we are going to lawfully, peacefully, and democratically take back this country and our culture in his name" and that "[t]here is absolutely nothing you or any of the other powers and principalities can do to stop us."
In 2022, Gab launched GabPay as an alternative to PayPal. St. Louis Jewish Light noted that "GabPay is more than just an app, though. It's part of a larger project: an attempt to build an entirely parallel Christian economy, Christian internet and, eventually, Christian nationalist country." After PayPal appeared to allow for fining users up to $2500 for posting misinformation, which it later retracted as unintended, Torba thanked it for sending him "tens of thousands" of new GabPay users.
Doug Mastriano's payment to Gab
In July 2022, Eric Hananoki of Media Matters for America revealed that Doug Mastriano, Republican nominee for the 2022 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election, paid Gab $5,000 for "campaign consulting." on April 28, 2022. As a result of the payments, every new account on Gab automatically followed Mastriano's account. Torba claimed that the money did not go towards consulting, but was instead used to pay for advertisements on Gab. Torba also endorsed Mastriano's campaign for Governor of Pennsylvania, calling him "a strong Christian man to lead PA out of the pit of hell and into the glory of God." Torba defended his views on Christian nationalism, saying that "We must be grounded in Biblical Truth and led by people who call Christ their King". The Republican Jewish Coalition denounced the payment, citing Gab as a hotspot for antisemitism and white supremacy. The head of the coalition, Matt Brooks, asked Mastriano to delete his Gab account and terminate all associations with the platform. Mastriano's connection to Gab was additionally condemned by Pennsylvania state representative Dan Frankel (who is Jewish), Pennsylvania Attorney General Josh Shapiro (who is also Jewish), by Democrats, and by Democratic Jewish organizations. In August 2022, Mastriano released a statement denouncing antisemitism and distanced himself from Torba, saying that he "doesn't speak for me or my campaign". Mastriano also deleted his Gab account.
Users and content
Users
The site has attracted far-right or alt-right users who have been banned or suspended from other services. Since its foundation in 2016, high-profile participants have included former Breitbart News writer and polemicist Milo Yiannopoulos; citizen journalist Tim Pool; conservative commentator Dave Rubin; former British National Party leader Nick Griffin; Australian neo-Nazis Blair Cottrell and Neil Erikson and Australian MP George Christensen; Republican Party representatives Marjorie Taylor Greene, Lauren Boebert, and Paul Gosar; former Republican Party of Texas chairman Allen West; former White House chief strategist Steve Bannon; Dutch politician and Leader of the Party for Freedom Geert Wilders; and white supremacists Richard B. Spencer, Tila Tequila, Vox Day, and Christopher Cantwell. Far-right political parties and party candidates, including Britain First, Spanish Vox, and UKIP candidates such as Mark Meechan and Carl Benjamin, have also been participants. Following the Christchurch mosque shootings and a reduced tolerance on other social media for hate speech, several members of United Patriots Front, an Australian far-right extremist organization, urged their supporters to follow them on Gab after being banned from Twitter and Facebook. Disclose.tv, a German disinformation outlet with a following that includes Holocaust deniers and neo-Nazis, maintains an account on Gab.
On January 24, 2021, the Republican Party of Texas made a post on its Twitter account asking their followers to join Gab. In March 2021, the Republican Party of Texas voted to delete their Gab account.
Former Gab users include white nationalist political candidate Paul Nehlen, who was removed from the site for doxing the man behind the "Ricky Vaughn" Twitter account; and hacker, internet troll, and former Daily Stormer writer Andrew "Weev" Auernheimer, who was banned for calling for genocide against Jews and endorsing terrorist Timothy McVeigh. Auernheimer's activity prompted threats from Gab's then webhost Asia Registry to remove the comments or they would refuse to host the site. Christopher Cantwell, a white supremacist and neo-Nazi activist who "once drove a significant amount of interaction on the small site", was banned from the site in March 2019 after using the site to advocate in the wake of the 2019 Christchurch shootings that future mass killers should target and murder left-wing activists, instead of "random people in mosques and synagogues", in order to effectively silence left-wing activism.
Torba has described the average Gab user as "a Conservative Christian with a family and interests in hunting, fishing, cars, camping, news, politics, rural living, homeschooling, privacy, free speech, cryptocurrency, guns, and cooking". Torba stated in 2016 that Gab is "not designed specifically for conservatives" and has stated that "we welcome everyone and always will" and "We want everyone to feel safe on Gab, but we're not going to police what is hate speech and what isn't", although he admitted that Gab was attracting "a lot of people on the right because they are being censored, so it's understandable they are migrating over". In November 2016, Torba told The Washington Post that "I didn't set out to build a 'conservative social network' by any means... but I felt that it was time for a conservative leader to step up and to provide a forum where anybody can come and speak freely without fear of censorship". In filings made with the SEC in March 2018, Gab stated that its target market is "conservative, libertarian, nationalists, and populist internet users around the world" "who are seeking alternative news media platforms like Breitbart.com, DrudgeReport.com, Infowars.com". In an interview with Vice News in August 2019, Torba acknowledged that Gab was right-leaning, saying that "any online community that is explicitly pro-free speech will inevitably become right-leaning" and claimed that "this is because in the free market of ideas right-leaning ideas win".
In early 2018, a cross-university group released a research study on posts made to the site. According to that study, the site hosted a high volume of racism and hate speech, and primarily "attracts alt-right users, conspiracy theorists, and other trolls". The study listed Carl Benjamin, Ann Coulter, Alex Jones, Stefan Molyneux, Lauren Southern, and Paul Joseph Watson as some of the more popular users of the site. The authors also performed an automated search using Hatebase and found "hate words" in 5.4% of Gab posts, which they stated was 2.4 times higher than their occurrence on Twitter but less than half that found on /pol/, a political discussion board on 4chan. The authors of the study stated in their conclusion that while anyone can join Gab, the site is aligned with the alt-right and its use of free speech rhetoric "merely functions as a shield for its alt-right users to hide behind".
A 2018 paper authored by behavioral researchers that was presented at the 2018 SBP-BRiMS collected and analyzed "several million Gab messages" posted on the Gab website from the platform's launch in August 2016 to February 2018. The researchers then divided the posts into 33 groups, including topics such as pop culture. The researchers found that the largest category of posts on Gab was politics, comprising 56% of all posts collected and analyzed. The researchers also found that the largest subcategory within politics was "Ideology, religion and race", comprising 10.23% of all posts. According to paper co-author William D. Adler, a political science professor at Northeastern Illinois University, the subcategory "Ideology, religion, and race" "includes topics such as changing racial demographics, threats to Christianity, and concerns about Jewish influence", adding "It's a lot of what you might think of as white nationalism". Other subcategories within politics included conversations about "Trump, Clinton and conspiracies", comprising 5.10% of all posts, and "Globalism", a dog whistle for antisemitic conspiracy theories, comprising 1.95% of all posts. The researchers also linked Gab's growth to the far-right. According to Alder, Gab's free speech rhetoric is "part of the game here, of course", adding that "They don't want to say [what they're really doing] out loud, so they say 'free speech, free speech. Based on the results of the paper, Noah Berlatsky of The Forward noted: "In contrast, there is little discussion of left topics that might be considered to push the edges of acceptable discourse. There are no Stalinist apologia, for example, nor calls for violent Communist revolution. More, there is not an equivalent on the left for Gab, or for the other right wing social media networks like WrongThink (modeled on Facebook) or GoyFundMe (a right wing Kickstarter, which even has an implicitly anti-Semitic name.) Extremist social media bubbles are not a both sides problem; they are a right-wing phenomenon".
A report issued by the ADL and the Network Contagion Research Institute on March 12, 2019, found that when Twitter bans "extremist voices", Gab's user base grows. Researchers from Northeastern Illinois University publishing in First Monday wrote in August 2019 that many of the sites shared by Gab's users "are associated with state-sponsored propaganda from foreign governments". Researchers publishing in e-Extreme wrote in October 2020 that many of Gab's users are Trump supporters who feel they are being censored on mainstream platforms, and "this sense of persecution is the reason why many join the platform, while an overarching shared sense of victimhood – whether as members of a 'white race', free-speech absolutists, or Trump supporters – unites the broader community". In 2021, a study published by an international team of researchers titled "Understanding the Effect of Deplatforming on Social Networks". found that being banned on Twitter or Reddit led those users who were banned to join alternative platforms such as Gab or Parler, which have more lax content moderation. The study also found that while users who move to these platforms have their audience potentially reduced, the users exhibit increased activity and toxicity than they did previously. Also in 2021, researchers found that Gab users are "united by a shared sense of techno-social persecution at the hands of 'Big Tech', a commitment to the ultra-libertarian values of the platform, and in many cases, a material investment in Gab as an Alt-Tech project."
In June 2021, the Lowy Institute noted of Gab's userbase that "Regardless of which narrative a user in Gab's far-right community ascribes to, a shared sense of techno-social persecution is what draws them in and unites them. These users feel safe in the knowledge that they can "speak freely" on the platform, with little fear of being banned or even critiqued, regardless of how extreme their views are".
On October 11, 2021, researcher Sefa Ozalp published a report for the ADL's Center on Extremism (COE) titled "For Twitter Users, Gab's Toxic Content is Just a Click Away", which analyzed how many links to Gab's website were shared on Twitter between June 7, 2021, and August 22, 2021. The report found that, during this time period, more than 112,000 tweets were posted that linked to Gab's website (shared by more than 32,700 users) with a potential reach of more than 254 million views. The report also found that the fifty most shared links to Gab on Twitter "were rife with conspiratorial content and misinformation, some promoted by Gab itself via its verified Twitter account". Out of these fifty most shared links, sixteen "promoted misinformation and conspiracy theories about Covid-19" and twenty-one "contained conspiratorial content by Japanese-language accounts", including false claims about COVID-19 and COVID-19 vaccines, Microsoft co-founder Bill Gates, and QAnon. Ozalp said that the ADL was not advocating for Twitter to completely ban Gab or links to Gab from its platform, instead advocating in favor of Twitter more effectively enforcing its current policies against misinformation and hate speech. Ozalp also said of Twitter that "Even if they are not acting like a knowing or willing contributor to anti-vax or anti-Semitism stuff, they are still playing a part in [the] dissemination of these conspiracy theories or hate, probably without wanting to do so". Twitter spokesperson Elizabeth Busby responded to the report by claiming that Twitter takes action against links to third-party websites that "would otherwise violate our policies if their content were posted directly on Twitter", including COVID-19 misinformation. Busby also said that "As ADL's report acknowledges, we continue to improve our approach to mis- and disinformation". Later on October 11, Torba criticized the ADL's report in a blog post, claiming that it was created in an attempt to "pressure Twitter to censor us". He also accused the organization of being an "anti-Christ, Anti-American, and Anti-White hate organization". In a statement, the ADL said that Torba's response "is consistent with other statements from Gab" and that they "speak for themselves". According to Ozalp, the report is part of a "longer running research series" by the ADL that will include more studies on other social media platforms.
In December 2021, researchers at the University of Southern California Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences found that Gab users who shared similar moral values and beliefs with members of their immediate groups were more vulnerable to radicalization, including a higher likelihood of dissemination of hate speech and the use of language intended to dehumanize or threaten violence against users outside of their immediate groups.
A June 2022 report from the Stanford Internet Observatory found that "The deplatforming events following January 6 were a huge boost to Gab, and may have resulted in millions of dollars of income for Gab, potentially keeping it solvent." as well as resulting in "a massive spike in new users" and "thousands of new 'Pro' subscriptions and donations". This helped Gab "fund real-world activities such as the white nationalist AFPAC conference." Gab's growth in users had previously been stagnant with "increasing monetary losses". Secondly, the report found that in 2021 and 2022, Gab "had significant growth in anti-vaccine protest organizing, with 'trucker convoy' groups having tens of thousands of members and high post volume." Thirdly, the report found that "Extreme anti-Semitic, racist and homophobic content is rife [on Gab], with open praise of Nazism, encouragement of violence against minorities, and 'Great Replacement' narratives.", with "such content appear[ing] even in 'mainstream' user groups." Lastly, the report found that "Gab contains much of the same toxic content as "purpose-built" neo-Nazi sites such as Stormfront".
A 2023 study found that there was less polarization of its user base than on Facebook, as well as more open discourse about a variety of topics. The authors of the study believed the major contributor to the lack of polarization was the lack of diversity in the site—essentially being an echo chamber.
Donald Trump
In early February 2021, multiple media outlets falsely reported that former-President Trump had joined Gab under the handle @realdonaldtrump. The Independent speculated "that confusion arose from the presence of a blue check mark indicating the account was verified" and Vice News speculated that the bio of the account, which read "45th President of the United States of America. Uncensored posts from the @realDonaldTrump Feed", had also caused confusion.
The Gab post that was mistaken to be from Trump was actually from Torba and featured a copy of a genuine letter sent by Trump's lawyers to Democratic Representative Jamie Raskin, who had called on Trump to testify at his second impeachment hearing. Thousands of users on Gab were also led to believe after the post was made that Trump had joined the platform under the handle. Torba responded to the false reports in a blog post, saying that "@realdonaldtrump is and always has been a mirror archive of POTUS' tweets and statements that we've run for years. We've always been transparent about this and would obviously let people know if the President starts using it". He also criticized the media outlets that falsely reported that Trump had joined the platform. Also in response to the false reports, the @realdonaldtrump Gab account made a post that was pinned saying that the account is reserved for Trump and urged users of Gab to send messages to Trump asking him to join the platform.
In March 2021, Forbes reported that representatives of former Senior Advisor Jared Kushner in January had asked for equity in Gab in exchange for Kushner's father-in-law Trump joining the platform. Torba declined the offer, saying "No, I'm not entertaining that".
In a June 2021 interview with far-right conspiracy theory website TruNews, Torba claimed that Kushner wanted Gab to remove antisemitic content and users from its platform before Trump could join, saying that "He called them Jew-haters, I called them Jew criticizers" and that "It's a free-speech platform, so as long as you're not saying anything illegal, as long as you're not making threats of violence, you're allowed to speak your mind and have an opinion about things, and I was not going to compromise on that position". No independent confirmation has been made that such a negotiation took place.
In August 2022, Adam Bies, a man in rural Mercer County, Pennsylvania, was charged with making death threats against FBI agents on Gab after the FBI search of Mar-a-Lago. Torba had given data from Bies to the FBI, including an email, IP addresses, and chat logs. In response, Gab users accused Torba of betraying Gab's userbase and commitment to free speech, as well as likening Torba to Judas Iscariot, the disciple who betrayed Jesus. Many users criticized Torba for giving the data to the FBI without a subpoena. In response, Torba did not apologize for cooperating with the FBI, said that "threatening anyone—federal agent or not—is not the right way to do it", and said that Gab is dedicated to upholding "lawful speech and lawful speech only." While some Gab users accepted the response from Torba, others continued to criticize him. In response to the continued criticism, Torba said that "People who threaten to murder people on the internet are not my 'pals.
COVID-19 vaccine avoidance and disinformation
In late July 2021, Torba claimed in a Gab post that he was "getting flooded" with text messages from members of the U.S. military who claimed that they would be court-martialed if they refused a COVID-19 vaccine. The post amassed 10,000 likes and shares. Torba also posted documents on Gab's news site that contain misinformation about the COVID-19 vaccine and claimed in an email in response to The New York Times that "I'm telling the truth" and "Your Facebook-funded 'fact checkers' like Graphika are wrong and are the people peddling disinformation here". Torba also posted a conversation he had with the Times reporter, saying "I am sharing this all with you now to let you know how these wicked people operate and to shine a light on their lies, deception, and anti-Christian attacks. They aren't just attacking me, they are attacking any and all dissent and opposition to their libido dominandi (lust for power)".
In August 2021, Alex Kaplan of Media Matters for America noted that Torba "is trying to use his platform to sabotage coronavirus vaccination efforts".
In October 2021, John Gallagher of LGBTQ Nation wrote that "A visitor to Gab will find misinformation about COVID, calls to arrest NIH [NIAID] head Dr. Anthony Fauci, and lies about the 2020 presidential election. One post, liked by more than 4,000 people, shows a gloating Trump under the line, 'Show me a pic of pregnant Michelle Obama, and I'll concede the 2020 election.
On March 14, 2022, Torba shared a baseless QAnon conspiracy theory claiming that Trump was mispronouncing the word "China" on purpose to secretly signal that Ukraine was behind the development of COVID-19.
Userbase estimates
In November 2021, when asked by The Washington Post about Gab's Brazilian user base, Torba responded in an email on November 8, saying "Ya my comment is 'God bless Jair Bolsonaro and Jesus Christ is King.' No further comment."
, Gab has 4million registered users. According to Micah Lee writing for The Intercept, the "vast majority" of registered Gab accounts are inactive, and the number of active users on the site is closer to 100,000. In 2021, Torba claimed that Gab has 15 million unique monthly visitors. As of August 2021, Torba has more than 3 million followers on Gab, with all Gab users following him by default.
As of the summer of 2022, Gab had over 5 million registered users.
Antisemitic content
Rita Katz, a researcher and analyst of terrorism and extremism, wrote in Politico Magazine in October 2018 that Robert Bowers' extreme antisemitic postings were "anything but an anomaly" on the website, and, "[they highlight] concerns about its growing facilitation of white nationalism and other far-right movements". She found that Gab user profiles often contained Nazi symbolism, and Stormfront users had praised the site as a place to post antisemitic content. Katz found that many Gab users were celebrating immediately after Bowers' massacre against the Tree of Life synagogue, and wrote that far-right communities' rise to popularity on Gab is "remarkably similar" to the rise of ISIS on social media. In November 2018, Twitter user Jason Baumgartner, who owns a website dedicated to detecting hate speech on social media, found that using the search term "oven" on Gab brought up the terms "Jews", "Holocaust", and "Hitler" the most among thousands of analyzed comments.
Joshua Fisher-Birch of the Counter Extremism Project said in 2019: "Gab has always been attractive to fascist and neo-Nazi groups that advocate violence". The same month, non-profit left-wing media collective Unicorn Riot discovered that individual Gab users led by alt-right figure Brittany Pettibone organized on the video game chat and VoIP platform Discord and that some of the discussions centered on antisemitism and achieving "ethno-nationalism". The Jewish Chronicle reported in January 2019 that they had found material on the site accusing Jews of responsibility for the September 11 attacks. After setting up a fake account on Gab, the newspaper's journalist Ben Weich was quickly "presented with a steady stream of Holocaust denial, antisemitic tropes and conspiracy theories – as well as those venerating Adolf Hitler". Posts he discovered included at least one user who used a swastika as their profile picture and stated: "The parasitic Jews will fully deserve the genocide that's coming upon them" and "They do not deserve mercy, expulsion will never fix a rat problem, extermination does".
In addition to allowing Holocaust denial and other forms of antisemitism, Gab has been used as a recruitment tool by several neo-Nazi and alt-right groups, including Identity Evropa, Patriot Front, and the Atomwaffen Division, a terrorist organization tied to a number of murders.
Cultural Marxism, a far-right antisemitic conspiracy theory, is a popular topic on Gab.
By Gab
Gab itself has engaged in antisemitic commentary. Torba has repeatedly praised Holocaust denier Nick Fuentes.
On August 9, 2018, in response to a post from Jewish political activist Brian Krassenstein calling for the shutdown of the site, Gab's Twitter account responded with a post suggesting that it is unsurprising for a person with a Jewish last name to oppose "free speech", followed by a tweet from the platform calling for "open borders for Israel", a quote from former Ku Klux Klan leader David Duke, and posted another tweet the same hour with a citation to a Bible verse (Revelation 3:9) that referred to Jewish non-believers of Jesus as members of the "synagogue of Satan". The company's Twitter account also posted a tweet on August 9 alluding to the antisemitic trope of Jewish global control, saying "At some point you have to ask yourself: just who is pushing for the censorship?". On October 31, 2018, The Washington Post pointed to two messages on Gab's Twitter account and wrote that they "raise questions about whether they cross the line into impropriety". One captioned a photo of two men, one with Jewish sidelocks, with "These two guys show up at your front door. Who do you let in and who do you call the cops on?" before following it up with "I mean I'm calling the cops on both and getting my shotgun ready, just saying", and another argued for opposition to immigration by saying: "Let a bunch of Somalians migrate to your neighborhood and see if you change your mind". Torba initially questioned the authenticity of the posts, suggesting they might be doctored images, later saying the posts were "clearly satire/comedy... to get people discussing the importance of free expression for satire, comedy, political discourse, and legitimate criticism", and then later saying they were "a few edgy tweets posted by interns". The tweets were later deleted.
On January 14, 2021, Molly Boigon from The Forward noted that Gab's Twitter account had recently posted multiple tweets about Senior Adviser Jared Kushner's supposed influence on then-President Trump, which she described as a nod to the antisemitic trope about global Jewish puppet masters. Gab's Twitter account had also recently posted a tweet questioning the legitimacy of antisemitism falling under hate speech. In February 2021, Gab posted on their Twitter account that going forward, they would only respond to press inquiries from "Christian media compan[ies]", describing other publications as "pagan propogandists [sic]". In March 2021, Ali Breland reported in Mother Jones on private messages leaked in that month's data breach, which showed Torba welcoming Iranian-American alt-right personality Roosh V and praising another Gab user, the antisemitic writer E. Michael Jones. Oren Segal of the ADL said that the messages seemed "to show that Torba has a direct appreciation for individuals that promote antisemitism and hate". In June 2021, Torba criticized Rumble for changing its terms of service to prohibit antisemitic hate speech and questioned why the platform did not also prohibit "Anti-White hatred". Also in June 2021, Tom McKay from Gizmodo wrote that "Torba is perhaps best known for furious diatribes in which he characterizes claims that he or his shitty site is racist or anti-Semitic as left-wing media smears, despite bounteous evidence suggesting that is exactly what they are".
On October 13, 2021, Torba used Gab's Twitter account to praise E. Michael Jones, an antisemitic Catholic writer, calling him a "brilliant and faithful Christian man" who will be "one of the most respected thinkers of our time" when "we win." Jones has claimed that Jews are dedicated to attacking the Catholic Church and western civilization.
On October 17, 2021, Torba used Gab's Twitter account to tweet a screenshot of a post from a Gab user named "Kitler". The post states that "if you're a White person living in America today and you don't know what happened to the kulaks in russia [sic] 100 years ago, you should look it up. Something very similar is happening to you right now, and the same group of people is behind it." The Gab post alludes to the belief that Jews were responsible for the 1917 Russian Revolution and communism while also implying that Jews were responsible for the subsequent efforts by the Bolsheviks to seize land from kulaks (wealthy farmers) and deport kulaks to the remote regions of the Soviet Union. One user replied to Gab's tweet with a screenshot of a page from Adolf Hitler's Mein Kampf.
On October 19, 2021, Torba used the Gab Twitter account to post a series of tweets which The Daily Dot characterized as a "wildly antisemitic tirade" with "several antisemitic canards related to Judeo–Bolshevism". Torba also promoted the creation of a "parallel Christian society." After receiving criticism for these remarks, Torba responded by saying that "Sadly many Christians today are so afraid of being called a silly meaningless name by the world (bigot, antisemite, homophobe) that they refuse to even remotely share or discuss the Gospel in their daily lives, let alone live it" and that "You reveal your anti-Christian hatred when you refer to Biblical Truth as 'antisemitism. Shortly after making these comments, Torba shared a comic from far-right illustrator StoneToss which promotes the antisemitic myth that Jews were responsible for crucifying Jesus. Torba also retweeted a meme claiming that the Talmud, the central text of Rabbinic Judaism, instructs Jews to hate Christians. Shortly after posting these tweets, Torba deactivated Gab's Twitter account. Torba has deactivated the account multiple times in the past, which some researchers have said is a strategy to avoid being suspended from Twitter. Gab's Twitter account was reactivated around late November 2021. The ADL "found dozens of examples of antisemitic tweets in the replies to Gab's tweets from" October. "These replies promoted various tropes about Jews, including that Jews are 'degenerate' and the 'synagogue of Satan. The ADL also criticized Twitter for continuing "to allow content that violates its own policies via links to Gab's website, where harmful disinformation and offensive content run rampant."
According to the ADL, "Throughout October and early November 2021, Torba used his own platform, Gab, which has considerably fewer content guardrails and restrictions than mainstream sites, to disseminate a plethora of antisemitic content. These posts often include vague references to 'them' or 'the enemy' and are framed by Torba's Christian faith." On November 2, 2021, Torba posted on Gab that "Zionists" created the Federal Reserve for the "subversion of American Christianity." One user responded by claiming that non-Jews became "slaves of the [Jewish] tribe" due to a plot orchestrated by the Jewish Rothschild family. On November 4, 2021, Torba reposted Gab user Jacob Wohl's "suggestion" that all Jews should decorate their home with Christmas decorations during Christmas to assimilate into America's Christian heritage. One user responded by suggesting that Jews control the Federal Reserve and that Jewish banker Jacob Schiff funded and orchestrated the Russian Revolution. Both suggestions are references to antisemitic tropes.
In January 2022, Mira Fox from The Forward noted that Gab "has weaponized antisemitism and Christian extremism to foment insurrection". Fox also noted that "Torba himself has authored numerous articles demonizing Jews for a variety of ills, including a piece on the Ukrainian Holodomor famine that opens by wondering, speciously, why it is not considered a tragedy at the level of the Holocaust, and ends by implying the Holodomor was a Jewish attempt to wipe out Ukrainian Christians – and, in a pointed aside, noting that Biden's cabinet also includes many Jews."
In late July 2022, Media Matters published an article highlighting Torba's reposting of antisemitic statements that doubt the Holocaust, accuse Jews of being too powerful, and blame them for the killing of Jesus.
In August 2022, in response to an interview of ADL CEO Jonathan Greenblatt, Torba said that "We're not bending the knee to the 2 percent anymore", in reference to the percentage of Jewish people in the United States.
As of February 1, 2024, Gab has blocked anyone with an Israeli IP address from using their service or accessing content.
Violence and terrorism policy
Gab's official policy states that the company has a "zero-tolerance policy towards threats of violence and use of our platform for criminal purposes".
Terrorism researcher and Queen's University in Kingston, professor Amarnath Amarasingam has said that Gab's position as neither extremely mainstream nor obscure service has allowed extremists to permeate the website and access an audience they would not be able to have on a more popular service, where they would be more likely to be banned.
Gab has denied that terror groups flourish on the website, saying in a statement to Motherboard in July 2019: "We don't want them, we strongly discourage them from joining and we ban them when they cross the line, as they often do". However, Ben Makuch of Motherboard wrote that neo-Nazi terrorist groups have "enjoyed months-long, unfettered stints posting their content on Gab to a significant audience". In addition to calls for terrorist attacks, mass killings against minorities, offline armed training recruitments and white supremacist propaganda accumulated on Gab, Makuch pointed to one Gab post, from a user who is a member of a multinational militant network on Gab connected to the Atomwaffen Division, that had explicitly called for its followers to attack electric grids. Other content posted by the network included explicit calls for sympathizers to join local neo-Nazi organizations and commit violence against Muslim and Jewish communities. In June 2019, two British men were arrested on terror offences for posting propaganda on Gab calling for their followers to assassinate Prince Harry.
Moderation policy
Gab claims that its platform does not restrict content unless the content is not protected by the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. Restrictions on content on Gab include illegal activity, credible threats of violence, promotion of terrorism, obscenity, pornography, spamming, selling weapons or drugs, child exploitation, impersonation, and doxing.
In January 2021, Jazmin Goodwin of CNN described Gab's moderation as "lax" and that this "approach on content has made way for a slew of QAnon conspiracy theories, misinformation and anti-Semitic commentary on the platform, among lots of vile hatred and racist posts – much of wouldn't be allowed on today's well-known social apps". In October 2021, Cristiano Lima of The Washington Post described Gab's moderation as "laissez-faire".
In a 2022 email, Torba said that "We tolerate 'offensive' but legal speech", that "We believe that a moderation policy which adheres to the First Amendment, thereby permitting offensive content to rise to the surface, is a valuable and necessary utility to society.", and that "Supporting the mission of freedom online means having the stomach to accept that people will say 'edgy and offensive' things". In June 2022, Torba told CNN that "Gab permits all lawful political speech that is protected by the First Amendment—including speech about inherently political topics such as the charge and punishment of treason through the US judicial system. When discussion crosses into direct and imminent threats of violence we will take action and work with our partners in law enforcement to mitigate any threats to the public."
Hosting and termination of services by web services providers
On December 14, 2016, Apple Inc. declined Gab's submission of its app to the Apple App Store, citing pornographic content as the reason. Also on December 14, Twitter cut off Gab's access to the Twitter API after Gab introduced a feature to its social network that allowed users to share their Gab posts directly to Twitter. In response, Torba said in a December 15 Periscope livestream that "This is targeted, and we believe that we're being singled out" and that "This is the nonsense from Silicon Valley. This is the monopoly and level of control that they have". On January 21, 2017, a revised version of the app that blocked pornography by default was also rejected due to "objectionable content" including "references to religion, race, gender, sexual orientation, or other targeted groups that could be offensive to many users". In response, Torba accused Apple of "double standards and extreme scrutiny" "while allowing Big Social apps to display the same and arguably worse content in their own apps". Gab launched its Android app for the Google Play Store in May 2017. Later that year, on August 17, Google removed Gab's app from the Play Store for violating its policy against hate speech, stating that the app did not "demonstrate a sufficient level of moderation, including for content that encourages violence and advocates hate against groups of people". On September 14, 2017, Gab filed an antitrust lawsuit against Google, but dropped the suit on October 22, 2017, in favor of lobbying Congress to take action against "monopolized tech giants". In early October 2018, Gab's Stripe account was suspended due to adult content on Gab. On October 3, Gab tweeted in response: "We've had this content and a NSFW setting for two years with no issues from them until now".
On October 27, 2018, the day of the Pittsburgh synagogue shooting, PayPal, GoDaddy, and Medium terminated their relationship with Gab, and PayPal released a statement that it had done so based on its review of accounts that may engage in the "perpetuation of hate, violence or discriminatory intolerance". Later on the same day, Gab announced on Twitter that Joyent, Gab's hosting provider, would terminate their service on October 29 at 9:00 am ET. Gab also said on Twitter that they expected their site to be down for weeks. Stripe and Backblaze also terminated their services with Gab after the shooting. On October 29, Gab claimed in a tweet that they "took the site down early on purpose last night because we knew the media would take the bait and have stories on it for this morning". After the site was taken down, Gab's homepage was changed to a message saying it was down due to being "under attack" and being "systematically no-platformed", adding that Gab would be inaccessible for a "period of time".
Gab returned online on November 4, 2018, after Epik agreed to register the domain, and Sibyl Systems Ltd. began to provide webhosting. Epik is an American company that provides domain registration and other web services, and is known for providing services to websites that host far-right, neo-Nazi, and other extremist content. Sibyl Systems was founded on October 22, 2018, days before the shooting that resulted in Gab's termination from their previous webhost, and according to the SPLC, was possibly based in Norway or England. Sibyl was later acquired by Epik in the second quarter of 2019.
In August 2019, Amazon Web Services ceased serving Gab's fundraising site due to Gab violating Amazon's policy on hateful content. In response, Torba said he welcomed Amazon's decision, claiming that media coverage of the decision had only brought more attention to Gab and resulted in investment offers.
, Gab was still using Epik as a domain registrar. Instead of hosting its service in the cloud, The Wall Street Journal reported that Gab had been renting hardware in an undisclosed data center. Gab was also using services from Cloudflare.
Reception
Gab has been described as "Twitter for racists" by progressive news outlet Salon, a "hate-filled echo chamber of racism and conspiracy theories" by The Guardian, an "online cesspool of anti-Semitism" by Politico Magazine, a "safe haven for banned Twitter trolls, Gamergaters, Pizzagaters and high-profile white nationalists" by Mic, "the far-right's favorite social network" by The Verge, "the Make America Great Again of social sites" by The New York Times and "an almost anti-Twitter" by NPR. Wired criticized Gab for not explicitly prohibiting hate speech. Scholars have described Gab as "hateful", and named Gab along with 4chan and 8chan as directly radicalizing men who went on to commit violent acts. The SPLC characterized Gab as a site where its users are "radicalized aggressively". Heidi Beirich, a director of the center, stated that the site is "the number one place nowadays where white supremacists gather". The ADL called Gab a "fringe online community" and "a bastion of hatred and bigotry".
Harrison Kaminsky of Digital Trends questioned the site's longevity in September 2016, writing: "While the site's initial popularity is impressive, the potential is most likely short-lived, following the life cycle of social networks like Ello or Peach, which faded over time". Maya Kosoff of Vanity Fair wrote in September 2016: "the point of Gab may not be to grow to be a Twitter competitor... it's providing a 'safe space' for people who want to express themselves without consequence". Amanda Hess, a critic at The New York Times, opined in November 2016 that the site is: "a throwback to the freewheeling norms of the old internet, before Twitter started cracking down on harassment and Reddit cleaned out its darkest corners. And since its debut in August, it has emerged as a digital safe space for the far right, where white nationalists, conspiracy-theorist YouTubers, and minivan majority moms can gather without liberal interference". BBC News wrote in December 2016 that Gab has "become the go-to social network for an extreme group of activists who have been chucked off of Twitter" and that "Its top hashtags list is a conservative dream. It's peppered with trends like #Trump, #MAGA ("Make America Great Again" - Trump's campaign slogan) along with far-right obsessions like Dump Star Wars and the Pizzagate conspiracy hoax".
