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70,365,958 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neflumozide | Neflumozide is a novel antipsychotic similar in structure to benperidol. It is a derivative of isoxazole and works as an dopamine antagonist.
See also
Benperidol
References
Benzoxazoles
Benzimidazoles
Isoxazoles
Piperidines
Fluoroarenes
Ureas | Neflumozide | [
"Chemistry"
] | 71 | [
"Organic compounds",
"Ureas"
] |
70,367,723 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractal%20physiology | Fractal physiology refers to the study of physiological systems using complexity science methods, such as chaos measure, entropy, and fractal dimensions. The underlying assumption is that biological systems are complex and exhibit non-linear patterns of activity, and that characterizing that complexity (using dedicated mathematical approaches) is useful to understand, and make inferences and predictions about the system.
Main Findings
Neurophysiology
Quantifications of the complexity of brain activity is used in the context of neuropsychiatric diseases and mental states characterization, such as schizophrenia, affective disorders, or neurodegenerative disorders. Particularly, diminished EEG complexity is typically associated with increased symptomatology.
Cardiovascular systems
The complexity of Heart Rate Variability is a useful predictor of cardiovascular health.
Software
In Python, NeuroKit provides a comprehensive set of functions for complexity analysis of physiological data. AntroPy implements several measures to quantify the complexity of time-series.
In R, TSEntropies provides methods to quantify the entropy. casnet implements a collection of analytic tools for studying signals recorded from complex adaptive systems.
In MATLAB, The Neurophysiological Biomarker Toolbox (NBT) allows the computation of Detrended fluctuation analysis. EZ Entropy implements the entropy analysis of physiological time-series.
See also
Fractal dimension
Entropy
Complex system
References
Fractals
Physiology | Fractal physiology | [
"Mathematics",
"Biology"
] | 285 | [
"Mathematical analysis",
"Functions and mappings",
"Physiology",
"Mathematical objects",
"Fractals",
"Mathematical relations"
] |
70,368,163 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearts%20in%20Unicode | As a common symbol throughout typographic history, the heart shape has found its way into many character sets and encodings, including those of Unicode. Some characters depict the shape directly, others reference it in a more derived manner.
History
In the 1990s, NTT DoCoMo released a pager that was aimed at teenagers. The pager was the first of its kind to include the option to send a pictogram as part of the text. The pager only had a single pictogram on its options, which was a heart-shaped pictogram. This is thought to be Shigetaka Kurita's first exposure to the use of digital symbols in text form. The pager received rave reviews in Asia which led to other companies in the region to consider using pictograms in the list of text characters. NTT DoCoMo then released another pager aimed at businesspeople, but this time dropped the heart pictogram from the characters on the pager. Following its release, there was an outcry by users that the pictogram was no longer available, and many customers switched to other providers that had now included a heart pictogram in their markup. This led NTT DoCoMo to reverse their decision and include the heart pictogram.
As the emoji became more popular, other heart colours were launched by Unicode. Since then, each heart color has been given its own meaning.
In early 2022, Middle Eastern news publications suggested that sending a Red Heart emoji on WhatsApp in Saudi Arabia could amount to harassment and if convicted, the sender could serve a maximum sentence of two years in jail.
Notable characters
Red heart
The red heart (❤️) emoji is an ideogram that is used in communication to express care and as a romantic or love gesture. It is frequently seen as the most popular emoji in surveys conducted by NTT DoCoMo.
Smiling face with heart-shaped eyes
The Heart Eyes (😍) emoji is to express happiness towards something. The Unicode Consortium listed it as the third most used emoji in 2019, behind the Red Heart and Face with Tears of Joy emoji. It frequently appears in the top 10 lists for the most common emoji.
Encoding
A common emoticon for the heart is <3. In Unicode several heart symbols are available in text format:
In Code page 437, the original character set of the IBM PC, the value of 3 (hexadecimal 03) represents the heart symbol. This value is shared with the non-printing ETX control character, which overrides the glyph in many contexts.
List of heart related emojis
The single Unicode character heart related emojis can be found on the Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs, Supplemental Symbols and Pictographs, and Symbols and Pictographs Extended-A ranges.
See also
Playing cards in Unicode
References
Heart symbols
Unicode | Hearts in Unicode | [
"Mathematics"
] | 601 | [
"Heart symbols",
"Symbols"
] |
70,368,424 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illumination%20efficiency | Antenna [aperture] illumination efficiency is a measure of the extent to which an antenna or array is uniformly excited or illuminated. It is typical for an antenna [aperture] or array to be intentionally under-illuminated or under-excited in order to mitigate sidelobes and reduce antenna temperature. It is not to be confused with radiation efficiency or antenna efficiency.
Definition
Antenna [aperture] illumination efficiency is defined as "The ratio, usually expressed in percent, of the maximum directivity of an antenna [aperture] to its standard directivity." It is synonymous with normalized directivity. Standard [reference] directivity is defined as "The maximum directivity from a planar aperture of area A, or from a line source of length L, when excited with a uniform-amplitude, equiphase distribution." Key to understanding these definitions is that "maximum" directivity refers to the direction of maximum radiation intensity, i.e., the main lobe. Therefore, illumination efficiency is not a function of angle with respect to the antenna [aperture], but rather is a constant of the aperture for all aspect angles.
Standard directivity
The distinction between maximum directivity and standard directivity is subtle. However, one can infer that, if an antenna [aperture] were excited [illuminated] uniformly with no phase difference (equiphase) over the entire aperture, then the illumination efficiency would be equal to unity. It is very typical for an antenna [aperture] to be intentionally under-excited [illuminated] with a "taper" in order to reduce radiation pattern sidelobes and antenna temperature. In such a design, the maximum directivity is reduced because the full aperture is not being used to the full extent possible, and the illumination efficiency will be less than unity. IEEE's choice of words is somewhat confusing, because "maximum" directivity is always less than or equal to "standard" directivity. The word maximum, in this case, is used to mean the maximum radiation intensity of the overall directivity pattern, which is otherwise defined for all aspect angles.
Relationship to antenna efficiency
There are critical differences in how various authors and IEEE define antenna efficiency and effective area of an antenna. IEEE defines the antenna efficiency of an aperture-type antenna as, "For an antenna with a specified planar aperture, the ratio of the maximum effective area of the antenna to the aperture area."
and under effective area of an antenna, IEEE states, "The effective area of an antenna in a given direction is equal to the square of the operating wavelength times its gain in that direction divided by 4π." Gain is also defined to be less than directivity by the radiation efficiency,
However, other reputable authors define the effective area in terms of the directivity:
Either way, the standard directivity cannot exceed:
since .
Per the IEEE definitions:
where is the illumination efficiency.
However, per the definition of other authors:
So clearly there is a problem. If the IEEE definitions are true, then and therefore . Or, if the other authors are correct, then .
References
Antennas | Illumination efficiency | [
"Engineering"
] | 625 | [
"Antennas",
"Telecommunications engineering"
] |
70,370,455 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adriana%20Pesci | Adriana Irma Pesci is an Argentine applied mathematician and mathematical physicist at the University of Cambridge, specialising in fluid dynamics. Her research topics have included lattice models of polymer solutions, Hele-Shaw flow, flagellar motion of organisms in fluids, soap films on Möbius strips, and the Leidenfrost effect.
Education and career
Pesci is originally from Argentina, and earned her Ph.D. in 1986 at the National University of La Plata in Argentina. She was a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Chicago, under the mentorship of Leo Kadanoff and Norman Lebovitz.
She joined the University of Arizona as a lecturer in physics in 1999, becoming a senior lecturer in 2003. In 2007 she moved to the University of Cambridge, where she is a senior research associate in the Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics, a fellow of King's College, and a former Darley Fellow in Mathematics of Downing College.
Personal life
Pesci married Raymond E. Goldstein, a frequent coauthor who was also a postdoctoral researcher in Chicago and moved with her to Arizona and Cambridge.
Selected publications
References
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Argentine mathematicians
Argentine women mathematicians
Argentine physicists
Argentine women physicists
Fluid dynamicists
National University of La Plata alumni
University of Arizona faculty
Fellows of King's College, Cambridge
Fellows of Downing College, Cambridge | Adriana Pesci | [
"Chemistry"
] | 278 | [
"Fluid dynamicists",
"Fluid dynamics"
] |
70,370,473 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbelopsis%20ramanniana | Umbelopsis ramanniana is a common and abundant soil fungus. Although the ecological role of this fungus in natural ecosystems is not yet known, it is a cosmopolitan saprotroph in soil, forest leaf litter, in animal dung, and on the spore-producing bodies of ascomycete fungi. Umbelopsis ramanniana has also been found growing as an endophyte within xylem tissue of both healthy and declining conifers, but its exact effect on the plant hosts is unknown. Umbelopsis ramanniana is a representative of a unique group of zygomycete fungi that is distinct from the Mucoromycotina and Mortierellomycotina and instead forms an early diverging lineage within the Mucoralean fungi. Umbelopsis ramanniana is important from a biochemistry and biotechnology perspective because it is highly tolerant to fungicides of benomyl group, and it is oleaginous (it regularly produces oils). Expression of Umbelopsis ramanniana diacylglycerol O-acyltransferase 2A in seed increases oil in soybean without reduction of other important yield parameters. This increase in oil can potentially add over $1 billion to the annual value of soybean crops.
Morphology
The species is a part of a complex phylogeny and classification, but the group this species is in differs from others in the order Mucorales by their sporangial structure, their spore shape and size, as well as in their dichotomously branched hyphae.
The sporangial structure is generally branched, producing sympodially proliferated sporangiospores. The spores are tinted pink (though some discussion has been on whether the pigmentations come from the spores, the sporangium itself, or even from the spore drop from the evanescent sporangial wall).
Another characteristic morphological feature is the variation of the sporangiospore shape and size. The shapes vary from subglobose, rounded oblong, and ellipsoidal. The spore sizes vary from 2.2-3.9 μm by 1.3-2.0 μm. The wide ranges are characteristic of the species, but the three sub clades have been shown to account for that difference, each with their own ranges (Ogawa et al. 2005). The variation in the spore shape is thought to be a result of packing spores in a rigid sporangial wall. This prevents the development of round spores when they come to maturity, though differences in this effect are seen throughout the subclades (Tokumasu et al. 1990). U. ramanniana has been observed to have microchlamydospores, ranging from 4.9 ± 0.4 – 9.1 ± 0.8 μm, as well as the potential for macrochlamydospores, though not observed in all subclades. The chlamydospores have been observed to be filled with lipids. Umbelopsis ramanniana is not known to form any sexual structures, and are lacking in zygospores.
The species is further characterized by its velvety colonies, a rudimentary columella being subglobose to flattened, and is lacking in the garlic-like odor that is common in the Mortierella isabellina-Group that U. ramanniana was originally thought to belong to.
General ecology
As of today, the exact ecological role of this fungus is not completely understood. It is a common soil saprobe, but has also been observed in other locations. It has been recorded in Great Britain, Hong Kong, Ireland, Kerala, Mauritius, New Zealand North, Ontario, Peninsular Malaysia, Queensland, Sri Lanka, Sweden, Victoria, and throughout the US. The most prevalent studies have shown Umbelopsis ramanniana to be present in leaf litter, animal dung, on the roots and within the xylem of some conifers, and on spore producing bodies of some ascomycetes including the ascocarp of Peziza species.
Specifically, in reference to the roots and xylem tissue of some trees, it has been observed within the soil in the root zone, with an affinity for fine roots, as well as within root core samples as an endophyte of certain conifers, including Picea abies and the Ponderosa pine. A study by Hoff et al. in 2004 researched the soil mycology before and after a change in the soil environment, in this case a forest fire, to see how the fungal populations changed. U. ramanniana was one of the first to bounce back, with affinity for the ponderosa pine, leading the authors to believe that it is a common endophyte and soil saprobe that is favored by disturbance in a dry environment.
Also, the spores of U. ramanniana have been found on the bodies of mites, along with many other genera. There seems to be no apparent symbiosis. It simply seems that the spores hitch a ride, and the mite is a simple vector for the spore dispersal of multiple ubiquitous fungi.
Human relevance
Umbelopsis ramanniana is quite relevant to biology and human activity today due to both its high tolerance to benomyl group fungicides, and the oleaginous nature of the fungus. When isolating fungi from field or mixed samples, scientists often use an isolating medium containing benomyl fungicides, which constrict the growth of some fungi while having little to no effect on other genera. This allows for preferential colonization and the isolation of different strains for identification and research purposes. With U. ramanniana’s tolerance to this medium, it is more easily isolated, identified, and cultured for research and production purposes.
Beyond its ease of isolation and culture, the fungus is also oleaginous – it produces oil. It contains the gene diacylglycerol acyltransferase 2A, which is what codes for the oil production. Scientists have created a codon-optimized version of this gene that is introduced into soybeans and maize in order to increase the oil content of the oilseeds. Soybean production and processing alone accounts for 30% of vegetable oil used for food, feed, and industrial applications. It is first on the list of sources of lipids in food and biofuels, with maize coming in second. In these crops, most often there is an inverse relationship between oil and both protein and yield. As oil content is increased, yield and protein levels decrease. This is undesirable in large scale production, but the invention of the oil transgene allows produces to modulate one pathway without affecting the other. In soybeans, this gene increased oil content 1.5% by weight in mature seed, without any decrease in yield or protein synthesis. This is a huge step forward for the oilseed industry ().
Taxonomy and phylogeny
Umbelopsis ramanniana was first described by MÖLLER in 1903 under the name Mucor ramannianus, however today it is classified as Umbelopsis ramanniana (MÖLLER) W. Gams 2003. The name has gone through many changes from MÖLLER to Gams, and synonyms of Umbelopsis ramanniana include: Micromucor ramannianus (MÖLLER) Arx 1984, Mucor ramannianus MÖLLER 1903, Mortierella ramanniana (MÖLLER) Linnem 1941, Mortierella ramanniana var. ramanniana (MÖLLER) Linnem 1941, Mucor ramannianus var. ramannianus MÖLLER 1903, and Micromucor ramannianus var. ramannianus (MÖLLER) Arx 1984. As of today, there are no well-known or preferred common names.
U. ramanniana's classification is structured as follows: fungi > Zygomycota > not assigned > Mucorales > Umbelopsidaceae > Umbelopsis > U. ramanniana. It was originally through to be in the Mucoromycotina, however through genetic analysis has now been separated from it as well as Mortierellomycotina. It has two varieties that have been determined by its variable sporangial and zygospore structures; these two varieties are U. ramanniana var. ramanniana, and U. ramanniana var. angulispora. The latter is described as a variety due to the angular shape of its spores, thought to be due to the pressure of the rigid sporangial wall.
The order Mucorales was first studied by scientists in the late 1800s, with a large amount of that research being done in Europe, but some in the southeastern United States. The zygomycete Umbelopsis ramanniana was first located as a ubiquitous soil saprobe in these areas of the world, as well as found in dung. As of today, it is recognized as within a polyphyletic group of Umbelopsis, but is thought to comprise three different intraspecific groups, based on genetic and phylogenetic research. Multiple phylogenetic trees have been created and published to show both the characterization of U. ramanniana and the three sub-clades.
References
Zygomycota
Fungi described in 1903
Fungus species | Umbelopsis ramanniana | [
"Biology"
] | 1,946 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
70,370,785 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flickering%20spectroscopy | Flickering analysis of cellular or membranous structures is a widespread technique for measuring the bending modulus and other properties from the power spectrum of thermal fluctuations.
First demonstrated theoretically by Brochard and Lennon in 1975, flickering spectroscopy has become a widespread technique due to its simplicity and lack of specialised equipment beyond a brightfield microscope. It is used in structures such as red blood cells, giant unilamellar vesicles and other cell-like structures.
Theoretical overview
Considering a quasi-spherical shell subject to thermal undulations according to Langevin dynamics, one can express the time-averaged mean square amplitudes of the fluctuation modes as
where and index the fluctuation mode corresponding to spherical harmonics and is the reduced membrane tension, is the spontaneous curvature and is the bending modulus, as defined by the Helfrich hamiltonian.
Experimental procedure and analysis
The equatorial plane of a cell-like structure can be imaged using phase contrast microscopy to obtain a video showing the fluctuations of the membrane.
On the video, the contours can be found using image analysis algorithms, which can then be used to determine the power spectrum of the fluctuation modes in real space amplitude. This can be used, following the steps above, to obtain relevant parameters such as the bending modulus, which is useful for a number of applications in membrane structure research.
References
Spectroscopy | Flickering spectroscopy | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry"
] | 277 | [
"Instrumental analysis",
"Molecular physics",
"Spectroscopy",
"Spectrum (physical sciences)"
] |
70,371,363 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass%20formation | A glass is an amorphous solid completely lacking long range periodic atomic structure that exhibits a region of glass transformation. This broad definition means that any material be it organic, inorganic, metallic, etc. in nature may form a glass if it exhibits glass transformation behavior. However prior to 1900 very few non-silicate glasses were known and the theories developed were consequently heavily influenced by existing observations of silicate melts (compounds containing silicon and oxygen). These theories are grouped under the heading of structural theories of glass formation. In later years many non-silicate glasses were discovered and it is recognized today that almost any material is capable of forming a glass given the right experimental conditions and focus has changed from which materials will form a glass to under what conditions will a particular material form a glass. More recent theories focus on the kinetics behind the formation of glass and these kinetic theories of glass formation have largely replaced earlier structural theories.
Structural theories of glass formation
Among the first structural theories of glass formation was that which was developed by Goldschmidt who stated that glasses of the general formula RnOm will form glasses when the ratio of the ionic radii of the cation to the oxygen is in the range of 0.2 to 0.4. When this condition is true the cation tends to be bonded to 4 oxygen atoms and have a tetrahedral coordination. As such Goldschmidt concluded from this that only cations with tetrahedral coordination would form glasses on cooling. The conclusion was empirical and no attempt was made to explain this observation by Goldschmidt.
The ideas of Goldschmidt were extended by Zachariasen who attempted to explain why certain coordination numbers would favor glass formation. He noted that silicates which formed glasses rather than recrystallizing after melting and cooling formed network structures consisting of tetrahedra joined at all four corners in a non-periodic non-symmetric manner (unlike crystals which are periodic and symmetrical. These networks extend in all three dimensions in a manner such that the average behavior of the glass is identical - the properties of the glass are isotropic. Using this as his basis Zachariasen concluded that the ability to form a glass was dependent on the ability to form these networks. He then went on to explain the necessary conditions for forming such a network, which he defined as follows:
An oxygen atom cannot be connected to more than two cations otherwise the variation in bond angles required to form a non periodic network cannot be achieved.
The number of oxygen atoms must be small either 3 or 4, which was and empirically determined condition based on the fact that the only glasses known at the time were formed from either triangular or tetrahedrally coordinated cations.
At least 3 corners of a polyhedron must be shared in order to yield a 3 dimensional structure and the polyhedra may only be joined at the corners (they do not share edges or faces).
He also stated that the melt must be cooled under appropriate conditions in order for glass formation to occur, anticipating later kinetic theories of glass formation. Other statements of Zachariasen were used as the basis for a class of glass formation models known as random network theory. However, in his original work Zachariasen did not use the term random network preferring instead to use "vitreous network" as the structure is not truly random and is constrained by minimum distances between atoms. As a consequence not all inter-nuclear distances are equally probably and observed x ray patterns for glasses are a consequence of a vitreous network.
Other structural theories of glass formation focused on the nature of the bonds between cations and anions. For example, Smekal suggested that only bonds which are intermediate in nature lying between purely ionic and purely covalent in a melt would allow for the formation of glass. He suggested this on the basis that ionic bonds lack the directionality required to form a network and that covalent bonds would enforce strict bond angles preventing the variation required for the formation of a non periodic network. Stanworth attempted to better quantify this mixed bond concept and divided oxides into three groups on the basis of electronegativity of the cation. The groups were as follows:
network formers: cations which form bonds to oxygen with near 50% ionic character produce good glasses
intermediates: form slightly more ionic bonds with oxygen though the cannot form glasses themselves they can partially replace cations of the network former class.
modifiers: cations with very low electronegativities which form highly ionic bonds with oxygen, these never act as network formers and can only modify structures created by network formers.
Bond strength was also suggested as an important factor in the formation of glasses. Sun argued that strong bonds were important for the formation of glasses as they prevent the reorganization of the material into a crystal structure during cooling, therefore facilitating glass formation. The bond strength he referred to could be given by the energy required to dissociate an oxide structure in the gaseous phase divided by the number of bonds. Although this model yielded results that were compatible with previous observations, it yielded no new insights into the formation of glass. Rawson argued that Sun ignored the importance of temperature in his model suggesting that higher melting points yields more energy for bond disruption whilst low temperatures afford less energy. He argued that a material with a low melting temperature and high bond strength would be a better glass former than a one with a similar bond strength but a much higher melting point. Although the application of this model to single cation oxides does little to improve the results of the application of the Sun model, it does predict the excellent glass forming property of boric oxide and extension to binary and ternary systems yields the prediction that the ease of glass formation should be improved for compositions near eutectics. This observation has often been made and is dubbed the "liquidus temperature effect". An example of this is the glass formation of the CaO-Al2O3 binary in a region near a eutectic.
Kinetic theories of glass formation
The structural theories of glass formation only consider the relative ease of glass formation. Materials which form glasses under a moderate cooling rate are called good glass formers, those that require a rapid cooling rate are called poor glass formers and those that require extreme cooling rates are referred to a non-glass formers. As it is now recognized that nearly any material is capable of forming a glass given the correct experimental conditions the focus of kinetic theories of glass formation is to identify how fast a system must be cooled to form a glass and avoid detectable crystallization, rather than whether or not a system will form a glass.
References
Glass | Glass formation | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry"
] | 1,341 | [
"Homogeneous chemical mixtures",
"Amorphous solids",
"Unsolved problems in physics",
"Glass"
] |
70,371,481 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghostbusters%3A%20Spirits%20Unleashed | Ghostbusters: Spirits Unleashed is a 2022 action game by IllFonic. An asymmetrical multiplayer game based on the Ghostbusters media franchise, it is set after the events of Ghostbusters: Afterlife and focuses on players tackling matches either as a ghostbuster trying to capture ghosts, or a ghost trying to haunt a location. It was released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Xbox One and Xbox Series X/S in October 2022. A Nintendo Switch port was released on October 19, 2023.
Gameplay
Spirits Unleased focuses on online multiplayer gameplay for up to five players, focusing on 4v1 matches with asymmetrical gameplay. Each player is able to create their own Ghostbuster avatar, with the Ghostbusters' headquarters acting as a hub between matches where players can change their avatar's appearance, clothing and voice, as well as manage items and upgrades they have unlocked. At times, players will also be required to visit certain areas of the hub to progress events in the game's storyline. Matches dubbed as "jobs" are initiated at the hub and can be set to a specific location or a random choice, with players able to designate whether they prefer to play as a ghostbuster, or be chosen to control a ghost in the match; players may also opt to let an AI bot control the ghost for the match.
In a match, the goal for each side is specific: the ghost's aim is to haunt the selected location and avoid being captured; while the ghostbusters must focus on trapping the ghost, with the option of closing rifts to reduce the ghost's chance of success, but must do so before the ghost can fully haunt a location. If a ghost manages to fully haunt a location, a countdown timer begins, and the Ghostbusters will be required to close down any active rifts and capture the ghost before it runs out, otherwise they lose the match. Each side functions differently during a match, with the ghost working on their own and using a combination of stealth and sabotage techniques against their opponents, while the Ghostbusters must use teamwork, co-ordination, and a variety of gadgets to defeat the ghost. Both sides earn experience for their equipment/abilities, while at the end of the match, players earn experience towards their overall level, which reaching certain thresholds will unlock new ghosts and appearances, and new items for use in matches and customising their avatar's appearance. Additional experience can also be earned by completing daily and weekly challenges focused on different tasks, such as destroying bins, or completing a set number of matches.
The ghost is controlled from a third-person perspective, and must focus on haunting a location by causing mischief in each room, while avoiding detection and capture for as long as possible. Each ghost that the player can access has different strengths and weakenesses, which can affect how they can be utilized in a match. The ghost can use special abilities that can summon small minions to assist in haunting a location and sprint around a location, as well as slime Ghostbusters to disable them temporarily and sabotage their proton packs. For most of the time, the ghost must use interactive objects - such as stools, bins, and cleaning buckets - to either hide in and avoid detection, which can also allow them to recuperate energy that was spent on abilities, or to haunt them and cause havoc as well as to divert their opponents. They can also scare AI civilians, even possessing them, which can cause havoc for the ghostbusters and further improve their chance of success. Ghosts can resist the tether effect of the Ghostbuster's proto pack, but will be captured if they are drawn into a trap; however, if any rifts are still active in the match, the ghost will respawn at the cost of a rift being closed.
The Ghostbusters are controlled from a first-person perspective, and rely on a proton pack for capturing ghosts - which must be vented if fired for long periods and a PKE meter to locate them with the added bonus of an AoE attack that stun ghosts and damage rifts. In addition to their standard equipment, the Ghostbusters can also make use of different gadgets, being able to utilize only one at a time but with the ability to switch to another via a gear cart spawned at the team's starting position. Most of the time, players in the ghostbuster team need to focus on the PKE meter to find the ghost and their rifts (which only become visible when exposed), as well as calm down AI civilians wandering the location; frightened civilians fleeing the location will knock out any ghostbusters in their path. During a match, players can collect fungus scattered around a location, which provide an experience bonus for those who collect them. When capturing the ghost, the team must co-ordinate their efforts, laying down a trap and tethering a ghost towards it. If any member is slimed completely, they can either clean themselves or be aided by another to revive them.
Plot
Following the events of Ghostbusters: Afterlife, Ghostbuster founders Raymond "Ray" Stantz and Winston Zeddemore re-establish the Ghostbusters, with the latter acquiring and reopening the organization's old headquarters in a New York firehouse. Believing a new generation is needed to tackle the paranormal and occult, the pair recruit two new members to serve as staff members at the headquarters Catt, the new co-ordinator and assistant; and Eddy, a technological genius assigned to lab work and research. The group soon begin recruiting a new selection of rookies to serve as Ghostbusters, shortly before Ray takes delivery of an occult relic known as the Spirit Guide, written by John Horace Tobin a researcher of the occult, with whom Ray is fascinated.
After conducting a few jobs, the new Ghostbusters are tasked with checking in on a package from Ray and Winston's close friend Peter Venkman, which turns out to be an old ghost trap that no one at the firehouse can account for. Tasked with using it on the ghost containment unit, the trap suddenly malfunctions before a mysterious force known as "The Nameless" escapes and possesses Winston. Concerned for his friend, Ray and the others order the Nameless to exit his body, only to find something has tethered it to Winston. Eddy soon works to find a way to separate the pair, but his efforts backfire and cause the Nameless to open a rift into the realm of ghosts. With further research into the matter, Eddy advises the Ghostbusters to enter the rift and determine if they can find something beyond it that can free Winston.
Inside the rift, the Ghostbusters come across the spirit form of Tobin as his book - which had awakened and been creating rifts for ghosts to use - who is shocked to discover their presence. Although wishing them to leave, he allows the Ghostbusters to learn that the leather binding of the Spirit Guide, which they removed, is key to freeing Winston. Returning to the living world, Eddy uses this knowledge to create the necessary means to liberate Winston and entrap the Nameless. Satisfied with how the rookie Ghostbusters performed, Ray and Winston officially recognize them as a fully fledged Ghostbuster, with Catt supplying them a new outfit. Before Winston and Ray can treat them to a celebration meal, Catt receives call of a new job, which the Ghostbusters promptly attend to.
Ecto Edition
An updated version, the Ecto Edition, was released in 2023. The additional material, which sees Ray, Winston and the new Ghostbusters face off against Samhain while preparing for the Spengler family's upcoming visit to New York City (leading into the events of Ghostbusters: Frozen Empire) was included with the Switch version and was made available as downloadable content for the PC, PS4, PS5, and Xbox One/Series X|S versions.
Development and release
IllFonic, which had previously worked on Friday the 13th: The Game and Predator: Hunting Grounds, served as the game's lead developer. Spirits Unleashed was first teased by IllFonic's studio head Raphael Saadiq in October 2021. The game was officially announced in March 2022, and was released on the Epic Games Store for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Xbox One and Xbox Series X/S on October 18, 2022.
The game features the likenesses and voices of Ernie Hudson as Winston Zeddemore and Dan Aykroyd as Ray Stantz. In June 2023, it was announced that Ghostbusters: Spirits Unleashed – Ecto Edition would be released later in 2023 for Nintendo Switch. The announcement trailer also teased the addition of Samhain to the game in a DLC leading into the events of Ghostbusters: Frozen Empire.
In March 2024, Illfonic revealed a Year Two roadmap with content to be released seasonally throughout the rest of the year. Content includes a “Frozen Empire” tie-in pack, variant Slimer Skins, as well as new ghosts, cosmetics and more.
Reception
Ghostbusters: Spirits Unleashed received "mixed or average" reviews according to review aggregator Metacritic.
References
External links
Official website
2022 video games
Action-adventure games
Asymmetrical multiplayer video games
Ghostbusters video games
IllFonic games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Nintendo Switch games
PlayStation 4 games
PlayStation 5 games
Unreal Engine 4 games
Video games about spirit possession
Video games developed in the United States
Video games set in New York City
Windows games
Xbox One games
Xbox Series X and Series S games | Ghostbusters: Spirits Unleashed | [
"Physics"
] | 1,984 | [
"Asymmetrical multiplayer video games",
"Symmetry",
"Asymmetry"
] |
60,993,374 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VVV-WIT-07 | VVV-WIT-07 is a unique variable star which presents a sequence of recurrent dimmings (Ks~14.35 – 16.164) with a possible deep eclipse in July 2012. The star, located in the Scorpius constellation about away, is not a binary star, which would eliminate such a system from explaining the various observed dimmings.
Overview
The star was found by the "Vista Variables in the Via Lactea" (VVV) project, which is a survey of European Southern Observatory (ESO) variability of the innermost bulge of the Milky Way galaxy. The near-infrared spectra of VVV-WIT-07 appear without features, without prominent emission or absorption lines. The characteristics found in the light curve of VVV-WIT-07 (WIT refers to "What Is This?") are similar to those seen in J1407 (Mamajek's Object), a pre-MS K5 dwarf with a ring system that eclipses the star or, alternatively, to Tabby's star, an F3 IV/V star that shows irregular and aperiodic obscurations in its light curve.
From 2010 to 2018, the star dimmed and brightened irregularly (v~14.35 – 16.164), and seemed similar to Tabby's star, except the light from VVV-WIT-07 dimmed by up to 80 percent, while Tabby's star faded by only about 20 percent. Another star, J1407, however, has been found to have dimmed by up to 95%, which may be more similar to the light curve presented by VVV-WIT-07. Nonetheless, according to ESO astronomer Valentin Ivanov, "A key word that could be used to describe our finding [of VVV-WIT-07] is extreme. In every aspect ... We have identified a system that challenges the imagination even more than usual, because it is so unlike our own planetary system."
See also
Disrupted planet
List of stars that have unusual dimming periods
References
External links
, a presentation by Tabetha S. Boyajian (2016).
, a presentation by Issac Arthur (2016).
, star with unusual light fluctuations (2017).
, up to 80% dimming.
Astronomical objects discovered in 2018
Scorpius
2018 in science
Unsolved problems in astronomy | VVV-WIT-07 | [
"Physics",
"Astronomy"
] | 498 | [
"Unsolved problems in astronomy",
"Concepts in astronomy",
"Constellations",
"Scorpius",
"Astronomical controversies"
] |
60,993,507 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honeymoon%20suite%20%28hotel%29 | A honeymoon suite, or a 'romance suite', in a hotel or other places of accommodation denotes a suite with special amenities primarily aimed at couples and newlyweds.
It is a form of niche marketing that likely originated during the 1920s with Niagara Falls providing small huts for couples to stay in near its site as a form of promotion. In The Second Greatest Disappointment: Honeymooning and Tourism at Niagara Falls, author Karen Dubinsky refers to one campground owner in particular who named his cabins "honeymoon huts". However, there were no mentions of "honeymoon suites" in any advertorial literature at Niagara. According to Dubinsky, such targeted promotions towards honeymooners began only in the 1930 and 1940s, further increasing post the Second World War. In the early 1930s, the Toronto-Niagara and New York City-Niagara railway routes were dubbed as "Honeymoon Special".
