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56,170,677 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelorism | Pelorism is the term, said to be first used by Charles Darwin, for the formation of 'peloric flowers' which botanically is the abnormal production of radially symmetrical (actinomorphic) flowers in a species that usually produces bilaterally symmetrical (zygomorphic) flowers. These flowers are spontaneous floral symmetry mutants. The term epanody is also applied to this phenomenon. Bilaterally symmetrical (zygomorphic) flowers are known to have evolved several times from radially symmetrical (actinomorphic) flowers, these changes being linked to increasing specialisation in pollinators.
History
Pelorism has been of interest since a five-spurred variety of the common toad-flax (Linaria vulgaris L.) was first discovered in 1742 by a young Uppsala botanist on an island in the Stockholm archipelago and then in 1744 described by Carl Linnaeus. The mutant, spreading vegetatively, had five spurs rather than the usual one; however, the rest of the plant was normal. Linnaeus found that this variety was contrary to his concept that genera and species had universally arisen through an act of "original creation and remained unchanged since then". Linnaeus called this type of mutant a 'Peloria', the Greek for 'monster' or 'prodigy', because of the huge implications for the then current belief that species were immutable. He wrote that "This is certainly no less remarkable than if a cow were to give birth to a calf with a wolf's head." The peloric plant fascinated Linnaeus to the extent that he grew it at his summer residence in Hammarby and his explanation for it was that a toad-flax had been pollinated by another species. Charles Darwin, Charles Victor Naudin, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Hugo de Vries amongst others analysed and wrote about this significant mutation.
The botanist Thomas Fairchild corresponded with Carl Linnæus. Fairchild scientifically produced an artificial hybrid, Dianthus caryophyllus x barbatus in 1717 that became known as 'Fairchild's Mule', a cross between a sweet william and a carnation. The production of hybrids further undermined the belief that species as created by God were immutable.
Appearance and causation
It is notable in foxgloves that the terminal flower more frequently develops peloric features than lateral flowers and this has had been put down to terminal buds having a greater supply of sap. Charles Darwin took a particular interest in peloric flowers, growing and cross-pollinating antirrhinums himself, as he saw the phenomenon as suggestive of a partial reversion to a past or ancestral type. Peloric forms quite commonly appear as random mutations in several orchid species in nature and this is genetically controlled, although the expression can be influenced by both environmental changes and by stresses. The occurrence is unstable and the same plant may exhibit normally on the next flowering.
In more highly evolved flowers such as orchids the details of pelorism may appear more complex with characteristics such as the two lateral petals replaced by two additional labella, the labellum replaced by an additional lateral petals in semipeloria or pseudopeloria where the modified labellum is less distinctively altered, however it is still distinguishable from the lateral petals and this confers a degree of zygomorphy upon the petal whorl.
Although the production of peloric flowers has been shown to generally follow standard Mendelian inheritance, this is not fixed and had been linked to the inability of a plant to produce normal internodes, this failure resulting in the fusion of flower buds, giving actinomorphic flowers. Foxglove plants show the terminal peloric bud flowering first followed by the more normal buds flowering below, the reverse of the normal flowering pattern, the terminal flowers withering first. The CYCLOIDEA (CYC) gene controls floral symmetry and peloric antirrhinums have been artificially induced by this gene being knocking out.
Etymology
Peloria derives from both new Latin and from the Greek word , meaning 'monstrous'.
Examples
Pelorism is found in several orchid species, such as Phalaenopsis it is demonstrated by flowers with abnormal numbers of petals or lips as a genetic trait, the expression of which is environmentally influenced and may appear random. It is widely noted in the mint family and species such as Digitalis purpurea, gloxinia, Antirrhinum majus, Pelargonium, and auricula. Because peloric flowers are larger and arguably more attractive than normal flowers plants such as cultivars of the gloxinia (Sinningia speciosa) have been deliberately bred to have peloric flowers.
See also
Floral symmetry
References
External links
Peloric Foxglove flowers
Further reading
Plant morphology | Pelorism | [
"Biology"
] | 984 | [
"Plant morphology",
"Plants"
] |
77,595,286 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%203914 | NGC 3914 is a barred spiral galaxy in the constellation of Virgo. Its velocity with respect to the cosmic microwave background is 6466 ± 25 km/s, which corresponds to a Hubble distance of 95.38 ± 6.69 Mpc (∼311 million light-years). However, six non-redshift measurements give a distance of 81.2 ± 2.8 Mpc (∼265 million light-years). The galaxy was discovered by German-British astronomer William Herschel on 13 April 1784.
The SIMBAD database lists NGC 3914 as a radio galaxy.
One supernova has been observed in NGC 3914: SN 2023fnj (type Ia, mag. 18.679) was discovered by ATLAS on 14 April 2023.
See also
List of NGC objects (3001–4000)
References
External links
3914
037014
+01-30-017
06809
11479+0650
Virgo (constellation)
17840413
Discoveries by William Herschel
Barred spiral galaxies
Radio galaxies | NGC 3914 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 214 | [
"Virgo (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
77,597,039 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrachloroiodic%20acid | Tetrachloroiodic acid is an inorganic compound, a polyhalide acid with the formula HICl4. In addition to an anhydrous form, an orange crystalline tetrahydrate is known. It is unstable in air.
Synthesis
Tetrachloroiodic acid may be formed by dissolution of iodine trichloride in concentrated hydrochloric acid:
Tetrachloroiodic acid may also be made by passing chlorine through a solution of iodine in concentrated hydrochloric acid :
Physical propieties
Tetrachloroiodic acid forms a crystal hydrate which has orange crystals that are unstable in air and melt by dissolving in their own water of crystallization at 19 °C.
See also
Iodine trichloride
References
Iodine compounds
Chlorine compounds | Tetrachloroiodic acid | [
"Chemistry"
] | 173 | [
"Inorganic compounds",
"Inorganic compound stubs"
] |
77,597,157 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20star%20systems%20within%2080%E2%80%9385%20light-years | This is a list of star systems within 80–85 light years of Earth.
Most data from this list come from the SIMBAD database.
See also
List of Stars
List of nearest stars
List of star systems within 75–80 light-years
List of star systems within 85–90 light-years
References
Lists of stars
Star systems
Lists by distance | List of star systems within 80–85 light-years | [
"Physics",
"Astronomy"
] | 70 | [
"Lists by distance",
"Physical quantities",
"Distance",
"Astronomical objects",
"Star systems"
] |
77,597,780 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C14H21NOS | {{DISPLAYTITLE:C14H21NOS}}
The molecular formula C14H21NOS may refer to:
Esproquin
Prosulfocarb | C14H21NOS | [
"Chemistry"
] | 35 | [
"Isomerism",
"Set index articles on molecular formulas"
] |
77,598,323 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20star%20systems%20within%2085%E2%80%9390%20light-years | This is a list of star systems within 85–90 light years of Earth.
The closest M-type red giant star, Gacrux, is in this list.
Most data from this list come from the SIMBAD database.
See also
List of star systems within 80–85 light-years
List of star systems within 90–95 light-years
References
Lists of stars
Star systems
Lists by distance | List of star systems within 85–90 light-years | [
"Physics",
"Astronomy"
] | 81 | [
"Lists by distance",
"Physical quantities",
"Distance",
"Astronomical objects",
"Star systems"
] |
77,598,920 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IRC%20Cloud | IRC Cloud is a cloud-based IRC client that is used via web browser, Android and iOS. IRC Cloud was founded by Richard Jones and James Wheare.
See also
Comparison of IRC clients
Further reading
IRC all the way down (ZNC + IRCCloud + Quassel)
References
IRC clients | IRC Cloud | [
"Technology"
] | 70 | [
"Computing stubs",
"Software stubs"
] |
77,599,492 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%205314 | NGC 5314 is a spiral galaxy in the constellation of Ursa Minor. Its velocity with respect to the cosmic microwave background is 9636 ± 100 km/s, which corresponds to a Hubble distance of 142.13 ± 10.17 Mpc (∼463 million light-years). It was discovered by American astronomer Lewis Swift on 8 April 1886.
One supernova has been observed in NGC 5314: SN 2023eyz (type Ia, mag. 20.4) was discovered by the Zwicky Transient Facility on 8 April 2023.
See also
List of NGC objects (5001–6000)
References
External links
5314
048810
+12-13-009
13450+7035
Ursa Minor
18860408
Discoveries by Lewis Swift
Spiral galaxies | NGC 5314 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 161 | [
"Ursa Minor",
"Constellations"
] |
77,599,586 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon%20Caron-Huot | Simon Caron-Huot (born 1984 in Saint-Eustache, Quebec) is a Canadian theoretical physicist.
Education and career
In 2009 Simon Caron-Huot graduated with a Ph.D. in physics from McGill University. His Ph.D. thesis was supervised by Guy David Moore. Caron-Huot was from 2009 to 2014 a postdoctoral member of the Institute for Advanced Study. At the Niels Bohr Institute he held a postdoctoral position from 2012 to 2016. At McGill University, he was from 2016 to 2022 an assistant professor and is since 2022 an associate professor. He has been a Visiting Fellow at the Perimeter Institute.
Research
Caron-Huot does research on scattering amplitudes in quantum chromodynamics and N=4 supersymmetric Yang-Mills theory, as well as the quark-gluon plasma in heavy ion collisions. He, with colleagues such as Nima Arkani-Hamed, Freddy Cachazo, and Johannes Henn, have done research on symmetries that link gravity, the energy levels of the hydrogen atom, and the strong and weak interactions. Such mathematical symmetries open up the possibility that the N=4 supersymmetric Yang-Mills theory is the first nontrivial quantum field theory in four dimensions that can be solved exactly. Caron-Huot and colleagues showed that, in this type of Yang-Mills theory, bound states can be solved exactly due to hidden conformal symmetries, similar to the quantum mechanical Kepler problem (with the Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector as a conserved quantity).
Awards and honours
In 2017 Simon Caron-Huot received the Gribov Medal for "his ground-breaking conttibutions to the understanding of the analytic structure of scattering amplitudes and their relation to Wilson loops." In 2018 the International Colloquium on Group Theoretical Methods in Physics (ICGTMP) awarded the ICGTMP's Hermann Weyl Prize to him and David Simmons-Duffin. In 2020 Simon Caron-Huot was awarded a two-year Sloan Research Fellowship, and he and Pedro Vieira were awarded the New Horizons in Physics Prize for "profound contributions to the understanding of quantum field theory." The Canadian Association of Physicists (CAP) awarded Caron-Huot the 2021 CAP Herzberg Medal for "his creation and development of nonperturbative techniques in conformal field theory, thereby opening the way to broad-ranging applications from particle physics to condensed matter physics." In 2023 he received the Larkin Junior Researcher Award of the William I. Fine Theoretical Physics Institute. In 2024 the Niels Bohr International Academy, which is hosted by the Niels Bohr Institute, awarded him the Lars Kann-Rasmussen Prize.
Selected publications
References
External links
Part 2
Part 3
1984 births
Living people
21st-century Canadian physicists
Theoretical physicists
Sloan Research Fellows
McGill University Faculty of Science alumni
Academic staff of McGill University
Scientists from Quebec | Simon Caron-Huot | [
"Physics"
] | 612 | [
"Theoretical physics",
"Theoretical physicists"
] |
77,599,850 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAM%20%28clade%29 | The CAM clade is a clade containing the Archaeplastida (Plantae sensu lato) and the clade Pancryptista (which, in turn, contains Cryptista and Microheliella maris). This clade is supported by phylogenomic analyses from 2022 that mainly support the clade Pancryptista, but also mention that Archaeplastida's closest lineage is Pancryptista, making them sister taxa. Together, they form the clade CAM, which stands for the constituent clades (Cryptista, Archaeplastida, and Microheliella).
Classification
The following cladogram shows the placement of the subclades within CAM:
References
Diaphoretickes taxa
Eukaryote unranked clades | CAM (clade) | [
"Biology"
] | 162 | [
"Eukaryotes",
"Eukaryote stubs",
"Eukaryote taxa"
] |
77,599,882 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HD%2063754 | HD 63754, also known as HR 3048, is a G-type dwarf star, located in the constellation Puppis some 164 light-years away. It is orbited by a brown dwarf companion.
Characteristics
The stellar classification of HR 3048 is G0V, meaning that it is a main-sequence star fusing atoms of hydrogen into helium at its core. It has 1.41 times the mass of the Sun, 2.1 times the radius of the Sun, as well as five times its luminosity. This star appears slightly evolved as a main sequence star, and has an age estimated to be higher than 3.4 billion years. The surface of HD 63754 has a temperature of 6,088 K, giving it a yellow-white hue typical of early G-type stars. It is metal-enriched, with an abundance of iron 60% larger than that of the Sun.
Its apparent magnitude of 6.55 means that it is slightly below the limit for naked eye visibility of 6.5m. This limit, however, depends on many factors such as pupil dilatation and light pollution. While HD 63754 is not naked-eye visible in most skies, it may be visible using a small telescope or binoculars instead.
Motion
HD 63754 is approximately 160 light-years from Earth and is estimated to be at least 3.4 billion years old. The space velocity components of this star are , and . It is orbiting the Milky Way with a minimum distance of and a maximum distance of from the Galactic Center. Its orbit lies no more than from the galactic plane.
Substellar companion
In 2024, the presence of a substellar companion to HD 63754 was announced, based on direct imaging observations from the Near Infrared Camera 2 at the Keck Observatory, as well as astrometric observations. This companion, named HD 63754 B, is a brown dwarf at a distance of 20 astronomical units from its host, completing an orbit around it every 73 years. The orbit has a low eccentricity of 0.26 and an almost face-on inclination of .
The dynamical mass of the companion is measured at 82 times the mass of Jupiter. This place it at the edge of the hydrogen burning limit – the dividing line between brown dwarfs and stars. Its effective temperature is of , consistent with an object between the spectral types L and T. The luminosity and temperature indicate that it is a brown dwarf rather than a low-mass star. Despite its large mass, HD 63754 B is smaller than Jupiter, with times its radius.
HD 63754 B appears to be more massive than expected. Evolutionary models predict a mass of to , in disagreement with the dynamical mass estimate of . The reason for this discrepancy is not well known but there are three scenarios to explain it. The first scenario is that HD 63754 B has a binary companion emitting little infrared radiation, with a low mass ratio. The second scenario is that there are additional companions to HD 63754, that have not been detected during the direct imaging observations. The third scenario is that there are systematic problems with the evolutionary models used.
See also
List of brown dwarfs
List of smallest stars
References
G-type main-sequence stars
Puppis
Brown dwarfs
Henry Draper Catalogue objects
Hipparcos objects
Bright Star Catalogue objects
2MASS objects
Durchmusterung objects | HD 63754 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 689 | [
"Puppis",
"Constellations"
] |
77,600,310 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandre%20Pourcel | Alexandre Pourcel was a French steelmaker who won the Bessemer Gold Medal in 1909. He developed ferro-manganese and showed his work at the 1878 World's Fair, where it interested Robert Hadfield so much that he invented Mangalloy as a result.
Life
Pourcel was born in Marseille in 1841.
Pourcel studied at the Ecole des Mines in St. Etienne, now École nationale supérieure des mines de Saint-Étienne.
Pourcel worked all his life at the Forges de Terrenoire or located in (now part of Saint-Étienne).
In 1909 Pourcel was awarded an Honorary Membership in the AIME.
Pourcel died in 1934.
References
French inventors
French metallurgists
Bessemer Gold Medal
1841 births
1934 deaths | Alexandre Pourcel | [
"Chemistry"
] | 158 | [
"Bessemer Gold Medal",
"Chemical engineering awards"
] |
77,600,684 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%203557 | NGC 3557 is a large elliptical galaxy in the constellation of Centaurus. Its velocity with respect to the cosmic microwave background is 3398 ± 23 km/s, which corresponds to a Hubble distance of 50.12 ± 3.53 Mpc (∼163 million light-years). However, 20 non-redshift measurements give a distance of 32.905 ± 2.289 (∼107 million light-years). The galaxy was discovered by British astronomer John Herschel on 21 April 1835.
The SIMBAD database lists NGC 3557 as a Seyfert I Galaxy, i.e. it has a quasar-like nuclei with very high surface brightnesses whose spectra reveal strong, high-ionisation emission lines, but unlike quasars, the host galaxy is clearly detectable. Additionally, NED lists NGC 3557 as a LINER galaxy, i.e. a galaxy whose nucleus has an emission spectrum characterized by broad lines of weakly ionized atoms.
One supernova has been observed in NGC 3557: SN 2023bpx (type Ia, mag. 17) was discovered by the Backyard Observatory Supernova Search (BOSS) on 12 February 2023.
NGC 3557 Group
NGC 3557 is the largest and brightest galaxy in a group of galaxies that bears its name. The NGC 3557 group (also known as LGG 229) includes at least eleven galaxies, including NGC 3533, NGC 3557B, NGC 3564, NGC 3568 and NGC 3573.
Image gallery
See also
List of NGC objects (3001–4000)
References
External links
3557
033871
-06-25-005
ESO 377-016
Centaurus
18350421
Discoveries by John Herschel
Elliptical galaxies
Seyfert galaxies
LINER galaxies | NGC 3557 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 365 | [
"Centaurus",
"Constellations"
] |
77,601,178 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julia%20B%C3%B6ttcher | Julia Böttcher is a German discrete mathematician and a professor of mathematics at the London School of Economics. Her research involves graph theory, including graph and hypergraph packing problems, random graphs and random subgraphs, and the relations between graph parameters including graph bandwidth, degree, and chromatic number.
Education and career
After secondary school in Erfurt, Böttcher studied computer science at the Humboldt University of Berlin, with an exchange year at the University of Toronto. She earned a diploma in 2005. She completed a Ph.D. in mathematics at the Technical University of Munich in 2009, with the dissertation Embedding Large Graphs – The Bollobás-Komlós Conjecture and Beyond supervised by Anusch Taraz.
After postdoctoral research at Technical University of Munich and at the University of São Paulo in Brazil, Böttcher became a lecturer at the London School of Economics in 2012. She was named as an associate professor in 2016 and promoted to professor in 2020.
Recognition
Böttcher was a recipient of the 2018 Fulkerson Prize for her research with Robert Morris, Yoshiharu Kohayakawa, Simon Griffiths, an Peter Allen on "the chromatic thresholds of graphs" relating the degree and the chromatic number of graphs with a forbidden induced subgraph.
She was an invited speaker at the 2022 (virtual) International Congress of Mathematicians, speaking on hypergraph packing.
References
External links
Home page
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
German mathematicians
German women mathematicians
Humboldt University of Berlin alumni
Technical University of Munich alumni
Graph theorists
Academics of the London School of Economics | Julia Böttcher | [
"Mathematics"
] | 320 | [
"Mathematical relations",
"Graph theory",
"Graph theorists"
] |
77,601,411 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qianfan | Qianfan (), officially known as the Spacesail Constellation and also referred to as G60 Starlink, is a planned Chinese low-Earth orbit satellite internet megaconstellation to create a system of worldwide internet coverage. It was created by Shanghai Spacecom Satellite Technology (SSST), a firm backed by the Shanghai Municipal People's Government and the Chinese Academy of Sciences. The project was started in 2024 as a rival to the Starlink satellite constellation installed by SpaceX, and plans to be constituted of over 15,000 satellites by the project's end.
History
2023
The "Thousand Sails" program began with the creation of the "Shanghai Action Plan to Promote Commercial Aerospace Development and Create a Space Information Industry Highland (2023-2025)" program first announced on 20 November. The government of Shanghai raised 6.7 billion Chinese Yuan ($943 million) in funds for the construction of the project, which was initially dubbed the G60 Starlink.
The first flat panel satellite for the megaconstellation was assembled in December 2023. The satellite's facilities were allocated to the state owned Shanghai Gesi Aerospace Technology (Genesat).
2024
On 6 August 2024 at 06:42 UTC, China launched its first set of eighteen flat panel satellites associated with the project using the Long March 6A launch vehicle, China's 35th orbital launch in the year 2024. The rocket launched from the Taiyuan Launch Complex located in the north of Shanxi Province, and brought the satellites into a polar orbit. The Chinese Academy of Sciences and the China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation both reported that the space mission was "a complete success". However, the United States Space Command reported that soon after the delivery of 18 satellites, the upper stage of Long March 6A broke apart and created a cloud of debris of “over 300 pieces of trackable debris in low-Earth orbit”.
On 15 October 2024 at 11:06 UTC, a Long March 6A rocket launched the second group of eighteen Qianfan satellites into a polar orbit.
On 5 December 2024 at 04:41 UTC, a third group of eighteen Qianfan satellites were launched into a polar orbit by a Long March 6A rocket.
Future
Based on Chinese state media China Central Television coverage, China has planned to launch and establish 648 satellites by the end of 2025 as part of the 1,296 satellites in the first phase of construction of the constellation, with the finished broadband multimedia satellite megaconstellation consisting of over 15,000 internet satellites. Of these, 108 satellites were planned to be deployed in 2024 in separate launches of 36 and 54 internet satellites each, and would operate in "Ku, Q and V" bands.
The system also planned to annex finite frequencies and orbital slots, and also provide data security. The People's Liberation Army expressed intentions of potentially using the megaconstellation for military uses akin to Starlink's utility for Ukrainian Armed Forces communications while fighting against Russia during the Russian invasion of Ukraine.
Launches
Impact on astronomy
Qianfan satellites are bright, and they pose a threat to observational astronomy. At their current luminosity the spacecraft will leave streaks in photographic research images that cannot be removed by software. They would also interfere with aesthetic appreciation of the night sky because they are visible to the unaided eye. Other spacecraft operators have mitigated the brightness of the satellites to reduce their impact on astronomy.
See also
Chang'e 6
Shensuo
SVOM
Queqiao 2
References
Space program of the People's Republic of China
2024 in spaceflight
2024 in China
2024 in Shanghai
Communications satellite constellations
Communications satellites in low Earth orbit
Communications satellites of China
Internet service providers
Satellite Internet access
Spacecraft launched in 2024
Wireless networking
Space technology | Qianfan | [
"Astronomy",
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 768 | [
"Space technology",
"Wireless networking",
"Computer networks engineering",
"Outer space"
] |
77,602,159 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embaphias | Embaphias is a dubious genus of plesiosaur from the Late Cretaceous of North America. It was named by Edward Drinker Cope on the basis of three cervical vertebrae. The type species is E. circulosus.
See also
List of plesiosaur genera
References
Late Cretaceous plesiosaurs of North America
Fossil taxa described in 1894
Taxa named by Edward Drinker Cope
Plesiosaurs
Nomina dubia | Embaphias | [
"Biology"
] | 91 | [
"Biological hypotheses",
"Nomina dubia",
"Controversial taxa"
] |
77,602,408 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isoproturon | Isoproturon (IPU) is a urea class selective herbicide, which has been used to control annual grasses and many broad leafed weeds in wheat, barley, rye and triticale.
Isoproturon was introduced in 1971 by Hoechst AG, (now AgrEvo GmbH), Rhône-Poulenc and Ciba-Geigy AG. It was once one of the most widely used herbicides in the world, however it has suffered various bans, including the USA, and until 2016 was sold in 22 European countries.
Regulation
IPU is used in India.
Australia
Isoproturon was never registered in Australia. Agronomist Bill Crabtree estimates potential A$47 billion savings if IPU had been available since 1980. 4Farmers' attempt to register IPU is ongoing.
United Kingdom
Isoproturon is used in the UK.
Isoproturon was banned in March 2007, taking effect in July 2009, due to its effects on the aquatic environment.
By 2014 the ban was reversed. Lower concentration formulations, notably Blutron, with 250 g/L IPU and 50 g/L diflufenican, were for sale. Greater solubility allows lower concentrations of IPU and greater plant uptake -- lessening the residue left in the environment.
European Union
Isoproturon's registration in the European Union is expired, though under EC Regulation 1107/2009 it is approved in the Netherlands and no other EU member nation. The EU's ban took effect from the 30th of September 2016.
The EU Commission, that also banned amitrole, did so only partially on endocrine disruption concerns, and other unclear grounds. If it had been for only endocrine disruption, it is likely exemptions would be available (for 'serious danger to plant health' or 'negligible exposure') under EU law. The European Court of Justice ruled in December 2015 that the commission illegally broke their "clear, precise and unconditional obligation" to publish scientific criteria.
United States
Isoproturon is not registered in the United States. Presumably, it has never been registered.
Ecodegradation
Isoproturon is non-persistent in soil; very photochemically stable, and stable to acids and alkalis, but under sustained ultraviolet light can degrade into some eleven products, and can be hydrolytically cleaved by strong bases on heating.
Degradation is mainly N-demethylation and oxidation of the ring-isopropyl group. Variations in order give rise to a few possible pathways, and the balance of demethylation and oxidation can allow selective activity of the herbicide. Both reactions may occur, making a typical degradation product of 2-(4-Aminophenyl)propan-2-ol (also called
Dimethyl-p-Aminobenzylalkohol), which is an irritant and may be harmful if swallowed.
Most isoproturon is expected to have degraded in soil after 6-28 days; the rate is temperature sensitive as the process is driven by enzymes and microbes. In water, the DT50 is 40 days, and in water sediments 149 days.
Metabolism in plants usually follows the path beginning with isopropyl side chain oxidation.
Toxicology
Isoproturon is in the WHO's toxicity class III: Slightly Hazardous. The oral LD50 is 3350 mg/kg (mice), and percutaneously for rats is >2000 mg/kg. It is non-irritating to skin and eyes, as tested on rabbits. A dietary NOEL over 90 days for rates is 80 mg/kg, for dogs 50 mg/kg. IPU is an endocrine disruptor.
Isoproturon is not toxic to bees and birds but can harm fish, with LC50 of 191 mg/L (carp), guppies 91 mg/L, and catfish just 9 mg/L. The UK Environment Agency set a non-statutatory acceptable average water limit of 2 μg/L or 20 μg/L in one measurement. In rats, the half life of ingested isoproturon is about 8 hours, excretion being 86% through urination.
Application
Technical grade isoproturon is >97% pure, and is then sold as an active ingredient in commercial formulations, usually as an SC, suspended concentrate, or WP, wettable powder.
Diflufenican is a Class C2 (or Group 7) resistance class herbicide.
Synthesis
IPU is synthesised from cumene, to which HNO3 is reacted, forming p.nitrocumene. The nitrite group then is reacted with hydrogen to replace its two oxygen atoms. Phosgene is reacted to p.cumidine, which replaces one of phosgene's chlorine atoms, and then dimethyl amine completes the chain, replacing the other chlorine atom. An alternative route, involving the more direct combination of p.cumidine, urea and dimethyl amine, exists.
Lists
Weeds controlled by IPU include annual grasses, such as black-twitch, common windgrass, common wild oat, and annual meadow grass. It is used in spring and winter to control many annual broad leaved weeds.
Isoproturon is used on crops such as wheat, rye, barley, triticale, sugarcane, citrus, cotton, asparagus, oilseed rape, peas, spring field beans, sugar beet, potatoes, carrots, brassicas and onions. It is not used on durum wheat because of isoproturon's phytotoxicity to it, however it is nonphytotoxic to other cereals.
Isoproturon's herbicide resistance class is class C2 (HRAC) or class 7 (WSSA). Black-twitch and lesser canary grass have shown resistant examples.
Tradenames
Isoproturon
Alon (AgrEvo)
Arelon (AgrEvo)
Avanon (Gharda)
Blutron (Agform)
Isoguard (Gharda)
Graminon (Ciba-Geigy AG)
Phytosanitaire (Rhone-Poulenc)
Tolkan (Rhone-Poulenc)
References
Links
Ureas
Herbicides
Endocrine disruptors
Isopropyl compounds
Dimethylamino compounds | Isoproturon | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 1,324 | [
"Herbicides",
"Endocrine disruptors",
"Organic compounds",
"Biocides",
"Ureas"
] |
77,602,831 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20star%20systems%20within%2090%E2%80%9395%20light-years | This is a list of star systems within 90–95 light years of Earth.
See also
List of nearest stars
List of star systems within 85–90 light-years
List of star systems within 95–100 light-years
References
Lists of stars
Star systems
Lists by distance | List of star systems within 90–95 light-years | [
"Physics",
"Astronomy"
] | 55 | [
"Lists by distance",
"Physical quantities",
"Distance",
"Astronomical objects",
"Star systems"
] |
77,602,852 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20star%20systems%20within%2095%E2%80%93100%20light-years | This is a list of star systems within 95–100 light years of Earth.
See also
List of nearest stars
List of star systems within 90–95 light-years
List of star systems within 100–150 light-years
References
Lists of stars
Star systems
Lists by distance | List of star systems within 95–100 light-years | [
"Physics",
"Astronomy"
] | 55 | [
"Lists by distance",
"Physical quantities",
"Distance",
"Astronomical objects",
"Star systems"
] |
77,603,504 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WASP-178 | WASP-178, also known as KELT-26 and HD 134004, is a star located about away in the southern constellation of Lupus. It is a hot A-type main sequence star or subgiant, a likely Am star, and a possible Delta Scuti variable, about twice as massive as the Sun and twenty times as luminous. In late 2019, the star was discovered to be orbited by an ultra-hot Jupiter planet, WASP-178b, making it one of the hottest stars known to host a hot Jupiter.
Physical properties
WASP-178 has a spectral type of A1IV-V, indicating that it is in an evolutionary stage between a main sequence star and a subgiant. The star is comparable to Sirius A in mass and radius, but slightly cooler, older, and less luminous. It is about twice as massive as the Sun and has a radius of 1.67 or 1.80 , with an effective temperature of roughly 9,000 K. A 2019 estimate of makes WASP-178 the second-hottest host to a hot Jupiter ever discovered, behind KELT-9 (10,170 K) and ahead of MASCARA-2 (8,980 K), though a lower estimate () provided by another paper may put it below MASCARA-2. The star is around 20 times brighter than the Sun and is million years old. For comparison, Sirius A has a mass of 2.063 , a radius of 1.711 , an effective temperature of 9,940 K, a luminosity of 25.4 , and an age of 242 Myr.
Much like Sirius A, the star is a likely Am star and a slow rotator, with a rotational velocity of 8.2–12.2 km/s. For comparison, Sirius A has a rotational velosity of 16 km/s, while typical A-type stars rotate much faster at around 160 km/s. It has a near- or above-solar metallicity. The star is rich in chromium, nickel, yttrium, and barium, while being slightly poor in calcium and scandium.
Variability
Aside from periodic dimming caused by the transiting planet, the star experiences regular oscillations in brightness by a few thousandths of a magnitude. The period at which the oscillations occur is measured to be 0.185 days, almost exactly one-eighteenth of WASP-178b's orbital period. The planet's mass is likely too small to cause periodic swaying of the host star, therefore it remains to be known whether this is merely coincidental.
The nature of the luminosity fluctuations, namely the period and amplitude, along with the star's position within the instability strip in the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram implies that WASP-178 may be a Delta Scuti variable.
Possible stellar companion
Significant excess noise in the astrometry, totaling to 0.18 milliarcseconds in 254 astrometric measurements, is reported for WASP-178 in the Gaia DR2 catalogue. This may suggest a previously unresolved and invisible binary companion.
Planetary system
In 2019, two teams, part of the WASP and KELT planet surveys respectively, independently reported the discovery of an exoplanet orbiting the star using the transit method. The planet was revealed to be an ultra-hot Jupiter revolving around the star every 3.3 days a mere away, heating its surface up to a white-hot . As a result of intense stellar radiation it receives, some of the highest known in an ultra-hot Jupiter, the planet's atmosphere is inflated to a radius of or , placing it among the largest planets discovered so far.
Photometric observations at the CHEOPS space telescope revealed that the planet has a low geometric albedo of 0.1–0.35, typical of giant planets. Based on this, the dayside temperature of WASP-178b is estimated at 2,250–2,800 K, more than enough to vaporize silicate rock. As one side of the planet always faces the star (tidal locking), the atmosphere on the heated daytime side blows across the planet toward the nighttime side in winds reaching upwards of . On the nightside of the planet, minerals that evaporated on the dayside may cool and condense into rock that pours down from clouds as rain. Silicon monoxide in particular was reported to have been discovered on WASP-178b in 2022, the first time the compound was detected in an exoplanet, but consistent with theoretical models on silicate minerals at high temperatures. In 2024, however, a follow-up study found that the atmosphere was instead more likely dominated by ionized magnesium and iron.
References
Lupus (constellation)
134004
Durchmusterung objects
A-type main-sequence stars
Am stars
Planetary systems with one confirmed planet
J15090488-4242178
Planetary systems
Stars
1337, TOI
Planetary transit variables | WASP-178 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 1,019 | [
"Constellations",
"Lupus (constellation)"
] |
77,603,837 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold%20Cystoscope%20Award | The Gold Cystoscope Award founded in 1936, revised in 1977, and named after the cystoscope, is awarded annually by the American Urological Association. The first recipient was Donald G. Skinner.
List of awardees
Ranjith Ramasamy 2023
Angela Smith 2022
Stacy Loeb 2021
Edward J. McGuire 1982
E. Darracott Vaughan 1981
Stuart S. Howards 1979
Carl A. Olsson 1978
Patrick C. Walsh 1977
Donald G. Skinner 1976
References
Awards established in 1936
Urology
Medicine awards | Gold Cystoscope Award | [
"Technology"
] | 106 | [
"Science and technology awards",
"Science award stubs",
"Medicine awards"
] |
77,605,219 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangular%20election%20in%20France | In French politics, a triangular election () is a characteristic of the French electoral system, due to the two-round voting system for elections to the National Assembly. A triangular election occurs when three candidates from the first round have reached the retention threshold and do not withdraw in the second round. The winner of this election is determined by a relative majority. Depending on the elimination thresholds adopted for the first round, the second round may also give rise to a quadrangular election (4), or even a quinquangular (5) or sexangular election (6).
Triangular elections were particularly notable in the 2024 French legislative election between the , New Popular Front, and the Union of the Far-Right.
Origins
The first triangular elections appeared with the foundation of the two-round majority single-member constituency system. This electoral system was put in place during the legislative elections of 1852, then continued during the Second French Empire. The two-round system then continued under the French Third Republic, from the elections of 1876.
This voting method was originally considered favourable to the Legitimists, Orleanists, and Bonapartists, three political movements of the French right wing, who suffered from division. Indeed, in the case of an incomplete bipolarization, where a divided bloc withdraws in favour of the best of them during the second round, the triangular configuration is then more favourable to the political camp which has two qualified candidates.
Thus, this election characterizes the politics of France, as in order to be represented in the National Assembly without being able to win alone, you must have the support of other parties, in theory making the result more representative .
In various elections
The presence of triangular races depends on the voting method of the elections, and more particularly on the qualification threshold for the second round:
Triangular elections are observed less and less during legislative elections, which elects deputies to the National Assembly, where it is necessary to obtain at least 12.5% of registered voters to be able to remain (in the case where two other candidates have also crossed the 12.5% threshold). However as stated previously, a notable exception to this trend is the 2024 Legislative Election, where a record 306 triangulaires were observed in a tight race between three electoral coalitions.
Triangular elections are impossible during a presidential election as the runoff only takes place between the top two candidates. However, the French Constitution allows withdrawals in favour of another candidate, which does not prevent strategies inspired by legislative elections.
Triangular elections have become rarer in because successive French governments have regularly increased the threshold for remaining in the second round, to their advantage, this being now placed at 12.5% of registered voters.
In municipal elections, since 1983, half of the seats have been distributed proportionally, but there has been a threshold for access to the second round in cities with more than 1,000 inhabitants. This is set at 10% of the votes cast, thus allowing the phenomenon of triangular and quadrangular races in politically divided municipalities.
In , they previously had a single round, but the latest reform in 2003 modelled the municipal system, with a threshold for access to the second round of 10% of the votes cast, which gave rise to numerous three-way contests in 2004, 2010 and 2015.
Number of triangular elections
Legislative elections
Source:
1958: 235
1962: 129
1967: 65
1968: 49
1973: 96
1978: 1
1981: 1
1986: single-round proportional voting (no three-way race possible).
1988: 8
1993: 15
1997: 79 (105 before withdrawals)
2002: 10
2007: 1 (12 before withdrawals)
2012: 34 (46 before withdrawals)
2017:1
2022: 7 (8 before withdrawals)
2024: 89 (306 before withdrawals)
Regional elections
In the 2021 French regional elections, there were several run-offs, with the second round preventing the National Rally from winning any regions.
Influential factors
The number of three-way races in the various elections during the French Fifth Republic is thus relatively disparate; as it does not stabilize around any value. This is because many influencing factors, sometimes favouring the presence of three-way races, sometimes causing the number of second rounds with more than two candidates to fall, must be studied to better understand this evolution.
The minimum threshold to be a candidate in the second round
Threshold
The higher the election threshold required to qualify for the second round, the fewer candidates there will be who will reach the second round and therefore the fewer three-way races there will be.
Development
It must also be said, concerning the legislative elections, that this bar of one eighth of registered voters has not always been the same.
The information below shows the different changes of this threshold:
Following the ordinances of 1958 and 1959 which re-established among other things the ywo-round system, the minimum threshold of registered voters required to be in the second round was 5%
After law number 66-1022 was passed on December 29, 1966, the minimum threshold of registered voters required to be in the ballot changed to 10 % ;
After law number 76-665 was passed on July 19, 1976, the minimum threshold of registered voters required to be in the ballot increased to: 12.5%. This remains the case today.
The graph above is also very telling, as we see that the number of second rounds with more than two candidates collapses as the threshold is increased.
Furthermore, there were no more: sexangular; nor quinquangular after the threshold change of 1966, and the number of quadrangular elections also reduced drastically.
Depending on its nature (in % of registered or in % of expressed)
Finally if the threshold for remaining in the second round is a percentage of votes cast, which is the case for and municipal elections (for municipalities with more than 1,000 inhabitants) then it is then easier for a list or for a candidate to succeed in crossing this threshold, because too low a turnout would therefore have no influence on the election.
Indeed, in the case of and legislative elections where a percentage threshold of registered voters is in force, candidates wishing to qualify for the second round are dependent on abstention.
The participation rate
The voter turnout is a significant factor influencing the number of three-way races in and legislative elections.
Indeed, within the framework of a threshold of maintenance set at (12.5%) of registered voters, for 3 candidates to qualify, the 3rd must therefore win at least one eighth of the votes of registered voters. But this then assumes that at least three eighths of registered voters (37.5%) go to the polls, because if the first two candidates receive, de facto, as many or more votes as the 3rd (25% of registered voters minimum between them).
Thus, an abstention rate exceeding 62.5% prohibits any possibility of a three-way race in the second round.The calculation of the threshold for maintaining votes cast: divide one eighth by the participation rate.
From the participation rate, it is then possible to use the expression opposite to formulate the retention threshold as a percentage of votes cast..
In fact, we start from the retention threshold (12.5% or one eighth as presented in the formula) and divide it by the ratio of voters who expressed themselves to the number of registered voters.
The retention rates for certain scenarios are set out in the table below:
We then understand that the higher the participation, the more it favours the possibility of there being a triangular election because the maintenance rate, as a percentage of those expressed, is then lower.
However, when comparing the evolution of the participation rate and the number of second rounds with more than two candidates during the legislative elections under the Fifth Republic, the correlation is far from obvious, as shown in the graph opposite.
However, from this graph we can see two things:
Turnout must be high enough to have many second rounds with more than two candidates (1958; 1962; 1973; 1997 and 2024)
On the other hand, if participation is very high, this does not necessarily imply a large number of second rounds with more than two candidates (1978; 1981; 1993)
Thanks to these two curves, we can then better understand the role of participation in the frequency of appearance of triangular races: the higher it is, the more it favours the possibility of there being second rounds with more than two candidates (as was explained previously)
On the other hand, the fact that participation is very high does not systematically imply that the number of triangular races is skyrocketing, for the simple reason that other factors must be taken into account.
Bipolarization and tripolarization
Another factor influencing the number of triangular races is the presence of partisanship, which in France is known as bipolarisation or tripolarisation .
To better understand the subject, here are some historical explanations concerning the action of these phenomena on French parliamentary life between 1958 and 1997:
Before the 1970s and 1980s, there were not, strictly speaking, two major political forces in opposition. Indeed, the SFIO (then the FGDS), the socialists, and the PCF the communists, did not stand down to help each other, although they were both left-wing. Similarly, the currents ranging from the radicals to the moderate right opposed the candidates of the Gaullist party. A form of multi-party democracy dominated at that time.
The bipolarization of parliamentary life was, on the other hand, fully acquired between the elections of 1978 and 1986. Indeed, during this period, we find two large coalitions which alternately hold power: the parliamentary right (composed of the RPR and the UDF) and the parliamentary left (composed of the socialists and the communists)
But from the 1986 elections, Jean-Marie Le Pen's National Front began to gain momentum during the legislative elections. More particularly in 1997, his party made a fairly significant breakthrough. Although the FN's score was respectable in the first round, it won very few seats in the National Assembly, in particular because of withdrawals in order to form
"a Republican Front" against the extreme right. We cannot truly speak of tripolarization, because Jean-Marie Le Pen's party had too little presence in the chamber, but we can still point to the rise of a third camp in French political life.
The relationship between bipolarization, tripolarization and the number of second rounds is therefore as follows:
In the event of bipolarization, voters will massively shift to two political camps (in a more or less balanced way). In this situation, the other candidates will then receive very few votes: in general, they will not reach the minimum threshold of registered voters to qualify for the second round.
Bipolarization thus favours duels between two parties.
On the other hand, in the event of tripolarization, the votes of the French will be distributed in particular among 3 political groups (in a more or less balanced way). Thus, in this situation and with a fairly good turnout, the three candidates will be selected in the second round.
Tripolarization thus favours triangular elections.
By superimposing this influence factor on the curve of second rounds with more than two candidates during the legislative elections (1958 - 1997), the correlation is more accurate.
During the period when multipartyism dominated, many second rounds took place with more than two candidates. Also, we note more precisely the presence of quadrangular, quinquangular and sexangular: this would not happen again during the century after the 1973 elections, the last marked by multipartyism
During the period of bipolarization, the number of triangular races collapses, to only one occurrence for each election
Finally, as the National Front began to gain momentum around 1986, the number of second rounds with more than two candidates rose again, reaching a fairly high figure in 1997. Indeed, during these elections, Jean-Marie Le Pen's party made a breakthrough: the number of three-way contests peaked at 79 (105 before the withdrawals)
Withdrawals
Finally, a final crucial factor in understanding the number of triangular elections is the phenomenon of withdrawal from the second round.
Indeed, in the case of the 2024 French legislative election in which 89 triangular races were recorded. This number may be surprising because it represents only ten more than in the 1997 French legislative election, in a context where the National Front collected far fewer votes than the National Rally, and where the tripolarization of French political was similar to 2024.
To understand, you have to know that before the withdrawals, the number of three-way races was 306, a value in line with the context of tripolarization and high participation mentioned above. In the end, no less than two thirds of the three-way races were cancelled, because many candidates withdrew. The reason is as follows: while the National Rally came out on top in the first round in many constituencies, the presidential majority and the new popular front decided to withdraw their candidates who came in third place, in order to "block the extreme right" and form a "Republican Front".
This process of withdrawing the least well-placed candidates to prevent the first from winning the election had already happened before, but in a much less widespread way.
The lowest placed candidates having withdrawn, this explains why the number of real three-way races is not as high as one might think.
Synthesis
To summarize the different factors impacting the number of triangular elections and their influence, here is a summary table:
*Note that in the case of regional and municipal elections (of more than 1000 inhabitants) where the retention threshold is calculated from the number of votes cast, the participation rate has no influence on the number of three-way races.
Quadrangular, quinquangular...
Beyond the triangular election scenario, quadrangular, quinquangular, sexangular, heptangular or even octangular elections may also occur, during which four, five, six, seven or eight candidates respectively remain in the second round.
These situations, more common during regional and municipal elections, remain extremely rare during legislative elections.
Notes and references
Notes
I'd like to point out that this article was largely made possible by the corresponding article in French.