Jeremy Carl of conservative magazine National Review opined in August 2017: "Contrast the free hand given to left-wing offensive speech to the strict controls put on right-wing speech. As just one of many examples, Gab— a free-speech social network that has grown rapidly to almost a quarter million users since its public launch just a few months ago, was just yesterday kicked off the Android app store (it has already been repeatedly denied at Apple) for "hate speech". To be clear, not all the voices on Gab are mellifluous, they have accepted a number of folks, often from the far right, who have been banned from other social networks (though this is a small portion of Gab's user base)" and "If Google and Apple are banning Gab, mainstream conservatives are crazy to think they are safe". Cheryl K. Chumley of conservative newspaper The Washington Times opined in October 2018: "with help from like-minded free thinkers, Gab can beat the leftists running these Internet sites at their own game — and in so doing, become the model for "what could one day be" for the conservative world on social media". Joe Setyon reviewed the social network for libertarian magazine Reason in October 2018, writing: "in fighting the alleged left-leaning political bias of the legacy social media platforms, Gab ran into the opposite problem". He suggested that the website was only for those who "subscribe to a certain radical subset of right-wing beliefs or are interested in seeing the feeds of those who do". Nicholas Thompson of Wired questioned the sincerity of the site's claim to be a defender for "free speech" in October 2018, writing: "To many people, Torba's First Amendment absolutism is just a talking point. The site exists less to defend the ideals of Benjamin Franklin than those of Christopher Cantwell. It chose as its logo a creature that looks rather like Pepe, the alt-right attack frog. It courted people on the far right, and it became a haven for them. Free speech can be less a principle than a smokescreen". Thompson noted that Robert Bowers likely expected affirmation from his last message that indicated his intent to carry out the Pittsburgh synagogue massacre, leading Thompson to the conclusion: "if it's a platform where someone can expect affirmation for threatening slaughter, then why should anyone help it exist?"
Kelly Weill of The Daily Beast wrote in January 2019: "Gab has always been a bad website. Nothing loads, the search function is a joke, and its member rolls are riddled with porn bots. And that's even without the neo-Nazis posting racist memes and goading each other to murder". In February 2020, Tanya Basu of MIT Technology Review characterized Gab as being frequented by "fringe far-right hate groups". In January 2021, Travis M. Andrews of The Washington Post said that Gab "has welcomed extremist right-wing figures and believers of QAnon, the loose collection of conspiracy theories that touch on everything from politics to COVID-19". In August 2021, Jacob Silverman of The New Republic wrote that Torba is "Trying to Build a White, Christian, Secessionist Tech Industry" and that Torba "represents the new, even more right-wing alternative to Silicon Valley". In September 2021, Whitney Kimball of Gizmodo wrote that Gab is "currently fashioning itself as an anti-mask LinkedIn with a job board and guidelines for getting vaccine exemptions". In December 2021, David Gilbert of Vice News called Gab "a Christian-focused social network".
In February 2022, the Associated Press wrote that "Offensive content is easy to find on Gab. A search turns up user names featuring racial epithets, as well as antisemitic screeds, neo-Nazi fantasies and homophobic rants." In June 2022, the Stanford Internet Observatory said that "While sites such as Parler and Gettr generally cater to a broader base of right-wing users, the far-right platform Gab hews more toward an openly white Christian nationalist demographic."
A May 2022 Pew Research Center poll found that 11 percent of American adults had heard of Gab, while 1 percent of American adults get their news from Gab regularly. In addition, 79 percent of Gab profiles expressed a value or political orientation, 35 percent of profiles express right-leaning or pro-Trump values, 37 percent express a religious identity and an additional 37 percent express patriotism or pro-American values. A previous September audit of Gab by Pew Research found that Gab is the only platform out of seven alt-tech platforms examined that has not removed posts for misinformation, harassment or offensive content. A previous June 2022 review of Gab content by Pew Research found that of the 200 prominent Gab accounts, 80 percent posted about guns, 74 percent posted about abortion, 73 percent posted about LGBT issues, 70 percent discussed vaccines, and 69 percent had posted about the January 6 Capitol attack.
In October 2022, Mira Fox of the St. Louis Jewish Light wrote that "when I opened up [Gab] to write this piece, one of the first posts I saw, with 1,500 likes, explained that any hatred of Black people and Jews isn't racist because it's based on 'their behavior,' not ethnicity. Many of the replies took issue with this position — because it was not racist enough. As one person succinctly put it in the comments, 'Jews are inbred parasites.'".
Michael Edison Hayden, an open-source intelligence analyst and investigative reporter on extremism and disinformation, opined in a Gizmodo interview in October 2018: "Andrew Torba, the CEO of Gab, will get angry when people... call his site a white nationalist website or an alt-right website but anyone who spends time on it knows that it's a haven for extremists.... Violent white supremacist groups like Patriot Front and Atomwaffen Division organize out in the open on Gab. Users frequently call for the murder of women, Jews and other minorities on Gab, and are rewarded with likes and reposts.... Dylann Roof is treated as a hero by many Gab users". Hayden noted that Gab was "rife with" content similar to that posted by Robert Bowers', with many users posing in his support using the hashtag #HeroRobertBowers. In August 2019, director of the Centre for Analysis of the Radical Right, Matthew Feldman, said of Gab's stance on free speech that free speech' in Gab's context has too often meant 'free to engage in hate speech and incitement' with minimal curation by site moderators or, it seems, owners". In March 2021, Nathalie Van Raemdonck, a doctoral researcher at the Vrije Universiteit Brussels who researches platform architecture, said of Gab's launch that "It's not necessarily that Gab rewarded the best content, or punished the worst, but does it reward what the group thinks" and that "Because the people on the platform were already terrible, they needed engaging conversations to stimulate each other, so it became a circlejerk to the bottom". Van Raemdonck also noted of Gab that "The fact that they portrayed themselves as a free-speech platform attracts a certain crowd".
Milo Yiannopoulos, an active user of Gab who joined after being deplatformed from Facebook and Twitter, complained in September 2019 about the low number of users on Gab, Parler, and Telegram. He wrote on Telegram that, after losing his large fanbases on Facebook and Twitter, he was having difficulty sustaining his career due to the relatively small number of users on the alternative social networks. He described Gab as "relentlessly, exhaustingly hostile and jam packed full of teen racists who totally dictate the tone and discussion".
In March 2021, Texas Governor Greg Abbott condemned Gab, stating "anti-Semitic platforms like Gab have no place in Texas".
In October 2021, pro-Trump Republican pundit Bill Mitchell ran a poll on Gab asking if people would attend a Christian church where the pastor uses the word "nigger" in their sermons. More than 2,000 voted and nearly two-thirds answered "Yes", prompting Mitchell to say on Gab that "As you can see from this poll so far, there are A LOT of racists on Gab" and that "It's not just a small noisy group." He also complained of having to block "over 100 accounts a day.", claimed that big accounts on Gab are "flatlining because of all the hate speech", and encouraged people to join Gettr, a conservative social media platform. Mitchell called on Torba to ban racist users on Gab "or Gab will never be taken seriously by the general public." In response, Torba said "Go over to dopey Jason Miller's Chinese billionaire-funded AI-censored hugbox for Israel-first RINO losers if you want a safe space to shout into the wind of bot accounts and Chinese nationals posing as Americans that make up the community over there". Mitchell later announced that he would leave Gab before changing his mind, saying "I think I'll just stay on Gab forever", "But from here on out, no more Mr. Nice Guy."
Gab is one of a number of alternative social network platforms, including Minds, MeWe, Parler, and BitChute, that are popular with people banned from mainstream networks such as Twitter, Facebook, YouTube, Reddit, and Instagram. Deen Freelon and colleagues writing in Science characterized Gab as among alt-tech sites that are "dedicated to right-wing communities", and listed the site along with 4chan, 8chan, BitChute, and Parler. They noted there are also more ideologically neutral alt-tech platforms, such as Discord and Telegram. Joe Mulhall of the UK anti-racism group Hope Not Hate has categorized Gab among the "bespoke platforms" for the far-right, which he defines as platforms which were created by people who themselves have "far-right leanings". He distinguishes these from "co-opted platforms" such as DLive and Telegram, which were adopted by the far-right due to minimal moderation but not specifically created for their use.
Chinese government influence operations
In September 2023, The Wall Street Journal reported that Gab was targeted by a Chinese government influence operation called Spamouflage, which aimed to spread disinformation and state propaganda.
Company
Gab was founded by CEO Andrew Torba and CTO Ekrem Büyükkaya and the company was incorporated on September 9, 2016.
Torba, who described himself in 2016 as a lifelong "conservative Republican Christian", was previously removed from the Y Combinator alumni network in 2016 because of harassment concerns, starting when he used "build the wall" on Twitter alongside a screenshot of a post by a Latino startup founder that read: "being a black, Muslim or woman in the USA is going to be very scary". He also made a post on Facebook that said "All of you: fuck off. Take your morally superior, elitist, virtue signaling bullshit and shove it" and "I call it like I see it, and I helped meme a President into office, cucks". Until 2016, Torba was registered as a Democrat, although he voted Republican in presidential elections. In 2017, Torba described himself as a "cultural libertarian", a classical liberal, and an "American nationalist patriot". As of 2021, Torba says that he lives in a "forest in Pennsylvania", where he is plotting a "Silent Christian Secession". As of 2021, Torba has a policy of "not communicating with non-Christian and/or communist journos". In April 2021, Torba endorsed accelerationism, a term used by white supremacists to mean intensifying social conflicts and collapse. In 2022, Torba described himself as a Christian nationalist. In November 2022, Torba wrote that "The Jews in positions of power do not care that you have the freedom of speech in this country, they care that people like Ye have the freedom to reach a lot of people and criticize their power and oversized influence in our culture, government, and society." In January 2023, Torba called ChatGPT "satanic" and advocated for Christians to build an artificial intelligence "for the glory of God."
Utsav Sanduja later joined Gab as COO. Sanduja left the company in June 2018. In an interview with ABC News, Sanduja said that his wife, who works at a synagogue, had been doxed and received death threats while he worked at Gab: "apparently some of her personal information was found out and my family and I went through quite a lot of abuse, a systemic targeting from really vicious people, and honestly it just took a toll on us mentally". On October 28, Büyükkaya announced his resignation from Gab the day after the Pittsburgh synagogue shooting, citing "attacks from the American press" that "ha[d] taken a toll on [him] personally". In November 2020, former Facebook software engineer Fosco Marotto joined Gab as CTO.
In December 2016, Gab was headquartered in Austin, Texas. In September 2017, Gab moved its headquarters to Pennsylvania. U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) filings, as late as March 2018, stated that Torba operated Gab out of a WeWork coworking space in Philadelphia. A WeWork spokesperson said that Torba had become a member under his own name, not Gab's, and that his time there had been brief. In late October 2018, a Gab spokesperson told The Philadelphia Inquirer that Gab was no longer based in Philadelphia. As of January 2019, Gab is headquartered in Clarks Summit, Pennsylvania.
Revenue
Gab earns revenue through premium subscriptions, donations, and affiliate partnerships. Gab has been refused service by several payment processors including PayPal and Stripe, causing the site to at various times rely on payments by postal mail, cryptocurrency, and "obscure" payment processors to receive payment for its subscription service. From 2017 to 2018, Gab raised $2 million from the sale of speculative securities through the crowdfunding platform StartEngine. Gab sought approval from the SEC for a Regulation A exempt offering of $10 million in 2017, but it remained pending until March 2019 when Gab withdrew the request. In a 2020 SEC filing, Gab said that "We may not be able to obtain adequate financing to continue our operations" and that Gab has yet "to earn a substantial profit or substantial operating revenue", putting into question the company's "business prospects".
2016–2018
Gab originally did not use advertising, describing itself as an "ad-free social network". The site began offering a subscription service for Gab named "GabPro" in mid March 2017. In November 2017, Gab launched a new tier of subscriptions called "GabPro Premium", which was targeted at content creators who wished to charge a subscription fee for their content and collect tips.
Gab lost more than $350,000 (~$ in ) in the period from its foundation through June 30, 2018. The company relied on the online crowdfunding broker StartEngine starting in 2017. In July 2017, Gab started an investment project which met its goal of $1.07 million on August 19, 2017. In February 2018, Gab announced that it had raised $4.8 million and was planning a $10 million initial coin offering (ICO). From 2017 to 2018, Gab raised $2 million through StartEngine.
Gab reported in a December 2018 filing that removal from PayPal and Stripe following the 2018 Pittsburgh Synagogue shooting had caused a 90% drop in its subscription revenue. Following its removal, the site relied on mail and cryptocurrency for subscription payment processing.
2019–present
Gab partnered with the "obscure" Second Amendment Processing for credit card payment processing in January 2019, but removed credit card payment options in March of the same year. This removal came after an SPLC investigation published in early March 2019 found that Thomas Michael Troyer, founder of Second Amendment Processing, had been convicted of financial crimes in 2007.
The SPLC reported in January 2019 that the company's Regulation A exempt offering of $10 million had been pending approval by the SEC since 2017. Two analysts contacted by the SPLC commented that this might suggest that "the SEC has concerns about allowing the sale to go forward". Heidi Beirich noted an unusual lack of communication records with the SEC regulators in Gab's financial filings, unlike those of similar companies. In a March 2019 SEC filing, Gab "abruptly" withdrew its request for stock sales, explaining that "[the company] has decided to seek other capital raising alternatives". Torba did not respond to SPLC inquiries regarding the withdrawal.
As of August 2019, purchasing the GabPro subscription gave users the ability to upload videos of larger file sizes, the option to be verified on Gab, and a free email address from Gab's email service. Gab had previously launched affiliate marketing with Virtual Private Network Service Providers and Gab had also previously launched its own merchandise.
In September 2019, Gab began showing "promoted posts" from affiliate partners. Users who purchase the GabPro subscription do not see the promoted posts.
On June 19, 2020, Torba claimed that he, his wife, and Gab had been "blacklisted" by Visa for "promoting hate speech". Gab was also deplatformed from PayPal.
In response to user growth on Gab during the 2020 presidential election in November, Torba claimed in an email to Gab users on November 11 that "Gab isn't growing because of 'celebrity' endorsements, sponsorships, or big paid advertising budgets, but rather from the most powerful form of advertising on the planet: word of mouth".
As of August 2021, Gab accepts donations. As of October 2021, Gab accepts donations in Bitcoin.
As of 2021, purchasing the GabPro subscription gave users "access to additional features such as the ability to apply for verification, schedule posts, get their own Gab TV channel and set posts to automatically delete after a specified period of time."
A report from June 2022 by Stanford Internet Observatory found that the deplatforming of users on social media sites following January 6, 2021 led to a surge of income which helped keep Gab afloat.
Design
In 2016, Gab's color theme was a minimalist combination of black text on white panels with pink hashtags and usernames. Pro users had a contrasted top bar in dark blue. The interface displayed messages in a Twitter-like vertical scroll timeline with an option to upvote or downvote each post. The site also aggregated popular posts and trending topic hashtags. As of 2017, users could sort comments and posts in a subject by time or score. Default biographies for new users displayed a randomly chosen quotation about the importance of free speech. Users also had the option to "mute" other users and terms. , Gab's user interface was similar to that of Twitter, having a dashboard in the middle of the page with trending content on the left and menus on the right. As of 2021, posts on Gab are limited to 5,000 characters.
In early 2017, the option to downvote posts was temporarily removed from Gab, with the company's then-COO Sanduja explaining that they were removed due to them being used to troll and to harass women, and also stated that: "there were a lot of social justice warriors and members of the far left coming into our site essentially trying to start a brouhaha". In July 2017, Gab implemented a system where people who downvoted others (through spamming) would have their accounts downvoted as well and their ability to leave downvotes would be revoked. As of 2019, Gab uses a scoring system, which allows users with more than 250 points to downvote posts, but users must "spend points" in order to do so.
In 2018, the default profile picture for new users to the site featured NPC Wojak, a meme popular on far-right websites.
A frog named "Gabby" was Gab's logo from 2016 to 2018. The logo has been compared to Pepe the Frog, a cartoon character used by the alt-right. Torba denied that the frog logo was a reference to Pepe and stated that the logo was inspired by Bible verses (Exodus 8:1–12 and Psalms 78:45) and various other traditional symbolic meanings. Sanduja said that the frog was meant to symbolize the "revenge against those who went against mainstream conservative voices on the internet". As of September 2018, the frog logo is no longer used.
See also
List of social networking websites
8chan
DLive
Frank (social network)
Minds
Parler
Voat
References
Further reading
External links
Official source code repository
2016 establishments in Texas
Alt-right websites
Alt-tech
American social networking websites
Christianity in the United States
Companies based in Lackawanna County, Pennsylvania
Conservatism in the United States
Conspiracist media
Delisted applications
Freedom of speech in the United States
Internet properties established in 2016
Mastodon (software) instances
Microblogging services
Multilingual websites
Neo-Nazism in the United States
Online companies of the United States
Proprietary cross-platform software
QAnon
Real-time web
Trumpism
White nationalism in the United States
White supremacy in the United States
Distributed Denial of Secrets | Gab (social network) | [
"Technology"
] | 21,375 | [
"Real-time web",
"Real-time computing"
] |
51,702,980 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MX1%20Ltd | MX1 was a global media services provider founded in July 2016 from a merger between digital media services companies, RR Media and SES Platform Services, and a wholly owned subsidiary of global satellite owner and operator, SES.
In September 2019, MX1 was merged into the SES Video division and the MX1 brand dropped. Broadcast and streamed content management, playout, distribution, and monetisation services from both MX1 and SES Video are now provided under the SES name.
Before merger with SES, MX1 claimed to manage more than 5 million media assets and every day to distribute more than 3,600 TV channels, manage the playout of over 525 channels, distribute content to more than 120 subscription VOD platforms, and deliver over 8,400 hours of online video streaming and more than 620 hours of premium sports and live events.
Services
MX1 video and media services are provided through a single hybrid, cloud and on-premises solution, called MX1 360, which enables video and media solutions including content and metadata management, archiving, localisation solutions, channel playout, VOD, online video (OTT) and content distribution. Services provided by MX1 include:
Content aggregation
Acquisition of content via satellite, fibre or IP with satellite downlinking services (for encryption, re-encryption and re-muxing into different platforms), fibre reception from any location, and IP reception via the public Internet. Live sports, news and entertainment production (including in-studio, outside broadcasting, and SNG) with mobile live streaming and video contribution.
Content management
Digital mastering including scanning, conversion, restoration, quality control and localisation/versioning. Content archiving including secure, cloud and on-premises digital storage, and disaster recovery services. Metadata packaging and platform validation to enhance content discovery, searchability and cataloguing. Playout preparation and delivery to any format.
Channel origination and playout
Managed TV channel origination in SD, HD and UHD including 3D graphics, and video and audio effects, using cloud-based solution accessible from any location, with live content insertion and operation, and 24/7 monitoring.
Online video/VOD services
Content preparation and management for online video, VOD, live streaming services and Online video platforms using an ultra-high capacity content delivery network, including subscriber management, apps, DRM, social media, advertising tools, monetisation tools, metadata management, and analytics.
Content delivery
Delivery in all video formats over hybrid distribution network of satellite (using over 150 platforms), fibre (60 digital media hubs worldwide) and the Internet with complete downlink/uplink turnaround services and OTT content delivery.
Locations
MX1 has 16 offices worldwide, the most recent opened in March 2017 in Seoul, South Korea, as well as media centres in UK (London), US (Hawley, PA), Israel (Emeq Ha'Ela), Romania (Bucharest) and at the headquarters in Unterföhring near Munich, Germany.
In the early part of 2017, significant upgrades were made to MX1's US media centre in Hawley, Pennsylvania, including expanding its capabilities for US based and global content aggregation, management and delivery to support US broadcasters and content providers.
History
RRsat was founded in Israel by David Rivel, an electronics, computers and communications engineer in 1981 as a communications provider, and in 2014 changed its name to RR Media to reflect its expanding global service offering. In 2015, RR Media acquired Eastern Space Systems (ESS), a Romanian provider of content management and content distribution services and satellite transmission services provider, SatLink Communications.
Digital Playout Centre GmbH (DPC) was founded in 1996 by German media company, Kirch to provide playout, multiplexing, satellite uplinks and other broadcast services to Kirch's Premiere pay-TV platform (now Sky Deutschland) and other private and public German broadcasters. In 2005, SES Astra (a subsidiary of SES Global, now SES) bought 100% of DPC from Premiere and the company renamed ASTRA Platform Services GmbH (APS). In 2012, to reflect the company's expanding worldwide reach, the name was changed to SES Platform Services.
In February 2016, it was announced that SES Platform Services had agreed, subject to regulatory approvals, to purchase RR Media. The acquisition was completed in July 2016, with the merged company renamed MX1 and headed by Avi Cohen, the former CEO of RR Media. In October 2017, Cohen was replaced as CEO by Wilfred Urner, the former CEO of SES Platform Services, CEO of SES subsidiary, HD+ and Head of Media Platforms and Product Development, SES Video.
See also
SES
Astra
SES Platform Services
RR Media
References
External links
SES (company)
Satellite television
Video on demand
Video on demand services
Digital media
Digital broadcasting
Digital Video Broadcasting
German companies established in 2016
Mass media companies established in 2016
German companies disestablished in 2019
Mass media companies disestablished in 2019 | MX1 Ltd | [
"Technology"
] | 1,022 | [
"Multimedia",
"Digital media"
] |
51,703,202 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%20238 | NGC 238 is a spiral galaxy located in the constellation Phoenix. It was discovered on October 2, 1834 by John Herschel.
References
0238
Barred spiral galaxies
Phoenix (constellation)
Discoveries by John Herschel
002595 | NGC 238 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 46 | [
"Phoenix (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
51,703,229 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%20239 | NGC 239 is a spiral galaxy located in the constellation Cetus. It was discovered in 1886 by Francis Leavenworth.
References
External links
0239
Cetus
Spiral galaxies
002642 | NGC 239 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 38 | [
"Cetus",
"Constellations"
] |
51,703,470 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganaplacide | Ganaplacide (development codename KAF156) is a drug in development by Novartis for the purpose of treating malaria. It is a imidazolopiperazine derivative. It has shown activity against the Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax forms of the malaria parasite.
Clinical development
The antimalarial activity of the imidazolopiperazine compound class was initially discovered through a series of sensitive phenotypic antimalarial screens that were developed and run in 2007 and 2008 by a group of biologists working at the Genomics Institute of the Novartis Research Foundation and the Scripps Research Institute. The lead product was published in 2012 as a leader of the imidazolopiperazine class. This was followed by studies in animal models published in 2014. Preclinical studies found no significant in vitro safety liabilities. A Phase 1 study found some gastrointestinal and neurological effects but these were self-limited in 70 healthy males and established dosing for a future Phase 2 Trial.
The just completed Phase 2 Trial was completed with 4 study locations in Thailand and one study location in Vietnam. This study looked at the effect of 400 mg given daily for 3 days as well as a single 800 mg dose. In the 21 Patients who received a single 800 mg dose 67% of patients cleared the infection which is comparable to other antimalarial medications. More than half of the patients had some reported adverse event and the rate was higher in patients who received a single 800 mg dose over patients who received 3 400 mg doses. The most common effect was asymptomatic bradycardia where patients heart rates fell below 60 Beats Per Minute. Other reported events include hypokalemia, elevated liver enzymes as well as anemia.
Pharmacology
The mechanism of this drug is currently unknown. Resistance is conferred by mutations in PfCARL, a protein with 7 transmembrane domains, as well as by mutations in the P. falciparum acetyl-CoA transporter and the UDP-galactose transporter. None of these are thought to be the target of ganaplacide. Initial functional studies were performed with the closely related chemotype, GNF179 that differs from the clinical candidate by a single halogen.
Society and culture
Economics
Novartis is an international drug company based in Switzerland and is developing ganaplacide as a drug for the treatment of malaria. This drug was identified by a high throughput screen of over 2 million compounds. This drug is being developed with support from the Bill and Melinda Gates foundation via their Medicine for Malaria Venture. It will also be a part of the Novartis Malaria Initiative which has been providing 750 million treatments without producing any profit for the larger company.
Intellectual property
Ganaplacide is protected by the granted United States Patent 20130281403 held by the inventors, Arnab Chatterjee, Advait Nagle, Tao Wu, David Tully, and Kelli Kuhen, and filed June 7, 2013. There are previous US patent applications but only this one has been granted.
References
Antimalarial agents
Experimental drugs
Amines
Nitrogen heterocycles
4-Fluorophenyl compounds
Drugs with unknown mechanisms of action | Ganaplacide | [
"Chemistry"
] | 681 | [
"Amines",
"Bases (chemistry)",
"Functional groups"
] |
51,703,926 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sobrr | Sobrr was a mobile application for iOS and Android. It was released in July 2014. It has been described by critics as an "anti-Facebook" social media.
See also
Snapchat
References
External links
IOS software
Android (operating system) software
2014 software | Sobrr | [
"Technology"
] | 54 | [
"Mobile software stubs",
"Mobile technology stubs"
] |
51,704,219 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jemma%20Redmond | Jemma Redmond (16 March 1978 – 16 August 2016) was an Irish biotechnology pioneer and innovator. She was a co-founder of 3D bio-printing firm Ourobotics, developers of the first-ever ten-material bio-printer. Redmond designed a way of keeping living cells alive while printed using 3D printers, making her a leading figure in Irish science and technology.
Early life
Born in Tallaght, South Dublin, Redmond studied electronic engineering before earning her undergraduate degree in applied physics at Robert Gordon University in Aberdeen in 2002. She later returned to university, completing a master's degree in nano-bioscience at University College Dublin in 2012, along with qualifications in project management and electronic engineering. Her interest in nano-bioscience was sparked by an intersex condition that made her infertile. She started bioprinting by building her own devices in her kitchen.
Career
A serial entrepreneur, Redmond created a company manufacturing vending machines in 2008, before co-founding Ourobotics in January 2015, with Alanna Kelly from Galway, Ireland, and backing from SOSV. Kelly resigned as director in July 2015. Tony Herbert, entrepreneur and owner of technical optics company Irish Precision Optics, from Cork became a director of Ourobotics in August 2015 and the company moved to the optics company premises in Cork City. Redmond designed and marketed two bio-printers including, in 2016, a printer capable of printing human tissue, and at a much lower cost than previous bio-printers. Redmond's first device printed an extended finger, described by Pádraig Belton as "a gentle reply to those who had called printing organs of such complexity impossible."
In January 2016, the company won first prize in a prestigious international competition, Silicon Valley Open Doors Europe. The company was also selected as part of a start-up adoption program by Google.
Death
Redmond died unexpectedly in August 2016. Her mother described it as a "tragic accident". She was described as a polymath, an inspiration and great friend. She was survived by her partner, Kay Cairns, a journalist and activist.
References
1978 births
2016 deaths
20th-century Irish LGBTQ people
21st-century Irish LGBTQ people
Biotechnologists
Intersex women
Irish intersex people
Irish women scientists
Irish LGBTQ scientists
21st-century women scientists
Women biotechnologists
Irish biologists
Alumni of Robert Gordon University
Alumni of University College Dublin
Accidental deaths in the Republic of Ireland | Jemma Redmond | [
"Biology"
] | 507 | [
"Biotechnologists",
"Women biotechnologists"
] |
51,704,599 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20coleopterans%20of%20Sri%20Lanka | Sri Lanka is a tropical island situated close to the southern tip of India. The invertebrate fauna is as large as it is common to other regions of the world. There are about 2 million species of arthropods found in the world, and more are still being discovered to this day. This makes it very complicated and difficult to summarize the exact number of species found within a certain region.