See also
Presidential suite
References
Hotel terminology
Rooms | Honeymoon suite (hotel) | [
"Engineering"
] | 184 | [
"Rooms",
"Architecture"
] |
60,994,412 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Roy%20Branch | William Roy "Bill" Branch (12 May 1946, London, England – 14 October 2018, Port Elizabeth, South Africa) was a British-South-African herpetologist.
Branch studied at the University of Southampton where he remained until completing his Ph.D. degree (Studies on a foetal-specific alpha-globulin [AFP] in the rabbit ). From 1972 he worked as a scientist in the Life Sciences Division of the Atomic Energy Board in Pretoria doing research on, inter alia, liver cancer, but returned to the University of Southampton in 1976 to take up a post-doctoral research fellowship in the Department of Biology studying the synthesis of chemicals in the liver of foetal rabbits.
He started working at Port Elizabeth Museum in 1979 and retired in 2011, when he was appointed as Research Associate and Curator Emeritus. Over a period of almost 40 years he conducted field work in about 20 African countries and played a major role in building up the large reptile and amphibian collections at the Museum.
Publications
Branch authored well over 600 publications (including over 150 major scientific articles in peer-reviewed journals), and described (as primary or co-author) about 50 species and 19 genera of reptiles and amphibians which makes him one of the top-100 alpha-taxonomists in herpetology of all time. His publications included several books and book chapters on reptiles and amphibians, and he was co-editor of the Atlas and Red List of Reptiles of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland (2014).
Honors, achievements and service
Branch was also an important figure in the Herpetological Association of Africa. He edited the Association's journal in the 1980s and 1990s, and founded the newsletter (now African Herp News).
A frog species, Breviceps branchi; a lizard species, Acanthocercus branchi; a species of venomous snake, Atractaspis branchi; as well as a genus of lizards, were named after him. He also served on several conference committees, journal editorial committees, co-supervised a number of post-graduate students, examined several university theses, and refereed nearly 200 manuscripts for about 56 different journals.
Publications
Branch, Bill (2004). Field Guide to Snakes and other Reptiles of Southern Africa. Third Revised edition, Second impression. Sanibel Island, Florida: Ralph Curtis Books. 399 pp. .
See also
:Category:Taxa named by William Roy Branch
References
Further reading
Herpetologists
1946 births
2018 deaths
People from Gqeberha
Alumni of the University of Southampton
Taxon authorities
British herpetologists | William Roy Branch | [
"Biology"
] | 532 | [
"Taxon authorities",
"Taxonomy (biology)"
] |
60,996,415 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estradiol/estradiol%20enanthate | Estradiol/estradiol enanthate (E2/E2-EN) is an injectable combination formulation of estradiol (E2), a short-acting estrogen, and estradiol enanthate (E2-EN), a long-acting estrogen, which was developed by Boehringer around 1960 for potential medical use but was never marketed. It contained 1 mg E2 and 9 mg E2-EN in oil solution and was intended for administration by intramuscular injection.
A single intramuscular injection of E2/E2-EN (1 mg/9 mg) has been found to result in a 10-fold increase in estradiol excretion on the 2nd day post-injection (due to the 1 mg short-acting E2 component). Following this, estradiol excretion remained above the menstrual-cycle average for 10 days post-injection and did not return to baseline until the 24th day post-injection (due to the 9 mg long-acting E2-EN component).
E2/E2-EN is similar to estradiol benzoate/estradiol phenylpropionate (brand name Dimenformon Prolongatum), another injectable combination medication of a shorter-acting estrogen (2.5 mg) and a longer-acting estrogen (10 mg). In contrast to E2/E2-EN however, estradiol benzoate/estradiol phenylpropionate was marketed for medical use.
See also
Estradiol benzoate/estradiol phenylpropionate
Estradiol benzoate/estradiol valerate/hydroxyprogesterone caproate
List of combined sex-hormonal preparations
References
Abandoned drugs
Combination sex hormone drugs | Estradiol/estradiol enanthate | [
"Chemistry"
] | 387 | [
"Drug safety",
"Abandoned drugs"
] |
60,996,879 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIQE | The Minimum Information for Publication of Quantitative Real-Time PCR Experiments (MIQE) guidelines are a set of protocols for conducting and reporting quantitative real-time PCR experiments and data, as devised by Bustin et al. in 2009. They were devised after a paper was published in 2002 that claimed to detect measles virus in children with autism through the use of RT-qPCR, but the results proved to be completely unreproducible by other scientists. The authors themselves also did not try to reproduce them and the raw data was found to have a large amount of errors and basic mistakes in analysis. This incident prompted Stephen Bustin to create the MIQE guidelines to provide a baseline level of quality for qPCR data published in scientific literature.
Purpose
The MIQE guidelines were created due to the low quality of qPCR data submitted to academic journals at the time, which was only becoming more common as Next Generation Sequencing machinery allowed for such experiments to be run for a cheaper cost. Because the technique is utilized across all of science in multiple fields, the instruments, methods, and designs of how qPCR is used differ greatly. To help improve overall quality, the MIQE guidelines were made as generalized suggestions on basic experimental procedures and forms of data that should be collected as a minimum level of reported information for other researchers to understand and use when reading the published material. Setting up a recognized and largely agreed upon set of guidelines such as these were deemed important by the scientific community especially due to the ever increasing amount of scientific work coming from developing countries with many different languages and protocols.
History
Original version developments
In 2009, Stephen Bustin led an international group of scientists including Mikael Kubista to put together a set of guidelines on how to perform qPCR and what forms of data should be collected and published in the process. This also allowed editors and reviewers of scientific journals to employ the guidelines when looking over a submitted paper that included qPCR data. Thus, the guidelines were set up as a sort of checklist for each step of the procedure with certain items being marked as essential (E) when submitting data for publication and others marked as just desirable (D).
An additional version of the guidelines was published in September 2010 for use with fluorescence-based quantitative real-time PCR. It also acted as a précis for the broader form of the guidelines. Other researchers have been creating further versions for specific forms of qPCR that may require a supplementary or different set of items to check, including single-cell qPCR and digital PCR (dPCR). Appropriate adherence to the existing MIQE guidelines has also been overviewed in other scientific areas, including photobiomodulation and clinical biomarkers.
It was noted by Bustin in 2014 (and again by him in 2017) that there was some amount of uptake and usage of the MIQE guidelines within the scientific community, but there were still far too many published papers with qPCR experiments that lacked even the most basic of data presentation and proper confirmation of effectiveness for said data. These studies retained major reproducibility issues, where the conclusions of their evidence could not be replicated by other researchers, throwing the initial results into doubt. All of this was despite many papers directly citing Bustin's original MIQE publication, but not following through on the guideline checklist of material in their own experiments. However, some researchers have pointed out at least some success, with a number of papers being rejected by academic journals for publication due to failing to pass MIQE checklists. Other studies have been retracted after the fact once their lack of proper data to pass the MIQE guidelines was noted and publicly pointed out to the journal editors.
Tightening of guidelines
When setting up their new comparative qPCR systems titled "Dots in Boxes" in 2017, New England Biolabs stated that they had designed the data collection portion around the MIQE guidelines so that the data fit all the minimum parameter checklists in the protocols. Other scientific instrument companies have assisted in guideline compliance by purposefully tailoring their devices for them, including Bio-Rad creating a mobile app that allows for active marking of the MIQE checklist as each step is completed.
An overview of the 10th anniversary since the publication of the MIQE guidelines was conducted in June 2020 and discussed the scientific studies that had produced better and more organized results when following the guidelines. In August 2020, an updated version of the guidelines for the digital PCR method was published to account for improvement in machinery, technologies, and techniques since the original 2013 release. Additional guideline steps were added for data analysis, while also providing a more simplified checklist table for researchers to use. An RT-qPCR targeting assay was developed alongside Stephen Bustin using the MIQE guidelines for clinical biomarkers in December 2020 in order to identify the clinical presence of COVID-19 viral particles during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Guidelines overview
The MIQE guidelines are split up into 9 different sections that make up the checklist. These include not only considerations for doing the qPCR itself, but also how the resulting data is collected, analyzed, and presented. An important part of the latter is including information relating to the analysis software used and also submitting the raw data to the relevant databases.
Experimental design
Large portions of the guidelines include basic actions that would normally be included in experiments and publications regardless, such as an item for describing the experimental and control group differences. Other such information includes how many individual units are used in each group in the experiment. These two pieces are defined as essential for any study. This section also includes two desirable points, which are pointing out whether the author's laboratory itself or a core laboratory of the university or organization conducted the qPCR assay and an acknowledgement of any other individuals that contributed to the work.
Sample
The essential requirements that samples and sample material must meet includes a description of the sample, what form of dissection was used, what processing method was done, whether the samples were frozen or fixed and how long did it take, and what sample conditions were used. It is also desirable to know the volume or mass of the sample that was processed for the qPCR.
Nucleic acid extraction
For the process of extracting the DNA/RNA, there are a number of essential guidelines. This includes a description of the extraction process done, a statement on what DNA extraction kit was used and any changes made to the directions, details on whether any DNase or RNase treatment was used, a statement on whether any contamination was assessed, a quantification of the amount of genetic material extracted, a description of the instruments used for the extraction, the methods used to retain RNA integrity, a statement on the RNA integrity number and quality indicator and the quantification cycle (Cq) reached, and lastly what testing was done to determine the presence or absence of inhibitors. Four desired pieces of information are where the reagents used were obtained from, what level of genetic purity was obtained, what yield was obtained, and an electrophoresis gel image for confirmation.
Reverse transcription
The primary essential parts for this phase include detailing the reaction conditions in full, giving both the amount of RNA used and the total volume of the reaction, give information on the oligonucleotide used as a primer and its concentration, the concentration and type of reverse transcriptase used, and lastly the temperature and amount of time done for the reaction. It is also desirable to have the catalog numbers of reagents used and their manufacturers, the standard deviation for the Cq with and without the transcriptase being involved, and how the cDNA was stored.
qPCR target information
All of the basic information regarding the target is necessary here, including the gene symbol, the accession database number for the sequence in question, the length of the sequence being amplified, information about the specificity screen used such as BLAST, what splicing variants exist for the sequence, and where the exon or intron for each primer is. There are several desired, but not required information pieces for this section, such as the location of the amplicon, whether any pseudogenes or homologs exist, whether a sequence alignment was done and the data obtained from it, and any data on the secondary structure of the amplified sequence.
qPCR oligonucleotides
Creation of the oligonucleotides requires only two pieces of essential information: the primer sequences used and the location and details of any modifications made to the sequence. But there are several desirable pieces of data, including the identification number from the RTPrimerDB database, the sequences from the probes, the manufacturer used to make the oligos, and how they were purified.
qPCR protocol
As one of the primary segments of the guidelines, there are several essential parts on the checklist for the qPCR process itself. This includes the full set of conditions used for the reaction, the volume of both the reaction and the cDNA, the concentrations for the probes, magnesium ions, and dNTPs, what kind of polymerase was used and its concentration, what kit was used and its manufacturer, what additives to the reaction were used, who manufactured the qPCR machine, and what parameters were set for the thermocycling process. The only additional desired pieces of information are the chemical composition of the buffer used, who manufactured the plates and tubes used and what their catalog number is, and whether the reaction was set up manually or by a machine.
qPCR validation
In order to confirm the effectiveness and quality of the qPCR process that was performed, there are several actions and subsequent data that must be presented. This includes explaining the specific method of checking that the process functioned, such as using a gel, direct sequencing of the genetic material, showing a melt profile, or from digestion by restriction enzyme. If SYBR Green I was used, then the Cq of the control group with no template DNA must be given. Further essential data includes the calibration of the machine curves with the slope and y intercept noted, the efficiency of the PCR process as determined from the aforementioned slope, the correlation coefficients (r squared) for the calibration curves, the dynamic range of the linear curves, the Cq found at the lowest concentration where 95% of the results were still positive (LOD) along with the evidence for the LOD itself, and lastly if a multiplex is used, then the efficiency and LOD must be given for each assay done.
The extra desired information includes evidence given that qPCR optimization occurred by the use of gradients, the confidence intervals to show efficiency of the qPCR, and the confidence intervals for the entire range tested.
Data analysis
The final section of the guidelines involves information on how the analysis of the qPCR data was done. The essential parts of that include the program and program version used for the analysis, the method for how the Cq was determined, figuring out the outlier points in the data and how they are used or excluded and why, what results were found for the controls with no template genetic material, an explanation for why the reference genes used were chosen and why the number of them was chosen, the method used to normalize the data, how many technical replicates were included, how repeatable was the data within the assays, what methods were used to determine significance of the results, and what software was used for this part of the qualitative analysis.
It is also desired to include information on the number of biological replicates and whether they matched the results from the technical replicates, the reproducibility data for the concentration variants, data on the power analysis, and lastly for the researchers to submit the raw data in the RDML file format.
References
Further reading
Molecular biology
Laboratory techniques
Polymerase chain reaction | MIQE | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 2,441 | [
"Biochemistry methods",
"Genetics techniques",
"Polymerase chain reaction",
"nan",
"Molecular biology",
"Biochemistry"
] |
60,997,210 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maritza%20Soto | Maritza Soto Vásquez (born 1990) is a Chilean astronomer who discovered the exoplanets , K2-237b, and K2-238b.
Career
On 19 August 2015, Soto confirmed the existence of exoplanet . From La Silla Observatory, she discovered a planet 293 light-years away from Earth which orbits the red giant HD 110014 – Chi Virginis of the constellation Virgo. The planet, which has a mass three times that of Jupiter, was named HD 110014 c, following international terminology. Although it had been detected in 2004 and 2011, Soto was the first to check and annotate the data to prove its existence.
As a postdoctoral researcher and leader of a team of astronomers at the Queen Mary University of London, in the summer of 2018 Soto unveiled the discovery of two gaseous exoplanets orbiting different stars, K2-237b and K2-238b, both larger than Jupiter. K2-237b orbits its star every two days, while K2-238b orbits every three days. A paper about K2-237b and K2-238b was published with Soto as the first author in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. K2-237b is a highly inflated hot Jupiter and orbits a relative bright star, making it a target for follow-up studies.
Recognitions
In September 2018, Soto was nominated for the Natida Chileno del Año 2018 award, an initiative to recognize Chileans who excel in different areas.
References
1990 births
Chilean astronomers
Discoverers of exoplanets
Living people
University of Chile alumni
Women astronomers
Planetary scientists
Women planetary scientists
Chilean expatriates in the United Kingdom | Maritza Soto | [
"Astronomy"
] | 347 | [
"Women astronomers",
"Astronomers"
] |
60,997,393 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julie%20Elizabeth%20Gough | Julie Elizabeth Gough is a Professor of Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering at The University of Manchester. She specializes on controlling cellular responses at the cell-biomaterial interface by engineering defined surfaces for mechanically sensitive connective tissues.
Early life and education
Gough is a cell biologist. She studied cell- and immunobiology, and molecular pathology and toxicology at the University of Leicester, graduating with a BSc in 1993 and an MSc in 1994, respectively. She continued her doctoral studies at the University of Nottingham, earning her PhD in Biomaterials in 1998. Between 1998 and 2002, she furthered her studies at both Nottingham and Imperial College London as a postdoctoral fellow working on novel composites and bioactive glasses for bone repair.
Research and career
Gough joined the School of Materials, Faculty of Science and Engineering at The University of Manchester, as a lecturer in 2002. She was quickly promoted to Senior lecturer and Reader in 2006 and 2010, respectively.
From 2012 to 2013 she was a Royal Academy of Engineering/Leverhulme Trust Senior Research Fellow. Gough was made full Professor in 2014.
Since then, she has continued her research in tissue engineering of mechanically sensitive connective tissues such as bone, cartilage, skeletal muscle and the intervertebral disc. This includes analysis and control of cells such as osteoblasts, chondrocytes, fibroblasts, keratinocytes, myoblasts and macrophages on a variety of materials and scaffolds. Her research also involves the development of scaffolds for tissue repair using novel hydrogels and magnesium alloys as various porous and fibrous materials. Gough has worked on the advisory board of the journal Biomaterials Science, and as part of the local organising committee for the World Biomaterials Congress.
References
External links
Biomaterials
Tissue engineering
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Women molecular biologists
Professorships at the University of Manchester
Alumni of the University of Leicester
Alumni of the University of Nottingham | Julie Elizabeth Gough | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry",
"Engineering",
"Biology"
] | 411 | [
"Biomaterials",
"Biological engineering",
"Cloning",
"Chemical engineering",
"Materials",
"Tissue engineering",
"Matter",
"Medical technology"
] |
60,997,926 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estradiol%20butyrylacetate/testosterone%20ketolaurate/reserpine | Estradiol butyrylacetate/testosterone ketolaurate/reserpine (EBA/TKL/R), sold under the brand name Klimanosid R-Depot, is an injectable combination medication of estradiol butyrylacetate (EBA), an estrogen, testosterone ketolaurate (TKL; testosterone caprinoylacetate), an androgen/anabolic steroid, and reserpine, an antipsychotic, which was previously used in menopausal hormone therapy for women, particularly in those with pronounced neurovegetative symptoms. It contains 2 mg EBA, 50 mg TKL, and 0.4 mg reserpine in oil solution in each 1 mL ampoule and is administered by intramuscular injection at regular intervals. The medication was marketed in 1957.
EBA/TKL reportedly has a duration of about 21 days.
Oral tablet products with the same brand names of Klimanosid and Klimanosid R, containing methylestradiol and methyltestosterone, with and without reserpine, were marketed around the same time as Klimanosid-R Depot, and should not be confused with the injectable formulation.
See also
List of combined sex-hormonal preparations
References
Abandoned drugs
Antipsychotics
Combined estrogen–androgen formulations | Estradiol butyrylacetate/testosterone ketolaurate/reserpine | [
"Chemistry"
] | 294 | [
"Drug safety",
"Abandoned drugs"
] |
60,998,202 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estradiol%20undecylate/norethisterone%20enanthate | Estradiol undecylate/norethisterone enanthate (EU/NETE) is a combination medication of estradiol undecylate (EU), an estrogen, and norethisterone enanthate (NETE), a progestin, which was developed by Schering for potential use as a combined injectable contraceptive in women but was ultimately never marketed. It contained 5 to 10 mg EU and 50 to 70 mg NETE in oil solution and was intended for use by intramuscular injection at regular intervals. Although never commercialized, EU/NETE was found to be effective and well tolerated.
See also
Polyestradiol phosphate/medroxyprogesterone acetate
List of combined sex-hormonal preparations § Estrogens and progestogens
References
Abandoned drugs
Combined estrogen–progestogen formulations
Combined injectable contraceptives | Estradiol undecylate/norethisterone enanthate | [
"Chemistry"
] | 192 | [
"Drug safety",
"Abandoned drugs"
] |
60,998,400 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%20History%20of%20Monmouthshire%20from%20the%20Coming%20of%20the%20Normans%20into%20Wales%20down%20to%20the%20Present%20Time | A History of Monmouthshire from the Coming of the Normans into Wales down to the Present Time is a study of the county of Monmouthshire written by Sir Joseph Bradney and published by Mitchell, Hughes and Clarke of London between 1904 and 1932. The history comprised twelve volumes, based on six of the seven historic hundreds of Monmouthshire; Skenfrith, Abergavenny, Raglan, Trellech, Usk and Caldicot.
History
Colonel Sir Joseph Alfred Bradney (1859 – 1933) was a British soldier, historian and archaeologist. Born in Shropshire, he inherited the Tal-y-coed Court estate and a small fortune at an early age. Settling in Monmouthshire, he held many public offices, as a county councillor, an alderman and as High Sheriff of Monmouthshire in 1889. He was also a governor and a member of the councils of the National Library of Wales and the National Museum of Wales. He devoted much of his time to compiling a history of his adopted county. In the preface to the first volume on the Hundred of Skenfrith, Bradney dedicated his History to Godfrey Morgan, 1st Viscount Tredegar and went on to describe his methodology. This consisted of outline descriptions of many of the places and buildings within the county, together with detailed genealogies of the principal families associated with them. The early volumes also contained many photographs and illustrations, particularly of family crests, although these largely disappeared from the later volumes. By the time he came to complete his last volumes on the Hundred of Caldicot in the early 1930s, Bradney lamented that there were "fewer illustrations and fewer shields of arms than before; my excuse for this is the great cost of this work, and at the same time the diminution in the number of those who are able, owing to financial stress, to purchase expensive books".
Original arrangement: 1904–1932
Bradney's History comprises twelve volumes, divided by the traditional administrative areas of Hundreds. The work covers six of the seven hundreds of Monmouthshire.
Volume I Part 1, The Hundred of Skenfrith, (1904)
Volume I Part 2, The Hundred of Abergavenny, (1906)
Volume II Part 1, The Hundred of Raglan, (1911)
Volume II Part 2, The Hundred of Trelech, (1913)
Volume III Part 1, The Hundred of Usk, (1921)
Volume III Part 2, The Hundred of Usk, (1923)
Volume IV Part 1, The Hundred of Caldicot, (1929)
Volume IV Part 2, The Hundred of Caldicot, (1932)
Four volumes consisting of a List of Subscribers, Addenda and Corrigenda, and Indices of Names and Places.
Revised arrangement: 1991-1994
Between 1991 and 1994 the history was reprinted by Academy Books, and subsequently the Merton Priory Press, as an 80% sized facsimile. The work was arranged somewhat differently to the original history, the indexes were included in their respective Parts, and a fifth volume covering the last Hundred of Newport, was compiled from Bradney's manuscript notes by Dr Madeleine Gray. This last volume was published by the National Library of Wales. The re-ordered works were:
Volume 1 Part 1, The Hundred of Skenfrith, (1991),
Volume 1 Part 2a, The Hundred of Abergavenny, (1992),
Volume 1 Part 2b, The Hundred of Abergavenny, (1992),
Volume 2 Part 1, The Hundred of Raglan, (1992),
Volume 2 Part 2, The Hundred of Trelech, (1992),
Volume 3 Part 1, The Hundred of Usk, (1993),
Volume 3 Part 2, The Hundred of Usk, (1993),
Volume 4 Part 1, The Hundred of Caldicot, (1994),
Volume 4 Part 2 The Hundred of Caldicot, (1994),
Volume 5 The Hundred of Newport, (1993),
Assessment
Bradney's work remains a valuable source for information on the county's history but its weaknesses have long been recognised. The architectural historian John Newman, writing in his Gwent/Monmouthshire Pevsner, noted that "Bradney's approach, with its emphasis on genealogies and monumental inscriptions, was out-of-date in its own day; but his pages are full of clues and cannot be ignored". His family histories came in for particular criticism. Sir Cyril Fox and Lord Raglan, in the first of their three-volume study Monmouthshire Houses, wrote of the pedigrees of the Monmouthshire families; "Sir Joseph Bradney gives a large number (which) trace their ancestry to Welsh kings or Norman lords but are, like those of their English contemporaries, mostly fictitious". Canon E.T. Davies, in his 1986 study, Bradney's "History of Monmouthshire": An Assessment, placed Bradney in a "particular tradition in which country gentlemen wrote for country gentlemen". Considering him more of a genealogist than a historian, Davies levelled two particular charges: his reliance on weak sources for his early history of the county, such as Geoffrey of Monmouth, and Iolo Morganwg, who had been exposed as a forger while Bradney was engaged on his work; and his lack of interest in, and coverage of, Monmouthshire's later industrial history; "his vision fixed on the old, historic, agricultural Monmouthshire…, the inadequate treatment of a new industrial society emphasised a fatal weakness in Bradney's history". In the Glamorgan-Gwent Archaeological Trust survey, Gwent Historic Churches carried out for Cadw in 1997, E. M. Evans noted that Bradney's lack of architectural training and understanding limited the value of his works, while appreciating his "transciptions of funerary monuments, some of which no longer survive." Despite its deficiencies, Bradney's industry and the sheer scale of his investigative work continue to be recognised; the historian of Gwent, Raymond Howell, writing in 1988, praised his "monumental efforts of half a century ago". Twenty years later, in his foreword to the second volume of the Gwent County History, The Age of the Marcher Lords, c.1070-1536, Martin Culliford acknowledged the debt to Bradney, and to William Coxe, when paying tribute to the contributors to the history; "[they] are no longer just following in the hallowed footsteps of Archdeacon Coxe and Sir Joseph Bradney but by now have overtaken them".
Notes
Sources
History of Wales
History of Monmouthshire
Architecture in Wales
Architecture books
Architecture in the United Kingdom
Architectural history
Series of non-fiction books
Publications established in 1904 | A History of Monmouthshire from the Coming of the Normans into Wales down to the Present Time | [
"Engineering"
] | 1,383 | [
"Architectural history",
"Architecture"
] |
60,998,533 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estradiol%20valerate/gestonorone%20caproate | Estradiol valerate/gestonorone caproate (EV/GC), known by the developmental code names SH-834 and SH-8.0834, is a high-dose combination medication of estradiol valerate (EV), an estrogen, and gestonorone caproate (GC; norhydroxyprogesterone caproate), a progestin, which was developed and studied by Schering in the 1960s and 1970s for potential use in the treatment of breast cancer in women but was ultimately never marketed. It contained 90 mg EV and 300 mg GC in each 3 mL of oil solution and was intended for use by intramuscular injection once a week. The combination has also been studied incidentally in the treatment of ovarian cancer.
Both high-dose estrogens and high-dose progestogens have been found to be independently effective in the treatment of breast cancer in women. High-dose estrogens show greater and more consistent effectiveness than high-dose progestogens for this indication. The combination of an estrogen and progestogen, specifically estradiol benzoate and progesterone, was first studied in breast cancer in rodents and women by Charles Huggins and colleagues in 1962. Initially progesterone and hydroxyprogesterone caproate were used as the progestogen component in such studies; the need for a more potent progestogen in such combinations led to the development of EV/GC, which was first reported in the treatment of breast cancer in women in 1966. GC is a relatively pure progestogen that has about 5- to 10-fold the progestogenic potency of hydroxyprogesterone caproate in humans. New reports on EV/GC in breast cancer continued until 1976.
Both progesterone and hydroxyprogesterone caproate, which are relatively pure progestogens, have been found to have modest or negligible effectiveness when employed by themselves in the treatment of breast cancer in women. Conversely, progestins with off-target glucocorticoid and/or androgenic activity, such as medroxyprogesterone acetate, megestrol acetate, and 19-nortestosterone derivatives, have been found to have greater and more clinically useful effectiveness in comparison. This has raised the possibility that the beneficial therapeutic effects of progestogens in breast cancer may be more related to their off-target activity than their progestogenic activity. In accordance, a study found that the effectiveness of an estrogen alone and the combination of EV/GC in the treatment of breast cancer in women was not significantly different. This was the last study of EV/GC to be published.
See also
High-dose estrogen/pseudopregnancy
List of combined sex-hormonal preparations § Estrogens and progestogens
References
Abandoned drugs
Combined estrogen–progestogen formulations | Estradiol valerate/gestonorone caproate | [
"Chemistry"
] | 630 | [
"Drug safety",
"Abandoned drugs"
] |
60,998,674 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estradiol%20valerate/methenmadinone%20caproate | Estradiol valerate/methenmadinone caproate (EV/MMC), known by the tentative brand name Lutofollin, is a combination medication of estradiol valerate (EV), an estrogen, and methenmadinone caproate (MMC; superlutin caproate), a progestin, which was developed for potential use as a once-a-month combined injectable contraceptive but was never marketed. It contained 10 mg EV and 60 mg MMC in 1 mL oil solution and was intended for administration by intramuscular injection once every 4 weeks.
See also
List of combined sex-hormonal preparations § Estrogens and progestogens
References
Abandoned drugs
Combined estrogen–progestogen formulations
Combined injectable contraceptives | Estradiol valerate/methenmadinone caproate | [
"Chemistry"
] | 172 | [
"Drug safety",
"Abandoned drugs"
] |
60,998,935 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20sex-hormonal%20aqueous%20suspensions | This is a list of known sex-hormonal crystalline aqueous suspension formulations. Brand names and developmental code names are in parentheses.
Single-drug formulations
Androgens
Androstanolone
Methandriol (Notandron, Protandren)
Testosterone (Andronaq, Sterotate, Virosterone)
Testosterone buciclate (20 Aet-1, CDB-1781; never marketed)
Testosterone isobutyrate (Agovirin Depot, Perandren M, Testocryst, Virex-Cryst)
Testosterone ketolaurate (Testosid)
Testosterone nicotinate (Bolfortan, Linobol)
Testosterone phenylacetate (Perandren, Androject)
Testosterone propionate (Anertan, Perandren)
Estrogens
Dienestrol diacetate (Farmacyrol KS)
Diethylstilbestrol dipropionate (Cyren B)
Estradiol (Aquadiol, Diogyn, Progynon Aqueous Suspension, Progynon Micropellets)
Estradiol benzoate (Agofollin Depot, Ovocyclin M)
Estrone (Estrone Aqueous Suspension, Kestrone, Theelin Aqueous)
Progestogens
Medroxyprogesterone acetate (Depo-Provera)
Progesterone (Agolutin Depot, Flavolutan, Luteosan, Lutocyclin M, Lutren)
Others
Pregnenolone acetate (Enelone, Natolone, others)
Multi-drug formulations
Estrogens and progestogens
Estradiol/megestrol acetate (Mego-E, Chinese injectable No. 2)
Estradiol benzoate/progesterone (Sistocyclin)
Estradiol benzoate/progesterone/lidocaine (Clinomin Forte)
Estradiol cypionate/medroxyprogesterone acetate (Cyclofem, Lunelle)
Estrogens and androgens
Estradiol benzoate/testosterone isobutyrate (Femandren M, Folivirin)
Estrogens, progestogens, and androgens
Estrone/progesterone/testosterone (Tristeron, Tristerone)
Non-sex-hormonal aqueous suspensions
Corticosteroids
Betamethasone acetate (Celestone Soluspan)
Desoxycorticosterone pivalate (Percorten Pivalate)
Methylprednisolone acetate (Depo-Medrol, Depo-Medrone)
Triamcinolone acetonide (Kenacort Retard, Kenalog Retard)
Triamcinolone diacetate (Ledercort-Retard)
Triamcinolone hexacetonide (Aristospan)
Antipsychotics
Aripiprazole lauroxil (Aristada)
Aripiprazole monohydrate (Abilify Maintena)
Fluspirilene (Redeptin)
Paliperidone palmitate (Invega Sustenna)
See also
List of combined sex-hormonal preparations
List of androgen esters
List of estrogen esters
List of progestogen esters
References
Anabolic–androgenic steroids
Drug-related lists
Estrogens
Progestogens | List of sex-hormonal aqueous suspensions | [
"Chemistry"
] | 735 | [
"Drug-related lists"
] |
60,999,242 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estradiol%20cypionate/hydroxyprogesterone%20caproate | Estradiol cypionate/hydroxyprogesterone caproate (EC/OHPC), sold under the brand name Sinbios, is a combination medication of estradiol cypionate (EC), an estrogen, and hydroxyprogesterone caproate (OHPC), a progestin, which was reportedly used as a combined injectable contraceptive in women in the early 1970s. It contained 5 mg EC and 250 mg OHPC in oil solution, was provided in the form of 1 mL ampoules, and was administered by intramuscular injection at regular intervals. The medication was manufactured by the pharmaceutical company Mavi in Mexico.
See also
List of combined sex-hormonal preparations § Estrogens and progestogens
References
Abandoned drugs
Combined estrogen–progestogen formulations
Combined injectable contraceptives | Estradiol cypionate/hydroxyprogesterone caproate | [
"Chemistry"
] | 183 | [
"Drug safety",
"Abandoned drugs"
] |
60,999,268 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estradiol%20benzoate/estradiol%20valerate/hydroxyprogesterone%20caproate | Estradiol benzoate/estradiol valerate/hydroxyprogesterone caproate (EB/EV/OHPC), sold under the brand name Sin-Ol, is a combination medication of estradiol benzoate (EB), an estrogen, estradiol valerate (EV), an estrogen, and hydroxyprogesterone caproate (OHPC), a progestin, which was reportedly used as a combined injectable contraceptive in women in the early 1970s. It contained 1 mg EB, 10 mg EV, and 250 mg OHPC in oil solution, was provided in the form of 3 mL ampoules, and was administered by intramuscular injection at regular intervals. The medication was manufactured by the pharmaceutical company Reuffer in Mexico.