Références
Elections in France
Politics of France
Numbering in politics | Triangular election in France | [
"Mathematics"
] | 2,913 | [
"Mathematical objects",
"Numbers",
"Numbering in politics"
] |
77,606,905 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lajos%20Balogh%20%28scientist%29 | Lajos Peter Balogh (born January 15, 1950, Hungary), mainly referred to as Lou Balogh, is a Hungarian-American scientist known for his research on polymers, dendrimer nanocomposites, and nanomedicine. Balogh is the editor-in-chief of Precision Nanomedicine (PRNANO). Based on his career-long citation numbers, he belongs to the World's Top 2% Scientists.
Early life and education
Balogh was born on January 15, 1950, in Komádi, Hajdú-Bihar County, Hungary. He studied chemistry at the Debreceni Vegyipari Technikum then at the Kossuth Lajos University from 1969 to 1974, earning his Ph.D. in 1983. In 1991, Balogh received an invitation from the University of Massachusetts Lowell and moved to the United States.
Career
Balogh joined UMass Lowell as a visiting professor in 1991. In 1996, he left for the Michigan Molecular Institute to research dendrimers, where he was a senior associate scientist in Donald Tomalia's group. From 1998 to 2018, Balogh worked as a professor at the University of Michigan Ann Arbor, Center for Biologic Nanotechnology, the University at Buffalo, and co-directed Nano-Biotechnology Center at the Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center. As a visiting professor, he also taught at the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the Seoul National University, and the Semmelweis University.
Balogh is one of the co-founders of the American Society for Nanomedicine (2008). He has been a board member of several expert organizations, e.g., the U.S. Technical Advisory Group to ISO TC229 on Nanotechnology (since 2005), the Scientific Committee of the CLINAM Summits (since 2011), and numerous other National and International Steering Committees.
Between 2008 and 2016, Balogh, as editor-in-chief, took an upstart scientific journal (Nanomedicine: Nanotechnology, Biology, and Medicine, Elsevier) from 5 editors and no journal impact factor to 20 editors and JIF2014 =6.9, (5-year JIF=7.5). He increased the journal's readership to over 480,000 downloads per year. In 2017, Balogh initiated Manuscript Clinic, a platform that helped scientists and students publish their research results in nanomedicine and nanotechnology and promoted both nanoscience and scientific writing. In 2018, he founded Andover House, Inc., a not-for-profit online publishing company, and launched Precision Nanomedicine (PRNANO). He serves as the editor-in-chief of this scientists-owned, fully open-access and peer-reviewed international journal. PRNANO has been designated the official journal of the International Society for Nanomedicine and CLINAM, the European Society for Clinical Nanomedicine (Basel, Switzerland).
Personal
Balogh is married to Éva Kovács Balogh, a Hungarian American linguist. He has three children, Andrea, Péter, and Áki. Peter Balogh was the crew chief of the University of Michigan Solar car team's MomentUM, which won first place at the North American Solar Challenge in 2005 and now works in the maritime industry in Asia. Aki Balogh is the Co-founder and President of MarketMuse and Co-founder and CEO of DLC.link.
Research work
Balogh discovered and pioneered dendrimer nanocomposites, drug delivery platforms, and co-invented new cancer treatments. He is considered an international expert in nanomedicine and scholarly publications. He published 228 scientific papers in chemistry, physics, nanotechnology, and nanomedicine, gave over 230 invited lectures, and was awarded 12 patents. His publications have been cited over 10000 times (22 papers with more than 100 citations, 11 with more than 200 citations, and 2 cited over 1000 times; h-index=42). Balogh has been listed as belonging to the World's top 2% of Scientists.
Achievements
Balogh is one of the five founders of the American Society for Nanomedicine. He serves on the U.S. Technical Advisory Group to ISO TC 229 Nanotechnology and on the Board of several international and U.S. national organizations. Some recent awards include a visiting professorship for Senior International Scientists at the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, the Korean Federation of Science and Technology Societies Brain Pool Program Award for Renowned Foreign Scientists to teach at Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea, and a Fulbright Teaching/Research Scholarship at Semmelweis University. Balogh is a member of the External Body of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (since 2011).
Selected publications
Peer-reviewed publications
Wolfgang Parak, Beatriz Pelaz, Christoph Alexiou, Ramon A. Alvarez-Puebla, Frauke Alves, Anne M. Andrews, Sumaira Ashraf, Lajos P. Balogh, et al., Diverse Applications of Nanomedicine, ACS Nano. ACS Nano, 2017, 11 (3), pp 2313–2381, DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.6b0604
Kukowska-Latallo, Jolanta F. Kimberly A. Candido, Zhengyi Cao, Shraddha S. Nigavekar, Istvan J Majoros, Thommey P. Thomas, Lajos P. Balogh, Mohamed K. Khan and James R. Baker, Jr., Nanoparticle Targeting of Anticancer Drug Improves Therapeutic Response in Animal Model of Human Epithelial Cancer, Cancer Research 2005, 65, 5317-5324
L. Balogh and Donald A. Tomalia: Poly(Amidoamine) Dendrimer-Templated Nanocomposites I. Synthesis of Zero-Valent Copper Nanoclusters; Journal of Am. Chem. Soc., 1998, 120, 7355-7356
L Balogh, R Valluzzi, KS Laverdure, SP Gido, GL Hagnauer, DA Tomalia: Formation of silver and gold dendrimer nanocomposites, Journal of Nanoparticle Research 1, 353-368
Lajos P. Balogh, Shawn M. Redmond, Peter Balogh, Houxiang Tang, David C. Martin, Stephen C. Rand: "Self-Assembly and Optical Properties of Dendrimer Nanocomposite Multilayers," Macromolecular Bioscience 2007, 7, 1032–1046
Yuliang Zhao, Lajos Balogh, Caging Cancer, Nanomedicine: Nanotechnology, Biology, and Medicine, 11 (2015) 867–869
Hong, S. A. U. Bielinska, A. Mecke, B. Keszler, J. L. Beals, X. Shi, L. Balogh, B. G. Orr, J. R. Baker Jr., and M. M. Banaszak Holl, Interaction of Poly(amidoamine) Dendrimers with Supported Lipid Bilayers and Cells: Hole Formation and the Relation to Transport, Bioconj. Chem. 2004, 15, 774-782
L Balogh, DR Swanson, DA Tomalia, GL Hagnauer, AT McManus, Dendrimer−silver complexes and nanocomposites as antimicrobial agents, Nano letters 1 (1), 18-21
Books
Lajos P. Balogh (Ed), Nanomedicine's Most Cited Series, Vol.2, Nano-Enabled Medical Applications (Taylor & Francis, 2020)
Lajos P. Balogh (Ed), Nanomedicine's Most Cited Series, Vol.1, Nanomedicine in Cancer (Taylor & Francis, 2017)
Book chapters
Lajos P. Balogh, "Introduction to Nanomedicine" Chapter 1 in Nanomedicine in Health And Disease, Ed: Victor R. Preedy, Science Publishers, 2011, p.3.
Lajos P. Balogh, Donald A. Mager and Mohamed K. Khan, "Synthesis and Biodisposition of Dendrimer Composite Nanoparticles," Chapter 6 in: Materials for Nanomedicine, Eds: V. Torchilin and M. Amiji, World Scientific Publishing, 2010
Lajos P. Balogh, Teyeb Ould Ely, and Wojciech G. Lesniak "Composite Nanoparticles for Cancer Imaging and Therapy: Engineering Surface, Composition, and Shape," Chapter 4 in Nanomedicine Design of Particles, Sensors, Motors, Implants, Robots, and Devices, Eds: M. Schulz, V.N. Shanov, ISBN 978-1-59693-279-1, Artech House 2009
Lajos P. Balogh, "Dendrimer 101" Chapter 11 (p 136-155) in: "Biological and Biomedical Applications of Engineered Nanostructures" Ed: Warren P. Chan – U. Toronto, Eurekah, 2007.
Lajos P Balogh and Mohamed K Khan: Dendrimer Nanocomposites for Cancer Therapy" Chapter 28 (p. 551–592, in Nanotechnology in Cancer Therapy (Ed: Mansour Amiji), CRC Press (Taylor and Francis Group), Boca Raton, London, New York, 2006
Selected patents
J. Y. Ye, T. B. Norris, L. P. Balogh, J. R. Baker, Jr., Laser-based Method and System for Enhancing Optical Breakdown, US 7,474,919 B2, January 6, 2009
D. A. Tomalia and L. Balogh: "Nanocomposites of Dendritic Polymers" US 6,664,315 B2, December 16, 2003
D. A. Tomalia and L. Balogh: "Method and Articles for Transfection of Genetic Material," US 6,475,994, November 5, 2002,
L. Balogh, D. R. Swanson, D. A. Tomalia, G. L. Hagnauer, A. T. McManus: "Antimicrobial Dendrimer Nanocomposites and a Method of Treating Wounds," US 6,224,898 B1, May 1, 2001.
R. Faust and L. Balogh: U.S. 5,665,837 (1997); Initiation via Haloboration in Living Cationic Polymerization
References
1950 births
Living people
Hungarian scientists
Nanomedicine
Nanomedicine journals
Polymer chemistry
Dendrimers
Medical journal editors | Lajos Balogh (scientist) | [
"Chemistry",
"Materials_science",
"Engineering"
] | 2,290 | [
"Materials science",
"Nanomedicine",
"Dendrimers",
"Polymer chemistry",
"Nanotechnology"
] |
77,606,985 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media%20adequacy | Media adequacy refers to specific (i.e. media) aspects that are important for a successful transfer of information. This implies that not all information can be reproduced in an equally adequate way with every medium.
Definition
The successful transfer of information depends on various aspects. An important aspect is of course the content itself. Depending on the goal, purpose and methods, the question of whether and why an information transfer is successful can depend on a more or less successful content preparation. Further decisive factors can lie in the reception and the user's specific situation in its context (which is examined in recipient research, learner research, etc.), as well as in the social situation, which in turn depends on a variety of aspects, such as gender, culture, learning style etc. It is however often underestimated that the channel via which information is transferred can also be of decisive importance. Question then is which medium makes it possible to convey a specific content as well as possible (and which medium is more of a hindrance).
In general, it can be said that not all content can be transmitted equally well with every medium. One example is the Watergate Affair, which after all led to the fall of a US president. It was uncovered by a daily newspaper that is read by relatively few (though certainly influential and opinion-forming) people - but not by television, which is seen by many more viewers. The main reason is that television reports are only effective if they can be illustrated; this was hardly possible in the case of television reports about an illegal wiretapping. In the newspaper, on the other hand, it was possible to describe how the information from an (anonymous, i.e. not visually known) source was verified. The medium and its production constraints thus (partly) decide whether and how content can be presented or how effective the transfer of information is.
Research topics
As a rule, the respective research is normative and it is investigated what influences (promotes or hinders) a successful transfer of information: Only what can be realised sensibly and efficiently in a particular medium should also be realised in that medium.
If the researcher's perspective is not based on the recipient or the content, but on the medium, media adequacy is the central category. Only what can be realised sensibly and efficiently in a particular medium should also be realised in that medium.
The term “medium” refers not only to the means of communication, but also to different genres. In the case of the Watergate Affair, for example, the transfer of information with the help of television was only successful in the form of secondary reporting. This did not mean, however, that visual communication is fundamentally impossible with a topic like this. The genre of the feature film was very successful and effective ("All the President's Men"). The question of media adequacy thus relates more to genres (in the field of print media: text types) and not only to primary media.
In addition to the constraints of production, the conditions of reception also play a role. Content on a website has a different effect when it is received on a tablet or a stationary computer. Using one and the same content via the Internet is more successful compared to working with the same content on a DVD. Thus, the medium is as important as other variables, for example the learner type (social learner type, introspective learner type). Another example: Icelandic singer Björk was the first artist to promote a music album not only with music videos but also with interactive apps; this app compilation, created by media artist Scott Snibbe, was later acquired by the Museum of Modern Art as the first downloadable app artwork. From an innovative and artistic point of view, this was a remarkable achievement. However, the compilation proved to be counterproductive in terms of its effect on the music to which the apps, like music videos, were intended to relate. Although music videos offer additional visual information that can distract from the music, they generally support the respective song and focus attention on the piece of music. In contrast, the interactive apps were cognitively dominant and were therefore unable to develop the effect for which they were produced.
Ultimately, it is a question of complex interactions between content, medium and reception process.
In contrast to, for example, content analysis or reception or learner research, the scientific study of media adequacy is relatively new. It is only since the triumph of microelectronics that not only specialists have been able to publish with their medium. Meanwhile, in many areas there is the possibility (and opportunity, but often also the compulsion) to work cross-medially, so that the question of the appropriate (media-adequate) presentation of content becomes urgent.
History, theory, observations
There are various theories about the use of media in different contexts and regarding different objectives. The approaches of Herbert Marshall McLuhan are well known, as is the "media richness theory" by Richard Daft and Robert Lengel. Daft and Lengel speak of different degrees of "media richness" depending on how much the media is absorbed: Less "rich" media are not intensive enough to attract a user's full and undisturbed attention (for example: discussion forums, chats, e-mails or other forms of textual communication). This almost inevitably leads to a certain attention deficit. The use of weak media therefore means that utilising such media requires a greater cognitive effort on the part of the user. Perhaps this is why greater self-discipline is required in the context of media-supported learning than in traditional learning situations.
Relatively new, however, is the attempt to link media theory statements with studies on cognitive styles., Usually it is referred to traditional teaching, and it of course has to be taken into consideration that there are differences between information processing and learning (Rehder/Hoffmann 2005). The common factor, however, is how one takes in and processes information and might even be able to adopt to new developments, to solve problems and reaches decisions. A pioneering theoretical approach to this is, for example, the "cognitive load theory" that relates considerations from Robert J. Sternberg to media effects.
Sternberg's "theory of mental self-government" is quite complex and therefore sometimes difficult to operationalise. It assumes that under ideal (and free) conditions learners organise the learning process in accordance with their cognitive abilities. This leads to different forms of mental representations or different codings, and thus to different forms of how to use media.
All in all, it seems to be clear that a successful information transfer depends on the situation and the strategies of how content is mediatised. With some users, it might be successful in the context of interactive group processes, whilst others need quietness to concentrate. This example has been chosen because it connects cognitive styles with media effects. The former group will probably benefit significantly from discussion forums. For introspective users, on the other hand, they would more likely be a hindrance in the process of a successful information transfer. Another example: it has also long been known that some - not all - learners learn best by observing. Obviously, mirror neurons become active when they see corresponding efforts by other learners, so that their self-motivation and ultimately their learning success increases. Here it can be assumed that examples from the media (such as television programmes) can also have a positive effect. Conversely, other learners must have their own experiences in order to store and process information successfully. Mediated communication therefore means a limitation for them; on the other hand, it could be that users with individual concepts for learning have an advantage through and in online learning environments - at least compared to the 'observant learner type'.
Furthermore, different cognitive styles require a different density and volume of information in order to ultimately benefit from information transfer efforts in the context of meta cognitive processes. Perhaps this explains the findings of Baruch and Nicholson, who observed that learners with a high tendency to avoid uncertainty - i.e. who have only a low willingness to take risks - tend to feel uncomfortable with self-learning media. There are also parallels to another observation described above: Since online media increase the degree of ambiguity both in terms of tasks and expectations of the respective user, users with a lower tolerance of uncertainty avoidance are disadvantaged, while users with a higher degree of uncertainty avoidance can even generate further advantages.
In assessing whether the use is meaningful at all, the observation that a media-supported information transfer is fundamentally more time-intensive than traditional learning also seems significant. Accordingly, it is important to use media-supported learning materials in such a way that the added value in terms of content is correspondingly high and the majority of learners benefit from it.
There are other variables whose effects for a successful information transfer by now have been little or not at all investigated, at least not from a media perspective (such as gender, the cultural imprint of the media user, etc.). Summarising, it is desirable to know whether and how a media-supported information transfer can be established sensibly and efficiently. However, it is questionable whether a system can be developed that links content, user type and medium, since the mentioned variables and their interactions already give rise to too many different situations, not least since technical developments are constantly changing the media and their effects.
References
Mass media
Mass media technology | Media adequacy | [
"Technology"
] | 1,915 | [
"Information and communications technology",
"Mass media technology"
] |
77,608,074 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaulmoogric%20acid | Chaulmoogric acid is a fatty acid found chaulmoogra oil, the oil from the seeds of Hydnocarpus wightianus. It is an unusual fatty acid which has a cyclopentene ring at its terminus instead of being entirely linear like most fatty acids.
It is a white crystalline solid with a melting point of 68.5 °C. It is soluble in ether, chloroform, and ethyl acetate.
In the early 20th century, it was investigated as a possible treatment for leprosy due to the use in traditional medicine of chaulmoogra oil for leprosy.
See also
Hydnocarpic acid
References
Fatty acids
Cyclopentenes | Chaulmoogric acid | [
"Chemistry"
] | 149 | [
"Organic compounds",
"Organic compound stubs",
"Organic chemistry stubs"
] |
77,608,417 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MicroEmulator | MicroEmulator (also MicroEMU) — is a free and open-source platform independent J2ME emulator allowing to run MIDlets (applications and games) on any device with compatible JVM. It is written in pure Java as an implementation of J2ME in J2SE.
History
In November 2001, MicroEmulator project has been created on SourceForge.
On 31 March 2006, MicroEmulator version 1.0 has been released.
In November 2009, project moved to code.google.com, and after Google closed it, development moved to GitHub.
On 10 January 2010, the last stable version 2.0.4 has been released.
On 24 May 2013, the last preview version 3.0.0-SNAPSHOT.112 has been released.
After 2014, MicroEMU technology has been acquired by All My Web Needs company and all the MicroEmulator's docs and binary builds has been removed from the official site.
All sources and binary previously released on SourceForge, Google Code and GitHub preserved as open-source, but development stalled since then.
Features
Supports loading MIDlet from JAD or JAR file (locally stored or remotely accessed via URL)
Supports various Java APIs and JSRs (Java Specification Requests):
MIDP 2.0 (JSR 118)
CLDC 1.0 (JSR 30)
CLDC 1.1 (JSR 139)
Generic Connection Framework API (GCF)
File Connection and PIM API (JSR 75)
Bluetooth API (JSR 82)
Wireless Messaging API (WMA, JSR 120)
Multimedia API (MMAPI, JSR 135)
Location API (LAPI, JSR 179)
Record Management System API (RMS)
LCDUI, Nokia and Siemens UI APIs
Platform independent (Linux, Mac OS, Windows, etc.)
Works with different GUI libraries (Swing, SWT, etc.)
Supports insert PC clipboard text into MIDlet's text input fields (but not vice-versa; useful if need to input case sensitive text string or special characters in MIDlet)
Supports control MIDlet via on-screen (virtual) or real keyboard keys, touch screen and mouse gestures, mouse scroll wheel and keys (also allows remap keys' scancodes, see "Skin, screen and window size configuration" section below)
Screencast recording as GIF animation
Record Store Manager (logs MIDlet's internal system calls to RMS API)
Log console (logs for debugging MicroEmulator and MIDlet)
Show mouse cursor position in MIDlet screen coordinate system
Allows control network access and setup proxy for network connections
Runs in headless mode
Many CLI options
JSR lib loading
By default MicroEmulator does not loads all distributed JSRs; user should load it per launch via custom commands instead.
File system access
By default, MicroEmulator does not loads JSR 75 lib, required to grant MIDlets an access to file system.
To grant file system access, config2.xml file (on Linux, in ~/.microemulator/ folder) should include the next code <extensions> block after <code></windows></code> tag:<config>
...
</windows>
<extensions>
<extension>
<className>org.microemu.cldc.file.FileSystem</className>
<properties>
<property VALUE="{path/to/folder}" NAME="fsRoot"/>
</properties>
</extension>
</extensions>
<recordStoreManager CLASS="org.microemu.app.util.FileRecordStoreManager"/>
</config>
MicroEmulator should run with loading JSR 75 lib. On Linux, launch command to add into microemulator.desktop file is:java -cp {path/to}/microemulator.jar:{path/to/lib}/microemu-jsr-75.jar org.microemu.app.Main
On Windows, ; (semicolon) in command should be replaced with : (colon).
To load more libs, path to additional libs should be added each after each in a row into launch command.
Java applet for Web
MicroEmulator allows conversion of any J2ME app into a Java applet, that could be placed on a web page. This feature is used for demonstrating apps and games demos on vendors sites, but it requires JVM and Java Web Start plugin to be installed on the user's PC or device.
Skin, screen and window size configuration
MicroEmulator allows interface customization with skins called "devices" (see "Options > Select device..." menu) and distributed with few "devices":
Default device — phone with 176x220 color display and antialiased font
Minimum device color — small phone with 128x128 color display and non-antialiased font
Minimum device — small phone with 128x128 monochrome display and non-antialiased font
Large device — large phone with 240x320 color display and antialiazed font
Resizable device — full window resizible color display with antialiased font (could be forced to full screen kiosk mode)
Each "device" skin consist of XML-files, that stores definitions of window size, keys layout and assignations (according scancodes), text rendering options, etc. Optionally, skin could include image textures for "device" background and keys animation on key click and key relax. All files of "device" skin should be packed into ZIP or JAR, and its possible to include few "devices" into single package.
Screen could be switched between portrait and landscape (rotated) orientation. Additionally its possible to show current MIDlet screen scaled (x2, x3 or x4) in a separate floating window.
Limitations
MicroEmulator lacks support for few Java APIs and JSRs often used in j2ME games (and implemented in other emulators and MicroEmulator forks):
Mobile 3D Graphics API (M3G 1.0/1.1, JSR 184)
Scalable 2D Vector Graphics API (SVG, JSR 226)
Java bindings for OpenGL ES (JSR 239)
Mobile 3D Graphics API 2.0 (M3G 2.0, JSR 297)
Mascot Capsule 3D API
Some MIDlets may require other JSRs, that are not availabale for MicroEmulator yet.
For input Cyrillic characters it might require to use special "device" skin.
Ports and forks
Android
MicroEmulator has official support for the Android platform. It is also possible to convert J2ME MIDlet JAR-packages into standalone APK files.
J2ME Loader — is an enhanced fork of MicroEmulator for Android.
JL-Mod — is an enhaced fork of J2ME Loader with the Mascot Capsule 3D API support.
iOS
MicroEmulator has been ported to iOS, but it requires to use iOS jailbreaking technique to install it on iPhone or other iOS device.
Mac OS
MicroEmulator officially supports Mac OS, but there is also package in MacPorts repository.
Maemo
MicroEmulator has an official support for Maemo platform, and there is custom MicroEmulator devices skins (themed to Nokia S60 smartphones with 240x320 and 640x360 displays) made for Nokia N900.
Here is a command to launch MicroEmulator on Maemo with JSR 75 lib loaded, to grant MIDlets file system access:microemulator -libraryjars /opt/maemo/usr/share/microemulator/lib/microemu-jsr-75.jar
MeeGo/Harmattan
KarinME — is a MicroEmulator front-end launcher for MeeGo/Harmattan platform, with a GUI written in QML.
mpowerplayer SDK
mpowerplayer SDK — is a freeware enhanced fork of MicroEmulator, initially created for MacOS as J2ME MIDP 1.0 emulator, later become a platform independed J2ME MIDP 2.0 emulator with own implementation of M3G (JSR 184) and SVG (JSR 226).
WMA (JSR 120) has been implemented for mpowerplayer SDK as an open-source library.
Development stalled after mpowerplayer SDK version 2.0.1185 release in 2007. ZIP of latest distribution package available for download from archived official website on Wayback Machine.
Usage
MicroEmulator as Opera Mini sandbox
Web applet with Opera Mini MIDlet running inside MicroEmulator has been placed on Opera official website.
MicroEmulator used together with Opera Mini MIDlet to browse Internet via metered networks and slow mobile GPRS connection on netbooks (such as Asus Eee PC), low-end PCs and other mobile devices.
In some countries mobile network operators provided free traffic or very lowcost plan with unlimited traffic for Opera Mini and some social networks and services via its J2ME clients (like Facebook, Yandex Maps, etc.). Use of MicroEmulator together with Opera Mini or other app with free traffic plan allowed to browse Internet fully free on PC (with USB modem attached) at home or on netbook on the go.
MicroEmulator as J2ME SDK
MicroEmulator, together with few MIDlets for programming directly on phone (J2ME SDK Mobile, Mobile BASIC, , etc.), could be used as a fully complete J2ME SDK: it is possible to write MIDlet source code, compile and preverify Java class files, package all files and resources of MIDlet project into JAR with JAD, and then run built MIDlet for test and debug without even leaving MicroEmulator window. The only external dependency is a JVM installed on PC or device to run Microemulator itself.
MicroEmulator could be used as alternative to Sun's and Oracle's JavaME emulators for various desktop Java IDE's. For the Eclipse initially there was opensource bridge plugin EclipseME created, but Eclipse 1.7 and later got own bridge plugin.
MicroEmulator available as org.microemu plugin for Apache Maven build automation tool.
Publications
Video
Alan Bazan.
See also
SquirrelJME (JavaME 8 VM for embedded device)
KEmulator (J2ME emulator for Windows)
FreeJ2ME (J2ME emulator for Libretro and RetroArch)
ME2SE (J2ME APIs for J2SE, runs on Windows Mobile)
ScummVM
DOSBox
PyPy
Python for S60
References
External links
Official website ()
MicroEmulator on Google Groups
(includes collection of MIDlets for J2ME programming)
Computing platforms
Platform, Micro Edition
Platform, Micro Edition | MicroEmulator | [
"Technology"
] | 2,275 | [
"Computing platforms",
"Java platform"
] |
77,609,190 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlodantane | Chlodantane (developmental code name ADK-910) is a drug described as an adaptogen or actoprotector "of the estrogen activity type" that was developed in Russia and was never marketed. It is an adamantane derivative and is closely related to bromantane (N-(2-adamantyl)-N-(para-bromophenyl)amine) and other adamantanes. It has been said to improve physical performance. However, only animal or cell culture research has been conducted and it has not been studied in humans. The drug is described as having a broader spectrum of activity than bromantane. It also has immunostimulant effects that are said to be more pronounced than those of bromantane.
See also
List of Russian drugs
References
Abandoned drugs
Adamantanes
Amines
4-Chlorophenyl compounds
Drugs in the Soviet Union
Drugs with unknown mechanisms of action
Ketones
Russian drugs
Russian inventions | Chlodantane | [
"Chemistry"
] | 202 | [
"Ketones",
"Drug safety",
"Functional groups",
"Amines",
"Bases (chemistry)",
"Abandoned drugs"
] |
77,609,354 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamantine | Dopamantine (, ; developmental code name SCH-15507; also known as N-adamantanoyl dopamine) is an antiparkinsonian drug of the adamantane group that developed for treatment of Parkinson's disease but was never marketed. It was developed and studied in the 1970s and was said to have reached early clinical trials.
Dopamantine combines elements of the chemical structures of clinically used adamantane antiparkinsonian agents like amantadine and dopamine or levodopa (L-DOPA) into a single molecule. It is said to have been designed to help dopamine cross the blood–brain barrier via the lipophilic adamantane moiety. The drug is said to share pharmacological effects with amantadine. Another related compound is carmantadine, which is also an adamantane antiparkinsonian agent that was never marketed.
References
Abandoned drugs
Adamantanes
Antiparkinsonian agents
Catecholamines
Dopamine
Dopamine agonists
Drugs with unknown mechanisms of action
Phenethylamines | Dopamantine | [
"Chemistry"
] | 228 | [
"Drug safety",
"Abandoned drugs"
] |
77,609,886 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indolylpropylaminopentane | Indolylpropylaminopentane (IPAP), also known as α,N-dipropyltryptamine (α,N-DPT), is a monoaminergic activity enhancer (MAE) that is closely related to benzofuranylpropylaminopentane (BPAP) and phenylpropylaminopentane (PPAP). It is a tryptamine derivative and the corresponding analogue of PPAP and BPAP with an indole ring instead of a benzene ring or benzofuran ring, respectively. IPAP is also a positional isomer of N,N-dipropyltryptamine (N,N-DPT).
MAEs are agents that enhance the action potential-mediated release of monoamine neurotransmitters. IPAP is a MAE of serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. However, IPAP acts preferentially as a MAE of serotonin and is about 10-fold more potent in enhancing serotonin than in enhancing norepinephrine or dopamine. This is in contrast to BPAP, which is of similar potency as a MAE of serotonin and the catecholamines. It is also in contrast to PPAP and selegiline, which act exclusively as catecholaminergic activity enhancers (CAEs) and do not enhance serotonin. Hence, IPAP is a representative selective serotonergic activity enhancer (SAE) at lower doses.
IPAP is more potent as a MAE than PPAP and selegiline but is less potent than BPAP. As with BPAP and PPAP, the negative enantiomer (i.e., R(–)-IPAP) is more biologically active as a MAE and is often the employed compound. The effects of MAEs appear to be mediated by intracellular TAAR1 agonism coupled with uptake by monoamine transporters into monoaminergic neurons.
In contrast to amphetamines, IPAP has no classical monoamine releasing agent actions. It is a weak MAO-A inhibitor similarly to BPAP.
IPAP was first described in the scientific literature in 2001, following BPAP in 1999. It was discovered by József Knoll and colleagues.
References
Alpha-Alkyltryptamines
Drugs with unknown mechanisms of action
Enantiopure drugs
Experimental drugs
Monoaminergic activity enhancers | Indolylpropylaminopentane | [
"Chemistry"
] | 520 | [
"Stereochemistry",
"Enantiopure drugs"
] |
77,610,223 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20star%20systems%20within%20100%E2%80%93150%20light-years | This is a list of star systems within 100–150 light years of Earth.
See also
List of star systems within 95–100 light-years
List of star systems within 150–200 light-years
References
Lists of stars
Star systems
Lists by distance | List of star systems within 100–150 light-years | [
"Physics",
"Astronomy"
] | 51 | [
"Lists by distance",
"Physical quantities",
"Distance",
"Astronomical objects",
"Star systems"
] |
77,610,269 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pixel%20Watch%203 | The Pixel Watch 3 is a Wear OS smartwatch designed, developed, and marketed by Google as part of the Google Pixel product line. It serves as the successor to the second-generation Pixel Watch.
The Pixel Watch 3 was officially announced on August 13, 2024, at the annual Made by Google event, and was released in the United States on September 10.
History
9to5Google reported in January 2024 that Google was planning to release the Pixel Watch 3 in two sizes. The device was approved by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in July of that year. Google officially announced the Pixel Watch 3 on August 13, alongside the Pixel 9, Pixel 9 Pro, and Pixel 9 Pro Fold, at the annual Made by Google event.
Specifications
Design
The Pixel Watch 3 retains the same basic design as the prior Pixel Watch 1 and 2 and is marketed in two sizes, 41 and 45 mm in diameter. While the 41 mm watch matches the size of prior Pixel Watches, the bezels are slightly smaller and there is 10% more display area. The 45 mm watch has 40% more display area compared to prior models. For each size, the maximum brightness is 2000 nits.
Hardware
Software
References
External links
Made by Google 2024
Computer-related introductions in 2024
Google hardware
Google Pixel
Smartwatches
Wear OS devices | Pixel Watch 3 | [
"Technology"
] | 269 | [
"Wear OS devices",
"Smartwatches"
] |
53,326,337 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibop%20Gresta | Bibop Gresta (born Gabriele Gresta) is an Italian business executive. He is the co-founder and former chairman of Hyperloop Transportation Technologies and the founder and CEO of Hyperloop Italia.
Early life
At the age of 15, he was the director of software development at the Italian division of Alpha Center (an American company). He worked as a TV writer and appeared on the Italian version of MTV.
Entrepreneurial career
He founded Bibop, S.p.A., a content production and distribution company. In 1999 he sold 40% of the company to Telecom Italia for 11 bln Italian lira. He co-founded the startup incubator Digital Magics, responsible for the startup of more than 70 companies. In 2011, he entered the venture capital market sitting on the board of two stock listed companies in the U.K. and Germany.
He was involved with a number of startups and new-media ventures, until moving to the United States in 2013. At the end of 2013 he co-founded Hyperloop Transportation Technologies, and has since appeared widely as a speaker extolling the technology.
Hyperloop Transportation Technologies
Hyperloop Transportation Technologies was the first to begin the development of the Hyperloop.
References
Further reading
External links
Living people
21st-century Italian businesspeople
American technology company founders
Hyperloop
1971 births | Bibop Gresta | [
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 283 | [
"Vacuum systems",
"Hyperloop",
"Transport systems"
] |
53,326,601 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald%20McCallum%20%28engineer%29 | Sir Donald Murdo McCallum CBE FRAeS FREng FRSE FIET (6 August 1922 – 18 October 2011) was a Scottish radar engineer and an important industrialist.
Early life
Don McCallum was born in Edinburgh. His father, Roderick McCallum, was a headmaster who married Lillian McPhee. He attended George Watson's Boys' College. He gained a BSc (1st) in Electrical Engineering from the University of Edinburgh in 1942.
Second World War
He worked for the Navy on homing beacons on the Implacable-class aircraft carriers HMS Indefatigable (R10) and HMS Implacable (R86). From 1942-46 he worked for the Admiralty Signal Establishment, later known as the Admiralty Research Establishment.
From June 1944 he worked on the short range VHF radio system for Talk Between Ships (TBS). On the day before D-Day, he had worked on HMS Bulolo, which had directed the landings off Gold Beach.
Career
Ferranti
He worked for forty years at Ferranti Scotland in Edinburgh, half of those years as general manager from 1968; the company had 8,000 employees. He joined Ferranti in 1947. The company had established itself in Edinburgh during World War II to make gyroscopic gunsights (gyro gunsights).
Projects he oversaw included the Ferranti Laser Target Marker (LTM or FLTM) and the Seaspray radar, and aircraft interception radars.
He was made an FIEE in 1969 and an FEng in 1982. In 1985 he won the British Gold Medal of the Royal Aeronautical Society. He became a Fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society in 1986.
He retired as general manager in 1985, then as Chairman in 1987; six years later Ferranti went bankrupt. Some people believe that had he still been at the company, that bankruptcy may not have happened.
Education
In the early 1990s he was President of the Scottish Council for Development and Industry. He was Chairman of the Scottish Committee of the Universities Funding Council, now the Scottish Funding Council. He also served on the Scottish Tertiary Education Advisory Council.
Personal life
He married Barbara Black in 1949, and they had a daughter in 1950, who died in 2007; his first wife died in 1971. He married again in 1974, and his second wife died in 1997. He married in 2007.
He received a CBE in the 1976 Birthday Honours and a knighthood in the 1988 New Year Honours. He lived in his later life from 2007 at Egton with Newland near Ulverston in South Lakeland. He died aged 89 in Cumbria. He was buried on Wednesday 26 October 2011 in Edinburgh. He had grandchildren and great-grandchildren.
See also
Peter Hearne, General Manager of GEC Avionics in Kent
References
External links
Independent obituary
1922 births
2011 deaths
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Businesspeople from Edinburgh
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Fellows of the Institution of Engineering and Technology
Fellows of the Royal Academy of Engineering
Fellows of the Royal Aeronautical Society
Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
Ferranti
Knights Bachelor
People associated with radar
People educated at George Watson's College
People from Ulverston
Scottish electrical engineers
20th-century Scottish businesspeople | Donald McCallum (engineer) | [
"Engineering"
] | 653 | [
"Institution of Engineering and Technology",
"Fellows of the Institution of Engineering and Technology"
] |
53,326,784 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsung%20Galaxy%20Book%20%282017%29 | The Samsung Galaxy Book is a Windows 10-based 2-in-1 PC produced and marketed by Samsung Electronics. It is the successor of the Galaxy TabPro S and comes in 2 models: a 10.6-inch model and a 12-inch model. It was the first model of the Samsung Galaxy Book line.
Its successor, the Samsung Galaxy Book 2, was announced in October 2018. On 7 August 2019, the Samsung Galaxy Book S was announced.
On 28 April 2021, the Samsung Galaxy Book Pro and Galaxy Book Pro 360 were announced. The follow-on Samsung Galaxy Book 3 series, including an Ultra, Pro, and Pro 360 were released 17 February 2023
History
On 27 February 2017, Samsung unveiled the Galaxy Book alongside the Samsung Galaxy Tab S3 at MWC 2017.
The introductory price for the 12-inch model was $1,130 (Wi-Fi only) and $1,300 (LTE via Verizon). The 10-inch model started at $630.
Specifications
The Galaxy Book 10 shares the same fanless design (the 12" model includes a fan), and the right side of the device houses a USB-C connection. The device weight around 650 grams for the 10.6 model, and 750 grams for the 12-inch model. Compared to the Tab S3, the camera is now located horizontally instead vertically, and there is no home button. There are two stereo speakers located at the top and bottom. The top bezel houses a power button, volume controls, and two microphones.
The device retains several features that are typically found in the Samsung Galaxy Note series, such as Air Command, Smart Select, Samsung Notes, etc. Both models include an S Pen (its first appearance on a Windows product), and a detachable folio keyboard case with a kickstand. The Galaxy Book also supports quick-charge technology, which allows the tablet to charge fully in a shorter amount of time. In terms of battery life, the 10.6-inch option is claimed to last 10 hours, and the 12-inch model slightly longer at 10.5 hours.
It has 1920x1280 TFT FHD (10.6-inch) and 2160x1440 AMOLED (12.0-inch) resolution display with an aspect ratio of 3:2. The S-pen provides 4096 levels of sensitivity.
Reception
The Galaxy Book was generally well received with regards to the AMOLED screen, the S-pen input response, strong CPU performance, and the full support of Windows 10. However, criticism has been aimed towards the battery life, issues with heating while multitasking, and the fragility of the keyboard attachment.
References
2-in-1 PCs
Tablet computers introduced in 2017
Samsung laptops
Book (2017) | Samsung Galaxy Book (2017) | [
"Technology"
] | 573 | [
"Crossover devices",
"2-in-1 PCs"
] |
53,327,771 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO%20Working%20Group%20on%20Land%20Subsidence | "Land Subsidence" was included in the UNESCO programme of the International Hydrological Decade (IHD), 1965–1974 and an ad hoc working group on land subsidence was formed. In 1975 subsidence was maintained under the framework of the UNESCO IHP (subproject 8.4: "Investigation of Land Subsidence due to Groundwater Exploitation") and UNESCO IHP formerly codified the Working Group on Land Subsidence (WGLS). From 2018 the Working Group has become a UNESCO initiative changing its name to UNESCO Land Subsidence International Initiative (LASII).
The missions of the WGLS are:
Improve scientific and technical knowledge needed to identify and characterize threats related to natural and anthropogenic land subsidence.
Stimulate and enable international exchange of information to sustenance sustainable groundwater resources development in areas susceptible to land subsidence through:
design, implementation of mitigation actions as well as risk assessment.
proposal for new effective resource-management policies.
Composition of the UNESCO Working Group on Land Subsidence
The Intergovernmental Council for the International Hydrological Programme (IHP) created a Working Group on Land Subsidence for liaison of IHP subproject 8.4, "Investigation on land subsidence due to ground-water exploitation." in April 1975. This first WGLS was composed by:
Mr. Joseph F. Poland, Chairman. U.S. Geological Survey, USA. (Chair)
Mr. Germán Figueroa Vega. Comisión de Aguas de Valle de México, México.
Ms. Laura Carbognin. National Research Council, Italy
Mr. Ivan Johnson. Representative of IAHS, USA.
Mr. Soki Yamamoto. Rissho University, Japan.
Currently, the WGLS comprises 20 subsidence experts from 12 countries (i.e. USA, Mexico, The Netherlands, Poland, Spain, Italy, Egypt, China, Japan, Thailand, Taiwan and Pakistan) and a UNESCO–IHP representative. Of the 18 subsidence experts, 16 are members and 4 are observers.
Activities of the UNESCO Working Group on Land Subsidence
Past, current and planned activities of the UNESCO–IHP WGLS are primarily focused on its mission to enhance scientific/technical knowledge exchange and promote/facilitate international exchange of information regarding natural and anthropogenic subsidence processes and the sustainable development of our natural resources in areas susceptible to subsidence. Some of the fairly recent past and current activities, beyond the regular efforts to convene the international subsidence symposia, consist on other networking, publishing, research and programmatic endeavors.
Jointly with UNESCO IHP, IAHS as well as other scientific organizations, the UNESCO WGLS has organized nine International Symposia on Land Subsidence in different countries from Asia, Europe and North America.
Tokyo, Japan (1969)
Anaheim, USA (1977)
Venice, Italy (1986)
Houston, USA (1991)
The Hague, Netherlands (1995)
Ravenna, Italy (2000)
Shanghai, China (2005)
Querétaro, México (2010)
Nagoya, Japan (2015)
The proceedings of the nine published symposia jointly with two companion books contain relevant references of land subsidence research and case studies that cover anthropogenic and natural land subsidence processes worldwide.
See also
Subsidence
Groundwater-related subsidence
References
Depressions (geology)
Geotechnical organizations
Environmental issues with water
Subsidences | UNESCO Working Group on Land Subsidence | [
"Engineering"
] | 720 | [
"Geotechnical organizations",
"Civil engineering organizations"
] |
53,328,419 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Groundwork | The Groundwork was a privately held technology firm, run by Michael Slaby, that was formed in June 2014. Campaign finance disclosures revealed that Hillary Clinton's presidential campaign was a client of the Groundwork. Most of the Groundwork's employees are back-end software developers with experience at tech firms like Netflix, DreamHost, Zalando, and Google.
The Groundwork is responsible for the "critical functions of modern campaigning" by using technological resources to consume digital data about voters, and then developing the technological means to assist the Hillary Clinton presidential campaign target these voters for fundraising, advertising, outreach. It is a customer relationship management system for future voters."
References
Consulting firms of the United States
Hillary Clinton 2016 presidential campaign
Big data
Data management
Forecasting
Transaction processing
Government by algorithm | The Groundwork | [
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 161 | [
"Government by algorithm",
"Automation",
"Data management",
"Data",
"Big data"
] |
53,328,437 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambda%20Crateris | Lambda Crateris, Latinized from λ Crateris, is the Bayer designation for a suspected binary star system in the southern constellation of Crater. With an annual parallax shift of 23.32 milliarcsecond as observed from Earth, it is located around 140 light years from the Sun. It is faintly visible to the naked eye with an apparent visual magnitude of 5.08.
This is a probable astrometric binary star system, with orbital elements first reported by Abt and Levy (1976). However, Morbey and Griffin (1987) later cast some doubt on the validity of these results, suggesting that further review is needed. The visible member of this system, component A, is an evolved F-type giant star with a stellar classification of F5 III. It has an estimated 1.78 times the mass of the Sun and 2.8 times the Sun's radius. The star is spinning with a projected rotational velocity of 17 km/s.
References
F-type giants
Spectroscopic binaries
Crater (constellation)
Crateris, Lambda
Durchmusterung objects
Crateris, 13
098991
055598
4395
Astrometric binaries | Lambda Crateris | [
"Astronomy"
] | 242 | [
"Crater (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
53,328,778 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony%20Xperia%20XZ%20Premium | The Sony Xperia XZ Premium is an Android smartphone manufactured and marketed by Sony. As part of the Xperia X series, the device was announced to the public along with the Xperia XZs at the annual Mobile World Congress in February 2017. Pre-orders for the Xperia XZ Premium started in Europe on 22 May 2017. The device went on sale in the UK on 2 June 2017, and in the US on 19 June 2017.
It supersedes the Xperia Z5 Premium and it was Sony's latest flagship after the Xperia XZ and before Sony Xperia XZ2.
Notable features include a 4K HDR ultra-high resolution display and slow-motion video capture at 960 frames per second.
Hardware
Design and Build
The Xperia XZ Premium refines the Xperia XZ's "Loop Surface" design with its "Glass Loop Surface", consisting of a nylon side frame, metal top and bottom edges that together make up the chassis of the phone, and scratch-resistant front and back glass panels made of Corning's Gorilla Glass 5. The top and bottom part of the chassis are flat and diamond-cut along the edge to form a reflective facet. The most defining change in the XZ Premium, as well as the XZ1, is the placement of the image sensors on the back. It is now placed across the camera lens and slightly off-center, as opposed to being placed longitudinally below the lens like on the XZs. The NFC antenna is at the center part of the rear glass panel, just below the "XPERIA" nameplate. The front of the phone consists of dual front-firing stereo speakers, one on the top bezel and the other on the bottom bezel, along with a 13 MP front camera, ambient light sensor, proximity sensor and notification LED.