This is a list of the coleopterans found from Sri Lanka, using recent family-level classification:
Species count
Family: Aderidae - ant-like leaf beetles
Aderus concolor
Aderus crassipes
Aderus dikoyanus
Aderus nigropictus
Aderus orientalis
Aderus scoparius
Aderus taprobanus
Euxylophilus principalis
Family: Anthicidae - Ant-like beetles
Amblyderus bigibber
Amblyderus brincki
Amblyderus thoracinus
Anthelephila anderssoni
Anthelephila besucheti
Anthelephila braminus
Anthelephila burckhardti
Anthelephila consul
Anthelephila insulana
Anthelephila opiatus
Anthicus semirubidus
Endomia besucheti
Endomia castelsi
Endomia ceylonica
Laena formaneki
Leptaleus brincki
Mecynotarsus cederholmi
Mecynotarsus flinti
Notoxus brinckianus
Notoxus ravana
Phalantias besucheti
Phalantias loebli
Phalantias mussardi
Phalantias praeclarus
Pseudoleptaleus argutus
Pseudoleptaleus baloghi
Pseudoleptaleus basirufus
Pseudoleptaleus yalaensis
Pseudonotoxus cederholmi
Pseudonotoxus ekesi
Pseudonotoxus minutus
Sapintus barbei
Sapintus brincki
Sapintus capitatus
Sapintus flinti
Tomoderus anderssoni
Tomoderus discisus
Tomoderus mussardi
Tomoderus terrenus
Family: Anthribidae - Fungus weevils
Acorynus ceylonicus
Acorynus cinereomaculatus
Acorynus cingalus
Acorynus dohrni
Acorynus labidus
Acorynus passerinus
Apolecta nietneri
Araecerus fragilis
Araecerus intangens
Araecerus irresolutus
Araecerus pardalis
Araecerus pumilus
Atinellia senex
Basitropis nitidicutis
Caccorhinus brunnipennis
Caccorhinus disconotatus
Contexta murina
Dendrotrogus colligens
Dendrotrogus hypocrita
Directarius bifoveatus
Disphaerona picta
Disphaerona punctata
Disphaerona verrucosus
Exechesops horni
Exechesops molitor
Habrissus asellus
Habrissus tibialis
Hybosternus mesosternalis
Hypseus dilectus
Litocerus annulipes
Litocerus crucicollis
Litocerus semiustus
Mauia subnotata
Mecotropis bipunctatus
Mecotropis gardneri
Melanopsacus ceylonicus
Misthosima separ
Phaulimia caena
Phaulimia disticha
Phaulimia schaumi
Phloeobius alternans
Phloeobius ceylonicus
Rhaphitropis tamilis
Straboscopus revocans
Straboscopus riehli
Sympaector angulifer
Tropideres verrucosus
Tropidobasis gemella
Ulorhinus distichus
Uncifer diffinis
Urodon maculatus
Urodon nigripes
Urodon tantillus
Xenocerus khasianus
Xenocerus mesosternalis
Xenocerus rectilineatus
Xylinada tamilanus
Xylinada indigus
Zygaenodes horni
Zygaenodes molitor
Family: Attelabidae - Leaf-rolling weevils
Apoderus dohrni
Apoderus hystrix
Apoderus nietneri
Apoderus pulchellus
Apoderus pullus
Apoderus scitulus
Apoderus tranquebaricus
Apoderus verrucosus
Asynaptops colombensis
Attelabus hystrix
Attelabus octospilotus
Attelabus tranquebaricus
Centrocorynus dohrni
Centrocorynus pulchellus
Euops metallica
Euops nietneri
Euops suffundens
Henicolabus octospilotus
Hoplapoderus echinatus
Hoplapoderus hystrix
Hoplapoderus nepalensis
Mechoris ursulus
Paracycnotrachelus nietneri
Strigapoderus ceylonicus
Family: Biphyllidae - False Skin beetles
Biphyllus minutus
Diplocoelus indicus
Family: Bolboceratidae - Dor beetles
Bolbaffroides carenicollis
Bolboceras insulare
Bolbochromus laetus
Bolbochromus lineatus
Bolbohamatum meridionale
Family: Bostrichidae - Auger beetles
Amphicerus anobioides
Apate submedia
Bostrichus moderatus
Bostrichus vertens
Dinoderus ocellaris
Heterobostrychus aequalis
Heterobostrychus hamatipennis
Lichenophanes carinipennis
Lyctus brunneus
Lyctus discedens
Lyctus disputans
Lyctus retractus
Lyctus retrahens
Minthea rugicollis
Paraxylion bifer
Rhyzopertha dominica
Rhyzopertha sicula
Sinoxylon anale
Sinoxylon unidentatum
Xylocis tortilicornis
Xylodeleis obsipa
Xylophorus abnormis
Xylophorus ceylonicus
Xylopsocus capucinus
Xylothrips flavipes
Family: Bothrideridae - Cocoon-forming beetles
Ascetoderes bituberculatus
Dastarcus porosus
Leptoglyphus cristatus
Machlotes cognatus
Family: Brachyceridae - Tertiary-brachycerid weevils
Amblyrrhinus posticus
Desmidophorus caelatus
Desmidophorus communicans
Desmidophorus discriminans
Desmidophorus fasciculicollis
Desmidophorus inexpertus
Desmidophorus obliquefasciatus
Desmidophorus strenuus
Phytonomus ochraceus
Family: Brentidae - Straight-snouted weevils
Cerobates sumatranus
Cyphagogus westwoodii
Orychodes planicollis
Trachelizus bisulcatus
Family: Buprestidae - Jewel beetles
Agrilus arenatus
Agrilus imitator
Agrilus immaculatellus
Agrilus immaculatus
Agrilus immaculicollis
Agrilus impar
Agrilus pidijinus
Belionota aenea
Belionota sagittaria
Belionota sumptuosa
Chrysochroa fasciata
Sternocera chrysis
Trachys elvira
Trachys flaviceps
Family: Callirhipidae - Cedar beetle
Callirhipis fasciata
Family: Cantharidae - Soldier beetle
Caccodes extensicornis
Maltypus bibilensis
Maltypus kokagalaensis
Maltypus pidurutalagalanus
Microichthyurus sublateralis
Microichthyurus sylvicola
Silis ekisi
Silis incisa
Family: Carabidae - Ground beetles
Abacetus antiquus
Abacetus atratus
Abacetus bipunctatus
Abacetus cordicollis
Abacetus dejeani
Abacetus flavipes
Abacetus guttula
Abacetus pallipes
Abacetus pomptus
Abacetus rufopiceus
Abacetus semimetallicus
Abacetus testaceipes
Abacidus atratus
Acupalpus derogatus
Acupalpus sinuellus
Agonum (Agonum) chinense
Agonum illocatum
Agonum japonicum
Amblystomus bivittatus
Amblystomus femoralis
Amblystomus fuscescens
Amblystomus guttatus
Amblystomus guttula
Amblystomus indicus
Amblystomus mandibularis
Amblystomus punctatus
Amblystomus quadriguttatus
Amblystomus stenolophoides
Amblystomus vulneratus
Anaulacus adelioides
Anaulacus fasciatus - ssp. fasciatus
Anaulacus opaculus
Anaulacus pleuronectes
Anchista brunnea
Anomotachys acaroides
Anomotarus decoratus
Anomotarus stigmula
Anthracus anamensis
Anthracus horni
Apotomus atripennis
Apristus cupreus
Apristus subtransparens
Arame macra
Archicolliuris bimaculata - ssp. bimaculata
Archicolliuris immaculata
Ardistomopsis myrmex
Ardistomopsis ovicollis
Argiloborus amblygonus
Argiloborus ceylanicus
Argiloborus curtus
Argiloborus monticola
Argiloborus stricticollis
Arrowina pygmaea
Arrowina taprobanae
Batoscelis oblonga
Bembidion foveolatum
Bembidion opulentum - ssp. opulentum
Brachinus immaculicornis - ssp. immaculicornis
Brachinus limbellus
Brachinus pictus
Brachinus sexmaculatus
Brachinus tetracolon
Brachyodes subolivaceus
Brachyodes virens
Bradybaenus festivus
Caelostomus picipes
Caelostomus sculptipennis
Calleida splendidula
Callistomimus littoralis - ssp. ceylonicus
Callistomimus pernix
Callytron limosum
Catascopus cingalensis
Catascopus whithillii
Cerapterus latipes
Chlaeminus biguttatus
Chlaenius bengalensis
Chlaenius bioculatus
Chlaenius circumdatus - ssp. circumdatus
Chlaenius cyanostolus
Chlaenius fastigatus
Chlaenius fletcheri
Chlaenius hamifer
Chlaenius henryi
Chlaenius inops
Chlaenius kerkvoordeae
Chlaenius laetiusculus
Chlaenius laetus
Chlaenius lafertei
Chlaenius leucops
Chlaenius macropus
Chlaenius malachinus
Chlaenius nepalensis
Chlaenius nigricans
Chlaenius oodioides
Chlaenius orbicollis
Chlaenius parallelus
Chlaenius pretiosus
Chlaenius pulcher
Chlaenius punctatostriatus
Chlaenius ruficauda
Chlaenius rufifemoratus
Chlaenius rugulosus
Chlaenius scapularis
Chlaenius tetragonoderus - ssp. tetragonoderus
Chlaenius trachys
Chlaenius velocipes
Chlaenius xanthospilus
Cicindela aurulenta - ssp. juxtata
Cicindela bicolor - ssp. haemorrhoidalis, xanthospilota
Cicindela calligramma
Cicindela cardoni
Cicindela ceylonensis
Cicindela discrepans
Cicindela diversa
Cicindela fischeri - ssp. fischeri
Cicindela flavomaculata - ssp. flavomaculata
Cicindela lacrymans
Cicindela ocellata
Cicindela separata
Cicindela severa
Cicindela sylvicola
Clivina castanea
Clivina elongatula
Clivina forcipata
Clivina mustela
Clivina obenbergeri
Clivina striata
Clivina tranquebarica
Clivina westwoodi
Clypeuspinus validus
Coleolissus iris
Collyris dohrnii - ssp. dohrnii
Colpodes bipars
Colpodes fletcheri
Colpodes iteratus
Colpodes repletus
Colpodes retusus
Colpodes sebosus
Colpodes xenos
Coptodera chaudoiri - ssp. chaudoiri
Coptodera eluta
Coptodera interrupta
Coptolobus anodon
Coptolobus ater
Coptolobus glabriculus
Coptolobus latus
Coptolobus lucens
Coptolobus omodon
Coryza maculata
Craspedophorus angulatus
Craspedophorus bifasciatus
Craspedophorus elegans
Craspedophorus halyi
Craspedophorus microspilotus
Creagris labrosa
Crepidogaster ceylanica
Crepidogaster horni
Cyclosomus flexuosus
Cylindera dormeri
Cylindera ganglbaueri
Cylindera henryi
Cylindera labioaenea - ssp. labioaenea
Cylindera lacunosa
Cylindera nietneri
Cylindera paradoxa
Cylindera singalensis
Cylindera waterhousei
Cylindera willeyi
Cymindoidea munda
Derocrania agnes
Derocrania concinna
Derocrania flavicornis
Derocrania fusiformis
Derocrania glabiceps
GleneDerocrania halyi
Derocrania intricatorugulosa
Derocrania jaechi
Derocrania nematodes
Derocrania nietneri
Derocrania shaumi
Derocrania scitiscabra
Desera geniculata
Dicaelindus impunctatus
Diceromerus orientalis
Dicranoncus cinctipennis
Dicranoncus queenslandicus
Dicranoncus ravus
Dioryche chinnada
Dioryche colombensis
Dioryche sericea
Dioryche torta - ssp. torta
Diplocheila daldorfi
Diplocheila laevis
Diplocheila polita
Dischissus notulatus
Distichus mahratta
Distichus picicornis
Distichus puncticollis
Distichus uncinatus
Dolichoctis chitra
Dolichoctis goniodera
Dolichoctis marginifer
Dolichoctis strita - ssp. striata
Dolichoctis vitticollis
Dromius orthogonioides
Drypta lineola - ssp. lineola
Drypta mastersii
Dyschirius bengalensis
Dyschirius mahratta
Dyschirius ordinatus
Dyschirius paucipunctus
Elaphropus amabilis - ssp. orantus
Elaphropus amplians
Elaphropus arcuatus
Elaphropus ceylanicus
Elaphropus charis
Elaphropus decoratus
Elaphropus diabrachys
Elaphropus eueides
Elaphropus finitimus
Elaphropus granarius
Elaphropus horni
Elaphropus interpunctatus
Elaphropus klugii
Elaphropus latus
Elaphropus nalandae
Elaphropus nilgiricus
Elaphropus notaphoides
Elaphropus occultus
Elaphropus ovatus
Elaphropus peryphinus
Elaphropus politus - ssp. politus
Elaphropus rubescens
Elaphropus suturalis
Endynomena pradieri
Eucolliuris fuscipennis
Euplynes marginatus
Euschizomerus denticollis
Eustra ceylanica
Gnaphon costatus
Gnathaphanus vulneripennis
Gnopheroides pearsoni
Harpaglossus opacus
Helluodes taprobanae
Heteropaussus taprobanensis
Holcocoleus melanopus
Holcoderus fissus
Holcoderus praemorsus
Hololeius ceylanicus
Hypaetha biramosa - sp. biramosa
Hypaetha quadrilineata
Hyphaereon consors
Hyphaereon hornianus
Hyphaereon maculatus
Hyphaereon vittatus
Idiomorphus guerini
Jansenia cirrhidia
Jansenia corticata
Jansenia laeticolor
Jansenia stellata
Jansenia westermanni
Lachnothorax biguttatus
Lasiocera coromandelica
Lebia dichroma
Lebia exsanguis
Lebia leucaspis
Lebia lunigera
Lebia monostigma
Leleuporella sexangulata
Lionychus albivittis
Lionychus horni
Lophyra cancellata
Lophyra catena - ssp. catena, insularis
Lorostema alutacea - ssp. alutacea, spinipennis
Loxocrepis ruficeps
Loxoncus discophorus
Loxoncus microgonus
Loxoncus nagpurensis
Loxoncus renitens
Loxoncus schmidti
Macrocheilus bensoni
Macrocheilus niger
Masoreus orientalis
Mastax euanthes
Mastax histrio
Melaenus piger
Melanospilus andrewesi
Metacolpodes buchannani
Metazuphium spinangulis
Microlestes demessus - ssp. demessus
Microlestes inconspicuus
Microlestes xanthopus
Mimocolliuris pilifera
Mimocolliuris stigma
Miscelus javanus
Miscelus unicolor
Mochtherus tetraspilotus
Morion cucujoides
Morion orientalis
Myriochila distinguenda
Myriochila fastidiosa - ssp. fastidiosa
Myriochila undulata
Nanodiodes piceus
Nanodiodes westermanni
Neocollyris aenea
Neocollyris ceylonica
Neocollyris crassicornis - ssp. crassicornis
Neocollyris planifrontoides
Neocollyris plicaticollis
Neocollyris punctatella
Neocollyris saundersii - ssp. laetior, saundersii
Neocollyris sedlaceki
Neocollyris tuberculata
Neocollyris vedda
Nototachys comptus
Omphra hirta
Omphra pilosa
Omphra rufipes
Oodes angustatus
Oodes bivittatus
Oodes taprobanae
Oodes xanthochilus
Ooidius advolans
Oosoma gyllenhalii
Oosoma semivittatum
Ophionea ceylonica
Ophionea indica
Ophionea interstitialis
Ophionea nigrofasciata - ssp. nigrofasciata
Ophoniscus insulicola
Ophoniscus iridulus
Orthogonius acutangulus
Orthogonius batesi
Orthogonius femoralis
Orthogonius fugax
Orthogonius longicornis
Orthogonius ovatulus
Orthogonius parallelus
Orthogonius planiger
Orthogonius schaumi
Orthogonius srilankaicus
Oxylobus lateralis - ssp. designans
Oxylobus ovalipennis
Oxylobus porcatus
Paradromius steno
Paraphaea binotata
Parena nigrolineata
Parophonus compositus
Parophonus cyaneotinctus
Parophonus javanus
Parophonus lividus
Parophonus nagpurensis - ssp. curvatus
Paussus desneuxi
Paussus escherichi
Paussus fletcheri
Paussus horni
Paussus pacificus
Paussus politus
Peliocypas catenatus
Peliocypas euproctoides
Peliocypas fuscus
Peliocypas intermedius
Peliocypas levipennis
Peliocypas malleus
Peliocypas oryctus
Peliocypas repandus
Peliocypas trigonus
Pelocharis remyi
Pentagonica ceylonica
Pentagonica erichsoni
Pentagonica horni
Pentagonica pallipes
Pentagonica ruficeps
Pentagonica ruficollis
Pentagonica venusta
Perigona castanea
Perigona nigriceps
Perigona nigricollis
Perigona nigrifrons
Perigona plagiata
Perigona sinuaticollis
Perigona tronqueti
Perileptus ceylanicus
Perileptus indicus
Peripristus ater
Pheropsophus bimaculatus
Pheropsophus catoirei
Pheropsophus chaudoiri
Pheropsophus discicollis
Pheropsophus lissoderus
Pheropsophus occipitalis
Pheropsophus picicollis
Physocrotaphus ceylonicus
Physodera eschscholtzii
Planetes bimaculatus
Planetes elegans
Planetes ruficeps
Planetes ruficollis
Planetes simplex
Platymetopus flavilabris
Platymetopus keiseri
Platymetopus pictus
Platymetopus rugosus
Platytarus boysii
Prothyma proxima
Protocollyris planifrons
Pseudoclivina memnonia
Pseudognathaphanus dispellens
Pseudognathaphanus punctilabris
Pseudognathaphanus rusticus
Pterostichus atratus
Scarites ceylonicus
Scarites indus
Scarites selene
Selina westermanni
Sericoda ceylonica
Siagona depressa - ssp. depressa
Siagona fabricii
Siagona plana
Somotrichus unifasciatus
Stenolophus opaculus
Stenolophus pallipes
Stenolophus polygenus
Stenolophus quinquepustulatus
Stenolophus rectifrons
Stenolophus smaragdulus
Stomonaxellus ceylanensis
Styphlomerus fusciceps
Syleter porphyreus
Syleter validus
Syntomus quadripunctatus
Tachys brachys
Tachys euryodes
Tachys fasciatus - ssp. faciatus
Tachys impressipennis
Tachys incertus
Tachys opalescens
Tachys quadrillum
Tachys sexguttatus
Tachys tropicus
Tachys truncatus
Tachys umbrosa
Tantillus brunneus
Tantillus vittatus
Tetragonoderus cursor
Tetragonoderus fimbriatus
Tetragonoderus notaphioides
Tetragonoderus quadrinotatus
Trichotichnus hiekei
Trichotichnus lamprus
Trichotichnus lucens
Trichotichnus marginalis
Trichotichnus nitens
Trichotichnus pseudolucens
Tricondyla coriacea
Tricondyla femorata
Tricondyla granulifera
Tricondyla nigripalpis
Trigonotoma indica
Trilophidius impunctatus
Trilophus arcuatus
Xenodochus mediocris
Zuphium dabreui
Zuphium erebeum
Zuphium olens
Family: Cerambycidae - Longhorn beetles
Acalolepta griseoplagiata
Acalolepta nivosa
Acalolepta rusticatrix
Acanthophorus serraticornis
Aeolesthes holosericea
Aeolesthes induta
Amimes macilentus
Anomophysis confusa
Anomophysis crenata
Anomophysis plagiata
Anomophysis spinosa
Anoplophora beryllina
Apomecyna ceylonica
Atimura dentipes
Atimura proxima
Bandar pascoei
Baralipton dohrni
Batocera davidis
Batocera numitor
Batocera rufomaculata
Blepephaeus blairi
Bostrychopsebium usurpator
Callichromopsis telephoroides
Callimetopoides albomaculatus
Calothyrza sehestedtii
Cantharocnemis downesii
Cantharocnemis durantoni
Capnolymma cingalensis
Celosterna scabrator
Centrotoclytus quadridens
Ceresium elongatum
Ceresium flavipes
Ceresium gracile
Ceresium longicorne
Ceresium nilgiriense
Ceresium rotundicolle
Ceresium zeylanicum
Ceylanoglaucytes kratzii
Ceylanoglaucytes moesta
Ceylanoparmena loebli
Ceylanosybra baloghi
Chelidonium argentatum
Chinobrium vesculum
Chloridolum trogoninum
Chlorophorus abruptulus
Chlorophorus annularis
Chlorophorus cingalensis
Chlorophorus melancholicus
Chlorophorus moestus
Chlorophorus sagittarius
Cleonaria cingalensis
Clytus ceylonicus
Coptops aedificator
Cyrtonops aterrima
Demonax ascendens
Demonax decorus
Demonax divisus
Demonax olemehli
Demonax walkeri
Dere apicaloides
Dialeges undulatus
Diorthus cinereus
Dorysthenes rostratus
Dubianella chrysogaster
Dymasius macilentus
Dymasius minor
Dymasius turgidulus
Egesina aspera
Egesina ceylonensis
Egesina sericans
Epania cingalensis
Epepeotes commixtus
Eucomatocera vittata
Eunidia ceylanica
Eunidia discovittata
Eunidia mehli
Eunidia opima
Exocentrus aculeatus
Exocentrus ceylanicus
Exocentrus exocentroides
Exocentrus ficicola
Exocentrus fortifer
Exocentrus mehli
Exocentrus pellitus
Exocentrus pubescens
Exocentrus sparsutus
Falsomesosella ceylonica
Gelonaetha hirta
Glenea arithmetica
Glenea cancellata
Glenea ceylonica
Glenea commissa
Glenea duodecimplagiata
Glenea quadrimaculata
Glenea scapifera
Glenea socia
Gnatholea simplex
Gyaritus indicus
Halme cinctella
Haplopsebium kolibaci
Homalomelas gracilipes
Homalomelas quadridentatus
Homalomelas zonatus
Inermoparmena besucheti
Leptepania filiformis
Macrochenus tigrinus
Massicus venustus
Megopis terminalis
Merionoeda taprobanica
Mesosa columba
Mesosa indica
Mesosa rosa
Micropraonetha carinipennis
Mimepilysta compacta
Mimosciadella fuscosignata
Mispila albosignata
Moechohecyra verrucicollis
Moechotypa ceylonica
Molorchus taprobanicus
Mulciber strandi
Neocerambyx opulentus
Neoplocaederus consocius
Neoplocaederus ferrugineus
Neoplocaederus obesus
Neosybra ropicoides
Nepiodes terminalis
Niphona malaccensis
Notomulciber bryanti
Notomulciber strandi
Nupserha ceylonica
Nupserha vexator
Nyphasia torrida
Oberea ceylonica
Oberea kanarensis
Oberea kandyana
Oberea lutea
Obereopsis flaveola
Olenecamptus bilobus
Pachylocerus crassicornis
Pachyteria calumniata
Pachyteria fasciata
Paradihammus ceylonicus
Paradystus ceylonicus
Paraleprodera crucifera
Paramimistena duplicata
Paranandra ceylonica
Parorsidis ceylanica
Pentheopraonetha latifrons
Perissus myops
Perissus parvulus
Pharsalia patrona
Pharsalia proxima
Phelipara moringae
Polyzonus tetraspilotus
Pothyne ceylonensis
Prionomma atratum
Pseudaristobia octofasciculata
Pseudocalamobius ceylonensis
Pseudocentruropsis flavosignata
Pterolophia bigibbera
Pterolophia ceylonensis
Pterolophia ceylonica
Pterolophia convexa
Pterolophia dohrni
Pterolophia fusca
Pterolophia incerta
Pterolophia insulicola
Pterolophia parovalis
Pterolophia tuberculatrix
Purpuricenus sanguinolentus
Rhaphipodus taprobanicus
Rhaphuma elegantula
Rhaphuma teres
Ropica ceylonica
Ropica signata
Scalenus singalensis
Sciades ceylanicus
Sebasmia templetoni
Sebasmia testacea
Serixia ceylonica
Serixia histrio
Serixia proxima
Setoparmena mussardi
Similosodus venosus
Sophronica ceylanica
Spinimegopis cingalensis
Spinimegopis morettoi
Spinopraonetha fuscomaculata
Stenhomalus lateralis
Stenhomalus y-pallidum
Sthenias maculiceps
Stromatium barbatum
Sybra albisparsa
Sybra apomecynoides
Sybra citrina
Sybra fuscosuturalis
Sybra oblongipennis
Sybra praeusta
Sybra pseudosignata
Sybra quadrimaculata
Sybra signatoides
Tetraglenes ceylonensis
Tetraommatus filiformis
Tetraommatus muticus
Therippia affinis
Therippia decorata
Therippia mediofasciata
Therippia signata
Therippia triloba
Thranius gibbosus
Tricholophia ceylonica
Xoanodera amoena
Xylorhiza adusta
Xylotrechus carenifrons
Xylotrechus carinifrons
Xylotrechus subscutellatus
Xystrocera globosa
Yimnashana ceylonica
Zonopteroides diversus
Zonopterus redemanni
Zoodes eburioides
Zoodes maculatus
Zotalemimon procerum
Family: Cerylonidae - Minute bark beetles
Axiocerylon brincki
Cerylon gracilipes
Cerylon quadricolle
Cerylon tibiale
Cerylon unicolor
Ectomicrus aper
Ectomicrus setosus
Metaxestus bicolor
Monotoma longicollis
Murmidius bifasciatus
Neolapethus orientalis
Family: Chrysomelidae - Leaf beetles
Agonita apicipennis
Amblispa dohrnii
Amblispa laevigata
Anisodera guerini
Aspidimorpha dorsata
Aspidimorpha furcata
Aspidimorpha lobata
Aspidolopha melanophthalma
Brontispa longissima
Bruchidius anderssoni
Bruchidius brincki
Bruchidius cingalicus
Bruchidius mendosus
Bruchidius nalandus
Callispa brevipes
Callispa fulvonigra
Callispa krishnashunda
Callispa minima
Callispa nigricornis
Callispa nigritarsata
Callispa pita
Callosobruchus bicalcaratus
Callosobruchus chinensis
Callosobruchus gibbicollis
Callosobruchus nigripennis
Caryedon serratus
Cassida ceylonica
Cassida circumdata
Cassida cognobilis
Cassida dorsonotata
Cassida imbecilla
Cassida obtusata
Chiridopsis bipunctata
Chiridopsis marginata
Crioceris hampsoni
Dactylispa albopilosa
Dactylispa ceylonica
Dactylispa feae
Dactylispa fulvipes
Dactylispa haeckelii
Dactylispa horni
Dactylispa insignita
Dactylispa lankaja
Dactylispa tissa
Decellebruchus walkeri
Dicladispa arebiana
Downesia ceylonica
Epistictina reicheana
Epitrix lomasa
Estigmena chinensis
Eutornus jansoni
Galerucella placida
Gonophora nigricauda
Hispa andrewesi
Hispa ramosa
Hispellinus minor
Hispellinus perotetii
Laccoptera quatuordecimnotata
Leptispa latifrons
Leptispa pygmaea
Leptispa samkirna
Lilioceris foveipennis
Lilioceris impressa
Longitarsus allotrophus
Longitarsus angelikae
Medythia suturalis
Micrispa zinzibaris
Monolepta cognata
Monolepta descripta
Monolepta juno
Monolepta oculata
Monolepta sexlineata
Notosacantha vicaria
Oncocephala quadrilobata
Phola octodecimguttata
Platycorynus peregrinus
Platypria echidna
Platypria erinaceus
Platypria hystrix
Promecotheca cumingii
Rhodtrispa dilaticornis
Sagra femorata
Sceloenopla octopunctata
Silana farinosa
Spermophagus aeneipennis
Spermophagus albosparsus
Spermophagus cederholmi
Spermophagus mannarensis
Spermophagus niger
Spermophagus perpastus
Spermophagus pfaffenbergeri
Family: Ciidae - Minute tree-fungus beetles
Cis contendens
Cis coriarius
Xylographus ceylonicus
Xylographus ritsemai
Family: Clambidae - Fringe-winged beetles
Acalyptomerus asiaticus
Clambus ceylonicus
Clambus pumilus
Clambus villosus
Family: Cleridae - Checkered beetles
Stigmatium ceramboides
Stigmatium gemmatus
Tilloidea notata
Family: Coccinellidae - Lady beetles
Afidenta misera
Afidentula bisquadripunctata
Anegleis cardoni
Aspidimerus nigrovittatus
Axinoscymnus puttarudriahi
Brumoides lineatus
Brumoides suturalis
Brumus ceylonicus
Cheilomenes sexmaculata
Cheilomenes transversalis
Chilocorus circumdatus
Chilocorus nigritus
Chilocorus subindicus
Clitostethus fumatus
Coccinella septempunctata
Coelophora inaequalis
Coelophora minki
Cryptogonus bryanti
Cryptogonus orbiculus
Empia vittata
Epilachna decemmaculata
Epilachna delessertii
Epilachna dumerili
Epilachna flavicollis
Epilachna hendecaspilota
Epilachna zeylanica
Harmonia octomaculata
Henosepilachna quinta
Henosepilachna septima
Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata
Horniolus dispar
Illeis bistigmosa
Illeis cincta
Jauravia albidula
Jauravia kapuri
Jauravia limbata
Jauravia opaca
Jauravia pallidula
Jauravia pilosula
Jauravia pubescens
Jauravia simplex
Jauravia soror
Megalocaria dilatata
Micraspis discolor
Microserangium laterale
Nephus patruus
Novius amabilis
Novius breviuscula
Novius cardinalis
Novius octoguttata
Novius vestita
Ortalia horni
Ortalia kandyana
Ortalia minuta
Pharoscymnus suturalis
Platynaspis flavoguttata
Propylea dissecta
Propylea luteopustulata
Pseudaspidimerus flaviceps
Pseudaspidimerus mauliki
Pseudaspidimerus trinotatus
Pseudaspidimerus uttami
Scymnus albopilis
Scymnus apiciflavus
Scymnus ceylonicus
Scymnus coccivora
Scymnus fuscatus
Scymnus gratiosus
Scymnus hilaris
Scymnus latemaculatus
Scymnus lepidulus
Scymnus musculus
Scymnus nubilus
Scymnus quadrillum
Scymnus saciformis
Scymnus victoris
Sticholotis horni
Sticholotis rufoplagiata
Sticholotis sanguinolenta
Synona obscura
Synonycha grandis
Telsimia ceylonica
Telsimia rotundata
Family: Cucujidae - Flat bark beetles
Aulonosoma tenebrioides
Cryptolestes divaricatus
Cryptolestes ferrugineus
Cryptolestes klapperichi
Laemophloeus atratulus
Laemophloeus coloratus
Laemophloeus foveolatus
Laemophloeus hypocrita
Laemophloeus incertus
Laemophloeus insinuans
Narthecius bicolor
Narthecius truncatipennis
Notolaemus lewisi
Passandra uniformis
Placonotus orientalis
Placonotus subtestaceus
Placonotus torsus
Xylolestes krombeini
Xylolestes laevior
Family: Curculionidae - True weevils and bark beetles
Acacacis zeylanicus
Acicnemis dorsonotata
Acicnemis horni
Acicnemis mansueta
Acicnemis reversa
Aclees birmanus
Alcidodes comptus
Alcidodes erosus
Alcidodes fornicatus
Alcidodes lugubris
Alcidodes magnificus
Alcidodes notabilis
Alcidodes texatus
Alcidodes virgatus
Amasa doliaris
Ambrosiodmus asperatus
Amphialus agrestis
Amphialus communicans
Amphialus descriminans
Amphialus turgidus
Amphorygma ceylonensis
Arixyleborus granulifer
Arixyleborus malayensis
Arixyleborus mediosectus
Arixyleborus rugosipes
Astycus aequalis
Astycus apicatus
Astycus armatipes
Astycus bilineatus
Astycus canus
Astycus cinereus
Astycus cinnamomeus
Astycus horni
Astycus immunis
Astycus lewisi
Astycus suturalis
Atinella senex
Balaninus c-album
Blosyrus inaequalis
Camptorrhinus reversa
Cleonus arenarius
Cleonus gyllenhali
Cleonus ophinotus
Cleonus zebra
Cnestus gravidus
Cnestus magnus
Cnestus mutilatus
Coccotrypes advena
Coccotrypes cyperi
Coccotrypes flavicornis
Coccotrypes rugicollis
Coccotrypes theae
Coccotrypes variabilis
Coccotrypes vulgaris
Coptodryas tenella
Cosmopolites sordidus
Cossonus disciferus
Cossonus divisus
Cossonus hebes
Cossonus horni
Craniodicticus mucronatus
Cratopus sinhalensis
Crossotarsus minor
Crossotarsus saundersi
Cryphalogenes euphorbiae
Cryphalogenes exiguus
Cryphalomorphus opacus
Cryphalops capucinus
Cryphalops quadridens
Cryphalus fuliginosus
Cryphalus neglectus
Cryphalus nigricans
Cryphalus palawanus
Cryphalus subvestitus
Cryphalus tetricus
Cryphalus vestitus
Cryptorhynchus assimilans
Cryptorhynchus declaratus
Curculio arenarius
Curculio c-album
Curculio curvicornis
Curculio dentifer
Curculio lineolatus
Curculio lugubris
Curculio motschulskyi
Curculio rufimanus
Cyrtotrachelus rufopectinipes
Dacryophthorus brincki
Debus emarginatus
Dendroctonomorphus muricatus
Dereodus mastos
Dereodus sparsus
Desmidophorinus fasciculicollis
Diamerus curvifer
Diocalandra subfasciatus
Diuncus haberkorni
Dryocoetes taprobanus
Dryophthorus setulosus
Eccoptopterus spinosus
Epicalus virgatus
Episomus figuratus
Episomus fimbriatus
Episomus pyriformis
Euwallacea bicolor
Euwallacea dilatatiformis
Euwallacea fornicatior
Euwallacea fornicatus
Euwallacea interjectus
Euwallacea perbrevis
Euwallacea piceus
Euwallacea similis
Exilis horni
Ficicis despectus
Genyocerus albipennis
Hyledius regalis
Hylurgus concinnulus
Hypoborus ficus
Hypocryphalus cylindripennis
Hypocryphalus glabratus
Hypocryphalus interponens
Hypocryphalus mangiferae
Hypothenemus areccae
Hypothenemus bicinctus
Hypothenemus eruditus
Hypothenemus externedentatus
Hypothenemus seriatus
Ischnopus taprobanus
Liparthrum brincki
Macrorhyncolus crassitarsis
Mechistocerus assimilans
Mechistocerus declaratus
Megarrhinus cingalensis
Mesites subvittatus
Mesites suturalis
Myllocerus angulatipes
Myllocerus canescens
Myllocerus curvicornis
Myllocerus delicatulus
Myllocerus dentifer
Myllocerus discolor
Myllocerus equinus
Myllocerus fringilla
Myllocerus retratiens
Myllocerus subfasciatus
Myllocerus transmarinus
Myllocerus undatus
Myllocerus undecimpustulatus
Myllocerus variegatus
Myllocerus viridanus
Myllocerus zeylanicus
Myocalandra exarata
Nassophasis foveata
Nassophasis pictipes
Neodiamerus granulicollis
Niphades vexatus
Odoiporus longicollis
Odontobarus hodiernus
Omotemnus introducens
Omphasus nalandae
Orthosinus salutarius
Orthosinus velatus
Otidognathus meridionalis
Oxydema fusiforme
Peltotrachelus ovis
Pentarthrum wollastoni
Pentoxydema rostralis
Phaenomerus sundevalli
Phloeoditica curtus
Phloeophagosoma atratum
Phloeophagosoma morio
Phloeophagus cossonoides
Phloeosinus detersus
Phloeotrogus obliquecaudata
Phrygena ephippiata
Piazomias aequalis
Piazomias immunis
Platypus furcatus
Platypus latifinis
Platypus rotundicauda
Platyrrhinus marmoratus
Platytrachelus ovis
Polytus mellerborgi
Prodioctes haematicus
Prodioctes singhalensis
Psilosomus hebes
Ptilopodius ceylonicus
Ptochus imbricatus
Ptochus limbatus
Ptochus planoculis
Ptochus pyriformis
Rhabdocnemis maculata
Rhinoncus paganus
Rhynchaenus c-album
Rhynchophorus ferrugineus
Rhyncolus ater
Rhyncolus cossonoides
Rhyncolus linearis
Rhyncolus taciturnus
Scolytomimus dilutus
Scolytomimus mimusopis
Scolytomimus rectus
Sipalinus gigas
Sitona ambiguus
Sitophilus exarata
Sitophilus mellerborgi
Sitophilus subfasciatus
Sphaerotrypes cristatus
Sphaerotrypes ranasinghei
Sphenophorus maculata
Sphenophorus planipennis
Sphenophorus sordidus
Stereotribus incisus
Stereotribus tuberculifrons
Strattis biguttatus
Strattis srilankaiensis
Strattis vestigialis
Strophosomus suturalis
Sueus niisimai
Sympiezomias kraatzi
Tanymecus curviscapus
Treptoplatypus solidus
Trigonocolus cingalensis
Trochorhopalus discifer
Trochorhopalus leucogrammus
Tylodes semicollis
Webbia ceylonae
Xerodermus porcellus
Xyleborinus andrewesi
Xyleborinus exiguus
Xyleborus affinis
Xyleborus costipennis
Xyleborus cristatuloides
Xyleborus cuneolosus
Xyleborus dilatatiformis
Xyleborus figuratus
Xyleborus insitivus
Xyleborus perforans
Xyleborus pseudocitri
Xyleborus rimulosus
Xyleborus seminitens
Xylosandrus arquatus
Xylosandrus compactus
Xylosandrus crassiusculus
Xylosandrus discolor
Xylosandrus mancus
Xylosandrus morigerus
Xylosandrus pygmaeus
Family: Dermestidae - Skin beetles
Anthrenus ceylonicus
Anthrenus oceanicus
Attagenus undulatus
Evorinea hirtella
Orphinus fulvipes
Orphinus funestus
Orphinus guernei
Orphinus minor
Orphinus tabitha
Thaumaglossa pici
Thaumaglossa tonkinea
Trinodes cinereohirtus
Trinodes emarginatus
Trogoderma granarium
Family: Discolomatidae
Aphanocephalus lewisi
Aphanocephalus pellitus
Aphanocephalus rufinus
Aphanocephalus saundersi
Parafallia simoni
Family: Dryopidae - Long-toed water beetles
Ceradryops punctatus
Elmomorphus naviculus
Helichus naviculus
Family: Dytiscidae - Predaceous diving beetles
Clypeodytes bufo
Clypeodytes dilutus
Copelatus freudei
Copelatus irinus
Copelatus mahleri
Copelatus mysorensis
Copelatus neelumae
Copelatus schereri