See also
Estradiol benzoate/estradiol phenylpropionate
Estradiol/estradiol enanthate
List of combined sex-hormonal preparations § Estrogens and progestogens
References
Abandoned drugs
Combined estrogen–progestogen formulations
Combined injectable contraceptives | Estradiol benzoate/estradiol valerate/hydroxyprogesterone caproate | [
"Chemistry"
] | 240 | [
"Drug safety",
"Abandoned drugs"
] |
60,999,584 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mestranol/hydroxyprogesterone%20acetate | Mestranol/hydroxyprogesterone acetate (ME/OHPA), sold under the brand name Hormolidin, is a combination medication of mestranol (ME), an estrogen, and hydroxyprogesterone acetate (OHPA), a progestin, which was reportedly used as a sequential combined birth control pill for women in the early 1970s. It was formulated as oral tablets and contained 16 tablets of 80 μg ME, 5 tablets of 80 μg ME and 100 mg OHPA, and 7 placebo tablets (28 tablets in total). The medication was manufactured by the pharmaceutical company Gador in Argentina.
See also
List of combined sex-hormonal preparations § Estrogens and progestogens
References
Abandoned drugs
Combined estrogen–progestogen formulations | Mestranol/hydroxyprogesterone acetate | [
"Chemistry"
] | 173 | [
"Drug safety",
"Abandoned drugs"
] |
60,999,682 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alizarin%20Red%20S | Alizarin Red S (also known as C.I. Mordant Red 3, Alizarin Carmine, and C.I 58005.) is a water-soluble sodium salt of Alizarin sulfonic acid with a chemical formula of . Alizarin Red S was discovered by Graebe and Liebermann in 1871. In the field of histology alizarin Red S is used to stain calcium deposits in tissues, and in geology to stain and differentiate carbonate minerals.
Uses
Alizarin Red S is used in histology and histopathology to stain, or locate calcium deposits in tissues. In the presence of calcium, Alizarin Red S, binds to the calcium to form a Lake pigment that is orange to red in color. Whole specimens can be stained with Alizarin Red S to show the distribution of bone, especially in developing embryos. In living corals alizarin Red S has been used to mark daily growth layers.
In geology, Alizarin Red S is used on thin sections, and polished surfaces to help identify carbonate minerals which stain at different rates.
See also
Aniline
1,2,4-Trihydroxyanthraquinone or purpurin, another red dye that occurs in madder root
Hydroxyanthraquinone
Dihydroxyanthraquinone
List of dyes
List of colors (compact)
References
Anthraquinone dyes
Catechols
Chelating agents
Dihydroxyanthraquinones
Organic pigments
Natural dyes
Staining dyes
Histology
Histotechnology
Staining
Histochemistry | Alizarin Red S | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 329 | [
"Staining",
"Histology",
"Microbiology techniques",
"Microscopy",
"Chelating agents",
"Cell imaging",
"Process chemicals"
] |
60,999,736 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thioreductor | Thioreductor is a Gram-negative, mesophilic, hydrogen-oxidizing, sulfur-reducing and motile genus of bacteria from the phylum Campylobacterota with one known species (Thioreductor micantisoli). Thioreductor micantisoli has been isolated from hydrothermal sediments from the Iheya North from the Mid-Okinawa Trough in Japan.
See also
List of bacterial orders
List of bacteria genera
References
Bacteria
Bacteria genera
Monotypic bacteria genera | Thioreductor | [
"Biology"
] | 109 | [
"Bacteria stubs",
"Prokaryotes",
"Microorganisms",
"Bacteria"
] |
61,000,461 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent%20water%20and%20power%20plant | An independent water and power plant (IWPP) or an integrated water and power project is a combined facility which serves as both a desalination plant and a power plant. IWPPs are more common in the Middle East, where demand for both electricity and salt water desalinisation are high.
Independent water and power producers negotiate both a feed-in power tariff and a water tariff in the same deal with the utility company, who also purchases both products. IWPPs tend to have an installed capacity of over 1 gigawatt (1,000 megawatts) and generates power in a typical thermal power station setup. Seawater is purified by integrating MSF, MED, TVC, or RO water desalination technologies with the power plant, thus increasing overall efficiency.
See also
Independent Power Producer
References
External links
Cogeneration
Power station technology
Energy conversion
Chemical process engineering
Water desalination
Water treatment | Independent water and power plant | [
"Chemistry",
"Engineering",
"Environmental_science"
] | 187 | [
"Water desalination",
"Water treatment",
"Chemical engineering",
"Water pollution",
"Water technology",
"Environmental engineering",
"Chemical process engineering"
] |
61,001,891 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epididymis%20evolution%20from%20reptiles%20to%20mammals | The epididymis, which is a tube that connects a testicle to a vas deferens in the male reproductive system, evolved by retention of the mesonephric duct during regression and replacement of the mesonephros with the metanephric kidney. Similarly, during embryological involution of the paired mesonephric kidneys, each mesonephric duct is retained to become the epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicle and ejaculatory duct (Wolffian duct). In reptiles and birds both the testes and excurrent ducts (efferent ducts, epididymis, vas deferens) occur in an intra-abdominal location (testicond). Primitive mammals, such as the monotremes (prototheria), also are testicond. Marsupial (metatheria) and placental (eutheria) mammals exhibit differing degrees of testicular descent into an extra-abdominal scrotum. In scrotal mammals the epididymis is attached to the testes in an extra-abdominal position where the cauda epididymis extends beyond the lowest extremity of the testis. Hence, the cauda epididymis is exposed to the coolest of temperatures compared to all other reproductive structures.
Whereas testicond reptiles contain an excurrent duct system, they lack male reproductive glands (absent seminal vesicles, prostate, bulbourethral glands). Monotreme mammals are also testicond (like reptiles) and contain some, but not all (absent seminal vesicles) of the male reproductive glands observed in most metatherian and eutherian mammals. This combination of reptilian and mammalian structures within the monotreme reproductive tract has informed the evolution of the male reproductive tract in mammals. For example, the intra-abdominal low sperm storage capacity of the echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus) epididymis informed the role of the epididymis as the prime mover in the evolution of descended testes in mammals as it relates to lower extra-gonadal temperatures enhancing epididymal sperm storage in scrotal mammals. Furthermore, the structure of the monotreme reproductive tract also informed prostate evolution in monotreme mammals.
Structural differentiation of the epididymis in reptiles
The reptilian testis and epididymis typically undergo seasonal recrudescence coupled to the breeding season. All reptiles retain their testes and excurrent ducts within the abdomen (testicond). Generally, the reptilian epididymis does not exhibit the same degree of anatomical regionalization compared to scrotal mammals (Figure 1). Indeed, the anatomical appearance of the epididymis of many reptiles appears much more similar to the epididymis of monotremes than scrotal mammals (Figure 1). Anatomically, the gross morphologic features of the reptilian epididymis can vary between species, with some species of reptiles exhibiting just two anatomical regions whereas others (snakes) may exhibit no observable regionalization of the epididymis.
A reptilian histologic initial segment of the epididymis has been extensively documented in several species homologous to the initial segment of mammals. The initial segment of the epididymis, first described in the guinea pig epididymis, is a histologically distinct region of tall pseudostratified columnar epithelium that receives spermatozoa from the ductuli efferentes (Figure 1).
The epididymis is the primary sperm storage organ in male reptiles. In all reptiles and mammals the sperm storage region of the epididymis can objectively be identified as that distal extremity of the epididymis that exhibits a widened diameter of duct which contains additional layers of circumferential smooth muscle capable of contraction during ejaculation in direct continuity with the vas deferens (Figure 1). This sperm storage region has been described as the anatomical cauda epididymis or the histologic terminal segment of the epididymis. The caudal region of the reptilian epididymis, where sperm are stored, is an anatomical extension that narrows into a conical shape before forming the vas deferens. The coiled epididymal duct within the cauda epididymis does not appear to be particularly long, and so may be limited in its capacity to store sperm in comparison to scrotal mammals. Limited sperm storage in the reptilian epididymis may be circumvented by the ability of female reptiles to store viable spermatozoa within their reproductive tract for utilization months or years after insemination. A competing reproductive strategy to long-term sperm storage that explains the production of offspring after prolonged periods in the absence of males is facultative parthenogenesis. In either case, these female reproductive strategies may have evolved to counter limited sperm storage in the reptilian male epididymis.
Structural differentiation of the epididymis in monotreme mammals
The monotremes (short beaked echidna, long beaked echidna, platypus) are testicond seasonal breeding mammals that exhibit some characteristics of the reproductive tract found in reptiles (e.g. testicond, presence of a cloaca). The fully developed monotreme epididymis exhibits two anatomical regions, similar to some reptiles. The two anatomical regions of the monotreme epididymis closely correspond to just two histologic regions (Figure 1B), an initial segment and a terminal segment. Structural differentiation of the epididymis into just an initial segment and terminal segment, with no intervening middle segment, has also subsequently been observed as far back as the epididymis of sharks. In the monotreme echidna, the initial segment, where sperm undergo maturation, is much larger than the terminal segment (Figure 1B), the later segment being the sperm storage region of the epididymis. In the monotreme echidna, the proportion (26% of total) of mature sperm stored intra-abdominally in the terminal segment of the epididymis is considerably less than the proportion of mature sperm stored in the epididymis of many eutherian mammals (50-75% of total) with descended testes. Hence, both reptiles and the monotreme echidna appear to have relatively limited sperm storage capacity in the testicond epididymis compared to mammals with the epididymis located in an extra-abdominal scrotum. This reduced sperm storage capacity of the monotreme testicond epididymis is further supported by observations that the sperm storage region of the epididymis of a testicond mammal (echidna) and a scrotal mammal (rat) are respectively 4% and 8% of the total length of the duct. Significantly, the low intra-abdominal sperm storage capacity of the echidna epididymis helped inform the role of the epididymis as a prime mover in the evolution of descended testes in mammals whereby lower extra-gonadal temperatures within the scrotal cauda epididymis reduces oxidative respiration of sperm, which enhances oxygen availability, thereby allowing greater epididymal sperm storage in the cooler scrotum of mammals.
Structural differentiation of the epididymis in marsupials and placental mammals
Most species of marsupial (metatherian) and placental (eutherian) mammals have evolved extra-gonadal testes, although a limited number of these mammals remain testicond or exhibit differing degrees of testicular descent. As a result of the epididymis being attached to the testis, and the cauda epididymis extending below the lower extremity of the testis (Figure 1C), it was proposed that the epididymis was the prime mover in the evolution of testicular decent, whereby the cauda epididymis preceded the testis into a scrotal location.
The epididymis of marsupials (metatherians) and placental mammals (eutherians) has undergone further structural differentiation compared to that observed in prototherian mammals (Figure 1). In scrotal mammals, an initial segment is nearly always observed, however, additional histologically distinct regions have developed between the initial segment and the distal sperm storage region (terminal segment). These intervening histologic regions have been referred to as the middle segment. The histologic regions of the middle segment (Figure 1C) can vary in number in metatherian and eutherian species of mammals. Beyond the histologic regions of the middle segment, the sperm storage region (anatomical cauda, histologic terminal segment) of scrotal mammals has enlarged to accommodate enhanced storage of sperm (Figure 1C). The storage of sperm in the scrotal epididymis is enhanced by cooler extra-abdominal temperatures. Indeed, experimental reflection of one epididymis into the warmer temperature of an abdominal location reduced sperm storage capacity by 75% compared to the contralateral epididymis that remained in the scrotum. Significantly, cooler scrotal temperatures reduces oxidative respiration of sperm, thereby increasing oxygen availability to store more sperm per unit volume of duct, which has informed the evolution of descended testes in mammals.
Trends in the evolution of the epididymis from testicond reptiles and monotremes to scrotal mammals
A histologically distinct initial segment of the epididymis is widely observed in many species of reptiles and even as far back as sharks. A large initial segment is also present in the epididymis of the testicond monotreme echidna. Furthermore, the scrotal epididymis of metatherian and eutherian mammals nearly all exhibit an initial segment which may contain histologically distinct sub-zones therein. Hence, the initial segment of the epididymis is well conserved in testicond vertebrates (reptiles, monotremes) and in scrotal metatherian and eutherian mammals (Figure 1).
The status of the histologic middle segment of the epididymis in reptiles is incompletely defined (Figure 1A). Considering the wide variation in the anatomical structures of the four orders (Crocodilia, Sphenodontia, Squamata, Testudines) of reptilian epididymides and the paucity of histologic studies that correlate anatomical structure to histology, the evolution of the middle segment in reptiles, if present, remains to be delineated. In contrast, extensive studies of the echidna epididymis show that the monotreme epididymis lacks a middle segment. It is only in metatherian and eutherian mammals that a middle segment has been extensively documented. Whereas the initial segment of the epididymis often contains histologically distinct sub-zones therein, the downstream zones that collectively constitute the middle segment most likely evolved from the upstream sub-zones of the initial segment.
The histologic terminal segment is the sperm storage region of the epididymis in reptiles, monotremes and both metatherian and eutherian mammals (Figure 1). The testicond epididymis (reptiles and monotremes) has a limited sperm storage capacity compared with the scrotal epididymis (metatherian and eutherian mammals), which has a much larger terminal segment to accommodate increased sperm storage. It is the cooler temperature of the scrotal epididymis that reduces oxidative respiration of sperm in the terminal segment, thereby increasing oxygen availability to store more sperm per unit volume of duct, thus informing the evolution of descended testes in mammals.
Whereas different and multiple histologic sub-regions may or may not occur within any segment of the epididymis, the histologic description of the epididymis consisting of an initial segment, middle segment and terminal segment provides a harmonized characterization that allows direct comparisons of homologous segments across species.
Summary and conclusion
The evolution of the epididymis from reptiles to mammals (Figure 1) entailed:
Retention of the histologic initial segment.
To varying degrees, elaboration of a histologic middle segment.
An increase in the length, volume and size of the histologic terminal segment of scrotal mammals, whereby the lower extra-abdominal (scrotal) temperature increased oxygen availability to sustain and store more sperm, thus providing a physiologic mechanism for the evolution of descended testes in mammals.
References
Evolution of tetrapods
Scrotum | Epididymis evolution from reptiles to mammals | [
"Biology"
] | 2,679 | [
"Phylogenetics",
"Evolution of tetrapods"
] |
61,004,225 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deathloop | Deathloop is a 2021 first-person shooter immersive sim video game that was developed by Arkane Lyon and published by Bethesda Softworks. The game is set on an island named Blackreef. The player assumes control of Colt Vahn, an assassin who is stuck in a time loop he must destroy by killing eight targets known as Visionaries before midnight when the time loop resets, while being hunted by the island's residents and a Visionary named Julianna, who wants to protect the loop. Each day is divided into morning, noon, afternoon, and evening, and moving between the island's four districts causes time to advance. Using Colt's diverse arsenal of gears and powers, the player must identify the optimal way to kill all targets in one day to execute the "golden loop", in which Colt breaks free.
Development of Deathloop began in 2018, originally as a smaller-scale project that allowed Arkane to experiment with new gameplay mechanics. The game was built on Arkane's previous works, such as Dishonored, introducing nonlinear gameplay and removing Dishonored's morality system, enabling players to take risks without considering possible narrative repercussions. Arkane implemented asymmetrical multiplayer, an unused gameplay mechanic from its unreleased game The Crossing that enables a second player to control Julianna and hunt Colt. Films and television series inspired the game's story and aesthetics, while the Scottish Highlands and the Faroe Islands inspired the design of Blackreef.
Deathloop was released in September 2021 for Windows PC and PlayStation 5, and a year later for Xbox Series X and Series S. While the game's story takes place in the Dishonored universe, Bethesda did not market it as a spin-off of that franchise because it has a distinct story and characters. Deathloop received generally positive reviews upon release; critics praised its gameplay, structure, art direction, characters and story, but criticized its artificial intelligence (AI). Many critics described Deathloop as an original title and regarded it as one of Arkane Studio's best games. The game attracted more than five million players upon launch, and it was nominated for several end-of-year accolades, including Game of the Year at the annual The Game Awards, D.I.C.E. Awards, and British Academy Games Awards.
Gameplay
Deathloop is set on an island called Blackreef. The player controls Colt, an assassin who is stuck in a time loop. Colt must eliminate eight targets called Visionaries across Blackreef before midnight; if one Visionary remains alive, the time loop will reset and undo Colt's work. Deathloop has a multiplayer mode in which the player can alternatively play as Julianna, a Visionary tasked with protecting the time loop and killing Colt. When the player takes this role, they enter a random player's game and may interfere with their play. Juliana has a unique ability named Masquerade that allows her to swap her appearance with any non-playable character (NPC) in the game, enabling her to blend in with crowds and stay concealed. The multiplayer portion is optional and players can prevent others from taking the role of Julianna in their game, leaving this to a computer-controlled opponent.
The game has two types of missions. Visionaries Leads serve as the campaign's critical path and Arsenal Leads guide players to improved weapons and gears. Each day is divided into morning, noon, afternoon, and evening, and moving between the island's four districts causes time to advance. The routines of the people in a particular district vary depending on the time of day the player enters, and the player's actions in one district can affect routines in the others. Different times of day open alternative paths for players to explore. For instance, a room that is locked in the morning may be unlocked at night. Players must learn the patterns of Colt's targets and figure out the correct order in which to kill the targets. Because it was impossible for Colt to separately kill all Visionaries, Colt must manipulate events to assemble multiple Visionaries in one location so he can kill them in quick succession. There is only one correct order to kill all Visionaries in a single loop. The time loop in Deathloop is not timed;
players can freely explore each location to find clues and complete side objectives. A clue found by Colt may inform the player of their tasks in the next location, and intelligence collected in one loop can be used to player's advantages in the next loop. Players may need to spend multiple loops and revisit locations several times before they can identify the steps that are needed to assassinate all of their targets.
Combat
Deathloop is an immersive sim video game that is played from a first-person perspective. Players are presented with a large arsenal of tools, allowing them to choose how they want to approach their objectives. Each location in Deathloop is also a sandbox that provides alternative paths for players to reach their targets. Colt has access to firearms, melee weapons and grenades that can be used to defeat enemies. Weapons are divided into several categories of rarity. More-common gears may frequently jam while rarer weapons are more powerful but more difficult to locate. Gunshots draw opponents in the vicinity to hunt down the player. Alternatively, players can use stealth tactics to silently evade their opponents, distract them by throwing bottles, or kill them with traps or suppressed firearms without being detected. By remaining concealed, players can eavesdrop on conversations between other characters, thus opening new gameplay opportunities. Players can use their hacking tool to disable security cameras, gun turrets and security doors to their advantage. Players gain trinkets, which are divided into several tiers of rarity. Weapon trinkets improve a weapon's performance and handling, while character trinkets provide additional abilities such as allowing Colt to double jump, heal more quickly, or take less damage. Each weapon can be equipped with three weapon trinkets, while Colt can equip four trinkets.
Some Visionaries drop Slabs, mysterious tablets that grant the user special powers, when they are killed. Players can wield two of five Slabs at once. "Shift" allows Colt to teleport short distances; "Aether" briefly turns him invisible; "Nexus" links together enemies together so damage dealt to one enemy will be inflicted to all who are linked; "Havoc" significantly increases Colt's damage output while boosting his defense; and "Karnesis" enables Colt to lift and slam enemies on the ground. The "Goldenloop" update introduces a new ability named "Fugue", which allows Colt to slow and disorient targeted enemies. Slabs can be further upgraded for up-to four times by killing the Visionary who drops it in subsequent loops. Colt has an ability named "Reprise" that allows him to be revived twice in each location. If the players is killed three times in the same location, the loop will restart and Colt loses all of his weapons, trinkets and slabs. To prevent this, Colt can infuse his gears with a resource named "Residuum" so they become permanent gears in his arsenal. Residuum can be collected by killing Visionaries and through caches that are found in each level. Collected Residuum cannot be carried over to the next loop. All gathered Residuum is dropped upon Colt's death, though players can recover them if they reach the location of Colt's most-recent death.
Synopsis
Setting
Deathloop is set in an alternate world resembling the 1960s; it takes place over a single, repeating day on the subarctic island of Blackreef that was first charted in 1931, Blackreef was originally home to a small fishing settlement and a military base where experiments on local temporal anomalies were conducted. It is now owned by the AEON Program, which the scientist Egor Serling founded to use the island's unique properties to gain immortality by living in an infinite time loop. Serling attracted eight other eccentric, talented individuals to his cause, the Visionaries, and scores of fanatical followers called Eternalists dedicated to serving them. Thanks to the time loop, members of the AEON Program are able to hold a never-ending party where they can do anything they desire without fear of consequences because the loop resets at midnight and restores everyone to their original state with no memories of the previous day.
The Visionaries Colt Vahn and Julianna Blake are disrupting the natural flow of the loop. Julianna is immune to the time loop's memory erasure; every day, she alerts all of Blackreef's inhabitants that Colt has betrayed the AEON Program and wants to break the loop, causing everyone to hunt him. Colt also develops the ability to retain his memories from previous days, and is able to learn the behaviors and patterns of the Visionaries and Eternalists. To break the loop, Colt must kill all eight of the other Visionaries, including Julianna, in one day because the loop requires only one of them to remain alive at midnight to reset again.
The game's director Dinga Bakaba confirmed Deathloop exists in the same universe as the Dishonored series, in the far future of the events of Dishonored: Death of the Outsider, and both the Dishonored series and Deathloop include references to one another.
Characters
The central characters of Deathloop are the nine Visionaries:
Colt Vahn (voiced by Jason E. Kelley) - the former head of security of the AEON Program who seeks to break the loop and escape Blackreef;
Julianna Blake (voiced by Ozioma Akagha) - AEON's archivist and new head of security, who is constantly hunting Colt;
Egor Serling (voiced by Josh Zuckerman) - the founder of the AEON Program and a self-proclaimed pseudoscientist;
Dr. Wenjie Evans (voiced by Erika Ishii) - AEON's head scientist and the builder of the loop machine that generates the time loop;
Harriet Morse (voiced by Marcella Lentz-Pope) - the leader of the cult of Eternalists;
Ramblin' Frank Spicer (voiced by Andrew Lewis Caldwell) - a former mobster, an aspiring rockstar, and host of Blackreef's only radio show;
Charlie Montague (voiced by Khoi Dao) - a brilliant and sadistic game designer and AEON's Head of Entertainment;
Fia Zborowska (voiced by Cherami Leigh) - an experimental artist and drug addict with a love of explosives;
Aleksis "The Wolf" Dorsey (voiced by H. Michael Croner) - AEON's hard-partying financial backer.
Plot
Waking from a dream in which he is murdered by an unknown woman, Colt Vahn is hungover on a beach with no memories of himself or his location. He receives guidance from messages from and meetings with alternative versions of himself, instructing him to break the time loop in which he is trapped. To do this, he must kill all eight Visionaries before time loop resets itself at the end of the day. Julianna Blake warns the Visionaries and their followers the Eternalists of Colt's plan, and calls for him to be hunted. Julianna taunts Colt to try and break the loop, although she works to stop him. Colt finds, unlike the other inhabitants of the island, he has gained the ability to retain his memories across loops, allowing him to better plan and prepare for his goal of breaking the loop. He learns Julianna also appears to retain her memories across loops.
While Colt devises a plan to kill seven of the Visionaries, Julianna remains elusive, choosing to hide in the Loop, the structure that powers Blackreef's time loops. The only way to reach the Loop is to use an abandoned military rocket airplane. Colt investigates old bunkers across the island. He learns he was a member of Operation Horizon, the original military expedition to Blackreef decades earlier, but was accidentally sent into the future by an experiment that went awry. Colt joined the AEON Program in hope of finding a way to return to the past and reunite with his girlfriend Lila. As a consequence of being sent to the future, he discovers Julianna is his daughter. Colt activates the rocket plane and reaches the Loop, where he confronts Julianna. Julianna says things started to go wrong when Colt, having had second thoughts about the AEON Program, started killing her in every loop to free her from it. Julianna grew to hate Colt and began to retaliate, culminating in her hunting him in every loop. Julianna presents Colt with a choice; kill her, break the loop and suffer an uncertain future, or spare her so they can continue living eternally through the loops.
If Colt chooses to kill Julianna and himself to break the loop, he wakes up on the beach—now a strange apocalyptic landscape—with Julianna holding him at gunpoint. She decides to spare him and departs, leaving him to face the uncertain future alone. A game update called Goldenloop expands on this ending, adding a cutscene showing all of the Visionaries and Eternalists waking to find the loop broken. Colt and a few other Eternalists venture into the barren landscape.
If Colt chooses to kill Julianna but refuses to kill himself, the loop resets as normal.
If Colt chooses to spare Julianna, they reconcile and cooperate to hunt the other inhabitants of Blackreef for fun.
Development
Deathloop was developed by Arkane Lyon, the studio behind Dishonored and its sequel Dishonored 2. Development of the game began in 2018, initially as a smaller project for Arkane. According to studio co-founder Raphaël Colantonio, the studio's goal was to experiment with multiplayer and identify ways to recycle gameplay. Arkane previously experimented with the roguelike genre with Prey: Mooncrash, and Deathloop was built to further expand on the idea of remixing gameplay using a limited amount of assets. Deathloops scope significantly expanded during development and the game was launched as a fully-priced product in September 2021. Before Colantonio departed the studio, he had appointed Dinga Bakaba and Sebastien Mitton as the directors for Deathloop.
Gameplay
Deathloop placed a large emphasis on player's choices and freedom. According to Bakaba, the game "[entrusted] the player with a lot of ownership of their own enjoyment". As an immersive sim, the game established consistent gameplay rules, and players were encouraged to plan their approach based on their understanding of these rules and to see if the game responded accordingly. According to level designer Dana Nightingale, Deathloop was designed for "deliberate" play and discouraged random player actions. Arkane's map designers avoided adding chokepoints that funnel the player in a particular direction, as the game was designed to be less linear when compared with Dishonored. They attempted to build open spaces where players can chose not to engage with scripted confrontations or interactions with other characters. Colt's powers were designed to be similar to those in Dishonored to maintain a level of familiarity to fans of Arkane's past works. Bakaba described Deathloop gameplay as "Dishonored with guns"; the team removed all non-lethal means of dispatching enemies that are common in Dishonored games.
Deathloops time-loop structure was designed to encourage players to visit locations multiple times. Familiarity with each location enabled players to master their gameplay skills and understand the game's myriad of systems earlier. As levels were designed to be replayed, the level-design team worked to ensure each route toward an objective has their own advantages and drawbacks. The game's structure, which strips players of all of their gears when a loop restarts, prompts players to experiment with different gadgets and builds. Unlike Dishonored, which has a morality system to judge the player's actions, Deathloop maintains a neutral stance throughout to avoid facilitating a specific playstyle. The developers removed quick-save functionality from the Dishonored series because they wanted players to see the consequences of their actions and react to them, being spontaneous rather than loading a saved game to bypass failures.
Bakaba described Deathloop as a "murder puzzle" and an "inverted Cluedo" in which players must achieve the "Golden Loop", the loop in which players kill all of their targets within a single day. Bakaba added while players may fear the time loop at the beginning of the game for disrupting their progress, they will eventually understand time is on Colt's side and he can become its master in a manner similar to the protagonists of Groundhog Day and Palm Springs. The developers did not want to punish players for slowly exploring each location. As a result, time passes only when players exit a level; Bakaba compared this system to a turn-based game. Initially, Deathloop provided little-to-no guidance on how to achieve the "Golden Loop" so players can solve the mystery on their own. Early playtesters did not understand the game enough to progress so Arkane introduced a tutorial session, which the developers dubbed the "guided tour", to help players understand the gameplay mechanics. Quests also offer players straightforward guidance. Unlike other immersive sims that have a minimalistic head-up display (HUD), Deathloops user interface readily provides players with information. Because Deathloop places prominence on solving puzzles, the developers did not want players to become cognitively overwhelmed while playing the game.
To introduce a layer of unpredictability into the game, Arkane added a multiplayer mode, having explored the concept of asymmetrical multiplayer in its unreleased title The Crossing. The developers wanted fighting Julianna to be a challenge and ensured Colt has a slight advantage over her through the "Reprise" ability, which allows him to respawn twice following defeat. This gameplay dynamic encouraged those playing as Colt to take more risks and the player controlling Julianna to be more cautious. Familiarity with the map helps the player controlling Julianna to notice Colt's location and identify the best way to kill him; the developers described this as the "ultimate test" for veteran players of the game. Bakaba described the multiplayer mode as an "anecdote generator". It was designed to be "freeform"; encounters do not need to end with a direct confrontation. In-game voice chat was disabled because Arkane considered Deathloop to be a single-player game in which players should feel like they are being hunted by "a character from the game, not someone from the internet". The introduction of multiplayer prompted Arkane to replace the parry system in Dishonored with a simpler kick mechanic because network latency meant the timing for parrying human-controlled characters and other NPCs would be different.
Story and characters
According to Bakaba, events in Deathloop were originally planned to have occurred across four days. In the game, every character knows they are living in a time loop but only Julianna, Colt, and several minor characters retain memories of the events in each loop. This results in the Visionaries and the Eternalist acting lightheartedly because nothing they do has consequences when each day resets anew. Despite the initial hostile tension, Julianna and Colt gradually grow close to each other because they were the only characters with persistent memories. The developers had to make Colt amnesiac so he will learn alongside the player. According to Bakaba, Julianna wants to stop Colt from breaking the loop but did not want him to stop trying. The interactions between Colt and Julianna are based around the films of Quentin Tarantino. Julianna's prominence as a character was introduced fairly late in the game's development; her role was initially comparable to the other Visionaries. The Visionaries are designed to have big personalities but players should not feel sorry killing them because most of them are depraved individuals. They do not have character arcs because the game is set in a time loop. The development team used several narrative tools to aid storytelling because the game does not have extensive cutscenes. Floating thoughts are Colt's thoughts from previous loop interactions, and were designed as a cheap way to provide gameplay hints and add to the game's mood. While the developers initially avoided having Colt talk to himself, playtesters felt this helped players to better follow the story, and the studio further developed Colt as a talkative person.
Deathloop narrative was inspired by a number of films. Besides time-travel and time-loop films like Groundhog Day, Edge of Tomorrow and the Back to the Future trilogy, the game was also influenced by the French comedy (2017) and The Fourth Dimension. Films like The Running Man (1987), The Warriors, The Wicker Man, Under the Volcano (1984), and Dark City (1998) inspired the game's plot of a solitary man working to solve a mystery in an isolated location while being hunted. Colt's appearance heavily draws from Denzel Washington's character in The Book of Eli, while his motives are based around the character Snake Plissken from Escape from New York, and some gadgets were inspired by the James Bond series. Deathloop is set in the Dishonored universe; events in Deathloop take place years after the ending of Dishonored: Death of the Outsider, though Arkane and Bethesda avoided positioning Deathloop as a Dishonored spin-off because it has a standalone story and characters.
Art and music
The development team wanted Blackreef to be an isolated but "relatively built-up" location. Its design was inspired by the Scottish Highlands as seen in Skyfall, the Faroe Islands, the Falkland Islands, and remote petroleum-extraction stations in Northern Russia. Settlements in the game were inspired by Italian towns like Positano, which invited joyous exploration. Mitton used Google Earth and Google Street View to research locations. To create a surrealistic atmosphere and depict a world frozen in time, the team contrasted the 1960s aesthetics with military structures that were common in the 1930s and 1940s. Of the game's four locations Updaam was the first location Arkane created; Bakaka described it as a "traditional urban area". "The Complex" focuses on the contrast between nature and technology, and is the most-scientific area in the game. Fristad Rock focuses on the contrast between an old, derelict bunker and an elegant, lavish casino; and Karl's Bay serves as the major party and entertainment location in the game.
The game's aesthetics were inspired by imagery of the 1960s because it evokes both a sense of mystery and nostalgia, and because its light-hearted vibe fits with the game's narrative of "an eternal party". The British espionage television series The Avengers, significantly influenced Deathloops overall direction. The visual direction was also inspired by the styles of the Swinging Sixties and the contemporary depiction of the era as seen through Guy Ritchie's The Man from U.N.C.L.E. (2015). While creating the costumes of the characters, the team was influenced by the works of stylist Vidal Sassoon. Because Deathloop requires players to be familiar with the game's four locations, the developers strove to ensure it was not too visually complicated. To ensure the game was visually distinct, Arkane took cues from the use of color in films like High Plains Drifter and Point Blank (1967), using bright colors and designs to give the island an endless party atmosphere. Billboards in the game that reveal secrets about the island were drawn from the film They Live, and the works of graphic artists Saul Bass and Robert McGinnis inspired the game's cutscenes and in-game posters. The game's modernist architecture was inspired by the works of Frank Lloyd Wright, while the interiors were inspired by photographs from the book Lair: Radical Homes and Hideouts of Movie Villains.