The Xperia XZ Premium's dimensions are in height, with a width of and a depth of and weighs approximately . It has an IP rating of IP68, making it dustproof and water-resistant for over 1.5 meters and 30 minutes underwater. The device also features a fingerprint sensor embedded into the power button that can be used to unlock the phone and secure it from unauthorized access. This feature, however, is disabled on units sold in the US.
Display and Performance
The Xperia XZ Premium is the second phone with a 4K (2160p) display, the first one being the Xperia Z5 Premium. But unlike the latter, the Xperia XZ Premium has a 4K HDR display, making it the first smartphone to feature such a display. It is HDR10 compliant, but has no Dolby Vision support. The IPS LCD screen has a pixel density of 806 ppi when rendered in 4K resolution and features Sony's TRILUMINOS display and X-Reality for mobile technology.
It is powered by the Qualcomm Snapdragon 835 (MSM8998), Built on 10 nm process technology with 8 custom Kryo 280 processors (4x 2.45 GHz and 4x 1.9 GHz), 4 GB of LPDDR4X RAM and uses the Adreno 540 GPU for graphics rendering. The device also has an internal storage of 64 GB and comes in single-SIM and dual-SIM versions, with both featuring LTE Cat. 16 with 3x carrier aggregation, a 4×4 MIMO antenna design and a total of 8 antennas. It also has microSD card expansion of up to 512 GB (in a hybrid slot. for the dual-SIM variant).
Camera
Sony debuted in the Xperia XZs and the XZ Premium the world's first 3-layer stacked image sensor with DRAM for smartphones. Known internally as Sony IMX400, the new ExmorRS sensor features a RAM chip sandwiched in between the sensor and control circuitry layers which serves as a large and fast buffer to where the sensor can temporarily offload a significant amount of captured data before transferring it to the phone's internal memory for processing. This enables the camera to record super slow-motion videos at 960 fps, at a steady 720p resolution. Recording at super slow motion is limited to 0.18 seconds per buffer, due to limitations.
Officially called Motion Eye, the Xperia XZ Premium has a 19 MP 1/2.3" Exmor RS for mobile sensor with a 1.22 μm pixel pitch, f/2.0 aperture and 25 mm wide G Lens. It also features 4K video recording, which supports Steady Shot video stabilization alongside the standard 1080p/30 fps and high-speed 1080p/60fps and a 120 fps recording in 720p options. The front selfie camera has a 13 megapixel sensor (1/3.06") with 22 mm, f/2.0 lens and 90-degree wide angle lens, same as the Xperia XZ but now features Steady Shot with Intelligent Active Mode (5-axis stabilization) like on the XZs.
The Xperia XZ Premium has Sony's Triple Image Sensing technology, first introduced in the Xperia XZ as standard. It is composed of the Image sensing (CMOS sensor with PDAF), Distance sensing (Laser AF sensor) and Color sensing (RGBC-IR sensor) systems, featuring a hybrid autofocus that utilizes Phase Detection (PDAF) to lock focus on a subject within 0.03 seconds. It also includes phase and contrast detection along with predictive motion tracking, and a laser autofocus sensor for fast tracking and focus-locking on an object, as well as an RGBC-IR (red, green, blue, clear – infrared) color sensor that assists the white balance function of the camera by providing additional data about the light conditions of the surrounding environment. It also has Steady Shot with Intelligent Auto, in addition to the five-axis sensor-shift image stabilization first seen in the Xperia XZ.
The Motion Eye camera also has a new feature called Predictive Capture. When it detects fast-paced movement, the camera automatically captures a maximum of four photos before the shutter button is pressed, and lets the user select the best one afterwards. This is done without any user intervention and is possible due to the same built-in RAM chip on the image sensor used in capturing the 960 fps super slow-motion videos.
In November 2017, after receiving user feedback, a software update within the camera features menu was released, titled "Correction for image distortion".
The camera received a DxOMark score of 83.
Battery
The Xperia XZ Premium is powered by a non-removable, 3230 mAh battery. Charging and data transfer is handled by a USB-C port with support for USB 3.1. It also has Qualcomm's Quick Charge 3.0 and Qnovo adaptive charging technology built-in. This allows the device to monitor the cell's electrochemical processes in real time and adjust charging parameters accordingly to minimize cell damage and extend the battery unit's lifespan. It also comes with Battery Care, a Sony proprietary feature, that controls the charging process of the phone by learning and recognizing the user's charging patterns, preventing the phone from damaging the battery's cells from excessive heat due to overcharging. For example, when charging overnight, Battery Care stops the initial charge to 90 percent and then continue charging until full where it left off the next day.
Audio and Connectivity
The Xperia XZ Premium comes with a standard 3.5 mm audio jack for plugging in wired headphones. It also has LDAC, an audio coding technology developed by Sony, That enables the transmission of 24-bit/96 kHz High-Resolution (Hi-Res) audio content over Bluetooth at up to 990 Kbit/s, three times faster than conventional audio streaming codecs, to compatible audio devices. Other connectivity options include Bluetooth 5 with aptX and Low Energy, NFC, dual-band Wi-Fi a/b/g/n/ac with 2×2 MIMO antennas, Wi-Fi Direct, MirrorLink, screen casting via Miracast, Google Cast, DLNA, GPS (with A-GPS), GLONASS, BeiDou and Galileo satellite positioning. The Xperia XZ Premium has no FM radio.
Software
The Sony Xperia XZ Premium launched with Android 7.1.1 Nougat along with Smart Stamina battery saving modes and Sony's proprietary multimedia apps. Android 8.0 Oreo started rolling out in late-October 2017. Android 9.0 Pie was rolled out for the XZ Premium in February 2019.
Variants
References
External links
XZ premium
Android (operating system) devices
Discontinued flagship smartphones
Sony smartphones
Mobile phones introduced in 2017
Mobile phones with 4K video recording | Sony Xperia XZ Premium | [
"Technology"
] | 1,829 | [
"Discontinued flagship smartphones",
"Flagship smartphones"
] |
53,329,145 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsung%20Galaxy%20Tab%20S3 | The Samsung Galaxy Tab S3 is an Android-based tablet computer produced and marketed by Samsung Electronics. Belonging to the high-end "S" line, it was unveiled alongside the Galaxy Book at the MWC 2017, and was first released on March 24, 2017. It is available in Wi-Fi only and Wi-Fi/4G LTE variants.
Its successor, the Galaxy Tab S4, was announced on August 1, 2018.
Features
The Galaxy Tab S3 is the first device from Samsung to run Android 7.0 Nougat as default. For the first time since the Galaxy Tab 2, all the languages that were previously absent from other regions are available.
The device features a 9.7-inch 2048 × 1536 Super AMOLED display which supports HDR video. The Tab S3 has a Qualcomm Snapdragon 820 processor, 4 GB of RAM, 32 GB of onboard storage and a 6000 mAh battery. It is also supplied with a Galaxy Note S Pen, the first of the Tab S range to do so.
Reception
The Verge criticized the cameras on the device, being "softened and smudged", the limitations on multitasking, and the cramped Pogo keyboard, whilst praising the integration of the S Pen and it being lightweight.
Matt Swider of Tech Radar stated that the tablet was "Samsung’s best tablet design yet", praising the addition of the free S-Pen stylus and HDR-ready future-proofed screen while criticizing the costly keyboard and how a tablet "could not replace a laptop".
Xiaomare Blanco of CNET also called the device Samsung's best tablet and stated, "The Samsung Galaxy Tab S3 is an elegantly designed tablet that comes with a capable stylus. It has a stunning AMOLED screen, fingerprint sensor for extra security and satisfyingly loud quad speakers. It's also the first HDR-ready tablet." The reviewer was also disappointed that large applications take time to load, while the keyboard add-on is an expensive extra.
Max Parker of TrustedReviews noted the good addition of the HDR AMOLED display, S Pen and lightweight, but said that the software "lacks polish", "janky" multitasking on the device and that the glass back of the tablet was a "fingerprint magnet".
References
External links
Samsung Galaxy Tab
S3
Android (operating system) devices
Products introduced in 2017 | Samsung Galaxy Tab S3 | [
"Technology"
] | 500 | [
"Mobile computer stubs",
"Mobile technology stubs"
] |
53,332,518 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packingham%20v.%20North%20Carolina | Packingham v. North Carolina, 582 U.S. 98 (2017), is a case in which the Supreme Court of the United States held that a North Carolina statute that prohibited registered sex offenders from using social media websites was unconstitutional because it violated the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which protects freedom of speech.
In 2010, Lester Gerard Packingham, a registered sex offender, posted on Facebook under a pseudonym to comment favorably on a recent traffic court experience. Police then identified Packingham and charged him with violating North Carolina's law. Packingham moved to dismiss the charges, arguing that the state's law violated the First Amendment. The trial court dismissed this motion and ultimately convicted Packingham. A state appellate court initially reversed the trial court, holding that the law did violate the First Amendment, but the North Carolina Supreme Court, the state's highest court, disagreed and reinstated the conviction.
In June 2017, the U.S. Supreme Court unanimously reversed the North Carolina Supreme Court's judgment. In the majority opinion authored by Justice Anthony Kennedy, the Court held that social media—defined broadly to include Facebook, Amazon.com, The Washington Post, and WebMD—is a "protected space" under the First Amendment for lawful speech. The Court offered that North Carolina could protect children through less restrictive means, such as prohibiting "conduct that often presages a sexual crime, like contacting a minor or using a website to gather information about a minor".
Background
North Carolina statute
In 2008, the state of North Carolina passed a law that made it a felony for a registered sex offender "to access a commercial social networking Web site where the sex offender knows that the site permits minor children to become members or to create or maintain personal Web pages". The law defined a "commercial social networking Web site" using four criteria. Specifically, the website must:
be "operated by a person who derives revenue from membership fees, advertising, or other sources related to the operation of the Web site".
facilitate "the social introduction between two or more persons for the purposes of friendship, meeting other persons, or information exchanges".
allow "users to create Web pages or personal profiles that contain information such as the name or nickname of the user, photographs placed on the personal Web page by the user, other personal information about the user, and links to other personal Web pages on the commercial social networking Web site of friends or associates of the user that may be accessed by other users or visitors to the Web site".
provide "users or visitors... mechanisms to communicate with other users, such as a message board, chat room, electronic mail, or instant messenger".
The law exempted websites that "Provid[e] only one of the following discrete services: photo-sharing, electronic mail, instant messenger, or chat room or message board platform", as well as websites that have as their primary purpose "the facilitation of commercial transactions involving goods or services between [their] members or visitors".
Facts of the case
In 2002, Lester Gerard Packingham was convicted of taking "indecent liberties with a child", a felony that required him to register as a sex offender. A North Carolina court sentenced him to 10–12 months in prison with 24 months of supervised release. He was given no other special instructions on his behavior outside of prison other than to "remain away from" the minor. In 2010, after a state court dismissed a traffic ticket against Packingham, he submitted a post on Facebook under the name "J. R. Gerrard", stating: "Man God is Good! How about I got so much favor they dismissed the ticket before court even started? No fine, no court cost, no nothing spent. . . . . .Praise be to GOD, WOW! Thanks JESUS!" The Durham Police Department identified Packingham as the author of the post after cross-checking the time of the post with recently dismissed traffic tickets, and a grand jury indicted him for violating the North Carolina statute.
Lower court proceedings
Initially, Packingham moved to dismiss his indictment, arguing that it violated the First Amendment. A North Carolina Superior Court judge denied this motion, and he was convicted of violating the North Carolina social media law. Packingham appealed his conviction to the North Carolina Court of Appeals, which reversed the trial court's decision in 2013. Applying intermediate scrutiny, the court of appeals determined that North Carolina's law violated the First Amendment because it was too broad, applying to all registered sex offenders regardless of whether the offender had committed a crime involving a minor or whether the offender was a continuing threat of harm to minors. The court of appeals also stated that the law had been defined broadly enough to prohibit a registered sex offender from conducting a wide array of Internet activity, such as "conducting a 'Google' search, purchasing items on Amazon.com, or accessing a plethora of Web sites unrelated to online communication with minors".
In 2015, the North Carolina Supreme Court, the state's highest court, reversed the court of appeals, holding that the law was "constitutional in all respects". The North Carolina Supreme Court found that the statute was a "limitation on conduct" and did not impede any free speech. The state had a vested interest in “forestalling the illicit lurking and contact of minors” by registered sex offenders and potential future victims, and sustained Packingham's conviction.
Supreme Court ruling
Packingham filed a petition for a writ of certiorari with the Supreme Court of the United States. The federal government also filed a brief recommending that the Supreme Court grant certiorari, arguing that the North Carolina Supreme Court incorrectly decided the case in favor of the state. The U.S. Supreme Court granted certiorari in October 2016. Amicus briefs in support of Packingham were filed by the libertarian Cato Institute and the American Civil Liberties Union. The North Carolina Supreme Court filed a brief supporting its prior decision, urging the importance of protecting minors in the Internet age from being stalked online.
Oral argument
The oral argument took place in February 2017. Packingham’s lawyer, David T. Goldberg, argued that the law banned “vast swaths of First Amendment activity”, went too far in restricting which Internet sites could be accessed, and forbade use of the Internet in general. The law targeted speech on some of the platforms that Americans use most often, Goldberg noted, and that under the law Packingham could not even use Twitter to read the myriad messages discussing his own case. He further noted that the law imposes punishment without regard to whether the offender actually did anything wrong.
North Carolina’s senior deputy Attorney General, Robert C. Montgomery, argued for the state, and claimed that communication through social media sites is a “crucial channel”. Justice Sonia Sotomayor asked Montgomery to provide evidence as to the claim that by giving Packingham Internet privileges, he would commit another crime. Justice Stephen Breyer added that “It seems to be well-settled law that the state can’t (bar usage) unless there is a 'clear and present danger'."
Opinion of the Court
In June 2017 the Supreme Court delivered a judgment in favor of Packingham, unanimously voting to reverse the state court. Justice Anthony Kennedy explained the decision: "A fundamental principle of the First Amendment is that all persons have access to places where they can speak and listen, and then, after reflection, speak and listen once more." He continued that "By prohibiting sex offenders from using those websites, North Carolina with one broad stroke bars access to what for many are the principal sources for knowing current events, checking ads for employment, speaking and listening in the modern public square, and otherwise exploring the vast realms of human thought and knowledge." Citing Ashcroft v. Free Speech Coalition as a precedent, Kennedy also wrote: "It is well established that, as a general rule, the Government 'may not suppress lawful speech as the means to suppress unlawful speech'."
Concurring opinion
Justice Samuel Alito wrote an opinion concurring in the judgment, joined by John Roberts and Clarence Thomas. While Alito agreed that the law at issue violated the First Amendment, he noted that there are reasonable scenarios for which legal bans for sex offenders can be placed, such as for sites targeted at teenagers.
Impact
Packingham v. North Carolina was one of the first U.S. Supreme Court cases to analyze the role of the First Amendment with respect to social media use. According to Ashutosh Bhagwat, a law professor at the UC Davis School of Law, as of 2018 Packingham is one of only two cases heard by the Roberts Court that directly address new technologies up to that point, the other being Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Association (2011) with respect to video games. Bhagwat speculated that this might change in the future, as "recent calls to regulate 'fake news' and otherwise impose filtering obligations on search engine and social media companies will inevitably raise important and difficult First Amendment issues".
Effect on First Amendment case law
In an article published in the North Dakota Law Review, Katie Miller wrote that the Packingham decision may be used to challenge laws and restrictions in other states similar to the one in North Carolina. For example, in a case called United States v. Rock (2017), a defendant who pleaded guilty to distributing child pornography cited Packingham in an appeal of one of the conditions of his supervised release, which prevented him from possessing or using a computer. The U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit rejected that argument on the basis that the defendant's release condition was not a "post-custodial restriction" as it was in Packingham, stating that "'a court granting probation may impose reasonable conditions that deprive the offender of some freedoms enjoyed by law-abiding citizens'".
Madeleine Burnette-McGrath, in an article published in the Ohio Northern University Law Review, wrote that "Packingham adopts a new avenue for government regulation, allowing the government to interfere with individual social media entities and their ability to regulate speech that occurs on their websites" Specifically, Packingham delineates an intermediate scrutiny test for governmental regulation of Internet speech, under which a government agent "need only put into effect a law that is both narrowly tailored to and includes a substantial government interest". Burnette-McGrath described this as a "low standard" that may inspire states to "implement new laws under the guise of substantial government interest or of being narrowly tailored" at the detriment of free speech on the Internet.
See also
List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 582
TikTok v. Garland, 604 U.S. ___ (2025) - Another Supreme Court case that involved the constitutionality of social media usage; this case upheld a national ban on a social media app.
References
Citations
Sources
External links
Case file at SCOTUSblog
2017 in United States case law
United States First Amendment case law
United States Supreme Court cases
United States Supreme Court cases of the Roberts Court | Packingham v. North Carolina | [
"Technology"
] | 2,255 | [
"Computing and society",
"Social media"
] |
53,332,613 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huawei%20P10 | The Huawei P10 is an Android phablet smartphone manufactured by Huawei. Announced at Mobile World Congress 2017 on 26 February 2017, the P10 is the successor to the Huawei P9 and was succeeded by the Huawei P20 in 2018.
Specifications
Hardware
The P10 is constructed with a metal chassis, available in various color finishes. Two color options, "Dazzling Blue" and "Dazzling Gold", feature a patterned "Hyper Diamond Cut" finish which reduces its susceptibility to fingerprints. The front of the device features a button-like fingerprint reader, which can also be used for gesture-based navigation. The P10 features a 5.1-inch 1080p display. A larger version, known as the P10 Plus, features a 5.5-inch 1440p display. The P10 utilizes Huawei's octa-core Kirin 960 system-on-chip, with four 1.84 GHz Cortex-A53 cores and four Cortex-A73 cores at 2.36 GHz. The P10 utilizes 4 GB of RAM, while the P10 Plus uses 4 or 6 GB. It comes with 32, 64, or 128 GB of internal storage.
Camera
Like the P9, the P10 utilizes a dual camera array on the back with Leica lenses, consisting of a monochrome 20-megapixel sensor and a 12-megapixel color sensor. The P10 cameras utilize an f/2.2 aperture.
Software
The P10 ships with Android 7.0 "Nougat" and Huawei's EMUI software suite. An update to Android 8.0 "Oreo" and EMUI 8.1 was released in March 2018. In March 2019, Huawei released an update to Android 9.0 "Pie" and EMUI 9.
Reception
The Huawei P10 received mixed reviews. The Verge felt that the design of the P10 was "attractive" and an "up-to-date" derivative of the iPhone 6 (noting its slim build and other accenting), although arguing that the "Hyper Diamond Cut" finish made the device feel cheaper than intended. It was also noted that the fingerprint sensor's swiping gestures made Android more difficult to navigate. The camera was praised for having "dramatically better image quality than its closest competitors", its software and effects, and for lacking a noticeable "bump" protrusion around its lenses. In conclusion, it was argued that the P10 was overpriced and otherwise developed "without confidence or direction", although it received some upgrades from last year's model, such a camera upgrade (addition of OIS, brighter aperture, 4K video recording, 2x lossless zoom).
Some P10 devices utilize LPDDR3 RAM instead of LPDDR4, while its storage memory is mixed between eMMC 5.1 and Universal Flash Storage (UFS) 2.0 or 2.1 components. Huawei faced complaints over the variances between devices, with Chinese users noting differences in benchmark performance between these different memory types. In April 2017, Huawei defended the differences as the standard practice of sourcing specific components from multiple sources in order to meet market demand, also citing an industry-wide shortage of flash memory.
References
External links
Mobile phones introduced in 2017
Android (operating system) devices
Mobile phones with multiple rear cameras
Mobile phones with 4K video recording
Discontinued flagship smartphones
Huawei smartphones
Mobile phones with infrared transmitter | Huawei P10 | [
"Technology"
] | 715 | [
"Discontinued flagship smartphones",
"Flagship smartphones"
] |
53,333,461 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony%20Xperia%20XZs | The Sony Xperia XZs is an Android smartphone manufactured and marketed by Sony. Part of the Xperia X series, the device was announced to the public along with the Xperia XZ Premium at the annual Mobile World Congress last February 2017.
The device's highlight feature is its capability of capturing slow-motion videos at 960 frames per second, a world's first in a compact smartphone.
Hardware
Design and Build
The Xperia XZs' design is exactly the same "Loop Surface" design as the previous-gen flagship, the Xperia XZ, save for the raised lens "hump" with a beveled edge surround for the new Motion Eye camera. It consists of 3 different materials: a nylon frame, scratch-resistant front glass panel made of Corning Gorilla Glass 5, and an aluminium alloy metal back. The subtly-curved rear cover is made from ALKALEIDO alloy, trademarked by Kobe Steel, finished in a matte-like texture that gives a distinct shine when hit by a light source, complementing the smartphone's recognizable shape that debuted with the Xperia XZ. The front houses the 5.2-inch LCD display flanked by the dual front-firing stereo speakers; one on the top bezel along with the 13 MP front selfie camera, ambient light and proximity sensors and notification LED; and the other one at the bottom bezel. The top of the device houses the 3.5 mm headphone jack with a 2nd microphone pinhole adjacent to it; the bottom has the USB Type-C port and primary microphone.
The hybrid SIM tray lives on the top-left side of the device, with a sealed pull-out type cover for added ingress protection. The right-hand side houses the fingerprint reader, positioned along the middle as with previous Xperia devices, though it is deactivated in the US due to patent disputes. Directly below that is the volume rocker, and below it near the bottom edge is the 2-stage camera shutter button, a unique staple of Xperia devices ever since and a very rare sight in smartphones nowadays.
The device's dimensions are also exactly the same as the previous flagship, in height, with a width of and a depth of and weighs approximately even with the new camera setup.
Display and Performance
The Xperia XZs sports a 1080p Full-HD IPS LCD display, with a pixel density of 424 ppi and featuring Sony's TRILUMINOS™ display technology and X-Reality for mobile built-in. Unlike the more upscale Xperia XZ Premium, the Xperia XZs is powered by the same quad-core Qualcomm Snapdragon 820 (MSM8996) chipset and Adreno 530 GPU that came with the Xperia XZ, with 4 custom Kryo processors in a 2 + 2 configuration (2x 2.15 GHz and 2x 1.6 GHz), but is now upgraded to a 4 GB LPDDR4 RAM instead of the previous 3 GB for an added performance boost. The device also has an internal storage of 32 GB for the single-SIM variant and 64 GB for the dual-SIM variant, both are LTE Cat. 9-enabled. It also has a microSD card expansion of up to 256 GB (in a hybrid slot for the dual-SIM variant).
Camera
Sony IMX400
Sony debuted in the Xperia XZs and the XZ Premium the world's first 3-layer stacked image sensor with DRAM for smartphones. Known internally as the IMX400, the new Exmor RS for mobile sensor features a DRAM chip sandwiched in-between the sensor array and control circuitry layers, serving as a large and fast memory buffer to the sensor, where it can temporarily store a significant amount of captured data before transferring it to the device's internal memory for processing. This enables the camera sensor to record the highlight super slow-motion videos at a frame rate of 960 fps practically unheard of in a smartphone before. Recording at super slow motion is only limited to 0.18 seconds per buffer (about a blink of an eye) and at 720p HD resolution though, due to limitations. This specific limitation also requires a very bright light source directly on to the subject, or a well-lit scene or surrounding for a more noise-less and much brighter video capture.
Motion Eye™
The Xperia XZs is the first of the two new models to launch the now officially called Motion Eye™ camera. It has a 19 MP 1/2.3” Exmor RS for mobile sensor with a 1.22 μm pixel pitch, f/2.0 aperture and 25mm wide G Lens. It also features 4K video recording, which supports SteadyShot video stabilization alongside the standard 1080p/30fps and high-speed 1080p/60fps and a 120fps recording in 720p options. The front selfie camera has a 13 megapixel sensor (1/3.06") with 22 mm, f/2.0 lens and 90 degree wide angle lens, same as the Xperia XZ but now features SteadyShot™ with Intelligent Active Mode (5-axis stabilization) like on the XZ Premium.
The Motion Eye™ camera also showcases a new and unique feature, called Predictive Capture. When the camera detects a fast-paced movement, it automatically buffers up to a maximum of 4 frames before the shutter button is pressed, and lets the user select the best one or keep all the captured frames afterward. This is done by a machine learning algorithm, all without any user intervention, and is possible thanks to the same built-in DRAM chip on the IMX400 sensor used in capturing its unique 960 fps super slow-motion videos.
Triple Image Sensing
The Motion Eye™ camera is also backed up by Sony's Triple Image Sensing technology first introduced in the Xperia XZ. It is composed of the Image sensing (CMOS sensor with PDAF), Distance sensing (Laser AF sensor) and Color sensing (RGBC-IR color spectrum sensor) systems. The sensor has a hybrid autofocus that utilizes Phase Detection (PDAF), which locks focus on a subject within 0.03 seconds, and also includes phase and contrast detection along with predictive motion tracking. It also has a laser autofocus sensor for faster object tracking and focus compared to regular autofocus modes, and an RGBC-IR (RedGreenBlueClear-InfraRed) color spectrum sensor assisting the white balance function of the camera by simply providing additional data about the lighting conditions of the surrounding environment or scene. The camera also benefits from SteadyShot with Intelligent Auto in addition to the five-axis sensor-shift image stabilization for a more stable and shake-free video recording.
Battery
The Xperia XZs is powered by the same non-removable 2900 mAh lithium-ion battery as the Xperia XZ, with a USB-C USB 2.0 port (compared to the XZ Premium's USB 3.1), with support for Qualcomm QuickCharge 3.0. It also has Qnovo adaptive charging technology built-in, which allows the device to monitor the battery cell's electrochemical processes in real time, and adjusts charging parameters accordingly to minimize cell damage and extend the battery cell's lifespan.
Battery Care
It also comes with Battery Care, Sony's proprietary charging algorithm, that controls the charging process of the phone through machine learning. It recognizes the user's charging habits for a certain period and automatically adjusts itself to the pattern, for example an overnight charge, by stopping the initial charging to about 90 percent, and then continuing it until full from where it left off the next day. This effectively prevents the unnecessary damage to the battery's cells from excessive heat and current due to overcharging, further increasing the battery's life span.
Audio and Connectivity
The Xperia XZs comes with the standard 3.5 mm audio jack for plugging in wired headphones. It also has LDAC, an audio coding technology developed in-house by Sony,(which is now part of the Android Open Source Project as of 2018), that enables the transmission of 24bit/96 kHz High-Resolution (Hi-Res) audio content over Bluetooth at up to 990 kbit/s.
And just like the Xperia XZ, the XZs has the standard set of connectivity options: Bluetooth 4.2 with aptX and Low Energy, NFC, dual-band Wi-Fi a/b/g/n/ac with 2x2 MIMO antennas for speeds up to 433 Mbit/s, Wi-Fi Direct and hotspot, screen casting via Miracast, Google Cast and DLNA, GPS and A-GPS, GLONASS and BeiDou satellite positioning. The Xperia XZs has no FM radio.
Software
The Sony Xperia XZs was launched with Android 7.1.1 Nougat out of the box, and is upgradeable to Android 8.0 Oreo.
References
External links
Official white paper
Official white paper (Dual SIM)
Android (operating system) devices
Mobile phones introduced in 2017
Mobile phones with 4K video recording
Discontinued flagship smartphones
Sony smartphones | Sony Xperia XZs | [
"Technology"
] | 1,926 | [
"Discontinued flagship smartphones",
"Flagship smartphones"
] |
53,333,538 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20cleaning%20products | This is a list of cleaning products and agents. Cleaning agents are substances (usually liquids, powders, sprays, or granules) used to remove dirt, including dust, stains, bad smells, and clutter on surfaces. Purposes of cleaning agents include health, beauty, removing offensive odor, and avoiding the spread of dirt and contaminants to oneself and others.
Cleaning products
Air freshener
Automatic deodorizer dispenser
Ajax (cleaning product)
Arm & Hammer (brand)
Bar Keepers Friend
Bath brick – patented in 1823, it was a predecessor of the scouring pad used for cleaning and polishing
Behold
Bio Pac Inc
Biological detergent
Blanco (compound)
Bluing (fabric)
Bon Ami
Borax
Brillo Pad
Bronze wool
2-Butoxyethanol
Calcium Lime Rust
Cif
Cleret Glass Cleaner
Colour Catcher
Comet (cleanser)
Denture cleaner
Descaling agent
Detergent
Didi Seven
Dishwashing liquid
Dispensing ball
Disposable towel
Dolly blue
Domestos
Donkey stone
Drano
Dryer ball
Dust-Off
Ecover
Endust
Fabric softener
Fairy (brand)
Falcon Safety Products
Bon Ami Company
Febreze
Finish (detergent)
Formula 409
Frosch USA
Gas duster
Glade (brand)
Guar hydroxypropyltrimonium chloride
Hard-surface cleaner – a category of cleaning agents comprising mainly aqueous solutions of specialty chemicals
Hillyard, Inc.
Laundry ball
Lestoil – a heavy-duty multi-purpose cleanser product
Liquid-Plumr
Monkey Brand – a soap introduced in the 1880s as a household scouring and polishing soap, in cake/bar form
Mr Sheen
Mrs. Stewart's Bluing – a brand of fabric bluing agent first marketed in 1883 that whitens fabrics with a proprietary blue dye, primarily made of blue iron powder
Murphy Oil Soap
OxiClean
Paper towel
Phisoderm
Piranha solution
ReNu
Retr0bright
Rozalex
Rubbing alcohol
Seventh Generation Inc.
Saddle soap
Scotch-Brite
Scouring pad
Shake n' Vac
Shoe polish
Esquire Shoe Polish
Kiwi (shoe polish)
Shinola
Wren's Super Wax Shoe Polish
Simple Green
Snuggle
S.O.S Soap Pad
Soap
Soap on a rope
Soap substitute
Sodium bisulfate
Sodium hydroxide
Sodium polycarboxylate
Spic and Span
Spiffits
Sponge (material)
Steel wool
Surf (detergent)
Swarfega – a brand of heavy-duty hand cleaner
Tawashi
Toilet cleaner
Sani Flush
Toilet Duck
Toilet rim block
Urinal deodorizer block
V-Bor
Vegetable wash
Vim (cleaning product)
Yucca glauca
Brands
20 Mule Team Borax
2000 Flushes
Ariel (detergent)
Bosisto's
Bounty (brand)
Brasso
Calgon
Cheer (brand)
Chore Boy
Cillit Bang
Clorox
Armor All
Formula 409
Lestoil
Liquid-Plumr
Pine-Sol
S.O.S Soap Pad
Comfort (fabric softener)
Dawn (brand)
Downy
Fels-Naptha
Frosch USA
Glass Plus
Gold Dust washing powder
Harpic
Joy (dishwashing liquid)
Lysol
Leifheit
Mr Muscle
Mr Sheen
Mr. Clean
Palmolive (brand)
Pledge (brand)
Purell
Purex (laundry detergent)
Rinso
Scrub Daddy
Scrubbing Bubbles
Suavitel
Supamop
Swiffer
Tide (brand)
Ty-D-Bol
Vanish (brand)
Vileda
Windex
Woolite
Disinfectants
Disinfectants are antimicrobial agents that are applied to the surface of non-living objects to destroy microorganisms that are living on the objects.
Air sanitizer
Antimicrobial copper-alloy touch surfaces
Barbicide
Barium borate
BCDMH
Behentrimonium chloride
Benzethonium chloride
Benzododecinium bromide
Bleach
Bromine monochloride
Calcium oxide
Calcium peroxide
Carbethopendecinium bromide
Carbol fuchsin
Carbolic soap
Chlorhexidine
Chlorine dioxide
2-Chlorophenol
Creolin
Cresolene
Crystal violet
DBDMH
Diazolidinyl urea
Electrolysed water
Ethanol
Eucalyptus oil
Fuchsine
Germicidal lamp
Gluma
Glutaraldehyde
Hand sanitizer
Hexachlorocyclohexa-2,5-dien-1-one
Hydrogen peroxide
Hypochlorous acid
Hypomide
Imidazolidinyl urea
Iodophor
Isopropyl alcohol
Jeyes Fluid – a brand of disinfectant fluid
Lapyrium
Lithium hypochlorite
Lugol's iodine
Magnesium monoperoxyphthalate
Methyl violet
Milton sterilizing fluid
Nitromersol
Ozone
Peracetic acid
Phenols
Pine oil
Polyaminopropyl biguanide
Potassium hypochlorite
Potassium permanganate
Povidone-iodine
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Quaternary ammonium cation
Sodium dichloroisocyanurate
Sodium hypochlorite
Sodium metabisulfite
Sodium permanganate
Thymol
Tincture of iodine
2,4,6-Trichlorophenol
Vaporized hydrogen peroxide
Virkon – a multi-purpose disinfectant product
Wet wipe
Laundry detergents
Laundry detergent, or washing powder, is a type of detergent (cleaning agent) that is added for cleaning laundry.
Annette's Perfect Cleanser Company – was a 1930s era firm which manufactured a dry powder which was useful for removing spots and stains from clothing
Ariel (detergent)
Biz (detergent)
Bold (detergent)
Breeze detergent
Cheer (brand)
Cold Power
Colour Catcher
Dash (detergent)
Daz (laundry detergent)
Didi Seven
Dreft
Fresh Start (detergent)
Gain (detergent)
Ghari Detergent
Laundry detergent pod
Luvil
Nirma
Oxydol
Persil
Persil Power
Purex (laundry detergent)
Rinso
Sunlight (cleaning product)
Surf (detergent)
Surf Excel
Tide (brand)
Tolypers
Wheel (detergent)
WIN (detergent)
Wisk – discontinued in 2016
Woolite
Soaps
In chemistry, a soap is a salt of a fatty acid. Household uses for soaps include washing, bathing, and other types of housekeeping, where soaps act as surfactants, emulsifying oils to enable them to be carried away by water.
African black soap
Aleppo soap
Antibacterial soap
Azul e branco soap
Carbolic soap
Castile soap
Cuticura soap
Glycerin soap
Gossage
Hard soap
Lye
Marseille soap
Nabulsi soap
Phisoderm
Popish soap
Rebatching
Resin soap
Saltwater soap
Shaving soap
Sodium stearate
Stainless steel soap
Sugar soap
Vegan soap
Soap brands
Ach. Brito
Biechele Soap
Boraxo
Camay
Caswell-Massey
Chandrika (soap)
Coast (soap)
Defense Soap
Dial (soap)
Dove (toiletries)
Faso soap
Fels-Naptha
Fenjal
Godrej Consumer Products Limited
Hamam (soap)
Imperial Leather
Irish Spring
Ivory (soap)
Joy (dishwashing liquid)
Kerala Soaps
L'Amande
Lano (soap)
Lava (soap)
Lever 2000
Lifebuoy (soap)
Liril
Lux (soap)
Margo (soap)
Medimix
Mysore Sandal Soap
Nivea
Old Spice
Palmolive (brand)
Pears (soap)
Proraso
Rozalex
Sapolio
Sebamed
Shower Shock
Simple Skincare
Sunlight (cleaning product)
Swan Soap
Swarfega
Wright's Coal Tar Soap
Zest (brand)
See also
Automatic soap dispenser
William E. Corbin – inventor of Nibroc paper towels
Environmental impact of cleaning agents
Green cleaning
International Nomenclature of Cosmetic Ingredients
List of cleaning companies
Saponification
Soap dispenser
Surfactant
Terminal cleaning
UK Cleaning Products Industry Association
References
Lists of brands | List of cleaning products | [
"Chemistry"
] | 1,633 | [
"Cleaning products",
"Products of chemical industry"
] |
53,333,891 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20former%20planets | This is a list of astronomical objects formerly widely considered planets under any of the various definitions of this word in the history of astronomy. As the definition of planet has evolved, the de facto and de jure definitions of planet have changed over the millennia. As of 2024, there are eight official planets in the Solar System per the International Astronomical Union (IAU), which has also established a definition for exoplanets. Several objects formerly considered exoplanets have been found actually to be stars or brown dwarfs.
Background
Throughout antiquity, several astronomical objects were considered Classical Planets, meaning "wandering stars", not all of which are now considered planets. The moons discovered around Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus after the advent of the telescope were also initially considered planets by some. The development of more powerful telescopes resulted in the discovery of the asteroids, which were initially considered planets. Then Pluto, the first Trans-Neptunian Object, was discovered. More Trans-Neptunian Objects of the Kuiper Belt were found with the help of electronic imaging. One of these, Eris, was widely hailed as a "new planet", which prompted the 2006 recategorization of solar system bodies.
Some planetary scientists reject the 2006 definition of planet, and thus would still consider some of the objects on this list to be planets under a geophysical definition. See the list of gravitationally rounded objects of the Solar System for a list of geophysical planets.
List
See also
List of gravitationally rounded objects of the Solar System
List of possible dwarf planets
List of hypothetical Solar System objects
Notes
References
Former planets
Planets
Solar System | List of former planets | [
"Astronomy"
] | 329 | [
"Outer space",
"Solar System"
] |
53,335,244 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsung%20Galaxy%20S8 | The Samsung Galaxy S8 and Samsung Galaxy S8+ are Android smartphones produced by Samsung Electronics as the eighth generation of the Samsung Galaxy S series. The S8 and S8+ were unveiled on 29 March 2017 and directly succeeded the Samsung Galaxy S7 and S7 Edge, with a North American release on 21 April 2017 and international rollout throughout April and May. The Samsung Galaxy S8 Active was announced on 8 August 2017 and is exclusive to certain US cellular carriers.
The S8 and S8+ contain upgraded hardware and major design changes over the S7 line, including larger screens with a taller aspect ratio and curved sides on both the smaller and larger models, iris and face recognition, a new suite of virtual assistant features known as Bixby (along with a new dedicated physical button for launching the assistant), a shift from Micro-USB to USB-C charging, and Samsung DeX, a docking station accessory that allows the phones to be used with a desktop interface with keyboard and mouse input support. The S8 Active features tougher materials designed for protection against shock, shatter, water, and dust, with a metal frame and a tough texture for improved grip that makes the S8 Active have a rugged design. The Active's screen measures the same size as the standard S8 model but loses the curved edges in favour of a metal frame.
The S8 and S8+ received positive reviews. Their design, screen quality, and form factor received praise, while critics also liked the updated software and camera optimizations. They received criticism for duplicate software apps, lackluster Bixby features at launch, and for the placement of the fingerprint sensor on the rear next to the camera. A video published after the phones' release proved that the devices' facial and iris scanners can be fooled by suitable photographs of the user.
The S8 and S8+ were in high demand at release. During the pre-order period, a record one million units were booked in South Korea, and overall sales numbers were 30% higher than the Galaxy S7. However, subsequent reports in May announced sales of over five million units, a notably lower first-month sales number than previous Galaxy S series models.
On March 11, 2018, Samsung launched the successor to the S8, the Samsung Galaxy S9.
History
Before its official announcement, media outlets reported on rumours and information from industry insiders. In December 2016, SamMobile reported that the Galaxy S8 would not feature a 3.5 mm headphone jack, later reported to be a false rumor. In January 2017, The Guardian reported on bigger screens for both of the two phone sizes, with edge-to-edge "infinity" displays and very limited bezels, and an iris scanner. Additionally, The Guardian stated that the phones would come with 64 gigabytes of storage and support microSD cards, use USB-C connectors, and feature a "Bixby" intelligent personal assistant. Soon after, VentureBeat revealed photos of the phones and additional details, including the lack of physical navigation and home buttons, in which the fingerprint sensor was moved to the back of the phone. Evan Blass tweeted in mid-March about color options for the phones.
The Galaxy S8 and S8+ were officially unveiled on 29 March 2017, with pre-orders beginning on 30 March and official U.S. release on 21 April 2017. Following Best Buy retail listings in March, Samsung opened pre-orders for unlocked U.S. handsets on 9 May 2017, with availability starting 31 May.
The devices have also been released internationally. On 21 April 2017, they were made available in South Korea, Canada, and Taiwan. On 28 April, they were made available in the United Kingdom, Australia, Ireland, and Russia. followed by Singapore one day later. On 5 May, they were made available in Malaysia. New Zealand, Pakistan, India, the Philippines, and Thailand. followed by Brazil on 12 May. On 25 May, they were made available in China, and Hong Kong. On 8 June, they were made available in Japan.
In July 2017, pictures of the Galaxy S8 Active were leaked on Reddit, and the following month, AT&T "accidentally" confirmed its existence through a document in a promotional campaign. It officially became available for pre-order, exclusively through AT&T, on 8 August 2017, with in-store purchase available 11 August. VentureBeat reported in late September that the device would also become available through T-Mobile in November, and Samsung subsequently confirmed both T-Mobile and Sprint availability in early November.
Specifications
Hardware
Display
The Galaxy S8 and S8+ both feature 1440p OLED displays, with an 18.5:9 (37:18) aspect ratio taller than the 16:9 ratio used by the majority of smartphones released until then. The S8 has a 5.8-inch panel, while the S8+ uses a larger 6.2-inch panel. The displays on both devices curve along the side bezels of the device, with minimal bezels that Samsung markets as an "infinity display", and the display panel itself have rounded edges. They use DCI-P3, offering what screen-testing website DisplayMate describes as the largest native color gamut, highest peak brightness, highest contrast rating in ambient light, highest screen resolution, lowest reflectance, and highest contrast ratio.
Chipsets
The S8 features an octa-core Exynos 8895 system-on-chip and 4 GB of RAM; models in North American and East Asian markets utilize the Qualcomm Snapdragon 835 instead. Both chips are manufactured by Samsung with a 10 nm process. They contain 64 GB of internal storage, expandable via microSD card.
Design
In the United States, the S8 and S8+ are available in Midnight Black, Orchid Gray, and Arctic Silver color options, whereas gold and blue are available internationally. The blue option was made available in the U.S. in July 2017.
Unlike past Galaxy S series models, the S8 line does not feature physical navigation keys, electing to use on-screen keys instead. However, unlike other implementations, the home button can still be activated if it is hidden or the screen is off. The S8's display features pressure sensitivity limited to the home button. To prevent the home button from burn-in damage, its position moves slightly.
The Galaxy S8 Active features a rugged design and significantly tougher materials to make it shock, shatter, water, and dust resistant. It has a larger battery than either of the regular S8s, at 4000 mAh. Unlike the previous phones in the Active line, the S8 Active does not have tactile buttons, instead using onscreen keys like the regular variants of the S8. It also no longer has the dedicated action button of previous versions which could be reprogrammed to be a shortcut to favorite apps, with the action button being replaced with the Bixby button. The "infinity" edge display of the standard models is removed, and replaced with a metal frame and bumpers in the corners to protect from shocks, while the back is fitted with a "rugged, tough texture for a secure grip". Its screen also measures 5.8 inches, the size of the regular S8, and has quad HD Super AMOLED in 18.5:9 aspect ratio. The S8 Active is sold in Meteor Gray, but AT&T also has a Titanium Gold color.
Camera
While The Verge claims that the S8 uses the same 12-megapixel rear camera as the S7, though with software improvements, a report from PhoneArena claims that the phones carry new, custom camera modules. In addition, the S8 has a Pro Mode, which functions similarly to a DSLR camera and has custom options for shutter speed, ISO, and colour balance. It also supports the raw imagery format Digital Negative. The front-facing camera was upgraded to an 8-megapixel sensor with autofocus. The S8 features fingerprint and iris scanners; the fingerprint reader is relocated to the rear of the device, to the left of the camera, due to the removal of the physical home button. In addition to an iris scanner, the S8 also features face-scanning as an option to unlock the phone. Face recognition technology had previously been implemented in earlier models since the Galaxy S III.