Copelatus taprobanicus
Copelatus tenebrosus
Cybister cardoni
Cybister confusus
Cybister dejeanii
Cybister extenuans
Cybister javanus
Cybister prolixus
Cybister sugillatus
Cybister tripunctatus
Cybister ventralis
Eretes sticticus
Herophydrus musicus
Hydaticus fabricii
Hydaticus fractifer
Hydaticus incertus
Hydaticus luczonicus
Hydaticus pacificus
Hydaticus ricinus
Hydaticus satoi
Hydaticus vittatus
Hydroglyphus flammulatus
Hydroglyphus flaviculus
Hydroglyphus inconstans
Hydrovatus acuminatus
Hydrovatus bonvouloiri
Hydrovatus castaneus
Hydrovatus confertus
Hydrovatus ischyrus
Hydrovatus obtusus
Hydrovatus picipennis
Hydrovatus rufoniger
Hydrovatus seminarius
Hydrovatus sinister
Hydrovatus subrotundatus
Hydrovatus subtilis
Hyphoporus interpulsus
Hyphoporus nilghiricus
Hyphoporus pugnator
Hyphydrus intermixtus
Hyphydrus lyratus
Hyphydrus renardi
Lacconectus simoni
Lacconectus spangleri
Laccophilus anticatus
Laccophilus ceylonicus
Laccophilus ellipticus
Laccophilus flexuosus
Laccophilus guttalis
Laccophilus inefficiens
Laccophilus parvulus
Laccophilus sharpi
Laccophilus uniformis
Laccophilus wolfei
Leiodytes griseoguttatus
Microdytes maculatus
Neptosternus ceylonicus
Neptosternus sinharajaicus
Neptosternus starmuehlneri
Neptosternus taprobanicus
Pseuduvarus vitticollis
Rhantus interclusus
Rhantus taprobanicus
Sandracottus festivus
Sandracottus jaechi
Uvarus livens
Family: Elateridae - Click beetles
Adelocera fulvicollis
Aeoloderma brachmana
Anchastus humeralis
Calais speciosus
Cardiotarsus vulneratus
Ceropectus cederholmi
Ceylanidrillus kandyanus
Conoderus collaris
Conoderus pruinosus
Cryptalaus sordidus
Dicronychus stolatus
Drapetes subula
Drasterius sulcatulus
Elius dilatatus
Lanelater fuscipes
Lanelater robustus
Lanelater sobrinus
Lissomus mastrucatus
Melanotus cribriventris
Melanotus fuscus
Melanotus punctosus
Melanotus walkeri
Meristhus ceylonensis
Mulsanteus hirtellus
Negastrius anderssoni
Negastrius brincki
Paracardiophorus fuscipennis
Parallelostethus macassariensis
Priopus vafer
Quasimus tomentosus
Rismethus diodesmoides
Rismethus minusculus
Selasia apicalis
Selasia isabellae
Silesis becvari
Silesis insularis
Xanthopenthes ceylonensis
Zorochros misellus
Zorochros titanus
Family: Elmidae - Riffle beetles
Aesobia pygmea
Ancyronyx jaechi
Cephalolimnius ater
Graphelmis ceylonica
Ilamelmis brunnescens
Ilamelmis crassa
Ilamelmis foveicollis
Ilamelmis starmuhlneri
Ilamelmis cederholmi
Ohiya carinata
Ordobrevia flavolineata
Ordobrevia fletcheri
Podelmis aenea
Podelmis ater
Podelmis cruzei
Podelmis graphica
Podelmis humeralis
Podelmis metallica
Podelmis ovalis
Podelmis quadriplagiata
Podelmis similis
Podelmis viridiaenea
Potamophilinus costatus
Potamophilinus impressicollis
Potamophilinus torrenticola
Stenelmis anderssoni
Stenelmis brincki
Taprobanelmis carinata
Unguisaeta rubrica
Zaitzeviaria bicolor
Zaitzeviaria elongata
Zaitzeviaria zeylanica
Family: Endomychidae - Handsome fungus beetles
Ancylopus ceylonicus
Bystodes angustus
Bystodes felix
Bystodes lugubris
Chondria minima
Cyclotoma cingalensis
Endocoelus laticollis
Endocoelus minor
Endocoelus orbicularis
Eumorphus quadriguttatus - ssp. quadriguttatus, pulchripes
Idiophyes ceylonica
Idiophyes eumetopus
Indalmus lachrymosus
Loeblia ceylanica
Loeblia nigra
Mycetina castanea
Ohtaius annularis
Ohtaius lunulatus
Saula ferruginea
Saula nigripes
Stenotarsus castaneus
Stenotarsus nietneri
Stenotarsus russatus
Stenotarsus sicarius
Stenotarsus tomentosus
Stenotarsus vallatus
Stictomela chrysomeloides
Stictomela inflate
Stictomela opulenta
Trochoideus desjardinsi
Family: Erotylidae - Pleasing fungus beetles
Microlanguria jansoni
Family: Eucinetidae - Plate-thigh beetles
Eucinetus tamil
Family: Gyrinidae - Whirligig beetles
Aulonogyrus obliquus
Gyrinus convexiusculus
Gyrinus sericeolimbatus
Orectochilus dilatatus
Orectochilus discifer
Orectochilus fraternus
Orectochilus indicus
Orectochilus wehnckei
Porrorhynchus indicans
Family: Heteroceridae - Variegated mud-loving beetles
Augyles feai
Augyles ivojenisi
Augyles sublinearis
Heterocerus cinctus
Heterocerus maindroni
Family: Histeridae - Clown beetles
Acritus copricola
Acritus tuberisternus
Atholus coelestis
Atholus daldorffi
Bacanius ambiguus
Chaetabraeus granosus
Chaetabraeus orientalis
Chaetabraeus paria
Chalcionellus pulchellus
Cypturus aenescens
Epiechinus taprobanae
Halacritus alutiger
Hister javanicus
Hister trigonifrons
Hololepta elongata
Liopygus minutus
Liopygus subsuturalis
Nasaltus chinensis
Nasaltus orientalis
Pachylister lutarius
Pachylister scaevola
Platylister desinens
Platylomalus biarculus
Platylomalus oceanitis
Tribalus colombius
Trypeticus bombacis
Family: Hybosoridae - Scavenger scarab beetles
Besuchetostes besucheti
Besuchetostes loebli
Besuchetostes mussardi
Besuchetostes peradeniyae
Besuchetostes taprobanae
Hybosorus orientalis
Phaeochrous compactus
Phaeochrous elevatus
Phaeochrous emarginatus
Pterorthochaetes haroldi
Family: Hydrophilidae - Water scavenger beetles
Berosus pulchellus
Berosus undatus
Cercyon connivens
Cercyon lineolatus
Cercyon nigriceps
Cercyon subsolanus
Chasmogenus abnormalis
Coelostoma stultum
Coelostoma vitalisi
Dactylosternum abdominale
Enochrus esuriens
Helochares mundus
Hydrophilus bilineatus - ssp. caschmirensis
Paroosternum sorex
Pelthydrus jengi
Pelthydrus suffarcinatus
Regimbartia attenuata
Sphaeridium quinquemaculatum
Sternolophus inconspicuus
Sternolophus rufipes
Family: Hydroscaphidae - Skiff beetles
Hydroscapha jaechi
Hydroscapha monticola
Family: Jacobsoniidae - Jacobson's beetles
Derolathrus ceylonicus
Family: Lampyridae - Fireflies
Asymmetricata humeralis
Abscondita chinensis
Abscondita promelaena
Baolacus ruficeps
Ceylanidrillus basimaculatus
Ceylanidrillus kandyanus
Diaphanes uvaparanagama
Gorhamia krombeini
Harmatelia bilinea
Hyperstoma marginata
Hyperstoma wittmeri
Luciola antennalis
Luciola candezei
Luciola intricata
Luciola nicollieri
Stenocladius horni
Family: Latridiidae - Minute brown scavenger beetles
Besuchetia ceylanica
Cartodere lobli
Derolathrus ceylonicus
Melanophthalma ceylanica
Family: Limnichidae - Minute mud beetles
Byrrhinus cribrosus
Byrrhinus latus
Pelochares gibbipennis
Pelochares orientalis
Pelochares rugiventrus
Pelochares sulciger
Family: Lucanidae - Stag beetles
Aegus chelifer - ssp. kandiensis, chelifer
Calcodes carinatus
Calcodes cingalensis
Dinonigidius bartolozzii
Dinonigidius ahenobarbus
Dorcus bennigseni
Dorcus henryi
Figulus aratus
Figulus horni
Figulus interruptus
Figulus nitens
Neolucanus sinicus - ssp. championi
Odontolabis cingalensis
Platyfigulus scorpio
Prosopocoilus henryi
Serrognathus gypaetus
Family: Lycidae - Net-winged beetles
Atelius acutecornis
Cautires ceylonicus
Cautires krombeini
Ditoneces hirsutus
Ditoneces hispidus
Falsotrichalus lankaensis
Lyropaeus ceylonicus
Lyropaeus tamil
Melaneros bicoloratus
Melaneros inermis
Melaneros kejvali
Melaneros oculeus
Melaneros uzeli
Plateros aliquantulus
Plateros arcuatus
Plateros bidentatus
Plateros firmus
Plateros flexuosus
Plateros kandiensis
Plateros kleinei
Plateros lanceolatus
Plateros leechi
Plateros nigrostriatus
Plateros persubtilis
Plateros portentificus
Plateros pseudodispellens
Plateros reconditus
Plateros reflexus
Plateros tenuis
Plateros uncus
Plateros vagatus
Plateros viduus
Plateros volatus
Xylobanus minusculus
Xylobanus villosus
Family: Lymexylidae - Ship-timber beetles
Atractocerus emarginatus
Family: Meloidae - Blister beetles
Eletica testacea
Epicauta haematocephala
Horia debyi
Horia fabriciana
Hycleus balteata
Hycleus phaleratus
Hycleus rouxi
Mylabris alternata
Mylabris ceylonica
Mylabris orientalis
Mylabris plagiata
Mylabris pustulata
Mylabris recognita
Mylabris thunbergi
Sybaris nigrifinis
Sybaris praeustus
Sybaris testaceus
Sybaris yakkala
Zonitoschema krombeini
Family: Monotomidae - Root-eating beetles
Monotoma longicollis
Monotomopsis andrewesi
Family: Mordellidae - Pintail beetles
Falsomordellistena konoi
Hoshihananomia composita
Mordella defectiva
Mordellistena flaviceps
Mordellistena rufotestacea
Mordellistena trimaculata
Family: Murmidiidae
Murmidius lankanus
Family: Mycetophagidae - Hairy fungus beetles
Berginus maindroni
Litargus taprobanoe
Family: Mycteridae - Palm and flower beetles
Grammatodera bifasciata
Family: Nitidulidae - Sap beetles
Brassicogethes aeneus
Cyllodes bifascies
Stelidota multiguttata
Family: Nosodendridae - Wounded-tree beetles
Nosodendron ceylanicum
Family: Noteridae - Burrowing water beetles
Canthydrus luctuosus
Family: Oedemeridae - False blister beetles
Dryopomera ceylonica
Family: Omethidae - False soldier beetles
Drilonius ceylanicus
Drilonius keiseri
Drilonius testaceicollis
Family: Passalidae - Bess beetles
Aceraius comptoni
Aceraius laevicollis
Episphenus comptoni
Episphenus flachi
Episphenus moorei
Leptaulax bicolor
Macrolinus cartereti
Macrolinus crenatipennis
Macrolinus obesus
Macrolinus rotundifrons
Macrolinus waterhousei
Stephanocephalus redtenbacheri
Taeniocerus bicanthatus
Family: Prostomidae - Jugular-horned beetles
Dryocora simoni
Prostomis schlegeli
Family: Psephenidae - Water-penny beetles
Eubrianax ceylonicus
Eubrianax lioneli
Macroeubria ceylonica
Odontanax flinti
Family: Pterogeniidae
Pterogenius besucheti
Family: Ptiliidae - Feather-wing beetles
Acrotrichis discoloroides
Acrotrichis orientalis
Family: Ptilodactylidae
Ptilodactyla apicicornis
Ptilodactyla humeralis
Family: Ptinidae - Spider beetles
Myrmecoptinus subsuturalis
Ptinus brevithorax
Ptinus lemoldes
Ptinus nigerrimus
Family: Rhynchitidae - Tooth-nosed snout weevils
Arodepus marginellus
Auletobius subgranulatus
Auletobius testaceipennis
Caenorhinus fuscipennis
Caenorhinus marginatus
Caenorhinus rufipallens
Cartorhynchites flavipedestris
Elautobius horni
Epirhynchites giganteus
Eugnamptobius flavipes
Maculinvolvulus vestitoides
Maculorhinus fasciatus
Metarhynchites nalandaicus
Metarhynchites parvulus
Parinvolvulus ceylonensis
Pseudodeporaus ceylonensis
Pseudomesauletes ceylonicus
Pseudomesauletes gallensis
Pseudomesauletes maculatus
Synaptops suffundens
Thompsonirhinus amictus
Thompsonirhinus ceylonensis
Thompsonirhinus clavatus
Thompsonirhinus restituens
Family: Salpingidae - Narrow-waisted bark beetles
Elacatis ceylanicus
Elacatis lyncca
Lissodema ceylonicum
Lissodema lewisi
Ocholissa bicolor
Rhinosimus ceylonicus
Family: Scarabaeidae - Scarab beetles
Agestrata orichalca - ssp. nigrita
Alissonotum piceum
Anthracophora crucifera
Caccobius aterrimus
Caccobius diminutivus
Caccobius indicus
Caccobius meridionalis
Caccobius rufipennis
Caccobius unicornis
Caccobius vulcanus
Campsiura nigripennis - ssp. cingalensis
Catharsius capucinus
Catharsius granulatus
Catharsius molossus
Catharsius pithecius
Chaetadoretus infans
Chaetadoretus lasiopygyus
Chaetadoretus mus
Chaetadoretus rugosus
Chaetadoretus silonicus
Chaetadoretus singhalensis
Chiron cylindrus
Cleptocaccobius durantoni
Cleptocaccobius inermis
Clinteria ceylonensis
Clinteria chloronota
Clinteria coerulea - ssp. megaspilota
Clinteria imperialis
Clinteria jansoni
Clinteria keiseri
Clinteria klugi - ssp. rufipennis
Clinteria pantherina
Clyster itys
Coenochilus taprobanicus
Copris fricator
Copris repertus
Copris signatus
Copris sodalis
Dasyvalgus addendus
Delopleurus parvus
Dicheros bimacula
Digitonthophagus bonasus
Digitonthophagus gazella
Dipelicus bidens
Dipelicus daedalus
Dipelicus hircus
Eophileurus cingalensis - ssp. decatenatus
Euselates scenica
Gametis versicolor
Garreta smaragdifer
Glycosia tricolor
Glycyphana horsfieldi - ssp. aurulenta
Gymnopleurus cyaneus
Gymnopleurus gemmatus
Gymnopleurus koenigi
Gymnopleurus miliaris
Gymnopleurus parvus
Gymnopleurus sericeifrons
Haroldius herrenorum
Haroldius krali
Heliocopris ares
Heliocopris bucephalus
Heteronychus krombeini
Heterorhina elegans
Liatongus rhadamistus
Maladera cervicornis
Maladera galdaththana
Neoserica dharmapriyai
Neosisyphus tarantula
Ochicanthon ceylonicus
Ochicanthon cingalensis
Onitis crenatus
Onitis philemon
Onitis singhalensis
Onitis subopacus
Onthophagus capitosus
Onthophagus centricornis
Onthophagus cervus
Onthophagus ceylonicus
Onthophagus cryptogenus
Onthophagus dama
Onthophagus falsus
Onthophagus favrei
Onthophagus fissicornis
Onthophagus frontalis
Onthophagus fuscopunctatus
Onthophagus gemma
Onthophagus gravis
Onthophagus hastifer
Onthophagus heterorrhinus
Onthophagus hystrix
Onthophagus keiseri
Onthophagus laevigatus
Onthophagus ludio
Onthophagus luridipennis
Onthophagus martialis
Onthophagus militaris
Onthophagus modestus
Onthophagus negligens
Onthophagus occipitalis
Onthophagus ochreatus
Onthophagus oculatus
Onthophagus parvulus
Onthophagus politus
Onthophagus pusillus
Onthophagus pygmaeus
Onthophagus quadridentatus
Onthophagus rectecornutus
Onthophagus rufulgens
Onthophagus regalis
Onthophagus solmani
Onthophagus sparsepunctatus
Onthophagus spinifex
Onthophagus taprobanus
Onthophagus tritinctus
Onthophagus turbatus
Onthophagus unifasciatus
Onthophagus vacca
Oreoderus insularis
Orphnus parvus
Oryctes gnu
Oryctes rhinoceros
Panelus ceylonicus
Panelus fallax
Panelus horni
Panelus imitator
Panelus pernitidus
Panelus puncticollis
Panelus rufocuprea
Panelus setosus
Panelus whitehousei
Panelus wiebesi
Paragymnopleurus melanarius
Phaedotrogus ceylonicus
Phalops divisus
Phyllognathus dionysius
Proagoderus pactolus
Protaetia alboguttata
Protaetia aurichalcea
Protaetia ceylanica
Protaetia cupripes - ssp. germar
Scarabaeus erichsoni
Scarabaeus gangeticus
Scarabaeus sanctus
Selaserica athukoralai
Sisyphus crispatus - ssp. hirtus
Sisyphus indicus
Sisyphus longipes
Spilophorus cretosus
Taeniodera flavomaculata
Taeniodera halyi
Taeniodera quadrivittata
Thaumastopeus ceylonicus
Tibiodrepanus hircus
Tibiodrepanus setosus
Xylotrupes gideon - ssp. socrates
Xylotrupes meridionalis
Xylotrupes taprobanus
Subfamily: Aphodiinae - Aphodiine dung beetles
Aganocrossus amoenus
Aganocrossus pallidicornis
Alocoderus elongatulus
Ammoecioides spectabilis - ssp. tricarinulatus
Aphodius humilis
Aphodius insularis
Aphodius lewisi
Aphodius urostigma
Ataenius ceylonensis
Calamosternus granarius
Chaetopisthes singalensis
Labarrus hoabinhensis
Leiopsammodius indicus
Liothorax kraatzi
Mesontoplatys rufolaterus
Neocalaphodius moestus
Neotrichiorhyssemus hegeri
Paradidactylia biseriatus
Paradidactylia haafi
Paradidactylia ovatulus
Paradidactylia wichei
Phalacronothus carinulatus
Phalacronothus ceylonensis
Pharaphodius crenatus
Pharaphodius robustus
Pharaphodius lewisi
Pharaphodius ratnapurensis
Pleurophorus cracens
Psammodius tesari
Rhyssemus granulosus
Rhyssemus indicus
Rhyssemus inscitus
Rhyssemus loebli
Saprosites dynastoides
Saprosites loebli
Saprosites sulciceps
Sybax impressicollis
Trichaphodius moorei
Trichiorhyssemus fruhstorferi
Subfamily: Melolonthinae - White grubs
Apogonia aequabilis
Apogonia blanchardi
Apogonia cava
Apogonia comosa
Apogonia coriacea
Apogonia expeditonis
Apogonia ferruginea
Apogonia fulvosetosa
Apogonia gracilis
Apogonia laevissima
Apogonia lateralis
Apogonia lurida
Apogonia nana
Apogonia nietneri
Apogonia prolixa
Apogonia rauca
Apogonia solida
Autoserica dubia
Autoserica pubescens
Autoserica srilanka
Brahmina flavipennis
Dichelomorpha glabrilinea
Dichelomorpha punctuligera
Engertia maculosa
Holotrichia ceylonensis
Holotrichia convexifrons
Holotrichia danielssoni
Holotrichia disparilis
Holotrichia eurystoma
Holotrichia furcifer
Holotrichia inducta
Holotrichia kandulawai
Holotrichia opuana
Holotrichia parva
Holotrichia remorata
Holotrichia reynaudi
Holotrichia rufoflava
Holotrichia schmitzi
Holotrichia semitomentosa
Holotrichia serrata
Holotrichia setosa
Idiochelyna pectoralis
Lepidiota ferruginosa
Leucopholis horni
Leucopholis pinguis
Maladera breviata
Maladera calcarata
Maladera cardoni
Maladera chalybaea
Maladera cinnaberina
Maladera coxalis
Maladera fistulosa
Maladera immunita
Maladera implicata
Maladera insanabilis
Maladera rotunda
Maladera rufocuprea
Maladera setosa
Maladera singhalensis
Maladera straba
Maladera weligamana
Neoserica bombycina
Neoserica sexfoliata
Neoserica splendifica
Periserica fracta
Periserica nigripennis
Periserica picta
Rhizotrogus aequalis
Rhizotrogus hirtipectus
Rhizotrogus sulcifer
Schizonycha ruficollis
Schizonycha singhalensis
Selaserica nitida
Selaserica pusilla
Selaserica scutellaris
Selaserica sericea
Serica distincticornis
Serica fusa
Serica hamifera
Serica interrupta
Serica lurida
Serica maculicauda
Serica maculifera
Serica nana
Serica nepalensis
Serica rubescens
Serica semicincta
Serica ventriosa
Sophrops costatus
Sophrops eurystomus
Sophrops singhalensis
Stephanopholis cribricollis
Stephanopholis rubicundus
Stephanopholis singhalensis
Subfamily: Rutelinae - Shining Flower Chafers
Adoretus bicaudatus
Adoretus celogaster
Adoretus chloronota
Adoretus conformis
Adoretus corpulentus
Adoretus discalis
Adoretus discors
Adoretus duplicatus
Adoretus dussumieri
Adoretus erythrocephalus
Adoretus feminalis
Adoretus fracta
Adoretus gravida
Adoretus illusa
Adoretus infantilis
Adoretus leo
Adoretus pellucida
Adoretus procrastinator
Adoretus ruficapilla
Adoretus sorex
Adoretus superflua
Adoretus suturalis
Adoretus varicolor
Adoretus versutus
Adoretus viridis
Adoretus walkeri
Callistethus bugnioni
Callistethus chloromelus
Callistethus princeps
Lepadoretus compressus
Lepadoretus ermineus
Lepadoretus mavis
Lepadoretus nietneri
Micranomala cingalensis
Mimela macleayana
Mimela mundissima
Parastasia basalis
Parastasia cingala
Parastasia lobata
Popillia discalis
Rhamphadoretus sorex
Rhinyptia gilleti
Rhinyptia meridionalis
Singhala hindu
Singhala tenella
Trogonostomus ursus
Family: Scirtidae - Marsh beetles
Cyphon besucheti
Cyphon pseudoatratus
Family: Scraptiidae - False flower beetles
Scraptia cingalensis
Scraptia compressicollis
Scraptia flavidula
Scraptia fuscipennis
Scraptia indica
Scraptia setipes
Scraptia xylophiloides
Family: Scydmaenidae - Ant-like stone beetles
Euconnus intrusus
Scydmaenus conicollis
Family: Silphidae - Carrion beetles
Diamesus osculans
Necrophila rufithorax
Family: Silvanidae - Silvan flat bark beetles
Lyctus brunneus
Monanus concinnulus
Monanus horni
Monanus rugosus
Oryzaephilus acuminatus
Oryzaephilus genalis
Oryzaephilus mercator
Oryzaephilus surinamensis
Parahyliota serricollis
Protosilvanus granosus
Psammoecus delicatus
Psammoecus elegans
Psammoecus felix
Psammoecus gentilis
Psammoecus simoni
Psammoecus trimaculatus
Silvanolomus denticollis
Silvanoprus cephalotes
Silvanoprus distinguendus
Silvanoprus longicollis
Silvanoprus porrectus
Silvanus difficilis
Silvanus imitatus
Silvanus lewisi
Silvanus recticollis
Family: Staphylinidae - Rove beetles
Anotylus exiguus
Anotylus glareosus
Anotylus hybridus
Anotylus insecatus
Anotylus latiusculus
Anotylus tetracarinatus
Baeocera longicornis
Batribolbus palpator
Batrisiella satoi
Carpelimus fuliginosus
Cilea limbifer
Clidicus minilankanus
Erymus gracilis
Oligota parva
Oxytelopsis pseudopsina
Oxytelus bengalensis
Oxytelus incisus
Oxytelus lividus
Oxytelus migrator
Oxytelus nigriceps
Oxytelus puncticeps
Oxytelus varipennis
Scaphisoma stictum
Scopaeus testaceus
Stenus bicornis
Stenus cordatus
Stenus melanarius
Stenus serupeus
Stenus solutus
Family: Tenebrionidae - Darkling beetles
Alphitobius laevigatus
Amarygmus picicornis
Ceropria induta
Corticeus cephalotes
Eutochia aptera
Falsandrosus tetrops
Gonocephalum depressum
Laena formaneki
Leichenum canaliculatum
Oedemutes tumidus
Pimelia undulata
Platydemoides brincki
Sternocera chrysis
Tribolium castaneum
Uloma bituberosa
Uloma polita
Ulomimus indicus
Ulomina carinata
Family: Trictenotomidae - Croc beetles
Trictenotoma templetoni
Family: Trogidae - Hide beetles
Omorgus (Afromorgus) frater
Omorgus (Afromorgus) granulatus
Omorgus (Afromorgus) inclusus
Omorgus (Afromorgus) inermis
Omorgus (Afromorgus) maissouri
Family: Vesperidae - Vesperid longicorn beetles
Doesus taprobanicus
Family: Zopheridae - Ironclad beetles
Bitoma siviana
Cebia rugosa
Microprius rufulus
Monomma brunneum
Nematidium elongatum
Trachypholis hispidum
Notes
References
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka
Coleopterans | List of coleopterans of Sri Lanka | [
"Biology"
] | 16,493 | [
"Biota by country",
"Wildlife by country"
] |
51,704,903 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal%20inductance | Thermal inductance refers to the phenomenon wherein a thermal change of an object surrounded by a fluid will induce a change in convection currents within that fluid, thus inducing a change in the kinetic energy of the fluid. It is considered the thermal analogue to electrical inductance in system equivalence modeling; its unit is the thermal henry.
Thus far, few studies have reported on the inductive phenomenon in the heat-transfer behaviour of a system. In 1946, Bosworth demonstrated that heat flow can have an inductive nature through experiments with a fluidic system. He claimed that the measured transient behaviour of the temperature change cannot be explained by merely the combination of the thermal resistance and the thermal capacitance. Bosworth later extended the experiments to study the thermal mutual inductance; however, he did not report on the thermal inductance in a heat-transfer system with the exception of a fluid flow.
Recent studies
In 2013, Ye et al. have a publication of "Thermal Transient Effect and Improved Junction Temperature Measurement Method in High Voltage Light-Emitting Diodes". In their experiments, a high voltage LED chip was directly attached on silicon substrate with thin thermal interface material (TIM). The temperature sensors were fabricated using standard silicon processing technologies which were calibrated ranging from 30 °C to 150 °C. The thickness of the chip and TIM were 153μm and 59μm, respectively. Thus the sensors were very close to the p-n junction. The silicon substrate was positioned and vacuumed on a cumbersome thermal plate with accurate temperature controller in an enclosure. The experimenters applied step-up/step-down currents and measured the characteristics between temperature and forward voltage after 100 ms. In this work, the ‘recovery time’ is defined as the interval from the start of power change to the time at which the temperature became again equal to the initial temperature value. The results show that the junction temperature of LED decreases significantly and immediately (more than 10 °C) when a current from 100 μA to 15 mA is applied. Then, the junction temperature gradually increases. After a recovery time of ~100 ms, the junction temperature reaches the initial value. At the steady state of 15 mA, the applied high current is instantly reduced through a step-down mode to 100 μA. The measured junction temperature increases by 4 °C within 0.1 ms. The sensor temperature simultaneously shows a temperature increase of 2 °C. Subsequently, the junction temperature gradually decreases. After a recovery time of ~100 ms, the junction temperature decrease to their initial values. Then the junction temperature continues to decrease until the system achieves the steady state at room temperature. Notably, the junction temperature changes in opposition to the current change in the chips.
In 2016, there was a further investigation on this phenomenon. Instead of a high-voltage LED chip, a GaN-based low-voltage LED chip was also examined in this case. This chip can withstand a wider range of applied currents and facilitate more precise power change for observing the thermal inductive responses. The chip was mounted on a lead frame and encapsulated with silicone. The chip package was soldered to a metal core printed circuit board and mounted on a thermal plate with controllable temperatures. The transient junction temperature of the LED chip as a function of time was measured with the applied current as different step down functions. They calculated that the junction temperature is equal to 36.2 °C at 350 mA in this situation. The results are consistent with the previous thermal inductive measurement in the GaN-based high-voltage LED chip. As expected, the junction temperatures immediately rise and gradually decrease as the currents are stepped down. And the recovery time is slower for the system with a larger step level decrease. They prove that a rapid changing power through the GaN-based LEDs induces a proportional temperature change, which is opposed to the temperature change expected from the power input. This phenomenon is referred as thermal inductance in the report. The thermal inductive properties could be related to the thermoelectric effect, especially the transient thermoelectric effect. However, rather than considering the specified structure of thermoelectric devices, it is considered that the thermal inductance that occurs in GaN devices with a p–n junction. With the combination of the thermal resistance, the thermal capacitance, and the thermal inductance, it is expected that their assumption can promote the thermal analysis of high-frequency GaN devices. In addition, it is expected that thermal inductance phenomena exist more widely exist in nonhomogeneous materials and in the field of thermal analysis under energy changes in very short duration.
In 2019, an experiment was carried out in which a thermal oscillation was achieved without any external work being done. The device was composed of a Peltier element and an electric inductance switched in series. It was shown that the time derivative of the heat current is proportional to the negative temperature difference across the device, in analogy to an electric inductor where the time derivative of the electric current is proportional to the negative voltage difference. The resulting "thermal self-inductance" allowing for this oscillatory behavior, with the considered objects always being in thermal quasi-equilibrium, was then expressed as a function of electric inductance, Seebeck coefficient of the used thermoelectric material and the operating temperature, and a differential equation was given for the oscillating thermal "LCR" current in the supplementary information section of the publication. Although the reported thermal oscillation was highly damped and the resulting temperature oscillation around the thermal bath temperature was comparably small, the experiment seems to be a valid proof of concept for a working thermal inductance.
References
Thermodynamics
Heat transfer | Thermal inductance | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry",
"Mathematics"
] | 1,178 | [
"Thermodynamics stubs",
"Transport phenomena",
"Physical phenomena",
"Heat transfer",
"Thermodynamics",
"Physical chemistry stubs",
"Dynamical systems"
] |
51,707,633 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bet%20hedging%20%28biology%29 | Biological bet hedging occurs when organisms suffer decreased fitness in their typical conditions in exchange for increased fitness in stressful conditions. Biological bet hedging was originally proposed to explain the observation of a seed bank, or a reservoir of ungerminated seeds in the soil. For example, an annual plant's fitness is maximized for that year if all of its seeds germinate. However, if a drought occurs that kills germinated plants, but not ungerminated seeds, plants with seeds remaining in the seed bank will have a fitness advantage. Therefore, it can be advantageous for plants to "hedge their bets" in case of a drought by producing some seeds that germinate immediately and other seeds that lie dormant. Other examples of biological bet hedging include female multiple mating, foraging behavior in bumble bees, nutrient storage in rhizobia, and bacterial persistence in the presence of antibiotics.
Overview
Categories
There are three categories (strategies) of bet-hedging: "conservative" bet-hedging, "diversified" bet-hedging, and "adaptive coin flipping."
Conservative bet hedging
In conservative bet hedging, individuals lower their expected fitness in exchange for a lower variance in fitness. The idea of this strategy is for an organism to "always play it safe" by using the same successful low-risk strategy regardless of environmental conditions. An example of this would be an organism producing clutches with a constant egg size that may not be optimal for any environmental condition, but result in the lowest overall variance.
Diversified bet hedging
In contrast to conservative bet hedging, diversified bet hedging occurs when individuals lower their expected fitness in a given year while also increasing the variance of survival between offspring. This strategy uses the idea of not "putting all of your eggs in a basket." Individuals implementing this strategy actually invest in several different strategies at once, resulting in low variation in long-term success. This could be demonstrated by a clutch of eggs of different sizes, each optimal for one potential environment of the offspring. While this means that offspring specialized for another environment are less likely to survive to adulthood, it also protects against the possibility of no offspring surviving to the next year.
Adaptive coin flipping
An individual using this type of bet hedging chooses what strategy to use based on a prediction of what the environment will be like. Organisms using this form of bet hedging make these predictions and select strategies annually. For example, an organism may produce clutches of different egg sizes from year to year, increasing variation in offspring success between clutches. Unlike conservative and diversified bet hedging strategies, adaptive coin flipping is not concerned with minimizing the variation in fitness between years.
Evolution
To determine if a bet hedging allele is favored, the long-term fitness of each allele must be compared. Particularly in highly variable environments where bet hedging is likely to evolve, long-term fitness is best measured using the geometric mean, which is multiplicative instead of additive like the arithmetic mean. The geometric mean is highly sensitive to small values. Even rare occurrences of zero fitness for a genotype result in it having an expected geometric mean of zero. This makes it appropriate for circumstances where a single genotype may have variable fitness depending on environmental circumstances.