Michel Trémouiller was the game's audio director and Tom Salta composed its music. The game's soundtrack is primarily Jazz fusion music. The developers were inspired by 1950s and 1960s science-fiction and horror films and television shows, such as Not of This Earth (1957) and My Favorite Martian, as well as A Clockwork Orange and The Thing. Soundtracks from spy movies also influenced the developers, especially when they were composing the score for the Visionaries, each of whom has a distinct musical theme. Salta also worked to ensure his score reinforces the time-loop theme; some chord progressions repeat in a variety of ways depending on the player's actions and location. Salta used musical instruments from the 1960s, such as a Rhodes piano, a Hammond B3 organ, a vibraphone, a clavinet, and a mellotron for the game's music. Synthwave music was also included; Salta used a theremin and a EMS Synthi AKS synthesizer to produce the music. Diegetic music, which is broadcast in-game through radios and loudspeakers, was written by Ross Tregenza and Erich Talaba. Sencit Music and the artist FJØRA released a theme song for Deathloop titled "Deja Vu" to accompany the release of one of the game's trailers.
Release
Publisher Bethesda Softworks filed a trademark application for Deathloop in December 2018. Arkane and Bethesda officially revealed the game was at E3 2019. It was also shown during Sony's PlayStation 5 event in June 2020, confirming the game would be released as a timed console exclusive on the PlayStation 5 in late 2020 alongside a release for Microsoft Windows. In August 2020, it was announced the game's release was delayed until Q2 2021 because development was affected by the US government's response to the COVID-19 pandemic. The company later announced it planned to release Deathloop on 21 May 2021. In April 2021, Arkane postponed the release until 14 September that year. The game's development was completed on 5 August 2021; Arkane confirmed it had been declared gold, indicating it was being prepared for duplication and release. Players who purchased the Deluxe Edition gained access to new weapons, trinkets and character skins.
On 21 September 2020, Microsoft and Bethesda Softworks' parent company ZeniMax Media announced Microsoft's intent to buy ZeniMax and its studios, including Arkane, for , incorporating the studios as part of Xbox Game Studios; the sale was finalized on 9 March 2021. Xbox Game Studios head Phil Spencer said this deal would not affect Deathloops platform-exclusive release on the PlayStation 5, and that the game would remain exclusive there for one year before its release for other consoles. Deathloop was released for Xbox Series X/S on 20 September 2022, alongside a "Goldenloop" update that introduces a new weapon, a new ability, new enemy types, cross-platform play and an extended ending. Dark Horse Comics released an artbook for Deathloop in August 2022.
Reception
Critical reception
Deathloop received "generally favorable reviews" from critics, according to review aggregator Metacritic. 91% of the critics recommended the game on OpenCritic.
Edwin Evans-Thirwell from Eurogamer described Deathloop as one of the most enjoyable games Arkane had released; he noted the game's familiarity with the Dishonored series, and called Deathloop a significant refinement over its predecessor while also being an "accessible introduction to Arkane's grittier immersive sims". Writing for GameSpot, Tamoor Hussain said "observation and dynamic thinking" ae as important as combat in Deathloop, and players are rewarded for carefully planning and understanding the system and rules established in the game. He also enjoyed a sense of progression of the game because the ease of navigation and combat significantly increase as players gain more powers and become increasingly familiar with each location. Several critics said Deathloop is a very original game; Matt Purslow from IGN praised the developers for turning disparate-yet-interesting ideas into a cohesive package that is "fascinating unique", and integrating elements from games such as Dishonored, Hitman, Outer Wilds and Dark Souls. Many critics noted the player's large arsenal of tools and powers were no longer shackled by Dishonoreds morality system, meaning players can embrace action as a viable mean of progression, encouraging them to experiment with the game's systems, improvise and take risks.
The investigative gameplay also received a mixed reception. West noted the acquisition of knowledge in Deathloop is more important than any gun and power. He noted the game has a novel structure in which it allows players to freely pursue leads following the opening tutorial session but generally becomes more linear as players approaches the end of the game. He described it as a "fascinating twist", one that keeps the experience dense and focused. Purslow also said the non-linear investigative gameplay is satisfying, and noted players will constantly make "thrilling discoveries" as they recognize the causal relationship between their actions and in-game results. Several critics noted the game is excessively linear and guides players through the process of executing the Golden Loop. William Hughes, writing for A.V. Club expressed his disappointment the game has "such a low opinion of the player's ability to do that mystery-solving on [their] own". Critics praised the multiplayer component for being tense and unpredictable. Ian Boudreau from PCGamesN said the game rewards players' knowledge with the game's four locations with success. Gunplay, however, received polarizing reviews; Hussein called it "satisfying" while West called it "sluggish". The game's artificial intelligence (AI) was also criticized.
The game's art direction received acclaim. Hussein described Deathloop as a "fascinating mashup of styles and vibes", resulting in a striking art direction. He also praised the game's soundtrack for being "eclectic" and "raucous". Stuart also praised the game's visual design and the developers' attention to detail. He added Blackreef is a "theme-park dystopia" that paints a "glorious picture of a ruinous, elitist society and spectacle", compared with Dishonoreds grim atmosphere. Purslow liked the location design in the game, adding they are "intricately detailed" and "dense with personality", and liked the way the time of day changes each location and that repeated playthroughs still evoke a constant sense of discovery. Hughes said the game's four levels become repetitive as players reach the latter half of the game, and added these levels failed to push the players to use their powers smartly, unlike those from Dishonored 2, which continue introducing gameplay twists. Some critics liked the way conventional world-building tools such as in-game computer terminal chat logs and audio flies provide key information for players to progress.
Deathloop story received generally positive reviews. Blake Hester from Game Informer praised the game's story and writing, calling the interactions between Colt and Julianna entertaining and humorous, and described the two as his favourite protagonists of the year. Hussein also liked the game's writing and noted the two characters share a complicated relationship, and he praised the voice actors Kelly and Akagha for their performances. Croft described the two protagonists as charismatic and noted their interactions are "funny and consistently touching". Christopher Byrd from Washington Post enjoyed the game's "campy" tone, though he felt that the story failed to create any urgency to break the time loop as all characters in the game including Colt seemed to be indifferent to being trapped in a time loop. According to Purslow, Colt's personal storyline is not presented to players clearly enough, resulting in an abrupt ending. West also said the story does not reach a meaningful conclusion. Some critics compared the game's story and themes to those of The Seven Deaths of Evelyn Hardcastle. The revelation Colt is Julianna's father was controversial because the two have flirtatious interactions during the opening segments of the game.
Sales
In the UK, Deathloop was the best-selling retail game in its week of release, but it became the worst-performing Arkane game at launch because its boxed sales were 5.6% lower than those of Prey (2017). It was the sixth-best-selling video game in September 2021 in the US according to the NPD Group. Deathloop was the 18th-most-downloaded game on the PlayStation Store for 2021 in the US and Canada. Arkane stated the game had reached five million players by February 2023.
Awards and accolades
Edge, Empire, GameSpot, GamesRadar+, and The Daily Telegraph selected Deathloop as their Game of the Year in 2021.
References
External links
2021 video games
Arkane Studios games
Asymmetrical multiplayer video games
Bethesda Softworks games
Microsoft games
First-person shooters
Golden Joystick Award winners
Immersive sims
Multiplayer and single-player video games
PlayStation 5 games
Science fiction video games
The Game Awards winners
Video games about amnesia
Video games about time loops
Video games developed in France
Video games featuring black protagonists
Video games postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic
Video games scored by Tom Salta
Video games set in the 1960s
Video games set in the Arctic
Video games set on fictional islands
Video games with time manipulation
Windows games
Xbox Series X and Series S games | Deathloop | [
"Physics"
] | 6,909 | [
"Asymmetrical multiplayer video games",
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71,804,679 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libration%20point%20orbit | In orbital mechanics, a libration point orbit (LPO) is a quasiperiodic orbit around a Lagrange point. Libration is a form of orbital motion exhibited, for example, in the Earth–Moon system. Trojan bodies also exhibit libration dynamics.
Two varieties of libration point orbits amenable to Lyapunov stability are halo orbits and Lissajous orbits
The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is in a libration point orbit around the L2 Lagrange point of the Sun, and Earth-Moon barycenters. Because libration point orbits are quasiperiodic, the telescope must make frequent small burns to maintain proximity to the L2 point, as part of orbital station keeping, limiting the lifespan of the telescope due to depletion of fuel reserves.
Early simulations of the JWST obtained a high confidence in achieving a ten-year operational lifespan before station keeping becomes untenable. However thanks to a highly accurate launch, it is now thought the telescope could keep its station for up to twenty or even twenty-five years. Some years of intermittent service after that might also be tenable, because of the slow drift rate out of, or in to, the Lagrange point.
References
Orbits | Libration point orbit | [
"Physics",
"Astronomy"
] | 264 | [
"Astrophysics stubs",
"Astronomy stubs",
"Astrophysics"
] |
71,804,739 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mellivory | Mellivory is a term for the eating of honey. Honey is a sweet and viscous substance created by some eusocial insects, notably bees, for consumption by members of their hives, especially their young. Honey is also consumed by many other animals including human beings, who have developed beekeeping to make supplies of honey both reliable and plentiful. Despite honey's limited antimicrobial properties (caused by the very high osmotic pressure of its concentrated sugars), it remains a food source for a variety of microorganisms.
Etymology
The word mellivory derives from the Latin , "honey", and -, "-eating".
Nutrition
Honey is a syrup composed of several simple sugars, primarily fructose and glucose. Wild honey also contains traces of bee larvae, adding fat, protein, vitamins, and minerals. In many environments honey is the single richest source of carbohydrates for the organisms that consume it. It has been suggested that the concentrated energy provided by honey is in part what allowed humans to evolve such large brains, as large brains are metabolically expensive. Honey also has limited antimicrobial properties.
Mellivory by humans
Food
Over its history as a food the main uses of honey have lain in cooking, baking, confection, as a spread on bread, as an addition to various beverages such as tea, and as a sweetener in some commercial beverages.
Due to its energy density, honey is an important food for virtually all hunter-gatherer cultures in warm climates, with the Hadza people ranking honey as their favorite food. Honey hunters in Africa have a mutualistic relationship with certain species of honeyguide birds.
Fermentation
Possibly the world's oldest fermented beverage, dating from 9,000 years ago, mead (also known as honey wine) is the alcoholic product made by adding yeast to honey-water must and fermenting it for weeks or months. The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is commonly used in modern mead production.
Mead varieties include drinks called metheglin (with spices or herbs), melomel (with fruit juices, such as grape, specifically called pyment), hippocras (with cinnamon), and sack mead (with a high concentration of honey). Honey is also used to make mead beer, called "braggot".
Traditional medicine
Honey is a folk treatment for burns and other skin injuries. Preliminary evidence suggests that it aids in the healing of partial thickness burns 4–5 days faster than other dressings, and moderate evidence suggests that post-operative infections treated with honey heal faster and with fewer adverse events than with antiseptic and gauze. Honey has long been used as a topical antibiotic by practitioners of traditional and herbal medicine.
In myths and folk medicine, honey was used both orally and topically to treat various ailments including gastric disturbances, ulcers, skin wounds, and skin burns by ancient Greeks and Egyptians, and in Ayurveda and traditional Chinese medicine. Honey is used in apitherapy as a form of alternative medicine.
Religious consumption
Humans consume honey as parts of some religions. In Judaism during Rosh Hashanah, apples are dipped in honey as a siman (symbol/omen) for a sweet new year. The custom is referenced neither in Tanach or the Talmud; one of its earliest mentions is in the interpolation of Rabbi Moses Isserless to the Shulchan Aruch, which he cites as a non-universal custom—unlike other Rosh Hashana simanim like beets and leek. Nevertheless, the custom has grown to become nearly universal. Some suggest the custom has different or more ancient origins; Dr. Jefferey Cohen suggests the custom is a reminder of the manna provided by God to the Israelites as sustenance while wandering through the desert for 40 years. In Hinduism, honey (Madhu) is one of the five elixirs of life (Panchamrita). In temples, honey is poured over the deities in a ritual called Madhu abhisheka. The Vedas and other ancient literature mention the use of honey as a great medicinal and health food. In Buddhism, honey plays an important role in the festival of Madhu Purnima, celebrated in India and Bangladesh. The day commemorates Buddha's making peace among his disciples by retreating into the wilderness. According to legend, while he was there a monkey brought him honey to eat. On Madhu Purnima, Buddhists remember this act by giving honey to monks. The monkey's gift is frequently depicted in Buddhist art. In Islam, according to the hadith, Muhammad strongly recommended honey for healing purposes. The Quran promotes honey as a nutritious and healthy food.
Mellivory by nonhuman animals
By invertebrates
There are several species of insects that are considered pests in beekeeping. Notably, small hive beetles, the unaptly named bee louse (a species of fly), ants, wasps and wax moths such as Galleria mellonella and Achroia grisella cause damage by eating honey directly. Of course, bees themselves also feed honey to their larvae. Western honey bees will rob honey from other hives, as will yellowjacket wasps. In the Nomada genus, which is a genus of cleptoparasites, the female enters a beehive to deposit her eggs, and leaves. The offspring will eat the hive's resources and eventually leave themselves.
By vertebrates
Honey is eaten by several types of mammals, notably skunks, raccoons, opossums, kinkajous, bears, and honey badgers. Bears in particular are stereotyped as commonly attacking beehives, which does happen in nature. Bears are attracted to beehives for not just the honey, but also larvae and immature honey bees, which provide fat and protein. The Russian term for bear, literally "Honey Eater", reflects this. Honey badgers are also well known for raiding beehives and eating honey, and are named after this part of their diet.
Honey and beeswax are also eaten by some birds, including honeyeaters and honeyguides, the latter of which are known to guide humans to bee colonies in order to partake in foraging mutualism.
Mellivory by microorganisms
Honey, despite having limited antimicrobial properties, is consumed by some microorganisms, particularly yeasts and spore-forming bacteria. Notable fungi found in honey are Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus proliferans, Aspergillus spelunceus, Chaetomium globosum, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Daldinia concentrica, Emericella discophora, Emericella qinqixianii, Penicillium corylophilum, Penicillium decumbens, Penicillium polonicum, and Penicillium echinulatum, while notable bacteria species are Debaryomyces hansenii, Zygosaccharomyces rouxii, Zygosaccharomyces mellis, Aureobasidium pullulans, and Cryptococcus uzbekistanensis.
References
Honey
Animals by eating behaviors | Mellivory | [
"Biology"
] | 1,516 | [
"Ethology",
"Behavior",
"Animals by eating behaviors"
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71,804,759 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium%20thiocyanate | Lithium thiocyanate is a chemical compound with the formula LiSCN. It is an extremely hygroscopic white solid that forms the monohydrate and the dihydrate. It is the least stable of the alkali metal thiocyanates due to the large electrostatic deforming field of the lithium cation.
Properties and preparation
Lithium thiocyanate is hygroscopic and forms the anhydrous, monohydrate, and dihydrate, which melts at 274, 60, and 38 °C, respectively. The monohydrate supercools after melting, as it recrystallizes at 36 °C. It is soluble in many organic solvents, such as ethanol, methanol, 1-propanol, and acetone. However, it is insoluble in benzene.
Due to its hygroscopicity, the anhydrous form is hard to prepare. The anhydrous form is usually prepared by the reaction of lithium hydroxide and ammonium thiocyanate, then the water was removed by vacuum, then the resulting solid was dissolved in diethyl ether, followed by adding to petroleum ether to form the ether salt, then it was heated in vacuum at 110 °C to result in the anhydrous salt. The overall reaction is the following:
LiOH + NH4SCN → LiSCN + NH4OH
The ether can be replaced by THF.
Crystallography
The monohydrate has 2 forms, the α form, and the β form; the α form reversibly converts to the β form at 49 °C. The α form has the space group C2/m while the β form has the space group Pnam. More info on its crystallography are listed in the table below.
References
Lithium compounds
Thiocyanates | Lithium thiocyanate | [
"Chemistry"
] | 390 | [
"Functional groups",
"Thiocyanates",
"Lithium salts",
"Salts"
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71,805,117 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permutation%20codes | Permutation codes are a family of error correction codes that were introduced first by Slepian in 1965. and have been widely studied both in Combinatorics and Information theory due to their applications related to Flash memory and Power-line communication.
Definition and properties
A permutation code is defined as a subset of the Symmetric Group in endowed with the usual Hamming distance between strings of length . More precisely, if are permutations in , then
The minimum distance of a permutation code is defined to be the minimum positive integer such that there exist , distinct, such that .
One of the reasons why permutation codes are suitable for certain channels is that the alphabet symbols only appear once in each codeword, which for example makes the errors occurring in the context of powerline communication less impactful on codewords
Gilbert-Varshamov bound
A main problem in permutation codes is to determine the value of , where is defined to be the maximum number of codewords in a permutation code of length and minimum distance . There has been little progress made for , except for small lengths. We can define with to denote the set of all permutations in which have distance exactly from the identity.
Let with , where is the number of derangements of order .
The Gilbert-Varshamov bound is a very well known upper bound, and so far outperforms other bounds for small values of .
Theorem 1:
There has been improvements on it for the case where as the next theorem shows.
Theorem 2: If for some integer , then
.
For small values of and , researchers have developed various computer searching strategies to directly look for permutation codes with some prescribed automorphisms
Other Bounds
There are numerous bounds on permutation codes, we list two here
Gilbert-Varshamov Bound Improvement
An Improvement is done to the Gilbert-Varshamov bound already discussed above. Using the connection between permutation codes and independent sets in certain graphs one can improve the Gilbert–Varshamov bound asymptotically by a factor , when the code length goes to infinity.
Let denote the subgraph induced by the neighbourhood of identity in , the Cayley graph and .
Let denotes the maximum degree in
Theorem 3: Let and
Then,
where .
The Gilbert-Varshamov bound is,
Theorem 4: when is fixed and does to infinity, we have
Lower bounds using linear codes
Using a linear block code, one can prove that there exists a permutation code in the symmetric group of degree , having minimum distance at least and large cardinality. A lower bound for permutation codes that provides asymptotic improvements in certain regimes of length and distance of the permutation code is discussed below. For a given subset of the symmetric group , we denote by the maximum cardinality of a permutation code of minimum distance at least entirely contained in , i.e.
.
Theorem 5: Let be integers such that and . Moreover let be a prime power and be positive integers such that and . If there exists an code such that has a codeword of Hamming weight , then
where
Corollary 1: for every prime power , for every ,
.
Corollary 2: for every prime power , for every ,
.
References
Error detection and correction | Permutation codes | [
"Engineering"
] | 662 | [
"Error detection and correction",
"Reliability engineering"
] |
71,806,178 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayfinding%20%28urban%20or%20indoor%29 | Wayfinding has been used in the context of architecture to refer to the user experience of orientation and navigating within the built environment.
History
Kevin A. Lynch used the term (originally "way-finding") for his 1960 book The Image of the City, where he defined way-finding as "a consistent use and organization of definite sensory cues from the external environment."
In 1984 environmental psychologist Romedi Passini published the full-length "Wayfinding in Architecture" and expanded the concept to include the use of signage and other graphic communication, visual clues in the built environment, audible communication, tactile elements, including provisions for special-needs users.
The wayfinding concept was further expanded in a further book by renowned Canadian graphic designer Paul Arthur, and Romedi Passini, published in 1992, "Wayfinding: People, Signs and Architecture." The book serves as a veritable wayfinding bible of descriptions, illustrations, and lists, all set into a practical context of how people use both signs and other wayfinding cues to find their way in complex environments. There is an extensive bibliography, including information on exiting information and how effective it has been during emergencies such as fires in public places.
Wayfinding also refers to the set of architectural or design elements that aid orientation. Today, the term wayshowing, coined by Danish designer Per Mollerup, is used to cover the act of assisting way finding. He describes the difference between wayshowing and way finding, and codifies the nine wayfinding strategies we all use when navigating in unknown territories. However, there is some debate over the importance of using the term wayshowing, some argue that it merely adds confusion to a discipline that is already highly misunderstood.
In 2010 American Hospital Association published "Wayfinding for Health Care: Best Practices for Today's Facilities", written by Randy R. Cooper. The book takes a comprehensive view of Wayfinding specifically for those in search of medical care.
Whilst wayfinding applies to cross disciplinary practices including architecture, art and design, signage design, psychology, environmental studies, one of the most recent definitions by Paul Symonds et al. defines wayfinding as "The cognitive, social and corporeal process and experience of locating, following or discovering a route through and to a given space". Wayfinding is an embodied and sociocultural activity in addition to being a cognitive process in that wayfinding takes place almost exclusively in social environments with, around and past other people and influenced by stakeholders who manage and control the routes through which we try to find our way. The route is often one we might take for pleasure, such as to see a scenic highway, or one we take as a physical challenge such as trying to find the way through a series of caves showing our behavioural biases. Wayfinding is a complex practice that very often involves several techniques such as people-asking (asking people for directions) and crowd following and is thus a practice that combines psychological and sociocultural processes.
In addition to the built environment, the concept of wayfinding has also recently been applied to the concept of career development and an individual's attempt to create meaning within the context of career identity. This was addressed in late August, 2017 in the NPR podcast You 2.0: How Silicon Valley Can Help You Get Unstuck. The wayfinding concept is also similar to information architecture, as both use information-seeking behaviour in information environments.
Theory
In Lynch's The Image of the City, he created a model of cities as a framework on which to build wayfinding systems. The 5 elements are what he found people use to orient themselves with a mental map. They are:
Paths – the roads used to move around
Edges – roads which define the boundaries and breaks in continuity
Districts – areas which share similar characteristics
Nodes – strong intersection points of roads like squares or junctions
Landmarks – easily identifiable entities which are used for point-referencing, usually physical objects
Expanding on Mollerup's nine wayfinding strategies mentioned above, they are:
Track following: to rely on directional signs on the road
Route following: to follow the rules given, such as a pre-planned route before the journey started
Educated seeking: to use past experiences to draw logical conclusions on where to go
Inference: to apply norms and expectations of where things are
Screening: to systematically search the area for a helpful clue, though there may well not be any
Aiming: to find a perceptible target and move in that specific direction
Map reading: to use portable or stationary maps and help the user locate themselves
Compassing: to navigate oneself with a figurative compass, such as the location of the sun or a landmark
Social navigation: to follow the crowd and learn from other people's actions
Going further with the cognitive process, understanding it helps to build a better wayfinding system as designers learn how people navigate their way around and how to use those elements.
Chris Girling uses a cyclical model to explain how our decisions and actions change as we move. "Our brains are constantly sensing information, co-ordinating movement, remembering the environment and planning next steps". The model shows how our perception can influence what information we seek out, such as some signage being too small to read or even too high up. Once we find the information we want, we make a decision which will depend on previous experiences. Finally we move, during which we look for more information to confirm that we made the right decision for our journey. The cognitive load of this will vary from person to person, as some will know the journey well while it is new to others. This understanding helps designers develop empathy for the user, as they research and test various wayfinding systems adapted to each context.
Examples
Modern wayfinding has begun to incorporate research on why people get lost, how they react to signage and how these systems can be improved.
Urban planning
An example of an urban wayfinding scheme is the Legible London Wayfinding system.
A study published in Nature showed that growing up in a grid-planned city hampers future spatial navigation skills.
In 2011, Nashville, Tennessee introduced a wayfinding sign and traffic guidance program to help tourists navigate the city center.
Indoor wayfinding
Indoor wayfinding in public buildings such as hospitals is commonly aided by kiosks, indoor maps, and building directories. Indoor wayfinding is equally important in office buildings.
Such spaces that involve areas outside the normal vocabulary of visitors show the need for a common set of language-independent symbols.
Offering indoor maps for handheld mobile devices is becoming common, as are digital information kiosk systems.
Other frequent wayfinding aids are the use of color coding and signage clustering—used to order the information into a hierarchy and prevent the issue of information overload. A number of recent airport terminals include ceiling designs and flooring patterns that encourage passengers to move along the required directional flow.
The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) represented a milestone in helping to make spaces universally accessible and improving wayfinding for users.
Signage
Signage is the most visual part of wayfinding. A good wayfinding system needs well designed signage, but it also has to be well placed and to match the user's language.
There are four types of signs most commonly used which help navigate users and give them appropriate information. They are:
Informational: These provide useful information on the place where the users are, such as free wifi, opening hours, etc.
Directional: As the name indicates, these direct users with arrows saying which way to go for whichever purpose. These most often at junctions when the user must make a decision about the route.
Identification:To help users recognise where they currently are, identification signs can be placed at the entrances of buildings, parks, etc. They symbolise the arrival to a destination.
Regulatory: These let people know what they can and cannot do in a given area and are most frequently phrased negatively with the aim of creating a safe environment. Examples include "no smoking" or "restricted area".
See also
Desire path
Environmental psychology
Evidence-based design
Sneckdown
Space syntax
Tactical urbanism
Urban exploration
Urban planning
Urban terrain
Waypoint
References
Further reading
Chris Calori (2007), Signage and Wayfinding Design: A Complete Guide to Creating Environmental Graphic Design Systems, John Wiley & Sons,
Environmental Graphics: Projects and Process from Hunt Design.
David Gibson (2009), The Wayfinding Handbook: Information Design for Public Places, Princeton Architectural Press,
Michael Bierut (2015), How to Use Graphic Design to Sell Things, Explain Things, Make Things Look Better, Make People Laugh, Make People Cry, and (Every Once in a While) Change the World, Thames & Hudson.
Poulin, Richard. Graphic Design + Architecture. A 20th-century History. Rockport Publishers, 2012.
Per Mollerop (2005), Wayshowing: A Guide to Environmental Signage Principles & Practices, Lars Muller Publications
Paul Arthur and Romedi Passini "Wayfinding: People, Signs and Architecture", (originally published 1992, McGraw Hill, reissued in a limited commemorative edition in 2002 by SEGD). ,
Uebele, Andreas. Signage Systems and Information Graphics. Thames & Hudson, 2007
Menno Hubregtse (2020), Wayfinding, Consumption, and Air Terminal Design, Routledge,
Psychogeography
Architectural theory
Environmental psychology | Wayfinding (urban or indoor) | [
"Engineering",
"Environmental_science"
] | 1,921 | [
"Environmental psychology",
"Environmental social science",
"Architectural theory",
"Architecture"
] |
71,806,701 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil%20and%20natural%20gas%20refining%20in%20Turkmenistan | Turkmenistan, a country rich in both oil and natural gas, has developed a sub-sector in its economy related to the refining of those two sorts of fossil fuels.
Oil refining
There are two oil refineries in Turkmenistan, located in the cities of Türkmenbaşy and Seýdi.
The Türkmenbaşy oil refinery is the larger of the two refineries, with a capacity of more than 10 million tons of oil per year. The refinery produces a range of products, including unleaded gasoline, petroleum coke, asphalt, laundry detergent, hydro-treated diesel, and lube oil. The Turkmen government has demonstrated interest in attracting foreign investment to build factories producing end-user petroleum based products such as detergents and tires. The refinery reported that its products are exported to Russia, China, Iran, Afghanistan, Turkey, Pakistan, Tajikistan, and Japan.
Turkmenistan has invested US$900 million in a number of projects designed to help increase the country's refining capacity by 95 percent by 2030. The projects include the construction of a facility for coking (carbonization) and tar de-asphalting with annual capacity of 900,000 and 500,000 tons, respectively. The government of Turkmenistan also constructed a facility to produce asphalt with an annual capacity of 38,000 tons as well as a facility to produce polypropylene film and an oil refinery with a capacity of 3 billion tons per year. Turkmenistan has commissioned a feasibility study regarding the construction of a new oil refinery in its Balkan province.
Natural gas refining
Sysmic and geological research was conducted in the Caspian Sea with the help of the United States in 2000, which showed the presence of 11,000,000,000 tons of oil and of gas on the coast of the country. Historically, Turkmenistan has been a heavy exporter of natural gas, exporting nearly 80% of its raw material produced. As of the 2010s, however, the country has increasingly faced a difficult time in increasing its exports of natural gas. In response, the government plans to refine natural gas to make chemicals such as methanol, synthetic rubber, and materials for paint. In October 2018, the government opened a chemical facility in the Balkan Region of Turkmenistan to create polyethylene and polypropylene, in contract with LG International, Toyo Engineering, and Hyundai Engineering. The facility cost US$3.4 billion to build, and is capable of converting of natural gas into 81,000 tons of polypropylene as well as 386,000 tons of polyethylene every year.
The government also created a facility to convert natural gas to gasoline, in the Ahal Region of Turkmenistan. It was first conceived in 2013 by a contract including Türkmengaz, Rönesans Türkmen, and Kawasaki Heavy Industries. It cost US$1.7 billion to build, and was opened in 2019. The plant is capable of converting of natural gas into 600,000 tons of A-92 gasoline every year.
In addition to gasoline, the government has sought to convert natural gas to liquid petroleum. A new facility was announced in April 2016 by the Turkmenistan Ministry of Oil & Gas, created by a contract that includes South Korean LG International Corp., Hyundai Engineering Co, and the Japanese Itochu Corporation. It is projected to convert into 1.1 million tons of diesel fuel and over 400,000 tons of naphtha every year. The country has plans to build additional gas to liquids plants in the coming years.
For decades, Turkmenistan had a dispute with Azerbaijan regarding the ownership of a large oil and gas block located inside the exclusive economic zone of both countries in the Caspian Sea. In 2021, the two countries signed a memorandum of understanding in Ashgabat to conduct joint exploration and field development activities. Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine and the subsequent gas dispute, Turkmenistan was considered as an alternative supplier to Europe.
In July 2022, the Turkmenistan started extraction from a new gas plant in the Mary Region.
References
Economy of Turkmenistan
Oil refineries
Natural gas
Fossil fuels in Turkmenistan | Oil and natural gas refining in Turkmenistan | [
"Chemistry"
] | 826 | [
"Petroleum",
"Oil refineries",
"Oil refining"
] |
71,806,847 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direction%20determination | Direction determination refers to the ways in which a cardinal direction or compass point can be determined in navigation and wayfinding. The most direct method is using a compass (magnetic compass or gyrocompass), but indirect methods exist, based on the Sun path (unaided or by using a watch or sundial), the stars, and satellite navigation.
Compass
The Earth has a magnetic field which is approximately aligned with its axis of rotation. A magnetic compass is a device that uses this field to determine the cardinal directions. Magnetic compasses are widely used, but only moderately accurate. The north pole of the magnetic needle points toward the geographic north pole of the earth and vice versa. This is because the geographic north pole of the earth lies very close to the magnetic south pole of the earth. This south magnetic pole of the earth located at an angle of 17 degrees to the geographic north pole attracts the north pole of the magnetic needle and vice versa.
Gyrocompass
At the very end of the 19th century, in response to the development of battleships with large traversable guns that affected magnetic compasses, and possibly to avoid the need to wait for fair weather at night to precisely verify one's alignment with true north, the gyrocompass was developed for shipboard use. Since it finds true, rather than magnetic, north, it is immune to interference by local or shipboard magnetic fields. Its major disadvantage is that it depends on technology that many individuals might find too expensive to justify outside the context of a large commercial or military operation. It also requires a continuous power supply for its motors, and that it can be allowed to sit in one location for a period of time while it properly aligns itself.
Based on the Sun
The position of the Sun in the sky can be used for orientation if the general time of day is known. In the morning the Sun rises roughly in the east (due east only on the equinoxes) and tracks southward (in the northern hemisphere) or northward (in the southern hemisphere). In the evening, the Sun sets in the west, again roughly and only due west exactly on the equinoxes. In the middle of the day, it is to the south for viewers in the northern hemisphere, who live north of the Tropic of Cancer, and the north for those in the southern hemisphere, who live south of the Tropic of Capricorn. This method does not work very well when closer to the equator (i.e. between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn) since, in the northern hemisphere, the sun may be directly overhead or even to the north in summer. Conversely, at low latitudes in the southern hemisphere the sun may be to the south of the observer in summer. In these locations, one needs first to determine whether the sun is moving from east to west through north or south by watching its movements—left to right means it is going through south while the right to left means it is going through north; or one can watch the sun's shadows. If they move clockwise, the sun will be in the south at midday, and if they move anticlockwise, then the sun will be in the north at midday. The sun rises from east and sets in West.