Batteries
The S8 and S8+ use non-removable 3000 and 3500 mAh Lithium-Ion batteries respectively, as compared to 3000 and 3600 mAh on the Samsung Galaxy S7 and S7 Edge respectively. Samsung stated that it had engineered the batteries to retain their capacity for a longer period than previous models.
The S8 supports AirFuel Inductive (formerly PMA) and Qi wireless charging standards. Due to the recalls of the Samsung Galaxy Note 7, Samsung said in a press conference it is committed to stricter quality control and safety testing procedures on all of the company's future products.
The device can charge at 9 watts (5V 1.8A) through an ordinary USB and 12.5 watts through USB-C power delivery (5V 2.5A). Charging speeds upwards of 15 watts (9V 1.67A) is attainable through Qualcomm Quick Charge 2.0, however fast charging is disabled during operation of the device (while the screen is turned on), throttling charging speed down to less than half, regardless of temperature.
Storage
Samsung also launched a Galaxy S8+ with 128 GB of storage and 6 GB of RAM exclusively in China and South Korea, and a bundle offer in the countries provides both the exclusive model and the Samsung DeX docking station. The unique variant was also released in India in June 2017.
Connectivity
The T-Mobile US version of the S8 Active also supports the company's 600 MHz LTE network that was starting to be rolled out at the time the device was announced.
Keyboard Cover
The Samsung Galaxy S8 Keyboard Cover is an accessory for the 2017 smartphone Samsung Galaxy S8 and S8+. It released in early 2017 priced at $59.99, The biggest criticism of the Keyboard Cover was the navigation buttons switching to default everytime you use the case. The keyboard is also default to QWERTY Keyboard.
The Keyboard Cover does not use Bluetooth, meaning it doesn't drain Battery Life. When you equip the Keyboard Cover, the screen shrinks, but the word prediction is still available from the screen. In March 2017, the Samsung DeX station, official Samsung QI wireless charger, and the Keyboard cover got leaked.
Background
The S8 and S8+ were one of the very few phone models on the market that offered built-in support for a physical keyboard, thus competing for a market held almost exclusively by BlackBerry at the time. For these models, Samsung offered a specialty plastic case which featured a clip-on QWERTY keyboard that could be removed or added by the user at will. While not in use, the keyboard could be clipped to the back of the case. When in use, the OS detected the keyboard and adjusted the screen size and proportions accordingly, so that other software could be used normally. The keyboard model was EJ-CG950BBEGWW for the S8 and EJ-CG955BBEGWW for the S8+.
The Galaxy S8 is one of the first smartphones to support Bluetooth 5, supporting new capabilities such as connecting two wireless headphones to the device at once. It is also bundled with Harman AKG earbuds. Both smartphones have improved satellite navigation over the predecessors by including Galileo receivers.
Software
The Galaxy S8 launched with the Android 7.0 "Nougat" operating system with the proprietary Samsung Experience (formerly TouchWiz) user interface and software suite. The software features a suite of assistant functions known as "Bixby", which is designed primarily to interact with Samsung's bundled applications and other supported services. The feature allows the use of voice commands to perform phone functions, can generate cards shown on a home screen page (replacing the Flipboard integration formerly featured) based on a user's interactions, and perform searches utilizing object recognition via the camera.
Bixby supports third-party integration via an SDK. The S8 supports the use of a docking station known as Samsung DeX to access a PC-like desktop environment on an external display, with support for mouse and keyboard input. On 21 April 2017, coinciding with the phone's official retail date, reports surfaced that the default music player on the Galaxy S8 would be Google Play Music, continuing a trend that started with the S7 in 2016. However, for the S8, Samsung partnered with Google to incorporate additional exclusive features into the app, including the ability to upload up to 100,000 tracks to the service's cloud storage, an increase from the 50,000 tracks users are normally allowed to upload. Additionally, new users get a three-month free trial of the service, the same as given to users who purchase Google's own Pixel smartphone. Furthermore, Google stated that more Samsung-exclusive features will be added to the app in the future, and that the Bixby assistant will also be supported by the app. Bixby replaces S Voice, the voice recognition technology previously found in Samsung Galaxy models.
In May 2017, Google announced that the Galaxy S8 and S8+ will support the company's Daydream virtual reality platform after Samsung rolls out a software update scheduled for mid-2017. In July 2017, Verizon began rolling out an update for its devices, with support for Daydream. The Galaxy S8 was one of the first Android phones to support ARCore, Google's augmented reality engine.
In February 2018, the official Android 8.0 "Oreo" update began rolling out to all versions of the Samsung Galaxy S8.
In February 2019, the official Android 9 "Pie" update was released for the Galaxy S8 family.
There are also some Custom Kernels from XDA Developers.
Reception
Dan Seifert of The Verge praised the design of the Galaxy S8, describing it as a "stunning device to look at and hold" that was "refined and polished to a literal shine", and adding that it "truly doesn't look like any other phone you might have used before". The hardware of the device was described as "practically flawless". Seifert also liked the new software, writing that "Samsung is known less for polish and more for clumsiness. In a refreshing change of pace, the software on the S8 is, dare I say, ". However, he criticized the Bixby assistant, writing that "in its current state, it doesn’t do much at all", and also criticized the number of duplicate apps. Regarding performance, he wrote that the S8 was "fast and responsive, but so is virtually every other premium phone you can buy, and the S8 isn’t noticeably faster or quicker than a Google Pixel, LG G6, or iPhone 7". Fellow Verge reporter Vlad Savov felt that the placement of the fingerprint sensor was "a perplexing decision if we consider it as a deliberate design choice", but noted reports from Korea claiming that Samsung had originally intended for the fingerprint reader to be built directly into the screen, but was unable to reach a desirable implementation in time for release. The Verge wrote that "Samsung’s six-month-old S8 has cutting edge features and design with fewer issues than other Android phones" like the Google Pixel 2 and LG V30, and that the "OLED screen stretches to the edges of the device and curves on its sides in an almost liquid fashion. It makes the S8 look just as fresh today as it did when it debuted", and pointing out that the S8's popularity and carrier support guaranteed plenty of third-party accessories.
Chris Velazco of Engadget similarly praised the design, stating that "from their rounded edges to their precisely formed metal-and-glass bodies, they feel like smaller, sleeker versions of the Galaxy Note 7", and also praised the display as being simply "awesome". Velazco also praised the software, calling Samsung's added interface "subtle and thoughtful in its design choices". While noting that the Bixby assistant wasn't ready yet, he did compliment the promised voice features as being more granular than those offered through Siri or Google Assistant, and wrote that "With that kind of complexity involved, maybe it's no surprise this stuff isn't done yet". Also praising performance and the camera, though noting that "The 12-megapixel sensors on the back haven't changed much since last year. That's not a bad thing since they were great cameras to start with", Velazco summarized his review by writing that the devices "aren't perfect, but they're as close as Samsung has ever gotten". Brandon Russell of TechnoBuffalo claimed that the camera could not beat Google's Pixel smartphone.
Ron Amadeo of Ars Technica noted that the device's unusual aspect ratio resulted in pillarboxing when watching 16:9 video without zooming or stretching it. He complimented the feel of the S8, calling it "perfected", but criticized the glass back for being "more fragile" and that "Glossy, slippery glass doesn't feel as good in your hand as metal does, either. For the top-tier premium price tag, we'd prefer Samsung to put in the extra work and use a metal back". He criticized the biometric options for unlocking the phones, writing that "There's an iris scanner, a fingerprint reader, and face unlock. The problem is none of them are any good", and also criticized duplicate apps, writing that "most of which can't be removed and aren't very compelling". Additionally, he criticized Bixby, calling it "an odd addition" due to the phone's Google Assistant functionality already present.
Before the phone's official announcement, reports suggested that Bixby would support "7-8 languages" at launch. Later reports after the phone's announcement clarified that Bixby would only support Korean and American English languages at its release, though noting that more languages would be coming "in the following months". In mid-April, The Wall Street Journal reported that Bixby would be launched without support for American English. On 19 July 2017, Samsung announced that Bixby had begun rolling out to Galaxy S8 users in the United States.
Sales
The Samsung Galaxy S8 and Galaxy S8+ broke pre-order records in South Korea, with more than 720,000 units booked in one week, a notable increase from the 100,000 units of the Galaxy S7 and 200,000 units of the Note 7. By mid-April, the number had increased to one million pre-orders. On 24 April 2017, Samsung announced that sales of the Galaxy S8 was its "best ever". Although it did not release specific sales numbers, it announced that sales of the S8 were 30% higher year-over-year than the Galaxy S7. Subsequent reports in May announced that Samsung had sold over five million units. Jon Fingas of Engadget wrote that, although Samsung advertised its pre-order records, sales comparisons to other models on the market were difficult due to unannounced sales figures.
Issues
White balance
Prior to the official release, it was reported that some Galaxy S8 displays had a bad white balance, causing them to exhibit a reddish tint. Samsung stated that the Galaxy S8 was "built with an adaptive display that optimizes the color range, saturation, and sharpness depending on the environment", but noted that the device's operating system provides settings for manually adjusting the display's appearance and white balance. On 21 April, Samsung stated that the red tinting was purely a software issue, and would be patched in a future update. The Investor reported that Samsung would replace the affected devices if a software update did not fix the issue. Updates in various regions started rolling out in early May, fixing the issue.
Random restarts
Reports surfaced at the end of April 2017 that some Galaxy S8 devices were "restarting by themselves". Samsung has not yet commented on the issue.
Insecure facial recognition
Shortly after the phone's unveiling, bloggers produced a video showing that the Galaxy S8's facial recognition scanner could be tricked to unlock the phone by showing it a photo of the user. In a statement to Business Insider, a Samsung spokesperson stated that "Facial recognition is a convenient action to open your phone – similar to the 'swipe to unlock' action. We offer the highest level of biometric authentication – fingerprint and iris – to lock your phone and authenticate access to Samsung Pay or Secure Folder".
There is a high possibility that this issue does not exist at all and that the video in question is faked.
Insecure iris recognition
In May 2017, researchers from the Chaos Computer Club posted a video showing that the S8's iris recognition system can be fooled with a contact lens and a suitable photograph of an eye. Samsung told BBC News that it was "aware of the issue", and stated that "If there is a potential vulnerability or the advent of a new method that challenges our efforts to ensure security at any time, we will respond as quickly as possible to resolve the issue".
SMS message reception failures
In October 2017, Galaxy S8 users reported on Reddit that they were unable to receive SMS messages, with no fix available and without any comment from Samsung.
See also
Comparison of Samsung Galaxy S smartphones
Comparison of smartphones
Samsung Galaxy S series
References
External links
Android (operating system) devices
Discontinued flagship smartphones
Samsung smartphones
Mobile phones introduced in 2017
Samsung Galaxy
Mobile phones with 4K video recording
Discontinued Samsung Galaxy smartphones
Mobile phones with pressure-sensitive touch screen | Samsung Galaxy S8 | [
"Technology"
] | 4,547 | [
"Discontinued flagship smartphones",
"Flagship smartphones"
] |
53,335,995 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time%20in%20Namibia | Namibia since September 2017 is in the Central Africa Time zone at UTC+02:00, congruous with South African Standard Time.
The country kept the time regulations of South Africa when it gained independence in 1990. Triggered by fears for children walking to school before sunrise, in 1993 the Namibian Time Bill was passed, stipulating the switch to Winter time as one of only a few countries in the world. Only the Zambezi Region in the far north-east remained at UTC+02:00. In the 2010s criticism of Namibian time regulations arose, mainly due to incompatibilities with South Africa, Namibia's main trading partner, and the hassle of different time regulations in the Caprivi Strip.
After public consultations the Namibian Time Bill 2017 was tabled in the National Assembly in February 2017 and passed by National Council in August.
History
Until 1994
Upon Namibian independence the country used a single time zone, keeping time regulation as previously prescribed by the occupying nation, South Africa. Triggered by fears for school children walking to school before sunrise, discussions in the National Assembly started in 1992, and on 10 November 1993 the Namibian Time Bill (#39 of 1993) was proposed. This bill defined the Namibian Standard Time.
1994–2017
From 1994 until 2017 Namibia used Winter time, the practice of setting clocks back during winter months by one hour. In this period Namibian Standard Time was at UTC+02:00 (derived from South African Standard Time and equivalent to Central Africa Time) in summer, and UTC+01:00 (equivalent to West Africa Time) in winter. Winter time began on the first Sunday in April at 03:00, and lasted until the first Sunday in September, 02:00 hours. In the Zambezi Region in the far north-east of Namibia clocks were not changed and remained on Central Africa Time all year round so that during winter time, Namibia spanned two time zones.
Namibia was one of only a few countries in the world to implement winter time instead of daylight saving time. Ireland still adjusts clocks in Winter since 1971 while Czechoslovakia used the practice only in 1946 and never repeated it. In a regular daylight saving time scheme, the "normal" time is observed in the winter, and clocks are turned forward during the summer. In winter time, normal time is observed in the summer, and clocks are turned back by one hour in the winter. In timekeeping, then, it is equivalent to daylight saving time, differing only in which season is considered the regular time. However, the purpose was not to utilise additional hours of daylight in the evening, but to prevent children from walking to school in darkness in the morning, to decrease the risk of injuries and assaults.
If expressed as summer times, these would have been equivalent to West Africa Summer Time and West Africa Standard Time, however Namibia was the only state in Africa to use the combination of UTC+01:00 and UTC+02:00. Central European Time also uses UTC+01:00 and UTC+02:00, but the northern seasons are opposite to the southern hemisphere.
Since 2017
In the 2010s repeated calls from businesses and private individuals were made to abolish winter time, citing incompatibilities with South Africa, Namibia's main trading partner, as well as a "loss of productivity".
This resulted in an official investigation by the Ministry of Home Affairs and Immigration. During the polls, 97% of the 3,507 questioned people were in favour of the +2 difference to Greenwich Mean Time, and about 88% wanted to abolish winter time. After the Cabinet was likewise against changing clocks in autumn and spring, minister Pendukeni Iivula-Ithana proposed a new bill to that effect in February 2017. The Home Affairs ministry stated that winter time would proceed in 2017, as discussions were still ongoing.
The National Council passed the Namibian Time Bill 2017 in August 2017 and repealed the 1993 act, abolishing daylight saving time in the country and setting Central Africa Time as the year-round time zone nationwide.
References
Geography of Namibia
Time in Africa | Time in Namibia | [
"Physics"
] | 833 | [
"Spacetime",
"Physical quantities",
"Time",
"Time by country"
] |
53,340,196 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ji%C5%99%C3%AD%20Draho%C5%A1 | Jiří Drahoš (born 20 February 1949; ) is a Czech physical chemist and politician who has been the Senator of Prague 4 since October 2018. Previously, Drahoš served as President of the Czech Academy of Sciences from 2009 to 2017, and was a candidate in the 2018 Czech presidential election.
Born in Český Těšín and raised in nearby Jablunkov, Drahoš studied physical chemistry at the University of Chemistry and Technology in Prague, and joined the Institute of Chemical Process Fundamentals of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences in 1973, which he later led from 1995 to 2003. In 2009, he was elected President of the Czech Academy of Sciences. His term as head of the academy ended on 24 March 2017.
In March 2017, Drahoš announced his candidacy for President of the Czech Republic in the 2018 election. He ran on a moderate centrist platform, and is generally pro-European and supportive of NATO and Atlanticism. Drahoš lost the second round of the presidential election to his opponent President Miloš Zeman with 48.6% of the vote, but vowed to remain in public life. In October 2018, he stood for the Czech Senate in the Prague 4 district, winning the election outright in the first round with 52.65% of the vote.
Early life and career
Jiří Drahoš was born on 20 February 1949 in Český Těšín to a Czech father originally from Skuteč in Vysočina, and a Polish mother from Jablunkov. He spent most of his childhood in Jablunkov, where his mother Anna lived and worked as a nurse. His father, also named Jiří, was a teacher in a local Czech school.
Drahoš studied at the University of Chemistry and Technology in Prague and qualified as a scientist in 1972. He joined the Institute of Chemical Process Fundamentals at the Czech Academy of Sciences, and was later head of the institute from 1996 to 2003. On 13 March 2009, Drahoš was elected President of the Czech Academy of Sciences, defeating Eva Syková. During his tenure, he successfully opposed 50% budget cuts to the Academy proposed by the governments of Prime Ministers Mirek Topolánek and Jan Fischer as a consequence of the 2008 financial crisis. Drahoš later called it an "attempt to destroy my motherly institution". In 2012, President Václav Klaus awarded him the Medal of Merit in the field of science. His second term as head of the academy ended on 24 March 2017. He is co-author of 14 patents.
Political career
2018 presidential campaign
On 28 March 2017, Drahoš announced his intention to stand in the 2018 presidential election. On 24 April 2017, he started gathering the signatures required to be registered as a candidate. In July 2017, after meeting with Drahoš, the leaders of Populars and Mayors, Pavel Bělobrádek and Petr Gazdík, announced that they would ask their respective parties' members to nominate and endorse Drahoš's candidacy. Mayors and Independents endorsed Drahoš on 25 July 2017 while the Christian and Democratic Union – Czechoslovak People's Party (KDU–ČSL) endorsed him on 14 November 2017. Young Social Democrats also endorsed Drahoš on 9 December 2017. Polls in late 2017 showed Drahoš as the second strongest candidate behind Zeman.
Drahoš received campaign donations from several influential businessmen, including Dalibor Dědek, Jiří Grygar and Luděk Sekyra. Drahoš started gathering signatures for his nomination in May 2017. On 19 August 2017, Drahoš announced he had gathered 78,000 signatures. He submitted his nomination on 3 November 2017 with 142,000 signatures.
On 4 November 2017 on Facebook, Drahoš criticized Mirek Topolánek, who had announced his candidacy that day, describing Topolánek as similar to Miloš Zeman and calling his candidacy a bad joke. The two candidates met during a presidential debate at Charles University; Drahoš reflected that the status he posted was "Topolánek-like", to which Topolánek replied that it was written either by "a woman or PR mage".
Drahoš received media attention when he expressed his fear that the election could be influenced by Russia. He met outgoing Prime Minister Bohuslav Sobotka to discuss the matter and stated he would also meet the new Prime Minister Andrej Babiš. The incumbent president Miloš Zeman criticized Drahoš and compared his actions to Hillary Clinton's when she lost to Donald Trump.
Drahoš received criticism when he published a status on social media about Václav Klaus' amnesty, when it was revealed that he had copied a similar status by his fellow presidential candidate Michal Horáček. Drahoš apologised and attributed the mistake to an external member of staff.
The first round was held on 12 and 13 January 2018. Drahoš received 1,369,601 (26.6%) votes, and advanced to the second round against the incumbent president Miloš Zeman. In the second round, held on 26–27 January 2018, Drahoš received 48.63% of the vote and thus lost to Zeman. Drahoš conceded defeat to Zeman, telling a crowd of his supporters that "I would like to congratulate election winner Miloš Zeman".
Senate
Following the 2018 presidential election, Drahoš vowed to remain in public life, and in March 2018 announced his bid for the Prague 4 Senate seat in the 2018 election, nominated by Mayors and Independents and supported by TOP 09, KDU–ČSL and the Green Party. He won the election outright in the first round, with 52.65% of the vote.
Political views
Drahoš considers himself a centrist politician. As a candidate, Jiří Drahoš has presented himself as someone who can unite society, and as a respectable person who would act according to the constitution. Drahoš emphasises the importance of Czech science and education and has called for solidarity with those "who cannot take care of themselves". He has called for a "responsible approach" to the landscape and environment and has described human reason, creativity and ingeniousness as the only "renewable resource" of the wealth of the Czech Republic.
Drahoš wants the Czech Republic to play an active role in discussions over the future of the European Union, and wants the country to be a part of the Western world. He supports European integration but has said that he believes that the European Union should not impose unnecessary regulations on member states. He also said that he would not rush into Czech adoption of the Euro. Drahoš opposes a referendum about Czech membership of the European Union, and said that important geopolitical questions should not be decided by referendum. He supports the Czech Republic's membership of NATO.
In August 2015, Drahoš signed a petition named "scientists against fear and apathy" in opposition to both anti-Islamic radicalism and anti-immigrant populism.
Drahoš suggested that the Catalan independence referendum was "not legal", supporting the position of the Spanish government.
Drahoš says he supports the anti-Russian sanctions imposed by the United States and the EU. However he also said that having good relations with Russia is in the interest of the Czech Republic and European Union. Drahoš supports trade and economic relations with China, arguing that "China is a superpower" and "many countries are doing business with China."
In 2017, Drahoš rejected the European Union's proposal of compulsory migrant quotas, saying, "there is no successful model of Muslim integration in Europe". Drahoš also said that "Europe can't feed 100 million Africans, it is necessary to help them at home."
Drahoš described the pre-war German minority in Czechoslovakia as "Adolf Hitler's fifth column", and said that he agreed with the post-war expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia.
Drahoš has described himself as a sympathizer with Israel.
References
External links
Scientific publications
1949 births
Czech chemists
KDU-ČSL presidential candidates
Candidates in the 2018 Czech presidential election
Living people
Mayors and Independents presidential candidates
Presidents of the Czech Academy of Sciences
People from Český Těšín
People from Jablunkov
Recipients of Medal of Merit (Czech Republic)
Czech people of Polish descent
Czechoslovak people of Polish descent
Mayors and Independents politicians
Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava alumni
Physical chemists
Mayors and Independents senators | Jiří Drahoš | [
"Chemistry"
] | 1,725 | [
"Physical chemists"
] |
67,470,005 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20Systems%20Integration | Human Systems Integration (HSI) is an interdisciplinary managerial and technical approach to developing and sustaining systems which focuses on the interfaces between humans and modern technical systems. The objective of HSI is to provide equal weight to human, hardware, and software elements of system design throughout systems engineering and lifecycle logistics management activities across the lifecycle of a system. The end goal of HSI is to optimize total system performance and minimize total ownership costs. The field of HSI integrates work from multiple human centered domains of study include training, manpower (the number of people), personnel (the qualifications of people), human factors engineering, safety, occupational health, survivability and habitability.
HSI is a total systems approach that focuses on the comprehensive integration across the HSI domains, and across systems engineering and logistics support processes. The domains of HSI are interrelated: a focus on integration allows tradeoffs between domains, resulting in improved manpower utilization, reduced training costs, reduced maintenance time, improved user acceptance, decreased overall lifecycle costs, and a decreased need for redesigns and retrofits. An example of a tradeoff is the increased training costs that might result from reducing manpower or increasing the necessary skills for a specific maintenance task. HSI is most effective when it is initiated early in the acquisition process, when the need for a new or modified capability is identified. Application of HSI should continue throughout the lifecycle of the system, integrating HSI processes alongside the evolution of the system.
HSI is an important part of systems engineering projects.
History
Military origins
The US Navy initiated the Military Manpower versus Hardware (HARDMAN) Methodology in 1977 to address problems with manpower, personnel and training in the service. In 1980, The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine established the Committee on Human Factors, which was later renamed the Committee on Human Systems Integration. The modern concept of Human Systems Integration in the United States originated in 1986 as a US Army program called the Manpower and Personnel Integration (MANPRINT) program. With ties to the academic fields of industrial engineering and experimental psychology, MANPRINT incorporated human factors engineering with manpower, personnel and training domains into an integrated discipline. MANPRINT focused on the needs and capabilities of the soldier during the development of military systems, and MANPRINT framed a human-centered focus in six domains: human factors engineering, manpower, personnel, training, health hazards and system safety. The US Marine Corps, a component of the Navy, implemented aspects of both HARDMAN and MANPRINT programs to achieve HSI objectives, issuing a formal HSI policy in Marine Corps Order 5000.22 in 1994. The US Air Force began an HSI program in 1982 as "IMPACTS". Modern HSI programs abandoned early acronyms such as HARDMAN, MANPRINT and IMPACTS over the course of the development of their HSI programs. For example, the Air Force currently manages HSI through the Air Force Office of Human Systems Integration (AFHSIO). The US Coast Guard implemented an HSI program in 2000 in the strategy and HR capability division (CG-1B) of the human resources directorate. The US Department of Homeland Security initiated an HSI program under the Science and Technology Directorate in 2007, and the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) initiated a focused HSI effort under the umbrella of DHS S&T in 2018. The Federal Rail Administration (under the National Transportation Safety Board) and NASA Ames Research Center also address HSI. The United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and New Zealand have HSI programs similarly rooted in human factors and modeled after the Army MANPRINT program. In Europe HSI is known as Human Factors Integration.
Policy
DoD acquisition policy to formalize manpower, personnel, training and safety processes started in 1988. HSI as a distinct focus area was first addressed in the Operation of the Defense Acquisition System (DODINST 5000.02) issued in 2003. Updated in 2008, this policy expanded the six domains in the MANPRINT program to seven, re-focusing systems safety as safety and occupational health, and adding habitability and survivability to the list. In 2010, the National Academy of Sciences committee on Human Systems Integration was transitioned to a board under the Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. The Board on Human Systems Integration (BOHSI) issues consensus studies, reports and proceedings on HSI research and application. A 2013 update of the DODINST 5000.02 added force protection to the survivability domain. In 2020, the DODINST 5000.02 title and content shifted to the "Operation of the Adaptive Acquisition framework", which describes HSI activities tailored to each acquisition pathway, according to the unique characteristics of the capability being required.
The Defense Acquisition Guidebook, first published in 2002, devotes an entire chapter to manpower planning and HSI. In addition to focused discussion on each domain, the DAG emphasizes viewing HSI from a total system perspective, viewing the human components of a system as integral to the total system as any other component or subsystem. The DAG emphasizes the importance of representing HSI in all aspects of programmatic Integrated Product and Process Development, strategic planning and risk management.
The Standard Practice for Human Systems Integration (SAE 6906) was issued in 2019, and defines standard practices for procurement activities related to HSI. The standard is provided for industry to apply HSI during system design, through disposal and all related activities. This standard includes an overview of HSI and the domains, the domain relationships and tradeoffs, systems development process requirements, and a number of technical standard references
Technical Standards and requirements
ASTM F1337-10 Standard Practice for Human Systems Integration Program Requirements for Ships and Marine Systems, Equipment and Facilities
DI-HFAC 81743 Human Systems Integration Program Plan
HSI and Systems Engineering
The INCOSE Systems Engineering Handbook provides an authoritative reference to understand the discipline of Systems Engineering for student and practicing professionals. The human part of the system is associated with systems engineering activities from start to finish: from requirements development, to architectural design processes, verification, validation and operation. HSI is integral to the systems engineering process, and must be addressed in all program level integrated development product teams at program, technical, design, and decision reviews throughout the lifecycle of the system. The guidebook focuses on the integration of HSI into SE processes, and notes that intuitive understanding of the important role of the human as an element of a system is not enough to achieve HSI related cost and performance objectives. HSI assists engineers though the addition of human-centered domain specialists and integrators who ensure that human considerations such as usability, safety and health, maintainability and trainability are accounted for using systematic methodologies grounded in each human-centered domain
HSI trade studies and analyses are key methods of HSI that often result in insights not otherwise realized in systems engineering:. The INCOSE Systems Engineering Guidebook recommends a number of steps to effectively incorporate HSI into systems engineering processes
Initiate HSI early and effectively
Identify HSI issues and plan analyses
Document HSI requirements
Make HSI a factor in source selection for contracted development
Execute Integrated Technical Processes (including HSI domain integration
Conduct Proactive Tradeoffs
Conduct HSI Assessments
HSI interacts with a number of SE activities:
HSI domain experts collaborate with each other to achieve HSI objectives
The contractor and the customer may each have an HSI lead integrator and domain experts, each role collaborating with their counterparts
HSI domain experts may participate in program management roles such as Integrated Product Teams, design teams, logistics management teams, and other systems engineering and program management collaborations
HSI interacts with reliability, availability and maintainability activities.
HSI is important to successful test and evaluation and should be integrated to all stages of test and evaluation activities
HSI interacts with logistics and supportability activities.
HSI and Logistics Support
Planning and management for cost and performance across the lifecycle of a system are accomplished through lifecycle logistics and integrated product support. These activities ensure that the system will meet sustainment objectives and satisfy user sustainment objectives. Product Support management covers three focus areas: lifecycle management, technical management and infrastructure management. The HSI domains of training, manpower and personnel fall under infrastructure management and are among the twelve elements of logistics / product support. Design Interface, one of the twelve elements of logistics / product support, is a subcategory of technical management and includes multiple domains of HSI, including human factors, personnel, habitability, training, safety and occupational health.
Design Interface (including HSI) is the integration of quantitative systems design characteristics with functional integrated product support elements. In this element of logistics, the systems design parameters drive product support resource requirements. Product support requirements are derived to ensure the system meets availability goals, balancing design and support costs. Design interface is a leading activity that impacts all other logistics / product support elements. Reliability and maintainability are aspects of design interface that have ties to manpower, personnel and training. Maintainability is a measure of the ease and speed in which a piece of equipment or system can be restored to full functionality after a failure; it is a function of design, personnel availability and skill levels, maintenance procedures, training and test equipment. Low maintainability may increase manpower, personnel and training costs over the lifecycle of the system. Human factors engineering and usability play an important role in requirements development, definition, design development and evaluation of system support for reliability and maintainability in the operational environment. Safety and occupational health are important aspects of product support: injury, accidental equipment damage, chronic injuries and long-term health problems reduce supportability, reliability and availability
Domains
Human Factors Engineering
Human Factors Engineering (HFE) is an engineering discipline that ensures human capabilities and limitations in areas such as perception, cognition, sensory and physical attributes are incorporated into requirements and design. Effective HFE ensures that systems design capitalizes on, and does not exceed, the abilities of the human user population. HFE can reduce the scope of manpower and training requirements, and ensure the system can be operated maintained and supported by users, in a habitable, safe and survivable manner. HFE is concerned with designing human-systems interfaces such as:
Functional interfaces: functions, tasks, and allocation of functions to human or automation
Informational interfaces: information and characteristics of information that support understanding and awareness of the environment and system
Environmental interfaces: natural and artificial environments, environmental controls, and facility design
Cooperational interfaces: provisions for team performance, cooperation and collaboration
Organizational interfaces: job design, management structure, policies and regulations that impact behavior
Cognitive interfaces: decision rules, decision support systems, provisioning for situational awareness and mental models.
Physical interfaces: hardware and software elements such as controls, displays, workstations, worksites, accesses, labels and markings, structures, steps and ladders, handholds, maintenance provisions, and more.
Technical standards and requirements:
ASTM F1166-07 Standard Practice for Human Engineering Design for Marine Systems, Equipment and Facilities
HFES-200 Human Factors Engineering of Software User Interfaces
MIL-STD 46855 Human Engineering Requirements for Military Systems, Equipment and Facilities
MIL-STD 1472 DoD Design Criteria Standard for Human Engineering
FAA Human Factors Design Standards (HFDS) HF-STD-001B
HFE Data Information Descriptions:
Human Engineering Program Plan (HEPP) DI-HFAC- 81742
Human Engineering Systems Analysis Report (HESAR) DI-HFAC-80745
Human Engineering Design Approach Document (HEDAD-M) DI-HFAC-80747
Human Engineering Design Approach Document (HEDAD-O) DI-HFAC-80746
Human Engineering Test Plan (HETP) DI-HFAC-80743
Human Engineering Test Reports (HETR) DI-HFAC-80744
Manpower
Manpower focuses on evaluating and defining the right mix of personnel (sometimes referred to as "spaces") for people to operate, maintain and support a system. Manpower requirements should be based on task analysis and consider workload, fatigue, physical and sensory overload, environmental conditions (heat/cold) and reduced visibility. Manpower requirements are the highest cost driver for a system, and can account for up to 70% of the total lifecycle cost. Requirements are based on the full range of operations from a low operational tempo, peacetime scenario to continuous sustained operations, and should include consideration for surge operations capacity. In the manpower analysis process, labor-intensive "high driver tasks" should be examined, and targeted for engineering design changes to reduce the manpower requirement through automation, or improved usability in design. A top down functional analysis can be the basis for determinations of which functions can be eliminated, consolidated, or simplified to control manpower costs.
DoD manpower policy comes from DoD Directive 1100.4, Guidance for Manpower Management
Personnel
The personnel domain is concerned with the human performance characteristics of the user population (cognitive, sensory and physical skills, knowledge, experience and abilities) of operators, maintainers and support staff required for a system. Cost effective engineering designs minimize personnel requirements, and keep them consistent with the user population. Systems that require new or advance personnel requirements will experience cost increases in other domains, such as training. The user group identified for a system may be referred to as the "target audience". The target audience is situated within a larger organizational structure, and recruitment, retention and personnel policies that may impact or be impacted by the new system should be considered. HSI and the personnel domain may impact policy, or policy may impact HSI. For example, the system may require additional recruitment to sustain the organizational workforce while employing the new system. An example of policy impacting HSI is increased diversity in the user population that may alter anthropometric requirements for the system and impact requirements in the HFE domain.
Manpower and personnel standards include:
Standard Practice for Manpower and Personnel SAE1010
Training
The training domain is concerned with giving the target audience the opportunity to acquire, gain or enhance the knowledge, skills and abilities needed to operate, maintain and support a system. The target audience may be individuals or groups; training in a systems engineering / acquisition setting is focused on job-relevant knowledge, skills and abilities aimed at satisfying performance levels specific to the system being designed. Training the operators, maintainers and support personnel to conduct their respective tasks is a component of the total system and a part of delivering the intended capability of the system. This includes the integration of training concepts and strategies with elements of logistics support, including technical manuals and procedures, interactive electronic technical manuals, job performance aids, computer based interactive courseware, simulators, and actual equipment, including embedded training capabilities on actual equipment. Training is an important aspect of configuration management: it is critical that training impacts of any and all changes to the system are evaluated. The objective of training is to develop and sustain ready, well trained personnel while reducing lifecycle costs, contributing to a positive readiness outcome. The industry standard practice to develop cost effective training is instructional systems design.
Training standards include:
USA:
Guidance for the Acquisition of Training Data Products and Services (Part 1 of 5) MIL-HDBK 29612/1
Instructional Systems Development/Systems Approach to Training and Education (Part 2 of 5) MIL-HDBK 29612/2
UK
JSP 882 Defence Direction and Guidance for Training and Education
Environment, Safety and Occupational Health
The environment, safety and occupational health domain is focused on determining system design characteristics that minimize risks to human health and physical wellbeing such as acute or chronic illness, disability death, or injury. In a physical system design, systems safety works closely with systems engineers to identify, document, design out, or mitigate system hazards and reduce residual risk from those hazards. The three areas that must be considered are:
environment, or the natural and manmade conditions in and around the system and the operational context of the system
safety factors in systems design that minimize the potential for mishaps, such as walking surfaces, work at heights, pressure extremes, confined spaces, control of hazardous energy releases, fire and explosions
occupational health: system design features that minimize the risk of injury, acute or chronic illness, or disability or reduce long term job performance from hazards such as noise, chemicals, atmospheric hazards (such as confined spaces), vibration, radiation and repetitive motion injuries.
A health hazard analysis should be performed periodically during the system lifecycle to identify risks, initiating the risk management process. In DoD programs, program managers must prepare a Programmatic Environmental, Safety and Occupational Health Evaluation (PESHE) which is an overall evaluation of ESOH risks for the program, and documents the progress of HHA program monitoring.
Systems safety is grounded in a risk management process but Safety risk management has a unique set of processes and procedures. For example, identified hazards should be designed out of the system whenever possible, either through selecting a different design, or altering the design to eliminate the hazard. If a design change isn't feasible, engineered features or devices should be added to interrupt the hazard and prevent a mishap. Warnings (devices, signs or signals) are the next best mitigation, but are considered to be far less beneficial to preventing mishaps. The last resort is personal protective equipment to protect people from the hazard, and training (knowledge skills and abilities to protect against the hazard and prevent a mishap). HFE review and involvement with design interventions introduced to address hazards is an important connection between the systems safety and HFE domain specialists. Design interventions may have manpower and personnel implications, and training mitigations for hazards must be incorporated into continued operator and maintainer training in order to sustain the training intervention.
Systems safety standards include:
USA:
MIL-STD 882 System Safety
UK:
Defence Policy for Health, Safety and Environmental Protection (DSA 01.1)
Force Protection and Survivability
Survivability is design features that reduce the risk of fratricide, detection and probability of an attack, and enable the crew to continue the mission and avoid acute or chronic illness, severe injury, disability or death in hostile environments. Elements of survivability include reducing susceptibility to a mishap or attack (protection against detection for example) and minimizing potential wounds or injury to personnel operating and maintaining the system. Survivability also includes protection from chemical, biological, radioactive and nuclear (CBRN) threats. and should include requirements to preserve integrity of the crew compartment, rapid egress in case of system destruction, and emergency systems for contingency management, escape, survival and rescue
Survivability is often categorized in the following topics:
Reduce Fratricide
Reduce detectability
Reduce probability of attack
Minimize damage if attacked
Minimize injury
Minimize mental and physical fatigue
Survive extreme environments
Habitability
Habitability is the application of human centered design to the physical environment (living areas, personal hygiene facilities, working areas, living areas, and personnel support areas) to sustain and optimize morale, safety, health, comfort and quality of life of personnel. Design aspects such as lighting; space; ventilation and sanitation; noise and temperature control; religious, medical and food services availability; berthing, bathing and personal hygiene are all aspects of habitability, and directly contribute to personnel effectiveness and mission accomplishment.
Habitability Standards Include:
Color Coordination Manual for Habitability DI-MISC 81123
Design Criteria Limits Noise Standards MIL-STD 1474
Further reading
Boehm-Davis, D., Durso, F. T., & Lee, J. D. (2015). APA handbook of human systems integration. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Booher, H. R. (1990). Manprint: An approach to systems integration. New York, NY: Reinhold.
Hardman, N. S. (2009). An empirical methodology for engineering human systems integration.
Pew, R. W., & Mavor, A. S. (2007). Human-system integration in the system development process: A new look. Washington: National Academies Press.
Rouse, W. B. (2010). The economics of human systems integration valuation of investments in peoples training and education, safety and health, and work productivity. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Human Systems Integration in the System Acquisition Process Army Regulation (AR) 602-2
United States Air Force Human Systems Integration Handbook
NASA Human Systems Integration Practitioners Guide
Defense Innovation Marketplace Human Systems Community of Interest
IEEE Human Systems Integration Technical Committee
NDIA Human Systems Division
References
Systems theory
Systems engineering
Systems psychology
Management education | Human Systems Integration | [
"Engineering"
] | 4,182 | [
"Systems engineering"
] |
67,470,682 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramakanth%20Sarabu | Ramakanth Sarabu (June 20, 1955 – February 11, 2021) was an Indian organic chemist. He is known for his contributions in diabetes research, specifically the work of Glucokinase activation as a treatment therapy for type 2 diabetes.
Biography
Ramakanth Sarabu was born in Hyderabad, Telangana, where he received his early education. He earned a master's degree from Osmania University in organic chemistry and his doctorate from Indian Institute of Technology, Madras in molecular rearrangements from 1979 to 1984. In 1984 he moved to the US to pursue post-doctoral fellowship under Elias James Corey, at Harvard University. He did a second post-doctoral fellowship in 1985 at Case Western University in Cleveland, OH. He is known for his works and contributions in the domain of Glucokinase activation as a treatment therapy for type 2 diabetes.
He died on 11 February 2021 in Montville, New Jersey, while serving as the head of chemistry at Cellarity. Prior to that, from 1997 to 2012, he served at Hoffmann-La Roche at different positions like research leader, senior principal scientist etc. He then went on to become the head of medicinal chemistry at Biocon Bristol Myers Squibb R&D Center from 2012 to 2019.
Notable publications
Sarabu R, Grimsby J. Targeting glucokinase activation for the treatment of type 2 diabetes—a status review. Current Opinion in Drug Discovery & Development. 2005 Sep;8(5):631–637.
Allosteric Activators of Glucokinase: Potential Role in Diabetes Therapy, Science Magazine 18 June 2003.
Philip Garner and Sarabu Ramakanth, Stereodivergent synthesis of threo and erythro 6-amino-6-deoxyheptosulose derivatives via an optically active oxazolidine aldehyde, https://doi.org/10.1021/jo00363a044
Philip Garner and Sarabu Ramakanth, A regiocontrolled synthesis of N7- and N9-guanine nucleosides https://doi.org/10.1021/jo00241a032
David R. Bolin, Amy L. Swain, Ramakanth Sarabu, Steven J. Berthel etc. Peptide and Peptide Mimetic Inhibitors of Antigen Presentation by HLA-DR Class II MHC Molecules. Design, Structure−Activity Relationships, and X-ray Crystal Structures https://doi.org/10.1021/jm000034h
Glucokinase Activators for Diabetes Therapy – Franz M. Matschinsky, Bogumil Zelent, Nicolai Doliba, Changhong Li, Jane M. Vanderkooi, Ali Naji, Ramakanth Sarabu, Joseph Grimsby, Diabetes Care May 2011, 34 (Supplement 2) S236-S243; DOI: 10.2337/dc11-s236
Glucokinase activation repairs defective bioenergetics of islets of Langerhans isolated from type 2 diabetics- Nicolai M. Doliba, Wei Qin, Habiba Najafi, Chengyang Liu, Carol W. Buettger, Johanna Sotiris, Heather W. Collins, Changhong Li, Charles A. Stanley, David F. Wilson, Joseph Grimsby, Ramakanth Sarabu, Ali Naji, and Franz M. Matschinsky, American Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism 2012 302:1, E87-E102, https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.00218.2011
Discovery of Piragliatin—First Glucokinase Activator Studied in Type 2 Diabetic Patients – Ramakanth Sarabu, Fred T. Bizzarro, Wendy L. Corbett etc. https://doi.org/10.1021/jm3008689
Glucokinase Activators for the Potential Treatment of Type 2 Diabetes, Grimsby, J.; Berthel, S. J.; Sarabu, R.Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry, Volume 8, Number 17, 2008, pp. 1524–1532(9), https://doi.org/10.2174/156802608786413483
Notable Patents
Para-amine substituted phenylamide glucokinase activators
α-acyl- and α-heteroatom-substituted benzene acetamide glucokinase activators
5-substituted-six-membered heteroaromatic glucokinase activators
DPP IV inhibitors
References
External links
Ramakanth Sarabu at Google Scholar
Ramakanth Sarabu at ORCID
Ramakanth Sarabu at Scinapse
1955 births
2021 deaths
Indian organic chemists
20th-century American chemists
21st-century American chemists
American people of Indian descent
IIT Madras alumni
Osmania University alumni
Scientists from Telangana
Harvard University alumni
American people of Telugu descent | Ramakanth Sarabu | [
"Chemistry"
] | 1,057 | [
"Organic chemists",
"Indian organic chemists"
] |
67,470,706 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arachnid%20locomotion | Arachnid locomotion is the various means by which arachnids walk, run, or jump; they make use of more than muscle contraction, employing additional methods like hydraulic compression. Another adaptation seen especially in larger arachnid variants is inclusion of elastic connective tissues.
Hydraulics
In most arachnids, hydraulic compression acts as the primary means of extension in several of their hinged leg joints, namely the femur–patella joint and tibia–metatarsus joints or second and third leg joints respectively. Instead of blood, hemolymph is used to move nutrients around inside of the arachnid, and has the secondary function of acting as a hydraulic fluid. When compressed by the body of the arachnid, the hemolymph applies compressive force through channels in the limbs that cause them to extend. This motion is then balanced by flexor muscle to retract the leg joints as needed. Due to hydraulics being used for extension, the flexor muscle is able to be significantly larger than would otherwise be possible without impacting size or weight. Measurable core body volume change can occur during periods of higher compression to the legs, as the sinuses of the body contract to achieve pressurization in specific legs. Aside from the normal gait of the arachnid, in some variants, extremely high pressures are used as a means of jumping, propelling rear legs and allowing for much greater and more sudden motion.