Bet hedging is understood to be a mode of response to environmental change. Adaptations that allow organisms to survive in fluctuating environmental conditions provide an evolutionary advantage. While a bet hedging trait may not be optimal for any one environment, this is outweighed by the benefits of higher fitness across a variety of environments. Therefore, bet hedging alleles tend to be favored in more variable environments. In order for a bet hedging allele to spread, it must persist in the typical environment through genetic drift long enough for alternative environments, in which the bet hedger has an advantage over genotypes adapted to the previous environment, to occur. Over many subsequent environmental alternations, selection may sweep the allele to fixation.
A common example used when describing bet hedging is comparing the arithmetic and geometric fitness between specialist and bet hedging genotypes. The table below shows the relative fitness of four phenotypes in 'good' and 'bad' years and their respective means if 'good' years occur 75% of the time and 'bad' years 25% of the time.
The good year specialist has the highest fitness during a good year but does very poorly during a bad year, while the reverse is true for a bad year specialist. The conservative bet hedger does equally well in all years and the diversified bet hedger in this example uses the two specialist strategies each 50% of the time; they perform better than the conservative bet hedger in good years, but worse during a bad year.
In this example, fitness is approximately equal within the specialist and bet hedger strategies, with the bet hedgers having a significantly higher fitness than the specialists. While the good year specialist' has the highest arithmetic mean, the bet hedging strategies are still preferred due to their higher geometric mean.
It is also important to realize that the fitness of any strategy is dependent on a large number of factors, such as the ratio of good to bad years and its relative fitness between good and bad years. Small changes in the strategies or environment having a large impact on which is optimal. In the above example, the diversified bet hedger outweighs the conservative bet hedger if it uses the good year specialist strategy more often. In contrast, if the relative fitness of the good year specialist was 0.35 in a bad year, it becomes the optimal strategy.
In organisms
Prokarya
Experiments in bet hedging using prokaryotic model organisms provide some of the most simplified views of the evolution of bet hedging. As bet hedging involves a stochastic switching between phenotypes across generations, prokaryotes are able to display this phenomenon quite nicely due to their ability to reproduce quickly enough to track evolution in a single population over a short period of time. This rapid rate of reproduction has allowed for the study of bet hedging in labs through experimental evolution models. These models have been used to deduce the evolutionary origins of bet hedging.
Within prokarya, there are a multitude of bet hedging examples. In one example, the bacterium Sinorhizobium meliloti stores carbon and energy in a compound known as poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) in order to withstand carbon-deficient environments. When starved, S. meliloti populations begin to display bet hedging by forming two non-identical daughter cells during binary fission. The daughter cells display either low PHB levels or high PHB levels, which are better suited to short and long-term starvation, respectively. It has been reported that the low-PHB must compete effectively for resources in order to survive, whereas the high-PHB cells can survive for over a year without food. In this example, the PHB phenotype is being ‘bet-hedged’, as the survivability of the offspring largely depends on their environment, where only one phenotype is likely to survive under specific conditions.
Another example of bet hedging arises in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. In a given population of this bacteria, persister cells exist with the ability to arrest their growth, which leaves them unaffected by dramatic changes to the environment. Once the persister cells grow to form another population of its species, which may or may not be antibiotic resistant, they will produce both cells with normal cell growth and another population of persisters to continue this cycle as the case may be. The ability to switch between the persister and normal phenotype is a form of bet-hedging.
Prokaryotic persistence as a method of bet hedging is thus of importance to the field of medicine due to bacterial persistence. Because bet hedging produces phenotypically diverse offspring randomly in order to survive catastrophic conditions, it is difficult to develop treatments for bacterial infections, as bet hedging may ensure the survival of its species within its host, heedless to the antibiotic used.
Eukarya
Eukaryotic bet hedging models, unlike prokaryotic models, tend to be used to study more complex evolutionary processes. In the context of eukaryotes, bet hedging is best used as a way to analyze complex environmental influences affecting the selective pressures underlying the principle of bet hedging. However, because Eukarya is a broad category, this section has been subdivided into kingdoms Animalia, Plantae, and Fungi.
Vertebrates
In example, West Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) have been hypothesized to have major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-dependent mating systems, which have been shown in other species to be important for determining disease resistance among offspring. Namely, there is evidence that selection for increased MHC diversity is a strong influence on mate choice, where it is thought that individuals are more likely to mate with individuals whose MHC is less similar to their own in order to produce variable offspring. In accordance with the bet hedging model, it has been found that the reproductive success of mating pairs of Atlantic salmon is environmentally dependent, where certain MHC constructs are only advantageous under specific environmental circumstances. Thus, this supports the evidence that MHC diversity is crucial for the long-term reproductive success of the parents, as the tradeoff for an initial decrease in short-term reproductive fitness is mediated by the survival of a few of their offspring in a variable environment.
A second example among vertebrates is the marsupial species Sminthopsis macrour, which use a torpor strategy in order to reduce their metabolic rate to survive environmental changes. Reproductive hormone cycles have been shown to mediate the timing of torpor and reproduction, and in mice have been shown to mediate this process entirely, heedless to the environment. In the marsupial species, however, an adaptive coin flipping mechanism is employed where neither torpor nor reproduction are affected by manipulation of hormones, suggesting that this marsupial species makes a more active decision about when to use torpor that is better-suited to the uncertain environment in which it lives.
Invertebrates
Many invertebrate species are known to exhibit various forms of bet hedging. Diaptomus sanguineus, an aquatic crustacean species found in many ponds of the Northeast United States, is one of the most well-studied examples of bet hedging. This species uses a form of diversified bet hedging called germ banking, in which emergence timing among offspring from a single clutch is highly variable. This reduces the potential costs of a catastrophic event during a particularly vulnerable time in offspring development. In Diaptomus sanguineus, germ banking occurs when parents produce dormant eggs prior to annual environmental shifts that yield increased risk for developing offspring. For example, in temporary ponds, Diaptomus sanguineus production of dormant eggs peaks just before the annual dry season in June when ponds levels decrease. In permanent ponds, dormant egg production increases in March, just before an annual increase in feeding activity of sunfish. This example demonstrates that germ banking may take different forms within a species depending on the environmental risk presented. Bet hedging through variable egg hatching patterns are seen in other crustaceans as well.
Invertebrate bet-hedging has also been observed in the mating systems of some species of spider. Female sierra dome spiders (Linyphia litigiosa) are polyandrous, mating with secondary males in order to compensate for uncertainty regarding the quality of the primary mate. Primary male mates are considered to be of higher fitness than secondary males, as primary mates must overcome intrasexual fighting prior to mating with a female, while secondary male mates are chosen through female choice. Scientists believe multiple paternity has evolved in response to virgin insemination by low quality secondary male mates who have not undergone selection through intrasexual fighting. Females have developed a mechanism for sperm precedence to retain control over offspring paternity and increase offspring fitness. Further examination of female genitalia has supported this hypothesis. The sierra dome spider exhibits this behavior as a form of genetic bet hedging, reducing the risk of producing low quality offspring and contracting venereal disease. This form of bet hedging is notably different than most other forms of bet hedging, as it has not arisen in response to environmental conditions, but rather it has arisen as a result of the species mating system.
Fungi
Bet hedging is employed in fungi similarly to bacteria, but in fungi, it is more complex. This phenomenon is beneficial to fungi, but in some cases, it has harmful effects on humans, illustrating that bet hedging has clinical importance. One study suggests that bet hedging may even contribute to the failure of chemotherapy in cancer due to mechanisms similar to that of bet hedging used in fungi.
One way fungi use bet hedging is by displaying different colony morphologies when grown on agar plates. This variation allows for colonies with different morphologies, including resistances that allow them to survive, to thrive and reproduce in different conditions or environments. As a result, fungal infections may be more difficult to treat if bet hedging is involved. For example, pathogenic strains of yeast like Candida albicans or Candida glabrata using this strategy will resist treatments. These fungi are known to cause an infection known as candidiasis.
While bet hedging in fungi is important, not much is known about the mechanisms for the different strategies employed by different species. Researchers have studied S. cerevisiae to determine the mechanism of bet hedging in this species. It was determined that in S. cerevisiae, variation exists in the distribution of growth rates among yeast micro-colonies and that slow growth is a predictor of resistance to heat. Tsl1 is one gene that was determined as a factor in this resistance. The abundance of this gene was shown to correlate with heat and stress resistance, and thus survival of the yeast micro-colonies under harsh conditions by using bet hedging. This illustrates that by using bet hedging, pathogenic strains of this yeast that are harmful to humans are more difficult to treat.
A group of researchers studied another way bet hedging is used by looking at the ascomycete fungus Neurospora crassa. It was observed that this species produces ascospores with variation in their dormancy because non-dormant ascospores can be killed by heat, but dormant ascospores will survive. The only con is that it will take longer for the dormant ascospores to be germinated.
Plantae
Plants provide simple examples for studying bet hedging in wildlife, allowing for field studies but without as many confounding factors as animals. Studying closely related plant species can help us understand more about the circumstances under which bet hedging evolves.
The classic example of bet hedging, delayed seed germination, has been extensively studied in desert annuals. One four-year field study found that populations in historically worse (drier) environments had lower germination rates. They also found a large range of germination dates and flexibility in germination for drier populations when exposed to rain, a phenomenon known as phenotypic plasticity. Other studies of desert annuals have also found a relationship between temporal variation and lower germination rates. One of these studies also found the density of seeds in the seed bank to affect germination rates.
Bet hedging through a seed bank has also been implicated in the persistence of weeds. One study of twenty weed species showed that the percentage of viable seeds after 5 years increased with soil depth, and germination rates decreased with soil depth (although specific numbers varied between species). This indicates that weeds will engage in bet hedging at higher rates in circumstances where the costs of bet hedging are lower.
In bet-hedging species, seed dormancy appears correlated "to a higher polyphenol (flavonoid) content in seed coats, resulting in darker morphs (Gianella et al., 2021)." In barrel medick (Medicago truncatula) four flavonoid controlling genes, in addition to peroxidases and thio/peroxiredoxins, "have been associated with differential dormancy along an aridity gradient (Renzi et al., 2020)."
Collectively, these findings do provide evidence for bet hedging in plants, but also show the importance of competition and phenotypic plasticity that simple bet hedging models often ignore.
Archaea
Thus far, research on bet hedging involving species in the domain Archaea has not been easily accessible.
Viruses
Bet hedging has been used to explain the latency of Herpes viruses. The Varicella Zoster Virus, for instance, causes chickenpox at first infection and can cause shingles many years after the original infection. The delay with which shingles emerges has been explained as a form of bet hedging.
References
External links
Biological theorems
Evolutionary biology concepts | Bet hedging (biology) | [
"Biology"
] | 3,563 | [
"Biological theorems",
"Evolutionary biology concepts"
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51,707,953 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilliput%20effect | The Lilliput effect is an observed decrease in animal body size in genera that have survived a major extinction. There are several hypotheses as to why these patterns appear in the fossil record, some of which are:
simple preferential survival of smaller animals,
dwarfing of larger lineages, and
evolutionary miniaturization from larger ancestral stocks.
The term was coined in by in a paper concerning the end-Silurian extinction of graptoloids and is derived from an island in Gulliver’s Travels, Lilliput, inhabited by a race of miniature people. The size decrease may just be a temporary phenomenon restricted to the survival period of the extinction event. coined the term Brobdingnag effect to describe a related phenomenon, operating in the opposite direction, whereby new species evolving after the Triassic-Jurassic mass extinction that began the period with small body sizes underwent substantial size increases. The term is also from Gulliver's Travels, where Brobdingnag is a place inhabited by a race of giants.
Significance
Trends in body size changes are seen throughout the fossil record in many organisms, and major changes (shrinking and dwarfing) in body size can significantly affect the morphology of the animal itself as well as how it interacts with the environment. Since Urbanek's publication several researchers have described a decrease in body size in fauna post-extinction event, although not all use the term "Lilliput effect" when discussing this trend in body size decrease.
The Lilliput effect has been noted by several authors to have occurred after the Permian-Triassic mass extinction: Early Triassic fauna, both marine and terrestrial, is notably smaller than those preceding and following in the geologic record.
Potential causes
Extinction of larger taxa
The extinction event may have been more severe for the larger-bodied species, leaving only species of smaller-bodied animals behind. As such, organisms in the smaller species which then make up the recovering ecosystem, will take time to evolve larger bodies to replace the extinct species and re-occupy the vacant ecological niche for a large-bodied animal. Taxa whose animals are larger may be evolutionarily selected against for several reasons, including
high energy requirements for which the resources may not longer be available,
increased generation times compared to smaller bodied organisms, and
smaller populations, which would be more severely affected by environmental changes.
Development of new organisms
hypothesized that newly emerged animal taxa tend to develop at an originally small size, hence a sudden proliferation of new species would tend to produce many initially small organisms.
Shrinking of surviving taxa
It is possible that the extinction event selectively removed larger individuals within any single lineage, without extinguishing the entire species, but leaving as survivors only the individuals with a naturally smaller body size. The smaller survivors then form the new breeding population, and pass on that trait to their descendents. Because of the selection during the extinction, compared to the previously "normal"-sized members of the species who lived before the extinction event occurred, later members of that species living after the extinction, who are descended only from the smaller survivors, would be reduced in size, constituting a "new-normal".
References
Animal size
Evolutionary biology | Lilliput effect | [
"Biology"
] | 648 | [
"Evolutionary biology",
"Animal size",
"Organism size"
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51,708,210 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular%20Operating%20Environment | Molecular Operating Environment (MOE) is a drug discovery software platform that integrates visualization, modeling and simulations, as well as methodology development, in one package. MOE scientific applications are used by biologists, medicinal chemists and computational chemists in pharmaceutical, biotechnology and academic research. MOE runs on Windows, Linux, Unix, and macOS. Main application areas in MOE include structure-based design, fragment-based design, ligand-based design, pharmacophore discovery, medicinal chemistry applications, biologics applications, structural biology and bioinformatics, protein and antibody modeling, molecular modeling and simulations, virtual screening, cheminformatics & QSAR. The Scientific Vector Language (SVL) is the built-in command, scripting and application development language of MOE.
History
The Molecular Operating Environment was developed by the Chemical Computing Group under the supervision of President/CEO Paul Labute. Founded in 1994 and based in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, this private company is dedicated to developing computation software that will challenge, revolutionize, and aid in the scientific methodology. The Chemical Computing Group contains a team of mathematicians, scientists, and software engineers constantly altering and updating MOE in order to improve the fields of theoretical/computational chemistry and biology, molecular modeling, and computer-driven molecular design. Researchers specializing in pharmaceutics (drug-discovery); computational chemistry; biotechnology; bioinformatics; cheminformatics; molecular dynamics, simulations, and modeling are the main clients of the Chemical Computing Group.
Software
As discussed before, MOE is a versatile software with main applications in 3D molecular visualization; structure-based protein-ligand design; antibody and biologics design, structure-based protein engineering; SAR and SPR visualization; ligand-based design; protein, DNA/RNA modeling; virtual screening; 3D pharmacophore screening; fragment-based discovery; structural bioinformatics; molecular mechanics and dynamics; peptide modeling; structural biology; cheminformatics and QSAR.
Molecular Modeling and Simulations
Molecular modeling and simulations is a process often used in computational chemistry, but there is wide application for researchers in a variety of fields. This theoretical approach allows scientists to extensively study the properties of molecules, and using the data can provide insight into how these molecules may behave in biological and/or chemical systems. This information is vital to the design of new materials and chemicals.
Molecular Docking
Molecular docking is a computation study used to primarily analyze the binding affinity of a ligand and a receptor. Often times, proteins are studied using this technique, because data from molecular docking allows scientists to predict if a ligand will bind to a specific molecule and if so, how strongly. Molecular docking can be used to predict the binding mode of already known ligands and/or novel ligands, and as a binding affinity predictive instrument. Binding affinity is measured by the change in energy and the more negative the energy, the more stable the complex and the tighter the ligand binds to the receptor. Data from molecular docking can be used to construct new compounds that are more or less efficient at binding to a specific molecule. Molecular docking is extensively used throughout drug discovery for these reasons.
Preparing for molecular docking studies can involve many steps. When docking proteins, proteins are obtained from the Protein Data Bank (PDB), which is an online, open access resources containing the classification, structure/folding, organism, sequence length, mutations, genome, sequence, and other data relating to proteins. The structure of a protein can precisely be determined through a process known as X-ray crystallography. This process involves a concentrated beam of X-rays that is directed at a crystal. When X-rays are projected to a crystal structure, the crystal diffracts the X-rays in specific directions. These directions allow scientists to map and determine the detailed structure of proteins, which is then recorded and uploaded to the PDB.
Methods
The protein structure file is downloaded from the PDB and opened in a molecular docking software. There are many programs that can facilitate molecular docking such as AutoDock, DOCK, FlexX, HYDRO, LIGPLOT, SPROUT, STALK, and Molegro Virtual Docker. Alternatively, some protein structures have not been experimentally determined through the use of X-ray crystallography and therefore, are not found on the PDB. In order to produce a protein molecule that can be used for docking, scientists can use the amino acid sequence of a protein and a program named UniProt to find protein structures in the PDB that have similar amino acid sequences. The amino acid sequence of the protein that is being constructed is then used in combination with the protein structure found in the PDB with the highest percent similarity (template protein) in order to create the target protein used in docking. Although this method does not produce an exact model of the target protein, it allows scientists to produce the closest possible structure in order to conduct computational methods and gain some insight into the behavior of a protein. After constructing the necessary molecules for docking, they are imported into a computational docking software such as MOE. In this program, proteins can be visualized and certain parts of the molecule can be isolated in order to obtain more precise data for a region of interest. A cavity, or region where the molecular docking will take place, is set around the binding site, which is the region in the receptor protein where the ligand attaches to. After specifying the cavity, molecular docking settings are configured and the program is run in order to determine the binding energy of the complex.
Molecular Dynamics (MD)
Molecular dynamic simulations is a computational study that predicts the movement of every atom in a molecule over time. Molecular dynamics can evaluate the movement of water, ions, small and macromolecules, or even complex systems which is extremally useful for reproducing the behavior of chemical and biological environments. This theoretical approach allows scientists to gain further insight into how molecules may behave with respect to each other, specifically if a molecule will leave or remain in a binding pocket. If a molecule remains in a binding pocket, this often indicates that the molecule creates a stable complex with the receptor and is energetically favorable. On the other hand, if the molecule leaves the binding pocket, this indicates that the complex is not stable. This information is then utilized to design new compounds with characteristics that may have a greater or lesser affinity for a receptor.
Applications and Usage
Drug Discovery
Drug discovery is a process that involves the use of computational, experimental, and clinical studies in order to design new therapeutics. This process is lengthy and costly, yet it is the most popular process to date in developing successful treatments and medicines for a variety of diseases. The increasing use of drug discovery can be attributed to new technology that allow for computation/theoretical studies. Data from computation/theoretical studies is often the foundation and reasoning for the development of new drugs. Without promising theoretical data, these compounds may not be synthesized and tested during experimental studies. Molecular modeling, molecular docking, and MD simulations are some of many computation studies that takes places during drug discovery, allowing scientists to thoroughly study the structure and properties of organic and inorganic molecules. By studying these properties, scientists can gain insight to predict the affinity of molecules in biological and chemical systems in order to determine how a therapeutic may react with different types of chemicals, receptors, and other conditions found in humans or other animals. For example, molecular dynamics is often used throughout drug discovery in order to identify structural cavities that are important for determining binding affinity. This data is then compiled and analyzed to determine if certain therapeutics should be synthesized and tested clinically, or if further optimization is required for the design of new medicines that are more effective.
Pesticides and Herbicides
Computational chemistry can also be applied to the development of safer pesticides and herbicides. Recently, the increasing use of pesticides and herbicides has raised much controversy due to environmental and public health concerns. It was found that although these chemicals are designed to kill target pests, its effects can often harm other organisms, humans included. Some types of pesticides and herbicides such as organophosphates and carbamates can affect the nervous system in humans, while others were found to be carcinogenic, irritate the skin or eyes, and even affect the hormone or endocrine system. Furthermore, neonicotinoids is another type of pesticide that recently gained popularity due to its effectiveness at targeting aphids and other pests that hinder agriculture production. Although there are not many human health concerns associated with neonicotinoids (which is another reason for its popularity), the increasing use of this pesticide has been linked to Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD), or the rapid disappearance of adult bees. Due to this pattern, the European Union has banned the outdoor use of three neonicotinoid pesticides in an attempt to mitigate CCD. Clearly, there are multiple issues regarding the use of these pesticides and herbicides. A call for safer and more efficient pesticides and herbicides is being accomplished with the help of computational/theoretical methods.
Future Implications
Computational/theoretical chemistry and biology methods are continuously pushing the horizon. Recently, DeepMind, which is a company specializing in the development of artificial intelligence (AI), created an AI system named AlphaFold. AlphaFold is the most advanced system to date that can accurately predict a protein's 3D structure from its amino acid sequence. The protein folding problem first began to emerge around the 1960s and ever since, scientists have struggled in determining methods to precisely predict the way a protein will fold solely based on the amino acid sequence. However, with recent advances in technology, AlphaFold has made a breakthrough in this long lasting issue. By utilizing a database with over 350,000 structures, AlphaFold can determine the shape of a protein in a few minutes with atomic accuracy. The ability to predict the structure of millions of unknown proteins can help to combat disease, find more effective medicines, and unlock other unknowns that govern life. This technological breakthrough will revolutionize future research and will have profound effects for the scientific community.
References
External links
Molecular modelling software
Chemistry software for Linux
Computational chemistry software | Molecular Operating Environment | [
"Chemistry"
] | 2,063 | [
"Molecular modelling software",
"Computational chemistry software",
"Chemistry software",
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60,925,240 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leachim%20%28Robot%29 | Leachim was an early example of Diphone synthetic speech and demonstrated how voice branching could be done quickly via computer discs to create understandable speech (i.e. verbal output). This method combined phonemes, words, and sentences to form verbal responsive messages when prompted by the computer. The device received attention on a world-wide basis because hundreds of articles were written about it.
History
The device was developed by Michael J. Freeman and installed in robot form in a New York City School in a Fourth grade class, as a teacher's assistant. The computer had biographical information of those students whom it was programmed to teach in addition to curriculum data. Leachim could teach a number of students simultaneously through the use of headsets.
Leachim remained active for three years from 1972 to 1975.
On June 12, 1975, Leachim was stolen while being trucked back to NY from a 1-hour appearance on the Phil Donahue Show and despite an FBI investigation and a reward from Lloyd's of London, it was not recovered.
After it was stolen, Leachim built another more advanced version.
Hardware
The computer part of the robot was built from RCA Spectra 70 series of computers. Leachim could simultaneously interact with multiple students and keep track of their progress individually. Its body was made of wood and there were internal mechanics so parts such as the arms and head could move.
2-XL
Later a toy inspired version of Leachim called "2-XL Robot" was introduced. The toy was mass-produced in many countries by Mego Corporation in the 1980s and later by Tiger Electronics in the 1990s.
References
Robots
Robotics
Speech processing software | Leachim (Robot) | [
"Physics",
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 330 | [
"Machines",
"Robots",
"Automation",
"Physical systems",
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60,925,330 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medication%20Appropriateness%20Tool%20for%20Comorbid%20Health%20conditions%20during%20Dementia | The Medication Appropriateness Tool for Comorbid Health conditions during Dementia (MATCH-D) criteria supports clinicians to manage medication use specifically for people with dementia without focusing only on the management of the dementia itself.
History
The MATCH-D were developed by medical practitioners and pharmacists at Australian Group of Eight Universities. It was led by Dr Amy Theresa Page at the Western Australian Centre for Health and Ageing at the University of Western Australia. The MATCH-D Criteria were developed through a consensus panel of experts using the Delphi method. The criteria were originally published in the Internal Medicine Journal in 2016. The protocol explaining the rigorous methods used to develop the criteria were originally published in the BMJ Open in 2015. The systematic review that informed the criteria were published subsequently in 2018 and updated in 2022.
Style of the criteria
The MATCH-D is presented in categories of recommendations for all stages of dementia, as well as divided into specific recommendations for early, mid and late-stage dementia. The recommendations are groups as: medication side effects, principles for medication use, medication review, treatment goals, preventative medications, symptom management, psycho-active medications and medications to modify dementia progression.
Reception of the criteria
The MATCH-D attracted media attention as it was under development, and as it was released. Page was interviewed on the ABC national radio's science show during its development. The health media picked up the story as soon as it was published.
Organisations who recommend the criteria
Respected organisations such as the British Geriatrics Society incorporated into their own medicines management guidelines. In New Zealand, the NZ Health Quality & Safety Commission have shared it in their communications.
It is cited and promoted by influential professional bodies in many countries including:
- the British Geriatrics Society's End of Life Care in Frailty guidelines
- New Zealand's Health Quality & Safety Commission's medication management work
- Australia's Royal Australian College of General Practitioners (RACGP) aged care clinical guide known as the Silver Book
- Australia's Pharmaceutical Society of Australia (PSA) Choosing Wisely series
- Australian Commission on Safety and Quality in Health Care
- Australian Deprescribing Network (ADeN)
- Australia's NPS MedicinesWise recommended it in their Medication Management Review Reports: Best practice recommendations program and Changed Behaviour in Dementia.
- New South Wales' Therapeutic Advisory Group (TAG)
Uses
Consumers considered the MATCH-D to be a useful tool for prompting and supporting conversations about their preferences for medication use. They would prefer that these conversations began as early as possible so that their treating health professionals knew their preferences. General practitioners, pharmacists and nurses stated they often felt less comfortable discussing these issues as they were concerned that it may cause distress to the consumer. Health professionals and consumers alike thought that using the MATCH-D as a conversation starter could assist with these conversations.
It is incorporated in to the TaperMD decision support tool and the PIMSPlus platform. This incorporation has hastened the uptake of the criteria in both long term care facilities and community in Canada.
More than one-quarter of Australian consultant pharmacists state that they use the MATCH-D during Home Medicine Reviews. This figure is suggestive of high uptake given that most Home Medicine Reviews are most likely undertaken for people who are not living with dementia.
Research on the criteria
Translational research was undertaken with consumers, general practitioners, nurses and pharmacists to explore the enablers and barriers to using the MATCH-D in practice. This research showed the need for a website (since launched at MATCH-D.com.au), checklists (available at the website) and educational resources. These stakeholder roles have shown that there is a strong need for support and collaboration to improve medication use.
Research at King's College London explored the hazards of suboptimal prescribing and polypharmacy in medicines use for people with dementia. They determined that each year there are globally up to 10 million people living with dementia require hospital treatment (emergency department or hospital admissions) related to medicines related harm for people with dementia. They concluded that, if the MATCH-D were successfully implemented that the relative hazards of medicines use for people with dementia would need to be re-evaluated.
The National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) are currently funding a randomised controlled trial implementing the MATCH-D using pharmacists embedded in general practice.
Educational resources
The Dementia Training Australia funding an interactive online education package for deprescribing in dementia centered around the MATCH-D. It was a joint collaboration between the University of Western Australia, University of Tasmania, La Trobe University, Monash University, Alfred Health and FireFilms. This education package launched in mid-2019. This online course is suitable for consumers and health professionals, with a target audience of nurses working in residential aged care facilities. The training package was in the format of a documentary film, with its original developer, Dr Page featured as narrator and interviewer. It includes simulated patient encounters and expert interviews, interspersed with interactive activities.
The MATCH-D and the training package by Dementia Training Australia have now been incorporated into undergraduate degrees for health professionals including the University of Tasmania's second year Bachelor of Nursing curriculum and Monash University's Bachelor of Pharmacy (Honours) curriculum.
References
Dementia
Pharmacy
Medical assessment and evaluation instruments | Medication Appropriateness Tool for Comorbid Health conditions during Dementia | [
"Chemistry"
] | 1,088 | [
"Pharmacology",
"Pharmacy"
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60,925,887 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheppach%20%28company%29 | Scheppach is a German manufacturer of cement mixers and building machinery, and also a manufacturer of woodworking machinery. Scheppach products are designed in Germany and made in China.
History
The company was founded in 1927 in Niederraunau by Josef Scheppach (1887-1974). The company turned over 106 million euros in 2015/16.
Once known for its agricultural machines, firewood circular saws, and other woodworking tools. Josef Scheppach founded the company during the Weimar Republic era, when the economic conditions were challenging. He started by manufacturing firewood circular saws, malt mills, and providing repairs for agricultural machines.
Scheppach moved from Krumback, Niederraunau to a new location in Ichenhausen in 1961. By the mid-70s, Scheppach departed from the area of agricultural machinery and focussed on developing and producing woodworking machines. By honing in on woodworking machines, Scheppach was able to establish itself as a specialist in this niche segment and expand its product range to include a variety of machines and accessories catering to woodworking enthusiasts, professionals, and industries.
Expanding the product range, in 2009-10, to include construction machinery and heavy trade equipment by introducing plate vibrators, concrete mixers, hand-held agitators, dumpers, demolition equipment and battery-powered devices, Scheppach extended its offerings beyond woodworking and entered the construction equipment market.
Since 2014, the range of gardening machinery and tools has become a part of Scheppach’s portfolio.
Founding of Woodster GmbH
With the introduction of the Woodster range in 2005, Scheppach aimed to tap into the consumer DIY market.
Genpower and Scheppach
In 2023, Genpower secured the UK & Ireland distribution for Scheppach battery-powered devices and electrical tools such as bandsaws, pillar drills, dust extractors, bench grinders, fret saws and more.
Today it mainly sells under the Scheppach label, but no longer produces products in Germany. With the founding of the 100% subsidiary Woodster GmbH, sales activities in the DIY and discount sectors started and the portfolio was continuously expanded. In 2016 the construction of the new administration building in Ichenhausen began, where new office space of around 1000 m2 was to be created.
Structure
It is situated in Ichenhausen, in Günzburg, in western Bavaria, close to Baden-Württemberg. The company consists of Scheppach GmbH and Woodster GmbH.
The UK Distribution is managed by Genpower Ltd, under Scheppach.uk. The headquarters are in Pembroke Dock, Wales.
Products
Bandsaws
Chainsaws
Riding mower
Cement mixers
Garden electrical equipment
Hedge trimmer
Table saws
Log splitter
Scroll saws
See also
Einhell and Stihl, also from Bavaria
References
1927 establishments in Germany
Chainsaws
Companies based in Bavaria
Construction equipment manufacturers of Germany
Garden tool manufacturers
German brands
Günzburg (district)
Manufacturing companies established in 1927
Power tool manufacturers
Tool manufacturing companies of Germany
Woodworking machines | Scheppach (company) | [
"Physics",
"Technology"
] | 640 | [
"Woodworking machines",
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60,927,729 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine%20food%20web | A marine food web is a food web of marine life. At the base of the ocean food web are single-celled algae and other plant-like organisms known as phytoplankton. The second trophic level (primary consumers) is occupied by zooplankton which feed off the phytoplankton. Higher order consumers complete the web. There has been increasing recognition in recent years that marine microorganisms.
Habitats lead to variations in food webs. Networks of trophic interactions can also provide a lot of information about the functioning of marine ecosystems.
Compared to terrestrial environments, marine environments have biomass pyramids which are inverted at the base. In particular, the biomass of consumers (copepods, krill, shrimp, forage fish) is larger than the biomass of primary producers. This happens because the ocean's primary producers are tiny phytoplankton which grow and reproduce rapidly, so a small mass can have a fast rate of primary production. In contrast, many significant terrestrial primary producers, such as mature forests, grow and reproduce slowly, so a much larger mass is needed to achieve the same rate of primary production. Because of this inversion, it is the zooplankton that make up most of the marine animal biomass.
Food chains and trophic levels
Food webs are built from food chains. All forms of life in the sea have the potential to become food for another life form. In the ocean, a food chain typically starts with energy from the sun powering phytoplankton, and follows a course such as:
phytoplankton → herbivorous zooplankton → carnivorous zooplankton → filter feeder → predatory vertebrate
Phytoplankton don't need other organisms for food, because they have the ability to manufacture their own food directly from inorganic carbon, using sunlight as their energy source. This process is called photosynthesis, and results in the phytoplankton converting naturally occurring carbon into protoplasm. For this reason, phytoplankton are said to be the primary producers at the bottom or the first level of the marine food chain. Since they are at the first level they are said to have a trophic level of 1 (from the Greek trophē meaning food). Phytoplankton are then consumed at the next trophic level in the food chain by microscopic animals called zooplankton.
Zooplankton constitute the second trophic level in the food chain, and include microscopic one-celled organisms called protozoa as well as small crustaceans, such as copepods and krill, and the larva of fish, squid, lobsters and crabs. Organisms at this level can be thought of as primary consumers.
In turn, the smaller herbivorous zooplankton are consumed by larger carnivorous zooplankters, such as larger predatory protozoa and krill, and by forage fish, which are small, schooling, filter-feeding fish. This makes up the third trophic level in the food chain.
The fourth trophic level consists of predatory fish, marine mammals and seabirds that consume forage fish. Examples are swordfish, seals and gannets.
Apex predators, such as orcas, which can consume seals, and shortfin mako sharks, which can consume swordfish, make up a fifth trophic level. Baleen whales can consume zooplankton and krill directly, leading to a food chain with only three or four trophic levels.
In practice, trophic levels are not usually simple integers because the same consumer species often feeds across more than one trophic level. For example, a large marine vertebrate may eat smaller predatory fish but may also eat filter feeders; the stingray eats crustaceans, but the hammerhead eats both crustaceans and stingrays. Animals can also eat each other; the cod eats smaller cod as well as crayfish, and crayfish eat cod larvae. The feeding habits of a juvenile animal, and, as a consequence, its trophic level, can change as it grows up.