Because of the Earth's axial tilt, no matter what the location of the viewer, there are only two days each year when the sun rises precisely due east. These days are the equinoxes. On all other days, depending on the time of year, the sun rises either north or south of true east (and sets north or south of true west). For all locations, the sun is seen to rise north of east (and set north of west) from the Northward equinox to the Southward equinox, and rise south of east (and set south of west) from the Southward equinox to the Northward equinox
Watch dial
There is a traditional method by which an analogue watch can be used to locate north and south. The Sun appears to move in the sky over a 24-hour period while the hour hand of a 12-hour clock dial takes twelve hours to complete one rotation. In the northern hemisphere, if the watch is rotated so that the hour hand points toward the Sun, the point halfway between the hour hand and 12 o'clock will indicate south. For this method to work in the southern hemisphere, the 12 is pointed toward the Sun and the point halfway between the hour hand and 12 o'clock will indicate north. During daylight saving time, the same method can be employed using 1 o'clock instead of 12. The difference between local time and zone time, the equation of time, and (near the tropics) the non-uniform change of the Sun's azimuth at different times of day limit the accuracy of this method.
Sundial
A portable sundial can be used as a more accurate instrument than a watch for determining the cardinal directions. Because the design of a sundial takes account of the latitude of the observer, it can be used at any latitude. See: Sundial#Using a sundial as a compass.
Other stars
Astronomy provides a method for finding direction at night. All the stars appear to lie on the imaginary celestial sphere. Because of the rotation of the Earth, the diurnal motion makes stars appear to rotate around an axis passing through the North and South poles of the Earth. This axis intersects the Celestial Sphere at the North and South Celestial poles, which appear to the observer to lie directly above due North and South respectively on the horizon.
In either hemisphere, observations of the night sky show that the visible stars appear to be moving in circular paths, caused by the rotation of the Earth. This is best seen in a long exposure photograph, which is obtained by locking the shutter open for most of the intensely dark part of a moonless night. The resulting photograph reveals a multitude of concentric arcs (portions of perfect circles) from which the exact center can be readily derived, and which corresponds to the Celestial pole, which lies directly above the position of the true pole (North or South) on the horizon.
A published photograph exposed for nearly 8 hours demonstrates this effect.
The Northern Celestial pole is currently (but not permanently) within a fraction of 1 degree of the bright star Polaris. The exact position of the pole changes over thousands of years because of the precession of the equinoxes. Polaris is also known as the North Star, and is generically called a pole star or lodestar. Polaris is only visible during fair weather at night to inhabitants of the Northern Hemisphere.
The asterism "Big Dipper" may be used to find Polaris. The 2 corner stars of the "pan" (those opposite from the handle) point above the top of the "pan" to Polaris.
While observers in the Northern hemisphere can use the star Polaris to determine the Northern celestial pole, the Octans constellation's South Star is hardly visible enough to use for navigation. For this reason, the preferred alternative is to use the constellation Crux (The Southern Cross). The southern celestial pole lies at the intersection of (a) the line along the long axis of crux (i.e. through Alpha Crucis and Gamma Crucis) and (b) a line perpendicularly bisecting the line joining the "Pointers" (Alpha Centauri and Beta Centauri).
Satellite navigation
Near the end of the 20th century, the advent of satellite-based Global Positioning Systems (GPS) provided yet another means for any individual to determine true north accurately. While GPS Receivers (GPSRs) function best with a clear view of the entire sky, they function day or night, and in all but the most severe weather. The government agencies responsible for the satellites continuously monitor and adjust them to maintain their accurate alignment with the Earth. In contrast with the gyrocompass which is most accurate when stationary, the GPS receiver, if it has only one antenna, must be moving, typically at more than 0.1 mph (0.2 km/h), to correctly display compass directions. On ships and aircraft, GPS receivers are often equipped with two or more antennas, separately attached to the vehicle. The exact latitudes and longitudes of the antennas are determined, which allows the cardinal directions to be calculated relative to the structure of the vehicle. Within these limitations GPSRs are considered both accurate and reliable. The GPSR has thus become the fastest and most convenient way to obtain a verifiable alignment with the cardinal directions.
Radio methods
See also
Direction of prayer
Pole star
Position determination
Sense of direction
References
Navigation
Horizontal coordinate system | Direction determination | [
"Astronomy"
] | 1,778 | [
"Astronomical coordinate systems",
"Horizontal coordinate system"
] |
71,807,527 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kumzhinskoye%20gas%20field | The Kumzhinskoye gas field is a condensate gas field in the Nenets Autonomous Okrug of Russia. It lies within the Nenets Nature Reserve, in the Pechora River delta. A fire in an exploratory well, in November 1980, led to the use of a peaceful nuclear explosion in 1981 as an attempt to control the fire. Despite this, hydrocarbon escape occurred after the 37kt explosion, needing further relief well drilling.
As of the mid-2010s, the licence to the gas field is held by CH Invest Company. The size of the field is 225km2, and is estimated to annually produce 3.2 billion cubic metres of natural gas and 170,000 tonnes a year of gas condensate.
See also
Nuclear Explosions for the National Economy
References
Geography of Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug
Natural gas fields in Russia
Natural gas fields in the Arctic Ocean
Natural gas fields in the Soviet Union
Peaceful nuclear explosions | Kumzhinskoye gas field | [
"Chemistry"
] | 197 | [
"Explosions",
"Peaceful nuclear explosions"
] |
71,809,134 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veerse%20Gatdam | The Veerse Gatdam is a man-made barrier across the former Eastern Scheldt estuary branch known as the Veerse Gat, between Walcheren and Noord-Beveland islands in Zeeland, Netherlands. The barrier was completed on 27 April 1961. Because of the completion of this barrier and the completion of the Zandkreekdam a year prior on the eastern end of the waterway, the Veerse Meer was created. The Veerse Gatdam is the third structure constructed as part of the Delta Works water management system. The N57 motorway runs along the top of the barrier.
Overview
The barrier is long and connects the island of Walcheren with Noord-Beveland. The barrier was partly built as a with asphalt coated dike on the Plaat van Onrust, a former sandbar. For the remaining parts, sinkable passing caissons were used. For the construction of these caissons, a dock was constructed between Veere en Vrouwenpolder. The caissons contain openings, so that the tide could keep going on, while building the barrier. With this it was prevented that the current would keep on getting stronger as the construction progressed. Only at the end of construction, were the sliders simultaneously lowered, by which the barrier was closed in one instant.
By building the Veerse Gatdam, the town of Veere was no longer connected with the open sea. The fishing fleet of Veere had to be relocated before the completion of the barrier to the nearby village of Colijnsplaat. The Veerse Meer is currently a popular aquatics location, particularly for windsurfing. On the north side of the dam, a large recreational beach has been created.
The closing of the Veerse Gat was adapted into a film, Deltafase 1, by Bert Haanstra.
References
External links
Veerse Dam, Encyclopedie van Zeeland (in Dutch)
Delta Works
Dams completed in 1961
Dams in Zeeland
Noord-Beveland
Walcheren
Veere | Veerse Gatdam | [
"Physics"
] | 434 | [
"Physical systems",
"Hydraulics",
"Delta Works"
] |
71,810,466 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HD%2058425 | HD 58425, also known as HR 2830, is an astrometric binary (100% chance) located in the northern circumpolar constellation Camelopardalis. It is faintly visible to the naked eye as an orang point of light at an apparent magnitude of 5.64. Based on parallax measurements from Gaia DR3, the system is estimated to be 470 light years away from Earth. It appears to be rapidly receding from the Sun, having a heliocentric radial velocity of . HD 58425 is listed as 54 Ursae Majoris in Johann Hevelius' catalogue, but this was dropped after the official IAU's official constellation borders were drawn.
The visible component is an evolved, RGB star with a stellar classification of K2 III. It has 1.74 times the mass of the Sun and is said to be 3.55 billion years old. At this age, the object has expanded to 24.7 times the radius of the Sun and now radiates nearly 200 times the luminosity of the Sun from its enlarged photosphere at an effective temperature of . HD 58425 A has an iron abundance only 38% that of the Sun's, making it metal deficient.
References
Astrometric binaries
K-type giants
Camelopardalis
BD+68 00480
058425
036528
2830 | HD 58425 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 286 | [
"Camelopardalis",
"Constellations"
] |
71,810,890 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HD%2034255 | HD 34255, also known HR 1720, is a star located in the northern circumpolar constellation Camelopardalis, the giraffe. It has an apparent magnitude of 5.60, allowing it to be faintly visible to the naked eye. The object is located relatively far at a distance of about 1.65 kly but is approaching the Solar System with a heliocentric radial velocity of .
This is a solitary, evolved red supergiant with a stellar classification of K4 I. It has 6.9 times the mass of the Sun and is said to be 46 million years old. Despite the young age, it has already ceased hydrogen fusion at its core and now has an enlarged radius of . HD 34255 radiates a bolometric luminosity over 6,000 times that of the Sun from its photosphere at an effective temperature of , giving it an orange glow. The star's metallicity – what astronomers dub as elements heavier than helium – is around solar level.
References
K-type supergiants
Camelopardalis
034255
024914
BD+62 00742
1720 | HD 34255 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 235 | [
"Camelopardalis",
"Constellations"
] |
71,811,067 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VZ%20Cancri | VZ Cancri is a variable star in the constellation Cancer, abbreviated VZ Cnc. It varies in brightness with a period of 0.178364 days, from an apparent visual magnitude of 7.18 down to 7.91, which lies below the typical threshold of visibility for the naked eye. The distance to this star is approximately 724 light years based on parallax measurements, and it is receding from the Sun with a radial velocity of 25 km/s.
This star was discovered to vary in brightness by B. S. Whitney in 1950, and was classified as a cluster-type Cepheid variable, or RR Lyrae star. In 1955, W. S. Fitch found the light curve to be variable and discovered a beat period of , from which is inferred a second pulsation period of 0.1428041 days. H. A. Abt found that the stellar class of this star varied from A7–A9 III during peak brightness to F1–F2 III at minimum. After H. J. Smith pointed out the distinctiveness of short period RR Lyrae variables in 1956, VZ Cnc has been grouped under the category of Delta Scuti variables.
The star is located near the center of the instability strip. Both pulsation periods for this star are in the first and second overtone; it appears to lack a fundamental mode, possibly as a result of helium depletion in the outer atmosphere. In 1994, an examination of five decades of data on this star suggested a variation in the period of maximum light with a cycle length of 49.3 years. This could be the result of previously undetected pulsation frequencies.
References
Further reading
A-type giants
F-type giants
Delta Scuti variables
Cancer (constellation)
Durchmusterung objects
073857
042594
Cancri, VZ | VZ Cancri | [
"Astronomy"
] | 388 | [
"Cancer (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
71,811,648 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chesterford%20Park%20Research%20Station | Chesterford Park Research Station was a crop protection research centre in Essex. It is now a science park with biotechnology companies.
History
The 808 acres of the Chesterford Park Estate was put up for sale in June 1950, owned by Werner Göthe since around 1930.
Pest Control Ltd of Bourn in south-west Cambridgeshire, bought the Little Chesterford Park site in 1952. The Bourn site made crop spraying equipment. Fisons bought Pest Control Ltd in early 1954.
Elwyn Parry-Jones was the site's first technical director, who died in July 1965.
In September 1964, the site started research work with Boots.
Genetic resistance by insects to insecticides was increasing in the late 1960s. By the late 1960s, the site had around 220 staff.
From the 1970s, the director of the site was Charles Edwards.
By the late 1980s, there were around 500 staff.
The site is accessed via the B184 from junction 9 of the M11 motorway.
Ownership
Boots and Fisons joined divisions in 1980 to form FBC Limited. In 1982 Fisons sold its fertiliser division to a Norwegian company for £50m. On Monday 18 July 1983, Boots and Fisons sold FBC Ltd to Schering AG of West Germany for £120m with the sale completed on Wednesday 14 September 1983.
In late 1993, Schering's chemical division looked at merging with another German chemical company Hoechst, which formed AgrEvo on 3 March 1994.
In July 1999, AgrEvo UK looked at closing the site due to Hoechst merging, to become Aventis. The site briefly became part of Aventis CropScience UK. On 12 October 2001, Aventis CropScience was bought for 7.25 billion euros.
In 2000, Aviva Investors acquired the park, planning to develop it further alongside its joint-venture partners, adding new buildings and infrastructure to accommodate tenants as their operations expand.
In 2017, Uttlesford District Council purchased a 50% share in the park, making them joint owners alongside Aviva Investors.
Construction
New buildings were opened on Tuesday 2 October 1956 by Sir William Slater. The new buildings included a Medical Laboratory for tests on laboratory animals. The buildings were built by Prime Ltd of Cambridge. The site was around 240 acres - there was 90 acres of woodland and a 139-acre farm.
In 1967, a new animal health unit opened, with a £30,000 pig unit, and £30,000 building for a dairy herd.
In the late 1970s, a £4.5m building was built. The new centre was opened on Tuesday 24 April 1979 by Scottish biochemist Alexander R. Todd, who won the 1957 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
A 400kv transmission line runs north-south through the east of the site, on the 4ZM Walpole, Norfolk - Burwell, Cambridgeshire - Stocking Pelham route.
Research
From 1954, it conducted research on TCA, which it sold under the tradename Tecane
Insecticides had radioactive tracers to test uptake by insects.
In 1942, the herbicide DNOC - dinitro-ortho-cresol was found, but it was harmful to humans. In 1956, the site found a way to reduce the harmful effects. MCPA was found in 1945, but DNOC was better, as MCPA had resistance.
In February 1958, a team under Dr Pfeiffer discovered TCB. The site researched pesticides, known as crop protection, by Fisons Pest Control. The pesticide Rogor (dimethoate) was developed there, as well as Banlene and Carbyne. Fison's other site was Levington Research Station, in Suffolk, which was for fertiliser products.
In April 1977, the site won a Queen's Award for Industry, for the Norton herbicide, made at a new £3.5m factory in Widnes, with 350 workers, which opened in October 1976; it was awarded on Friday 8 September 1977.
Animal research
Environmental toxicity was tested on rodents such as mice, rats, and hamsters, and on rabbits, ducks and chickens, by radioactive tracers. Various types of insects were kept. In the late 1950s, it conducted research around £250,000 a year.
Recent
Restroscreen Virology opened a clinical trials laboratory on the site in 2014.
Visits
The Duke of Kent visited the site on the morning of Tuesday 23 January 2013
Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh visited the Fisons Pest Control site on the afternoon of Friday 18 October 1963, initially travelling by aircraft, and later personally piloting a red-coloured helicopter; he had visited Shell in Kent in the morning, and the day before he had visited the ICI plant protection research centre in Berkshire. The Duke met James Turner, 1st Baron Netherthorpe, the chairman of Fisons, and Sir John Carmichael, the deputy chairman.
Occupants
The research park is occupied by a AstraZeneca and Illumina, Inc., among others.
See also
Alderley Park
British Industrial Biological Research Association
References
External links
UK Science Park Association
Chesterford Research Park
1952 establishments in England
Agricultural organisations based in England
Agricultural research institutes in the United Kingdom
Chemical research institutes
Crop protection organizations
Environmental toxicology
Horticultural organisations based in the United Kingdom
Mycology organizations
Pesticides in the United Kingdom
Research institutes established in 1952
Science and technology in Essex
Science parks in the United Kingdom
Toxicology in the United Kingdom
Uttlesford | Chesterford Park Research Station | [
"Chemistry",
"Environmental_science"
] | 1,116 | [
"Toxicology in the United Kingdom",
"Chemical research institutes",
"Environmental toxicology",
"Toxicology"
] |
71,812,714 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cetacean%20strandings%20in%20Tasmania | Cetacean strandings in Tasmania occur for a number of reasons, with Tasmania considered a "'hotspot" for the event. Between 1825 and 1986, 213 stranding events had been recorded, involving 22 species, and over 3000 individuals.
Causes
Cetacean strandings may occur for a number of reasons. These include natural causes, such as coastal topography and tidal patterns, searching for food, or a change in electromagnetic fields that could disorient them. Other causes include boat strikes, fishing. and pollution, that could result in injuries and stranding. Pilot whales in particular, living in strong social units, sometimes strand themselves to be with family.
Stranding events
2020 long-finned pilot whale stranding
In September 2020, more than 450 long-finned pilot whales stranded in Macquarie Harbour on the western coast of Tasmania, in Australia's worst-ever stranding event. Most were stranded on sandbanks and beaches around the mouth of the harbour. 50 were rescued, with the balance, 380 whales, dying.
2022 pilot and sperm whale strandings
In September 2022, fourteen stranded sperm whales at King Island, most of which appeared to be young males according to the Department of Natural Resources and Environment spokesperson, were dead when they were reported in the afternoon of 19 September 2022.
Two days later, on 21 September, 230 pilot whales, including young, stranded at Macquarie Heads, near to the location of and exactly two years after the 2020 stranding. The remote location made it difficult for rescue teams to reach the whales, with teams from the Environment Tasmania Marine Conservation Program working with the Tasmania Parks and Wildlife Service and Tasmania Police. The West Coast Council urged members of the public to stay clear unless they were invited by the rescue teams to assist, saying that "Having extra people can really hinder how they go about their rescue efforts." Locals have been covering the animals with blankets and pouring buckets of water over them. As of the morning of 22 September, 35 whales were still alive. Tanya Plibersek, Minister for the Environment and Water, wrote on Twitter: "Very distressing to see a large number of whales stranded in Tasmania. Many thanks to the experts and emergency personnel on site to assist efforts."
References
External links
National Guidance on the Management of Whale and Dolphin Incidents in Australian Waters
Whales
Marine fauna of Tasmania
Mammal behavior | Cetacean strandings in Tasmania | [
"Biology"
] | 481 | [
"Behavior by type of animal",
"Behavior",
"Mammal behavior"
] |
71,814,371 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20mushrooms%20of%20Hawaii | The mushroom species of Hawaii inhabit the Hawaiian archipelago in the central North Pacific Ocean, southwest of the continental United States, southeast of Japan, and northeast of Australia. The islands are part of the State of Hawaii, United States. The state encompasses nearly the entire volcanic Hawaiian Island chain, comprising hundreds of islands spread over .
At the southeastern end of the archipelago, the eight "main islands" are (from the northwest to southeast) Niihau, Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Lānai, Kahoolawe, Maui, and Hawaii. The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands include many atolls, and reefs. Due to Hawaii's isolation many mushroom species are endemic (unique to the island chain).
In total the Hawaiian Islands comprise a total of 137 islands and atolls, with a total land area of . This archipelago and its oceans are physiographically and ethnologically part of the Polynesian subregion of Oceania.
The climate of Hawaii is typical for a tropical area, although temperatures and humidity tend to be a bit less extreme than other tropical locales due to the frequent trade winds blowing from the east.
Species of Mushrooms
Images
References
External links
Fungi of Hawaii
Fungi by location | List of mushrooms of Hawaii | [
"Biology"
] | 245 | [
"Fungi",
"Organisms by location",
"Fungi by location"
] |
71,814,474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amy%20Hauck%20Newman | Amy Hauck Newman is an American medicinal chemist who is the scientific director of the intramural research program at the National Institute on Drug Abuse. She researches the design, synthesis, and evaluation of central nervous system (CNS) active agents as potential treatment medications for substance use disorders, with an emphasis on selective ligands for the dopaminergic system.
Life
Newman completed a B.S. in chemistry at the Mary Washington College. Newman received her Ph.D. in medicinal chemistry from the Medical College of Virginia under the mentorship of Richard A. Glennon. For her postdoctoral studies, she joined the laboratory of Kenner C. Rice at the National Institutes of Health (NIH). She conducted total opiate synthesis through a National Research Service Award funded by the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA).
Newman is the chief of NIDA’s Molecular Targets and Medications Discovery Branch, and director of the NIDA Intramural Research Program (IRP) Medication Development Program. She researches the design, synthesis, and evaluation of central nervous system (CNS) active agents as potential treatment medications for substance use disorders, with an emphasis on selective ligands for the dopaminergic system. In 2014, she received the Marian W. Fischman Lectureship Award from the College on Problems of Drug Dependence. In 2016, she was the first woman to receive the Philip Portoghese Lectureship Award, awarded by the Division of Medicinal Chemistry and the Journal of Medicinal Chemistry. In 2018, she was honored as a “Remarkable Woman in Medicinal Chemistry” at the 255th American Chemical Society National Meeting. In 2019, Newman received the NIH Ruth L. Kirschstein Mentoring Award from the NIH Office of the Director. On November 22, 2020, Newman became the NIDA IRP scientific director. She had been acting in the role for the previous two years.
References
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
Place of birth missing (living people)
University of Mary Washington alumni
Medical College of Virginia alumni
National Institutes of Health people
American medical researchers
American women medical researchers
American organic chemists
American women chemists
21st-century American chemists
21st-century American women scientists | Amy Hauck Newman | [
"Chemistry"
] | 445 | [
"Organic chemists",
"American organic chemists"
] |
71,814,959 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waiatarua%20Reserve | The Waiatarua Reserve is a nature reserve on the eastern Auckland isthmus in New Zealand, close to the suburbs of Remuera, Meadowbank and St Johns. Originally the site of a freshwater lake, Waiatarua was drained in 1929. Since 1987, the reserve has been redeveloped as an urban wetland, and is currently the largest urban wetland restoration project in New Zealand.
Geology
Lake Waiatarua formed after the eruption of Maungarei / Mount Wellington, when a lava flow blocked the flow of a river valley which flowed into the Tāmaki River, approximately 9,000 years ago.
Biodiversity
Since reforestation efforts began, birdlife has returned to the area, including tūī, riroriro and pīwakawaka. Species of native eel can be found at the reserve, as well as native New Zealand red admiral butterflies.
History
The traditional Tāmaki Māori name for the lake, Waiatarua, means the "Waters of Reflection". The lake was an important freshwater resource for Ngāti Whātua Ōrākei, prior to European settlement. During the early colonial period of New Zealand, it was named Lake St John.
The land adjoining the lake was acquired by Bishop Selwyn in 1851, as a part of the grounds of the St John's College. In the 1870s, it was proposed as a source for drinking water for the city of Auckland, however this plan did not eventuate.
In 1908 the Waiatarua Drainage Board was formed, intending to drain the swamplands around the lake, despite wide public opposition to the plan. A tunnel was constructed underneath Remuera Road, in order to drain the lake into the Ōrākei Basin, which was completed by 1929. The tunnel led to the lake disappearing, and filled the Ōrākei Basin with considerable amounts of silt. In 1934, the Remuera Golf Club was established on leased land to the east of the site of the drained lake.
In 1987, the reserve was developed into an artificial wetland. It is currently the largest wetland restoration project in New Zealand, and in 2006 Auckland City won the Arthur Mead Environmental Award due to the restoration efforts.
References
Constructed wetlands
Protected areas of the Auckland Region
Nature reserves in New Zealand
Ōrākei Local Board Area
Urban forests in New Zealand
Wetlands of the Auckland Region | Waiatarua Reserve | [
"Chemistry",
"Engineering",
"Biology"
] | 468 | [
"Bioremediation",
"Constructed wetlands",
"Environmental engineering"
] |
71,814,995 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annemarie%20Weber | Annemarie Weber (11 September 1923 – 5 July 2012) was a German-born American physiologist who studied the biochemistry of muscle action. She was the daughter of the German physiologist Hans Hermann Weber who also studied muscle structure and function.
Weber was born in Tübingen where her father worked at the university and grew up in Königsberg. Her brother Jürgen Weber (1928–2007) became a sculptor. She was often separated from family during World War II. She joined the University of Tübingen and received an MD in 1950 and then studied myosin ATPase for her doctorate. She received a Rockefeller foundation grant and spent her postdoctoral at University College London with A.V. Hill and at Harvard. She also trained under her father who had friends around the world including Albert Szent-Györgyi who had moved to the United States. She first went to Columbia University as a research associate in 1954 and became a lecturer in 1959. She became a professor at St. Louis University Medical School, Missouri in 1965 and moved to the University of Pennsylvania in 1972 where she worked until her death. Her work was on the regulation of actin. She demonstrated the role of Ca2+ ions as intracellular signals and on actin polymerization.
References
1923 births
2012 deaths
American biochemists
University of Pennsylvania faculty
People from Tübingen
Women biochemists | Annemarie Weber | [
"Chemistry"
] | 280 | [
"Biochemists",
"Women biochemists"
] |
71,815,747 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%20Cygni | Y Cygni is an eclipsing and double-lined spectroscopic binary star system in the constellation of Cygnus. It is located about from Earth. The system was one of the first binaries with a convincing detection of the apsidal precession.
The two stars, being O-type main-sequence stars, orbit each other with a period of nearly 3 days.
Observation history
The early type of Y Cyg made it a popular target for astronomers in the past, and spectroscopic orbits have been historically computed numerous times. The first of these studies was published in 1920 by John Stanley Plaskett. Extensive spectroscopic studies of Y Cyg were carried out as early as 1930. Several follow-ups to these have been published in 1959, 1971, and 1980. The latter of these contained an estimate of the period of apsidal precession.
References
Cygnus (constellation)
Binary stars
Cygni, Y
198846
102999
O-type main-sequence stars
Algol variables | Y Cygni | [
"Astronomy"
] | 210 | [
"Cygnus (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
71,816,519 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social%20abuse | Social abuse is a form of abuse that cuts off or tries to cut off the victim from their social network, including their community, friends, or family. It also includes attempts to harm a victim's relationships or reputation, through acts such as humiliating the victim in public, spreading rumors, and otherwise manipulating the victim's image. Social abuse often results in some form of isolation, which removes the victim from any sense of social belongingness outside of relationships the abuser approves of. It can be a kind of psychological abuse, emotional abuse or spiritual abuse. It may also involve attempts to monopolise the victim's skills and resources.
References
See also
Religious abuse
Isolation to facilitate abuse
Psychological abuse
Relational aggression
Dating violence
Intimate partner violence
Abuse | Social abuse | [
"Biology"
] | 151 | [
"Abuse",
"Behavior",
"Aggression",
"Human behavior"
] |
71,816,650 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry%20of%20Electricity%2C%20Water%20and%20Renewable%20Energy%20%28Kuwait%29 | The Ministry of Electricity, Water and Renewable Energy is one of the government agencies in the State of Kuwait. It was established on January 17, 1962 and was previously known as the Ministry of Electricity and Water until the name of Renewable Energy was added to the ministry. The ministry is responsible for providing electricity and water services to more than three million consumers. Its main office is located in the Ministry Zone, in South Surra, and the current minister is Dr. Mahmoud Abdulaziz Mahmoud Bushehri.
Ministry tasks
The Ministry of Electricity, Water and Renewable Energy is responsible for providing the country's needs of electric power and water for consumption and production purposes.
The Ministry is responsible for the following matters:
Establishment, operation and management of electric power production plants that use fuel extracted from the earth, and electric power production plants that use clean energy or renewable energy.
Establishing, operating and managing electric power transmission and distribution networks.
Establishing, operating and managing water production and desalination plants.
Establishment, operation and management of water storage stations and a network of transmission and distribution of water produced from water production and desalination plants or water extracted from the ground.
Suggesting the state's general policy with regard to the production and consumption of water, electricity and renewable energy.
Establishing, operating and managing stations for saving and storing surplus energy from electric or renewable energy sources.
Establishing, operating and managing electric power distribution centers used in public and private transportation.
Importing electrical energy through the electrical connection for use within the State of Kuwait or exporting it in a manner that does not conflict with the legislation in force in the State of Kuwait.
Approval of technical specifications in the field of production, distribution and consumption of water and electric energy.
Developing relations with Arab and foreign countries and organizations in matters of water, electric and renewable energy.
Purchasing renewable energy produced from others, in light of the conditions and procedures set by the ministry in accordance with the applicable legislation within the State of Kuwait.
Conducting scientific and practical research and studies independently or in cooperation with organizations of Arab or foreign countries, or in cooperation with specialized research centers in the field of production, transmission, storage and consumption of electric energy and water.
Exploration of groundwater, preservation of the discovered places, and regulation of the extraction and use of groundwater.
Conducting contracts for the purpose of electrical interconnection and the exchange of electrical energy with other countries, passing through the State of Kuwait.
Sources:
List of ministers
Source:
References
Ministries established in 1962
Government ministries of Kuwait
1962 establishments in Kuwait
Energy ministries | Ministry of Electricity, Water and Renewable Energy (Kuwait) | [
"Engineering"
] | 507 | [
"Energy organizations",
"Energy ministries"
] |
71,820,492 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jasjit%20S.%20Suri | Jasjit S. Suri is an American engineer who works in the fields of biomedical engineering, computer science and clinical engineering. His work is focused on the implementation of artificial intelligence in biomedicine, and healthcare.
Education and career
Suri received a master's degree in computer sciences from the University of Illinois, Chicago. In 1997, he completed his PhD in electrical engineering at the University of Washington, Seattle. He later went back to Weatherhead School of Management at Case Western Reserve University, completing an MBA in 2004.
He has been a fellow of the American Institute for Medical and Biological Engineering (AIMBE) since 2004, American Institute of Ultrasound in Medicine (AIUM), Asia Pacific Vascular Society (APVS), and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).
Suri is the chairperson of AtheroPoint, a medical imaging company based in Roseville, CA.
References
External links
IEEE author bio
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
Electrical engineers
University of Illinois Chicago alumni
Fellows of the IEEE
University of Washington alumni | Jasjit S. Suri | [
"Engineering"
] | 215 | [
"Electrical engineering",
"Electrical engineers"
] |
71,822,245 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shingo%20Futamura | Shingo Futamura (April 3, 1938 -) is a rubber industry materials scientist noted for his concept of the deformation index.
Education
Futamura completed his undergraduate Bachelor of Science degree at Waseda University in Japan. He earned a master's degree from the University of Michigan in 1968. He received his doctorate in polymer science from the University of Akron in 1975 under advisor Eberhard Meinecke.
Career
By 1974, Futamura was appointed as a group leader of polymer physics at Firestone Central Research in Akron, Ohio. During a career spanning over 40 years, Futamura authored 25 scientific papers and 50 US patents. He worked for Nippon Zeon Co., Firestone Tire & Rubber Company, and Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company.
He is best known for proposing the concept of a deformation index to relate viscoelastic properties to real-world tire performance. The concept is used to select rubber compounds that minimize tire rolling resistance, and it is used in finite element analysis to simplify the calculation of energy loss and temperature distribution.
Awards and recognition
1973 - Honorable Mention award for paper entitled "Solution SBR-Study in Copolymerization Dynaimcs", ACS Rubber Division Spring meeting
2014 - Melvin Mooney Distinguished Technology Award from the ACS Rubber Division
References
1938 births
Polymer scientists and engineers
20th-century Japanese engineers
Living people
University of Akron people
Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company people
Bridgestone people
Waseda University alumni | Shingo Futamura | [
"Chemistry",
"Materials_science"
] | 294 | [
"Polymer scientists and engineers",
"Physical chemists",
"Polymer chemistry"
] |
71,824,040 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tent%20bed | Tent bed is a bed with temporary tent like cover to maintain warmth in colder periods or emergencies.
Tent beds can be improvised using common camping tents indoors or purchased as special indoor or bed tents to be mounted to normal beds.
Bed tents were widely used in South Korea in winter 2013 while nuclear plant shutdowns caused surging energy prices.
See also
Canopy bed
Camp bed
References
Beds | Tent bed | [
"Biology"
] | 77 | [
"Beds",
"Behavior",
"Sleep"
] |
74,620,419 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breitling%20Top%20Time | Breitling Top Time is a COSC-certified chronograph introduced in 1964 by Swiss watch brand Breitling SA.
The watch appeared in the 1965 James Bond movie Thunderball: Bond is given a Breitling Top Time which contains a geiger counter to track down two stolen nuclear warheads. After the movie was filmed, the watch disappeared and later resurfaced in a car boot sale in England in 2012, where it was purchased for . It later sold at Christie's auction house for over . (In the same film, the SPECTRE pilot who hijacks the Vulcan bomber wears a Breitling Navitimer).
The most recent version of the watch is produced with an in-house Breitling movement.
References
Breitling SA
Watch models
Products introduced in 1964 | Breitling Top Time | [
"Physics"
] | 166 | [
"Spacetime",
"Physical quantities",
"Time",
"Time stubs"
] |
74,620,623 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerr%E2%80%93Newman%E2%80%93de%E2%80%93Sitter%20metric | The Kerr–Newman–de–Sitter metric (KNdS) is the one of the most general stationary solutions of the Einstein–Maxwell equations in general relativity that describes the spacetime geometry in the region surrounding an electrically charged, rotating mass embedded in an expanding universe. It generalizes the Kerr–Newman metric by taking into account the cosmological constant .