Elastics
In larger variants of arachnids, such as the tarantulas and hairy desert spiders, another mechanism used for locomotion is an elastic sclerite. These sclerites are semi-rigid connectors between leg segments that allow storage and expending of potential energy. This is used as a supplement or in conjunction with the hydraulics normally employed in those joints, allowing for greater weights to be carried, more rapid and sudden movement when combined with the already pronounced flexor muscle acting in those joints, as well as fine motor control with reduced sudden disruption of hemolymph flow. At higher compression of the joint the stiffness of the sclerite has been found to increase significantly, denoting support even outside of normal tension.
Influence on biomimetic design
Hydraulic locomotion in arachnids has acted as an inspiration for many modern biomimetic concepts in robotics intended for use by or with people, especially in the field of soft robotics. The use of hydraulics in robotic joints is aimed at replacing the more control heavy nature of modern robotics with a more passive system developed in soft actuation. Various forms of actuation and force transmission can be achieved through these inspired designs, including rotation, lifting, and even damping effects. The passive nature of the hydraulic and elastic extensor mechanisms employed have found use in orthotics projects aimed at assisting joints weakened by age or disease.
Fluid secretion
An additional method used by some arachnids to improve locomotion is to secrete fluids, characterized by a hydrophobic effect, through the pads on the ends of their legs that are in contact with the walking surface. It has been shown that the arachnid is capable of using the adhesive fluid selectively, meaning it can choose to not secrete the fluid in certain circumstances where it would be unwarranted such as in moist conditions. The use of fluids allow the arachnid better traction through improved shear force for both standard locomotion and also sudden movements such as in jumping and leaping.
Challenges in modelling
Modelling the hydraulic system used by arachnids has been a challenge in the past due to scale and complexity. Simplified models focusing on individual joints and flow channels using modern imaging such as Micro-CT has allowed for mathematical expressions of pressure and flow acting on the joints. Visualizing the flow of hemolymph in small bodies directly has been difficult due to resolution constraints and lack of contrast causing fluid and soft tissue being indistinguishable, but techniques have been employed using a combination of injected microbubbles as tracers in the hemolymph and synchrotron x-ray contrast imaging to track them.
See also
Arachnid
References
Arachnids
Animal locomotion | Arachnid locomotion | [
"Physics",
"Biology"
] | 871 | [
"Animal locomotion",
"Physical phenomena",
"Animals",
"Behavior",
"Motion (physics)",
"Ethology"
] |
67,471,118 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony%20Xperia%205%20III | The Sony Xperia 5 III is an Android smartphone manufactured by Sony. Part of Sony's Xperia series, the phone was announced on April 14, 2021, along with the larger Xperia 1 III and the mid-range Xperia 10 III.
Design
The Xperia 5 III retains Sony's signature square design that is seen on previous Xperia phones. It is built similarly to the Xperia 1 III, using anodized aluminum for the frame and Corning Gorilla Glass 6 for the screen and back panel, as well as IP65 and IP68 certifications for water resistance. The build has a pair of symmetrical bezels on the top and the bottom, where the front-facing dual stereo speakers are placed. The left side of the phone contains a slot for a SIM card and a microSDXC card, while the right side contains a fingerprint reader embedded into the power button, a volume rocker and a shutter button. A dedicated Google Assistant button is located between the power and shutter buttons. The earpiece, front-facing camera, notification LED and various sensors are housed in the top bezel. The bottom edge has the primary microphone and USB-C port; the rear cameras are arranged in a vertical strip. The phone ships in three colors: Black, Green and Pink.
Specifications
Hardware
The Xperia 5 III is powered by the Qualcomm Snapdragon 888 SoC and an Adreno 660 GPU, accompanied by 8 GB of LPDDR5 RAM. It has 128 or 256 GB of UFS internal storage, which can be expanded up to 1 TB via the microSD card slot with a hybrid dual-SIM setup. The display is a 6.1-inch 1080p (2520 × 1080) HDR OLED with a 21:9 aspect ratio, resulting in a pixel density of 449 ppi. It features a 120 Hz refresh rate, and is capable of displaying one billion colors. The battery capacity is 4500 mAh; USB Power Delivery 3.0 is supported at 30W over USB-C, although it lacks wireless charging capabilities. The device includes a 3.5mm audio jack as well as an active external amplifier.
Camera
The Xperia 5 III has three 12 MP rear-facing cameras and an 8 MP front-facing camera. The rear cameras consist of a wide-angle lens (24 mm f/1.7), an ultra wide angle lens (16 mm f/2.2), and a variable telephoto lens that can switch between 70 mm and 105 mm with 3× or 4.4× optical zoom; each uses ZEISS' T✻ (T-Star) anti-reflective coating. Software improvements include real-time Eye AF and Optical SteadyShot.
Software
The Xperia 5 III runs on Android 11. Sony has also paired the phone's camera tech with a "Pro" mode developed by Sony's camera division CineAlta, whose features take after Sony's Alpha camera lineup.
References
Notes
Android (operating system) devices
Discontinued flagship smartphones
Sony smartphones
Mobile phones introduced in 2021
Mobile phones with multiple rear cameras
Mobile phones with 4K video recording | Sony Xperia 5 III | [
"Technology"
] | 648 | [
"Discontinued flagship smartphones",
"Flagship smartphones"
] |
67,471,804 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayleigh%E2%80%93Kuo%20criterion | The Rayleigh–Kuo criterion (sometimes called the Kuo criterion) is a stability condition for a fluid. This criterion determines whether or not a barotropic instability can occur, leading to the presence of vortices (like eddies and storms). The Kuo criterion states that for barotropic instability to occur, the gradient of the absolute vorticity must change its sign at some point within the boundaries of the current. Note that this criterion is a necessary condition, so if it does not hold it is not possible for a barotropic instability to form. But it is not a sufficient condition, meaning that if the criterion is met, this does not automatically mean that the fluid is unstable. If the criterion is not met, it is certain that the flow is stable.
This criterion was formulated by Hsiao-Lan Kuo and is based on Rayleigh's equation named after the Lord Rayleigh who first introduced this equation in fluid dynamics.
Barotropic instability
Vortices like eddies are created by instabilities in a flow. When there are instabilities within the mean flow, energy can be transferred from the mean flow to the small perturbations which can then grow. In a barotropic fluid the density is a function of only the pressure and not the temperature (in contrast to a baroclinic fluid, where the density is a function of both the pressure and temperature). This means that surfaces of constant density (isopycnals) are also surfaces of constant pressure (isobars). Barotropic instability can form in different ways. Two examples are; when there is an interaction between the fluid flow and the bathymetry or topography of the domain; when there are frontal instabilities (may also lead to baroclinic instabilities). These instabilities are not dependent on the density and might even occur when the density of the fluid is constant. Instead, most of the instabilities are caused by a shear on the flow as can be seen in Figure 1. This shear in the velocity field induces a vertical and horizontal vorticity within the flow. As a result, there is upwelling on the right of the flow and downwelling on the left. This situation might lead to a barotropic unstable flow. The eddies that form alternatingly on both sides of the flow are part of this instability.
Another way to achieve this instability is to displace the Rossby waves in the horizontal direction (see Figure 2). This leads to a transfer of kinetic energy (not potential energy) from the mean flow towards the small perturbations (the eddies). The Rayleigh–Kuo criterion states that the gradient of the absolute vorticity should change sign within the domain. In the example of the shear induced eddies on the right, this means that the second derivative of the flow in the cross-flow direction, should be zero somewhere. This happens in the centre of the eddies, where the acceleration of the flow perpendicular to the flow changes direction.
Examples
The presence of these instabilities in a rotating fluid have been observed in laboratory experiments. The settings of the experiment were based on the conditions in the Gulf Stream and showed that within the ocean currents such as the Gulf Stream, it is possible for barotropic instabilities to occur. But barotropic instabilities were also observed in other Western Boundary Currents (WBC). In the Agulhas current, the barotropic instability leads to ring shedding. The Agulhas current retroflects (turns back) near the coast of South Africa. At this same location, some anti-cyclonic rings of warm water escape from the mean current and travel along the coast of Africa. The formation of these rings is a manifestation of a barotropic instability.
Derivation
The derivation of the Rayleigh–Kuo criterion was first written down by Hsiao-Lan Kuo in his paper called 'dynamic instability of two-dimensional nondivergent flow in a barotropic atmosphere''' from 1949.'' This derivation is repeated and simplified below.
First, the assumptions made by Hsiao-Lan Kuo are discussed. Second, the Rayleigh equation is derived in order continue to derive the Rayleigh–Kuo criterion. By integrating this equation and filling in the boundary conditions, the Kuo criterion can be obtained.
Assumptions
In order to derive the Rayleigh–Kuo criterion, some assumptions are made on the fluids properties. We consider a nondivergent, two-dimensional barotropic fluid. The fluid has a mean zonal flow direction which can vary in the meridional direction. On this mean flow, some small perturbations are imposed in both the zonal and meridional direction: and . The perturbations need to be small in order to linearize the vorticity equation. Vertical motion and divergence and convergence of the fluid are neglected. When taking into account these factors, a similar result would have been obtained with only a small shift in the position of the criterion within the velocity profile.
The derivation of the Kuo criterion will be done within the domain . On the northern and southern boundary of this domain, the meridional fluid is zero.
Rayleigh Equation
Barotropic vorticity equation
To derive the Rayleigh equation for a barotropic fluid, the barotropic vorticity equation is used. This equation assumes that the absolute vorticity is conserved: here, is the material derivative. The absolute vorticity is the relative vorticity plus the planetary vorticity: . The relative vorticity, , is the rotation of the fluid with respect to the Earth. The planetary vorticity (also called Coriolis frequency),, is the vorticity of a parcel induced by the rotation of the Earth. When applying the beta-plane approximation for the planetary vorticity, the conservation of absolute vorticity looks like:
The relative vorticity is defined as Since the flow field consist of a mean flow with small perturbations, it can be written as with and This formulation is used in the vorticity equation:
Here, and are the zonal and meridional components of the flow and is the relative vorticity induced by the perturbations on the flow ( and ). is the mean zonal flow and is derivative of the planetary vorticity with respect to .
Linearization
A zonal mean flow with small perturbations was assumed, , and a meridional flow with a zero mean, . Since it was assumed that the perturbations are small, a linearization can be performed on the barotropic vorticity equation above, ignoring all the non-linear terms (terms where two or more small variables, i.e. , are multiplied with one another). Also the derivative of in the zonal direction, the time derivative of the mean flow and the time derivative of are zero. This results in a simplified equation:
With as defined above () and and the small perturbations in the zonal and meridional components of the flow.
Stream function
To find the solution to the linearized equation, a stream function was introduced by Lord Rayleigh for the perturbations of the flow velocity:
These new definitions of the stream function are used to rewrite the linearized barotropic vorticity equation.
Here, is the second derivative of with respect to . To solve this equation for the stream function, a wave-like solution was proposed by Rayleigh which reads . The amplitude may be complex number, is the wave number which is a real number and is the phase velocity which may be complex as well. Inserting this proposed solution leads us to the equation which is known as Rayleigh's equation.
To get to this equation, in the last step it was used that can't be zero and neither can the exponential. This means that the terms in the square brackets needs to be zero. The symbol denotes the second derivative of the amplitude of the stream function, with respect to . This last equation that was derived, is known as Rayleigh's equation which is a linear ordinary differential equation. It is very difficult to explicitly solve this equation. It is therefore that Hsiao-Lan Kuo came up with a stability criterion for this problem without actually solving it.
Kuo Criterion
Instead of solving Rayleigh's equation, Hsiao-Lan Kuo came up with a necessary stability condition which had to be met in order for the fluid to be able to get unstable. To get to this criterion, Rayleigh's equation was rewritten and the boundary conditions of the flow field are used.
The first step is to divide Rayleigh's equation by and multiplying the equation by the complex conjugate of .
In the last step, is multiplied with its complex conjugate leading to the following equality is used: . For the solution of Rayleigh's equation to exist, both the real and imaginary part of the equation above need to be equal to zero.
Boundary conditions
To get to the Kuo criterion, the imaginary part is integrated over the domain () . The stream function at the boundaries of the domain is zero, , as already stated in the assumptions. The zonal flow must vanish at the boundaries of the domain. This leads to a constant stream function which is set to zero for convenience.
The first integral can be solved:
So the first integral is equal to zero. This means that the second integral should also be zero, making it possible to solve this integral numerically.
When is zero, we are dealing with a stable amplitude of the solution, this means that the solution is stable. We are looking for un unstable situation, so then should be zero. Since the fraction in front of is non-zero and positive, this leads to the conclusion that should be zero. This leads to the final formulation, the Kuo criterion:
Here, is the mean zonal flow and is the derivative of the planetary vorticity with respect to .
References
Fluid dynamics | Rayleigh–Kuo criterion | [
"Chemistry",
"Engineering"
] | 2,090 | [
"Piping",
"Chemical engineering",
"Fluid dynamics"
] |
67,471,806 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaborative%20environmental%20governance | Collaborative environmental governance is an approach to environmental governance which seeks to account for scale mismatch which may occur within social-ecological systems. It recognizes that interconnected human and biological systems exist on multiple geographic and temporal scales and thus CEG seeks to build collaboration among actors across multiple scales and jurisdictions.
Benefits of CEG
Collaboration is a means to:
enhance the generation of new knowledge through social learning,
better integrate important insights from different knowledge systems,
diffuse knowledge and best practices among a multitude of actors.
New Knowledge Generation through Social Learning
The uncertainty involved in ecosystem management and environmental governance requires that these systems be adaptable to new knowledge. Collaboration may facilitate this type of adaptivity through a process of social learning, by which new understandings are learned through interaction among individuals, and that change in those individuals understanding goes beyond that individual to change a communities understanding.
Integration of Different Knowledge Systems
By multiple actors collaborating across multiple knowledge systems, indigenous and traditional knowledge, environmental governance can benefit from the many communities that are not among the scientific community. Traditional knowledge may play a particularly important role in framing and scoping environmental issues, but also contribute to every aspect of the decision-making process.
There may also emerge a secondary benefit of higher perceptions fairness among actors which hold varied understandings of their environment. Increased perception of fairness regarding the decision-making process may lead to increased trust among actors, as well as reinforce collaboration itself.
Diffusion of Knowledge
Actors within a decision-making process and those who are affected by those processes do not always accept new knowledge or understanding easily. By developing networks of collaboration among various actors, new knowledge and understanding may be more readily diffused between disparate community networks.
Challenges
Collaboration among stakeholders takes time and resources. Understanding when collaboration is an effective means of addressing problems within the decision making process is important in order to not over apply CEG. There are various issues within social-ecological systems which may hinder the effectiveness of CEG including:
the immediate nature of some environmental issues,
asymmetric power dynamics,
increased conflict due to collaboration.
Immediate Nature of Environmental Issues
The temporal natures of social-ecological systems can lead to mismatch among the institutions and biophysical and social timescapes. Some environmental issues require immediate actions, while collaboration among actors requires overcoming initial barriers to collaboration, and the development of collaborative systems.
Asymmetric Power Dynamics
There are factors which may hinder the collaboration of institutions or actors which are rooted in the power structures which exist between them. Unfavorable contextual factors, unequal power relations, and weak interdependence may make collaboration unfeasible.
Increased Conflict
In situations in which large state actors are involved, Collaboration can be seen as co-optation or the marginalization of local or smaller actors. Collaborative approaches to environmental governance may intend to create interaction and cooperation between groups, but on the ground this can be experienced as abuses of power. Collaboration may also be undermined as a means of containing or derailing other forms of political conflict. In this case, collaboration is not a politically neutral process, but can be used to reinforce uneven power dynamics.
References
Environmentalism
Environmental policy
Environmental social science concepts | Collaborative environmental governance | [
"Environmental_science"
] | 636 | [
"Environmental social science concepts",
"Environmental social science"
] |
67,472,537 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth%20Maywood | Elizabeth Maywood is an English researcher who studies circadian rhythms and sleep in mice. Her studies are focused on the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), a small region of the brain that controls circadian rhythms.
Biography
Elizabeth Susan Maywood was born in Leeds, England. She attained a degree in Pharmacology before going on to obtain her Ph.D. in biochemical endocrinology in London. After receiving her Ph.D., in 1988 she joined Michael Hastings’ group as a postdoc in the Department of Anatomy at the University of Cambridge (now part of the Physiology, Development and Neuroscience (PDN) Department) to study seasonal biology in Syrian hamsters. In 2001 she moved with Hastings to the MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology in Cambridge, where he had set up a new research group to study the molecular neurobiology of circadian rhythms. Since then, she has moved the focus of her study to circadian rhythms and sleep.
Research contributions
Early research in the field of chronobiology utilizing lesion experiments has suggested that the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) serves as the master circadian clock of the mammalian brain and is entrained through retinal inputs. More recently, research on the SCN has focused on the function of individual neuropeptides and their complex interactions in the scope of the SCN circuitry. Research into the role of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP), gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP), arginine vasopressin (AVP), and GABA has started to paint a picture of the hierarchy of neuropeptides in the maintenance of circadian coherence in the SCN.
Maywood's research investigates the complex interactions of various neuropeptides and the role of events at the membrane in feedback loops in the SCN. Furthermore, Maywood's research also seeks to understand how different parts of the SCN coordinate rhythms and more broadly understand the interaction of the SCN with sleep.
Studies of CRY1/CRY2 in the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus
In one experiment, Maywood and her colleagues in the Hastings and Chin groups at the LMB aimed to control the Cry1 and Cry2 proteins responsible for proper functioning of transcriptional-translational negative feedback loops (TTFLs). To do this, the researchers used orthogonal aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase/tRNA brought to the SCN by an adeno-associated virus vector (AAV). The Cry1 protein carrying the AAV vector contained noncanonical amino acids (ncAA) and an ectopic amber stop codon resulting in a silencing mutation. When arrhythmic SCN slices lacking functional Cry1 were placed on culture mediums containing ncAA the TTFLs were genetically activated immediately, and the strength of activation depended on the dose of ncAA in the growth medium. When the ncAA medium was removed, TTFL activation disappeared. From these results, Maywood and her colleagues were able to demonstrate that within the SCN, Cry1 is necessary for circadian functioning. Rhythmicity, however, was found to be controlled by initiation of TTFL functioning. Ultimately, the study's results allowed the researchers to conclude that the circuit, cell, and animalian mechanisms required for circadian functioning are developmentally independent of the presence of Cry proteins.
Studies of VPAC2 in the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus
In another study, Maywood and colleagues utilized luciferase and GFP reporter genes and real-time imaging of cellular circadian gene expression across mice SCN slice cultures to investigate the role of VIPergic signaling. Through this research, Maywood and her colleagues at the Laboratory of Molecular Biology alongside Tony Harmar at the University of Edinburgh demonstrated that the Vipr2 gene, which encodes the VPAC2 receptor for Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP), is necessary both for maintenance of molecular timekeeping within individual suprachiasmatic nucleus neurons and between different SCN neurons.
Additionally, Maywood and colleagues have demonstrated that gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP), another SCN neuropeptide, can act as an enhancer and aid in synchronization of molecular timekeeping in the absence of VIPergic signals. This effect, however, is limited and insufficient to maintain coordinated molecular cycles for longer periods of time.
Maywood's research in this area has provided key insights into the SCN clockwork and how events at the membrane assist in driving intracellular feedback loops. These findings also indicate that the SCN has the distinctive property of spontaneous synchronization of inter-neuronal molecular timekeeping through the use of neuropeptidergic signaling.
Studies of Interaction between Suprachiasmatic Nucleus and Sleep
Maywood and colleagues also study interactions between the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) and extra-SCN local clocks in the brain, contributing to knowledge concerning the circadian component in the two-process model of sleep regulation.
To study the effects of interactions between the SCN and local clocks in the brain, Maywood compared various sleep parameters in three different groups of mice: 1) wild type (WT) mice with 24 hour circadian periods, 2) mutant CK1ε Tau mice having 20 hour circadian periods, and 3) chimeric CK1ε mice with dopamine 1a receptor (Drd1a) expressing cells in the SCN exhibiting 24h circadian periods and extra-SCN local clocks exhibiting 20 h periods. The difference in period between the SCN and local clocks resulted in temporal misalignment for the chimeric mice.
The results from this study showed evidence that temporal misalignment between the SCN and local clocks compromised sleep architecture and overall sleep quality for the chimeric mice. Chimeric mice saw less NREM sleep than their temporally aligned counterparts, decreased sleep recovery abilities, and increased amounts of sleep fragmentation. These were all concluded to be the result of internal desynchronization between the SCN and local clocks. Additionally, the effects of circadian misalignment on sleep architecture affected the mices’ cognitive abilities, where chimeric mice performed worse on sleep-dependent memory tasks than their counterparts. These results demonstrate the importance of temporal coherence between all clocks in the brain for maintaining effective circadian regulation of sleep.
While the specific contributions of local clocks across the brain remain unknown, Maywood's research has shed light on the importance of extra-SCN clocks. These tissues play important roles in circadian sleep regulation, and coordination between these clocks and the SCN can determine overall sleep quality.
Awards
In 2011, Maywood was recognized with Aschoff's Rule prize
References
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
British scientists
Circadian rhythm
21st-century English women scientists
Chronobiology
Scientists from Leeds | Elizabeth Maywood | [
"Biology"
] | 1,419 | [
"Behavior",
"Sleep",
"Chronobiology",
"Circadian rhythm"
] |
67,472,636 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9%20Puppis | 9 Puppis is a binary star system in the southern constellation of Puppis. It was originally designated 9 Argus, being part of the now defunct Argo Navis constellation. The system is faintly visible to the naked eye as a point of light with a combined apparent visual magnitude of 5.16. The magnitude difference between the two stars is 0.65. Parallax measurements yield a distance estimate to 9 Puppis of approximately 54 light years from the Sun, with the dynamic and trigonometric parallaxes for the system being in close agreement. It is drifting closer with a systemic radial velocity of –21 km/s. The motion of the system through space is predicted to bring it as close as in about 292,000 years.
The binary nature of this system was discovered by S. W. Burnham in 1873, and it now has the discovery code BU 101 (originally: β 101). Early efforts at computing orbital elements were made by Burnham (1894), Aitken (1914), and others. The latest refined elements show an orbital period of 22.7 years with a large eccentricity (ovalness) of 0.74. The orbital plane is highly inclined to the line of sight at an angle of 80.4°.
The physical size of the system's semimajor axis is estimated to be . The large eccentricity of their orbit means a circumstellar planetary orbit would most likely only be stable over long periods with a semimajor axis inside from the primary and from the secondary. An outer circumbinary planet would have a stable orbit with a semimajor axis beyond about from the barycenter.
The stellar classification of the 9 Puppis system is G0V, matching a G-type main-sequence star like the Sun. The dynamic masses of the components are 1.06 and 0.90 times the mass of the Sun, yielding estimated individual stellar classes of G1 for the primary and G9 for the secondary, respectively. The system has been listed as a probable member of the Ursa Major Moving Group, but was excluded by Soderblom and Mayor (1993) due to low lithium abundance and low X-ray flux. Their age determined from chromospheric heating is around seven billion years.
References
G-type main-sequence stars
Binary stars
Puppis
Puppis, 09
BD-13 2267
064096
038382
3064
J07514629-1353526 | 9 Puppis | [
"Astronomy"
] | 511 | [
"Puppis",
"Constellations"
] |
67,472,797 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P.%20N.%20Rowe | Peter Noël Rowe (25 December 1919 - 27 April 2014)) was a Ramsay professor of chemical engineering at University College London and former president of the Institution of Chemical Engineers.
Education and career
Rowe attended Preston Grammar School, before leaving to become a technician. During World War II, Rowe worked for the RAF, and did a part time HNC in mechanical engineering with Liverpool Technical College.
After being demobbed from the RAF, Rowe joined Manchester College of Technology as an undergraduate in chemical engineering, graduating in 1949. Rowe continued his education, joining Imperial College London to complete a PhD under the tutorage of Dudley Newitt. Between 1954 and 1958, Rowe worked for the Ministry of Supply, continuing his work on investigating supersonic flow through rocket nozzles which he had started at Imperial College London.
In 1958, Rowe was made the principal scientific officer at the Atomic Energy Research Establishment at Harwell, Oxfordshire. While at the establishment, Rowe worked on the ideas of fluidisation that had been promoted by John Davidson, proving some of the theories using innovative experiments. He wrote and co-wrote several papers on the subject.
In 1965, Rowe completed his Doctor of Science at the Imperial College London and replaced M. B. Donald as the Ramsay professor of chemical engineering at University College London. His appointment was described by J. R. Yates and A. R. Burgess as an inspired appointment, and he greatly increased the department and its reputation during his tenure. This included a new MSc in Chemical Process Engineering, and changing the BSc course which had not been amended since 1937. He continued to work on fluidisation research at University College London.
In 1961, he was made a fellow of the Institution of Chemical Engineers, serving as the president between 1981 and 1982, and serving on several committees. He served as one of the honorary secretarys for the Royal Academy of Engineering between 1982 and 1985. In 1985 Rowe retired from University College London, being replaced as the Ramsay professor of chemical engineering by colleague J. W. Mullin, and being named as Professor Emeritus. Rowe continued to work and was a member of the chemical engineering panel of the Research Assessment Exercise, jointly run by the Higher Education Funding Council for England, the Scottish Funding Council, the Higher Education Funding Council for Wales and the Department for Employment and Learning, Northern Ireland.
Awards
In 1972, Rowe with D J Everitt were jointly awarded the IChemE Moulton Medal for the most meritorious paper published by IChemE during that year. In 1984, Rowe was made a Liveryman of the Worshipful Company of Engineers.
In 1987, Rowe was honored with a special edition of the journal Chemical Engineering Communications.
Personal life
Rowe was born on the 25 December 1919 in Preston, Lancashire as the eldest son of Charles Henry Rowe and Kate Winifred (née Storry). In 1952 he married Pauline Garmirian and had two sons, Timothy David and Andrew Francis. Rowe made regular donations to the Royal Academy of Engineerings development appeal.
References
Alumni of Imperial College London
Alumni of Manchester Metropolitan University
1919 births
2014 deaths
Academics of University College London
British chemical engineers
Chemical engineering academics
Fellows of the Institution of Chemical Engineers
Fellows of the Royal Academy of Engineering | P. N. Rowe | [
"Chemistry"
] | 638 | [
"Chemical engineering academics",
"Chemical engineers"
] |
67,472,830 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jungle%20chip | A jungle chip, or jungle IC, is an integrated circuit (IC or "chip") found in most analog televisions of the 1990s. It takes a composite video signal from the radio frequency receiver electronics and turns it into separate RGB outputs that can be sent to the cathode ray tube to produce a display. This task had previously required separate analog circuits.
Advanced versions generally had a second set of inputs in RGB format that were used to overlay on-screen display imagery. These would be connected to a microcontroller that would handle operations like tuning, sleep mode and running the remote control. A separate input called "blanking" switched the jungle outputs between the two inputs on the fly. This was normally triggered at a fixed location on the screen, creating rectangular areas with the digital data overlaying the television signal. This was used for on-screen channel displays, closed captioning support, and similar duties.
The internal RGB inputs have led to such televisions having a revival in the retrocomputing market. By running connectors from the RGB pins on the jungle chip to connectors added by the user, typically RCA jacks on the back of the television case, and then turning on the blanking switch permanently, the system is converted to an RGB monitor. Since early computers output signals with television timings, NTSC or PAL, using a jungle chip television avoids the need to provide separate timing signals. This contrasts with multisync monitors or similar designs that do not have any "built-in" timing and have separate inputs for these signals.
Examples of jungle chips include the Motorola MC65585, Philips TDA6361 and Sony CXA1870.
References
Integrated circuits
Analog video connectors | Jungle chip | [
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 357 | [
"Computer engineering",
"Integrated circuits"
] |
67,473,616 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellerbeckia | Ellerbeckia is a genus of diatoms belonging to the family Paraliaceae.
The species of this genus are found in Europe and Northern America.
Species:
Ellerbeckia penzhica Lupikina, 1991
References
Diatoms
Diatom genera | Ellerbeckia | [
"Biology"
] | 56 | [
"Diatoms",
"Algae"
] |
67,473,894 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eocronartium | Eocronartium muscicola is a species of fungus belonging to the order Platygloeales. It is currently the only species in the monotypic genus Eocronartium. In the UK its recommended English name is moss rust. The species forms clavarioid basidiocarps (fruit bodies) on mosses, on which it is parasitic.
At least 21 moss species, all in the subclass Bryidae, are recorded as hosts for Eocronartium muscicola. The fungus parasitizes its host through its gametophytic transfer cells. The species appears to be widespread, with most reports from Europe, North and South America.
References
Fungi described in 1800
Pucciniomycotina
Fungi of Europe
Taxa named by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon
Fungus species | Eocronartium | [
"Biology"
] | 171 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
67,476,938 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymer%20electrolytes | A polymer electrolyte is a polymer matrix capable of ion conduction. Much like other types of electrolyte—liquid and solid-state—polymer electrolytes aid in movement of charge between the anode and cathode of a cell. The use of polymers as an electrolyte was first demonstrated using dye-sensitized solar cells. The field has expanded since and is now primarily focused on the development of polymer electrolytes with applications in batteries, fuel cells, and membranes.
Molecular design of polymer electrolytes
Generally, polymer electrolytes comprise a polymer which incorporates a highly polar motif capable of electron donation. Performance parameters impact selection of homo- or heterogenous electrolyte. There exist four major types of polymer electrolyte: (1) gel polymer electrolyte, (2) solid-state polymer electrolyte, (3) plasticized polymer electrolyte, and (4) composite polymer electrolyte. The degree of crystallinity of a polymer electrolyte matrix impacts ion mobility and the transport rate. Amorphous regions promote greater percolation of charge in gel and plasticized polymer electrolytes. Crystal defects promote weaker chain-ion interactions.
Another key parameter of transport is the temperature dependence of polymer morphology on transport mechanisms by the glass transition temperature. These electrolytes differ from one another in their processing methods and applications where they are to be used. Their properties and morphology can be tuned to that desired of the application they are intended for. A shared structural feature of these polymers is the presence of a heteroatom, namely nitrogen or oxygen, although sulfur has also been demonstrated.
Common polymers
Poly(ethylene oxide)
Poly(vinyl alcohol)
Poly(methyl methacrylate)
Poly(caprolactone)
Poly(chitosan)
Poly(vinyl pyrrolidone)
Poly(vinyl chloride)
Poly(vinylidene fluoride)
Poly(imide)
Many of these polymers have other applications. The structures of several of these polymers are shown in the adjacent image. Showcases several of these polymers. Other types of polymers capable of ion conduction include polymeric ions, which incorporate either an oxidized (for anion transport) or reduced element of the polymer main chain through a process called chemical doping. Chemical doping makes these polymers behave as either n-type or p-type semiconductors.
Mechanical properties
The mechanical strength of a polymer electrolyte is an important parameter for its dendrite suppression capabilities. It is theorized that a polymer electrolyte with a shear modulus twice that of metallic lithium should be able to physically suppress dendrite formation. High elastic moduli or yield strengths can similarly decrease the uneven lithium deposition that leads to dendrite formation. Higher shear moduli polymer electrolytes have lower ionic conductivity due to their increased stiffness impeding polymer chain mobility and ion movement. The contrasting relationship between tensile strength and ionic conductivity inspires research into plasticized and composite polymer electrolytes.
Types
Gel polymer electrolyte
Gel polymer electrolytes capture solvent constituents and aid in ion transport across the polymer matrix. The gel supports the polymer scaffold. It is noted that amorphous domains of these polymers absorb larger amounts of solvent (and swell accordingly) than do crystalline domains. As a result, ion conduction, which is primarily a diffusion-controlled process, is typically greater across regions of amorphous character than through crystalline domains. The adjacent image illustrates this process. An important aspect of gel electrolytes is the choice of solvent primarily based on their dielectric constants which is noted to impact ion conductivity. Percolation of charge does occur in highly ordered polymer electrolyte, but the number and proximity of amorphous domains is correlated with increased percolation of charge.
Gel polymer electrolytes using poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) are the most studied due to its compatibility with lithium electrodes. However, the plasticizing of PEO decreases the mechanical strength of these electrolytes. Gel polymer electrolytes that combine PEO with mechanically strong polymers such as poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) can benefit from improved mechanical strength while maintaining the good electrochemical properties of PEO. A typical tensile strength for a gel polymer electrolyte is around 0.5 MPa, while typical yield strength and shear strength measurements are around 1 MPa. A typical elastic modulus for a gel polymer electrolyte is 10 MPa, which is two orders of magnitude below that of a typical liquid electrolyte.
Gel polymer electrolytes also shown specific applications for lithium-ion batteries to replace current organic liquid electrolytes. This type of electrolyte has also been shown to be able to be prepared from renewable and degradable polymers while remaining capable of mitigating current issues at the cathode-electrolyte interface.
Solid-state polymer electrolyte
Solid-state polymer electrolyte (also known as solid polymer electrolyte or solvent-free polymer electrolyte) arises from coordination of an inorganic salt to the polymer matrix. Application of a potential results in ion exchange through coordination, decoordination, and recoordination along the polymer. Performance of the electrochemical cell is influenced by the activity of the salt. The potential between the phases and charge transport through the electrolyte is impacted. Solid-state polymer electrolytes have also been employed in processing of gallium nitride wafers by providing a liquid- and radiation-free method of oxidizing the surface of the gallium nitride wafer to enable easier polishing of the wafer than previous methods.
Plasticized polymer electrolyte
Plasticized polymer electrolyte is a polymer matrix with incorporated plasticizers that enhance their ion conductivity by weakening intra- and interchain interactions that compete with ion-polymer interactions. A similar phenomenon to that previously discussed with polymer gel electrolytes is observed with plasticized polymer electrolytes. The addition of plasticizer lowers the glass transition temperature of the polymer and effectively enhances salt dissociation into the polymer matrix which increases the ability of the polymer electrolyte to transport ions. One limitation of plasticizer incorporation is the alteration of the polymer's mechanical properties. Reduction in the crystallinity of the polymer weakens its mechanical strength at room temperature. Plasticizers also modulate properties of polymer electrolytes other than conductivity such as affecting charge/discharge times and enhanced capacity.
Composite polymer electrolyte
Composite polymer electrolyte is a polymer matrix that incorporates inorganic fillers that are chemically inert, but with a high dielectric constant to enhance ion conductivity by inhibiting the formation of ion pairs in the polymer matrix. It has been demonstrated that the blending of polymer electrolytes with an inorganic filler affords a composite material with properties exceeding the sum of those of the individual components. In particular, ion conduction in polymer electrolytes is low (compared to liquid and solid-state electrolytes), but blending with inorganic materials has been shown to enhance the ion mobility and conductivity of the polymer electrolyte. The additional benefit is that the desirable properties of the polymer are maintained, particularly its mechanical strength.
Ceramic materials such as SiO2, Al2O3, and TiO2 are popular filler materials that will improve the mechanical properties of the composite electrolyte, increase the lithium-ion transference number, and improve ionic conductivity. The improved conductivity comes from the decreased crystallinity of the material. On their own, these ceramic fillers are brittle and of low dielectric permittivity. Metal-organic framework (MOF) particles can also be used as a filler material with high surface area and high chemical and thermal stability. 2D boron nitride is a potential filler material due to its high mechanical strength arising from modulation of the electrolyte membrane.
Ion transport mechanisms
Ion transport mechanisms will primarily focus on that for the transport of cations as the use of cation-conductive polymers is a greater area of academic focus due to the widespread use of lithium-ion batteries and other efforts aimed at developing multivalent metal ion batteries such as magnesium. Ion conductivity largely depends on the effective concentration of mobile ions (free ions), electric charge, and ion mobility. Ion mobility is defined as the ability of an ion to move between polar groups along the length of the main chain of a polymer.
Potential gradients
There exists two transport methods: by chemical potential (diffusion) and by electric potential. Ions partition between different phases of the electrolyte, and diffuse based on ionic conductivity, the salt diffusion coefficient of the electrolyte, and the cationic transference number. Ionic transport is also controlled by the electrical potential gradient across the cell.
Temperature dependence
Temperature dependence of electrolyte impacts performance over a range of temperatures. Glass temperature is shown to be the key point of performance. At or above the glass transition temperature, it is believed chain motions generate a free volume that the ions are able to transport through with aid weak, labile coordination between the ion and the parts of the polymer chain. In certain applications thin films of polymer electrolytes are needed, which necessitates careful control of morphology and properties due to deviations in the glass transition temperature and other mechanical properties associated with increasingly thin films of amorphous polymer electrolytes.
Concentration and polymer mobility
Ion transport is impacted by concentration of the counterion and the ability of polymer chains to remain mobile. It is commonly believed that the greater the ability of a polymer matrix to move, the better the ion conductivity will be; however, this is not well understood as crystalline polymer electrolytes have been shown to be more conductive than an amorphous version of the same electrolyte. It is believed there are multiple modes of ion transport. In crystalline polymer electrolyte, the organization of the chains promotes the formation of interchain "tunnels" in which the ion of interest is able to hop between coordination sites, while the counterion moves along the polymer chain. These tunnels allows control over anion and cation flow in crystalline polymer electrolytes because they highly ordered crystalline domains are selective to an ion exclude its counter ion allowing for their separation. This can increase conductivity in crystalline polymer electrolytes. In amorphous polymers that show enhanced conductivity, it is propose that the amorphous character enables greater movement of chains and this increases mobility of ions as their coordination is transient. The adjacent image illustrates a possible mechanisms for ion transport through short range chain ordering and motions in amorphous regions of polymer electrolytes.
Characterization
There are several factors to be optimized in the design of polymer electrolytes such as ion conductivity, mechanical strength, and being chemically inert. These properties are typically characterized using a variety of techniques that exist and are already employed in the characterization of conductive polymers.
Complex impedance spectroscopy
Complex impedance spectroscopy, also known as dielectric spectroscopy, enables characterization of the conductivity and permittivity of both heterogeneous and homogenous polymer electrolytes. The technique is useful for characterizing the electrical properties of bulk material and is capable of differentiating between the electrical properties of the bulk electrolyte and the electrical properties at the interface of the electrolyte with the electrode(s). Several important characteristics can be measured including impedance, admittance, modulus, and permittivity (dielectric constant and loss). Complex impedance spectroscopy has also been used to gain insight into how dopants and electrode parameters affect permittivity. Recent research has focused on probing the conducting relaxation of polymer electrolytes based on their conductance and electrode parameters.
Additional techniques
Determination of the glass transition temperature, and methods for characterizing the mechanical properties of polymer electrolytes are also useful. Related to the glass transition are some of the proposed mechanisms for ion conduction. Other methods of thermal characterization include differential scanning calorimetry, thermogravimetric analysis, and methods used to characterize the specific electronic devices that these materials may be incorporated into.
Applications
Distinctions from other electrolytes
Polymer electrolytes are distinct from solid inorganic and liquid electrolytes and offer several advantages including flexibility, processability, robustness, and safety. Conventional inorganic and liquid electrolytes are rigid or fail to perform in situations requiring high strain or bending forces, which can fracture the electrolyte or the vessel containing the electrolyte. Polymers, typically mixed with a plasticizer do not have this problem, which increases their desirability. Additionally, the high processability of compatible polymers results in simpler design and construction of the chemical cell. Polymer electrolytes also resist electrode volume changes associated with the charge and discharge of a cell. As a part of this, polymer electrolytes have been demonstrated to better resist the development of destructive dendrites in lithium-ion batteries. The shear moduli of polymer electrolytes exceed those of lithium metal, which aid in preventing dendrite growth. Blended polymer electrolytes prepared out of glassy and rubbery polymer have been demonstrates to all but halt dendrite formation, but they are limited by issues with conductivity. Finally, polymer electrolytes are relatively safe compared to liquid and solid-state batteries. Typically, these electrolytes are highly reactive in air and are flammable. Generally, it has been demonstrated that several polymer electrolytes resist degradation in air and resist combustion.
Batteries
Much of the interest in polymer electrolytes stems form their flexibility and enhanced safety over inorganic and liquid electrolytes alternatively used in batteries. Solid-state and composite electrolytes enable development of solid-state lithium-ion batteries. Dendrite formation is also noted to be limited by polymer electrolytes due to their ability to aid in halting growth of lithium crystals precipitating from the electrolyte. The performance of different polymers contributes some polymer electrolytes being better candidates than others for integration into a particular cell.
Membranes and fuel cells
Conductive polymer membranes are a growing area of application for polymer electrolytes. These membranes generally require high ionic conductivity, low permeability, thermal and hydrolytic stability, and morphological and mechanical stability. An example of membranes made from conductive polymer selective barriers in multifunctional micelles. Fuel cell applications of polymer electrolytes typically employ perfluorosulfonic acid membranes capable of selective proton conduction from the anode to the cathode. Such fuel cells are able to generate electrical energy from hydrogen or methanol fuels. However, current conductive polymer membranes are limited by requiring humidification, and the face durability issues related to their mechanical properties. The presence of a polymer electrolyte, particularly one that is solid-state enables reduction in device thickness and shorter mass transport distances which contribute to an overall enhanced cell efficiency over devices with other electrolytes.
Capacitors
Polymer electrolytes have also seen widespread use in capacitors. All-plastic capacitors can also be prepared by sandwiching either a solid-state polymer electrolyte between two plastic electrodes, or through connection electrodes through a polymeric ionic liquid electrolyte. Blends of polymer electrolytes such as poly(vinyl alcohol) and poly(chitosan) show high capacitance and stability and are an advantageous alternative to capacitors prepared with more resource sensitive materials.
References
Polymers
Conductive polymers
Electrolytes
Molecular electronics | Polymer electrolytes | [
"Chemistry",
"Materials_science"
] | 3,179 | [
"Molecular physics",
"Electrolytes",
"Molecular electronics",
"Electrochemistry",
"Nanotechnology",
"Polymer chemistry",
"Polymers",
"Conductive polymers"
] |
67,478,621 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20Chernobyl%20Disaster%20Remembrance%20Day | International Chornobyl Disaster Remembrance Day () is a remembrance day, observed annually on April 26. It was established by the United Nations General Assembly on December 8, 2016, in memory of Chernobyl disaster.
In its resolution, the General Assembly recognized that three decades after the disaster there remains persistent serious long-term consequences and that the affected communities and territories are experiencing continuing related needs. The General Assembly invites all Member States, relevant agencies of the United Nations system and other international organizations, as well as civil society, to observe the day.
See also
Chornobyl Children International
References
External links
International Chernobyl Disaster Remembrance Day 26 April
20 years after Chornobyl Catastrophe. Future outlook: National Report of Ukraine.– K.: Atika, 2006.– 216 p.
April observances
United Nations days
Remembrance days
Aftermath of the Chernobyl disaster | International Chernobyl Disaster Remembrance Day | [
"Technology"
] | 178 | [
"Aftermath of the Chernobyl disaster",
"Environmental impact of nuclear power"
] |
67,478,779 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMA%20Lighthill-Thwaites%20Prize | The Lighthill-Thwaites Prize of the Institute of Mathematics and its Applications (IMA), in cooperation with the Institute's Journal of Applied Mathematics and the British Applied Mathematics Colloquium (BAMC), is a biennial prize established in 2011 by the IMA in honour of the achievement of its first two Presidents – Professors Sir James Lighthill and Sir Bryan Thwaites. The prize honours young applied mathematicians (of any nationality), and applicants submit papers for review. A committee reviews the papers, invites shortlisted candidates to give lectures at the Lighthill-Thwaites meeting, and then awards a First Prize.