The fisheries scientist Daniel Pauly sets the values of trophic levels to one in primary producers and detritus, two in herbivores and detritivores (primary consumers), three in secondary consumers, and so on. The definition of the trophic level, TL, for any consumer species is
where is the fractional trophic level of the prey j, and represents the fraction of j in the diet of i. In the case of marine ecosystems, the trophic level of most fish and other marine consumers takes value between
2.0 and 5.0. The upper value, 5.0, is unusual, even for large fish, though it occurs in apex predators of marine mammals, such as polar bears and killer whales. As a point of contrast, humans have a mean trophic level of about 2.21, about the same as a pig or an anchovy.
By taxon
Primary producers
At the base of the ocean food web are single-celled algae and other plant-like organisms known as phytoplankton. Phytoplankton are a group of microscopic autotrophs divided into a diverse assemblage of taxonomic groups based on morphology, size, and pigment type. Marine phytoplankton mostly inhabit sunlit surface waters as photoautotrophs, and require nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus, as well as sunlight to fix carbon and produce oxygen. However, some marine phytoplankton inhabit the deep sea, often near deep sea vents, as chemoautotrophs which use inorganic electron sources such as hydrogen sulfide, ferrous iron and ammonia.
An ecosystem cannot be understood without knowledge of how its food web determines the flow of materials and energy. Phytoplankton autotrophically produces biomass by converting inorganic compounds into organic ones. In this way, phytoplankton functions as the foundation of the marine food web by supporting all other life in the ocean. The second central process in the marine food web is the microbial loop. This loop degrades marine bacteria and archaea, remineralises organic and inorganic matter, and then recycles the products either within the pelagic food web or by depositing them as marine sediment on the seafloor.
Marine phytoplankton form the basis of the marine food web, account for approximately half of global carbon fixation and oxygen production by photosynthesis and are a key link in the global carbon cycle. Like plants on land, phytoplankton use chlorophyll and other light-harvesting pigments to carry out photosynthesis, absorbing atmospheric carbon dioxide to produce sugars for fuel. Chlorophyll in the water changes the way the water reflects and absorbs sunlight, allowing scientists to map the amount and location of phytoplankton. These measurements give scientists valuable insights into the health of the ocean environment, and help scientists study the ocean carbon cycle.
If phytoplankton dies before it is eaten, it descends through the euphotic zone as part of the marine snow and settles into the depths of sea. In this way, phytoplankton sequester about 2 billion tons of carbon dioxide into the ocean each year, causing the ocean to become a sink of carbon dioxide holding about 90% of all sequestered carbon. The ocean produces about half of the world's oxygen and stores 50 times more carbon dioxide than the atmosphere.
Among the phytoplankton are members from a phylum of bacteria called cyanobacteria. Marine cyanobacteria include the smallest known photosynthetic organisms. The smallest of all, Prochlorococcus, is just 0.5 to 0.8 micrometres across. In terms of individual numbers, Prochlorococcus is possibly the most plentiful species on Earth: a single millilitre of surface seawater can contain 100,000 cells or more. Worldwide there are estimated to be several octillion (1027) individuals. Prochlorococcus is ubiquitous between 40°N and 40°S and dominates in the oligotrophic (nutrient poor) regions of the oceans. The bacterium accounts for about 20% of the oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere.
In oceans, most primary production is performed by algae. This is a contrast to on land, where most primary production is performed by vascular plants. Algae ranges from single floating cells to attached seaweeds, while vascular plants are represented in the ocean by groups such as the seagrasses and the mangroves. Larger producers, such as seagrasses and seaweeds, are mostly confined to the littoral zone and shallow waters, where they attach to the underlying substrate and are still within the photic zone. But most of the primary production by algae is performed by the phytoplankton.
Thus, in ocean environments, the first bottom trophic level is occupied principally by phytoplankton, microscopic drifting organisms, mostly one-celled algae, that float in the sea. Most phytoplankton are too small to be seen individually with the unaided eye. They can appear as a (often green) discoloration of the water when they are present in high enough numbers. Since they increase their biomass mostly through photosynthesis they live in the sun-lit surface layer (euphotic zone) of the sea.
The most important groups of phytoplankton include the diatoms and dinoflagellates. Diatoms are especially important in oceans, where according to some estimates they contribute up to 45% of the total ocean's primary production. Diatoms are usually microscopic, although some species can reach up to 2 millimetres in length.
Primary consumers
The second trophic level (primary consumers) is occupied by zooplankton which feed off the phytoplankton. Together with the phytoplankton, they form the base of the food pyramid that supports most of the world's great fishing grounds. Many zooplankton are tiny animals found with the phytoplankton in oceanic surface waters, and include tiny crustaceans, and fish larvae and fry (recently hatched fish). Most zooplankton are filter feeders, and they use appendages to strain the phytoplankton in the water. Some larger zooplankton also feed on smaller zooplankton. Some zooplankton can jump about a bit to avoid predators, but they can't really swim. Like phytoplankton, they float with the currents, tides and winds instead. Zooplankton can reproduce rapidly, their populations can increase up to thirty per cent a day under favourable conditions. Many live short and productive lives and reach maturity quickly.
The oligotrichs are a group of ciliates which have prominent oral cilia arranged like a collar and lapel. They are very common in marine plankton communities, usually found in concentrations of about one per millilitre. They are the most important herbivores in the sea, the first link in the food chain.
Other particularly important groups of zooplankton are the copepods and krill. Copepods are a group of small crustaceans found in ocean and freshwater habitats. They are the biggest source of protein in the sea, and are important prey for forage fish. Krill constitute the next biggest source of protein. Krill are particularly large predator zooplankton which feed on smaller zooplankton. This means they really belong to the third trophic level, secondary consumers, along with the forage fish.
Together, phytoplankton and zooplankton make up most of the plankton in the sea. Plankton is the term applied to any small drifting organisms that float in the sea (Greek planktos = wanderer or drifter). By definition, organisms classified as plankton are unable to swim against ocean currents; they cannot resist the ambient current and control their position. In ocean environments, the first two trophic levels are occupied mainly by plankton. Plankton can be divided into producers and consumers. The producers are the phytoplankton (Greek phyton = plant) and the consumers, who eat the phytoplankton, are the zooplankton (Greek zoon = animal).
Jellyfish are slow swimmers, and most species form part of the plankton. Traditionally, jellyfish have been viewed as trophic dead ends. With body plans largely based on water, they were typically considered to have a limited impact on marine ecosystems, attracting the attention of specialized predators such as the ocean sunfish and the leatherback sea turtle. That view has recently been challenged. Jellyfish, and more generally gelatinous zooplankton which include salps and ctenophores, are very diverse, fragile with no hard parts, difficult to see and monitor, subject to rapid population swings and often live inconveniently far from shore or deep in the ocean. It is difficult for scientists to detect and analyse jellyfish in the guts of predators, since they turn to mush when eaten and are rapidly digested. But jellyfish bloom in vast numbers, and it has been shown they form major components in the diets of tuna, spearfish and swordfish as well as various birds and invertebrates such as octopus, sea cucumbers, crabs and amphipods. "Despite their low energy density, the contribution of jellyfish to the energy budgets of predators may be much greater than assumed because of rapid digestion, low capture costs, availability, and selective feeding on the more energy-rich components. Feeding on jellyfish may make marine predators susceptible to ingestion of plastics."
Higher order consumers
Marine invertebrates
Fish
Forage fish: Forage fish occupy central positions in the ocean food webs. The organisms it eats are at a lower trophic level, and the organisms that eat it are at a higher trophic level. Forage fish occupy middle levels in the food web, serving as a dominant prey to higher level fish, seabirds and mammals.
Predator fish
Ground fish
Other marine vertebrates
In 2010, researchers found whales carry nutrients from the depths of the ocean back to the surface using a process they called the whale pump. Whales feed at deeper levels in the ocean where krill is found, but return regularly to the surface to breathe. There whales defecate a liquid rich in nitrogen and iron. Instead of sinking, the liquid stays at the surface where phytoplankton consume it. In the Gulf of Maine, the whale pump provides more nitrogen than the rivers.
Microorganisms
There has been increasing recognition in recent years that marine microorganisms play much bigger roles in marine ecosystems than was previously thought. Developments in metagenomics gives researchers an ability to reveal previously hidden diversities of microscopic life, offering a powerful lens for viewing the microbial world and the potential to revolutionise understanding of the living world. Metabarcoding dietary analysis techniques are being used to reconstruct food webs at higher levels of taxonomic resolution and are revealing deeper complexities in the web of interactions.
Microorganisms play key roles in marine food webs. The viral shunt pathway is a mechanism that prevents marine microbial particulate organic matter (POM) from migrating up trophic levels by recycling them into dissolved organic matter (DOM), which can be readily taken up by microorganisms. Viral shunting helps maintain diversity within the microbial ecosystem by preventing a single species of marine microbe from dominating the micro-environment. The DOM recycled by the viral shunt pathway is comparable to the amount generated by the other main sources of marine DOM.
In general, dissolved organic carbon (DOC) is introduced into the ocean environment from bacterial lysis, the leakage or exudation of fixed carbon from phytoplankton (e.g., mucilaginous exopolymer from diatoms), sudden cell senescence, sloppy feeding by zooplankton, the excretion of waste products by aquatic animals, or the breakdown or dissolution of organic particles from terrestrial plants and soils. Bacteria in the microbial loop decompose this particulate detritus to utilize this energy-rich matter for growth. Since more than 95% of organic matter in marine ecosystems consists of polymeric, high molecular weight (HMW) compounds (e.g., protein, polysaccharides, lipids), only a small portion of total dissolved organic matter (DOM) is readily utilizable to most marine organisms at higher trophic levels. This means that dissolved organic carbon is not available directly to most marine organisms; marine bacteria introduce this organic carbon into the food web, resulting in additional energy becoming available to higher trophic levels.
Viruses
Viruses are the "most abundant biological entities on the planet", particularly in the oceans which occupy over 70% of the Earth's surface. The realisation in 1989 that there are typically about 100 marine viruses in every millilitre of seawater gave impetus to understand their diversity and role in the marine environment. Viruses are now considered to play key roles in marine ecosystems by controlling microbial community dynamics, host metabolic status, and biogeochemical cycling via lysis of hosts.
A giant marine virus CroV infects and causes the death by lysis of the marine zooflagellate Cafeteria roenbergensis. This impacts coastal ecology because Cafeteria roenbergensis feeds on bacteria found in the water. When there are low numbers of Cafeteria roenbergensis due to extensive CroV infections, the bacterial populations rise exponentially. The impact of CroV on natural populations of C. roenbergensis remains unknown; however, the virus has been found to be very host specific, and does not infect other closely related organisms. Cafeteria roenbergensis is also infected by a second virus, the Mavirus virophage, which is a satellite virus, meaning it is able to replicate only in the presence of another specific virus, in this case in the presence of CroV. This virus interferes with the replication of CroV, which leads to the survival of C. roenbergensis cells. Mavirus is able to integrate into the genome of cells of C. roenbergensis, and thereby confer immunity to the population.
Fungi
Parasitic chytrids can transfer material from large inedible phytoplankton to zooplankton. Chytrids zoospores are excellent food for zooplankton in terms of size (2–5 μm in diameter), shape, nutritional quality (rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids and cholesterols). Large colonies of host phytoplankton may also be fragmented by chytrid infections and become edible to zooplankton.
Parasitic fungi, as well as saprotrophic fungi, directly assimilate phytoplankton organic carbon. By releasing zoospores, the fungi bridge the trophic linkage to zooplankton, known as the mycoloop. By modifying the particulate and dissolved organic carbon, they can affect bacteria and the microbial loop. These processes may modify marine snow chemical composition and the subsequent functioning of the biological carbon pump.
By habitat
Pelagic webs
For pelagic ecosystems, Legendre and Rassoulzadagan proposed in 1995 a continuum of trophic pathways with the herbivorous food-chain and microbial loop as food-web end members. The classical linear food-chain end-member involves grazing by zooplankton on larger phytoplankton and subsequent predation on zooplankton by either larger zooplankton or another predator. In such a linear food-chain a predator can either lead to high phytoplankton biomass (in a system with phytoplankton, herbivore and a predator) or reduced phytoplankton biomass (in a system with four levels). Changes in predator abundance can, thus, lead to trophic cascades. The microbial loop end-member involves not only phytoplankton, as basal resource, but also dissolved organic carbon. Dissolved organic carbon is used by heterotrophic bacteria for growth are predated upon by larger zooplankton. Consequently, dissolved organic carbon is transformed, via a bacterial-microzooplankton loop, to zooplankton. These two end-member carbon processing pathways are connected at multiple levels. Small phytoplankton can be consumed directly by microzooplankton.
As illustrated in the diagram on the right, dissolved organic carbon is produced in multiple ways and by various organisms, both by primary producers and consumers of organic carbon. DOC release by primary producers occurs passively by leakage and actively during unbalanced growth during nutrient limitation. Another direct pathway from phytoplankton to dissolved organic pool involves viral lysis. Marine viruses are a major cause of phytoplankton mortality in the ocean, particularly in warmer, low-latitude waters. Sloppy feeding by herbivores and incomplete digestion of prey by consumers are other sources of dissolved organic carbon. Heterotrophic microbes use extracellular enzymes to solubilize particulate organic carbon and use this and other dissolved organic carbon resources for growth and maintenance. Part of the microbial heterotrophic production is used by microzooplankton; another part of the heterotrophic community is subject to intense viral lysis and this causes release of dissolved organic carbon again. The efficiency of the microbial loop depends on multiple factors but in particular on the relative importance of predation and viral lysis to the mortality of heterotrophic microbes.
Scientists are starting to explore in more detail the largely unknown twilight zone of the mesopelagic, 200 to 1,000 metres deep. This layer is responsible for removing about 4 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere each year. The mesopelagic layer is inhabited by most of the marine fish biomass.
According to a 2017 study, narcomedusae consume the greatest diversity of mesopelagic prey, followed by physonect siphonophores, ctenophores and cephalopods. The importance of the so-called "jelly web" is only beginning to be understood, but it seems medusae, ctenophores and siphonophores can be key predators in deep pelagic food webs with ecological impacts similar to predator fish and squid. Traditionally gelatinous predators were thought ineffectual providers of marine trophic pathways, but they appear to have substantial and integral roles in deep pelagic food webs. Diel vertical migration, an important active transport mechanism, allows mesozooplankton to sequester carbon dioxide from the atmosphere as well as supply carbon needs for other mesopelagic organisms.
A 2020 study reported that by 2050 global warming could be spreading in the deep ocean seven times faster than it is now, even if emissions of greenhouse gases are cut. Warming in mesopelagic and deeper layers could have major consequences for the deep ocean food web, since ocean species will need to move to stay at survival temperatures.
Fish in the twilight cast new light on ocean ecosystem The Conversation, 10 February 2014.
An Ocean Mystery in the Trillions The New York Times, 29 June 2015.
Mesopelagic fishes - Malaspina circumnavigation expedition of 2010.
At the ocean surface
Ocean surface habitats sit at the interface between the ocean and the atmosphere. The biofilm-like habitat at the surface of the ocean harbours surface-dwelling microorganisms, commonly referred to as neuston. This vast air–water interface sits at the intersection of major air–water exchange processes spanning more than 70% of the global surface area . Bacteria in the surface microlayer of the ocean, the so-called bacterioneuston, are of interest due to practical applications such as air-sea gas exchange of greenhouse gases, production of climate-active marine aerosols, and remote sensing of the ocean. Of specific interest is the production and degradation of surfactants (surface active materials) via microbial biochemical processes. Major sources of surfactants in the open ocean include phytoplankton, terrestrial runoff, and deposition from the atmosphere.
Unlike coloured algal blooms, surfactant-associated bacteria may not be visible in ocean colour imagery. Having the ability to detect these "invisible" surfactant-associated bacteria using synthetic aperture radar has immense benefits in all-weather conditions, regardless of cloud, fog, or daylight. This is particularly important in very high winds, because these are the conditions when the most intense air-sea gas exchanges and marine aerosol production take place. Therefore, in addition to colour satellite imagery, SAR satellite imagery may provide additional insights into a global picture of biophysical processes at the boundary between the ocean and atmosphere, air-sea greenhouse gas exchanges and production of climate-active marine aerosols.
At the ocean floor
Ocean floor (benthic) habitats sit at the interface between the ocean and the interior of the Earth.
Seeps and vents
Coastal webs
Coastal waters include the waters in estuaries and over continental shelves. They occupy about 8 per cent of the total ocean area and account for about half of all the ocean productivity. The key nutrients determining eutrophication are nitrogen in coastal waters and phosphorus in lakes. Both are found in high concentrations in guano (seabird feces), which acts as a fertilizer for the surrounding ocean or an adjacent lake. Uric acid is the dominant nitrogen compound, and during its mineralization different nitrogen forms are produced.
Ecosystems, even those with seemingly distinct borders, rarely function independently of other adjacent systems. Ecologists are increasingly recognizing the important effects that cross-ecosystem transport of energy and nutrients have on plant and animal populations and communities. A well known example of this is how seabirds concentrate marine-derived nutrients on breeding islands in the form of feces (guano) which contains ≈15–20% nitrogen (N), as well as 10% phosphorus. These nutrients dramatically alter terrestrial ecosystem functioning and dynamics and can support increased primary and secondary productivity. However, although many studies have demonstrated nitrogen enrichment of terrestrial components due to guano deposition across various taxonomic groups, only a few have studied its retroaction on marine ecosystems and most of these studies were restricted to temperate regions and high nutrient waters. In the tropics, coral reefs can be found adjacent to islands with large populations of breeding seabirds, and could be potentially affected by local nutrient enrichment due to the transport of seabird-derived nutrients in surrounding waters. Studies on the influence of guano on tropical marine ecosystems suggest nitrogen from guano enriches seawater and reef primary producers.
Reef building corals have essential nitrogen needs and, thriving in nutrient-poor tropical waters where nitrogen is a major limiting nutrient for primary productivity, they have developed specific adaptations for conserving this element. Their establishment and maintenance are partly due to their symbiosis with unicellular dinoflagellates, Symbiodinium spp. (zooxanthellae), that can take up and retain dissolved inorganic nitrogen (ammonium and nitrate) from the surrounding waters. These zooxanthellae can also recycle the animal wastes and subsequently transfer them back to the coral host as amino acids, ammonium or urea. Corals are also able to ingest nitrogen-rich sediment particles and plankton. Coastal eutrophication and excess nutrient supply can have strong impacts on corals, leading to a decrease in skeletal growth,
In the diagram above on the right: (1) ammonification produces and NH4+ and (2) nitrification produces NO3− by NH4+ oxidation. (3) under the alkaline conditions, typical of the seabird feces, the is rapidly volatilised and transformed to NH4+, (4) which is transported out of the colony, and through wet-deposition exported to distant ecosystems, which are eutrophised. The phosphorus cycle is simpler and has reduced mobility. This element is found in a number of chemical forms in the seabird fecal material, but the most mobile and bioavailable is orthophosphate, (5) which can be leached by subterranean or superficial waters.
DNA barcoding can be used to construct food web structures with better taxonomic resolution at the web nodes. This provides more specific species identification and greater clarity about exactly who eats whom. "DNA barcodes and DNA information may allow new approaches to the construction of larger interaction webs, and overcome some hurdles to achieving adequate sample size".
A newly applied method for species identification is DNA metabarcoding. Species identification via morphology is relatively difficult and requires a lot of time and expertise. High throughput sequencing DNA metabarcoding enables taxonomic assignment and therefore identification for the complete sample regarding the group specific primers chosen for the previous DNA amplification.
Microbial DNA barcoding
Algae DNA barcoding
Fish DNA barcoding
DNA barcoding in diet assessment
Kelp forests
Byrnes, J.E., Reynolds, P.L. and Stachowicz, J.J. (2007) "Invasions and extinctions reshape coastal marine food webs". PLOS ONE, 2(3): e295.
Polar webs
Arctic and Antarctic marine systems have very different topographical structures and as a consequence have very different food web structures. Both Arctic and Antarctic pelagic food webs have characteristic energy flows controlled largely by a few key species. But there is no single generic web for either. Alternative pathways are important for resilience and maintaining energy flows. However, these more complicated alternatives provide less energy flow to upper trophic-level species. "Food-web structure may be similar in different regions, but the individual species that dominate mid-trophic levels vary across polar regions".
Arctic
The Arctic food web is complex. The loss of sea ice can ultimately affect the entire food web, from algae and plankton to fish to mammals. The impact of climate change on a particular species can ripple through a food web and affect a wide range of other organisms... Not only is the decline of sea ice impairing polar bear populations by reducing the extent of their primary habitat, it is also negatively impacting them via food web effects. Declines in the duration and extent of sea ice in the Arctic leads to declines in the abundance of ice algae, which thrive in nutrient-rich pockets in the ice. These algae are eaten by zooplankton, which are in turn eaten by Arctic cod, an important food source for many marine mammals, including seals. Seals are eaten by polar bears. Hence, declines in ice algae can contribute to declines in polar bear populations.
In 2020 researchers reported that measurements over the last two decades on primary production in the Arctic Ocean show an increase of nearly 60% due to higher concentrations of phytoplankton. They hypothesize that new nutrients are flowing in from other oceans and suggest this means the Arctic Ocean may be able to support higher trophic level production and additional carbon fixation in the future.
Antarctic
Polar microorganisms
In addition to the varied topographies and in spite of an extremely cold climate, polar aquatic regions are teeming with microbial life. Even in sub-glacial regions, cellular life has adapted to these extreme environments where perhaps there are traces of early microbes on Earth. As grazing by macrofauna is limited in most of these polar regions, viruses are being recognised for their role as important agents of mortality, thereby influencing the biogeochemical cycling of nutrients that, in turn, impact community dynamics at seasonal and spatial scales.
Microorganisms are at the heart of Arctic and Antarctic food webs. These polar environments contain a diverse range of bacterial, archaeal, and eukaryotic microbial communities that, along with viruses, are important components of the polar ecosystems. They are found in a range of habitats, including subglacial lakes and cryoconite holes, making the cold biomes of these polar regions replete with metabolically diverse microorganisms and sites of active biogeochemical cycling. These environments, that cover approximately one-fifth of the surface of the Earth and that are inhospitable to human life, are home to unique microbial communities. The resident microbiota of the two regions has a similarity of only about 30%—not necessarily surprising given the limited connectivity of the polar oceans and the difference in freshwater supply, coming from glacial melts and rivers that drain into the Southern Ocean and the Arctic Ocean, respectively. The separation is not just by distance: Antarctica is surrounded by the Southern Ocean that is driven by the strong Antarctic Circumpolar Current, whereas the Arctic is ringed by landmasses. Such different topographies resulted as the two continents moved to the opposite polar regions of the planet ≈40–25 million years ago. Magnetic and gravity data point to the evolution of the Arctic, driven by the Amerasian and Eurasian basins, from 145 to 161 million years ago to a cold polar region of water and ice surrounded by land. Antarctica was formed from the breakup of the super-continent, Gondwana, a landmass surrounded by the Southern Ocean. The Antarctic continent is permanently covered with glacial ice, with only 0.4% of its area comprising exposed land dotted with lakes and ponds.
Microbes, both prokaryotic and eukaryotic that are present in these environments, are largely different between the two poles. For example, 78% of bacterial operational taxonomic units (OTUs) of surface water communities of the Southern Ocean and 70% of the Arctic Ocean are unique to each pole. Polar regions are variable in time and space—analysis of the V6 region of the small subunit (SSU) rRNA gene has resulted in about 400,000 gene sequences and over 11,000 OTUs from 44 polar samples of the Arctic and the Southern Ocean. These OTUs cluster separately for the two polar regions and, additionally, exhibit significant differences in just the polar bacterioplankton communities from different environments (coastal and open ocean) and different seasons.
The polar regions are characterised by truncated food webs, and the role of viruses in ecosystem function is likely to be even greater than elsewhere in the marine food web. Their diversity is still relatively under-explored, and the way in which they affect polar communities is not well understood, particularly in nutrient cycling.
Foundation and keystone species
The concept of a foundation species was introduced in 1972 by Paul K. Dayton, who applied it to certain members of marine invertebrate and algae communities. It was clear from studies in several locations that there were a small handful of species whose activities had a disproportionate effect on the rest of the marine community and they were therefore key to the resilience of the community. Dayton's view was that focusing on foundation species would allow for a simplified approach to more rapidly understand how a community as a whole would react to disturbances, such as pollution, instead of attempting the extremely difficult task of tracking the responses of all community members simultaneously.
Foundation species are species that have a dominant role structuring an ecological community, shaping its environment and defining its ecosystem. Such ecosystems are often named after the foundation species, such as seagrass meadows, oyster beds, coral reefs, kelp forests and mangrove forests. For example, the red mangrove is a common foundation species in mangrove forests. The mangrove's root provides nursery grounds for young fish, such as snapper. A foundation species can occupy any trophic level in a food web but tend to be a producer.
The concept of the keystone species was introduced in 1969 by the zoologist Robert T. Paine. Paine developed the concept to explain his observations and experiments on the relationships between marine invertebrates of the intertidal zone (between the high and low tide lines), including starfish and mussels. Some sea stars prey on sea urchins, mussels, and other shellfish that have no other natural predators. If the sea star is removed from the ecosystem, the mussel population explodes uncontrollably, driving out most other species.
Keystone species are species that have large effects, disproportionate to their numbers, within ecosystem food webs. An ecosystem may experience a dramatic shift if a keystone species is removed, even though that species was a small part of the ecosystem by measures of biomass or productivity. Sea otters limit the damage sea urchins inflict on kelp forests. When the sea otters of the North American west coast were hunted commercially for their fur, their numbers fell to such low levels that they were unable to control the sea urchin population. The urchins in turn grazed the holdfasts of kelp so heavily that the kelp forests largely disappeared, along with all the species that depended on them. Reintroducing the sea otters has enabled the kelp ecosystem to be restored.
Topological position
Networks of trophic interactions can provide a lot of information about the functioning of marine ecosystems. Beyond feeding habits, three additional traits (mobility, size, and habitat) of various organisms can complement this trophic view.
In order to sustain the proper functioning of ecosystems, there is a need to better understand the simple question asked by Lawton in 1994: What do species do in ecosystems? Since ecological roles and food web positions are not independent, the question of what kind of species occupy various of network positions needs to be asked. Since the very first attempts to identify keystone species, there has been an interest in their place in food webs. First they were suggested to have been top predators, then also plants, herbivores, and parasites. For both community ecology and conservation biology, it would be useful to know where are they in complex trophic networks.
An example of this kind of network analysis is shown in the diagram, based on data from a marine food web. It shows relationships between the topological positions of web nodes and the mobility values of the organism's involved. The web nodes are shape-coded according to their mobility, and colour-coded using indices which emphasise (A) bottom-up groups (sessile and drifters), and (B) groups at the top of the food web.
The relative importance of organisms varies with time and space, and looking at large databases may provide general insights into the problem. If different kinds of organisms occupy different types of network positions, then adjusting for this in food web modelling will result in more reliable predictions. Comparisons of centrality indices with each other (the similarity of degree centrality and closeness centrality, keystone and keystoneness indexes, and centrality indices versus trophic level (most high-centrality species at medium trophic levels) were done to better understand critically important positions of organisms in food webs. Extending this interest by adding trait data to trophic groups helps the biological interpretation of the results. Relationships between centrality indices have been studied for other network types as well, including habitat networks.
With large databases and new statistical analyses, questions like these can be re-investigated and knowledge can be updated.
Cryptic interactions
Cryptic interactions, interactions which are "hidden in plain sight", occur throughout the marine planktonic foodweb but are currently largely overlooked by established methods, which mean large‐scale data collection for these interactions is limited. Despite this, current evidence suggests some of these interactions may have perceptible impacts on foodweb dynamics and model results. Incorporation of cryptic interactions into models is especially important for those interactions involving the transport of nutrients or energy.
The diagram illustrates the material fluxes, populations, and molecular pools that are impacted by five cryptic interactions: mixotrophy, ontogenetic and species differences, microbial cross‐feeding, auxotrophy and cellular carbon partitioning. These interactions may have synergistic effects as the regions of the food web that they impact overlap. For example, cellular carbon partition in phytoplankton can affect both downstream pools of organic matter utilised in microbial cross‐feeding and exchanged in cases of auxotrophy, as well as prey selection based on ontogenetic and species differences.
Simplifications such as "zooplankton consume phytoplankton", "phytoplankton take up inorganic nutrients", "gross primary production determines the amount of carbon available to the food web", etc. have helped scientists explain and model general interactions in the aquatic environment. Traditional methods have focused on quantifying and qualifying these generalisations, but rapid advancements in genomics, sensor detection limits, experimental methods, and other technologies in recent years have shown that generalisation of interactions within the plankton community may be too simple. These enhancements in technology have exposed a number of interactions which appear as cryptic because bulk sampling efforts and experimental methods are biased against them.
Complexity and stability
Food webs provide a framework within which a complex network of predator–prey interactions can be organised. A food web model is a network of food chains. Each food chain starts with a primary producer or autotroph, an organism, such as an alga or a plant, which is able to manufacture its own food. Next in the chain is an organism that feeds on the primary producer, and the chain continues in this way as a string of successive predators. The organisms in each chain are grouped into trophic levels, based on how many links they are removed from the primary producers. The length of the chain, or trophic level, is a measure of the number of species encountered as energy or nutrients move from plants to top predators. Food energy flows from one organism to the next and to the next and so on, with some energy being lost at each level. At a given trophic level there may be one species or a group of species with the same predators and prey.
In 1927, Charles Elton published an influential synthesis on the use of food webs, which resulted in them becoming a central concept in ecology. In 1966, interest in food webs increased after Robert Paine's experimental and descriptive study of intertidal shores, suggesting that food web complexity was key to maintaining species diversity and ecological stability. Many theoretical ecologists, including Robert May and Stuart Pimm, were prompted by this discovery and others to examine the mathematical properties of food webs. According to their analyses, complex food webs should be less stable than simple food webs. The apparent paradox between the complexity of food webs observed in nature and the mathematical fragility of food web models is currently an area of intensive study and debate. The paradox may be due partially to conceptual differences between persistence of a food web and equilibrial stability of a food web.
A trophic cascade can occur in a food web if a trophic level in the web is suppressed.
For example, a top-down cascade can occur if predators are effective enough in predation to reduce the abundance, or alter the behavior, of their prey, thereby releasing the next lower trophic level from predation. A top-down cascade is a trophic cascade where the top consumer/predator controls the primary consumer population. In turn, the primary producer population thrives. The removal of the top predator can alter the food web dynamics. In this case, the primary consumers would overpopulate and exploit the primary producers. Eventually there would not be enough primary producers to sustain the consumer population. Top-down food web stability depends on competition and predation in the higher trophic levels. Invasive species can also alter this cascade by removing or becoming a top predator. This interaction may not always be negative. Studies have shown that certain invasive species have begun to shift cascades; and as a consequence, ecosystem degradation has been repaired. An example of a cascade in a complex, open-ocean ecosystem occurred in the northwest Atlantic during the 1980s and 1990s. The removal of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) and other ground fishes by sustained overfishing resulted in increases in the abundance of the prey species for these ground fishes, particularly smaller forage fishes and invertebrates such as the northern snow crab (Chionoecetes opilio) and northern shrimp (Pandalus borealis). The increased abundance of these prey species altered the community of zooplankton that serve as food for smaller fishes and invertebrates as an indirect effect. Top-down cascades can be important for understanding the knock-on effects of removing top predators from food webs, as humans have done in many places through hunting and fishing.
In a bottom-up cascade, the population of primary producers will always control the increase/decrease of the energy in the higher trophic levels. Primary producers are plants, phytoplankton and zooplankton that require photosynthesis. Although light is important, primary producer populations are altered by the amount of nutrients in the system. This food web relies on the availability and limitation of resources. All populations will experience growth if there is initially a large amount of nutrients.
Terrestrial comparisons
Marine environments can have inversions in their biomass pyramids. In particular, the biomass of consumers (copepods, krill, shrimp, forage fish) is generally larger than the biomass of primary producers. Because of this inversion, it is the zooplankton that make up most of the marine animal biomass. As primary consumers, zooplankton are the crucial link between the primary producers (mainly phytoplankton) and the rest of the marine food web (secondary consumers); the ocean's primary producers are mostly tiny phytoplankton which have r-strategist traits of growing and reproducing rapidly, so a small mass can have a fast rate of primary production.
In contrast, many terrestrial primary producers, such as mature forests, have K-strategist traits of growing and reproducing slowly, so a much larger mass is needed to achieve the same rate of primary production. The rate of production divided by the average amount of biomass that achieves it is known as an organism's Production/Biomass (P/B) ratio. Production is measured in terms of the amount of movement of mass or energy per area per unit of time. In contrast, the biomass measurement is in units of mass per unit area or volume. The P/B ratio utilizes inverse time units (example: 1/month). This ratio allows for an estimate of the amount of energy flow compared to the amount of biomass at a given trophic level, allowing for demarcations to be made between trophic levels. The P/B ratio most commonly decreases as trophic level and organismal size increases, with small, ephemeral organisms containing a higher P/B ratio than large, long-lasting ones.
Examples: The bristlecone pine can live for thousands of years, and has a very low production/biomass ratio. The cyanobacterium Prochlorococcus lives for about 24 hours, and has a very high production/biomass ratio.