Boyer–Lindquist coordinates
In signature and in natural units of the KNdS metric is
with all the other metric tensor components , where is the black hole's spin parameter, its electric charge, and the cosmological constant with as the time-independent Hubble parameter. The electromagnetic 4-potential is
The frame-dragging angular velocity is
and the local frame-dragging velocity relative to constant positions (the speed of light at the ergosphere)
The escape velocity (the speed of light at the horizons) relative to the local corotating zero-angular momentum observer is
The conserved quantities in the equations of motion
where is the four velocity, is the test particle's specific charge and the Maxwell–Faraday tensor
are the total energy
and the covariant axial angular momentum
The overdot stands for differentiation by the testparticle's proper time or the photon's affine parameter, so .
Null coordinates
To get coordinates we apply the transformation
and get the metric coefficients
and all the other , with the electromagnetic vector potential
Defining ingoing lightlike worldlines give a light cone on a spacetime diagram.
Horizons and ergospheres
The horizons are at and the ergospheres at .
This can be solved numerically or analytically. Like in the Kerr and Kerr–Newman metrics, the horizons have constant Boyer-Lindquist , while the ergospheres' radii also depend on the polar angle .
This gives 3 positive solutions each (including the black hole's inner and outer horizons and ergospheres as well as the cosmic ones) and a negative solution for the space at in the antiverse behind the ring singularity, which is part of the probably unphysical extended solution of the metric.
With a negative (the Anti–de–Sitter variant with an attractive cosmological constant), there are no cosmic horizon and ergosphere, only the black hole-related ones.
In the Nariai limit the black hole's outer horizon and ergosphere coincide with the cosmic ones (in the Schwarzschild–de–Sitter metric to which the KNdS reduces with that would be the case when ).
Invariants
The Ricci scalar for the KNdS metric is , and the Kretschmann scalar is
See also
Kerr–Newman metric
De Sitter–Schwarzschild metric
de Sitter space
de Sitter universe
Anti-de Sitter space
AdS/CFT correspondence
References
Exact solutions in general relativity
Equations
Metric tensors | Kerr–Newman–de–Sitter metric | [
"Mathematics",
"Engineering"
] | 587 | [
"Exact solutions in general relativity",
"Tensors",
"Mathematical objects",
"Equations",
"Metric tensors"
] |
74,621,256 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesion%20network%20mapping | Lesion network mapping is a neuroimaging technique that analyzes the connectivity pattern of brain lesions to identify neuroanatomic correlates of symptoms. The technique was developed by Michael D. Fox and Aaron Boes to understand the network anatomy of lesion induced neurologic and psychiatric symptoms that can not be explained by focal anatomic localization. Lesion network mapping applies a network-based approach to identify connected brain networks, rather than focal brain regions, that correlate with a specific symptom.
In focal neuroanatomic localization, developed by Paul Broca and others, specific symptoms that occur due to brain lesions can be understood by identifying a specific brain region that is injured by lesions to establish brain-symptom relationships. However, a number of neurologic symptoms, such as peduncular hallucinosis, are not amenable to this approach since the lesions associated with the symptom do not map to one focal brain location. Lesion network mapping helps to explain these lesion-induced syndromes by showing that lesion locations associated with a given symptom all map to a shared brain network even if they do not all map to a focal brain region. The technique maps the location of lesions associated with a specific symptom and analyzes the connectivity pattern of the lesions compared to large, standardized human brain atlases. While initially developed using resting-state fMRIs such as the Human Connectome Project, the technique has been expanded to include large structural network atlases. Software tools for that facilitate lesion network mapping exist within the Lead-DBS framework, which is also used for a related technique, DBS network mapping.
Lesion network mapping has helped map the network anatomy of numerous rare neurologic syndromes (peduncular hallucinosis, delusional misidentification, reduplicative paramensia, akinetic mutism, blindsight, visual anosognosia), common neurologic syndromes (seizures, aphasia, amnesia, parkinsonism, topographical disorientation), psychiatric syndromes (depression, mania), as well as complex human behaviors (spirituality, religious fundamentalism, consciousness, free will, criminality, addiction). The technique has been successfully applied to a broad range of diseases and lesion types including lesions due to stroke, traumatic brain injury, tuberous sclerosis and multiple sclerosis. The technique has been broadened to map the connectivity of locations from transcranial magnetic stimulation and deep brain stimulation sites to understand treatment responsiveness.
Research findings based on lesion network mapping have been reported in the New York Times, Scientific American and USA Today and the term has been included in the New England Journal of Medicine's general medical glossary.
References
Neuroimaging
Neurology
Neural networks
Cognitive neuroscience
Brain disorders
Data analysis | Lesion network mapping | [
"Engineering"
] | 587 | [
"Artificial intelligence engineering",
"Neural networks"
] |
74,622,622 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yumkaaxvirus | Yumkaaxvirus is a genus of viruses in the family Ahmunviridae and order Maximonvirales. It includes one species: Yumkaaxvirus pescaderoense. Yumkaaxvirus pescaderoense is a dsDNA virus with host archea.
Name
The order name, Maximonvirales, is named after Mayan god Maximon, a god of travelers, merchants, mecidine men/women, mischief and fertility.
The family name, Ahmunviridae, is named after Mayan god Ah Mun, the god of agriculture.
The genus name, Yumkaaxvirus, is named after Mayan god Yum Kaax, the god of the woods, the wild nature, and the hunt.
The species epitheton, pescaderoense is named after Pescadero Basin.
References
External links
[VMR https://ictv.global/vmr/current]
[Nucleotide-Genbank_OP413840 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nuccore/OP413840]
[Nucleotide-Graph https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nuccore/OP413840.1?report=graph&log$=seqview] - Hypothetical proteins and genome
Archaeal viruses
Virus genera | Yumkaaxvirus | [
"Biology"
] | 293 | [
"Archaea",
"Viruses",
"Virus stubs",
"Archaeal viruses"
] |
74,623,488 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemics%20Act | Epidemics Act, EpidA(German: Epidemiengesetz; also known as Federal Act on the Control of Communicable Human Diseases) is a Swiss federal act designed to protect people from infections and to prevent and control the outbreak and spread of communicable diseases. The current version of the Epidemics Act is the result of the revision of September 28, 2012. The revision was necessary because the environment in which communicable diseases occur and pose a threat to public health has changed, and the law needed to be adapted accordingly.
An optional referendum against this revision was initiated by the EDU, the Citizens for Citizens Association (Verein Bürger für Bürger) and the Committee for True Democracy (Wahre Demokratie), and the 50,000 signature quorum was reached within 100 days. As a result, a referendum was held on September 22, 2013, in which the complete revision was approved by 60% of the population.
Development
The Federal Act on the Control of Communicable Human Diseases of September 28, 2012, currently in force, is a complete revision of the Federal Act of December 18, 1970. In turn, this was based on the Federal Act on Measures Against Publicly Dangerous Epidemics (Bundesgesetz betreffend Massnahmen gegen gemeingefährliche Epidemien) of July 2, 1886. The Epidemics Act of 1886 solely addressed public health epidemics, namely smallpox, cholera, typhus and the plague. Any other diseases were a cantonal matter. The typhus epidemic of 1963 in Zermatt, with about 400 cases and several deaths, led to a complete revision of the Epidemics Act of 1886. Previous outbreaks of diseases such as tuberculosis had also led to changes in the Federal Constitution (FC). Between the complete revision of December 18, 1970, and the update of September 28, 2012, there were various minor revisions, most recently in 2006. Almost all of these revisions have significantly increased the scope of the Confederation's powers.
Purpose
The revised Epidemics Act aims to swiftly and efficiently coordinate all infrastructures that can aid in the monitoring, prevention, and control of human communicable diseases. The Confederation can promptly declare three levels of severity under the EpidA: normal, special, and extraordinary situations.
During a "normal situation", the cantons are responsible for enforcing the Epidemics Act and the Epidemics Ordinance (Epidemienverordnung or EpV). The Confederation has limited competencies, which include providing information and recommendations, controlling entry and exit, and coordinating with cantons upon request.
In a "special situation", the Federal Council (Bundesrat) may order individual quarantines, restrict capacity at events or even cancel them; it is authorized to close schools; it may require physicians and other health professionals to cooperate to control the then-emerging disease; and it may declare vaccinations mandatory. Regulations can take the form of a specific injunction, such as banning a particular event, or an ordinance, such as prohibiting events throughout Switzerland. The "special situation" is defined as an epidemiological emergency and can be compared to a moderate influenza pandemic, the SARS pandemic, and H1N1. The FDHA coordinates federal measures during a "special situation". The "special situation" occurs when "the ordinary law enforcement agencies are unable to prevent and control the outbreak and spread of communicable diseases". Additionally, one of the following risks must also be present:
A high risk of infection and of spread.
A special risk to public health.
Serious consequences for the economy or for other areas of life.
In an "extraordinary situation", the Federal Council may, on the basis of Art. 185 (3) of the FC, issue an emergency decree without any basis in a federal act passed by parliament, and subject to an optional referendum by the people. Since the Federal Council is already constitutionally empowered to issue these ordinances, Art. 7 of the EpidA is of a declaratory nature. Due to the unpredictability of an acute, serious threat to public health, no specific measures are provided for the "extraordinary situation". In the event of an outbreak, the constitutional emergency law allows the Federal Council to order appropriate measures. According to Art. 7d of the Government and Administration Organisation Act (GAOA), these ordinances shall become invalid if the Federal Council does not submit to Parliament (within six months) a bill for a federal act or a parliamentary emergency ordinance to replace those of the Federal Council. An "extraordinary situation" requires a national threat that endangers Switzerland's external or internal security. Only worst-case pandemics would qualify, such as the Spanish flu or the COVID-19 pandemic.
Content
Detection and monitoring
Art. 11 of the EpidA gives the Federal Office of Public Health (FOPH) responsibility for setting up and operating systems for the early detection and monitoring of potential hazards. This is done in close cooperation between the FOPH and the cantons, but also with the Federal Food Safety and Veterinary Office (FSVO) or the Federal Office for the Environment (FOEN). This close cooperation between the FOPH, other federal agencies and the cantons is of great importance. The cantons contribute their proximity to epidemiological events and health-related incidents and their responsibility for enforcement, while the FOPH ensures uniform reporting and evaluation criteria, professional epidemiological data processing and international networking. The involvement of other federal agencies enables a uniform evaluation of the situation and thus uniform enforcement.
The central instrument for this is the reporting obligation under Art. 12 of the EpidA. It stipulates that the medical profession, hospitals, rehabilitation centers, nursing homes, outpatient clinics, organizations or telephone medical hotlines and pharmacies must report communicable diseases to the FOPH or the competent cantonal authority. Diseases associated with an epidemic risk or severe course are monitored. This includes events that are novel or unexpected or for which monitoring is internationally agreed. The reporting obligation is specified in Art. 12 of the EpidA. The diagnosing physicians must report observations of communicable diseases to the cantonal medical services, which in turn forward these reports to the FOPH. In principle, the reports are first sent to the authority responsible for emergency measures. In certain cases, particularly when emergency measures involve more than one canton and international notification is required, reports should also be sent directly to the FOPH. In addition, the Federal Council may order reports on prevention and control measures and their effects, as well as the sending of samples and test results to laboratories designated by the competent authorities.
Prevention
Vaccines
The FOPH and the Federal Commission for Vaccination (FCV) regulate vaccination strategies and objectives. To implement them, both bodies issue specific vaccination recommendations. Art. 20(2) of the EpidA states:"Doctors and other healthcare specialists shall assist in implementing the national vaccination plan as part of their activities."According to Art. 22 of the EpidA:"The cantons may declare vaccinations to be mandatory for population groups at high risk, persons who are particularly exposed to infection and persons that carry out certain activities, provided there is a significant risk."In the case of "special" and "exceptional" situations, the Federal Council may also order compulsory vaccination (Swiss: Impfobligatorium). Mandatory vaccination can therefore only be imposed on vulnerable groups and not generally on the entire population. Moreover, this measure is reserved for situations in which all other means have been exhausted. This is because mandatory vaccination interferes with personal freedom. According to Art. 36 of the Federal Constitution (FC), such restrictions on fundamental rights is only permissible if:
They are based on a sound legal foundation.
They are justified in the public interest (in the event of highly contagious diseases with potentially serious outcomes).
They are proportionate.
Mandatory vaccination of specific populations may be necessary in the event of a severe, swiftly spreading, and sometimes lethal infectious illness.
Compensation for any pain and suffering resulting from a vaccine adverse event is covered by Art. 64 ff. of the EpidA.
Biosafety
The Epidemics Act requires due care (Sorgfalt) to be exercised by anyone handling pathogens or their toxic products. It specifies that all measures must be taken to ensure that no harm comes to humans as a result of this activity. This due care includes the handling of genetic material or microorganisms that could cause disease as a result of genetic modification. Art. 28 of the EpidA states:"Anyone who places pathogens on the market must inform purchasers about the properties and hazards relevant to health and about the necessary precautionary and protective measures."The Federal Council is also authorized to restrict or ban the handling of certain pathogens. The WHO Action Plan for the eradication of poliomyelitis may also require the destruction of polio infectious materials or the prohibition and/or restriction of the handling of polioviruses in closed systems in the long term. Additionally, the Federal Council's competence in the field of biological weapons is within the framework of Switzerland's obligations under international law.
Countermeasures
Most measures to safeguard public health have an impact on constitutionally guaranteed freedoms. Consequently, the competent authorities should assume responsibility. Decisions must also be made in cases where adequate scientific assessment is complicated. Since not all hazards can be conclusively defined, the competent authorities have a wide margin of discretion in deciding how to take action. In compliance with the principle of proportionality, these actions are lawful only if all less restrictive actions have been explored.
Based on the varying intensities of these measures, the Federal Council outlines a series of stages as required by law. The least severe measure is medical monitoring. The ban on practicing a profession or activity would have a stronger intrusive effect. Seclusion in a hospital or another appropriate institution is the most restrictive measure, along with an order for medical treatment. The law distinguishes between isolation and quarantine. Isolation refers to the confinement of individuals who are sick and infected, while quarantine refers to the confinement of individuals who are suspected of being sick or infected. The aim of both measures is to stop the transmission of infection. Both measures must be ordered beforehand at the individual's place of residence. Transfer to an alternate facility is only allowed if staying at home is inadequate or ineffective in stopping the continued spread of the disease.
The Epidemics Act provides numerous mechanisms to cantonal authorities to prevent the transmission of communicable diseases. For example, Art. 40 stipulates that events may be either banned or restricted; schools and other public institutions may be closed; and entry to and exit from certain buildings and areas, as well as certain activities in certain places, may be prohibited. According to Art. 41(2), the FOPH is authorized to require individuals entering or leaving Switzerland:
Provide their identity, itinerary and contact information.
Provide a vaccination or prophylaxis certificate.
Provide information on their health status.
Provide proof of a medical examination.
To undergo a medical examination.
To prevent the spread of a disease, individuals may be denied permission to leave the country by the FOPH. However, this measure should only be used as a last resort.
Organization and procedures
The Epidemics Act establishes two bodies: the Emergency Response Body and the Coordination Body.
The Emergency Response Body exists only temporarily and can be called into action in special and extraordinary situations. If this occurs, any special task force set up in the course of the epidemiological emergency is disbanded and transferred to the Emergency Response Body. The Emergency Response Body is responsible for advising the Federal Council and coordinating measures.
Since the complete revision on September 28, 2012, a Coordination Body (Koordinationsorgan or KOr) has been established with legal support in Art. 54 of the EpidA. Its role is to coordinate technical collaboration between the Confederation and the cantons, but it lacks decision-making or enforcement capabilities, as these are the responsibility of the Confederation and the cantons. The Coordination Body may establish sub-bodies as necessary, one of which pertains to zoonoses. These sub-bodies shall be staffed mainly by members of the FOPH and cantonal doctors. Although the Federal Council oversees the Coordination Body, it does not constitute an extraparliamentary commission as defined in Art. 57a of the GAOA.
The law establishes the Federal Commission for Vaccination (FCV) and the Swiss Expert Committee for Biosafety (SECB). The FCV is responsible for advising the Federal Council on legislation and the federal and cantonal authorities on enforcement. The SECB offers guidance to authorities on safeguarding human and environmental well-being in the realm of biotechnology and gene technology.
Implementation
Enforcing the Epidemics Act falls under the jurisdiction of the cantons, unless the Confederation assumes responsibility. This is in accordance with the Federal Constitution, which states in Art. 118 (2) that the Confederation is operationally active only in specific health protection areas. Nevertheless, the Confederation has exclusive responsibility for legislation on communicable diseases and ensures that federal law is enforced by the cantons.
According to Art. 77(2) of the EpidA, the Confederation coordinates enforcement measures among the cantons in cases where there is a need for uniformity. Therefore, it can direct the cantons to implement certain measures or issue regulations to ensure uniform enforcement if a risk to public health is identified.
Complete revision of September 28, 2012
Initial situation
The Federal Council concluded in its official statement that the current Epidemics Act was no longer adequate. Since the implementation of the Epidemics Act in 1970, significant changes took place that necessitated a complete revision, both from a legal and technical point of view. The legal situation, in the Federal Council's view, was too ambiguous to sufficiently prepare for a disease's outbreak and spread. Reliance on emergency articles was widespread, albeit their scope remained ambiguously defined, as evidenced by the SARS pandemic. In addition, the current law was limited to sanitary measures and largely excluded preventive measures. Ultimately, what was missing was a "purpose article," which would make it clear what public interests were being served by the legislation. The lack of a purpose article hindered the establishment of a basis for legal action.
Procedure
The need for a revision of the Epidemics Act was undisputed during the negotiations. Only the vaccination obligation proposed by the Federal Council was controversial in the National Council. Opponents of compulsory vaccination oppose it due to infringement on personal freedom. Additionally, the effectiveness and side effects of new vaccines often require years to be proven. Supporters, however, argued that public health must be prioritized over individual freedom in emergency situations. Moreover, it was proposed as a vaccination policy, meaning no individual was compelled to receive vaccination against their will; nevertheless, those who refused to comply may face consequences under labor law. A proposal to weaken the vaccination mandate, presented by opponents, was defeated in votes of 94 to 69 and 105 to 51. In contrast, a proposal put forward by the SP and SVP was approved with a vote of 103 to 62. According to this proposal, the cantons would no longer have the authority to order vaccinations. They would solely be able to propose and recommend them.
The Council of States approved, by a margin of 7 votes to 11, the competence of the cantons to make vaccinations compulsory for certain groups of people under certain circumstances. Since this was contrary to the National Council's decision, a "resolution of differences" (Differenzbereinigung) took place in which the National Council bowed to the Council of States' decision and accepted (by 88 votes to 78) that cantons could make vaccinations compulsory.
The new federal law gained approval in the National Council by a vote of 149 to 14 with 25 abstentions, and in the Council of States by a vote of 40 to 2 with 3 abstentions.
Amendments to the previous Act
In comparison with the Act of 1970, some aspects have changed as a result of the complete
A new tiered model has been introduced to improve the distribution of roles between the Confederation and the cantons during crisis situations. This model is composed of three levels: normal, special, and extraordinary situations.
A mandatory vaccination can no longer be imposed on the general public, but only on designated individuals. The Federal Council can now exercise the authority to mandate vaccination during special or extraordinary situations, with the same criteria applying as for the cantons.
Explicit legal provisions have been established to enhance crisis prevention and management.
The Confederation's leadership role was expanded by the new Act. For instance, it is accountable for establishing the nation's objectives and strategies in combating communicable diseases, as well as overseeing the enforcement of the Epidemics Act.
The Coordinating Body was recently established.
Optional referendum
On September 28, 2012, the Federal Assembly passed a resolution to adopt the revised Act. The Federal Chancellery published the decision in the Federal Gazette, and the referendum period began (100 days for 50,000 signatures). On January 17, 2013, the signatures were submitted by the Referendum Committee. The referendum was announced by the Federal Chancellery on February 19, 2013, with 77,360 valid signatures. The Act was approved with a 60.00% majority in a referendum held on September 22, 2013. It became effective on January 1, 2016.
Referendum
Stances
In favor: BDP, CSP, CVP, EVP, FDP, GLP, GPS, MCG, SD, SP
Against: EDU, SVP, FPS, KVP
Results
Application during the COVID-19 pandemic
On February 25, 2020, the first confirmed case of SARS COV-2 infection was reported in Switzerland. Based on Art. 6(2)(b) of the EpidA, the Federal Council issued the Ordinance 3 on Measures to Combat the Coronavirus (COVID-19), also referred to as the COVID-19 Ordinance 3, on February 28, 2020. This ordinance prohibits both public and private events with over 1000 attendees present simultaneously. On March 13 of that year, the Federal Council issued a new ordinance based on the Epidemics Act and the Federal Constitution. Consequently, the second ordinance was deemed an emergency ordinance - as opposed to the first one, which was an independent ordinance. On March 16, the Swiss situation was classified as exceptional. The Federal Council's legal basis for the COVID-19 app was instructed to be drawn up and submitted to Parliament for approval based on two motions (20.3168 and 20.3144). The Council proposed an urgent amendment to the Epidemics Act, which the Assembly accepted. The amendment was effective from June 27, 2020, to June 30, 2022.
On September 25, 2020, the Federal Assembly passed the Federal Act on the Statutory Principles for Federal Council Ordinances on Combating the COVID-19 Epidemic, also referred to as the COVID-19 Act. It was considered urgent and enacted on September 26, 2020.
Constitutionality and delegation
The primary constitutional foundation for the Epidemics Act is Art. 118 (2)(b) of the FC, which specifies: "It [the Confederation] shall legislate on the combating of communicable, widespread or particularly dangerous human and animal diseases."The mentioned characteristics, including transmissibility, high prevalence, or malignancy, do not have to coexist but only occur alternately. Art. 118(3)(b) does not address the state instruments for combating these diseases. Control in this context encompasses not only preventive health measures but also preventive or health-promoting measures. Since genetically modified pathogens were included in the revised Epidemics Act of December 21, 1995, Art. 119 (2) and Art. 120 (2) of the FC, which directly address this issue, were also incorporated. In addition, Art. 40 (2) provides the basis for measures in favor of Swiss citizens living abroad.
The Epidemics Act includes rules for delegating authority to issue dependent ordinances. In simpler terms, some legislative powers are transferred from the legislature to the executive, unless they are excluded by the Federal Constitution. These regulations require a greater degree of specificity than can be achieved through legislation alone. Under constitutional mandates, delegated powers should be limited to specific areas of regulation and cannot be unlimited in scope. An example of this is the reporting requirement under the Epidemics Act, which cannot be fully codified due to the need for ongoing scientific progress.
Notes
References
External links
English page about Epidemics Act at the Federal Office of Public Health
Public health
Epidemiology
COVID-19 pandemic in Switzerland
Swiss Federal Acts
Law of Switzerland | Epidemics Act | [
"Environmental_science"
] | 4,313 | [
"Epidemiology",
"Environmental social science"
] |
74,624,382 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2-Decanone | 2-Decanone is a ketone with the chemical formula C10H20O.
Occurrence
2-Decanone can be found in meats, dairy products and eggs, fruits (banana, mountain papaya, berries), vegetables (potato, mushroom, endive, soya bean, chayote, kumazase), and grains such as maize, rice, and oats. It also is present in fish, some nuts, honey, ginger, garlic, vanilla, hop oil, mate, brandy, tea, and coffee. It is found in the highest concentrations in milk and hop oil. 2-Decanone was also found at varying percentages in the essential oils of plants within the Ruta genus, including R. montana and R. chalepensis. Within the stem bark of Commiphora rostrata, 2-decanone was found at 69%.
Applications
2-Decanone has been found to possess strong fumigant activity against the maize weevil. However, it is less repellent towards the maize weevil than other alkanones.
Synthesis
2-Decanone can be synthesized by reacting 2-decanol with permanganic acid and copper sulfate in DCM.
References
Ketones | 2-Decanone | [
"Chemistry"
] | 262 | [
"Ketones",
"Functional groups"
] |
74,624,702 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Victor%20%28statue%29 | The Victor is a colossal statue at the Pasig portion of Bridgetowne in Metro Manila, Philippines.
Installation
Robinsons Land announced in 2019 that it would be installing a colossal statue at Bridgetowne, its own township spanning Pasig and Quezon City. Named The Victor, the statue was projected to be the "tallest lighting projection" in the world. The Victor was unveiled in August 2023.
Statue
The Victor was designed by Filipino-American artist Jefrë. It is mainly made from marine-grade perforated steel art from China. It stands on a podium. It weighs .
It has a translucent surface that can be lit up with various colors at night through projection mapping.
The Victor is a tribute to Filipino businessman John Gokongwei (1926–2019). The statue depicts a man with one arm raised as if it is celebrating a victory. Jefrë also dedicates the statue to the "global Filipino".
References
2023 establishments in the Philippines
2023 sculptures
Buildings and structures completed in 2023
Buildings and structures in Pasig
Colossal statues
Outdoor sculptures in the Philippines
Statues in the Philippines | The Victor (statue) | [
"Physics",
"Mathematics"
] | 225 | [
"Quantity",
"Colossal statues",
"Physical quantities",
"Size"
] |
74,624,961 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deltasatellite | Deltasatellite is a genus of family Tolecusatellitidae containing 12 species.
Name
The name Deltasatellite is a combination of Delta, often used in molecular biology to indicate a mutation or deletion, and satellitidae, the fact that it is a satellite.
Taxonomy
The species are ssDNA unless specified ssDNA(+)
References
Virus genera | Deltasatellite | [
"Biology"
] | 77 | [
"Virus stubs",
"Viruses"
] |
74,625,147 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betasatellite | Betasatellite is a genus of family Tolecusatellitidae containing 119 species.
Name
The name Betasatellite is a combination of Beta, because they used to be referred to as DNA-β to distinguish them from DNA-B of Begomovirus, and satellite, the fact that it is a satellite.
Taxonomy
The species are ssDNA unless specified ssDNA(+). There are 61 ssDNA(+) and 58 ssDNA viruses
References
Virus genera | Betasatellite | [
"Biology"
] | 98 | [
"Virus stubs",
"Viruses"
] |
74,625,249 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KELT-20b | KELT-20b, also known as MASCARA-2b, was an exoplanet announced in 2017. It is an Ultra-hot Jupiter orbiting an A-type star. The carbon monoxide, steam and neutral iron detection in the atmosphere of KELT-20b was announced in 2022.
Host star
The host star is an A-type main-sequence star in the constellation of Cygnus having 2.282 solar masses, 1.617 solar radius and an apparent magnitude of 7.58.
See also
Kilodegree Extremely Little Telescope
Multi-site All-Sky CAmeRA
References
Hot Jupiters
Transiting exoplanets
Exoplanets discovered in 2017
Giant planets
Exoplanets discovered by KELT
Cygnus (constellation)
Exoplanets discovered by MASCARA | KELT-20b | [
"Astronomy"
] | 164 | [
"Cygnus (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
74,625,726 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HD%2085628%20Ab | HD 85628 Ab, also designed MASCARA-4b, is an exoplanet located approximately 559.47±3.05 light years from Earth. This planet was discovered in 2019 using the transit method.
Characteristics
It is a hot Jupiter on a retrograde and slightly eccentric orbit. The planet is unusually reflective for a hot Jupiter. Hydrogen, sodium, magnesium, calcium and iron emission from planetary atmosphere was detected.
Host star
The host star, HD 85628 A, is the primary star of a binary star system, HD 85628. The secondary star is HD 85628 B, an M-type star.
See also
Henry Draper Catalogue
MASCARA
References
Exoplanets discovered in 2019
Transiting exoplanets
Exoplanets discovered by MASCARA
Hot Jupiters
Carina (constellation) | HD 85628 Ab | [
"Astronomy"
] | 166 | [
"Carina (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
74,626,488 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argyll%20aircraft%20engine | The Argyll aircraft engine was the first four stroke sleeve valve engine built for aircraft use. Manufactured by the Scottish car maker Argylls in 1914, the engine was a 120 hp straight-six design utilising Burt-McCollum single sleeve valves which eliminated the need for poppet valves. The Argyll aircraft engine was exhibited to the British War Office in 1914 but was not put into production. Development of Burt-McCollum single sleeve valves continued after World War I with the type eventually seeing widespread use in British aero engines starting with the Bristol Perseus in 1932.
Design and development
In 1909 the Scottish engineer Peter Burt patented a single sleeve valve design. In the same year a Canadian engineer, James McCollum, patented a similar single sleeve valve design. Arrangements were made between Peter Burt, James McCollum and Argylls Ltd which lead to the valve design being referred to as the Burt-McCollum. Argylls used the Burt-McCollum design in a series of luxury automobiles between 1911 and 1914.
The Burt-McCollum design used a single sleeve geared to produce both rotary and reciprocating motion. The design eliminated the dual sleeve found in the earlier Knight engine design, which had been found unreliable in operation due to lubrication problems. The movement of the sleeve uncovered ports for inlet and exhaust allowing the engine to operate in a four-stroke cycle without conventional valves. Contemporary engine valves were relatively failure prone so their elimination offered the potential for a big improvement in reliability as well as low vibration for smoother running.
In 1913 the British War Office announced a contest for aircraft engines with the selection taking place in 1914 at Farnborough. Argylls submitted two water-cooled six-cylinder inline engines using their signature Burt-McCollum sleeve valves. The engines featured an aluminum crankcase with welded steel cooling water jackets and steel pistons. Two spark plugs were fitted to each cylinder fired by one Bosch magneto.
During the competition one of the Argyll aircraft engines broke its crankshaft. The other engine completed a six hour run test at full load winning a £100 prize. Although the type was relatively heavy for its power output and was not selected for production, the Royal Aircraft Factory did show interest in the design and built a prototype Burt-McCollum sleeve valve version of an existing V12 engine.
Further development
In June 1914, Argylls went into receivership at which point the single sleeve valve patents reverted to Peter Burt. In 1918 the patents were bought outright by Wallace Ltd of Glasgow, who licensed the designs to other manufacturers, including Barr and Stroud who produced a line of Burt-McCollum sleeve valve engines for motorcycles.
In 1926, Continental Motors purchased the exclusive worldwide rights to manufacture and license Burt-McCollum sleeve valves. Discussions were held between Continental and Antony Fokker resulting in a radial Burt-McCollum sleeve valve engine which was exhibited at trade shows in 1927. The engine was not put into production.
After WW1, designers in the UK continued the development of Burt-McCollum sleeve valve aero-engines. Harry Ricardo pursued the development of sleeve valve engines as these allowed cooling water jackets to be extended to cover cylinder heads allowing for better and more even cooling which resulted in a lower risk of detonation allowing for higher cylinder compression ratios. Roy Fedden cited quieter operation, higher compression ratios, low maintenance and the complete enclosure of all working parts as inherent advantages of the sleeve valve engine over the poppet valve type.
The first sleeve valve aircraft engine to go into production was Roy Fedden's Bristol Perseus in 1932. Development continued in the UK with both D. Napier & Son and the Bristol Aeroplane Company producing Burt-McCollum sleeve valve engines well into the 1950s.
Specifications
References
1910s aircraft piston engines
Straight-six engines
Sleeve valve engines | Argyll aircraft engine | [
"Technology"
] | 772 | [
"Sleeve valve engines",
"Engines"
] |
74,626,706 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebecca%20Sparling | Rebecca "Becky" Hall Sparling, P.E. (née Hall; June 7, 1910 – 1996) was an American materials engineer and registered mechanical engineer in the manufacturing, automotive, and aerospace industries from the 1930s to the late 1960s, who had "established a nation-wide reputation as a metallurgist". Often working on classified projects, Sparling advanced the field of metallurgy in severe environments and developed non-destructive engineering test methods, especially in brittle, high-strength, or specialized materials.
Sparling developed a new, non-destructive liquid penetrant method for defect inspection, and she also co-invented a non-destructive ultrasonic immersion technique called “immersed scanning”. She was a key contributor in drafting the early industry standards for non-destructive test methods that paved the way for evaluating engineering functionality without destroying the part. Non-destructive test methods became ubiquitous as an important time and money-saver for expensive prototypes.
Sparling also wrote 14 of the 16 chapters of the 1943–1944 revised edition of the American Malleable Iron handbook for the Malleable Founders' Society. It became a reference book for those working on iron castings. During her career, Sparling – a licensed mechanical engineer in California – worked at foundries, consulted for automotive companies, and was a materials engineer and staff consultant for Northrop Grumman and General Dynamics, respectively. She retired from General Dynamics.
The Society of Women Engineers recognized her specialty in high-temperature metallurgy when awarding her their highest honor, the Engineering Achievement Award, in 1957.