Prize winners
Source: https://ima.org.uk/awards-medals/ima-lighthill-thwaites-prize/
2011 – Raphael Assier
2013 – Laura Kimpton
2015 – John Craske
2017 – Doireann O’Kiely
2019 – Matthew Butler
2021 – Matthew Colbrook
Finalists
Source: https://ima.org.uk/awards-medals/ima-lighthill-thwaites-prize/
2011 – Igor Chernyavsky, S. Lind, A. Stewart, Alice Thompson
2013 – Thomas Woolley, M. Moore, Matthew Hennessy
2015 – Jonathan Black, Susana Gomes, Lorna Ayton
2017 – Nabil Fadai, Oliver Allanson, Z. Wilmott
2019 – Matthew Colbrook, Maximilian Eggl, Linnea Franssen, Matthew Nethercote, Jessica Williams
2021 – Daniel Hill, Eleanor Johnstone, Kristian Kiradjiev, Ellen Luckins, Joshua Moore
See also
List of mathematics awards
References
Mathematics awards | IMA Lighthill-Thwaites Prize | [
"Technology"
] | 339 | [
"Science and technology awards",
"Mathematics awards"
] |
67,481,058 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lichenopeltella%20cetrariae | Lichenopeltella cetrariae is a species of fungus belonging to the class Dothideomycetes. It has been found growing on Cetraria aculeata in Hrútey near Blönduós, Iceland and on Cetraria laevigata in Bulgan district, Mongolia and Toyama prefecture, Japan. In Japan, it has also been reported growing on Flavocetraria cucullata in Yamanashi prefecture and Nagano prefecture.
References
Dothideomycetes
Fungi described in 1919
Fungi of Asia
Fungi of Iceland
Fungus species | Lichenopeltella cetrariae | [
"Biology"
] | 119 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
67,481,701 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epithemia | Epithemia is a genus of diatoms belonging to the family Rhopalodiaceae. The genus has cosmopolitan distribution and are found in freshwater and marine ecosystems. Recent studies have proposed that the genus Rhopalodia should be recategorized to join Epithemia based on phylogenetic evidence, although this change in nomenclature has been disputed.
Members of this genus have endosymbionts that fix nitrogen called spheroid bodies, that are derived from cyanobacteria. This endosymbiont is closely related to the nitroplast organelle. Because of this close relationship, Epithemia has been proposed as a model system to study the early stages of organelle evolution.
Because of their nitrogen fixing endosymbionts, they can be a possible indicator of eutrophication, because Epithemia abundance decreased with increased ambient inorganic N concentrations. High concentrations Epithemia species would mean that there is more fixed nitrogen in the ecosystem and could act as an early indicator of nutrient overload.
Species
Those marked with a * were previously in the genus Rhopalodia.
Epithemia adnata (Kützing) Brébisson, 1838
Epithemia alpestris
Epithemia alpestris
Epithemia anasthasiae
Epithemia argus (Ehrenberg) Kützing 1844
Epithemia catenata
Epithemia constricta W. Smith (Krammer)*
Epithemia gibba *
Epithemia gibberula *
Epithemia musculus *
Epithemia pelagica
Epithemia reicheltii Schmidt et al. 1904
Epithemia smithii Carruthers 1864
Epithemia sorex
Epithemia turgida
References
External links
Diatoms of North America Epithemia page
Algae Base Epithemia page
Diatoms
Diatom genera | Epithemia | [
"Biology"
] | 380 | [
"Diatoms",
"Algae"
] |
67,481,999 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibrocapsa | Fibrocapsa is a genus of algae belonging to the family Fibrocapsaceae.
Species:
Fibrocapsa japonica S.Toriumi & H.Takano
References
Ochrophyta
Ochrophyte genera | Fibrocapsa | [
"Biology"
] | 49 | [
"Algae stubs",
"Ochrophyta",
"Algae"
] |
67,482,621 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cob%C3%A1n%20Guatemala%20Temple | The Cobán Guatemala Temple is a temple of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) in Cobán's 2nd ward. The intent to build the temple was announced on October 5, 2019, by church president Russell M. Nelson, during general conference. It is Guatemala's third temple, following the Guatemala City Guatemala and Quetzaltenango Guatemala temples.
The temple is located on a 5.4 acre site, adjacent to an existing meetinghouse. It is one-story tall and has about 8,800 square feet. The site also includes a patron housing facility and a meetinghouse.
The temple has an attached end tower and uses a Spanish Colonial architectural influence. A groundbreaking ceremony, to signify beginning of construction, was held on November 14, 2020, with Brian K. Taylor, a general authority and president of the LDS Church's Central America Area, presiding. The temple was dedicated by Dale G. Renlund on June 9, 2024.
History
The temple was announced by Russell M. Nelson on October 5, 2019, during the general women’s session of the October 2019 general conference.
On May 25, 2020, the church announced that the temple would be constructed on a 5.4-acre property located adjacent to 4a. Avenida 4-48 Zona 8, Barrio Bella Vista, in Cobán, Guatemala. The preliminary plans called for a one-story structure of more than 8,800 square feet.
On September 22, 2020, it was announced that ground would be broken for the temple in November 2020. The groundbreaking ceremony occurred on November 14, 2020, with Brian K. Taylor presiding and local church members and community leaders attending.
Following completion, a public open house was held from April 25-May 11, 2024. The temple was dedicated on June 9, 2024, by Dale G. Renlund of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles.
Design and architecture
The building has a Spanish Colonial style, together with traditional Latter-day Saint temple design. The temple sits on a 2.1-acre plot, and the landscaping around the temple features palm trees and grass fields. A meetinghouse and temple patron housing are also located on the site.
The structure is 80 feet tall and has one story, constructed with concrete, painted hand-troweled stucco, and granite. The exterior has an attached end tower.
The interior design motifs use patterns typical of Cobán area textiles. It also has decorative wool rugs and art glass windows, both of which are based on the geometric textile motifs. The temple includes one instruction room, one sealing room, and a baptistry, each arranged for ceremonial use.
The design uses symbolic elements representing the history and culture of the Cobán region, providing deeper spiritual meaning to the temple's appearance and function. Symbolism is important to church members and includes the Spanish Colonial architectural style, which is common to religious and government buildings in the area, as well as the textile-inspired design motifs used throughout the temple’s interior.
Temple presidents
The church's temples are directed by a temple president and matron, each serving for a term of three years. The president and matron oversee the administration of temple operations and provide guidance and training for both temple patrons and staff. Since its 2024 dedication, the president and matron of the Cobán Guatemala Temple are Felix R. Choc and Violeta E. de Rosales.
Admittance
Prior to the temple’s dedication, a public open house was held from April 25-May 11, 2024 (excluding Sundays). The temple was dedicated during two sessions by Dale G. Renlund on June 9, 2024.
Like all the church's temples, it is not used for Sunday worship services. To members of the church, temples are regarded as sacred houses of the Lord. Once dedicated, only church members with a current temple recommend can enter for worship.
See also
Comparison of temples of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
List of temples of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
List of temples of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints by geographic region
Temple architecture (Latter-day Saints)
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Guatemala
References
Temples (LDS Church) in North America
21st-century Latter Day Saint temples
Buildings and structures in Cobán
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Guatemala
Temples (LDS Church) in Guatemala
Buildings and structures under construction | Cobán Guatemala Temple | [
"Engineering"
] | 907 | [
"Construction",
"Buildings and structures under construction"
] |
67,483,253 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellen%20Cerreta | Ellen K. Cerreta is a materials scientist at Los Alamos National Laboratory, working to provide materials science and technology solutions for national security missions. She is Fellow of ASM International.
Cerreta is internationally recognized for her research on the relationship between microstructure and dynamic materials properties.
Education
Cerreta received her B.S. degree in aerospace engineering from the University of Virginia in 1996. She moved to Carnegie Mellon University for her M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in materials science and engineering in 1997 and 2001 respectively. For her doctoral studies, she worked with Tresa Pollock and Subhash Mahajan on Substructural Evolution of Creep Deformed Titanium Aluminides. She performed some of her graduate research as a visiting scientist in the Center for High Resolution Microscopy (CHREM) at Arizona State University.
Research and career
Cerreta joined Los Alamos National Laboratory in 2001 as a Postdoctoral Fellow and then Technical Staff Member in 2003 in the Structure/Properties Relations Group (MST-8). At Los Alamos as a Technical Staff Member and Scientist, she has led a number of projects to investigate dynamic materials performance and provide insight toward advanced predictive capabilities for strength and damage in extreme environments. Cerrera's work has made major achievements on elucidating microstructural and substructural evolution mechanisms for dynamic mechanical properties and damage processes in metals. She has demonstrated sustained excellence and achievement in science related to materials science and engineering, both through her work in the open literature and through contribution to our national security. She has an H-index of 34. She was the Deputy Group Leader for MST-8 from 2013 to 2015, Group Leader of MST-8 from 2015 to 2017, Deputy Division Leader for Explosive Science and Shock Physics (M-Division), and Division Leader for Materials Science and Technology (MST-Division) since 2019. She has been an adjunct faculty member in The Institute of Shock Physics at Washington State University since 2012. She was a Trustee of ASM International from 2015 to 2018. She was an Associate Technical Editor of the Journal of Dynamic Behavior of Materials. She is the 2021-2022 President of the Minerals, Metals & Materials Society (TMS), and she has been on the organization's board of directors as the Director for Membership Development and Structural Materials Division and a member of various committees since joining TMS in 1997.
Awards and recognition
2004 TMS SMD Young Leaders Professional Development
2007 TMS Young Leaders International Scholar - Japan Institute of Metals
2007 Alexander von Humboldt Foundation/National Academy of Engineers Sponsored, German-American Frontiers of Engineering
2013 TMS Brimacombe Medalist
2016 ASM International Fellow
2020 TMS SMD Distinguished Service Award
References
Los Alamos National Laboratory personnel
American materials scientists
Women materials scientists and engineers
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people) | Ellen Cerreta | [
"Materials_science",
"Technology"
] | 584 | [
"Women materials scientists and engineers",
"Materials scientists and engineers",
"Women in science and technology"
] |
57,900,656 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measurable%20group | In mathematics, a measurable group is a special type of group in the intersection between group theory and measure theory. Measurable groups are used to study measures is an abstract setting and are often closely related to topological groups.
Definition
Let a group with group law
.
Let further be a σ-algebra of subsets of the set .
The group, or more formally the triple is called a measurable group if
the inversion is measurable from to .
the group law is measurable from to
Here, denotes the formation of the product σ-algebra of the σ-algebras and .
Topological groups as measurable groups
Every second-countable topological group can be taken as a measurable group. This is done by equipping the group with the Borel σ-algebra
,
which is the σ-algebra generated by the topology. Since by definition of a topological group, the group law and the formation of the inverse element is continuous, both operations are in this case also measurable from to and from to , respectively. Second countability ensures that , and therefore the group is also a measurable group.
Related concepts
Measurable groups can be seen as measurable acting groups that act on themselves.
References
Measure theory
Group theory | Measurable group | [
"Mathematics"
] | 246 | [
"Group theory",
"Fields of abstract algebra"
] |
57,900,989 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molybdenum%28VI%29%20chloride | Molybdenum(VI) chloride is the inorganic compound with the formula MoCl6. It is a black diamagnetic solid. The molecules adopt an octahedral structure as seen in β-tungsten(VI) chloride.
Preparation and reactions
Molybdenum(VI) chloride is prepared from the molybdenum hexafluoride with excess boron trichloride:
MoF6 + 3 BCl3 → MoCl6 + 3 BF2Cl
It is unstable at room temperature with respect to molybdenum(V) chloride and decomposition completes within several days:
2 MoCl6 → [MoCl5]2 + Cl2
The treatment of with bismuth trichloride also produces MoCl6.
References
Molybdenum(VI) compounds
Chlorides
Molybdenum halides | Molybdenum(VI) chloride | [
"Chemistry"
] | 180 | [
"Chlorides",
"Inorganic compounds",
"Salts"
] |
57,901,057 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figure%20skating%20rink | A figure skating rink is an ice rink intended for or compatible with the practice of figure skating. In many locations, it is shared with other sports—typically ice hockey and/or short track speed skating.
History
For most of the history of figure skating, ice skating was limited to short seasons and was possible only in countries with bodies of water that provided frozen surfaces and natural ice. According to figure skating historian James R. Hines, the development of indoor ice rinks, other than the development of the bladed skate during the 14th century and the practice of fastening boots permanently to skates in the 19th century, has had the greatest effect on figure skating. It allowed for skating year-round, as well as anywhere in the world, and prevented the cancellation of competitive events due to the lack of ice in outdoor rinks. Hines states that artificial ice prevents the impacts of harsh weather and "less-perfect outdoor ice" on skating elements.
The first attempts to make artificial ice occurred during the 1870s in England and the U.S. The first notable indoor ice rink was made in 1876, by John Gamgee, in Chelsea along the north bank of the Thames River; it measured 24 by 40 feet. By the end of the 19th century, many major cities in Europe and North America had indoor rinks. The 1967 World Figure Skating Championships was last year a competition was held outdoors; also in 1967, it was required that competitions be conducted in covered, but not enclosed rinks. Enclosed indoor competitions were not required until 1980; they were not required for practice sessions until 1984. The last time figure skating during the Winter Olympic Games was held outdoors was in 1954 and the last time figure skating at the Winter Olympics was conducted in a covered but not indoor rink was in 1960. Although skaters no longer had to contend with the hazards of natural ice, an advantage in what has become a highly competitive sport, many skaters expressed nostalgia for competing on natural ice.
Ice sheet
Dimensions
ISU-sanctioned competitions
In the modern era, the dimension requirements for ice figure skating have largely been aligned with those of other indoor ice sports. Rule 342 of the ISU Special Regulations & Technical Rules: Single & Pair Skating and Ice Dance governs the dimensions of the skating area for the short program/short dance, free skating/free dance and pattern dance(s). It must be rectangular. Its recommended and maximum dimensions are in length and in width. This is also the required size for the ISU's short track speed skating competitions, and was the recommended size for IIHF ice hockey events prior to 2022. The rink's minimum dimensions for ISU figure skating competitions are in length and in width, which also matched the minimum IIHF requirements prior to 2014.
In the ISU's formative years, those requirements were significantly more modest. Its official rules, which encompassed the World Championships, stated that the free skate area must be "symmetrically bounded" and measure at least in one direction.
Teaching and regional competitions
Figure skating's free-form nature and lack of head-to-head competition have allowed it to develop in places typically not accessible to other ice disciplines. In the middle of the 20th century, an important teaching tool for the sport were so-called ice skating studios, small sheets of artificial ice laid over the floor of a residential or otherwise repurposed building as semi-permanent facilities, similar to a dance studio. Some stars of yesteryear took their first strides or taught at such facilities.
The ISU has continued to take advantage of this relative flexibility. Rule 107 of its Constitution and General Regulations contains provisions for lower competition classes, labelled as "Interclub" or "Local". Those give national member federations and their clubs the leeway to stage events that are not directly sanctioned by the ISU, and may incorporate a number of self-defined rules. As a result, some of these competitions, including select national championships, have been held on ice surfaces smaller than the official mininum of 56 metre by 26 metre.
Impact on performance
Judging
The scoring system rewards skaters who have good ice coverage, i.e. who efficiently cover the entire ice surface during their programs. If a rink has different dimensions, a skater's jump setup and speed may be hindered as he or she adjusts.
Ice quality
Ice quality is judged by smoothness, friction, hardness, and brittleness. Factors affecting ice quality include temperature, water quality, and usage, with toe picks causing more deterioration. For figure skating, the ice surface temperature is usually kept between −5.5 °C (22 °F) and −3.5 °C (26 °F), slightly warmer than an ice hockey rink, which means softer ice and easier landings for the figure skaters.
Typically after every two warm-up groups during the competitions, an ice resurfacer cleans and smooths the surface of the ice sheet. Inadequate ice quality may affect skaters' performances.
Venue and general configuration
Since 1980, all figure skating competitions must be held in completely covered and enclosed rinks. The rule was expanded to include practice rinks in 1984.
Officials
The ISU does not permit officials to be seated on the ice surface. The judges and the referee are seated at the rinkboard. The ISU prefers that the technical panel be seated in an elevated position.
Kiss and cry
The kiss and cry is the area in a figure skating rink where figure skaters wait for their marks to be announced after their performances during a figure skating competition. It is so named because the skaters and coaches often kiss to celebrate after a good performance, or cry after a poor one. The area is usually located in the corner or end of the rink and is furnished with a bench or chairs for the skaters and coaches and monitors to display the competition results. It is often elaborately decorated with flowers or some other backdrop for television shots and photos of the skaters as they react to their performance and scores.
Olympic venues
Since short track speed skating was contested at the 1992 Winter Olympics, the rinks are used for figure skating and short track speed skating during those Winter Olympic Games.
For all international competitions sanctioned by the ISU, at least one covered and preferably heated rink is required. For the ISU Figure Skating Championships, the Winter Olympic Games and the Winter Youth Olympic Games, two covered and closed rinks are required. For the ISU events, the Winter Olympic Games, the Winter Youth Olympic Games and the qualifying competition for the Winter Olympic Games, the ice rinks must be heated.
See also
Ice rink
Ice hockey rink
Speed skating rink
References
Works cited
External links
International Skating Union
Ice rinks
Rink
Sports venues by type | Figure skating rink | [
"Engineering"
] | 1,343 | [
"Structural engineering",
"Ice rinks"
] |
57,901,149 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bondi%20Beach%20Cultural%20Landscape | The Bondi Beach Cultural Landscape is a heritage-listed former Turkish baths, pavilion with dressing cubicles, dining rooms, sunbaking, shops and ballroom and now art gallery, pavilion, theatre and open air cinema located at Queen Elizabeth Drive, Bondi Beach, Sydney, Australia. The pavilion was designed by Robertson and Marks, with Leith C. McCredie the architect. The Bondi Surf Life Savers' Club, erected , was designed by Ross & Rowe. The Bondi Pavilion was designed by John Howie & Sons. The cultural landscape includes the beach itself, Bondi Surf Pavilion, Bondi Park and Bondi Surf Life Saving Club and the North Bondi Surf Club. The landscape was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 23 May 2008.
History
History of Waverley
Waverley took its name from the title of a book by the famous Scottish author and poet, Sir Walter Scott. Its connection with the suburb of Waverley comes through Barnett Levey (or Levy, 1798–1837) who came to Sydney in the 1820s to visit his brother. When he saw how prosperous the city was becoming, Levey decided to settle here and set up a business as a general merchant. In 1831 he was granted 60 acres in the area bounded by the present Old South Head Road, Birrell Street, Paul Street and Hollywood Avenue. He must have occupied the land before the official grant because he built himself a substantial two story home on Old South Head Road in 1827, naming it Waverley House after the book by his favourite author. As time passed the house became a distinctive landmark and gave its name to the surrounding district, which was simply called Waverley. Levey established Sydney's first permanent theatre behind his shop in George Street. His projects consumed all his money, and when he died in 1837 he left a widow and four children in poverty. In 1837 the house was taken over for a Catholic school or orphanage, but it was demolished early in the 20th century.
Waverley municipality was proclaimed in 1859. By the 1880s trams were running to the beaches in the Eastern Suburbs and Waverley became a popular picnic spot. Waverley Park had a splendid oval, used by the established Waverley District Cricket Club.
Waverley Cemetery was established in 1877 on the site of the old tram terminus, on a beautiful site near the ocean. It houses many historically notable people.
The 1866 NSW Gazetteer described Waverley as having Clough's Windmill, Allan's Soap Works, Dickson's Soap and Candle Works and Scott's Blacking and Fireworks Factory. There were also four quarries producing excellent freestone. Today however, it is an attractive residential suburb, just west of Tamarama Beach.
History of Bondi Beach
Bondi Beach and Bondi Park were part of the Bondi Estate originally granted to William Roberts in 1810. Although the area was in private ownership, the use of the beach by the public was made permissible by the owners from 1855, and the foreshore lands became popular as a picnicking and pleasure resort.
In 1882, an area of at Bondi Beach was dedicated as a public reserve. Early improvements following the dedication included baths opened , bathing sheds were erected in 1903, and a weatherboard shed for the Bondi Surf Bathers' Life Saving Club was built in 1907. The Bondi Surf Bathers' Life Saving Club and the North Bondi Surf Life Saving Club were founded in 1906, and are two of the oldest surf clubs in Australia. The present clubhouse of the Bondi Surf Bathers Life Saving Club was constructed in 1934, and the present club house of the North Bondi Surf Club was opened in 1933.
A number of improvements ensued. In 1911, bathing sheds accommodating 750 men and 250 women were opened, described as the "finest bathing accommodation of any of the ocean beaches". A shed for the North Bondi Surf Life Saving Club was provided in the same year. Between 1911 and 1920, the sea wall at Bondi Beach was constructed. Funded by the Government of New South Wales, the work was carried out by the Public Works Department. The wall was an early attempt to control the drifting sand problem experienced at Bondi, but only met with partial success. In 1924 the sand dunes at the north of the beach caused the sea wall to fail.
In 1923, Waverley Council implemented a Bondi Beach and Park Improvement Scheme. An open competition called on designers to provide a kiosk and surf sheds, three lavatory blocks with separate accommodation for males and females, a band stand, layout of the park surrounding the buildings, increased pedestrian and vehicular traffic capacity and elimination of cross traffic over the Marine Drive and Promenade. The architectural firm of Robertson and Marks won the competition with a design which was semicircular in plan, with a circular core, and a Classical style elevation to the beach. This design, as well as improvements to the park and ancillary structures, including car parks, radiating paths, and bridges, was estimated to cost (Pounds)100,000. Encountering difficulties in funding the project, in 1926 Waverley Council instructed Robertson and Marks to revise their scheme to include fund raising elements, such as baths. The plans for the park, sea wall, and traffic provisions were further amended on the basis of recommendations from the Commission of Inquiry into the scheme held by the Department of Local Government. The Inquiry accepted the revised scheme in 1927, and Waverley Council secured a loan of A£120,000 from the Commonwealth Bank for the construction of the scheme. A further A£40,000 was borrowed in 1930 in order to complete the scheme. By the standards of the time, the scale and cost of the Bondi Beach Improvement Schemes was an unprecedented undertaking for a local Council in NSW. The foundation stone marking the commencement of construction of the improvement scheme was laid on 26 May 1928 by the Mayor of Waverley, Alderman David Hunter. The Bondi Surf Pavilion was sufficiently complete by December 1928 to allow the public to use the accommodation. Six months later, Turkish baths and hot water baths were opened. The official opening of the Bondi Beach Improvement Scheme was held on 21 December 1929 before 160,000 to 200,000 onlookers. In addition to the erection of the pavilion building, the scheme included the layout of a Marine Drive (now Queen Elizabeth Drive), bridges, car parking, promenade, and park plantings.
The implementation of the improvement scheme required the relocation of the Bondi Surf Bathers Life Saving Club house to a point north to where the present building is situated. Subsequently, a new club house, designed by Ross & Rowe, architects, was opened in 1934. The building was extended in the 1970s and 1980s. The Bondi Surf Pavilion offered, in addition to surf sheds and dressing accommodation, Turkish and hot water baths, retail premises, entertainment in the ballroom, cabaret theatre, and auditorium and dining. Bathing costumes, towels, lockers, and dressing cubicles were available for hire. The ground floor of the building originally held two courtyards, one for men and one for women, with individual changing booths constructed in rows in each. Tunnels leading from each courtyard led underneath Marine Parade to a pair of concrete groynes opening onto the beach. Owing to the outbreak of war in the Pacific, the two concrete groynes leading from the pavilion onto the beach were demolished in 1942, and the park area was secured by barbed wire.
In the post-World War II era, the Bondi Surf Pavilion experienced a decline as changes in bathing costumes (from heavy woollen costumes to nylon) eliminated the need for changing sheds. The rise in popularity of the motor car meant that individuals could visit any number of beaches; whereas in the pre-war years the Bondi tram ensured that Bondi Beach was a popular beach destination for the public. Although Bondi Surf Pavilion itself began to decline in its commercial prospects (Council reported an operating loss of (Pounds)17,000 for the year 1955), Bondi Beach itself was cemented in the national identity as the quintessential Australian beach, as evidenced by its selection as the location for the 1954 "Royal Command" Surf Carnival, held in the presence of Her Majesty the Queen and His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh. In the 1950s and 1960s, the ground floor refreshment rooms were operated by lessees, while the main hall and auditorium were rarely used. In the 1970s, steps were taken to increase the community use of the pavilion. The theatre on the upper floor was officially opened by the Prime Minister, Gough Whitlam in 1975.
Demolition of the change rooms, lockers, former Turkish baths, and courtyard took place in 1977 to 1978 in order to create a netball court, an art gallery, gymnasiums, an amphitheatre and other facilities as part of Waverley Council's cultural program. The building was officially opened as the Bondi Surf Pavilion Community Centre in 1978 by the NSW Premier, Neville Wran. Bondi Surf Pavilion still continues to be a community cultural centre, housing a theatre, a gallery, rehearsal, meeting and function rooms. The external arcades, change rooms and toilets continue to be used by visitors to the beach. Many arts, cultural, and film festivals take place at the pavilion throughout the year.
The Norfolk Island pine trees (Araucaria heterophylla) in Bondi Park began to die off in the late 1960s, and a Select Parliamentary Committee of Enquiry reviewed the problem in 1971, concluding that the death of the trees was the result of deleterious effects of off-shore pollutants introduced via the North Bondi sewerage outfall. The concrete lookout tower on the butt of the southern groyne was constructed in 1975, after the foundations of groynes were exposed during severe storms in late 1974. During the 1980s, 4 million was allocated for improvements in Bondi Park, including the erection of picnic shelters, reconstruction of the pavilion forecourt area and entrance to car parking at Queen Elizabeth Drive, and construction of a skateboard track. The sea wall and promenade were stabilised between 1987 and 1992. Further work was done in constructing new pathways and planting trees in Bondi Park in 1992.
Bondi Park is a Crown reserve that was dedicated for Public Recreation on 28 January 1938. Waverley Council was appointed trustee for the care control and management of the reserve, on behalf of the Minister for Lands, on that date. Subsequently, the Bondi Park (D.500048) Reserve Trust was established for the management of Bondi Park, with Waverley Council appointed to manage this trust on 12 April 1996.
The Marine Discovery Centre at Bondi Pavilion (which opened there in 2008) closed in October 2013, being unable financially to continue. Waverley Council have called for expressions of interest for the space, citing a tourist information centre as one of several options being considered.
In December 2015 Waverley Council released a concept design for a $38 million upgrade of the Bondi Beach Pavilion, proposing a complete makeover of front and rear facades, new theatre seating for 200 with retractable seats and toilet and shower facilities. Designed by Tonkin Zulaikha Greer the upgrade aims to maximise use of under-used spaces for the 14 million visitors to the beach each year. Council is expected to inject $14 million with the shortfall made up from federal and state government funds. A federal grant of $1 million has been committed. The concept plan is on exhibition until February 2016.
Description
Bondi Beach is located between Ben Buckler Head and McKenzie Point, and is approximately long and ranges in width from at the north end to at the south end.
Bondi Park is bordered to the west by Campbell Parade, and the east by Queen Elizabeth Drive and Bondi Beach. The park is mostly grassed with a variety of shelters for picnics, walkways and tree plantations. The Bondi Surf Pavilion lies within the park and is the dominant architectural feature in the immediate vicinity of Bondi Beach.
The Bondi Surf Pavilion is designed in Mediterranean/Georgian revival architecture and consists of a core double floor building facing a single storey arched colonnade and flanked by single level wings at either end with colonnaded walls covering two inner courtyards. The walls are made of cement, the floors are made of reinforced concrete and timber, the roof is lined with concrete roof tiles, and the windows and doors are timber framed and glazed. The joinery at the building's northeastern end is original. There is an actual theatre, a museum, an amphitheatre, a basketball court, multiple conference spaces, a restaurant, dressing rooms and toilets in the Bondi Surf Pavilion.
The Bondi Surf Bathers Life Saving Club and North Bondi Surf Club are both situated within Bondi Park.
Condition
As of 20 July 2007, the main issues resulting from a comprehensive maintenance study conducted by Waverley Council include the existence of lead paint, the theatre 's inability to conform with the Building Code of Australia (BCA) in terms of egress and fire safety, and the rusting of a variety of large structural beams.
An objective visual review performed by Clive Lucas Stapleton & Partners for this appointment showed that the state of the Bondi Surf Pavilion and the Bondi Surf Bathers Life Saving Club Building was reasonably acceptable and that routine maintenance was undertaken. There are no elements of the building's physical state that affect the importance of the pavilion.
The Bondi Park landscaped area, including the picnic shelters and footpaths, received an update at the end of 2003 and are generally in good shape.
There was no clear appraisal of the research area's geological potential. There is some room for archeological ruins in the vicinity of Bondi Park that include details regarding older buildings, such as the early bathing sheds.
Bondi Beach: Highly intact
Bondi Park: Although pathways have been resurfaced, the layout of Bondi Park is substantially intact.
Bondi Surf Pavilion: Although modified substantially in the 1970s and the subject of recent modern additions to the east facade, the building retains its external form and, to an extent, the internal courtyards. The modifications made to the planning and use of the internal spaces detract somewhat from the significance of this component; however, the architectural scale and resolution of the exterior of the building are of sufficient strength to enable the building's aesthetic character to be understood.
Bondi Surf Bathers Life Saving Club Building: Although added to in the 1970s and 1980s, the building substantially retains its original external appearance
Modifications and dates
Changes to the Bondi Surf Pavilion building included the following:
1931Erection of outdoor auditorium which incorporated the caretaker's quarters in the first floor;
Groynes demolished as part of wartime preparation of Bondi Beach for defence against enemy landings;
1948Two additional exits and stairways, emergency exit lights, additional lavatory accommodation, fire fighting equipment, and ventilation to the ballroom in order to obtain a licence under the Theatre and Public Halls Act;
1955Tenders called for operation of the Bondi Surf Pavilion. Description in tender documents stated that the pavilion had been recently renovated and was in a good state of repair. Further details are not known;
1968Reconstruction of walls of the Bondi Surf Pavilion for structural reasons;
1972-75Former ballroom converted to theatre;
1977-78Change rooms, lockers, Turkish baths, courtyard demolished and replaced by large grassed area, amphitheatre, netball court, workshops for craft classes, art gallery, child care centre, two gymnasiums, restaurant as part of conversion of pavilion to a community centre;
Unknown date (probably in the 1970s)Reversal of auditorium (audience seating moved from west of pavilion to inside pavilion courtyard);
1980Courtyard walls painted with murals along the theme of "Bondi the Beautiful" based on 1920s images of Bondi;
1985Ceramic murals installed in foyer of the Bondi Surf Pavilion; and
1980sSemi-circular pergola constructed to south of the Bondi SurfPavilion.
Recent changes from 2002 to 2005 to the Bondi Surf Pavilion included the following:
Repainting of the pavilion and construction of new forecourt;
Glazed semi-circular addition to northern end of pavilion to house seafood restaurant;
Building constructed in south courtyard;
Fenestration to northern end of east facade restored;
Stormwater pipes fixed;
Alterations for gelato bar at southern end of east side; and
Foundation stone relocated.
Changes to the Bondi Surf Bathers Life Saving Club building included the following:
1951Additions to provide a gear room;
1970s/1980sAdditional rooms constructed to south-west of original building; mezzanine level added, first floor extended to east; and
2003New boat shed. Changes to the North Bondi Surf Life Saving Club included the following:
1950Observation Room completed;
1978Demolition of top floor of building, to be replaced by a 'VIP room'; and
2006Development Approval granted for works which will substantially alter the external appearance of the building
Changes to the Bondi Park included the following:
1970sPipe handrails along Queen Elizabeth Drive replaced; pathway paving rehabilitated;
1980sPavilion forecourt area reconstructed; and
2003Moulded concrete skate park (in place of earlier skate ramp in southern section of park); also landscape works including new pathways.
October 2013Marine Discovery Centre at Bondi Pavilion closed. Waverley Council call for expressions of interest for the space.
Further information
Other harbour and ocean beaches in NSW where interwar beautification and/or improvement schemes were carried out by local authorities include Balmoral, Cronulla, Manly, Nobbys and Bar beaches (Newcastle), North and South beaches (Wollongong), Thirroul, The Entrance and Foster.
Extant pavilions of significance dating to the interwar period include the following:
Manly Cove Pavilion - Mediterranean style, two storey, tiled roof, with colonnade and tile inlay decoration; located on the harbour side of Manly;
Balmoral Bathers Pavilion - Mediterranean style, two storey, located on popular harbour beach in landscaped setting with associated rotunda;
Cronulla Beach Surf Pavilion - Interwar Stripped Classical style, adjacent surf club house constructed at the same time (1940);
Bar Beach Surf Pavilion - accommodated 600 visitors, contained surf club and kiosk, Spanish Mission and Art Deco styles, completed in 1933;
North Beach Bathing Pavilion - Interwar Functionalist style, completed in 1938, single storey central pavilion with open-roofed dressing areas on either side;
Newport and Freshwater Beaches - Mediterranean style pavilions with shared dressing and surf live savers' accommodation; and
At The Entrance, a Mediterranean style surf life saving clubhouse was built in 1936 and designed as a pavilion to accommodate public changing rooms.
Heritage listing
As at 23 September 2005, Bondi Beach, Bondi Park, Bondi Surf Pavilion, and the Bondi Surf Bathers Life Saving Club building form a cultural landscape of State significance as an iconic representation of the Australian beach experience. The place is historically significant as the site of many "firsts" and other significant events in surf lifesaving, and as the largest beach improvement scheme to be carried out in the interwar years. The place demonstrates the rapid increase in popularity of beach-going once restrictions on surf bathing were eased in the early 20th century.
The place is of social and aesthetic significance as a landmark, recognised internationally as a symbol of Australia's popular
beach culture. While the Bondi Surf Pavilion has been modified over time, the relationship of the building to the promenade and beach, as well as the park and its intact features (including two concrete pedestrian bridges with standard lamps, the promenade, and numerous pathways in original locations), retains its integrity to the 1928 beach improvement design.
Bondi Beach Cultural Landscape was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 23 May 2008 having satisfied the following criteria.
The place is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural or natural history in New South Wales.
Bondi Beach is of State significance for its place in the history of beach swimming, surfing, and surf life saving in Australia in the 19th and 20th centuries. As attitudes toward surf bathing changed from a restricted and dangerous activity to that of a national pastime, Bondi Beach and the area of Bondi Park were the scene of numerous events in the history of beach-going in Australia which contributed greatly to the development of Australian beach
culture, including:
Use as picnic grounds and pleasure resort from 1855;
Establishment of two of Australia's oldest surf life saving clubs: the Bondi Surf Bathers Life Saving Club and the North Bondi Surf Club in 1906;
First use of the surf reel in life saving, by the Bondi Surf Bathers Life Saving Club, 1907;
Location of the first Surf Life Saving Association titles competition in 1915;
"Black Sunday", 6 February 1938, when five people drowned at Bondi Beach and hundreds were rescued after a series of waves crashed into the beach - the largest ever rescue on one day. This is remembered as "one of the most significant and tragic days in the history of Australian life saving." Surf Life Saving Australia history fact sheet #7) The Bondi Surf Bathers Life
Saving Club as a whole was given a Special Meritorious Award by the Surf Life Saving Association of Australia for its bravery in the rescue work; and
"Royal Carnival" - a national surf carnival was held at Bondi in the presence of Queen Elizabeth II and the Duke of Edinburgh.
Other more recent events are also historic milestones, namely:
Demonstrating the worldwide esteem held for Bondi Beach, it was chosen as the site of the 2000 Olympics Beach Volleyball competition;
Bondi Beach was the location of the launch of the "Year of the Surf Life Saver" (2007) as 5,000 red and yellow flags were set out on the beach in commemoration of the centenary of surf life saving and 500,000 lives saved by rescuers; and
Bondi Beach is also the destination of the annually "City to Surf" fun run competition.
The Bondi Surf Pavilion and Bondi Park are components in Waverley Council's (Pounds)160,000 Bondi Beach Improvement Scheme, brought about by the immense popularity of the beach for recreation in the 1920s. The improvement scheme was an unprecedented undertaking for a local government authority at the time, and historically representative of the importance placed on bathing and the beach as a recreational amenity for the population of the state, not only the local area. The improvement scheme is a landmark in the history of urban design in NSW because of its ambitious scale.
The place is important in demonstrating aesthetic characteristics and/or a high degree of creative or technical achievement in New South Wales.
Bondi Beach is of State significance for its considerable aesthetic appeal for its width, the gentle slope of the sand, its crescent shape, and the headlands which define its northern and southern points. The scale of the beach and its relationship with the foreshore development, including Bondi Park, Bondi Surf Pavilion, Bondi Surf Bathers Life Saving Club building and the North Bondi Surf Club, form a cultural landscape which is a landmark of not only the Sydney region, but an iconic image of Australia, recognised internationally as a symbol of Australia and the attractions of the country. Within the context of Bondi Beach, the Bondi Surf Pavilion is of State significance as the largest and most resolved example of a beach pavilion in NSW, and continues to be so to this day.
The place has strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group in New South Wales for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.
The Bondi beach Cultural landscape is of State significance because Bondi Beach, together with the Bondi Surf Pavilion, Bondi Park, the Bondi Surf Bathers Life Saving Club and the North Bondi Surf Club buildings, represents at a national level the culture of beach bathing which has dominated past and present the popular image of the Australian outdoors lifestyle. In this context it is an icon regularly seen in works of art and promotional material, such as the widely-known Max Dupain photographs, Sunbaker (1937) and Form at Bondi (1939).
Bondi Beach and its associated attractions are of outstanding significance to the state as one of the most popular destinations for international and domestic visitors to Sydney. Particularly amongst travellers from the UK and Ireland, Bondi Beach has attained a mythic status as the traditional place for international visitors to spend Christmas Day, when usually up to 40,000 people visit the beach (cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/beach). A 2005 survey of 15,000 British holiday-makers conducted by the travel company Trailfinders showed that Bondi Beach was the "favourite beach in the Pacific". A study carried out for Tourism NSW showed that in 1999, 34% of visitors to Sydney went to Bondi Beach, making it the most highly visited Sydney attraction outside of the CBD. Bondi Beach is held in very high esteem by the people of NSW as a place to visit and as a symbol of the Australian way of life.
The place possesses uncommon, rare or endangered aspects of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.
The Bondi Beach Cultural Landscape demonstrates rarity at the State level as The Bondi Surf Pavilion is the largest surf beach pavilion to be constructed in Sydney, exemplifying the enormous growth in popularity of surf bathing of the 1920s and 1930s, a period during which many beachside beautification and improvement schemes were carried out by local and State authorities. The use of Bondi Beach in depictions of the quintessential Australian beach lifestyle in popular culture and works of art is unparalleled by any other beach in Australia.
The association of Bondi Beach with two of the earliest surf life saving clubs in Australia, and the important role played by the clubs in the development of the Australian surf life saving movement, is a rare attribute, matched only by Manly Beach.
The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a class of cultural or natural places/environments in New South Wales.
The Bondi Beach Cultural Landscape is State significant for its ability to represent all of the elements which are typical of the Australian beach: a pavilion for public changing rooms, surf life saving club(s), wide expanse of sand, grassy park for picnicking, a promenade/marine drive, and the availability of ocean swimming.
Bondi Beach, Bondi Park, and the Bondi Surf Pavilion form an excellent representation of Australian popular beach culture. The Bondi Surf Pavilion is representative of a class of buildings found frequently along the coast of NSW, and is of State significance as the largest, most resolved example of the type.
See also
1907 Sydney bathing costume protests
Australian culture
Bondi Beach
Culture of Sydney
References
Bibliography
Attribution
External links
New South Wales State Heritage Register
Bondi Beach, New South Wales
Cinemas in Sydney
Community buildings in New South Wales
Sun tanning
Entertainment venues in New South Wales
Bathing in Australia
Retail buildings in New South Wales
Ballrooms in Australia
Gardens in New South Wales
Restaurants in New South Wales
Art museums and galleries in New South Wales
Swimming venues in New South Wales
Theatres in Sydney
Cultural landscapes of Australia
Articles incorporating text from the New South Wales State Heritage Register | Bondi Beach Cultural Landscape | [
"Chemistry"
] | 5,525 | [
"Sun tanning",
"Ultraviolet radiation"
] |
57,901,173 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadium%28V%29%20chloride | Vanadium(V) chloride is the inorganic compound with the formula VCl5. It is a black diamagnetic solid. The molecules adopt a bioctahedral structure similar to that of niobium(V) chloride.
Preparation and reactions
Chlorine cannot oxidise vanadium(IV); chlorination of vanadium metal will yield only vanadium(IV) chloride. Vanadium(V) chloride is instead prepared from vanadium pentafluoride with excess boron trichloride as a chlorinating agent:
It is unstable at room temperature, releasing gaseous chlorine and giving vanadium(IV) chloride:
In contrast, the heavier analogues and are stable and not particularly oxidizing.
References
Vanadium(V) compounds
Chlorides
Metal halides | Vanadium(V) chloride | [
"Chemistry"
] | 173 | [
"Chlorides",
"Inorganic compounds",
"Metal halides",
"Salts"
] |
57,901,194 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhenium%28VI%29%20chloride | Rhenium(VI) chloride is the inorganic compound with the formula ReCl6. It is a black paramagnetic solid. The molecules adopt an octahedral structure as seen in tungsten(VI) chloride.
Preparation and reactions
Rhenium(VI) chloride was first generated as a mixture by chlorination of Re films. Bulk samples can be prepared by combining rhenium hexafluoride with excess boron trichloride:
2 ReF6 + 6 BCl3 → ReCl6 + 6 BF2Cl
It is unstable at room temperature with respect to rhenium(V) chloride:
2 ReCl6 → [ReCl5]2 + Cl2
References
Rhenium compounds
Chlorides
Metal halides | Rhenium(VI) chloride | [
"Chemistry"
] | 155 | [
"Chlorides",
"Inorganic compounds",
"Metal halides",
"Salts"
] |
57,901,226 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold%20P.%20Eubank | Harold Porter Eubank (23 October 1924 – 23 March 2006, in Kilmarnock, Virginia) was an American physicist, specializing in magnetic fusion energy research.
Eubank grew up in rural Virginia and then in WW II served in the U.S. Army, receiving a Bronze Star. He received in 1948 a B.S. in physics from the College of William and Mary, in 1950 an M.S. from Syracuse University, and in 1953 a Ph.D. from Brown University. He was an assistant professor at Brown University until 1959. From 1959 to 1985 Eubank was a research physicist at the Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory (PPPL). He headed neutral beam research at PPPL and was one of the world's leading experts on high temperature plasmas heated by neutral beams. In 1977 he was the chair of the Division of Plasma Physics at the American Physical Society.
Eubank published more than 100 papers and spoke frequently at scientific meetings in the U.S. and internationally. Upon his death he was survived by his widow, two sons, a daughter, two granddaughters, two step-children, and his first wife.
Awards and honors
1975 — elected a Fellow of the American Physical Society
1981 — Distinguished Associate Award from the United States Department of Energy
1982 — Elliott Cresson Medal and a Life Fellow Membership from the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia
References
1924 births
2006 deaths
20th-century American physicists
College of William & Mary alumni
Syracuse University alumni
Brown University alumni
United States Department of Energy National Laboratories personnel
Fellows of the American Physical Society
Plasma physicists
United States Army personnel of World War II | Harold P. Eubank | [
"Physics"
] | 325 | [
"Plasma physicists",
"Plasma physics"
] |
57,901,740 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhenium%28IV%29%20chloride | Rhenium(IV) chloride is the inorganic compound with the formula ReCl4. This black solid is of interest as a binary phase but otherwise is of little practical value. A second polymorph of ReCl4 is also known.
Preparation
ReCl4 can be prepared by comproportionation of rhenium(V) chloride and rhenium(III) chloride. It can also be produced by reduction of rhenium(V) chloride with antimony trichloride.
Tetrachloroethylene at 120 °C is also effective as a reductant:
Structure
X-ray crystallography reveals a polymeric structure. The Re–Re bonding distance is 2.728 Å. Re centers are octahedral, being surrounded by six chloride ligands. Pairs of octahedra share faces. The Re2Cl9 subunits are linked by bridging chloride ligands. The structural motif - corner-shared bioctahedra - is unusual in the binary metal halides.
References
Rhenium(IV) compounds
Chlorides
Metal halides | Rhenium(IV) chloride | [
"Chemistry"
] | 227 | [
"Chlorides",
"Inorganic compounds",
"Metal halides",
"Salts"
] |
57,901,919 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DTP-HepB%20vaccine | DTP-HepB vaccine is a combination vaccine whose generic name is diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and whole-cell pertussis and hepatitis B (recombinant) vaccine (adsorbed) or DTP-Hep B. It protects against the infectious diseases diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, and hepatitis B.