In oceans, most primary production is performed by algae. This is a contrast to on land, where most primary production is performed by vascular plants.
Aquatic producers, such as planktonic algae or aquatic plants, lack the large accumulation of secondary growth that exists in the woody trees of terrestrial ecosystems. However, they are able to reproduce quickly enough to support a larger biomass of grazers. This inverts the pyramid. Primary consumers have longer lifespans and slower growth rates that accumulates more biomass than the producers they consume. Phytoplankton live just a few days, whereas the zooplankton eating the phytoplankton live for several weeks and the fish eating the zooplankton live for several consecutive years. Aquatic predators also tend to have a lower death rate than the smaller consumers, which contributes to the inverted pyramidal pattern. Population structure, migration rates, and environmental refuge for prey are other possible causes for pyramids with biomass inverted. Energy pyramids, however, will always have an upright pyramid shape if all sources of food energy are included, since this is dictated by the second law of thermodynamics."
Most organic matter produced is eventually consumed and respired to inorganic carbon. The rate at which organic matter is preserved via burial by accumulating sediments is only between 0.2 and 0.4 billion tonnes per year, representing a very small fraction of the total production. Global phytoplankton production is about 50 billion tonnes per year and phytoplankton biomass is about one billion tonnes, implying a turnover time of one week. Marine macrophytes have a similar global biomass but a production of only one billion tonnes per year, implying a turnover time of one year. These high turnover rates (compared with global terrestrial vegetation turnover of one to two decades) imply not only steady production, but also efficient consumption of organic matter. There are multiple organic matter loss pathways (respiration by autotrophs and heterotrophs, grazing, viral lysis, detrital route), but all eventually result in respiration and release of inorganic carbon.
Anthropogenic effects
Overfishing
Acidification
Pteropods and brittle stars together form the base of the Arctic food webs and both are seriously damaged by acidification. Pteropods shells dissolve with increasing acidification and brittle stars lose muscle mass when re-growing appendages. Additionally the brittle star's eggs die within a few days when exposed to expected conditions resulting from Arctic acidification. Acidification threatens to destroy Arctic food webs from the base up. Arctic waters are changing rapidly and are advanced in the process of becoming undersaturated with aragonite. Arctic food webs are considered simple, meaning there are few steps in the food chain from small organisms to larger predators. For example, pteropods are "a key prey item of a number of higher predators – larger plankton, fish, seabirds, whales".
Climate change
Ecosystems in the ocean are more sensitive to climate change than anywhere else on Earth. This is due to warmer temperatures and ocean acidification. With the ocean temperatures increasing, it is predicted that fish species will move from their known ranges and locate new areas. During this change, the numbers within each species will drop significantly. Currently there are many relationships between predators and prey, where they rely on one another to survive. With a shift in where species will be located, the predator-prey relationships/interactions will be greatly impacted. Studies are still being done to understand how these changes will affect the food-web dynamics.
Using modeling, scientists are able to analyze the trophic interactions that certain species thrive in and due to other species also found in these areas. Through recent models, it is seen that many of the larger marine species will end up shifting their ranges at a slower pace than climate change suggests. This would impact the predator-prey relationship even more. As the smaller species and organisms are more likely to be influenced from the oceans warming and moving sooner than the larger mammals. These predators are seen to stay longer in their historical ranges before moving because of the movement of the smaller species moving. With "new" species entering the space of the larger mammals, the ecology changes and more prey for them to feed upon. The smaller species would end up having a smaller range, whereas the larger mammals would have extended their range.
The shifting dynamics will have great effects on all species within the ocean and will result in many more changes impacting our entire ecosystem. With the movement in where predators can find prey within the ocean, will also impact the fisheries industry. Where fishermen currently know where certain fish species occupy, as the shift occurs it will be more difficult to figure out where they are spending their time, costing them more money as they may have to travel further. As a result, this could impact the current fishing regulations set up for certain areas with the movement of these fish populations.
Through a survey conducted at Princeton University, researchers found that the marine species are consistently keeping pace with "climate velocity" or speed and direction in which it is moving. Looking at data from 1968 to 2011, it was found that 70 per cent of the shifts in animals' depths and 74 per cent of changes in latitude correlated with regional-scale fluctuations in ocean temperature. These movements are causing species to move between 4.5 and 40 miles per decade further away from the equator. With the help of models, regions can predict where the species may end up. Models will have to adapt to the changes as more is learned about how climate is affecting species.
"Our results show how future climate change can potentially weaken marine food webs through reduced energy flow to higher trophic levels and a shift towards a more detritus-based system, leading to food web simplification and altered producer–consumer dynamics, both of which have important implications for the structuring of benthic communities."
"...increased temperatures reduce the vital flow of energy from the primary food producers at the bottom (e.g. algae), to intermediate consumers (herbivores), to predators at the top of marine food webs. Such disturbances in energy transfer can potentially lead to a decrease in food availability for top predators, which in turn, can lead to negative impacts for many marine species within these food webs... "Whilst climate change increased the productivity of plants, this was mainly due to an expansion of cyanobacteria (small blue-green algae)," said Mr Ullah. "This increased primary productivity does not support food webs, however, because these cyanobacteria are largely unpalatable and they are not consumed by herbivores. Understanding how ecosystems function under the effects of global warming is a challenge in ecological research. Most research on ocean warming involves simplified, short-term experiments based on only one or a few species."
See also
Biological network
High-nutrient, low-chlorophyll regions
References
Aquatic ecology
Trophic ecology | Marine food web | [
"Biology"
] | 11,256 | [
"Aquatic ecology",
"Ecosystems"
] |
60,928,672 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal%20Service%20for%20Technical%20and%20Export%20Control | The Federal Service for Technical and Export Control of Russia (FSTEC of Russia / FSTEK) is a military agency of the Russian Federation, under the Russian Ministry of Defence. It licenses the export of weapons and dual-use technology items, and is also responsible for Russian military information security.
FSTEC of Russia maintains the Data Security Threats Database, Russia's national vulnerability database. and requires Western technology companies to submit source code and other trade secrets before allowing their products to be imported into Russia. FSTEC also liaises with the FSB, which controls cryptography in Russia.
In 2019, FSTEC of Russia granted Astra Linux special status regarding its use in processing Russian classified information.
References
Ministry of Defence (Russia)
Computer security in Russia
Computer security organizations | Federal Service for Technical and Export Control | [
"Technology"
] | 159 | [
"Computer security stubs",
"Computing stubs"
] |
60,928,950 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bug%20%28engineering%29 | In engineering, a bug is a design defect in an engineered system that causes an undesired result.
Although used exclusively to describe a technical issue, bug is a non-technical term; applicable without technical understanding of the system.
The term bug applies exclusively to a system that is (human) designed; not to a natural system; and that the issue is within the influence of human control. For example, humans have faults but not bugs, and a server crash due to natural disaster is not a bug.
In addition to or instead of defect, some use: error, flaw or fault.
Engineered systems is a broad classification encompassing but not limited to: software, computer hardware, electronics, circuitry and machinery.
The undesirable result can be classified and described many ways including: intermittent, transient, glitch, crash or hang.
Since desirability is subjective, what is considered undesirable to one may be considered desirable to another; even a useful feature.
History
The Middle English word bugge is the basis for the terms bugbear and bugaboo as terms used for a monster.
The term bug to describe a defect has been engineering jargon since at least as far back as the 1870s long before electronic computers and computer software. For instance, Thomas Edison wrote the following words in a letter to an associate in 1878:
In a comic strip printed in a 1924 telephone industry journal, a naive character hears that a man has a job as a "bug hunter" and gives a gift of a backscratcher. The man replies "don't you know that a 'bug hunter' is just a nickname for a repairman?"
Baffle Ball, the first mechanical pinball game, was advertised as being "free of bugs" in 1931.
Problems with military gear during World War II were referred to as bugs (or glitches).
In the 1940 film, Flight Command, a defect in a piece of direction-finding gear is called a bug.
In a book published in 1942, Louise Dickinson Rich, speaking of a powered ice cutting machine, said, "Ice sawing was suspended until the creator could be brought in to take the bugs out of his darling."
Isaac Asimov used the term bug to relate to issues with a robot in his short story "Catch That Rabbit", published in 1944.
Computer pioneer and rear admiral, Grace Hopper, popularized a story about a moth that caused a problem in an early electromechanical computer. While Hopper was working on the Mark II and Mark III as Harvard faculty in about 1947, operators traced an error in the Mark II to a moth trapped in a relay. The moth was removed from the mechanism and taped in a log book with the note "First actual case of bug being found."
Reportedly, the operators, including William "Bill" Burke, later of the Naval Weapons Laboratory, Dahlgren, Virginia, were familiar with the engineering term and probably making a joke by conflating the two meanings of bug (biological and defect).
Although probably a joke, the story indicates that the term was commonly used in the computer field at that time.
The log book, complete with moth, is part of the collection of the Smithsonian National Museum of American History.
The related term debug also appears to predate its usage in computing: the Oxford English Dictionarys etymology of the word contains an attestation from 1945, in the context of aircraft engines.
"It's not a bug, it's a feature"
Since bug implies undesirable behavior, calling a behavior a bug is subjective. Behavior which is considered a bug by some may be considered a useful feature by others,
hence a common phrase is "It's not a bug, it's a feature" (INABIAF). This quip is recorded in The Jargon File dating to 1975 but dates to 1971 when PDP-8 programmer Sandra Lee Harris at Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) made the distinction between issues to be fixed in the code for DEC's FOCAL interpreter and those to be documented or clarified in the user manual.
Such behavior might be explicitly communicated to users, or might remain an undocumented feature.
References
Engineering concepts
Engineering | Bug (engineering) | [
"Engineering"
] | 854 | [
"nan"
] |
60,929,882 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flux%20%28machine-learning%20framework%29 | Flux is an open-source machine-learning software library and ecosystem written in Julia. Its current stable release is v. It has a layer-stacking-based interface for simpler models, and has a strong support on interoperability with other Julia packages instead of a monolithic design. For example, GPU support is implemented transparently by CuArrays.jl. This is in contrast to some other machine learning frameworks which are implemented in other languages with Julia bindings, such as TensorFlow.jl (the unofficial wrapper, now deprecated), and thus are more limited by the functionality present in the underlying implementation, which is often in C or C++. Flux joined NumFOCUS as an affiliated project in December of 2021.
Flux's focus on interoperability has enabled, for example, support for Neural Differential Equations, by fusing Flux.jl and DifferentialEquations.jl into DiffEqFlux.jl.
Flux supports recurrent and convolutional networks. It is also capable of differentiable programming through its source-to-source automatic differentiation package, Zygote.jl.
Julia is a popular language in machine-learning and Flux.jl is its most highly regarded machine-learning repository (Lux.jl is another more recent, that shares a lot of code with Flux.jl). A demonstration compiling Julia code to run in Google's tensor processing unit (TPU) received praise from Google Brain AI lead Jeff Dean.
Flux has been used as a framework to build neural networks that work with homomorphic encrypted data without ever decrypting it. This kind of application is envisioned to be central for privacy to future API using machine-learning models.
Flux.jl is an intermediate representation for running high level programs on CUDA hardware. It was the predecessor to CUDAnative.jl which is also a GPU programming language.
See also
Differentiable programming
Comparison of deep-learning software
References
Machine learning
Free software programmed in Julia
Software using the MIT license | Flux (machine-learning framework) | [
"Engineering"
] | 428 | [
"Artificial intelligence engineering",
"Machine learning"
] |
60,930,589 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honor%2020 | The Honor 20 is a smartphone made by Huawei under their Honor sub-brand. It is a successor of the Huawei Honor 10 within the Huawei Honor series.
It was unveiled in London on May 21.
It became available in the United Kingdom on June 21 and in India on June 25, 2019. It retails for £400 in the UK or €499 in Europe. Colors provided are midnight black, sapphire blue and Icelandic white.
Specifications
Hardware
The Honor 20 has a HiSilicon Kirin 980 octa-core processor, a Mali-G76 MP10 GPU, and a 3,750 mAh non-removable battery. It has a 6.26-inch “all-view” display LCD screen.
The phone has four rear cameras including a 48-megapixel main camera, a 16-megapixel super-wide-angle camera, a 2-megapixel depth camera and a 2-megapixel macro camera.
The HONOR 20 shares many core similarities with the Pro version – using the same SoC, for example – but with less onboard RAM at 6GB and only 128GB of native storage. Another difference is that the rear quad camera's 8-megapixel telephoto unit has been exchanged with a 2-megapixel depth assisting unit. The device features the same display and front camera as the Pro version, but the battery capacity is slightly less at 3,750mAh, though it uses the same charger as the Pro version.
The HONOR 20 comes in Phantom Blue or Phantom Black for the global market, Icelandic White for the China market, and is priced at €499.
Software
The Honor 20 launched with Android Pie (version 9.0) and EMUI 9.0.
Reception
On June 18, Honor 20 reached 1 million sales in China.
Selling Price
References
External links
Honor 20 - Full phone specifications
Mobile phones introduced in 2019
Android (operating system) devices
Huawei Honor
Mobile phones with multiple rear cameras
Mobile phones with 4K video recording
Discontinued flagship smartphones | Honor 20 | [
"Technology"
] | 421 | [
"Discontinued flagship smartphones",
"Flagship smartphones"
] |
60,930,640 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20Space%20Flight%20Centre | The Human Space Flight Centre (HSFC) is a body under the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) to coordinate the Indian Human Spaceflight Programme. The agency will be responsible for implementation of the Gaganyaan project. The first crewed flight is planned for 2024 on a home-grown LVM3 rocket.
Before Gaganyaan mission announcement in August 2018, human spaceflight was not the priority for ISRO, though most of the required capability for it had been realised. ISRO has already developed most of the technologies for crewed flight and it performed a Crew Module Atmospheric Re-entry Experiment and a Pad Abort Test for the mission. The project will cost less than Rs. 10,000 crore. In December 2018, the government approved further 100 billion (US$1.5 billion) for a 7-days crewed flight of 3 astronauts to take place in December 2021, later delayed to 2023.
If completed on schedule, India will become world's fourth nation to conduct independent human spaceflight after the Soviet Union/Russia, United States and People's Republic of China. As part of an integrated lunar exploration and outer space strategy, the agency plans to continue working on the Bharatiya Antariksha Station program, future crewed lunar landings, and moonbase habitat after completing crewed spaceflights.
The Human Space Flight Center's founder is S Unnikrishnan Nair. The director of Human Space Flight Centre is Dinesh Kumar Singh, Distinguished Scientist.
History
The trials for crewed space missions began in 2007 with the 600 kg Space Capsule Recovery Experiment (SRE), launched using the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) rocket, and safely returned to earth 12 days later.
The Defence Food Research Laboratory (DFRL) has worked on the space food for crewed spaceflight and has been conducting trials on G-suit for astronauts as well. A prototype 'Advanced Crew Escape Suit' weighing 13 kg was built by Sure Safety (India) Limited based on ISRO's requirements has been tested and performance verified.
On 28 December 2018, the Indian Union cabinet approved the funding for Indian Space Research Organisation's (ISRO's) human spaceflight programme, under which a three-member crew will be sent to space for seven days and is expected to cost Rs 9,023 crore. The testing phase is expected to begin from 2022 and the mission will be undertaken by 2023.
Spacecraft development
The first phase of this programme is to develop and fly the 3.7-ton spaceship called Gaganyaan that will carry a 3-member crew to low Earth orbit and safely return to Earth after a mission duration of a few orbits to two days. The first uncrewed launch is planned for 2022. The extendable version of the spaceship will allow flights up to seven days, rendezvous and docking capability.
Enhancements in spacecraft will lead to development of a space habitat allowing spaceflight duration of 30–40 days at once in next phase. Further advances from experience will subsequently lead to development of a space station.
On 7 October 2016, Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre Director K. Sivan stated that ISRO was gearing up to conduct a critical 'crew bailout test' called ISRO Pad Abort Test to see how fast and effectively the crew module could be released safely in the event of an emergency. The tests were conducted successfully on 5 July 2018 at Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota. This was the first test in a series of tests to qualify a crew escape system technology.
India will not use any animals for life support systems testing but robots resembling humans will be used. ISRO is targeting more than 99.8% reliability for its crew escape system.
As of August 2018, ISRO plans to launch its crewed orbiter Gaganyaan atop a LVM3 rocket. About 16 minutes after lift-off, the rocket will inject the orbital vehicle into an orbit 300 to 400 km above Earth. The capsule would return for a splashdown in the Arabian Sea near the Gujarat coastline. As of May 2019, design of crew module has been completed. The spacecraft will be flown twice uncrewed for validation before conducting actual human spaceflight.
Infrastructure development
Human-Rating of LVM3
Human-rating rates the system is capable of safely transporting humans. ISRO will be building and launching 2 missions to validate the human rating of LVM3. Existing launch facilities will be upgraded to enable them to carry out launches under Indian Human Spaceflight campaign.
Escape System
The escape system will boast of a recently included geometry. Work on parachute enlargement and new architecture are also going on.
Astronaut training
Training for Gaganyaan programme
ISRO Chairman, K. Sivan, announced in January 2019 the creation of India's Human Space Flight Centre in Bangalore for training astronauts, also called vyomanauts (vyoma means 'Space' or 'Sky' in Sanskrit). The centre will train the selected astronauts in rescue and recovery operations, operate in zero gravity environment, and monitoring of the radiation environment.
In spring 2009 a full-scale mock-up of the crew capsule was built and delivered to Satish Dhawan Space Centre for training of astronauts. India will be short listing 200 Indian Air Force pilots for this purpose. The selection process would begin by the candidates having to complete an ISRO questionnaire, after which they would be subjected to physical and psychological analyses. Only 4 of the 200 applicants will be selected for the first space mission training. While two will fly, two shall act as reserve.
ISRO signed a memorandum of understanding in 2009 with the Indian Air Force's Institute of Aerospace Medicine (IAM) to conduct preliminary research on psychological and physiological needs of crew and development of training facilities. ISRO is also discussing an agreement with Russia regarding some aspects of astronaut training.
As of January 2020, 4 crews have been selected for the mission with astronaut training scheduled to begin in third week of January.
NASA administrator Bill Nelson visited India in November 2023 and said he was ready to back the country's goal of constructing a commercial space station by 2040, provided that India asked for NASA's assistance. By combining the knowledge and experience of the two nations, this possible collaboration might promote innovation and increase human presence in space between the two parties of Artemis Accords. He stated that during a prior state visit, there was discussion about the Indian proposal to send an astronaut to the International Space Station (ISS).
Planned facilities within India
An astronaut training facility will be established on proposed site of nearby Kempegowda International Airport in Devanahalli, Karnataka.
Another such facility is proposed to be constructed in Challakere under a plan. It will be a facility spanning and will be the primary facility for astronaut training and other related activities. As of January 2020, it is planned to be completed in 3 years. Once completed, all activities related to the Indian Human Spaceflight Programme will be undertaken there.
In order to provide appropriate interplanetary conditions for astronaut training, Human Space Flight Centre worked with AAKA Space Studio, University of Ladakh, Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Council, Leh and IIT Bombay on Ladakh Human Analogue Mission (LHAM). This is to understand the challenges that future astronauts might have when venturing beyond of Earth. Hab-1 is a small, inflatable habitat that is part of the mission. In addition to testing life support systems, the expedition will gather biometric data, recreate an extraterrestrial environment, examine circadian lighting, and evaluate human health and endurance in isolation.
Experiments and objectives
On 7 November 2018, ISRO released an Announcement of Opportunity seeking proposals from the Indian science community for microgravity experiments that could be carried out during the first two robotic flights of Gaganyaan. The scope of the experiments is not restricted, and other relevant ideas will be entertained. The proposed orbit for microgravity platform is expected to be in an Earth-bound orbit at approximately 400 km altitude. All the proposed internal and external experimental payloads will undergo thermal, vacuum and radiation tests under required temperature and pressure conditions. To carry out microgravity experiments for long duration, a satellite may be placed in orbit.
International collaboration
On 1 July 2019, Human Space Flight Center and Glavkosmos inked a contract for the medical evaluation, astronaut training, and selection assistance of Indian astronauts for the Gaganyaan mission. The Russian Academy of Sciences' Institute of Biomedical Problems, the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center, and the Federal State Budget Organization will all contribute in the executed contract. An ISRO Technical Liaison Unit (ITLU) will be set up in Moscow to facilitate the development of some key technologies and establishment of special facilities which are essential to support life in space.
Human Space Flight Centre inked a deal with Glavkosmos in October 2019 for Energia to equip the Gaganyaan crew with life support system and supply thermal control system for the spacecraft. In addition to supplying food, water, and oxygen and assisting in regulating body temperature, the life support system will also handle waste products of crew members. Throughout the mission, the thermal control system will maintain the spacecraft's component within permissible temperature limits.
A comprehensive framework for cooperation activities in human space exploration was signed by ISRO and European Space Agency (ESA) on 21 December 2024. It focuses on research projects and astronaut training programs, including access to ESA's facilities on the ISS. Beginning with the Axiom Mission 4, the agreement will be put into effect. Indian astronauts will take part in ESA's technology demonstration projects and human physiological investigations.
See also
Indian Human Spaceflight Programme
Indian Space Research Organisation
References
External links
President Kalam's vision: India will land on the Moon in August 2025
Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd (HAL) hands over the first ‘Crew Module Structural Assembly’ to ISRO. 13 February 2014.
Indian Space Research Organisation
2019 establishments in Karnataka
Transport in Bengaluru
Human spaceflight programs | Human Space Flight Centre | [
"Engineering"
] | 2,037 | [
"Space programs",
"Human spaceflight programs"
] |
60,930,901 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estradiol%20benzoate/estradiol%20dienanthate/testosterone%20enanthate%20benzilic%20acid%20hydrazone | Estradiol benzoate/estradiol dienanthate/testosterone enanthate benzilic acid hydrazone (EB/EDE/TEBH), sold under the brand names Climacteron, Lactimex, Lactostat, and Amenose, is an injectable combination medication of estradiol benzoate (EB), an estrogen, estradiol dienanthate (EDE), an estrogen, and testosterone enanthate benzilic acid hydrazone (TEBH), an androgen/anabolic steroid, which is used in menopausal hormone therapy for peri- and postmenopausal women and to suppress lactation in postpartum women. Clinical studies have assessed this formulation.
Climacteron and Amenose contained 1.0 mg EB, 7.5 mg EDE, and 150 mg TEBH (69 mg free testosterone) and was used to treat menopausal symptoms. They were administered by intramuscular injection typically once every 6 weeks but with a range of every 4 to 8 weeks or less frequently. Climacteron was marketed in Canada in 1961 but was withdrawn in this country in October 2005 due to risk of endometrial hyperplasia and cancer from unopposed estrogen exposure (i.e., no concomitant progestogen) as well as induction of supraphysiological testosterone levels.
Lactimex and Lactostat contained 6 mg EB, 15 mg EDE, and 300 mg TEBH in 2 mL of corn oil and were used to suppress lactation. They were administered as a single intramuscular injection after childbirth or during breastfeeding. They were previously available in Germany and Canada.
Estradiol and testosterone levels following a single intramuscular injection of EB/EDE/TEBH versus 10 mg estradiol valerate have been studied over 28 days.
See also
List of combined sex-hormonal preparations
References
Abandoned drugs
Combined estrogen–androgen formulations | Estradiol benzoate/estradiol dienanthate/testosterone enanthate benzilic acid hydrazone | [
"Chemistry"
] | 428 | [
"Drug safety",
"Abandoned drugs"
] |
60,931,340 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinvent | BioInvent International is a Swedish clinical-stage biotech company that discovers and develops novel and first-in-class immunomodulatory antibodies for cancer therapy. The company’s validated, proprietary F.I.R.S.T™ technology platform simultaneously identifies both targets and the antibodies that bind to them, generatingnew drug candidates to fuel the Company’s own broad clinical development pipeline or for additional licensing and partnering. Currently, the company has five clinical programs for hematological cancer and solid tumor treatment. Furthermore, the company has a fully integrated, proprietary, state-of-the art manufacturing facility unit. Martin Welschof has been CEO since 2018. The company is a partner of The Leukemia & Lymphoma Society’s Therapy Acceleration Program, an initiative that develops blood cancer treatment.
References
External links
Pharmaceutical companies established in 1983
Pharmaceutical companies of Sweden
Life sciences industry
Companies listed on Nasdaq Stockholm | Bioinvent | [
"Biology"
] | 192 | [
"Life sciences industry"
] |
60,931,459 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estradiol%20benzoate/estradiol%20phenylpropionate | Estradiol benzoate/estradiol phenylpropionate (EB/EPP), sold under the brand name Dimenformon Prolongatum, is an injectable combination formulation of estradiol benzoate (EB), a shorter-acting estrogen, and estradiol phenylpropionate (EPP), a longer-acting estrogen, which has been used in menopausal hormone therapy for women in Europe but appears to no longer be available. It has also been used to suppress lactation in women and has been used in feminizing hormone therapy for transgender women. It has been provided in the form of 1 mL ampoules containing 2.5 mg EB and 10 mg EPP in oil solution and is administered by intramuscular injection at regular intervals.
The pharmacokinetics of this formulation and its constituent components have been studied.
A combination of 12.5 mg EB and 10 mg EPP (developmental code name Org 369–2) has been studied for use in women as a postcoital contraceptive within 48 hours of unprotected sex.
See also
Estradiol/estradiol enanthate
Estradiol benzoate/estradiol phenylpropionate/testosterone propionate/testosterone phenylpropionate/testosterone isocaproate
Estradiol benzoate/estradiol valerate/hydroxyprogesterone caproate
List of combined sex-hormonal preparations
References
Abandoned drugs
Combination sex hormone drugs | Estradiol benzoate/estradiol phenylpropionate | [
"Chemistry"
] | 328 | [
"Drug safety",
"Abandoned drugs"
] |
60,932,544 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data%20Security%20Threats%20Database | The Data Security Threats Database (, BDU) is the Russian Federation's national vulnerability database. It is maintained by the Russian Federal Service for Technical and Export Control. As of 2018, the BDU contained only roughly one-tenth of the number of entries of the corresponding U.S. National Vulnerability Database.
References
Security vulnerability databases | Data Security Threats Database | [
"Technology"
] | 69 | [
"Computer security stubs",
"Computing stubs"
] |
60,933,511 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C40H74 | {{DISPLAYTITLE:C40H74}}
The molecular formula C40H74 (molar mass: 555.03 g/mol) may refer to:
Chlorobactane, a bio-marker for green sulphur bacteria
Okenane, a bio-marker for purple sulphur bacteria | C40H74 | [
"Chemistry"
] | 70 | [
"Isomerism",
"Set index articles on molecular formulas"
] |
60,933,516 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restricted%20random%20waypoint%20model | In mobility management, the restricted random waypoint model is a random model for the movement of mobile users, similar to the random waypoint model, but where the waypoints are restricted to fall within one of a finite set of sub-domains. It was originally introduced by Blaževic et al. in order to model intercity examples and later defined in a more general setting by Le Boudec et al.
Definition
The restricted random waypoint models the trajectory of a mobile user in a connected domain . Given a sequence of locations in , called waypoints, the trajectory of the mobile is defined by traveling from one waypoint to the next along the shortest path in between them. In the restricted setting, the waypoints are restricted to fall within one of a finite set of subdomains .
On the trip between and , the mobile moves at constant speed which is sampled from some distribution, usually a uniform distribution. The duration of the -th trip is thus:
where is the length of the shortest path in between and .
The mobile may also pause at a waypoint, in which case the -th trip is a pause at the location of the -th waypoint, i.e. . A duration is drawn from some distribution to indicate the end of the pause.
The transition instants are the time at which the mobile reaches the -th waypoint. They are defined as follow:
The sampling algorithm for the waypoints depends on the phase of the simulation.
An initial phase is chosen according to some initialization rule.
is the index of the current sub-domain .
is the remaining number of waypoints to sample from this sub-domain .
is the index of the next sub-domain.
And indicates whether the -th trip is a pause.
Given phase , the next phase is chosen as follows. If then is sampled from some distribution and . Otherwise, a new sub-domain is sampled and a number of trip to undergo in sub-domain is sampled. The new phase is: .
Given a phase the waypoint is set to if . Otherwise, it is sampled from sub-domain if and from sub-domain if .
Transient and stationary period
In a typical simulation models, when the condition for stability is satisfied, simulation runs go through a transient period and converge to the stationary regime. It is important to remove the transients for performing meaningful comparisons of, for example, different mobility regimes. A standard method for avoiding such a bias is to (i) make sure the used model has a stationary regime and (ii) remove the beginning of all simulation runs in the hope that long runs converge to stationary regime. However the length of transients may be prohibitively long for even simple mobility models and a major difficulty is to know when the transient ends. An alternative, called "perfect simulation", is to sample the initial simulation state from the stationary regime.
There exists algorithms for perfect simulation of the general restricted random waypoint. They are described in Perfect simulation and stationarity of a class of mobility models (2005) and a Python implementation is available on GitHub.
References
Wireless networking
GSM standard | Restricted random waypoint model | [
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 625 | [
"Wireless networking",
"Computer networks engineering"
] |
60,933,877 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rugg/Feldman%20benchmarks | The Rugg/Feldman benchmarks are a series of seven short BASIC programming language programs that are used to test the performance of BASIC implementations on various microcomputers. They were published by Tom Rugg and Phil Feldman in the June 1977 issue of the US computer magazine, Kilobaud.
The article reported that Integer BASIC, an interpreter program written by Steve Wozniak for the Apple II computer, was much faster than the other programs tested. This sparked widespread comments about the tests, including a lengthy letter from Bill Gates. A follow-up article in the October 1977 issue addressed these concerns in depth and added many new machines and BASICs to the set of results.
John Coll added an eighth test using transcendental functions in an article in the February 1978 issue of the British magazine Personal Computer World (PCW). This expanded set became known as the PCW Benchmarks, and was particularly popular as a test for UK-designed machines like the Grundy NewBrain and BBC Micro.
The benchmark was widely used through the late 1970s, and appears as a standard in many computer magazines and journals. In the 1980s it was not as widely used in the US as the Creative Computing Benchmark or Byte Sieve, but remained in common use in the UK.
History
First tests
The benchmark suite was introduced to test claims that were being made by vendors that their BASIC was much faster than others running on the same machines. The authors were unable to find a set of standardized benchmarks and decided to write their own. The tests deliberately ignored string and floating point performance, as many BASICs of the era, especially those descended from Tiny BASIC, lacked these features. Strings were further hindered by major differences in syntax between different versions.
The two ran the benchmarks on every machine they could find, typically at friends' houses. All of the major 8-bit CPUs were tested, including the Intel 8080, Zilog Z80, Motorola 6800 and MOS 6502. For comparison, they also ran it on a CDC Cyber 174 supercomputer, which is so fast that they had to add code to time the run using the system's clock as they could not operate a stopwatch quickly enough. They used this machine for two reasons; one was simply to see how fast such a machine ran, and the other was to ensure no one micro would end up at the top of the list and then claim they had been proven to be the fastest.
The article makes a special note of the BASIC that shipped with IMSAI computers, as it basically didn't work. The machine was very new at the time and the BASIC was described by the company as "preliminary". During this period, different IMSAI machines were delivered with different versions of BASIC. Each version had different features, but none of them were able to run even the majority of the programs.
The Apple II, using the original Integer BASIC, finished well in front of all the other machines. As the tests did not make use of any floating point features, this result was not surprising given the much simpler internal representation of numbers. The next fastest, albeit significantly slower, was Zapple BASIC on a Zilog Z80 add-in card in an Altair 8800. The rest of the list contained a number of very closely spaced entries, dominated by what would later be known as Microsoft BASIC. Across the entire suite of 8080 and Z80 machines and versions of BASICs, the spread was only 20%. In contrast, the 6800-based machines were isolated entirely at the bottom of the list, 30 to 40% slower than the 8080 and Z80 entries.
As the article went to press, the editors of Kilobaud visited several local computer stores to test the programs on newer machines. This process added the production version of IMSAI BASIC, North Star BASIC and the 11 kB BASIC on the Poly-88. IMSAI's results were at the bottom of the pack, while North Star and Poly were in the middle.
Follow-up
Rugg and Feldman revisited the suite in the October 1977 issue. The new article opened by noting they had been deluged with mail about the original article. Among them was a letter from Bill Gates, who they introduce as the author of "Altair BASIC (8080 and 6800 versions), OSI BASIC and PET BASIC". The last entry refers to a member of the "1977 trinity" of machines, the Commodore PET, which was made available in prototype form for inclusion in the article.
Gates complained that the original test series "let an integer BASIC be compared against... more powerful BASIC... using floating point." He suggested that the test include a DEFINT A-Z at the start, which would make newer versions of Altair BASIC use integer math as well. Instead, Rugg and Feldman took another approach and eliminated all integer-only BASICs from the new test results. This did not eliminate the Apple II, which by this time had introduced the MS-derived Applesoft BASIC on cassette.
Gates also noted that the results for the 6800 machine were not indicative of this processor. The machine they used, the Altair 680, runs the CPU at half its rated speed. He suggested a more typical 6800-based machine would be slightly faster than the 8080. However, the 6800 once again put in a poor showing even on newer machines running at higher speeds.
Gates also suggested that the Cyber 173's time was likely due to it being a compiler rather than an interpreter. The authors point out this was not the case for the TRW BASIC they used in the original test, and then use this as a segue to compare the differences between compilers and interpreters.