Early life and education
Sparling was born in Memphis, Tennessee, the youngest of ten children. Her parents were Kate (Wallace) Sampson Hall and Robert Meredith Hall. Both her parents graduated from college. Her father earned a law degree and was a businessman. She spent her formative years at "Pinewood", the family country home in Hickman County. Later, she also lived in Nashville, Tennessee.
Sparling attended Hollins College in Virginia before transferring to Vanderbilt University. There, she received her B.A. cum laude in Physical Chemistry in 1930 and her M.S. in Physical Chemistry in 1931. When she spoke about her career during an awards speech in 1957, she thanked Vanderbilt: “...But there's no denying the fact that I have had many breaks. [In school at Vanderbilt], it looked as though I wouldn't be able to carry on, because I didn't have any money, and Vanderbilt very nicely came to my rescue with undergraduate and graduate fellowships so that I was able to go ahead and study the work that I liked.”
Between 1944 and 1975, she also took additional courses on light metal castings at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, beryllium at University of California Los Angeles, corrosion at the U.S. Department of the Army, and additional courses at Cal State San Bernardino.
Career
Beyond her daily work, Sparling participated in abstracting and standardizing the key properties and tests required of various structural materials. These properties could be tuned to optimize the overall performance and reliability of any product made from that material across the aerospace industry. She also was involved in setting the early standards for future established industry references on the visible liquid dye penetrant inspection method that she developed.
Sparling's professional activities included authoring over 30 technical papers, including "Testing in the Guided Missile Industry," for publications like The Iron Age, Western Machinery and Steel World, Non Destructive Testing, American Society for Testing Materials, and more.
She also presented over 100 technical talks at American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, American Society for Non-destructive Testing, American Society for Metals (now known as ASM International), Society of Women Engineers, the U.S. Air Force, and Vanderbilt University. At the 1955 American Society for Nondestructive Testing's national meeting, Sparling was the National Meeting Chairman for the Ultrasonic session.
She served as a committee member and attended conferences for multiple engineering trade associations such as American Foundrymen's Society, American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, and American Society for Nondestructive Testing. Sparling also attended the 1957 World Metallurgical Congress in Chicago.
1931 – 1944: Metallurgist and Consultant
Sparling began her career working in foundries in the South and the Midwest for 10 years. She started at the American Cast Iron Pipe Co. in Birmingham, Alabama, which helped her gain experience working with metal alloys. She then became a metallurgist at Lakeside Malleable Casting Co. in Racine, Wisconsin, developing special alloyed malleable irons and learning the oil and whiting technique used in the automotive and railroad industries.
Sparling later moved to Detroit and began consulting for Cadillac, Ford, McCord Radiator, and more on the commercial performance of special materials in severe environments. Her failure investigations as a consultant demonstrated that the failures were often due to incorrect selection or usage of materials for a specific application, not the intrinsic characteristics of the materials themselves.
As a metallurgist for the Naval Gun Factory in Washington, D.C. for one year, Sparling also tested and troubleshooted anti-aircraft guns and worn barrels.
1944 to 1951: Chief Metallurgist
Sparling worked at Northrop's Turbodyne division (today Northrop Grumman), specifically on developing and manufacturing gas turbines. While working there as chief metallurgist and head of the materials and process engineering group, Sparling advised designers on the selection of materials, tested incoming parts, and managed the metallurgical laboratory.
In her role, Sparling recommended materials and certain design specifications. One key accomplishment was establishing the effects of manufacturing variables on high-temperature metals, such as S-816 and N-155. By setting the allowable stress as a dynamic, not static, variable, Sparling could monitor how the material's performance output dynamically changed based on the input variables, such as time, temperature, and load settings.
Sparling (published as Smith at the time) and D.C. Erdman co-authored the first paper on immersed ultrasonic inspection, or “immersed scanning,” that used crystals separated by liquid from the test sample. It was published in 1949 in The Iron Age. This non-destructive test method was first employed on turbine wheels, enabling the wheels to be verified for their functionality without damaging the part. In 1949, Sparling was brought in to the Los Angeles field office as a speaker and trainer to train the Air Materiel Command on ultrasonic inspection, and explain the benefits and techniques of this new method.
Later, as Staff Structures Engineer reporting to the Chief of Structures, Sparling directed the Air Force Cast Wing project. By optimizing the manufacturing process variables to a repeatable process, Sparling and a commercial vendor achieved a structurally robust casting that met critical dimensional specifications. Sparling supervised the design and magnesium casting of an aluminum wing over 16 feet long, ranging from ¼” to ½” thickness and 3 to 4 feet wide. By improving the casting techniques, Sparling and her team created a two-part wing that replaced a previous hundred-part wing. This innovation simplified the design and made it less expensive to manufacture.
1951 to 1968: Design Specialist
"One of the main contributors to materials research at Convair [acquired by General Dynamics in 1953] Pomona [site location], Sparling is particularly known for her work in high-temperature metallurgy, gas turbine development and nondestructive testing," stated a 1957 Convair internal newsletter. As a Design Specialist and Staff Consultant on process and reliability, Sparling also became the head of an Army Mission Command project. There, she continued her work in establishing standards by developing military standards for corrosion prevention.
Her work at the Naval Industrial Reserve Ordnance Plant also included selecting and developing materials for use, developing radioactive and other innovative test techniques, and strategic long-term forecasting on materials requirements for missiles and other special ordnance weapons for the United States Navy.
Sparling made an impact on not just her company, but her industry as a whole. For five years, she represented General Dynamics as a member of the materials and structures Research and Testing Committee of the Aerospace Industries Association. Sparling often spoke for the missile industry at technical meetings and before government panels. She also presented on "Metallurgy in the Space Age" at the San Gabriel Valley chapter of the Society for Advancement of Material and Process Engineering in 1963.
When nominating Sparling for the Society of Women Engineers Achievement Award, Sparling's nominator stated that “Sparling…enjoys the well-earned respect and acceptance of engineers, both men and women, throughout the world.”
Advocacy
Consulting
From 1968 to 1981, Sparling brought her engineering knowledge to civic activities in energy and the environment. She served on advisory committees to the California Energy Commission, and on the Energy Management Task Force for the Orange County Chamber of Commerce. From 1979 to 1981, Sparling emphasized the interdependence of the world with regards to strategic materials as a group leader in the Foreign Policy Association.
Other Involvement from 1968 to 1974
1969: Charter member and air pollution chairman of the Desert Conservation Environmental Association
1972: Co-Chairman of the San Bernardino County Scientific Committee
1973: Member and engineer on San Bernardino County Air Pollution Appeals Board
Engineering education
Sparling was well known for her engineering prowess, but equally for her advocacy of science and engineering education for students, and especially women, for more than 30 years. Though she retired in 1968, Sparling continued to consult in the engineering field and offered career guidance to the Los Angeles professional section of the Society for Women Engineers and K-12 students. Sparling actively promoted women judges at the LA County Fair and various science fairs in her local area. Once, when sharing what led her to engineering, Sparling explained, “My curiosity about the world around me caused me to study chemistry and physics, and the application of these sciences to industrial production led me into engineering.”
Among her over 16 speaking engagements or publications in this area, Sparling also arranged for speakers at the 1963 National Conference on Women in Engineering on the University of Southern California (USC) campus. She served on the Advisory Committee for East Los Angeles College in 1962. In 1963–64, Sparling served on the state-wide informal Advisory Committee on Technical Education for the California Dept. of Education. Between 1975 and 1978, she also represented California's 31,000 members of the American Association of University Women before the State Energy Commission.
In 1964, Sparling was invited to share her engineering experiences with students at the first ever International Conference of Women and Scientists in New York, which is still held to this day. The conference chair, Ruth Shafer, told her in a letter: "How lucky we are to have you on the team." At the conference, Sparling explained her attitude toward work: “Sometimes I've been tired, or frustrated, or discouraged when I could not immediately find the answer to a problem; but I have never been bored, and have never felt that what I was doing was unimportant... Every day brings new inventions, new discoveries in processing and treatment, new opportunities to learn."
Legacy
Innovative contributions
Sparling pioneered the visible, liquid dye penetrant inspection method for aerospace applications, which became "one of the most commonly used techniques for surface discontinuity inspection," or checking important surfaces for small cracks. A 1950 article written by Sparling (as R.H. Smith) was thought to be the first description of the liquid dye penetrant method – later called Dy-Chek. Dy-Chek was first developed at Northrop by Sparling and her team around 1948 because she was "concerned about cracks forming on turbine blades" of the jet engines she was testing. This development filled "an important need that Northrop recognized." Later, Sparling wrote the chapter on “Liquid-Penetrant Interpretation of Penetrant Indications” in the 1959 Nondestructive Testing Handbook published by the Society for Nondestructive Testing.
Except for two chapters on pattern design and malleable casting design, Sparling wrote the entire manuscript of American Malleable Iron – A Handbook, published by the Malleable Founders' Society, from 1942 to 1944. Sparling wrote 14 chapters on malleable iron, its properties, recommendations to users of malleable iron castings, the manufacture and metallurgy of malleable iron, applications, specifications, and more. The handbook was the first comprehensive revision to the book in 20 years.
First Woman
In 1949, Sparling became a registered mechanical engineer, making her one of the first women in California to be issued a professional engineer (P.E.) license. Her license number was 8475.
In addition, Sparling became a Fellow of the American Society for Metals at the 1972 Metals Congress for her “effective contributions in moving new developments in materials and processes from research into practice." She was the only woman to receive an honor at the Metals Congress that year.
In 1972, Sparling served as the only woman advisor on the Scientific Committee on Air Pollution in San Bernardino.
Honors and awards
Sparling moved the profession forward by “promoting a better understanding of the role of the metallurgist to both industry and society,” said the American Society for Metals citation when she became Fellow. Sparling was featured numerous times in the Marquis “Who's Who of American Women.”
1948 onwards: “Who's Who in the West” Featured as Rebecca Hall Smith, then as Sparling, Marquis
1957: Engineering Achievement Award Winner, Society of Women Engineers (SWE)
1960: Achievement Award, Convair-Pomona Management Club
1965: Engineering Merit Award, Los Angeles Engineers' Week, Los Angeles Council of Engineers and Scientists (LACES)
Sparling received the award in appreciation of "her outstanding contributions to engineering and her leadership in encouraging women to become engineers.”
1972: Fellow, American Society for Metals (now known as ASM International)
1975: Fellow, Institute for the Advancement of Engineering
1978: Engineering Merit Award, Orange County Engineering Council
1978: Outstanding Engineer Award, Institute for the Advancement of Engineering, Los Angeles
1978: "World's Who's Who of Women", Featured, Marquis 2nd edition
1980: “Who's Who in Engineering” Featured, Nominated by American Society for Metals
1984: Fellow, Society of Women Engineers
Personal life
Marriage and Family
Sparling married Edwin K. Smith in 1935. Her son Douglas was born in 1938. She divorced Smith in 1947 and married Joseph E. Sparling in 1948, changing her surname to Sparling. Due to this, some articles and publications written by her use the surname of either Smith or Sparling.
Death
Sparling resided with her retired husband, Joe, in Laguna Hills, California until she died in 1996. She was survived by her husband and their son, Douglas K. Smith, PhD who has a doctorate in Computer Science from Purdue University. He was an associate professor of business, from 1971 retiring in 2001, and the Director of the Computer Center at the Indiana State University in Terre Haute, Indiana.
Philanthropy
SWE received a bequest in the amount of $68,593 from the Rebecca Sparling estate in 1998, two years after she died.
Memberships
American Society for Non-Destructive Testing, 1947–1983
1954–56, National Technical Committee
1962–66, National Papers Committee
American Society for Metals, 1936–42; 1946–75
Delegate, 2nd World Metallurgical Congress, 1957
National Castings Committee, 1958–59
Society of Automotive Engineers, 1946–68
Aero Materials Spec, 1949–50
National Aircraft Activity, 1950–52
National EMI Committee, 1967
American Society for Testing Materials
Technical Program Committee, 1956
ASTM/ASME Aircraft Panel Committee on Effect of Temp. on the Property of Metals, 1949–50
American Institute of Metallurgical Engineers, 1934–42
Secretary, First Detroit Section, 1936–37
Society of Women Engineers
National Scholarship Chairman, 1957–58 and Committee Member 1976
Association Technique de Fonderie, 1934–37
See also
E'lise Harmon
Beatrice Hicks
Lillian Gilbreth
References
External links
"Sparling, Rebecca H.," Society of Women Engineers Records (LR001539), Box 192, Folder 48, Walter P. Reuther Library, Archives of Labor and Urban Affairs, Wayne State University
Sparling and Development of Liquid Dye Penetrant – Nondestructive Handbook, vol 2 Liquid Penetrant Testing
Sparling, 1957 SWE Award Acceptance Speech, Partial Text, Society for Women Engineers Archived Podcast
Iron Age publication
Western Machinery and Steel World publication
Non Destructive Testing Journal
American Foundrymen's Society
Oil and whiting technique definition
American Cast Iron Pipe Co. (now known as American)
McCord Radiator Co.
Society for Advancement of Material and Process Engineering (SAMPE)
California State Board of Education Advisory Committees
1972 Metals Congress
Association Technique de Fonderie
American metallurgists
American women engineers
Nondestructive testing
Engineers from Tennessee
1910 births
1996 deaths
People from Memphis, Tennessee
Northrop Grumman people
Vanderbilt University alumni
Women materials scientists and engineers | Rebecca Sparling | [
"Materials_science",
"Technology"
] | 3,519 | [
"Nondestructive testing",
"Materials testing",
"Materials scientists and engineers",
"Women materials scientists and engineers",
"Women in science and technology"
] |
74,627,404 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9%20d%27%C3%A9lectronique%20et%20d%27automatisme | The Société d'électronique et d'automatisme (SEA) was an early French computer manufacturer established in 1947 by electrical engineer François-Henri Raymond, which designed and put into operation a significant portion of the first computers in France during the 1950s.
The SEA played a major role in driving the development of the French computer industry, training the first generation of engineers and installing about 170 computers between 1955 and its dissolution in 1966, when it merged with CII.
History and achievements
In 1947, François-Henri Raymond is sent for a technical trip to the United States where he meets Howard H. Aiken at Harvard University, visits the MIT laboratories and comes across John von Neumann's report on the EDVAC and the pioneering concepts of a then futuristic machine: the stored-program computer. Upon returning to Paris, he shares his ideas to produce such machines with his employer, a machine tool manufacturer, but struggles to convince him. François-Henri Raymond resignes and, without a formal business plan, establishes the Society of Electronics and Automation in December 1947, in a former automobile factory bombed during World War II. The startup's initial capital is contributed by its founder, some of his friends, and Raymond's former employer. The SEA first client was the Air Force's missile bureau, whose operations demanded significant computational resources.
1949: analog computers
SEA's inaugural computer, the OME 11, emerges in February 1949. This analog computer would set the stage for a series of subsequent models, including the OME 12, 15, 40, and 416 (OME is short for "Opérateurs Mathématiques Électroniques"). While many were tailored for military applications, some models achieved some commercial success in the civilian sector. Notably, the OME L2 and P2 (1952), featuring vacuum tubes, and the transistor-based OME R (1959) stood out and were subsequently followed by a new generation of analog computers with the NADAC 20 (1961) and NADAC 100 (1962).
SEA's analog computers enjoyed commercial success, with nearly 200 units sold and a strong international presence. They found diverse applications in fields such as physical, nuclear, and hydrodynamic simulation - these machines were notably employed for flight simulations of the future Concorde aircraft. SEA also designed tailor-made analog computers for specific military applications.
1951: CUBA
After securing a contract with DEFA (now known as DGA), SEA embarked on the development of its first stored-program computer in 1951, and likely France's first as well: the Calculatrice Universelle Binaire de l'Armement (CUBA). This contract provided SEA the opportunity to bring to life the digital computer plans it had been sketching since 1949.
The then ambitious technological choices made for CUBA would later lead to numerous delays. Notably, the decision to utilize cutting-edge magnetic core memories instead of the more established Williams tubes or mercury delay lines proved risky, as no manufacturer in the still World War 2 recovering French industry was yet capable of producing them. This challenge of sourcing components adhering to a novel set of requirements extended to many aspects, even reaching into wiring - SEA, as stated by its founder, was the first French company to employ ribbon cables and wire wrap.
Among other technological choices, SEA aimed to minimize the use of unreliable vacuum tubes, instead favoring germanium diodes for most of its logic and restricting tube usage to signal regeneration, a design first experimented with the SEAC (see diode logic). Additionally, an auxiliary drum memory was selected to complement the system, which SEA ultimately procured from the British company Ferranti due to the lack of a French manufacturer ready in time.CUBA was eventually delivered in 1954 and put into operation in 1956 after many years of delays, but quickly became obsolete and was abandoned shortly thereafter. By that time, the French computer industry had already witnessed the emergence of other creations: SEA's own CAB 1011, a general computer which was used for cryptanalysis at SDECE (now DGSE), its CAB series 2000 and 3000 computers, and notably the Gamma 3 from Compagnie des machines Bull, introduced in 1952 and sold in quantities of around 1200 units. CAB stood for Calculatrice Automatique Binaire (Binary Automatic Calculator - the term "ordinateur", French for "computer", was coined only in 1955).
The mid-1950s then marked a turning point for SEA, as the company went on to develop two transistorized computers, constituting its two large-scale productions in this field.
1956: CAB 500
Starting from 1956, SEA took an interest in the emerging potential of transistors, although their maturity at that time was yet to be proven. Among the alternatives, SEA explored magnetic logic, which was slower but notably reliable, making it suitable for a more compact-sized computer. In the same year, SEA invented the Symmag, a logic gate utilizing ferrite beads similar to those used in magnetic core memory.
The Symmag would prove to be a central element in the architecture of the CAB 500, alongside a drum memory and sixteen 32-bit registers implemented on magnetic-core memory. The CAB 500 was a compact desktop computer designed to be operated by a single unskilled person, with minimal technical requirements for installation and operation. Furthermore, it was powered by one of the first interactive high-level languages, PAF, which facilitated its usage.
The CAB 500 experienced immediate success, prompting the scaling up of production methods. Approximately a hundred units of the CAB 500 were manufactured and sold, with around a dozen units exported to countries including China and Japan.
1958: CAB 3900
Starting from 1958, SEA became a subsidiary of Schneider-Westinghouse, affording it increased industrial resources. This was also the juncture at which the decision was made to create a business computer, leveraging the experience gained from the CAB 2124 and 3030. Although primarily designed for scientific purposes, these machines were also used for business tasks, revealing a gap in the manufacturer's offerings.
In collaboration with Crédit Lyonnais, the prototype named CABAN (Banking Calculator) was developed, placing emphasis on magnetic tape storage, offering higher capacity compared to punched cards. Intending to compete with the IBM 1401 and the Bull Gamma 30, the CAB 3900 was a fully transistorized machine, featuring a magnetic-core main memory and accommodating up to nine tape drives. It operated at a fairly fast 2 MHz (in contrast, the IBM 1401 was clocked at 870 kHz), which enabled SEA to devise a bit-serial processor, which was less complex and costly while maintaining adequate performance for business applications. The Symmag logic, however, was abandoned as it was deemed too slow.
A programming language called PAGE (Programmation Automatique de GEstion - Automatic Business Programming) was developed for the CAB 3900. It had analogies with COBOL but more limited ambitions and greater simplicity.
In 1963, the French government urged SEA to align with Bull, leading to a negotiated agreement: SEA would allow Bull to market its computer range in exchange for Bull's Andelys plant. This agreement had mixed effects for SEA. On one hand, Bull's sales representatives were not accustomed to catering to scientific needs, resulting in underwhelming sales for the CAB 500. On the other hand, they had to incorporate the competing CAB 3900 business computer into their portfolio alongside their own offerings.
Nonetheless, these newfound production resources enabled SEA to expand its industrial capacity and manufacture the CAB 3900. An improved version, the CAB 4000, was introduced shortly thereafter, rectifying identified flaws from the first generation and enhancing its capabilities.
A total of 37 CAB 3900 and 4000 units were sold, marking the second-largest commercial success for SEA.
Later developments
In 1964, SEA entered into a Memorandum of Understanding with Control Data Corporation (CDC), granting access to the technologies and peripherals of the emerging American supercomputer specialist. However, this agreement did not progress further, as CDC subsequently established its own commercial subsidiary in France. In the same year, IBM unveiled the 360 series, introducing a novel concept of both horizontal (application domains) and vertical (performance levels) compatibility within a unified family of computers. This groundbreaking concept of compatibility and interoperability greatly interested SEA, prompting an exploration of a new generation of products built on these principles. SEA drafted an architecture inspired by stack machines for its processor and Algol for its machine language, similar to Burroughs' approach in the United States. Initially, two models were planned: a successor to the entry-level CAB 500 (CAB 1500) and a high-performance machine for the top tier (CAB 15000). With ambitious plans in mind, SEA contemplated an industrialization program to manufacture approximately a thousand of these new machines.
Ultimately, compelled by the French government in December 1966 as part of Plan Calcul, SEA was forced to merge with Compagnie européenne d'automatisme électronique, a joint subsidiary of Compagnie générale d'électricité, Compagnie générale de télégraphie sans fil (CSF), and Intertechnique, forming the Compagnie internationale pour l'informatique (CII).
At its peak, SEA employed up to 800 staff members and secured nearly 1000 patents.
Marketed models
The SEA primarily produced computers in small quantities, about a couple hundreds, and occasionally as one-of-a-kind units, most notably for military clients.
Six major categories of computers stand out:
Analog computers, from the OME and NADAC family
Unique military models, such as the CUBA and CAB 1011
The CAB 2000 and 3000 families, which were the first mass produced stored program computers from SEA
Business computers (CAB 3900 and 4000)
The CAB 500, a relatively different small computer in the range
And finally, research prototypes: the Dorothées, CAB 1500 and 15000
The following table provides an overview of the key digital computers constructed by SEA. The analog calculators from the OME and NADAC series are not included in the representation, neither are specific, non commercial units such as the CUBA.
See also
List of vacuum tube computers
History of computing
References
External links
History of SEA, on the Bull Teams Federation (FEB)
An adventure that ends badly: SEA, from François-Henri Raymond, extract from Colloquium on the History of Computing in France, March 1988
Description of the CAB 3900
1955 review of the OME P2 analog computer (in French)
Description of the symmag magnetic logic used in the CAB-500 (in French)
Illustrated SEA presentation brochure, from the "Birth of the French computing industry" exposition, in French
History of computing
History of computing in France
Defunct computer hardware companies
Defunct computer systems companies
Computer companies of France | Société d'électronique et d'automatisme | [
"Technology"
] | 2,226 | [
"Computers",
"History of computing",
"History of computing in France"
] |
74,628,152 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammann%20A1%20tilings | In geometry, an Ammann A1 tiling is a tiling from the 6 piece prototile set shown on the right. They were found in 1977 by Robert Ammann. Ammann was inspired by the Robinsion tilings, which were found by Robinson in 1971. The A1 tiles are one of five sets of tiles discovered by Ammann and described in Tilings and patterns.
The A1 tile set is aperiodic, i.e. they tile the whole Euclidean plane, but only without ever creating a periodic tiling.
Generation through matching
The prototiles are squares with indentations and protrusions on the sides and corners that force the tiling to form a pattern of a perfect binary tree that is continued indefinitely. The markings on the tiles in the pictures emphasize this hierarchical structure, however, they have only illustrative character and do not represent additional matching rules as this is already taken care of by the indentations and protrusions.
However, the tiling produced in this way is not unique, not even up to isometries of the Euclidean group, e.g. translations and rotations. When going to the next generation, one has choices. In the picture to the left, the initial patch in the left upper corner highlighted in blue can be prolonged by either a green or a red tile, which are mirror images of each other and instances of the prototile labeled b. Then there are two more choices in the same spirit but with prototile e. The remainder of the next generation is then fixed. If one would deviate from the pattern for this next generation, one would run into configurations that will not match up globally at least at some later stage.
The choices are encoded by infinite words from for the alphabet , where g indicates the green choice while r indicates the red choice. These are in bijection to a Cantor set and thus their cardinality is the continuum. Not all choices lead to a tiling of the plane. E.g. if one only sticks to the green choice one would only fill a lower right corner of the plane. If there are sufficiently generic infinitely many alteration between g and r one will however cover the whole plane. This still leaves uncountably many different A1 tilings, all of them necessarily nonperiodic. Since there are only countably many possible Euclidean isometries that respect the squares underlying the tiles to relate these different tilings, there are uncountable many A1 tilings even up to isometries.
Additionally an A1 tiling may have faults (also called corridors) going off to infinity in arms. This additionally increases the numbers of possible A1 tilings, but the cardinality remains that of the continuum. Note that the corridors allow for some part with binary tree hierarchy to be rotated compared to the other such parts.
Further pictures
See also
Robinson's tilings
References | Ammann A1 tilings | [
"Physics"
] | 581 | [
"Tessellation",
"Aperiodic tilings",
"Symmetry"
] |
74,628,986 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HD%2045166 | HD 45166 is a binary consisting of a so-called quasi Wolf–Rayet (qWR) star and a B-type main-sequence star, near the cluster NGC 2244, in the constellation of Monoceros. A quasi Wolf–Rayet star is a star with a spectrum resembling those of true Wolf–Rayet stars, but being less massive and luminous than a true Wolf–Rayet star. The primary of HD 45166 is currently the only known example of a qWR star.
In 2023, the primary of HD 45166 was also found to be extremely magnetic, the most magnetic massive star known. It is currently the only Wolf-Rayet star in which a significant magnetic field was measured. It has a magnetic field strength of up to 43 kG, or about 43,000 times the Sun's magnetic field strength. This means that it is likely that when it dies in a type Ib/IIb supernova, the remnant will be a magnetar.
Properties
HD 45166 is currently a wide binary made up of a hot, small quasi Wolf–Rayet star and a larger B-type star, with masses of and respectively. They are separated by approximately 10.5 AU and orbit each other every 8200 days, or every 22.5 years. The orbit is moderately eccentric, and inclined from our view at about 49°. The HD 45166 system is estimated to be around 105 million years old. The orbital period was formerly thought to have been 1.6 days, which would have made the primary about , but a 2023 study instead identified this signal as a pulsation mode of the secondary.
The primary qWR star is slightly smaller than the Sun, with a surface temperature of 56,000 K. It is also mostly composed of helium, and is only composed of about 25% hydrogen. Some carbon, nitrogen and oxygen is also present in the star.
The B-type star is about two and a half times the size of the Sun, and has a temperature of about 13,000 K.
Evolution
It is hard to explain the existence of the exotic qWR primary in HD 45166. A stellar merger from white dwarfs is extremely unstable, and would explode after about 10,000 years. Therefore, the most likely scenario for the creation of the qWR primary would be the merger of two helium stars in a tight binary.
The system likely formed as a triple star system, with a tight inner binary and a distant third star, which is now the B-type secondary star. In the tight binary, the more massive star expanded, and lost its outer layers via mass transfer to the secondary star, becoming a helium star. The same thing then happened to the secondary star of the tight binary, and so both stars became helium stars. Due to unstable mass transfer, a gaseous envelope formed around the two stars, causing them to lose orbital energy via friction, spiral inwards and eventually collide. This merger formed the quasi Wolf–Rayet primary of HD 45166 that we observe today.
Future evolution
The qWR primary of HD 45166 is currently burning helium in its core. After it has exhausted this, it will likely start shell burning, and expand, forming a supergiant of about (well within its roche lobe). Then, it will explode in a type Ib or IIb supernova. The remnant will be a neutron star, probably also with a very strong magnetic field, i.e. a magnetar.
References
Monoceros
Wolf–Rayet stars
Binary stars
045166
Suspected variables
B-type main-sequence stars | HD 45166 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 730 | [
"Monoceros",
"Constellations"
] |
74,629,403 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikuo%20Kushiro | Ikuo Kushiro MJA (, Kushiro Ikuo, born March 30, 1934, in Osaka Prefecture) is a Japanese petrologist, known for his research in experimental petrology. His experiments on peridotites contributed significantly to the understanding of the formation of magma under mid-ocean ridges and island arcs.
Education and career
Between 1953 and 1957 Kushiro studied geology at the University of Tokyo. After graduation with a bachelor of science degree, he was a PhD student under Hisashi Kuno and studied the petrology of igneous rocks. After graduating with a doctorate in 1962, he worked for three years at the Carnegie Institution Geophysical Laboratory in Washington, D.C., specializing under the direction of J. Frank Schairer and Hatten Schuyler Yoder on experimental petrology. The central subject of his work was the formation of basaltic magmas with special consideration of the role of water. He and his colleagues identified phlogopite and potassium richterite (in which potassium is substituted for sodium in richterite) as two of the most important minerals involving in recycling water into the Earth's interior. In 1967, after two years at the University of Tokyo, he returned to the Geophysical Laboratory as a postdoc and was employed there from 1971 to 1981 as a scientist. In 1969 he was involved in examining rock samples brought from the Moon by Apollo 11 as part of the Apollo program. In 1974 he became a professor of petrology at the University of Tokyo while remaining an employee of the Carnegie Institution.
From 1990 to 1994, Kushiro was academic dean of the University of Tokyo, after which he was appointed vice president of the university. After retiring from the University of Tokyo, Kushiro became head of Okayama University's Institute for Study of the Earth's Interior (ISEI), where he remained until 1999. Since then he has worked as a director at the Institute for Frontier Research on Earth Evolution (IFREE) near Tokyo.
Awards and honors
Kushiro was elected in 1976 a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union. In 1982, he received the Japan Academy Prize. He was elected in 1983 to the National Academy of Sciences and in 1993 to the Japan Academy. In 1997 he became an honorary member of the Geochemical Society and the European Association of Geochemistry. In 1999 he received the Harry H. Hess Medal from the American Geophysical Union, and in the same year the Roebling Medal of the Mineralogical Society of America and the Arthur Holmes Medal of the European Union of Geosciences. He won the V. M. Goldschmidt Award in 2001. In 2003 the Geological Society of London awarded him the Wollaston Medal. In 2009 he was awarded the Japanese Order of the Sacred Treasure, 2nd Class. The same year, from a meteorite collected in Antarctica, a newly discovered mineral from the pyroxene group was named kushiroite in his honor.
Selected publications
I. Kushiro (1960) Si-Al relation in clinopyroxenes from igneous rocks Am. J. Sci. 258, 548–54.
I. Kushiro and H.S. Yoder (1966) Anorthite-forsterite and anorthite-enstatite reactions and their bearing on the basalt-eclogite transformation. J. Petrol. 7, 337–62.
I. Kushiro (1968) Compositions of magmas formed by partial zone melting in the Earth's upper mantle. J. Geophys. Res. 73, 619–34.
I. Kushiro, Y. Syono and S. Akimoto (1968) Melting of a peridotite nodule at high pressures and high water pressures. J. Geophys. Res. 73, 6023–29.
I. Kushiro (1969) The system forsterite-diopside-silica with and without water at high pressures. Am. J. Sci. 267A, 269–94.
I. Kushiro and H. Haramura (1971) Major element variation and possible source materials of Apollo 12 crystalline rocks. Science 171, 1235–1237.
I. Kushiro (1972) Effect of water on the composition of magmas at high pressures. J. Petrol. 13, 311–34.
I. Kushiro (1975) On the nature of silicate melt and its significance in magma genesis. Am. J. Sci. 275, 411–31.
I. Kushiro (1976) Change in viscosity and structure of melt of NaAlSi2O6 composition at high pressures. J. Geophys. Res. 81, 6347–50.
I. Kushiro (1990) Partial melting of mantle wedge and evolution of island arc crust. J. Geophys. Res. 95, 15929–39.
I. Kushiro (1996) Partial melting of a fertile mantle peridotite at high pressures. Monogr. Am. Geophys. Union 95, 109–22.
I. Kushiro (2001) Partial melting experiments on peridotite and origin of mid-ocean ridge basalt. Ann. Rev. Earth. Planet. Sci. 29, 71–107.
References
1934 births
Living people
Japanese geologists
Petrologists
University of Tokyo alumni
Academic staff of the University of Tokyo
Members of the Japan Academy
Fellows of the American Geophysical Union
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
Recipients of the Order of the Sacred Treasure, 2nd class
Recipients of the V. M. Goldschmidt Award
Wollaston Medal winners | Ikuo Kushiro | [
"Chemistry"
] | 1,149 | [
"Geochemists",
"Recipients of the V. M. Goldschmidt Award"
] |
74,631,506 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God%20Emperor%20Trump | The Master Drone (), popularly referred to as God Emperor Trump, was a papier-mâché sculpture and float depicting Donald Trump, the president of the United States, dressed as the fictional God Emperor of Mankind from the Warhammer 40,000 miniature war game franchise. It was created by the Italian artist Fabrizio Galli for the Carnival of Viareggio in 2019.