A branded formulation, Tritanrix-HepB manufactured by GlaxoSmithKline, was granted marketing approval in the EU in 1996. Marketing approval lapsed in 2014.
A review conducted in 2012 concluded that there was insufficient evidence to determine differences in safety and efficacy between DTP-HepB vaccine and Hib vaccine administered separately and pentavalent DTP-HepB-Hib vaccine.
References
Vaccines
Combination vaccines
Diphtheria
Tetanus
Whooping cough
Hepatitis B | DTP-HepB vaccine | [
"Biology"
] | 182 | [
"Vaccination",
"Vaccines"
] |
57,902,072 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psammophory | Psammophory is a method by which certain plants armor themselves with sand on their body parts, lowering the chance of them being eaten by animals. Psammophory occurs in plants of the genus Psammophora , which have a viscous mucus on the surface of their leaves, to which sand particles stick. Over 200 species of plants hailing from 88 genera in 34 families have been identified as psammorphorous. This adaptive mechanism is used not only by plants but also by some insects.
In plants, psammophory allows the formation of a protective layer of sand on their stems and leaves. This layer may reduce the likelihood of damage to the plant by herbivores and insects. In insects, this mechanism also has a defensive function. For example, some insects, such as certain species of beetles, can actively coat their bodies with sand or dust, which allows them to become less visible to predators and provides an additional layer of protection. This phenomenon is also characteristic of Crassula alpestris.
The term was first proposed in 1989 by scientists studying the habits of the beetle Georissus which actively covers its elytra with sand or mud particles. It was further documented in various studies from the University of California, Davis.
Entomology
This phenomenon is often associated with the beetle family Georissidae as a whole. However, so far only the following species have been documented to have this ability: Georissidae crenulatus, Georissidae canalifer, Georissidae californicus and Georissidae pusillus.
A similar term, “psammophore,” refers to a formation of bristles and hairs on the underside of the head of some ants and wasps, which serves to carry small particles of soil, sand, small seeds, and eggs.
References
Botany | Psammophory | [
"Biology"
] | 381 | [
"Plants",
"Botany"
] |
57,903,545 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20Zentmayer | Joseph Zentmayer (March 27, 1826 — March 28, 1888) was a German-American maker of microscopes and other optical instruments.
After graduating from the gymnasium in Mannheim, he was apprenticed to a local optician. After completing his apprenticeship, he associated himself with optical establishments in Karlsruhe, Frankfort, Munich, and Hamburg. Because of his pro-democracy support of the 1848 Revolution, he immigrated to the United States when he was about twenty-two years old. After working for wages in optical workshops in Baltimore and Philadelphia, Zentmayer started in 1858 his own shop in Philadelphia at the corner of Eighth Street and Chestnut Street. During the American Civil War, he provided most of the microscopes used in the U.S. government hospitals. He was appointed a member of the Iowa Total Eclipse Expedition in 1869 and contributed to the success of the expedition by his work on the photographic apparatus.
The Centennial Model is on display at the Delaware County Institute of Science in Media, Pennsylvania.
He was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society in 1873. In 1875 Zentmayer was awarded the Elliott Cresson Medal of the Franklin Institute. In 1876 in Philadelphia, the United States Centennial Commission awarded him a bronze medal. In 1878 the Committee of Awards on Microscopes of the Paris Exhibition awarded him a silver medal and a diploma.
References
External links
An example of Zentmayer’s American Centennial model microscope
An example of Zentmayer’s Grand American model microscope
Zentmayer’s first microscope. Serial number 1
Examples of Zentmayer’s United States Army Hospital Model Microscopes
1826 births
1888 deaths
German-American Forty-Eighters
Engineers from Mannheim
Microscopists
American scientific instrument makers | Joseph Zentmayer | [
"Chemistry"
] | 346 | [
"Microscopists",
"Microscopy"
] |
57,903,866 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertram%20Mapunda | Bertram B. B. Mapunda (born 26 September 1957) is an archaeometallurgist and professor of anthropology and history at Jordan University College, Tanzania, since October 2017. He is also principal of the college. He discovered the short, convectional iron smelting furnaces of south-western Tanzania.
Early life and education
Bertram Mapunda was born on 26 September 1957 in Lituhi, Ruvuma, Tanzania, to Baltasar and Marciana (Mahundi) Mapunda. He married Victoria Martin in 1992. They have two children.
He received his BA from the University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, in 1989, and his MA and PhD from the University of Florida in 1991 and 1995 respectively.
Career
Mapunda is an archaeometallurgist and professor of anthropology and history at Jordan University College, Tanzania, since October 2017. He is also principal of the college. He was previously at the University of Dar es Salaam. He is credited with the discovery of the short, convectional iron smelting furnaces of south-western Tanzania.
Selected publications
Salvaging Tanzania's Cultural Heritage. Dar es Salaam University Press, Dar es Salaam, 2005. (With Paul Msemwa)
Dar es Salaam's Top Twenty Tourist Attractions. Bertram Mapunda, Dar es Salaam, 2010.
References
External links
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Bertram_Mapunda
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A2HmqyvNNKg
Living people
1957 births
University of Dar es Salaam alumni
Academic staff of the University of Dar es Salaam
University of Florida alumni
Archaeometallurgists
Archaeologists of Africa
Tanzanian archaeologists
Academic staff of St. Augustine University of Tanzania | Bertram Mapunda | [
"Chemistry"
] | 376 | [
"Archaeometallurgy",
"Archaeometallurgists"
] |
57,904,529 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20location%20of%20the%20soul | The search for a hypothetical soul and its location have been a subject of much speculation throughout history. In early medicine and anatomy, the location of the soul was hypothesized to be located within the body. Aristotle and Plato understood the soul as an incorporeal form but closely related to the physical world. The Hippocratic Corpus chronicles the evolution of thought that the soul is located within the body and is manifested in diseased conditions. Later, Galen explicitly used Plato's description of the incorporeal soul to physical locations in the body. The logical () in the brain, the spirited () in the heart, and the appetitive () in the liver. Da Vinci had a similar approach to Galen, locating the soul, or , as well as the (intellect) and (memory) in different ventricles of the brain. Today neuroscientists and other fields of science that deal with the body and the mind, such as psychology, bridge the gap between what is physical and what is incorporeal.
Ancient Egypt
The earliest known theory pertaining to the location of the soul is thought to come from Ancient Egypt during the third millennium BCE. Ancient Egyptian civilizations held the belief that the soul was composed of several parts: the Ba, Ka, Ren, Sheut, and the Ib. Furthermore, the Ib was located in the heart, and considered the vital force that brought human beings to life. Because the Ib was also responsible for thoughts and feelings, its status determined a person's fate upon their death. This took place during a heart weighing ceremony, in which Anubis would feed the heaviest hearts to the demon Ammit. It is believed that the Ancient Egyptian view of the heart formed the foundation for later theories on the location for the human soul.
Hippocratic Corpus
The Hippocratic Corpus and its many treatises demonstrate the evolving knowledge of the body and how to treat ailments in reference to the soul. In the treatise on Diseases II, physicians are warned about the illnesses associated with air in the body, particularly in the lungs causing the patient to cough vigorously and hoarsely: , translated as "the patient is breathing through their lungs". The next lines detail that this was an extremely serious condition for the patient and a cause for great concern. To remedy air in the lungs, the physician was advised to clear the lungs of as much air as possible using a bladder and hose.
Later in the Corpus, during or after the life of Aristotle on Disease IV, pneuma, or air is presented as a warming life force. In the treatise On the Sacred Disease air is described as not being located in just the lungs but in the entire body and circulating it giving life. According to the treatise the first location of the air is to the brain and it describes that medical conditions of the brain can be caused by a blockage of air flow there. Aristotle in his works refers to pneuma being directly related to the soul.
Plato
Plato, the student of Socrates and teacher to Aristotle, suggests in Timmeus that the human soul was divine in nature, and that it entered the human body after separating from a spiritual origin that it would return to upon death. Furthermore, Plato believed the soul to be a tripartite one, composed of the logos, the thymos, and the epithemitikon. In order to protect the immortal soul from contamination, the perishable souls, the thymos and the epithemitikon, were separated from the head by the neck. The thymos, responsible for feelings such as rage, bravery, and hope, was located in the chest cavity. The epithemitikon, which controlled desires and unconscious thought, was located near the umbilicus, farthest from the logos. The brain, then, was the seat of all rational thought, the logos, and the true location of the immortal and divine soul.
Aristotle
Aristotle in De Anima (On the Soul) suggests that organs of the body are required for the soul to interact with. Unlike Plato, Aristotle believed the soul's existence was not separate from the human body, thus the soul could not be immortal. Similarly to Plato, however, Aristotle believed the soul is composed of three parts: the vegetative, sensitive, and rational. Growth and reproduction is a result of the vegetative soul, and is found in all organisms. The sensitive soul, however, allows for sensation and movement in humans and animals. The third, the rational, is exclusive to humans, and allows for rational thought.
In book II, Aristotle states that, the soul is the part of the human that allows its entire being, that one can't exist without the other and they complement each other. In book III he provides an example of his theory of the soul and makes the correlation between the physical sensations of light the phaos in the body and the incorporeal imaginations phantasia. Aristotle imagined the soul as in part, within the human body and in part an incorporeal imagination. In Aristotle's treatise On Youth, Old Age, Life and Death, and Respiration, Aristotle explicitly states that while the soul has an incorporeal form, there is a physical area of the soul in the human body, the heart. Aristotle states the heart is the location of the 5 sensations of the body and is directly responsible for respiration and the sustenance of life. The heart is of further importance as it is all animal's area of heating the body and blood and the creation of pneuma, or life force that animates the body. To Aristotle this explains why dead things become cold, do not breathe, and that their souls have left them. Because the heart is the location of the human soul and life force, it is the organ of utmost importance in Aristotelian physiology. Correspondingly, the heart is the first organ to appear during embryonic development.
Epicurus
Epicurus, with a view reflecting that of the Greek philosopher Democritus, suggested that the human soul was corporeal and composed of small particles spread out within the entire body. Epicurus believed that the separation of these small particles resulted in a loss of sensation, and consequently, death. Like Aristotle, Epicurus was of the opinion that the soul was a result of the body, making it mortal and perishable.
Herophilus
In the third century Herophilos in Alexandria was one of the first anatomists to perform dissections of the human body for the brief time that it was legal. Herophilos discovered many novel aspects of the human body, specifically in the brain and associated tissues. The works of Herophilus were lost in the fire of Alexandria of 391 AD and therefore we only know of his existence in other surviving works. Most of the medical terminology and works are recorded in the books by Galen and therefore the reliability that Herophilus actually thought to the soul to be in the body is in question.
According to the recordings of his work, Herophilus thought that the location of the soul is in the brain, specifically in the ventricles of the brain, the 4 open cavities in the innermost parts of the brain. Herophilos describes the distinction of the soul and natures as being intertwined within the body and while are separate things, cannot exist without the other. Herophilos in his dissections discovered the differences between nerves and blood vessels. Nerves carried the pneuma or soul to animate the body and the vessels being related to nature. Following the lines tracks of the nerves through the body he saw that they all converge in the brain, and by Herophilus' reasoning the ventricles of the brain. Of particular importance to the location of the soul was the 4th ventricle of the brain.
Herophilus observed that there existed two types of nerves, those that functioned in motor activity and those that take in sensory information. Because all nerves are a continuation of the spinal cord and the cerebellum, which are located most closely to the 4th ventricle, it stood to reason that the center of movement and perception, and thus the soul, must be located in the 4th ventricle.
In his treatise, On Anatomy, pneuma was inhaled by the lungs and sent to the brain ventricles via the vessels of the body where the brain would convert it into what he called "psychic pneuma", or the soul, and produce thought, motion and all other animations of the body. Herophilus discovered the bumpy aspect of the walls of the ventricles of the brain that he called the choroid plexus and which was thought to be the interaction of the brain with the pneuma to create the psychic pneuma and then these were sent out via the nervous system. He further identified 8 of the cerebral nerves and tracked them to the spinal cord and throughout the body. The choroid plexus is the term still used today and are the structures that produce cerebrospinal fluid.
Galen
Galen was one of the most foundational physicians in history and is known for careful and detailed vivisection and dissections of animals that was foundational to modern medicine. Galen was known for his treatises on being both a physician and a philosopher and was well versed in the works of Plato. His medical anatomy is described through the use of Plato's incorporeal ideals of the soul. The heart was the spirited, the liver the appetitive, and the brain the logical. Later on, Galen moved to Rome where he carried out vivisections on pigs and monkeys to observe their pulmonary circulation. He was the first scientist to distinguish the physiological difference between the arteries and the veins. Galen restricted himself to the scientific explanation of blood flow and respiration.
Galen states in On Respiration and the Arteries "one must determine by dissection that the number and nature of the structures that connect the heart to the brain" and it was observed that when these nerves were cut in animals they would lose their voice and when veins were cut they would bleed, but retain their voice. Therefore, the brain does not need the heart to feel or create sensations and the heart does not need the brain to move. Galen recognized the importance of both the heart and the brain in the proper functioning of a human but saw these as two distinct systems governed separately. Therefore, there are two souls in combat, the brain representing the logical soul and driving logical being, the heart representing spirited actions of movement and impulse constantly at odds with each other and supplied by different supporting systems.
Galen states the "liver is the archai" or the source of the veins and blood of the body and is therefore important in regards to the appetitive soul, but does little to elaborate further on the reason for its connection on why this makes it appetitive. He continues to theorize that the "spleen purifies the liver". Galen addresses that the proof for the liver is not as obvious as it was in the case of the heart and the brain.
Galen also made a focus on the view on nature. He agreed with ancient doctrine of the four elements which includes the earth, water, wind and the fire to embody the cold, hot dry and wet irreducible qualities. This made a correspondence to the essential body humors which includes the blood, the black bile the phlegm and the yellow bile. The humor had to get their origin from the foods’ elements. The Physiology of Galen started with the nutrition. Food was transformed in the blood and the blood was later on Trans mutated into the tissues’ flesh, the human body however constituted of more of hungry organs. It had both the vitality and the warmth. It was in a position to move voluntarily. It also had thoughts. Therefore, the blood was avital spirit overlaid on the natural spirits or the nutritive. The natural spirit originated from the food and the drink, the origin of the vital spirit was from the atmospheric air . The veins carried the natural spirits while the arteries carried the vital spirits. The heart was centrally located. The heart organ played a role in mediating the exchange of the blood which was in the vein and the air in the arteries. The body was also provided with innate heat by the heart. The heart was not a pump. It was a factory and a smelter’s furnace. The rest of the parts of the body and their actions resulted from the 4 elements combination, the humors and the qualities. Galen made a proposal of natural faculties’ theory in which every part of the body had the ability to retain, attract its nutritive humors as well as expelling the excrements. Therefore, the flow of materials within the body parts seemed to be following a gradient of both the attractive and the expulsive powers.
He also made reaffirmation about the heart as a source of innate heat of the body "The heart is, as it were, the hearthstone and source of the innate heat by which the animal is governed." He also made a careful observation of the physical properties which were unusual. He described the heart to be a very hard flesh which could not be easily injured. The hardness, the tension and also the general strength together with the resistance to injury contributed to a unique property of the heart. He also made an argument about the expansion and the contraction of the heart which made a heart an intelligent organ for playing such a role. The complexity of the fibers of the heart also was prepared to carry out several functions: getting to enlarge when it was to attract what was useful, getting to clasp the contents in which it had attracted and also getting to contact when it was due time to expel the residue. However, Galen was too bold, He contradicted other scientists in the matters which concerned the detailed Anatomy such the Aristotle’s which stated that the heart was a point origin of the nerves. He further made an argument that the heart was just a secondary organ which was next to the liver organ in its operation because it was not site responsible in the production of the humors. His ideas predominated until the mid of seventeenth
Plotinus
The Egyptian philosopher and father of Neo-Platonism, Plotinus’s idea of the human soul would form the foundation for the Christian view of the human soul. Like Plato, Plotinus believed that the soul resulted from an immortal being that would return to its divine source upon death. Plotinus believed in two parts of the soul, a higher level rational part and the lower level portion located in the entire body.
Plotinus saw the soul as a tool of universal structure and one of two parts of the human form: body and soul. He saw the soul as what was responsible for life and for there to be existence after death, the soul could not be in the body. However, the body was necessary for the soul to exist. Therefore, there was a duality to the roles of the soul among Plotinus' philosophy. The soul played an important role in merging with the One, the "ultimate object of desire".
Plotinus created three stages to reaching the goal of "attaining union with the One".
Stage 1: Return to one's true self as soul
This stage involves gaining control of your own body through Plato's civic virtues and detachment from material goods. Here you recognize yourself as soul, "a divine reality independent of body and prior to it".
Stage 2: Attaining the life of divine intellect
This second stage involves embracing the higher processes of the soul and abandoning the current way of thinking. Since the soul is a bridge between the human form and reaching the One, the thinking processes of the soul and its divinity will lift you closer to the One.
Stage 3: Union with the One
The final step is an abandonment of all things one has learned before. Since the One is above all knowledge, language, and reasoning; it must be a personal journey to unite.
As Plotinus himself put it:Therefore ‘it cannot be said’ or ‘written’, he says [Plato, Letter 7, 341c], but we speak and write, sending on to it and wakening from words [or explanations] towards contemplation, as if showing the way to him who wishes to see something. For teaching extends to the road and the passage, but the vision is the work of him who has decided to see.
Thomas Aquinas
Thomas Aquinas sought a Christian view of the soul using the ideas of Aristotle. In Aquinas’s view, the soul was incorporeal and immortal, and came about as a direct result of divine intervention from God, which typically came about during the second trimester of pregnancy. At this point, the fetus would have the ability to perceive and move, the result of being given a soul. As such, being incorporeal, though "infused" in an unknown manner to the body, and being the "form" of the body in a platonic sense, the soul has no location, and therefore cannot be "located in" the body as one locates an organ. This is the typical understanding of the soul found in the Catholic Church today.
Leonardo da Vinci
Leonardo da Vinci used his experience in the field of anatomy to hypothesize that the soul was located in the optic chiasm, near the 3rd ventricle of the brain. His views were supported by observations of change in perception following disturbances to that particular area of the brain.
Da Vinci's search for the soul fell into three phases: Early Concepts, Personal Quest, and Synthesis.
Phase 1: Early Concepts
From his 1487 experiment of pithing frogs, Da Vinci honed in on the medulla as the location of the soul:the frog instantly dies when its spinal medulla is perforated. And previously it lived without heart or any interior organs, or intestines or skin. Here therefore, it appears, lies the foundation of movement and life.
Phase 2: Personal Quest
In this second phase, Da Vinci began examining the nervous system and how they connected with the skull. This phase is when he stated that the soul was located slightly above the optic chiasm, in the anterior portion of the 3rd ventricle.
This phase also establishes the role of the soul in the body according to Da Vinci. Da Vinci saw the soul as ruling over all of the senses, he states, "The Soul appears to reside in the seat of judgement, and the judicial part appears to be in that place where all the senses come together, which is called the 'senso comune'."
Phase 3: Synthesis
This final stage involved further study into the anatomy of the brain. Da Vinci used wax to fill the ventricles of an ox brain in order to have a physical model of the location of the "senso comune" as well as two other landmarks, the imprensiva and memoria.
René Descartes
Descartes accepted Plotinus’s perspective on the dual nature of the soul. According to Descartes, the soul conferred the ability to think; this differentiated humans from animals, who had no ability to think or even feel. However, Descartes believed that the physical body and the mind must be physically connected at some point. Descartes’ reasoning came from his observation that every structure of the brain is paired except for the pineal gland. He felt that the pineal gland must be the meeting point of the physical body and the mind, and therefore, the pineal gland must be the location of the soul.
Traditional Chinese philosophy
In wuxing, the five Shen are housed in the five yin organs (also known as zàng (脏)) as follows:
The heart houses or stores the shen (神)
The lung houses or stores the po (魄)
The liver houses or stores the hun (魂)
The spleen houses or stores the yi (意)
The kidneys house or store the zhi (志)
See also
Soul dualism
Body swap
History of the pineal gland
References
Vitalism
Ancient Greek medicine
Souls | History of the location of the soul | [
"Biology"
] | 4,105 | [
"Non-Darwinian evolution",
"Vitalism",
"Biology theories"
] |
57,906,086 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferranti%20Perseus | Perseus was a vacuum tube (valve) computer built by Ferranti Ltd of Great Britain. It was a development of the Ferranti Pegasus computer for large-scale data processing. Perseus, which was one of Ferranti's computer systems that included Orion and Sirius, was the company's first production machine marketed towards commercial users. The system used the automatic checking method. Two were sold, both to overseas insurance companies in 1959.
Design
Perseus has two components that functioned independently of each other. The first was the central computer – the processing unit that handled data processing and commercial work. The second was the unit for printing from half-inch magnetic tape. The design aim of Perseus was to enable large-scale data-processing, rather than scientific computing. It used the same electronic technology as the Ferranti Pegasus, similarly engineered. The envisaged applications would involve vast amounts of file data, for which 1/2" magnetic tape was provided. The word length was 72 bits, with 160 words of random-access memory provided by single-word nickel acoustic delay lines. Unlike Pegasus with its magnetic drum, further internal store was provided by 864, 16-word delay lines. Large-scale data input was provided by punched card readers available for both round- and rectangular-hole cards. Data output was via magnetic tape to an off-line unit equipped with 300 lines per minute Samastronic line printers.
Old Mutual (South Africa)
The South African Mutual Life Assurance Society (Old Mutual) had a Perseus installed at their head office in Pinelands, Cape Town in 1960. It is considered one of the earliest computers in South Africa. Many years later an eagle-eyed employee spotted some of the decommissioned Perseus enclosures at the back of the building, ready to be scrapped. He discovered that they were in fact aluminium and stamped inside it said "Made by Rolls Royce"! The staff member purchased the about-to-be-scrapped enclosures for next to nothing and eventually built himself a sports car from the "Made by Rolls Royce" aluminium sheet metal! It is safe to assume that every Perseus sold was clad in enclosures made by Rolls Royce.
References
Bibliography
Vacuum tube computers
1950s computers
Perseus
Early British computers | Ferranti Perseus | [
"Technology"
] | 466 | [
"Computing stubs"
] |
57,907,267 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixed%20binomial%20process | A mixed binomial process is a special point process in probability theory. They naturally arise from restrictions of (mixed) Poisson processes bounded intervals.
Definition
Let be a probability distribution and let be i.i.d. random variables with distribution . Let be a random variable taking a.s. (almost surely) values in . Assume that are independent and let denote the Dirac measure on the point .
Then a random measure is called a mixed binomial process iff it has a representation as
This is equivalent to conditionally on being a binomial process based on and .
Properties
Laplace transform
Conditional on , a mixed Binomial processe has the Laplace transform
for any positive, measurable function .
Restriction to bounded sets
For a point process and a bounded measurable set define the restriction of on as
.
Mixed binomial processes are stable under restrictions in the sense that if is a mixed binomial process based on and , then is a mixed binomial process based on
and some random variable .
Also if is a Poisson process or a mixed Poisson process, then is a mixed binomial process.
Examples
Poisson-type random measures are a family of three random counting measures which are closed under restriction to a subspace, i.e. closed under thinning, that are examples of mixed binomial processes. They are the only distributions in the canonical non-negative power series family of distributions to possess this property and include the Poisson distribution, negative binomial distribution, and binomial distribution. Poisson-type (PT) random measures include the Poisson random measure, negative binomial random measure, and binomial random measure.
References
Point processes | Mixed binomial process | [
"Mathematics"
] | 347 | [
"Point processes",
"Point (geometry)"
] |
57,908,292 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frances%20Pleasonton | Frances Pleasonton (1912–1990) was a Particle Physicist at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory. She was an active teacher and researcher, and a member of the team who first demonstrated neutron decay in 1951.
Early life and education
Pleasonton earned her bachelor's degree at Bryn Mawr College. She was an editor of the Bryn Mawr College yearbook. She went on to teach at Winsor School, Girls Latin School of Chicago and Brearley School. She returned to Bryn Mawr College for her master's degree, working as a warden at Pembroke East, and graduated in 1943. She was demonstrator-elect in physics and took a leave of absence for government service in 1942. During her master's degree she identified the crystal structure of Rochelle salt.
Research
Pleasonton was an active researcher in neutron decay. There were several attempts to measure neutron half-life before the second world war, all of which failed due to the lack of availability of intense neutron sources. Arthur Snell and Leonard Miller built the Oak Ridge Graphite Reactor, which could focus beams of neutrons and allow scientists to observe their decay. They measured the half-life of a neutron in 1951. Pleasonton was supported by the United States Atomic Energy Commission and published broadly. In 1958 they examined the decay of helium-6, Pleasonton and Snell monitoring the directions of neutrinos and electrons. This result confirmed the electron-neutrino theory of beta decay. In 1973 she authored several sections of the report for the Nuclear Regulatory Commission. At Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Pleasonton's laboratory was visited by the Queen of Greece and the King of Jordan. Pleasonton went on to study the ionisation of xenon x-rays.
Pleasonton remained in Tennessee after her retirement from Oak Ridge National Laboratory and was involved in citizens groups to protect the environment.
References
1912 births
1990 deaths
Particle physicists
20th-century American physicists
Bryn Mawr College alumni
Bryn Mawr College faculty
American women physicists
20th-century American women scientists
Oak Ridge National Laboratory people
American women academics | Frances Pleasonton | [
"Physics"
] | 426 | [
"Particle physicists",
"Particle physics"
] |
57,910,369 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zodwa%20Dlamini%20%28biochemist%29 | Zodwa Dlamini is a South African biochemist and Ex-deputy Vice Chancellor for Research at the Mangosuthu University of Technology. She researches molecular oncology. She is a former Vice President of the South African Medical Research Council and is a member of the Council for Scientific Advisers for the International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology.
Early life and education
Dlamini was born in the KwaZulu-Natal North Coast. She worked as an administration clerk in provincial health before starting a degree in pharmacy. She was not happy, and switched to Biochemistry and Microbiology, earning Bachelor's degrees at the University of the Western Cape. She moved to the University of Natal for her Master's and PhD.
Career
After her PhD, Dlamini returned to the University of the Western Cape as a postdoctoral fellow in molecular oncology. In 2002 she joined the University of the Witwatersrand, where she studied the toxicity of traditional African beer. In 2007 she was awarded a National Cancer Institute investigator opportunity award. She joined the University of Limpopo as an associate professor in 2014.
She was appointed the lead of the research directorate at the Mangosuthu University of Technology in 2015. In July 2017 Dlamini was confirmed as a member of the Council for Scientific Advisers for the International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology. She is a visiting professor at the University of Bristol.
Dlamini is concerned about education within the local community and supports schools in accounting, maths and physics. She believes that Mangosuthu University of Technology can improve the lives of the people in Umlazi. She is a member of the steering committee of the Academy of Science of South Africa's STEM education group.
In 2017 she led a delegation of Mangosuthu University of Technology scientists to the Dublin Institute of Technology. She is interested in precision medicine. Dlamini has contributed to two books about cancer, including Current Immunotherapeutic Treatments in Colon Cancer and South African Herbal Extracts as Potential Chemopreventive Agents: Screening for Anticancer Splicing Activity. Her current research looks at abnormal MicroRNA in cancers associated with HIV. The project received R6 million over three years from the South African Medical Research Council.
References
South African biochemists
Academics of the University of Bristol
Academic staff of the University of Limpopo
Academic staff of the University of the Western Cape
University of the Western Cape alumni
Members of the Academy of Science of South Africa
People from KwaZulu-Natal
Women biochemists
South African women chemists
21st-century South African scientists
21st-century South African women scientists | Zodwa Dlamini (biochemist) | [
"Chemistry"
] | 530 | [
"Biochemists",
"Women biochemists"
] |
57,910,506 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siemens%20Goole | Siemens Goole is a train factory located in Goole, East Riding of Yorkshire, England. Siemens Mobility assessed several sites in the United Kingdom before settling on Goole with an intent to build the plant if it were successful in gaining orders for new rolling stock. After a June 2018 announcement that Siemens had won the bid to build 94 London Underground New Tube for London trains for the Piccadilly line of the London Underground, Siemens confirmed it would go ahead with building the factory, though this was then subject to further delays as other rolling stock companies objected to Siemens being given the contract.
In November 2018, the High Court upheld the decision to award the contract to Siemens, but allowed the other train companies to pursue claims for damages. Groundwork on the site commenced in July 2020.
History
During a period of sustained new train building for the United Kingdom rail network, Siemens announced in March 2018 that it would build a train factory in the UK if it was successful in acquiring new contracts for trains. Siemens have already built for the UK market with their Desiro family design which includes the class 185 DMUs, and the class 350 and 450 EMUs among others. The company already employs over 4,400 people in the United Kingdom in rail and other transport related roles, with eight purpose–built sites that provide rolling stock care.
After searching for a suitable site, Siemens acquired some land in Goole, in the East Riding of Yorkshire, stating that on winning orders, they would build a factory there. In June 2018, Siemens were awarded a £1.5 billion contract for 94 tube trains for the Piccadilly line. This triggered the plan to build the factory making Siemens the fourth train builder with an actual factory presence in the UK and the third new build factory within eight years. Previous to this, the Bombardier factory in Derby was the only UK based train builder.
The plant will cost £200 million and cover a area and employ 700 people in its factory. 250 jobs will be created in building the factory with a further estimated 1,700 indirect jobs in the supply chain. The plant would use an existing siding in Goole that leads to a glass factory to provide access and egress for trains and will be sited on the Goole 36 industrial park adjacent to Junction 36 of the M62 motorway. There will be a manufacturing and commissioning site, offices, warehouses, stabling sidings and there is space for a test track to be installed, though what Siemens described as "extensive testing", would take place at their facility in Wildenrath, Germany. The buildings would cover and the internal lines in the complex would total . Groundbreaking for the factory happened in late 2019, with full opening planned for 2023–2024. Siemens announced in March 2024 that the plant would start building stock for the Piccadilly Line in April 2024.
In the £1.5 billion deal, the factory will build the trains in the Inspiro range already in use by other operators and is to replace old Tube stock from 1973. The contract details 564 cars to be built (which will be marshalled into 94 trains) with an option of a further 150 trains for the Deep Tube upgrade. The initial order is expected to be complete in 2026. 80% of the trains will be produced at Goole, up from the half previously planned, with some carriages being constructed in Vienna so that the order can be started before the factory at Goole is up and running.
The announcement of Siemens as the winning bid led to criticism of that decision by the then MP for Sedgefield, Phil Wilson. Wilson stated that it was a "slap in the face" for the workers at the railway rolling stock factory at Newton Aycliffe run by Hitachi, as they have the skills and ability to build the trains, whereas the Siemens bid has to wait on its factory to be built.
Siemens was one of four train builders invited to bid for the contract to provide rolling stock for the HS2 line. One of the stipulations of the contract was that if the new high-speed trains were not going to be built in Britain, then they should at least be assembled there. If Siemens/Alstom were successful, the trains could be assembled at Goole or at Alstom's plant at Widnes.
In July 2018, the trainmakers Bombardier and Hitachi, who submitted a joint bid for the Deep Tube contract, filed papers with the High Court in London in an attempt to overturn the Siemens contract. For legal reasons, no comment was issued as to the nature of the complaint. In November 2018, the High Court gave Siemens the right to build the new deep tube trains as per the contract, but acknowledged that the other train companies involved were free to pursue claims for damages as he believed there was a case to answer. Whilst the contract is for 94 new trains, the company may extend this to 109 trains if Transport for London extend the contract. Siemens are also an interested party in bidding for other new tube train builds for the Bakerloo, Central and Waterloo & City lines. The new plant may also be used as a location to construct trains for HS2 should Siemens be successful in gaining that contract.
In April 2019, Siemens submitted their plans for the factory to East Riding of Yorkshire Council. This detailed a site, of which is "suitable" for development. At the same time, Siemens stated that their UK rolling stock engineering and commissioning team would move to the site and its Digital Operations Centre will also re-locate there. Outline planning approval was granted in July 2019, with groundwork expected in spring 2020.
COVID-19 related issues delayed the start on the factory, with groundwork commencing on 6 July 2020. In February 2021, a Leeds-base company (GMI), were awarded a £40 million contract for building the factory and installing the track connection to the main railway line near Goole. In February 2021, three carriages from a redundant Class 332 set, were re-vinyled and put on static display at the site. The carriages will be used to educate schoolchildren on visits and also host some training for apprentices at the factory.
The factory was officially opened on 3 October 2024 by the Secretary of State for Transport Louise Haigh and the Mayor of London Sadiq Khan.
Notes
References
Economy of the East Riding of Yorkshire
Manufacturing plants in England
Rail transport in Yorkshire
Railway workshops in Great Britain
Rolling stock manufacturers of the United Kingdom
Goole
Siemens Mobility projects | Siemens Goole | [
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 1,307 | [
"Siemens Mobility projects",
"Transport systems"
] |
57,910,724 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%203844 | NGC 3844 is a lenticular galaxy located about 320 million light-years away in the constellation Leo. The galaxy was discovered by astronomer Heinrich d'Arrest on May 8, 1864. NGC 3844 is a member of the Leo Cluster and is likely to be a low-luminosity AGN (LLAGN).
See also
List of NGC objects (3001–4000)
References
External links
3844
36481
Leo (constellation)
Leo Cluster
Lenticular galaxies
Astronomical objects discovered in 1864
6705
Active galaxies | NGC 3844 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 106 | [
"Leo (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
57,911,314 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genitourinary%20microbiome | The genitourinary microbiome refers to the aggregate of bacteria, archaea, and fungi that may colonize the human genital and urinary tract. Some analyses also include any viruses and protists present. This term encompasses both the human urinary microbiome (urobiome), as well as the genital microbiome, and is a subset of the human microbiome.
The study of the genitourinary microbiome is young; only the vaginal microbiome has been thoroughly characterized. The development of next-generation sequencing has allowed researchers to use 16S ribosomal RNA to identify organisms present in asymptomatic or “healthy” individuals.
Research
Studies of the human microbiome traditionally lack in discussion of the genitourinary system due to the long-standing misnomer that urine that does not grow colony-forming units (CFUs) in standard microbiological cultures is "sterile". This has stunted research on microbiomes of the bladder or urethra.
There is now evidence to support colonization of the female bladder as well as the male lower urinary tract. The significance of the genitourinary microbiome on disease incidence or progression is not yet understood. Perturbations in the genitourinary microbiome could have implications for patients with urinary tract infections (UTIs), sexually transmitted infections (STIs), interstitial cystitis and chronic prostatitis.
The urinary microbiome
Composition
In both males and females, Bacillota, Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Proteobacteria, and Fusobacteria make up the general phyla of the human urinary microbiome, with Firmicutes/Bacillota and Bacteroidetes accounting for about 74% of relative abundance. Studies up until 2018 found the general bacterial species composition of the urinary microbiome to consist of primarily Lactobacillus, Gardnerella, and Streptococcus. In 2021, Qin et al performed a thorough 16S RNA sequencing of asymptomatic subjects and found Prevotella, Escherichia-Shigella, and Veillonella in addition to the previously mentioned classes. It is unclear whether Prevotella may be more predominantly found in Chinese populations; more studies are needed in diverse populations to determine possible genetic, diet-related, and geographical factors. Current findings agree with the species identified in the Human Microbiome Project; however, the genitourinary microbiome was notably excluded from analysis.
Gender and age disparities
Anatomical and hormonal factors can influence the composition of the genitourinary microbiome. Differences mostly lie at the species level rather than the phylum level. Research shows a higher prevalence of organisms in females that correspond with healthy vaginal flora. There is evidence to support that the urinary microbiome changes with age, possibly due to changes in hormones, diet, and metabolism. Differences between age groups are seen in relative abundance of species. Women tend to have a decrease in Lactobacillus abundance after menopause, which reinforces the idea that hormones may affect microbiome composition.
Urinary tract infections and the urobiome
The most common disease-causing organisms in urinary tract infections are Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis, Klebsiella species, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus species and Streptococcus species. Many of these species may also be present in a “typical” human urobiome, but several factors influence the makeup and proportions of organisms, including age, gender, and diet.
Studies have found that utilizing expanded incubation procedures, such as 5% CO2, allows for the growth of more fastidious organisms. This mirrors updates from the Human Microbiome Project, which suggests biodiversity of microorganisms colonizing every part of the human body may be higher than previously thought. The acceleration of various testing methods, like Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and 16S RNA sequencing, have allowed for a more thorough understanding of clinical samples that may not meet clinical requirements for significant growth. Data from molecular studies suggests that non-culturable or slow-growing organisms may be present in urine samples and not identified due to the limitations of standard microbiological culture parameters.
Testing limitations
Uncontaminated urine samples are difficult to obtain without urinary catheterization due to the proximity of the urinary system to genitals and the GI tract. This is especially a problem for female patients, who are often uninformed about proper clean-catch urine collection procedure or the significance of skin flora in urinary cultures. It is likely to see streptococci or staphylococci as a result of contamination from vaginal fluids, as these gram-positive organisms grow favorably in standard incubation parameters. Using correct clean-catch urine collection procedure can reduce the likelihood of contamination. For women, this requires using a sterile wipe on the area prior to collection, spreading the labia, and collecting a mid-stream sample.
Urotypes
Many researchers will group cohorts into "urotypes" with similar microbiological community structure since a single "typical" genitourinary microbiome community does not exist. For example, a urotype may be characterized by being dominated by Gardnerella, Streptococcus, or Staphylococcus. More research is needed to understand the influence of genetic and environmental factors on the development of urotypes.
The genital microbiome
Females
The vaginal microbiome has been thoroughly characterized. Organisms belonging to the vaginal flora may be seen in urine cultures due to contamination or collection method. The most abundant organisms in the vaginal microbiome are Lactobacilli, which do not grow in standard microbiological urine cultures. Some common organisms from this genus found in the vaginal microbiome include L. crispatus, L. iners, L. jensenii, and L. gasseri.
Males
Characterization of the microbiome of the internal male reproductive system has not been performed. Males were not previously known to have a genital microbiome due to the connection to the urinary system, but research no longer supports sterility of the urethra and/or bladder in males or females.
Clinical implications
The full implications of disturbances in the genitourinary microbiome on disease is not known. The main targets of study are recurrent and polymicrobial UTIs, interstitial cystitis and chronic prostatitis. Disturbances in the microbiome may affect the occurrence or severity of sexually transmitted infections. A 2010 study found that urine samples from men with STIs had higher presence of slow-growing or non-culturable bacteria.
Antibiotic stewardship
Any time antibiotics are administered to treat an overgrowth of disease-causing bacteria, the microbiome is also affected. Decreasing relative abundance of the genital or urinary microbiome can lead to recurrent urinary tract infections and yeast infections in the vagina. Lactobacilli typically prevent overgrowth of Candida species in the vagina. Chronic antibiotic use can lead to the formation of antibiotic-resistant organisms and contribute to the incidence of polymicrobial urinary tract infections.
References
microbiome
Human microbiome | Genitourinary microbiome | [
"Biology"
] | 1,551 | [
"Organ systems",
"Genitourinary system"
] |
57,911,638 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur%20vulcanization | Sulfur vulcanization is a chemical process for converting natural rubber or related polymers into materials of varying hardness, elasticity, and mechanical durability by heating them with sulfur or sulfur-containing compounds. Sulfur forms cross-linking bridges between sections of polymer chains which affects the mechanical and electronic properties. Many products are made with vulcanized rubber, including tires, shoe soles, hoses, and conveyor belts. The term is derived from Vulcan, the Roman god of fire.
The main polymers subjected to sulfur vulcanization are polyisoprene (natural rubber, NR), polybutadiene rubber (BR) and styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR), and ethylene propylene diene monomer rubber (EPDM rubber). All of these materials contain alkene groups adjacent to methylene groups. Other specialty rubbers may also be vulcanized, such as nitrile rubber (NBR) and butyl rubber (IIR). Vulcanization, in common with the curing of other thermosetting polymers, is generally irreversible. Efforts have focussed on developing de-vulcanization (see tire recycling) processes for recycling of rubber waste but with little success.
Structural and mechanistic details
The details of vulcanization remain murky because the process converts mixtures of polymers to mixtures of insoluble derivatives. By design the reaction does not proceed to completion because fully crosslinked polymer would be too rigid for applications. There has long been uncertainly as to whether vulcanization proceeds in a radical or ionic manner.
It is agreed that the reactive sites, often referred to as 'cure sites', are the allyl groups (-CH=CH-CH2-). Sulfur forms bridge between these sites, crosslinking the polymer chains. These bridges may consist of one or several sulfur atoms and are separated by hundreds or thousands of carbons in the polymer chain.
Both the extent of crosslinking and the number of sulfur atoms in the crosslinks strongly influences the physical properties of the rubber produced:
Excessive crosslinking can convert the rubber into a hard and brittle substance (i.e. ebonite).
Short crosslinks, possessing lower numbers of sulfur atoms, give the rubber better resistance to heat and weathering.
Longer crosslinks, with higher numbers of sulfur atoms, give the rubber improved physical durability and tensile strength.
Sulfur, by itself, is a slow vulcanizing agent and does not vulcanize synthetic polyolefins. Even with natural rubber, large amounts of sulfur as well as high temperatures and prolonged heating periods are necessary, with the end products often being of an unsatisfactory quality.
Since the early 1900s, various chemical additives have been developed to improve the speed and efficiency of vulcanization, as well as to control the nature of the cross-linking. When used together, this collection – the "cure package" – gives a rubber with particular properties.
Cure package
The cure package consists of various reagents that modify the kinetics and chemistry of crosslinking. These include accelerants, activators, retarders and inhibitors. Note that these are merely the additives used for vulcanization and that other compounds may also be added to the rubber, such as fillers, tackifiers, polymer stabilizers and antiozonants.
Sulfur source
Ordinary sulfur (octasulfur, or S8) is rarely used, despite its low cost, because it is soluble in the polymer. High-temperature vulcanisation with ordinary sulfur leads to rubber supersaturated with S8, upon cooling this migrates to the surface and crystallises as sulfur bloom. This can cause problems if multiple layers of rubber are being added to form a composite item, such as a tire. Instead, various forms of polymeric sulfur are used, which are insoluble in the uncured rubber. It is also possible to replace sulfur with other sulfur-donating compounds, for example accelerants bearing disulfide groups, in what is often termed "efficient vulcanization" (EV). Disulfur dichloride may also be used for "cold vulcanization".
Accelerants
Accelerants (accelerators) act much like catalysts allowing vulcanization to be performed cooler yet faster and with a more efficient use of sulfur. They achieve this by reacting with the sulfur to form a reactive intermediate, referred to as a sulfurating agent. This, in turn, reacts with cure sites in the rubber to bring about vulcanization.
There are two major classes of vulcanization accelerants: primary accelerants and secondary accelerants (also known as ultra accelerants). Primary activators date from the use of ammonia in 1881, while secondary accelerants have been developed since around 1920.
Primary (fast-accelerants)
Primary accelerants perform the bulk of the accelerating and mostly consist of thiazoles, often derivatised with sulfenamide groups. The principal compound is 2-mercaptobenzothiazole (MBT), which has been in use since the 1920s. It remains a moderately fast curing agent giving sulfur chains of a medium length, but its relatively short induction period can be a disadvantage. Other primary accelerants are essentially "masked" forms of MBT, which take time to decompose into MBT during vulcanization and thus have longer inductions periods.
Oxidative dimerization of MBT gives mercaptobenzothiazole disulfide (MBTS), and sulfenamide derivatives are produced by reacting this with primary amines like cyclohexylamine or tert-butylamine. Secondary amines like dicyclohexylamine can be used and result in even slower accelerants. Such a slow accelerant is required in applications in which the rubber is being cured onto a metal component to which it is required to adhere, such as the steel cords in vehicle tires.