Gates concluded his letter by noting that a number of the results were identical in spite of being on different machines. He suggests this is because the BASICs in question contained "signatures" from Altair BASIC and are thus "illegitimate software". He did not specify which ones he claimed were stolen, and the authors responded by saying that if "Bill can stop people from selling them through legal means, we'll stop listing them."
Rugg and Feldman conclude the article by mentioning some of the other concerns that were raised after the original article. One common issue was the lack of more advanced mathematical functions, which they acknowledge, but suggest this is something best left to the reader. The other was the lack of string manipulation, but they note that the syntax of string handling differed considerably between platforms and thus could not be made in a single version.
In this series of tests, the list was topped by the OSI Challenger, a 6502-based machine that had been "souped up" to 2 MHz, double that of typical 1 MHz 6502 machines of the era like the Apple II and PET. When running at its normal 1 MHz speed, the Challenger was just beaten by Zapple BASIC on Z80 machines running at 4 MHz. PET BASIC was next, only slightly behind the Challenger. They conclude that the 6502 is the highest performing of the CPUs, agreeing with comments Gates had made in his letter. The 6800 once again ends up in last place.
PCW version
As part of a longer article discussing new entries into the computer market, including the TRS-80, John Coll used the Rugg/Feldman tests to benchmark a variety of machines available to him in the UK in October 1977. He added an eighth test to exercise the math routines, and provided the resulting run times both on their own as well as the additional time compared to Test 7, in keeping with the earlier concept of each test modifying the last. The results were published in the first issue of Personal Computer World in February 1978, with a short follow-up in their November 1978 issue.
Use
As one of the earliest sets of BASIC benchmarks, the F/R tests were seen primarily in the late 1970s and early 1980s. It was a standard among reviews in Kilobaud, used to compare the many new varieties of BASIC that continued to appear for early microcomputers. Compute! used it for their 1979 review of the Challenger 1P, and 68 Journal used it to demonstrate the extremely high performance of BASIC09. InfoWorld used it for their 1981 review of a new BASIC for the TRS-80, and the TRS-80 Color Computer as a whole.
After that point the Byte Sieve began to become popular and the number of articles referring to the F-R benchmark become less common, but it could be found even such rarefied sources as the HP Journal.
The PCW versions remained very popular in the UK, and can be found in many reviews of UK-centric machines like the Grundy NewBrain, various Sinclair Research machines, and the BBC Micro.
Programs
The programs were designed to allow a user to type in the first test, run it, and then modify it in-place to run the subsequent tests. This meant the user did not have to type in seven different programs, but simply modify a single one. The first seven listings are the originals from the 1977 article, the eighth is the PCW addition.
Benchmark 1
300 PRINT"S"
400 FOR K=1 TO 1000
500 NEXT K
700 PRINT"E"
800 END
FOR-NEXT loops are one of the most fundamental constructs in the BASIC language, and if the performance of these loops is slow it is highly likely that any program running in that BASIC will be slow as well. A famous example of this is Atari BASIC, which had several problems that greatly slowed the performance of FOR-NEXT loops compared to contemporary examples, and BASIC programs on the Atari were generally very slow as a result.
Benchmark 2
300 PRINT"S"
400 K=0
500 K=K+1
600 IF K<1000 THEN 500
700 PRINT"E"
800 END
This test ultimately performs the same operations as test 1, but in this case, it uses an explicit test and jump rather than using the built-in FOR-NEXT construct. Generally, this program runs much slower than 1 because most BASICs parse the parameters in the FOR, including the line number, only once when it is first encountered. Using the IF, as in test 1, causes it to parse the values every time through the loop. Moreover, most BASICs do not simply store the parsed line number of the top of the loop, but the memory address, whereas a THEN requires the interpreter to scan through the program for the corresponding line number, in this case 500. Although this test does not show it due to its small size, this search takes increasingly long times as the program length grows. Some versions of BASIC optimized GOTO using explicit labels, or pushing the GOTO targets on a stack to make them perform like NEXT. Turbo-Basic XL did both, and ran much faster than any similar BASIC as a result.
Benchmark 3
300 PRINT"S"
400 K=0
500 K=K+1
510 LET A=K/K*K+K-K
600 IF K<1000 THEN 500
700 PRINT"E"
800 END
Test 3 is an expansion of test 2, this time adding some basic mathematics and variable access. By comparing the time to run tests 2 and 3, one can get an idea of the performance of the language's math library.
Benchmark 4
300 PRINT"S"
400 K=0
500 K=K+1
510 LET A=K/2*3+4-5
600 IF K<1000 THEN 500
700 PRINT"E"
800 END
The same as test 3 except that the variable K is replaced by numeric constants. This requires the interpreter to convert the values from their textual representation into their internal storage format, which takes time (unless this is performed once and for all, before execution, as in some more advanced BASICs). Some idea of the performance of this conversion functionality can be determined by comparing this time to benchmark 3.
Benchmark 5
300 PRINT"S"
400 K=0
500 K=K+1
510 LET A=K/2*3+4-5
520 GOSUB 820
600 IF K<1000 THEN 500
700 PRINT"E"
800 END
820 RETURN
Test 5 introduces a subroutine call. Long programs in early versions of BASIC would make extensive use of subroutines and thus the efficiency of the calling mechanism was important. Depending on the way the system worked, the return might cache the location of the calling line in a fashion similar to NEXT, and thus run very quickly. Others might store the line number of the calling line, and thus require the code to scan the program listings to RETURN.
Benchmark 6
300 PRINT"S"
400 K=0
430 DIM M(5)
500 K=K+1
510 LET A=K/2*3+4-5
520 GOSUB 820
530 FOR L=1 TO 5
540 NEXT L
600 IF K<1000 THEN 500
700 PRINT"E"
800 END
820 RETURN
Test 6 defines a small array at the start and adds another FOR-NEXT loop inside the main loop. This has little effect on the code, but is used to set a baseline for test 7.
Benchmark 7
300 PRINT"S"
400 K=0
430 DIM M(5)
500 K=K+1
510 LET A=K/2*3+4-5
520 GOSUB 820
530 FOR L=1 TO 5
535 M(L)=A
540 NEXT L
600 IF K<1000 THEN 500
700 PRINT"E"
800 END
820 RETURN
This assigns a value to each of the array elements every time through the loop. Comparing the time needed to run 7 to 6 indicates the efficiency of array access.
Benchmark 8
300 PRINT"S"
400 K=0
500 K=K+1
530 A=K^2
540 B=LOG(K)
550 C=SIN(K)
600 IF K<100 THEN 500
700 PRINT"E"
800 END
Test 8 was added by PCW, performing several transcendental functions in order to test their performance. This code does not include the code from test 7, which breaks the original pattern of each test adding to the last. Instead, the associated article listed both the time to run 8 and 7 and 8 combined.
Sample results
This list is not meant to be exhaustive, but instead a quick overview of the results seen on some popular systems of the early microcomputer and home computer era. The first table includes a selection of machines from the original tests in June 1977, with exceptions as noted. Test time is in seconds.
Notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading
Computer Handbook: Businessman's Guide to Choosing and Using Computer Systems, lists the PCW versions as part of their benchmark sets.
Benchmarks (computing)
History of computing
BASIC programming language
Computer-related introductions in 1977 | Rugg/Feldman benchmarks | [
"Technology"
] | 3,028 | [
"Computing comparisons",
"Computer performance",
"Benchmarks (computing)",
"Computers",
"History of computing"
] |
60,934,902 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trillion | Trillion is a number with two distinct definitions:
1,000,000,000,000, i.e. one million million, or (ten to the twelfth power), as defined on the short scale. This is now the meaning in both American and British English.
1,000,000,000,000,000,000, i.e. (ten to the eighteenth power), as defined on the long scale. This is one million times larger than the short scale trillion. This is the historical meaning in English and the current use in many non-English-speaking countries where trillion and billion (ten to the twelfth power) maintain their long scale definitions.
Usage
Originally, the United Kingdom used the long scale trillion. However, since 1974, official UK statistics have used the short scale. Since the 1950s, the short scale has been increasingly used in technical writing and journalism, although the long scale definition still has some limited usage.
American English has always used the short scale definition.
Other countries use the word trillion (or words cognate to it) to denote either the long scale or short scale trillion. For details, see current usage.
During the height of hyperinflation in Zimbabwe in 2008, people became accustomed to speaking about their daily expenses in terms of trillions.
When Italy used the lira as currency, eventually converted at about 2,000 lira to the euro, it was found that Italians were more comfortable with words for large numbers such as trillion than British people.
Etymology
Whilst the words billion and trillion, or variations thereof were first used by French mathematicians in the 15th century, the word trillion was first used in English in the 1680s and comes from the Italian word trilione.
The word originally meant the third power of one million. As a result, it was mainly used to express the concept of an enormous number, similar to the words zillion and gazillion. However, it was more commonly used in the US.
See also
Names of large numbers
Billion, another ambiguous numerical word
References
Large numbers
English words | Trillion | [
"Mathematics"
] | 418 | [
"Mathematical objects",
"Numbers",
"Large numbers"
] |
60,934,964 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic%20Birth | Cosmic Birth is a 2019 Icelandic documentary film about mankind's journey to the Moon and the experience of viewing the Earth from a quarter of a million miles away. The film also looks into the role that Iceland played in the training of the Apollo astronauts for the first crewed missions to another world. Cosmic Birth is written and directed by Exploration Museum founder Örlygur Hnefill Örlygsson and filmmaker and musician Rafnar Orri Gunnarsson.
Synopsis
Between 1968 and 1972, twenty-four American astronauts traveled to the Moon, with twelve of them walking on its surface. Through interviews with five Apollo astronauts, as well as family members of two of the astronauts who have died, the film looks into how going to the Moon changed the astronauts, as well as how the astronauts helped people back on Earth better understand our own planet.
The film also explores the impact of the photographs coming out of NASA during the Apollo era and what role they played in helping start the environmental movement in the early 1970s. One of these photos was Earthrise, taken by Bill Anders on Apollo 8, who tells the story of his photo in Cosmic Birth. Nature photographer Galen Rowell declared Bill's photo Earthrise "the most influential environmental photograph ever taken". The film also tells the story of the training of the Apollo astronauts in Iceland in 1965 and 1967 before their lunar missions.
Participants
Five Apollo astronauts appear in original interviews in Cosmic Birth; Walter Cunningham who flew on the first crewed Apollo mission, Bill Anders who along with Frank Borman and Jim Lovell was the first human to orbit the Moon, Rusty Schweickart who flew the first Lunar Module, Charlie Duke who was the youngest person to walk on the Moon, and Harrison Schmitt who was the only scientist and last person to set his foot on the Moon. Other astronauts appear in archival footage, including Neil Armstrong, whose son Mark Armstrong is interviewed in the film. Owen Garriott's son Richard Garriott who is a second generation astronaut is also interviewed.
In addition to the Apollo astronauts and their families, the film features interviews with Icelandic poet Vilborg Dagbjartsdóttir, artist Chris Calle (son of NASA artist Paul Calle), around the world pilot Amelia Rose Earhart, astrophysicist Dr. Michael Shara, and Expedition News editor Jeff Blumenfeld.
Filming
The interviews with the astronauts were conducted from 2013 to 2019 in Iceland as well as in the United States. Most of the astronauts appearing in the film are interviewed both on location in the Apollo geology training areas in Iceland and in space museums and at their homes in the United States.
Filming in Iceland took place in 2013, 2015 and 2017 during the Apollo astronauts' revisits to their geology training areas.
Filming in the US took place in 2018 and 2019 at the Stafford Air & Space Museum in Weatherford, Oklahoma, at the San Diego Air & Space Museum in San Diego, California, at Cape Canaveral and Kennedy Space Center in Florida, and at the American Museum of Natural History and the Explorers Club in New York.
Title and soundtrack
The musical score for Cosmic Birth was composed by Icelandic musicians Framfari and Ósi á Borg, in collaboration with the film's director Rafnar Orri Gunnarsson who is himself a musician. The soundtrack was released on vinyl and Spotify on January 10, 2020, on a full moon.
The theatrical release poster for Cosmic Birth was released on 28 May 2019 and features a pregnant woman who is Mother Earth. The art and the title of the film are a reference to a quote in the film by Apollo 9 astronaut Rusty Schweickart who compared the Apollo missions to a cosmic birth, giving us the first true view of our mother Earth. The poster is designed by artist Dušana Pavlovičová.
Release
The film was released simultaneously in cinemas and on RÚV, the National TV of Iceland, on July 20, 2019, in celebration of the 50th anniversary of Apollo 11's first landing on the Moon. An event commemorating the historic significance of Apollo 11 took place in the documentary cinema in Reykjavík before the premiere of the film. No admission fee was charged in cinemas in Iceland but guests had to book their tickets in advance. The writers and producers of the film consider it Iceland's contribution to celebrating "humanities greatest achievement, going to another world". From October 2019, the film will screen at selected cinemas in Europe and in the US.
The film had its US premiere at the Explorers Club in New York City on November 15, 2019, followed by a Q&A moderated by private astronaut Richard Garriott.
The first trailer for the film was released on June 5, 2019.
See also
Apollo 11 in popular culture
References
External links
Cosmic Birth on IMDb
2019 films
Icelandic documentary films
Documentary films about outer space
2019 documentary films
Films about the Apollo program | Cosmic Birth | [
"Astronomy"
] | 987 | [
"Space art",
"Documentary films about outer space"
] |
60,935,635 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Planets%20%282019%20TV%20series%29 | The Planets is a 2019 BBC/PBS/Tencent/Open University television documentary series about the Solar System presented by Professor Brian Cox in the UK version and Zachary Quinto in the US version.
First broadcast on BBC Two beginning Tuesday 28 May 2019, the five-episode series looks at each planet in detail, examining scientific theories and hypotheses about the formation and evolution of the Solar System gained by uncrewed missions to the planets. Originally released in the UK, it was changed to cater more to the American audience watching on PBS's series Nova.
Cox presents segments to camera from various locations around the world alongside extensive computer-generated imagery and footage from space missions. The series was created as a partnership between BBC Studios and the Open University.
Episodes
Merchandise
A 288-page hardback book written by Brian Cox and Andrew Cohen was released on 23 May 2019. by HarperCollins (). The book was also released for ebook readers as well as an audiobook on the same day.
References
External links
2019 British television series debuts
2019 British television series endings
2010s British documentary television series
Science education television series
BBC television documentaries
American English-language television shows
Documentary films about outer space
Documentary television series about astronomy
BBC television documentaries about science
Nova (American TV program) episodes
Television series by BBC Studios
Astronomy education television series | The Planets (2019 TV series) | [
"Astronomy"
] | 264 | [
"Documentary television series about astronomy",
"Space art",
"Documentary films about outer space",
"Works about astronomy"
] |
70,275,297 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faroe-Bank%20Channel%20overflow | Cold and dense water from the Nordic Seas is transported southwards as Faroe-Bank Channel overflow. This water flows from the Arctic Ocean into the North Atlantic through the Faroe-Bank Channel between the Faroe Islands and Scotland. The overflow transport is estimated to contribute to one-third (2.1±0.2 Sv, on average) of the total overflow over the Greenland-Scotland Ridge. The remaining two-third of overflow water passes through Denmark Strait (being the strongest overflow branch with an estimated transport of 3.5 Sv), the Wyville Thomson Ridge (0.3 Sv), and the Iceland-Faroe Ridge (1.1 Sv).
Faroe-Bank Channel overflow (FBCO) contributes to a large extent to the formation of North Atlantic Deep Water. Therefore, FBCO is important for water transport towards the deep parts of the North Atlantic, playing a significant role in Earth's climate system.
Faroe-Bank Channel
The Faroe-Bank Channel (FBC) is a deeply eroded channel in the Greenland-Scotland Ridge (GSR). Its primary sill, located south of the Faroe Islands, has a width of about 15 km and a maximum depth of 840 m, with very steep walls at both sides of the channel. 100 km north-west of this sill, there is a secondary sill with a maximum depth of 850 m. Faroe-Bank Channel overflow enters the FBC from the northeast, turns towards the west between the Faroe Islands and the Faroe Bank, and leaves the GSR in southwestern direction, west-southwest of the Faroe Islands.
Hydrography
The water flowing over the Greenland-Scotland Ridge through the Faroe-Bank Channel consists of a very well-mixed bottom layer, with a stratified water layer on top. The temperature of this stratified layer can get to 11 °C in the upper 100 m of the channel, with a salinity around 35.1 g/kg; between 100 and 400 m depth the temperature of the water in the stratified layer is around 8 °C, with a salinity of 35.2 g/kg. The water below 400 m, in the well-mixed layer, can be characterised as overflow water.
Definition of overflow
The mixed bottom layer of the FBC is where the actual overflow takes place, being fed by inflow of cold and fresh North Atlantic Water, Modified North Atlantic Water, Norwegian Sea Deep Water and Norwegian Sea Arctic Intermediate Water. These water masses have different temperatures (between -0.5 and 7.0 °C) and salinities (between 34.7 and 35.4 g/kg). Therefore, it may be complicated to exactly define which water entering the FBC contributes to the actual overflow. Four definitions are possible, two of which depending on the overflow velocity, one depending on the overflow flux, and one depending on the overflow water properties.
The simplest definition is in terms of velocities: water with a velocity in northwestern direction is then termed Faroe-Bank Channel overflow. At the sill, velocities can grow up until 1.2 m/s, accelerating when flowing downwards the deepening bathymetry. In this respect, high velocities are associated with strong mixing and highly turbulent flows. In the stratified layer at the top of the channel, velocities become negative (i.e., in southeastern direction), which makes these water no part of the overflow.
Another option is to take into account the barotropic (i.e., horizontal sea-surface height gradients determine currents) and baroclinic (i.e., horizontal density gradients determine currents) pressure gradients at the overflow depth between both sides of the GSR:where is the decrease in sea-surface height and is the decrease in interface height from upstream areas to the sill. Processes like mixing, circulation and convection contribute to these pressure gradients. The overflow velocity, then, scales as follows with the pressure gradient between the basins north and south of the ridge:
This velocity can then be used to define the total overflow flux in the FBC.
A third definition is so-called kinematic overflow: the water flux from the bottom of the channel up to the interface height, being the level where the velocity in northwestern direction measures one half of the maximum velocity in the profile. The overflow flux is then calculated throughwhere is the average profile velocity, is the interface height, is the height of the layer below the lowest measurement station in the channel, and is the volume flux per unit width of the channel.
Lastly, overflow can also be defined on the basis of hydrographical properties: namely as water that flows through the FBC having a temperature lower than 3 °C, or having a potential density higher than 27.8 kg/m3. This definition is most often used when estimating values for the magnitude of the FBCO.
Periodicity
Temperature and salinity profiles as well as current speeds in the FBC vary strongly on a day-to-day basis. The dense water forms domes that move through the channel with a period of 2.5 to 6 days. At the ocean surface, this periodicity can be observed in the form of topographic Rossby waves at the sea surface, which are caused by mesoscale oscillations in the velocity field. The resulting eddies are the consequence of baroclinic instabilities within the overflow water, which then induce the observed periodicity.
On a greater timescale, atmospheric forcing also causes periodic changes in the FBCO. When the atmospheric circulation governing the Nordic Seas is in a cyclonic (anticyclonic) regime, the source of the deep water predominantly comes via a western (eastern) inflow path, and the FBCO will be weaker (stronger). The eastern inflow path is called the Faroe-Strait Channel Jet. This transition from a cyclonic to an anticyclonic regime takes place on an interannual timescale, but the atmospheric forcing also shows a seasonal cycle. During summer the weakened cyclonic winds are associated with a higher FBCO transport. This indicates a fast barotropic response to the wind forcing.
Outflow
Faroe-Strait Channel Jet water is much colder than the water flowing into the Faroe-Bank Channel via its western entrance path. Within the FBC, water always flows along its eastern rather than its western boundary, regardless the different inflow pathways from the Nordic Seas. Moreover, at times the eastern inflow path is dominant, overflow waters are denser and higher in volume.
After passing the primary Faroe-Bank Channel sill, the overflow bifurcates into two different branches that both flow with a maximum velocity of 1.35 m/s on top of each other. The average thickness of the total outflow plume along its descent is 160±70 m, showing a high lateral variability, and yields a transport of ~1 Sv per branch. A transverse circulation actively dilutes the bottom branch of the plume. The shallow, intermediate branch transports warmer, less dense outflow water along the ridge slope towards the west. This branch mixes with oxygen-poor, fresh Modified East Icelandic Water. The deep (deeper than 1000 m) branch transports the most dense, cold water towards the deep parts of the North Atlantic. This branch entrains warmer and more saline water, mixes, and consequently obtains higher temperatures and salinity. Both branches ultimately contribute to the formation of North Atlantic Deep Water.
North Atlantic overturning
The Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) is important for Earth's climate because of its distribution of heat and salinity over the globe. The strength of the Faroe-Bank Channel overflow is an important indicator for the stability of the AMOC, since the overflow produces dense waters that contribute for a large extent to the total overturning in the North Atlantic. Parameters that can effect the AMOC are kinematic overflow (i.e., the magnitude of the overflow transport) and overflow density (as the AMOC being a density-driven circulation). In this respect, density characteristics of the overflow could vary even if the kinematic overflow does not.
Measurements
From 1995 onwards, FBCO has been monitored by a continuous Acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) mooring, measuring volume transport, hydrographic properties and the density of the overflow. The kinematic overflow, derived from the velocity field, showed a non-significant positive linear trend of 0.01±0.013 Sv/yr between 1995 and 2015, whereas the coldest part of the FBCO warmed in that same period with 0.1±0.06 °C (which made density decrease), causing increasing transport of heat into the AMOC. This warming, however, is accompanied by an observed salinity (and therefore density) increase, which results in no net change in density.
Model simulations
Climate models have shown an overall decreasing trend in the baroclinic component of the overflow between 1948 and 2005; the barotropic pressure gradient, however, shows an increasing trend of equal magnitude. These processes compensate each other; as a result the pressure difference at depth does not show a significant trend over time.
Global inverse modelling, ocean hydrographic surveys, chlorofuorocarbon (CFC) inventories, and monitoring of the AMOC from 2004 to present have shown that the AMOC has slowed down in the past decades. As explained, density of FBCO waters did not significantly change in that time period, so changes in FBCO cannot (fully) explain the changes in the AMOC.
See also
Atlantic meridional overturning circulation
Nordic Seas
Mesoscale ocean eddies
References
Currents of the Atlantic Ocean
Physical oceanography | Faroe-Bank Channel overflow | [
"Physics"
] | 2,062 | [
"Applied and interdisciplinary physics",
"Physical oceanography"
] |
70,276,139 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efik%20calendar | The Efik calendar () is the traditional calendar system of the Efik people located in present-day Nigeria. The calendar consisted of 8 days in a week (urua). Each day was dedicated to a god or goddess greatly revered in the Efik religion. It also consisted of festivals many of which were indefinite. Definite festivals were assigned on specific periods during the year while indefinite festivals or ceremonies occurred due to certain social or political circumstances.
Days of the week
The names of the eight day week in the traditional Efik calendar include:-
Akwa ederi
Akwa eyibio
Akwa ikwọ
Akwa ọfiọñ
Ekpri ederi
Ekpri eyibio
Ekpri ikwọ
Ekpri ọfiọñ
Donald C. Simmons, an anthropologist who undertook several studies on the Efik society asserts that the presence of the adjectives, Akwa "big" and Ekpri "small" suggests that the Efik may have once possessed a four-day week.
Each Efik day was of great importance in the religious life of the Efik. On Akwa ederi which was also known as Usen Ibet, day of rest, the Efik did not work but spent the day resting and feasting. Europeans also nicknamed Akwa ederi as "Calabar Sunday". The 8-day week had an adverse effect on the routine of European traders who often visited Old Calabar. Savage attests that the day was also dedicated to Eka ndem, the mother of Ndem. The Christian Sunday came to be known as due to the Christian prohibition of work on Sunday. It was common for families, houses and towns to have their separate deities. These communal deities were worshipped on Akwa eyibio. Akwa eyibio was originally known as Akwa ibibio but was later changed in 1967 by Chief Efiong Ukpong Aye. The use of Akwa ibibio has since become redundant. Akwa ikwọ was set aside for the display of the Ekpe masquerade (). On this day, women and non-Ekpe initiates were allowed to watch Ekpe displays. The last day of the Efik week was Akwa ọfiọñ. According to Savage, The national deity and patron of Nsibidi, Ekpenyong Obio Ndem was also worshipped on Akwa eyibio. Akwa ọfiọñ was also a day dedicated to grand Ekpe or Nyamkpe. On this day, slaves, women and non-Ekpe initiates were not allowed to watch the Ekpe display. Anyone who was prohibited from watching this display would usually not leave the door of their house open and would go through a bush path away from the ceremonies if they needed to undertake an errand.
Festivals
The timing of Festivals in Efik society was mainly indefinite. Definite festivals occurred at particular periods in the year at Old Calabar. Among such festivals were Ndọk and Usukabia. Ndọk was a biennial purification ceremony that occurred sometime between November and December. Usukabia was the ceremony of first partaking of new yams in the year. The festival occurred at the beginning of the harvest season. Environmental factors were the main determinant for the setting of the time and day of these festivals. Indefinite ceremonies included Victory in war celebrations; purification carried out after war or illness; the coronation of an Edidem; the funeral rites of an edidem.
See also
Ekpe
References
Bibliography
Calendars
Efik | Efik calendar | [
"Physics"
] | 730 | [
"Spacetime",
"Calendars",
"Physical quantities",
"Time"
] |
70,276,963 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Kurland | Charles Gabriel Kurland (born 14 January 1936) is an American-born Swedish biochemist.
Kurland earned a doctorate in 1961 at Harvard University, advised by James D. Watson. Kurland accepted a postdoctoral research position at the Microbiology Institute of the University of Copenhagen, then joined the Uppsala University faculty in 1971. He retired from Uppsala in 2001, and was granted emeritus status. He was later affiliated with Lund University.
Research
Kurland's doctoral work dealt the structure of RNA, and continued with the discovery of messenger RNA (mRNA), work that also involved François Gros, Walter Gilbert and James Watson. This was published simultaneously with the report by Sydney Brenner, François Jacob and Matthew Meselson of the same discovery. It was followed by numerous papers concerned with ribosomal proteins
In the later part of his career Kurland has been interested in the origins of mitochondria and the tree of life.
Academy memberships
Kurland was elected to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1988 as a foreign member, and reclassified as a Swedish member in 2002. The Estonian Academy of Sciences recognized his achievements in biochemistry, and awarded Kurland an equivalent honor in 1991.
References
1936 births
Living people
21st-century Swedish chemists
20th-century Swedish biologists
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Members of the Estonian Academy of Sciences
Academic staff of Uppsala University
Harvard University alumni
Academic staff of Lund University
American emigrants to Sweden
Swedish biochemists
20th-century American biochemists
21st-century American biochemists
Members of the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala
20th-century Swedish chemists | Charles Kurland | [
"Chemistry"
] | 323 | [
"Biochemistry stubs",
"Biochemists",
"Biochemist stubs"
] |
70,277,000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathysidus | Bathysidus pentagrammus, the five-lined constellation fish, is a hypothetical species of fish that was described by William Beebe on 11 August 1934, being spotted by the biologist as he descended to a depth of 580 metres (1900 feet) off the coast of Bermuda.
Background
The "bathysphere" was a new invention, being a rounded steel enclosure with space for two people, a thick external hull, and a single window, in diameter. Maneuverability was solely dependent on the ship it was tethered to. Beebe had no camera with him and instead described the species in detail to Else Bostelmann, an artist who proceeded to illustrate his findings.
Encounter
The fish was seen in solitude. It was described by Beebe as resembling a surgeon or butterflyfish. It was disc-like in appearance, with a 12 cm high and 15 cm across. Its fins were continuous and vertical; its eyes large. Bebe was intrigued by this fish's striking bioluminescence, which he described in the book Half Mile Down: "along the sides of the body were five unbelievably beautiful lines of light ... each line was composed of a series of large, pale yellow lights, and every one of these was surrounded by a semicircle of very small, but intensely purple photophores."
Explicitly impressed with its luminescence, Beebe assigned the fish a taxonomic name, Bathysidus pentagrammus. When translated, it roughly means "five-lined star of the depths". He then states that "in his memory it will live throughout his life as one of the loveliest things he has ever seen."
Status of existence
Of the five new fish described by Beebe during the Bathysphere dives, none of them were confirmed to exist. His colleague Otis Barton, who descended with him in the submersible, attested he had also seen them.
Ichthyologist Carl Hubbs has proposed that the creature encountered by Beebe was not a fish at all, but rather a ctenophore, or "comb jelly". He proposed that the distortion caused by the small viewing window could have caused the comb jelly to appear narrower and cause its distinctive luminous lines to have been intensified.
See also
Abyssal rainbow gar
Bathyceratias
Bathyembryx
Bathysphaera
References
Aquatic cryptids
Controversial fish taxa
Fish described in 1934 | Bathysidus | [
"Biology"
] | 494 | [
"Biological hypotheses",
"Controversial fish taxa",
"Controversial taxa"
] |
70,277,866 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathysphaera | Bathysphaera intacta, or the giant dragonfish, is a hypothetical species of fish described by William Beebe on 22 September 1932, having been spotted by the biologist as he descended to a depth of 640 metres (2100 feet) off the coast of Bermuda.
Background
Beebe's bathysphere was a new yet primitive invention. It was a rounded steel enclosure with space for two people, its external layer being 3 centimetres thick. On the side, there was a single window fifteen centimetres across. It was fitted with a heavy steel door that had to be bolted on. With no maneuverability, navigation of the bathysphere was dependent on the ship it had been attached to. Beebe used this submersible in his deep-sea expeditions from 1930 to 1934.
The encounter
Beebe encountered two fish, which he had described as "six feet long". He said they resembled barracudas, with short heads and jaws that were constantly opened, and that they were bioluminescent: "strong lights, pale bluish, were strung down the body". Beebe had brought no camera with him and instead described the species in detail to the artist Else Bostelmann, who illustrated his findings.
Bebe then expressed his justification for classifying them as dragonfish:
"Vertical fins well back were one of the characters which placed it among the sea-dragons, Melanostomiatids, and were clearly seen when the fish passed through the beam. There were two long tentacles, hanging down from the body, each tipped with a pair of separate, luminous bodies, the upper reddish, the lower one blue. These twitched and jerked along beneath the fish, one undoubtedly arising from the chin, and the other far back near the tail. I could see neither the stem of the tentacles nor any paired fins, although both were certainly present."
It was the first fish described by Beebe. In the name Bathysphaera intacta, "bathysphaera" refers to his submersible, and "intacta", in this context, means "untouchable".
Status of existence
None of the five new fish described by Beebe were confirmed to exist, except by his colleague Otis Barton, who descended with him in the submersible.
At the time, the largest dragonfish commonly attained lengths of 40 centimetres, a fact that Beebe acknowledges. He refers to the giant dragonfish as being "related to the scaleless black dragonfish (Melanostomias bartonbeani)".
Currently, the largest known dragonfish species is the obese dragonfish. It attains a maximum length of 55 centimetres, less than a third of the length of the fish Beebe saw.
See also
Abyssal rainbow gar
Bathyceratias
Bathyembryx
Bathysidus
References
Aquatic cryptids
Controversial fish taxa
Fish described in 1932 | Bathysphaera | [
"Biology"
] | 590 | [
"Biological hypotheses",
"Controversial fish taxa",
"Controversial taxa"
] |
70,278,060 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BZ%20Ursae%20Majoris | BZ Ursae Majoris is a dwarf nova star system in the northern circumpolar constellation of Ursa Major. It consists of a white dwarf primary in a close orbit with a red dwarf. The latter star is donating mass, which is accumulating in an accretion disk orbiting the white dwarf. The system is located at a distance of approximately 505 light years from the Sun based on parallax measurements.
This system was discovered to vary in brightness by B. E. Markaryan in 1968, and it was given the variable star designation BZ UMa. After four years of observation by the AAVSO, it was proposed to be a cataclysmic variable by M. Mayall. In 1982, R. F. Green and associates identified it as a cataclysmic variable candidate of the U Gem-type, based on its spectrum. The same year, W. Wenzel showed that this star had very long intervals between outbursts, placing it intermediate between the U Gem and WZ Sge classes. P. Szkody and L. Feinswog examined the infrared light curve of the system, estimating an orbital inclination of 60° with no evidence of heating from the white dwarf.
R. Claudi and associates in 1990 found a periodic modulation of hydrogen emission lines, indicating an orbital period of . They suggested it be classified as a SU UMa star. Spectroscopic examination of the system using the Hubble Space Telescope during 2001 showed an anomalous abundance ratio of nitrogen to carbon that indicates CNO-processing. This may be the result of an earlier evolutionary stage of the donor star that was stripped of its outer layers. A superoutburst was observed in 2007 that displayed superhumps. A lack of circular polarization indicates the white dwarf is not strongly magnetic, and thus this system is most likely not an intermediate polar.
References
Further reading
M-type main-sequence stars
Emission-line stars
White dwarfs
Dwarf novae
Ursa Major
Ursae Majoris, BZ | BZ Ursae Majoris | [
"Astronomy"
] | 419 | [
"Ursa Major",
"Constellations"
] |
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