Secondary (ultra-accelerants)
Secondary or ultra-accelerants are used in small amounts to augment the behaviour of primary accelerants. They act to boost the cure speed and increase cross-link density, but also shorten the induction time, which can lead to premature vulcanization. Chemically, they consist mainly of thio-carbonyl species such as thiurams, dithiocarbamates, xanthates and organic thioureas; aromatic guanidines are also used. These compounds need to be combined with activators, typically zinc ions, in order to be fully active.
Secondary accelerants have very fast vulcanization speeds with minimal induction time, making them unsuitable as primary accelerants in highly unsaturated rubbers such as NR or SBR. However, they can be used as primary accelerants in compounds with fewer curing site such as EPDM. Xanthates (principally, zinc isopropyl xanthate) are important in the vulcanization of latex, which is cured at relatively low temperatures (100-120 °C), and therefore needs an inherently rapid accelerant. The major thiurams used are TMTD (tetramethylthiuram disulfide) and TETD (tetraethylthiuram disulfide). The major dithiocarbamates are the zinc salts ZDMC (zinc dimethyldithiocarbamate), ZDEC (zinc diethyldithiocarbamate) and ZDBC (zinc dibutyldithiocarbamate).
Activators
Activators consist of various metal salts, fatty acids, as well as nitrogen-containing bases, the most important these being zinc oxide. Zinc actives many accelerants by coordination, for example causing thiuram to convert into ziram. Zinc also coordinates to the sulfur-chains of sulfurating agents, changing the most likely bond to break during cross-link formation. Ultimately, activators promote the efficient use of sulfur to give a high density of cross-links. Due to the low solubility of ZnO it is often combined with fatty acids such as stearic acid to form more soluble metallic soap, i.e., zinc stearate.
Retarders and inhibitors
To ensure high-quality vulcanization, the rubber, sulfur, accelerants, activators and other compounds are blended to give a homogeneous mixture. In practice, mixing can result in melting the sulfur (melting point 115 °C for S8). At these temperatures vulcanization can begin prematurely, which is often undesirable, as the mixture may still need to be pumped and moulded into its final form before it sets solid. Premature vulcanization is often called "scorch". Scorch can be prevented by the use of retarders or inhibitors, which increase the induction period before vulcanization commences and thus provide scorch resistance. A retarder slows both the onset and rate of vulcanization, whereas inhibitors only delay the start of vulcanization and do not affect the rate to any great extent. In general inhibitors are preferred, with cyclohexylthiophthalimide (often termed PVI — pre-vulcanization inhibitor) being the most common example.
Devulcanization
The market for new raw rubber or equivalent is large. The auto industry consumes a substantial fraction of natural and synthetic rubber. Reclaimed rubber has altered properties and is unsuitable for use in many products, including tires. Tires and other vulcanized products are potentially amenable to devulcanization, but this technology has not produced material that can supplant unvulcanized materials. The main problem is that the carbon-sulfur linkages are not readily broken, without the input of costly reagents and heat. Thus, more than half of scrap rubber is simply burned for fuel.
Inverse vulcanization
Although polymeric sulfur reverts to its monomer at room temperature, polymers consisting mostly of sulfur can be stabilized with organic linkers such as 1,3‐diisopropenylbenzene. This process is called inverse vulcanization and produces polymers where sulfur is the main component.
History
The curing of rubber has been carried out since prehistoric times. The name of the first major civilization in Guatemala and Mexico, the Olmec, means 'rubber people' in the Aztec language. Ancient Mesoamericans, spanning from ancient Olmecs to Aztecs, extracted latex from Castilla elastica, a type of rubber tree in the area. The juice of a local vine, Ipomoea alba, was then mixed with this latex to create processed rubber as early as 1600 BCE. In the Western world, rubber remained a curiosity, although it was eventually used to produce waterproofed products, such as Mackintosh rainwear, beginning in the early 1800s.
Modern developments
In 1832–1834 Nathaniel Hayward and Friedrich Ludersdorf discovered that rubber treated with sulfur lost its stickiness. It is likely Hayward shared his discovery with Charles Goodyear, possibly inspiring him to make the discovery of vulcanization.
Charles Goodyear (1800–1860), a scientist and engineer, was the first to patent vulcanization of rubber. He was awarded a patent on June 15, 1844. A year later, after viewing Goodyear's work, Thomas Hancock was awarded the British Patent for the process. This was court granted after British scientist claimed that examining Goodyear's rubber could not produce the formula for vulcanizing rubber. It was Hancock's friend William Brockedon who coined term 'vulcanization'.
Goodyear claimed that he had discovered vulcanization earlier, in 1839. He wrote the story of the discovery in 1853 in his autobiographical book Gum-Elastica. Here is Goodyear's account of the invention, taken from Gum-Elastica. Although the book is an autobiography, Goodyear chose to write it in the third person so that and referred to in the text are the author. He describes the scene in a rubber factory where his brother worked:
The inventor made experiments to ascertain the effect of heat on the same compound that had decomposed in the mail-bags and other articles. He was surprised to find that the specimen, being carelessly brought into contact with a hot stove, charred like leather.
Goodyear goes on to describe how his discovery was not readily accepted.
He directly inferred that if the process of charring could be stopped at the right point, it might divest the gum of its native adhesiveness throughout, which would make it better than the native gum. Upon further trial with heat, he was further convinced of the correctness of this inference, by finding that the India rubber could not be melted in boiling sulfur at any heat, but always charred.
He made another trial of heating a similar fabric before an open fire. The same effect, that of charring the gum, followed. There were further indications of success in producing the desired result, as upon the edge of the charred portion appeared a line or border, that was not charred, but perfectly cured.
Goodyear then goes on to describe how he moved to Woburn, Massachusetts and carried out a series of systematic experiments to optimize the curing of rubber, collaborating with Nathaniel Hayward.
On ascertaining to a certainty that he had found the object of his search and much more, and that the new substance was proof against cold and the solvent of the native gum, he felt himself amply repaid for the past, and quite indifferent to the trials of the future.
Later developments
The discovery of the rubber-sulfur reaction revolutionized the use and applications of rubber, changing the face of the industrial world. Formerly, the only way to seal a small gap between moving machine parts was to use leather soaked in oil. This practice was acceptable only at moderate pressures, but above a certain point, machine designers were forced to compromise between the extra friction generated by tighter packing and greater leakage of steam. Vulcanized rubber solved this problem. It could be formed to precise shapes and dimensions, it accepted moderate to large deformations under load and recovered quickly to its original dimensions once the load is removed. These exceptional qualities, combined with good durability and lack of stickiness, were critical for an effective sealing material. Further experiments in the processing and compounding of rubber by Hancock and his colleagues led to a more reliable process.
Around 1900, disulfiram was introduced as a vulcanizing agent, and became widely used.
In 1905 George Oenslager discovered that a derivative of aniline called thiocarbanilide accelerated the reaction of sulfur with rubber, leading to shorter cure times and reducing energy consumption. This breakthrough was almost as fundamental to the rubber industry as Goodyear's sulfur cure. Accelerators made the cure process faster, improved the reliability of the process and enabled vulcanization to be applied to synthetic polymers. One year after his discovery, Oenslager had found hundreds of applications for his additive. Thus, the science of accelerators and retarders was born. An accelerator speeds up the cure reaction, while a retarder delays it. A typical retarder is cyclohexylthiophthalimide. In the subsequent century chemists developed other accelerators and ultra-accelerators, which are used in the manufacture of most modern rubber goods.
See also
Sulfur concrete
References
Chemical processes
Rubber
1837 introductions | Sulfur vulcanization | [
"Chemistry"
] | 3,198 | [
"Chemical process engineering",
"Chemical processes",
"nan"
] |
70,355,338 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20resistors | A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow, adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines, among other uses. High-power resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat may be used as part of motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for generators.
Fixed resistors have resistances that only change slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.
Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as discrete components can be composed of various compounds and forms. Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits.
Lead arrangements
Through-hole components typically have "leads" (pronounced ) leaving the body "axially", that is, on a line parallel with the part's longest axis. Others have leads coming off their body "radially" instead. Other components may be SMT (surface mount technology), while high power resistors may have one of their leads designed into the heat sink.
Fixed resistors
Carbon composition
Carbon composition resistors (CCR) consist of a solid cylindrical resistive element with embedded wire leads or metal end caps to which the lead wires are attached. The body of the resistor is protected with paint or plastic. Early 20th-century carbon composition resistors had uninsulated bodies; the lead wires were wrapped around the ends of the resistance element rod and soldered. The completed resistor was painted for color-coding of its value.
The resistive element in carbon composition resistors is made from a mixture of finely powdered carbon and an insulating material, usually ceramic. A resin holds the mixture together. The resistance is determined by the ratio of the fill material (the powdered ceramic) to the carbon. Higher concentrations of carbon, which is a good conductor, result in lower resistances. Carbon composition resistors were commonly used in the 1960s and earlier, but are not popular for general use now as other types have better specifications, such as tolerance, voltage dependence, and stress. Carbon composition resistors change value when stressed with over-voltages. Moreover, if internal moisture content, such as from exposure for some length of time to a humid environment, is significant, soldering heat creates a non-reversible change in resistance value. Carbon composition resistors have poor stability with time and were consequently factory sorted to, at best, only 5% tolerance. These resistors are non-inductive, which provides benefits when used in voltage pulse reduction and surge protection applications. Carbon composition resistors have higher capability to withstand overload relative to the component's size.
Carbon composition resistors are still available, but relatively expensive. Values ranged from fractions of an ohm to 22 megohms. Due to their high price, these resistors are no longer used in most applications. However, they are used in power supplies and welding controls. They are also in demand for repair of vintage electronic equipment where authenticity is a factor.
Carbon pile
A carbon pile resistor is made of a stack of carbon disks compressed between two metal contact plates. Adjusting the clamping pressure changes the resistance between the plates. These resistors are used when an adjustable load is required, such as in testing automotive batteries or radio transmitters. A carbon pile resistor can also be used as a speed control for small motors in household appliances (sewing machines, hand-held mixers) with ratings up to a few hundred watts. A carbon pile resistor can be incorporated in automatic voltage regulators for generators, where the carbon pile controls the field current to maintain relatively constant voltage. This principle is also applied in the carbon microphone.
Carbon film
In manufacturing carbon film resistors, a carbon film is deposited on an insulating substrate, and a helix is cut in it to create a long, narrow resistive path. Varying shapes, coupled with the resistivity of amorphous carbon (ranging from 500 to 800 μΩ m), can provide a wide range of resistance values. Carbon film resistors feature lower noise compared to carbon composition resistors because of the precise distribution of the pure graphite without binding. Carbon film resistors feature a power rating range of 0.125 W to 5 W at 70 °C. Resistances available range from 1 ohm to 10 megaohm. The carbon film resistor has an operating temperature range of −55 °C to 155 °C. It has 200 to 600 volts maximum working voltage range. Special carbon film resistors are used in applications requiring high pulse stability.
Printed carbon resistors
Carbon composition resistors can be printed directly onto printed circuit board (PCB) substrates as part of the PCB manufacturing process. Although this technique is more common on hybrid PCB modules, it can also be used on standard fibreglass PCBs. Tolerances are typically quite large and can be in the order of 30%. A typical application would be non-critical pull-up resistors.
Thick and thin film
Thick film resistors became popular during the 1970s, and most SMD (surface mount device) resistors today are of this type. The resistive element of thick films is 1000 times thicker than thin films, but the principal difference is how the film is applied to the cylinder (axial resistors) or the surface (SMD resistors).
Thin film resistors are made by sputtering (a method of vacuum deposition) the resistive material onto an insulating substrate. The film is then etched in a similar manner to the old (subtractive) process for making printed circuit boards; that is, the surface is coated with a photo-sensitive material, covered by a pattern film, irradiated with ultraviolet light, and then the exposed photo-sensitive coating is developed, and underlying thin film is etched away.
Thick film resistors are manufactured using screen and stencil printing processes.
Because the time during which the sputtering is performed can be controlled, the thickness of the thin film can be accurately controlled. The type of material also varies, consisting of one or more ceramic (cermet) conductors such as tantalum nitride (TaN), ruthenium oxide (), lead oxide (PbO), bismuth ruthenate (), nickel chromium (NiCr), or bismuth iridate ().
The resistance of both thin and thick film resistors after manufacture is not highly accurate; they are usually trimmed to an accurate value by abrasive or laser trimming. Thin film resistors are usually specified with tolerances of 1% and 5%, and with temperature coefficients of 5 to 50 ppm/K. They also have much lower noise levels, on the level of 10–100 times less than thick film resistors. Thick film resistors may use the same conductive ceramics, but they are mixed with sintered (powdered) glass and a carrier liquid so that the composite can be screen-printed. This composite of glass and conductive ceramic (cermet) material is then fused (baked) in an oven at about 850 °C.
When first manufactured, thick film resistors had tolerances of 5%, but standard tolerances have improved to 2% or 1% in the last few decades. Temperature coefficients of thick film resistors are typically ±200 or ±250 ppm/K; a 40-kelvin (70 °F) temperature change can change the resistance by 1%.
Thin film resistors are usually far more expensive than thick film resistors. For example, SMD thin film resistors, with 0.5% tolerances and with 25 ppm/K temperature coefficients, when bought in full size reel quantities, are about twice the cost of 1%, 250 ppm/K thick film resistors.
Metal film
A common type of axial-leaded resistor today is the metal-film resistor. Metal Electrode Leadless Face (MELF) resistors often use the same technology.
Metal film resistors are usually coated with nickel chromium (NiCr), but might be coated with any of the cermet materials listed above for thin film resistors. Unlike thin film resistors, the material may be applied using different techniques than sputtering (though this is one technique used). The resistance value is determined by cutting a helix through the coating rather than by etching, similar to the way carbon resistors are made. The result is a reasonable tolerance (0.5%, 1%, or 2%) and a temperature coefficient that is generally between 50 and 100 ppm/K. Metal film resistors possess good noise characteristics and low non-linearity due to a low voltage coefficient. They are also beneficial due to long-term stability.
Metal oxide film
Metal-oxide film resistors are made of metal oxides which results in a higher operating temperature and greater stability and reliability than metal film. They are used in applications with high endurance demands.
Wire wound
Wirewound resistors are commonly made by winding a metal wire, usually nichrome, around a ceramic, plastic, or fiberglass core. The ends of the wire are soldered or welded to two caps or rings, attached to the ends of the core. The assembly is protected with a layer of paint, molded plastic, or an enamel coating baked at high temperature. These resistors are designed to withstand unusually high temperatures of up to 450 °C. Wire leads in low power wirewound resistors are usually between 0.6 and 0.8 mm in diameter and tinned for ease of soldering. For higher power wire-wound resistors, either a ceramic outer case or an aluminum outer case on top of an insulating layer is used. If the outer case is ceramic, such resistors are sometimes described as "cement" resistors, though they do not actually contain any traditional cement. The aluminum-cased types are designed to be attached to a heat sink to dissipate the heat; the rated power is dependent on being used with a suitable heat sink, e.g., a 50 W power rated resistor overheats at a fraction of the power dissipation if not used with a heat sink. Large wirewound resistors may be rated for 1,000 watts or more.
Because wirewound resistors are coils they have more undesirable inductance than other types of resistor. However, winding the wire in sections with alternately reversed direction can minimize inductance. Other techniques employ bifilar winding, or a flat thin former (to reduce cross-section area of the coil). For the most demanding circuits, resistors with Ayrton–Perry winding are used.
Applications of wirewound resistors are similar to those of composition resistors with the exception of high frequency applications. The high frequency response of wirewound resistors is substantially worse than that of a composition resistor.
Foil resistor
In 1960, Felix Zandman and Sidney J. Stein presented a development of resistor film of very high stability.
The primary resistance element of a foil resistor is a chromium nickel alloy foil several micrometers thick. Chromium nickel alloys are characterized by having a large electrical resistance (about 58 times that of copper), a small temperature coefficient and high resistance to oxidation. Examples are Chromel A and Nichrome V, whose typical composition is 80 Ni and 20 Cr, with a melting point of 1420 °C. When iron is added, the chromium nickel alloy becomes more ductile. The Nichrome and Chromel C are examples of an alloy containing iron. The composition typical of Nichrome is 60 Ni, 12 Cr, 26 Fe, 2 Mn and Chromel C, 64 Ni, 11 Cr, Fe 25. The melting temperature of these alloys are 1350 °C and 1390 °C, respectively.
Since their introduction in the 1960s, foil resistors have had the best precision and stability of any resistor available. One of the important parameters of stability is the temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR). The TCR of foil resistors is extremely low, and has been further improved over the years. One range of ultra-precision foil resistors offers a TCR of 0.14 ppm/°C, tolerance ±0.005%, long-term stability (1 year) 25 ppm, (3 years) 50 ppm (further improved 5-fold by hermetic sealing), stability under load (2000 hours) 0.03%, thermal EMF 0.1 μV/°C, noise −42 dB, voltage coefficient 0.1 ppm/V, inductance 0.08 μH, capacitance 0.5 pF.
The thermal stability of this type of resistor also has to do with the opposing effects of the metal's electrical resistance increasing with temperature, and being reduced by thermal expansion leading to an increase in thickness of the foil, whose other dimensions are constrained by a ceramic substrate.
Ammeter shunts
An ammeter shunt is a special type of current-sensing resistor, having four terminals and a value in milliohms or even micro-ohms. Current-measuring instruments, by themselves, can usually accept only limited currents. To measure high currents, the current passes through the shunt across which the voltage drop is measured and interpreted as current. A typical shunt consists of two solid metal blocks, sometimes brass, mounted on an insulating base. Between the blocks, and soldered or brazed to them, are one or more strips of low temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) manganin alloy. Large bolts threaded into the blocks make the current connections, while much smaller screws provide volt meter connections. Shunts are rated by full-scale current, and often have a voltage drop of 50 mV at rated current. Such meters are adapted to the shunt full current rating by using an appropriately marked dial face; no change need to be made to the other parts of the meter.
Grid resistor
In heavy-duty industrial high-current applications, a grid resistor is a large convection-cooled lattice of stamped metal alloy strips connected in rows between two electrodes. Such industrial grade resistors can be as large as a refrigerator; some designs can handle over 500 amperes of current, with a range of resistances extending lower than 0.04 ohms. They are used in applications such as dynamic braking and load banking for locomotives and trams, neutral grounding for industrial AC distribution, control loads for cranes and heavy equipment, load testing of generators and harmonic filtering for electric substations.
The term grid resistor is sometimes used to describe a resistor of any type connected to the control grid of a vacuum tube. This is not a resistor technology; it is an electronic circuit topology.
Cermet oxide resistors
Fusible resistors
Special varieties
Cermet
Phenolic
Tantalum
Water resistor
Variable resistors
Adjustable resistors
A resistor may have one or more fixed tapping points so that the resistance can be changed by moving the connecting wires to different terminals. Some wirewound power resistors have a tapping point that can slide along the resistance element, allowing a larger or smaller part of the resistance to be used.
Where continuous adjustment of the resistance value during operation of equipment is required, the sliding resistance tap can be connected to a knob accessible to an operator. Such a device is called a rheostat and has two terminals.
Potentiometers
A potentiometer (colloquially, pot) is a three-terminal resistor with a continuously adjustable tapping point controlled by rotation of a shaft or knob or by a linear slider. The name potentiometer comes from its function as an adjustable voltage divider to provide a variable potential at the terminal connected to the tapping point. Volume control in an audio device is a common application of a potentiometer. A typical low power potentiometer (see drawing) is constructed of a flat resistance element (B) of carbon composition, metal film, or conductive plastic, with a springy phosphor bronze wiper contact (C) which moves along the surface. An alternate construction is resistance wire wound on a form, with the wiper sliding axially along the coil. These have lower resolution, since as the wiper moves the resistance changes in steps equal to the resistance of a single turn.
High-resolution multiturn potentiometers are used in precision applications. These have wire-wound resistance elements typically wound on a helical mandrel, with the wiper moving on a helical track as the control is turned, making continuous contact with the wire. Some include a conductive-plastic resistance coating over the wire to improve resolution. These typically offer ten turns of their shafts to cover their full range. They are usually set with dials that include a simple turns counter and a graduated dial, and can typically achieve three-digit resolution. Electronic analog computers used them in quantity for setting coefficients and delayed-sweep oscilloscopes of recent decades included one on their panels.
Resistance decade boxes
A resistance decade box or resistor substitution box is a unit containing resistors of many values, with one or more mechanical switches which allow any one of various discrete resistances offered by the box to be dialed in. Usually the resistance is accurate to high precision, ranging from laboratory/calibration grade accuracy of 20 parts per million, to field grade at 1%. Inexpensive boxes with lesser accuracy are also available. All types offer a convenient way of selecting and quickly changing a resistance in laboratory, experimental and development work without needing to attach resistors one by one, or even stock each value. The range of resistance provided, the maximum resolution, and the accuracy characterize the box. For example, one box offers resistances from 0 to 100 megohms, maximum resolution 0.1 ohm, accuracy 0.1%.
Photo resistors
Thermistors
Varistors
Water resistors
Special devices
There are various devices whose resistance changes with various quantities. The resistance of NTC thermistors exhibit a strong negative temperature coefficient, making them useful for measuring temperatures. Since their resistance can be large until they are allowed to heat up due to the passage of current, they are also commonly used to prevent excessive current surges when equipment is powered on. Similarly, the resistance of a humistor varies with humidity. One sort of photodetector, the photoresistor, has a resistance which varies with illumination.
The strain gauge, invented by Edward E. Simmons and Arthur C. Ruge in 1938, is a type of resistor that changes value with applied strain. A single resistor may be used, or a pair (half bridge), or four resistors connected in a Wheatstone bridge configuration. The strain resistor is bonded with adhesive to an object that is subjected to mechanical strain. With the strain gauge and a filter, amplifier, and analog/digital converter, the strain on an object can be measured.
A related but more recent invention uses a Quantum Tunnelling Composite to sense mechanical stress. It passes a current whose magnitude can vary by a factor of 1012 in response to changes in applied pressure.
References
Electrical components | List of resistors | [
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 3,982 | [
"Electrical engineering",
"Electrical components",
"Components"
] |
70,355,431 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bis%28fulvalene%29diiron | Bis(fulvalene)diiron is the organoiron complex with the formula (C5H4-C5H4)2Fe2. Structurally, the molecule consists of two ferrous centers sandwiched between fulvalene dianions. The compound is an orange solid with lower solubility in benzene than ferrocene. Its structure has been verified by X-ray crystallography. The compound has attracted some interest for its redox properties.
Preparation
It was first prepared by Ullmann coupling of 1,1'-diiodoferrocene using copper but subsequent work produces the complex is 20-40% yield from dilithiofulvalene and ferrous chloride:
2(C5H4Li)2 + 2FeCl2 → (C5H4-C5H4)2Fe2 + 4LiCl
Related compounds
Biferrocene
References
Ferrocenes
Sandwich compounds
Cyclopentadienyl complexes | Bis(fulvalene)diiron | [
"Chemistry"
] | 202 | [
"Organometallic chemistry",
"Cyclopentadienyl complexes",
"Sandwich compounds"
] |
70,355,980 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CV%20Serpentis | CV Serpentis is a binary star system in the equatorial constellation of Serpens. It is a detached eclipsing binary with an orbital period of 29.7 days. The system includes a Wolf–Rayet (WR) star with the identifier WR 113. The system is located at a distance of approximately 6,700 light years from the Sun based on parallax measurements. It is a member of the Serpens OB2 association of co-moving stars.
In 1892, this star was found to be an object of interest based on photographs of its peculiar stellar spectra taken from the Boyden Station in Arequipa, Peru. It was determined to be a carbon-type Wolf–Rayet (WR) star and in 1945 was found to be a spectroscopic binary system by W. A. Hiltner. This system was reported to be an eclipsing binary by S. Gaposchkin in 1949, who found a decrease in brightness of 0.14 magnitude during the first eclipse and 0.08 in the second. R. M. Hjellming and W. A. Hiltner in 1963 measured a much deeper primary eclipse with a decrease of about 0.55 magnitude, then in 1970 K. Stępień saw no evidence of eclipsing. L. V. Kuhi and F. Schweizer confirmed this latter result, hypothesizing that it is the result of a changing Wolf-Rayet envelope.
This is a double-lined spectroscopic binary system in a near circular orbit, meaning that the spectra of both components is visible. The companion of the WR star is a massive OB star with a stellar classification of O8-9IV. A nebulous double-shell centered on CV Ser was discovered in 1984, spanning angular diameters of and . The diffuse outer ring is incomplete, spanning a radius of at an approximate distance of two kiloparsecs. Variations in the system's light curve continued to be observed, suggesting changes in the outflow from the Wolf-Rayet star. An emission feature in the spectrum of the system was interpreted as a region between the two stars where their stellar winds are colliding, forming a shock region of plasma.
The system is expected to evolve into a binary with the OB-star and an black hole following a failed supernova where the WR star collapses with little or no visible explosion. The OB star is observed to be rotating rapidly at between 310 and using spectral lines of neutral helium. Observations using ionized helium absorption lines show a lower velocity, interpreted as showing an oblate shape with gravity darkening causing lower temperatures at the equator.
Speckle interferometry has found a companion star from the bright primary and eight magnitudes fainter. The projected separation of is much larger than the maximum possible separation of the Wolf-Rayet and OB pair. If it is found to be at the same distance as the bright spectroscopic pair, it would likely be an F-type main sequence star in an orbit with a period around 100,000 years and the lowest-luminosity known companion of any WR star at .
References
Further reading
Wolf–Rayet stars
O-type subgiants
Eclipsing binaries
Spectroscopic binaries
Serpens
Durchmusterung objects
168206
089769
Serpentis, CV | CV Serpentis | [
"Astronomy"
] | 684 | [
"Constellations",
"Serpens"
] |
70,356,927 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumykhimprom%20ammonia%20leak | On 21 March 2022 during the battle of Sumy, a Russian airstrike damaged one of the ammonia tanks at the Sumykhimprom plant, contaminating land within a radius including the villages of Novoselytsia and Verkhnya Syrovatka. Due to the direction of the wind, the city of Sumy was largely unaffected despite its proximity to the leak.
Background
Two days prior to the leak Mikhail Mizintsev, the Chief of Russia's National Defense Management Center claimed that Ukrainian nationalists were plotting a false flag chemical attack in Sumy. Mizintsev alleged on 19 March that mines had been placed in chemical storage facilities at the plant to poison residents in case of Russian troops advancement into the city. He also alleged that a secondary school was similarly sabotaged in Kotlyarovo, Mykolaiv Oblast.
Leak
The leak was first reported at about 4:30 am local time on 21 March 2022 at the Sumykhimprom chemical plant, located in the suburbs of Sumy.
References
Ammonia
March 2022 events in Ukraine
Battle of Sumy
Northern front of the Russian invasion of Ukraine
Environmental disasters in Ukraine
Chemical disasters
2022 disasters in Ukraine
Pollution events in 2022
Russian airstrikes during the Russian invasion of Ukraine
2022 airstrikes
2022 industrial disasters
Industrial accidents and incidents in Ukraine | Sumykhimprom ammonia leak | [
"Chemistry"
] | 274 | [
"Chemical accident",
"Chemical disasters"
] |
70,358,540 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angkor%20Wat%20Equinox | The Angkor Wat equinox is a solar phenomenon considered as a hierophany that happens twice a year with spring and autumn equinox, as part of the many astronomical alignments indicative of a "fairly elaborate system of astronomy" and of the Hindu influence in the construction of the vast temple complex of Angkor Wat, in Cambodia.
Description
The sunrise on Angkor Wat during the equinox is such that someone standing in front of the western entrance on the equinox is able to see the sun rising directly over the central lotus tower. In fact, it would be more correct to describe the phenomenon as the exact match of the shadow formed by the sunrise on Angkor Wat's central prang and the western entrance bridge.
Architecture
Like most celestial cities, Angkor Wat contains many astronomically inspired symbols and alignments. Angkor Wat was built by Suryvarman II, literally the Sun-King, during his reign for 1113 to 1150 with "astronomical and cosmic rhythm". It was dedicated as a tribute to Vishnu, a solar deity according to the Rigveda.
In fact, it appears that most of the vast complex of Angkor Wat was determined by the equinox. In the bas-relief at Angkor Wat, the position of the churning pivot would correspond to the position of the spring equinox. The 91 asuras in the south represent the 91 days from equinox to winter solstice, and the 88 northern devas represent the 88 days from equinox to summer solstice. In fact, there are either 88 or 89 devas in the scene, 89 if the deva atop Mount Mandara is counted with the others. There are 88 or 89 days from the spring equinox, counted from the first day of the new year, to the summer solstice.
In fact, the solar alignment is not limited to Angkor Wat, but includes many other temples of the Khmer civilization, as it connects Angkor Wat with other temples on the Ancient Khmer Highway from the West Mebon to the Preah Khan of Kompong Svay.
Interpretation
An eternal reminder of Suryavarman II's ascension to the throne
Scholars theorize that Suryavarman II was crowned sovereign in Angkor Wat during the equinox. The temples' calibrated use of equinox sunrises to highlight the central tower and the bas-relief of the churning of the ocean of milk would have served as an eternal reminder of this king's "ringing in a new golden age."
A solar city
While Angkor is also known as an hydraulic city since Bernard Philippe Groslier, the Angkor Wat equinox manifests how Angkor was also a solar city. According to Eleanor Manikka, "measurements of the temple recorded data, fixed solar and lunar alignments, defined pathways into and out of sanctuaries, and put segments of the temple in precise association with rays of sunlight during the equinox and solstice days". Accordingly, the gigantic representation of the churning of the sea actually works as a calendar: it positions the two solstice days at the extreme north and south, counts the days between them, and measures 54 units for the north- and southbound arcs of the sun and moon, emulating the symbolism on the bridge or in the western entrances, which repeat the 54/54-unit pairs several times.
An ancient Khmer New Year
The spring equinox, which receives such a special treatment at Angkor Wat, evidently marked the onset of the calendar year. However, during the thirteenth century, many years after the reign of Suryavarman II, the Khmer New Year was moved to the fifth lunar month, Chate, which corresponds to mid-April, in order for farmers to have more time to celebrate once the dry season was over. The astrological New Year that was celebrated before then occurred when the constellation of Aries or Ram appeared. This phenomenon occurred on the vernal equinox on March 21, but because of the precession of the equinoxes, the sun at the vernal equinox is not seen in the constellation of Pisces and enters Aries around April 13 or 14.
Tourism
The solar alignment of equinox at Angkor Wat is attracting a growing number of tourists, in a new trend of tourism connected to solar phenomena, also seen in such places such as Luxor and Vezelay Abbey.
In 2022, Angkor Wat ranked No. 1 as the best place in the world to watch sunrise and sunset, in part because of the Angkor Wat equinox phenomenon.
See also
Orientation of churches
Spring equinox in Teotihuacán
References
Bibliography
Astronomical events of the Solar System
Geography of Cambodia
Khmer folklore
March
September
Solar alignment
Solar phenomena
Spring equinox
Autumn equinox
Angkor Wat | Angkor Wat Equinox | [
"Physics",
"Astronomy"
] | 994 | [
"Physical phenomena",
"Astronomical events",
"Solar phenomena",
"Astronomical events of the Solar System",
"Stellar phenomena",
"Solar System"
] |
70,359,815 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma%20helix | Gamma helix (or γ-helix) is a type of secondary structure in proteins that has been predicted by Pauling, Corey, and Branson, but has never been observed in natural proteins. The hydrogen bond in this type of helix was predicted to be between N-H group of one amino acid and the C=O group of the amino acid six residues earlier (or, as described by Pauling, Corey, Branson, "to the fifth amide group beyond it"). This can also be described as i + 6 → i bond and would be a continuation of the series (310 helix, alpha helix, pi helix and gamma helix). This theoretical helix contains 5.1 residues per turn. However, a fully developed gamma helix has characteristics of a structure that has 2.2 amino acid residues per turn, a rise of 2.75Å per residue, and a pseudo-cyclic (C7) structure closed by intramolecular H-bond. Depending on the amino acid's side chain (R) involved in this main-chain reversal motif, two stereoisomers can occur with their Cα-substituent located either in the axial or in the equatorial position relative to the H-bonded pseudo-cycle.
References
Protein structural motifs
Helices | Gamma helix | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 261 | [
"Biotechnology stubs",
"Protein classification",
"Biochemistry stubs",
"Protein structural motifs",
"Biochemistry"
] |
70,361,275 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorus%20dioxide | Phosphorus dioxide () is a gaseous oxide of phosphorus. It is a free radical that plays a role in the chemiluminescence of phosphorus and phosphine. It is produced when phosphates are heated to high temperatures.
In the ground state the molecule is bent, like nitrogen dioxide, but there is an excited state that is linear.
References
Phosphorus oxides
Free radicals | Phosphorus dioxide | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 78 | [
"Inorganic compounds",
"Free radicals",
"Inorganic compound stubs",
"Senescence",
"Biomolecules"
] |
70,361,989 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary%20of%20linear%20algebra | This glossary of linear algebra is a list of definitions and terms relevant to the field of linear algebra, the branch of mathematics concerned with linear equations and their representations as vector spaces.
For a glossary related to the generalization of vector spaces through modules, see glossary of module theory.
A
B
C
D
E
I
L
M
N
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Notes
References
Algebra
Wikipedia glossaries using description lists | Glossary of linear algebra | [
"Mathematics"
] | 83 | [
"Linear algebra",
"Algebra"
] |
70,362,057 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green%20Gicumbi | Strengthening climate resilience of rural communities in Northern Rwanda, commonly known as the Green Gicumbi Project, is a six-year governmental project, launched on 26 October 2019 by the Government of Rwanda, through the Ministry of the Environment and the Rwanda Green Fund (FONERWA) with target of strengthening climate resilience of rural communities in Northern Rwanda, especially in Gicumbi District.
Background
The project is to be implemented by the National Fund for the Environment. Jean Marie Vianney Kagenza is Project Director.
Project Components
According to Ministry of environment of Rwanda, Green Gicumbi Project includes the following components:
Watershed protection and climate resilient agriculture
Forest management and sustainable energy
Climate resilient settlements
Knowledge development and transfer and mainstreaming
Implementations
In January 2022, the Government of Rwanda, through the Green Gicumbi Project, has started constructing 200 green and climate resilient houses for Gicumbi residents, most relocated citizens will be in Ubudehe category I and category II, high risk zones. The green housing project is located in the Rubaya and Kaniga sectors, and is considered a model village where beneficiaries will receive additional support such as cows and the resources to start horticulture farms around the village, the Project Director has stated.
Ongoing results
Controlled soil erosion, thus increasing productivity before there were land affected by erosion but now the green gicumbi is solution to control soil erosion and increasing productivity by farmers.
Climate resilient settlement is a third component of the Green Gicumbi project is “Climate Resilient Settlements”. So far 40 climate-resilient houses have been constructed and occupied by most vulnerable beneficiaries from high-risk zones in Rubaya sector, while 60 more houses are under construction in Kaniga sector, Mulindi cell to host the most vulnerable families living in high-risk zones in the same sector. Their construction progress is currently at 70% and construction activities are expected to be completed by July 2023.
Sustainable forest management : Sustainable Forest management and sustainable energy, Green Gicumbi project has rehabilitated 1,107 hectares of degraded forests in the past three years as well as disseminated 19,900 clean cookstoves in a bid to reduce pressure on the forests and reduce carbon emissions.
References
Organisations based in Rwanda
Biodiversity | Green Gicumbi | [
"Biology"
] | 472 | [
"Biodiversity"
] |
70,362,483 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial%20intelligence%20in%20fraud%20detection | Artificial intelligence is used by many different businesses and organizations. It is widely used in the financial sector, especially by accounting firms, to help detect fraud.
In 2022, PricewaterhouseCoopers reported that fraud has impacted 46% of all businesses in the world. The shift from working in person to working from home has brought increased access to data. According to an FTC (Federal Trade Commission) study from 2022, customers reported fraud of approximately $5.8 billion in 2021, an increase of 70% from the year before. The majority of these scams were imposter scams and online shopping frauds. Furthermore, artificial intelligence plays a crucial role in developing advanced algorithms and machine learning models that enhance fraud detection systems, enabling businesses to stay ahead of evolving fraudulent tactics in an increasingly digital landscape.
Tools
Expert systems
Expert systems were first designed in the 1970s as an expansion into artificial intelligence technologies. Their design is based on the premise of decreasing potential user error in decision-making and emulating mental reasoning used by experts in a particular field. They differentiate themselves from traditional linear reasoning models by separating identified points in data and processing them individually at the same time. Though, these systems do not rely purely on machine-learned intelligence.
Information regarding rules, practices, and procedures in the form of "if-then" statements are implemented into the programming of the system. Users interact with the system by feeding information into the system either through direct entry or import of external data. An inference system compares the information provided by the user with corresponding rules that are believed to specifically apply to the situation. Using this information and the corresponding rules will be used to create a solution to the user's query. Expert systems will generally not operate properly when the common procedures for a specified situation are ambiguous due to the need for well-defined rules.
Implementation of expert systems in accounting procedures is feasible in areas where professional judgment is required. Situations where expert systems are applicable include investigations into transactions that involve potential fraudulent entries, instances of going concern, and the evaluation of risk in the planning stages of an audit.
Continuous auditing
Continuous auditing is a set of processes that assess various aspects of information gathered in an audit to classify areas of risk and potential weaknesses in financial Internal controls at a more frequent rate than traditional methods. Instead of analyzing recorded transactions and journal entries periodically, continuous auditing focuses on interpreting the character of these actions more frequently. The frequency of these processes being undertaken as well as highlighting areas of importance is up to the discretion of their implementer, who commonly makes such decisions based on the level of risk in the accounts being evaluated and the goals of implementing the system. Performance of these processes can occur as frequently as being nearly instantaneous with an entry being posted.
The processes involved with analyzing financial data in continuous auditing can include the creation of spreadsheets to allow for interactive information gathering, calculation of financial ratios for comparison with previously created models, and detection of errors in entered figures. A primary goal of this practice is to allow for quicker and easier detection of instances of faulty controls, errors, and instances of fraud.
Machine learning and deep learning
The ability of machine learning and deep learning to swiftly and effectively sort through vast volumes of data in the forms of various documents relevant to companies and documents being audited makes them applicable to the domains of audit and fraud detection. Examples of this include recognizing key language in contracts, identifying levels of risk of fraud in transactions, and assessing journal entries for misstatement.
Applications
'Big 4' Accounting Firms
Deloitte created an Al-enabled document-reviewing system in 2014. The system automates the method of reviewing and extracting relevant information from different business documents. Deloitte claims that this innovation has made a difference by reducing time spent going through lawful contract documents, invoices, money-related articulations, and board minutes by up to 50%. Working with IBM's Watson, Deloitte is developing cognitive-technology-enhanced commerce arrangements for its clients. LeasePoint is fueled by IBM Tririga and uses Deloitte's industrial information to create an end-to-end leasing portfolio. Automated Cognitive Resource Assessment employs IBM's Maximo innovation to progress the proficiency of asset inspection.
Ernst and Young (EY) connected Al to the investigation of lease contracts. EY (Australia) has also received Al-enabled auditing technology.
Collaborating with H20.ai, PwC developed an Al-enabled framework (GL.ai) capable of analyzing reports and preparing reports. PwC claims to have made a significant investment in normal dialect processing (NLP), an Al-enabled innovation to process unstructured information efficiently.
KPMG built a portfolio of Al instruments, called KPMG Ignite, to upgrade trade decisions and forms. Working with Microsoft and IBM Watson, KPMG is creating instruments to coordinate Al, data analytics, Cognitive Technologies, and RPA.
Advantages
Efficiency
The process of auditing an entity in an attempt to detect fraudulent activity requires the repeating of investigatory processes until an error or misstatement may be identified. Under traditional methods, these processes would be carried out by a human being. Proponents of artificial intelligence in fraud detection have stated that these traditional methods are inefficient and can be more quickly accomplished with the aid of an intelligent computing system. A survey of 400 chief executive officers created by KPMG in 2016 found that approximately 58% believed that artificial intelligence would play a key role in making audits more efficient in the future.
Data interpretation
Higher levels of fraud detection entail the use of professional judgement to interpret data. Supporters of artificial intelligence being used in financial audits have claimed that increased risks from instances of higher data interpretation can be minimized through such technologies. One necessary element of an audit of financial statements that requires professional judgement is the implementation of thresholds for materiality. Materiality entails the distinction between errors and transactions in financial statements that would impact decisions made by users of those financial statements. The threshold for materiality in an audit is set by the auditor based on various factors. Artificial intelligence has been used to interpret data and suggest materiality thresholds to be implemented through the use of expert systems.
Decreased costs
Those in favor of using artificial intelligence to complete investigations of fraud have stated that such technologies decrease the amount of time required to complete tasks that are repetitive. The claim further states that such efficiencies allow for lowered resource requirements, which can then be further spent on tasks that have not been fully automated. The audit firm Ernst & Young has posited these claims by declaring that their deep learning systems have been used to reduce time spent on administrative tasks by analyzing relevant audit documents. According to the firm, this has allowed their employees to focus more on judgement and analysis.
Disadvantages
Job Displacement
The inescapable reception of computer based intelligence and robotization advancements might prompt critical work relocation across different enterprises. As artificial intelligence frameworks become more equipped for performing undertakings customarily completed by people, there is a worry that specific work jobs could become out of date, prompting joblessness and financial imbalance.
Initial investment requirement
Along with a knowledge of coding and building systems through computer programs, we are seeing the advantages of these systems, but since they are so new, they require a large investment to start building such a system. Any firm that is planning on implementing an AI system to detect fraud must hire a team of data scientists, along with upgrading their cloud system and data storage. The system must be consistently monitored and updated to be the most efficient form of itself, otherwise the likelihood of fraud being involved in those transactions increases. If one does not initially invest in such a system and make certain it will detect a large percentage of fraudulent transactions, the consequences are the cost of the fraud, including chargeback fees. It is a very large initial investment, but money will be saved in the long run.
Technical expertise
Data analytics is a new science at many companies, and firms are heavily researching it to analyze their business as a whole and find where they can improve. Data analytics tells the story of a business through numbers. Many people in this world are experienced with reading data, but there are also more people who are not as experienced with data at all. The discipline of data analytics is expanding rapidly. It is frequently challenging to become an expert in such a profession.
References
Fraud
Deep learning
Logic programming
Fraud
Finance fraud | Artificial intelligence in fraud detection | [
"Technology"
] | 1,700 | [
"Information systems",
"Expert systems"
] |
70,363,079 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3%2C3-Bis%28azidomethyl%29oxetane | 3,3-Bis(azidomethyl)oxetane (BAMO) is a oxetane monomer used in energetic propellant binders and plasticizer. It is frequently used as a copolymer to improve the physical properties of more commonly used polymers and to give them energetic properties.
Preparation
BAMO is made by reacting BCMO with sodium azide in an alkaline solution. Tetrabutyl ammonium bromide is used as a phase-transfer catalyst in the reaction.
PolyBAMO can be made by mixing boron trifluoride diethyl etherate and BAMO in trimethylolpropane. The polymerization of BAMO destroys the oxetane ring, but the azide groups remain intact.
References
Oxetanes
Monomers
Plasticizers
Organoazides | 3,3-Bis(azidomethyl)oxetane | [
"Chemistry",
"Materials_science"
] | 170 | [
"Polymer stubs",
"Organic chemistry stubs",
"Monomers",
"Polymer chemistry"
] |
70,365,254 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lex%20petrolea | Lex petrolea is a proposed sub branch of lex mercatoria that would be based on the body of international arbitral awards related to the petroleum industry. The first use of the term was in the landmark arbitration case Government of the State of Kuwait v. American Independent Oil Co. (AMINOIL) where the argument was made that the past disputes had "generated a customary rule valid for the oil industry - a lex petrolea that was in some sort a particular branch of a general universal lex mercatoria".
References
Petroleum
International law | Lex petrolea | [
"Chemistry"
] | 110 | [
"Petroleum",
"Chemical mixtures"
] |
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