Design
The sculpture depicted Donald Trump wearing golden armour based on that of the God Emperor of Mankind from Warhammer 40,000. The knee and shoulder pads of the armour depicted the heads of various political figures. In his right hand, Trump held a sword with four blue birds, representing Twitter, the platform from which he criticized his perceived enemies and promoted his positions. Engraved on the blade of the sword was the Italian phrase dazi vostri, which translates to "your taxes" or "your duties", but is also a pun on cazzi vostri, meaning "you're in trouble". According to Fabrizio, the phrase could mean "here’s your fucking tariffs". The sculpture included multiple moving parts.
Symbolism
The artist of the sculpture, Fabrizio Galli, stated that the sculpture was intended to mock the Trump presidency, and that Trump shares parallels with the fictional dictator from Warhammer 40,000. Pointing out Trump's goals of Mars colonisation and the creation of the United States Space Force, Galli stated that politics had abandoned intellectualism in favour of "fantasy" and "virtual life". The sword was intended as symbolic of Trump "trying to destroy nations with the economy instead of nuclear missiles". This has been interpreted as a reference to the Warhammer 40,000 concept of Exterminatus, or the destruction of an entire planet.
Images of Donald Trump photoshopped into the armour of the God Emperor of Mankind, as well as the title of "God Emperor Trump", had been Internet memes used by Trump supporters prior to the float's debut.
Reception
Although the sculpture was intended to criticise Trump, many of his supporters embraced it, with Emerald Robinson, the White House correspondent for One America News Network, stating that the Italian carnival looked "more fun" than the American Thanksgiving Day Parade because of the float. Several conservative commentators interpreted the float to be a tribute to Trump, claiming that the carnival was a parade in his honour.
The Huffington Post described the sculpture as "terrifying".
References
External links
Page about the sculpture at Galli's website
Statues of Donald Trump
Protests against Donald Trump
Caricatures of presidents of the United States
Colossal statues
Outdoor sculptures in Italy
Sculptures of men in Italy
Viareggio
Papier-mâché
Warhammer 40,000
2019 sculptures
Internet memes introduced in 2019 | God Emperor Trump | [
"Physics",
"Mathematics"
] | 559 | [
"Quantity",
"Colossal statues",
"Physical quantities",
"Size"
] |
47,660,422 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen%20difluoride | Nitrogen difluoride, also known as difluoroamino, is a reactive radical molecule with formula . This small molecule is in equilibrium with its dimer tetrafluorohydrazine.
As the temperature increases the proportion of increases.
The molecule is unusual in that it has an odd number of electrons, yet is stable enough to study experimentally.
Properties
The energy needed to break the N–N bond in is , with an entropy change of 38.6 eu. For comparison, the dissociation energy of the N–N bond is in , in , and in . The enthalpy of formation of (ΔfH) is .
At room temperature is mostly associated with only 0.7% in the form of at pressure. When the temperature rises to 225 °C, it mostly dissociates with 99% in the form of .
In , the N–F bond length is 1.3494 Å and the angle subtended at F–N–F is 103.33°.
In the infrared spectrum the N–F bond in has a symmetrical stretching frequency of 1075 cm−1. This compares to 1115 cm−1 in NF, 1021 cm−1 in and 998 cm−1 in .
The microwave spectrum shows numerous lines due to spin transitions, with or without nuclear spin transitions. The lines form set of two triplets for antisymmetric singlet, or two triplets of triplets for symmetric triplet. Lines appear around 14–15, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28–29, 33, 60, 61, 62, and 65 GHz. The rotational constants for the molecule are A = , B = , and C = . The inertial defect Δ = 0.1204 mu·Å2. The centrifugal distortion constants are τaaaa = −7.75, τbbbb = −0.081, τaabb = 0.30, and τabab = −0.13.
The dipole moment is 0.13 D ().
The ground electronic state of the molecule is 2B1.
The gas is often contaminated with NO or .
Use
Nitrogen difluoride is formed during the function of a xenon monofluoride excimer laser. Nitrogen trifluoride is the halide carrier gas, which releases fluoride ions when impacted by electrons:
The free fluoride ion goes on to react with xenon cations.
Nitrogen difluoride can be consumed further to yield nitrogen monofluoride.
References
Extra reading
Nitrogen fluorides
Free radicals | Nitrogen difluoride | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 535 | [
"Senescence",
"Free radicals",
"Biomolecules"
] |
47,661,309 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canalisporium%20elegans | Canalisporium elegans is a lignicolous fungus species in the genus Canalisporium found in Malaysia.
References
External links
mycobank.org
Fungi described in 1989
Enigmatic Sordariomycetes taxa
Fungi of Asia
Biota of Malaysia
Fungus species | Canalisporium elegans | [
"Biology"
] | 58 | [
"Biota by country",
"Fungi",
"Biota of Malaysia",
"Fungus species"
] |
47,661,313 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parareal | Parareal is a parallel algorithm from numerical analysis and used for the solution of initial value problems.
It was introduced in 2001 by Lions, Maday and Turinici. Since then, it has become one of the most widely studied parallel-in-time integration methods.
Parallel-in-time integration methods
In contrast to e.g. Runge-Kutta or multi-step methods, some of the computations in Parareal can be performed in parallel and Parareal is therefore one example of a parallel-in-time integration method. While historically most efforts to parallelize the numerical solution of partial differential equations focussed on the spatial discretization, in view of the challenges from exascale computing, parallel methods for temporal discretization have been identified as a possible way to increase concurrency in numerical software.
Because Parareal computes the numerical solution for multiple time steps in parallel, it is categorized as a parallel across the steps method.
This is in contrast to approaches using parallelism across the method like parallel Runge-Kutta or extrapolation methods, where independent stages can be computed in parallel or parallel across the system methods like waveform relaxation.
History
Parareal can be derived as both a multigrid method in time method or as multiple shooting along the time axis.
Both ideas, multigrid in time as well as adopting multiple shooting for time integration, go back to the 1980s and 1990s.
Parareal is a widely studied method and has been used and modified for a range of different applications.
Ideas to parallelize the solution of initial value problems go back even further: the first paper proposing a parallel-in-time integration method appeared in 1964.
Algorithm
The Problem
The goal is to solve an initial value problem of the form
The right hand side is assumed to be a smooth (possibly nonlinear) function. It can also correspond to the spatial discretization of a partial differential equation in a method of lines approach. We wish to solve this problem on a temporal mesh of equally spaced points , where and . Carrying out this discretisation we obtain a partitioned time interval consisting of time slices for .
The objective is to calculate numerical approximations to the exact solution using a serial time-stepping method (e.g. Runge-Kutta) that has high numerical accuracy (and therefore high computational cost). We refer to this method as the fine solver , which propagates an initial value at time to a terminal value at time . The goal is to calculate the solution (with high numerical accuracy) using such that we obtain
The problem with this (and the reason for attempting to solve in parallel in the first place) solution is that it is computationally infeasible to calculate in real-time.
How it works
Instead of using a single processor to solve the initial value problem (as is done with classical time-stepping methods), Parareal makes use of processors. The aim to is to use processors to solve smaller initial value problems (one on each time slice) in parallel. For example, in a MPI based code, would be the number of processes, while in an OpenMP based code, would be equal to the number of threads.
Parareal makes use of a second time-stepping method to solve this initial value problem in parallel, referred to as the coarse solver .
The coarse solver works the same way as the fine solver, propagating an initial value over a time interval of length , however it does so at much lower numerical accuracy than (and therefore at much lower computational cost).
Having a coarse solver that is much less computationally expensive than the fine solver is the key to achieving parallel speed-up with Parareal.
Henceforth, we will denote the Parareal solution at time and iteration by .
Zeroth Iteration
Firstly, run the coarse solver serially over the entire time interval to calculate an approximate initial guess to the solution:
Subsequent Iterations
Next, run the fine solver on each of the time slices, in parallel, from the most up-to-date solution values:
Now update the parareal solution values sequentially using the predictor-corrector:
At this stage, one can use a stopping criterion to determine whether the solution values are no longer changing each iteration. For example, one may test this by checking if
and some tolerance . If this critertion is not satisfied, subsequent iterations can then be run by applying the fine solver in parallel and then the predictor-corrector. Once the criterion is satisfied, however, the algorithm is said to have converged in iterations. Note that other stopping criterion do exist and have been successfully tested in Parareal.
Remarks
Parareal should reproduce the solution that is obtained by the serial application of the fine solver and will converge in a maximum of iterations.
For Parareal to provide speedup, however, it has to converge in a number of iterations significantly smaller than the number of time slices, i.e. .
In the Parareal iteration, the computationally expensive evaluation of can be performed in parallel on processing units.
By contrast, the dependency of on means that the coarse correction has to be computed in serial order.
Typically, some form of Runge-Kutta method is chosen for both coarse and fine integrator, where might be of lower order and use a larger time step than .
If the initial value problem stems from the discretization of a PDE, can also use a coarser spatial discretization, but this can negatively impact convergence unless high order interpolation is used.
Speedup
Under some assumptions, a simple theoretical model for the speedup of Parareal can be derived.
Although in applications these assumptions can be too restrictive, the model still is useful to illustrate the trade offs that are involved in obtaining speedup with Parareal.
First, assume that every time slice consists of exactly steps of the fine integrator and of steps of the coarse integrator.
This includes in particular the assumption that all time slices are of identical length and that both coarse and fine integrator use a constant step size over the full simulation.
Second, denote by and the computing time required for a single step of the fine and coarse methods, respectively, and assume that both are constant.
This is typically not exactly true when an implicit method is used, because then runtimes vary depending on the number of iterations required by the iterative solver.
Under these two assumptions, the runtime for the fine method integrating over time slices can be modelled as
The runtime of Parareal using processing units and performing iterations is
Speedup of Parareal then is
These two bounds illustrate the trade off that has to be made in choosing the coarse method: on the one hand, it has to be cheap and/or use a much larger time step to make the first bound as large as possible, on the other hand the number of iterations has to be kept low to keep the second bound large.
In particular, Parareal's parallel efficiency is bounded by
that is by the inverse of the number of required iterations.
Instability for imaginary eigenvalues
The vanilla version of Parareal has issues for problems with imaginary eigenvalues. It typically only converges toward the very last iterations, that is as approaches , and the speedup is always going to be smaller than one. So either the number of iterations is small and Parareal is unstable or, if is large enough to make Parareal stable, no speedup is possible. This also means that Parareal is typically unstable for hyperbolic equations. Even though the formal analysis by Gander and Vandewalle covers only linear problems with constant coefficients, the problem also arises when Parareal is applied to the nonlinear Navier–Stokes equations when the viscosity coefficient becomes too small and the Reynolds number too large. Different approaches exist to stabilise Parareal, one being Krylov-subspace enhanced Parareal.
Variants
There are multiple algorithms that are directly based or at least inspired by the original Parareal algorithm.
Krylov-subspace enhanced Parareal
Early on it was recognised that for linear problems information generated by the fine method can be used to improve the accuracy of the coarse method . Originally, the idea was formulated for the parallel implicit time-integrator PITA, a method closely related to Parareal but with small differences in how the correction is done. In every iteration the result is computed for values for . Based on this information, the subspace
is defined and updated after every Parareal iteration. Denote as the orthogonal projection from to . Then, replace the coarse method with the improved integrator .
As the number of iterations increases, the space will grow and the modified propagator will become more accurate. This will lead to faster convergence. This version of Parareal can also stably integrate linear hyperbolic partial differential equations. An extension to nonlinear problems based on the reduced basis method exists as well.
Hybrid Parareal spectral deferred corrections
A method with improved parallel efficiency based on a combination of Parareal with spectral deferred corrections (SDC) has been proposed by M. Minion. It limits the choice for coarse and fine integrator to SDC, sacrificing flexibility for improved parallel efficiency. Instead of the limit of , the bound on parallel efficiency in the hybrid method becomes
with being the number of iterations of the serial SDC base method and the typically greater number of iterations of the parallel hybrid method. The Parareal-SDC hybrid has been further improved by addition of a full approximation scheme as used in nonlinear multigrid. This led to the development of the parallel full approximation scheme in space and time (PFASST). Performance of PFASST has been studied for PEPC, a Barnes-Hut tree code based particle solver developed at Juelich Supercomputing Centre. Simulations using all 262,144 cores on the IBM BlueGene/P system JUGENE showed that PFASST could produce additional speedup beyond saturation of the spatial tree parallelisation.
Multigrid reduction in time (MGRIT)
The multigrid reduction in time method (MGRIT) generalises the interpretation of Parareal as a multigrid-in-time algorithms to multiple levels using different smoothers. It is a more general approach but for a specific choice of parameters it is equivalent to Parareal. The XBraid library implementing MGRIT is being developed by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.
ParaExp
ParaExp uses exponential integrators within Parareal. While limited to linear problems, it can produce almost optimal parallel speedup.
References
External links
parallel-in-time.org
Numerical analysis
Numerical differential equations
Parallel computing
Computational science | Parareal | [
"Mathematics"
] | 2,182 | [
"Applied mathematics",
"Computational mathematics",
"Computational science",
"Mathematical relations",
"Numerical analysis",
"Approximations"
] |
47,661,580 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri%20Lanka%20Software%20Testing%20Board | The Sri Lanka Software Testing Board (SLSTB) is a software testing qualifications board that represents Sri Lankan interests internationally as the national board for Sri Lanka within the International Software Testing Qualifications Board (ISTQB) and promotes the broad profession of software testing.
History
The SLSTB was formed in August, 2009 and was approved by the ISTQB General Assembly in October, 2009. The Board consists of testing experts from a wide range of organizations: the IT industry, consultancies, training providers and other professional and scientific/academic communities who volunteer their time to the achievement of organization's goals in terms of nurturing, promoting and supporting the software testing profession in Sri Lanka and help fellow software testing professionals to earn globally accepted qualifications as a practical means to excel in the software testing field.
Activities
As a member of the ISTQB, SLSTB provides the leadership and regulates the accreditation process and certification regulations for the Sri Lankan software industry; through promoting the development of a common body of understanding and knowledge about testing in alignment with professional Software Quality Assurance international qualification ISTQB Certified Tester. The certification is based on rigorous, internationally developed syllabi, with a hierarchy of qualifications and guidelines for accreditation and examination to enable individuals and organizations to achieve the highest levels of proficiency in software quality.
See also
International Software Testing Qualifications Board
References
Information technology organizations based in Asia
Software testing
Non-profit organisations based in Sri Lanka
Information technology in Sri Lanka | Sri Lanka Software Testing Board | [
"Engineering"
] | 291 | [
"Software engineering",
"Software testing"
] |
47,662,532 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%201783 | NGC 1783 (also known as ESO 85-SC29) is a globular cluster within the Dorado constellation and part of the Large Magellanic Cloud, a satellite dwarf galaxy of the Milky Way. At an aperture of 50 arcseconds, its apparent V-band magnitude is 10.39, making it one of the brightest globular clusters in the LMC as viewed from Earth. It was discovered in 1835 by John Herschel. The compiler of the New General Catalogue, John Louis Emil Dreyer, described this cluster as "considerably bright, large, round, very gradually pretty much brighter middle, mottled but not resolved."
NGC 1783 is about 1.7 billion years old. Its estimated mass is , and its total luminosity is , leading to a mass-to-luminosity ratio of 0.26 /. All else equal, older star clusters have higher mass-to-luminosity ratios; that is, they have lower luminosities for the same mass.
References
External links
Globular clusters
1783
ESO objects
Dorado
Astronomical objects discovered in 1835
Large Magellanic Cloud | NGC 1783 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 233 | [
"Dorado",
"Constellations"
] |
47,663,358 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental%20Cell | Developmental Cell is a peer-reviewed scientific journal of cell and developmental biology. The journal was established in 2001, and is edited by Julie Sollier. It published by Cell Press, an imprint of Elsevier, and its articles becomes open access after an embargo period of one year.
External links
Cell Press academic journals
Delayed open access journals
Developmental biology journals
Molecular and cellular biology journals
Academic journals established in 2001 | Developmental Cell | [
"Chemistry"
] | 83 | [
"Molecular and cellular biology journals",
"Molecular biology"
] |
47,663,700 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C5%8Dko%20%28doll%29 | A is a kind of soft-bodied doll given to young women of age and especially to pregnant women in Japan to protect both mother and unborn child. Traditionally, hōko dolls were made of silk and human hair, and stuffed with cotton. The dolls could be made for both boys and girls. Boys' dolls would be given up and "consecrated" at a shrine when boys came of age at 15 years old, while girls would give up their dolls at marriage. The dolls were given to children either at birth, or on special days shortly after birth. Pregnant woman would be given new ones, so as to protect her and her unborn child together, for the duration of the pregnancy.
History
Hōko can be traced back to "talismanic figures" from early Japanese history, and are likely related to the concept of using paper dolls (hina), as "stand-ins for people." The use of in spiritual practice as stand-ins to take on the brunt of a person's sins or misfortune also played a role in the creation of hōko dolls as well as for absentee family members (i.e. mother dolls for orphaned children).
Amagatsu
Amagatsu (天児; derivation unclear), also known-as "guardian dolls" or "hoko-hina" ("lowly child dolls"), are another type of doll similar in function as an amulet or talisman to the hōko doll, documented back to at least the 11th century with a mention in The Tale of Genji. Amagatsu were of simple construction: pairs of sticks (wood or bamboo) were strapped together--with the body and arms traditionally forming a "T" shape--a stuffed silk cloth head was attached-on-top and clothing draped on it. Sources mentioning the specific term hōko start appearing in the Heian period, but are more apparent in the Muromachi period of Japan's history; in the Muromachi era (1333-1568), these figures were kept by a child's bedside to ward off evil. It is also thought that a child's clothes should be hung on the T-form of the amagatsu, like a kimono stand, to take any evil elements away from the clothes. The hoko consisted of white silk stuffed with cotton and was presented to a child on his/her birth, often as an ubuyashinai (gift to a baby on the 3rd, 5th, and 9th nights). Used for both boys and girls, these dolls were a constant in their early life. Boys would keep them until the age of 15, when their "guardians" would be consecrated at a nearby shrine. In later years, the amagatsu and hōko dolls became essentially the same thing, with the dolls more commonly made out of cloth and other soft materials.
See also
Apotropaic magic
Concealed shoes
Hama Yumi
Hinamatsuri
Japanese traditional dolls
Katashiro
Kokeshi dolls
Motanka doll
Ofuda
Poppet doll
Shikigami
Teru teru bōzu
Ushabti
Voodoo doll
Witch bottle
References
Japanese dolls
Play (activity)
Traditional toys
Talismans
Amulets
Objects believed to protect from evil
Magic items
Superstitions
Lucky symbols
Superstitions of Japan
Culture of Japan | Hōko (doll) | [
"Physics",
"Biology"
] | 677 | [
"Behavior",
"Magic items",
"Physical objects",
"Play (activity)",
"Human behavior",
"Matter"
] |
47,664,408 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi%20gold%20train | The Nazi gold train or Wałbrzych gold train is an urban legend about a train laden with gold and treasure that was hidden by the Nazis in southwest Poland during the last days of World War II. The apocryphal tale claims the train full of valuables, including artwork, was concealed in a sealed-up rail tunnel or mine in the Central Sudetes by retreating Nazis. Despite numerous searches since 1945, including by the Polish Army during the Cold War, no evidence of the train, its tracks or treasure have ever been found. Historians believe the train never existed. However, some people still believe it exists.
Between 2015 and 2018, the train received renewed global media interest when two Polish men claimed to have discovered it using ground-penetrating radar. The search culminated in a dig involving the Polish military, state officials, and privately-funded individuals. However, excavations were halted when the detected anomaly was found to be natural geology. Interest in the train led a group of enthusiasts to construct a full-size replica of a Nazi armored train with the hope of it becoming a tourist attraction.
Background
According to the apocryphal story, in the last months of World War II, a Nazi armoured train laden with gold and other treasures left Breslau (now Wrocław), arrived at the station Freiburg in Schlesien (Świebodzice), but did not reach the next station in Waldenburg in Schlesien (Wałbrzych). The train is suspected to have entered an abandoned coal mine or tunnel system under Książ Castle, which is part of the unfinished, top secret Nazi construction project Project Riese in the Owl Mountains. Onboard the train was supposed to be more than of gold, jewels, weapons, and artistic masterpieces.
According to historians, it has never been proven that the train ever existed. During the Polish People's Republic (1947–1989), the Polish Armed Forces carried out numerous searches for the train but found nothing.
Search on the "65th kilometer"
In late August 2015, news stories began circulating about two unidentified men who had obtained a death-bed confession about a buried gold train. The two were later identified as Piotr Koper of Poland and Andreas Richter of Germany, co-owners of the mine exploration company XYZ S.C. Using lawyers as an intermediary, the two men opened secret negotiations with the Polish government for a "finders' fee" of 10% of the value of the train in return for information leading to its location. They would reveal the exact location once the documents were signed.
Koper and Richter would later claim information about their discovery was leaked by the government, resulting in a worldwide media circus.
On 28 August, Polish Deputy Culture Minister announced that ground-penetrating radar images taken by Koper and Richter confirmed with 99% probability that a train of 100 metres in length had been found. However, on August 31, , Governor of the Lower Silesian Voivodeship, told reporters that "There is no more proof for this alleged discovery than for other claims made over the years," saying, "It's impossible to claim that such a find actually exists at the location indicated based on the documents that have been submitted."
On 4 September, Koper and Richter went public for the first time, breaking their previous anonymity. They announced that the precise location of the train had been given to Polish authorities. They also released images they had taken with a KS-700 Ground Penetrating Radar system that appeared to show a 50-metre-deep man-made shaft with something in it. Koper and Richter believed the train was buried next to a stretch of track on Polish State Railways' Wrocław–Wałbrzych line at kilometre 65.
Polish authorities sectioned off woodland in the area of kilometer 65, as well as deploying police and other guards in order to prevent access to the numerous treasure hunters who had arrived armed with detection equipment. In late September, the Polish military, acting at the request of the regional governor, began to clear the surface of trees and search for booby traps and mines. The military confirmed on October 4 that no explosives or other dangers existed, down to a metre's depth.
In mid-November, two different teams were cleared by city authorities in Wałbrzych to make a non-invasive assessment of the site. The first team was Koper and Richter. The second team consisted of mining specialists from the Kraków Mining Academy, headed by Janusz Madej. On 15 December, the second team announced that a survey had found no evidence of a train, though possible evidence of a collapsed tunnel. Koper and Richter stood by their claim of a train to which Madej responded: "It's human to make a mistake, but it's foolish to stand by it."
In May 2016, despite outside expert opinion that no train existed, Koper and Richter secured permission to begin digging at the site from the owners of the property, Polish State Railways. The excavation commenced on 15 August 2016 with a team of 64 people, including engineers, geologists, chemists, archaeologists and a specialist in military demolitions. The excavation reportedly cost 116,000 euros or $131,000 and was financed by private sponsors, and with the help of volunteers.
The dig was halted after seven days when no tracks, tunnel or train were found. The radar images thought to have been the train were revealed to be natural ice formations. An official from the town admitted tourism was up 44% for the year and said "the publicity the town has gotten in the global media is worth roughly around $200 million. Our annual budget for promotion is $380,000, so think about that. Whether the explorers find anything or not, that the gold train has already arrived." The town mayor was considering naming a roundabout after Koper and Richter.
At the beginning of December 2016, Koper and Richter declared their intention to create a foundation for the purpose of raising money to drill down to 20 meters in 2017. During the third search in June 2017, with the assistance of a geophysical company from Warsaw, the excavation team encountered seven cavities, which were suspected to be a railway tunnel. The find made deep drilling necessary, which, according to the contractors, would cost at least 100,000 zlotys (about 23,000 euros) for the permits and the actual excavation. The dig was scheduled for the spring or summer of 2018, when sponsors would be found.
In August 2018, Richter left the excavation team. Koper announced he would continue the search. While he never found Nazi gold, in January 2019, Koper discovered a series of large and "priceless" 16th-century wall paintings hidden behind a plaster wall while doing renovation work in an old palace in the village of Struga near Wrocław.
See also
Amber Room
Confederate gold
Die Glocke (conspiracy theory)
Gross-Rosen concentration camp
Hungarian Gold Train
Książ Castle
Mausoleum in Wałbrzych
Operation Napoleon
Wałbrzych
References
External links
Facebook page of the dig
— includes chronological history of story with hyperlinks to original sources of information.
— includes maps of possible locations
1945 in Germany
1945 in military history
1945 in rail transport
January 1945 events in Europe
Cultural history of World War II
German legends
History of rail transport in Germany
History of Silesia
Legendary vehicles
Culture of Lower Silesian Voivodeship
History of Lower Silesian Voivodeship
Missing trains
gold train
Nazi subterranea
Poland in World War II
Polish folklore
Polish legends
Culture of Silesia
Sudetes
Treasure of Poland
Urban legends
Wałbrzych
Legendary treasures
Nazi looting
Railway culture | Nazi gold train | [
"Technology"
] | 1,550 | [
"Missing trains",
"Railway accidents and incidents"
] |
47,664,587 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photogeochemistry | Photogeochemistry merges photochemistry and geochemistry into the study of light-induced chemical reactions that occur or may occur among natural components of Earth's surface. The first comprehensive review on the subject was published in 2017 by the chemist and soil scientist Timothy A Doane, but the term photogeochemistry appeared a few years earlier as a keyword in studies that described the role of light-induced mineral transformations in shaping the biogeochemistry of Earth; this indeed describes the core of photogeochemical study, although other facets may be admitted into the definition.
The domain of photogeochemistry
The context of a photogeochemical reaction is implicitly the surface of Earth, since that is where sunlight is available (although other sources of light such as chemiluminescence would not be strictly excluded from photogeochemical study). Reactions may occur among components of land such as rocks, soil and detritus; components of surface water such as sediment and dissolved organic matter; and components of the atmospheric boundary layer directly influenced by contact with land or water, such as mineral aerosols and gases. Visible and medium- to long-wave ultraviolet radiation is the main source of energy for photogeochemical reactions; wavelengths of light shorter than about 290 nm are completely absorbed by the present atmosphere, and are therefore practically irrelevant, except in consideration of atmospheres different from that of Earth today.
Photogeochemical reactions are limited to chemical reactions not facilitated by living organisms. The reactions comprising photosynthesis in plants and other organisms, for example, are not considered photogeochemistry, since the physiochemical context for these reactions is installed by the organism, and must be maintained in order for these reactions to continue (i.e. the reactions cease if the organism dies). In contrast, if a certain compound is produced by an organism, and the organism dies but the compound remains, this compound may still participate independently in a photogeochemical reaction even though its origin is biological (e.g. biogenic mineral precipitates or organic compounds released from plants into water).
The study of photogeochemistry is primarily concerned with naturally occurring materials, but may extend to include other materials, inasmuch as they are representative of, or bear some relation to, those found on Earth. For example, many inorganic compounds have been synthesized in the laboratory to study photocatalytic reactions. Although these studies are usually not undertaken in the context of environmental or Earth sciences, the study of such reactions is relevant to photogeochemistry if there is a geochemical implication (i.e. similar reactants or reaction mechanisms occur naturally). Similarly, photogeochemistry may also include photochemical reactions of naturally occurring materials that are not touched by sunlight, if there is the possibility that these materials may become exposed (e.g. deep soil layers uncovered by mining).
Except for several isolated instances, studies that fit the definition of photogeochemistry have not been explicitly specified as such, but have been traditionally categorized as photochemistry, especially at the time when photochemistry was an emerging field or new facets of photochemistry were being explored. Photogeochemical research, however, may be set apart in light of its specific context and implications, thereby bringing more exposure to this "poorly explored area of experimental geochemistry". Past studies that fit the definition of photogeochemistry may be designated retroactively as such.
Early photogeochemistry
The first efforts that can be considered photogeochemical research can be traced to the "formaldehyde hypothesis" of Adolf von Baeyer in 1870, in which formaldehyde was proposed to be the initial product of plant photosynthesis, formed from carbon dioxide and water through the action of light on a green leaf. This suggestion inspired numerous attempts to obtain formaldehyde in vitro, which can retroactively be considered photogeochemical studies. Detection of organic compounds such as formaldehyde and sugars was reported by many workers, usually by exposure of a solution of carbon dioxide to light, typically a mercury lamp or sunlight itself. At the same time, many other workers reported negative results. One of the pioneer experiments was that of Bach in 1893, who observed the formation of lower uranium oxides upon irradiation of a solution of uranium acetate and carbon dioxide, implying the formation of formaldehyde. Some experiments included reducing agents such as hydrogen gas, and others detected formaldeyhde or other products in the absence of any additives, although the possibility was admitted that reducing power may have been produced from the decomposition of water during the experiment. In addition to the main focus on synthesis of formaldehyde and simple sugars, other light-assisted reactions were occasionally reported, such as the decomposition of formaldehyde and subsequent release of methane, or the formation of formamide from carbon monoxide and ammonia.
In 1912 Benjamin Moore summarized the main facet of photogeochemistry, that of inorganic photocatalysis: "the inorganic colloid must possess the property of transforming sunlight, or some other form of radiant energy, into chemical energy." Many experiments, still focused on how plants assimilate carbon, did indeed explore the effect of a "transformer" (catalyst); some effective "transformers" were similar to naturally occurring minerals, including iron(III) oxide or colloidal iron hydroxide; cobalt carbonate, copper carbonate, nickel carbonate; and iron(II) carbonate. Working with an iron oxide catalyst, Baly concluded in 1930 that "the analogy between the laboratory process and that in the living plant seems therefore to be complete," referring to his observation that in both cases, a photochemical reaction takes place on a surface, the activation energy is supplied in part by the surface and in part by light, efficiency decreases when the light intensity is too great, the optimal temperature of the reaction is similar to that of living plants, and efficiency increases from the blue to the red end of the light spectrum.
At this time, however, the intricate details of plant photosynthesis were still obscure, and the nature of photocatalysis in general was still actively being discovered; Mackinney in 1932 stated that "the status of this problem [photochemical CO2 reduction] is extraordinarily involved." As in many emerging fields, experiments were largely empirical, but the enthusiasm surrounding this early work did lead to significant advances in photochemistry. The simple but challenging principle of transforming solar energy into chemical energy capable of performing a desired reaction remains the basis of application-based photocatalysis, most notably artificial photosynthesis (production of solar fuels).
After several decades of experiments centered around the reduction of carbon dioxide, interest began to spread to other light-induced reactions involving naturally occurring materials. These experiments usually focused on reactions analogous to known biological processes, such as soil nitrification, for which the photochemical counterpart "photonitrification" was first reported in 1930.
Classifying photogeochemical reactions
Photogeochemical reactions may be classified based on thermodynamics and/or the nature of the materials involved. In addition, when ambiguity exists regarding an analogous reaction involving light and living organisms (phototrophy), the term "photochemical" may be used to distinguish a particular abiotic reaction from the corresponding photobiological reaction. For example, "photooxidation of iron(II)" can refer to either a biological process driven by light (phototrophic or photobiological iron oxidation) or a strictly chemical, abiotic process (photochemical iron oxidation). Similarly, an abiotic process that converts water to O2 under the action of light may be designated "photochemical oxidation of water" rather than simply "photooxidation of water", in order to distinguish it from photobiological oxidation of water potentially occurring in the same environment (by algae, for example).
Thermodynamics
Photogeochemical reactions are described by the same principles used to describe photochemical reactions in general, and may be classified similarly:
Photosynthesis: in the most general sense, photosynthesis refers to any light-activated reaction for which the change in free energy (ΔGo) is positive for the reaction itself (without considering the presence of a catalyst or light). The products have higher energy than the reactants, and therefore the reaction is thermodynamically unfavorable, except through the action of light in conjunction with a catalyst. Examples of photosynthetic reactions include the splitting of water to form H2 and O2, the reaction of CO2 and water to form O2 and reduced carbon compounds such as methanol and methane, and the reaction of N2 with water to yield NH3 and O2.
Photocatalysis: this refers to reactions that are accelerated by the presence of a catalyst (the light itself is not the catalyst as may be erroneously implied). The overall reaction has a negative change in free energy, and is therefore thermodynamically favored. Examples of photocatalytic reactions include the reaction of organic compounds with O2 to form CO2 and water, and the reaction of organic compounds with water to give H2 and CO2.
Uncatalyzed photoreactions: photoinduced or photoactivated reactions proceed via the action of light alone. For example, photodegradation of organic compounds often proceeds without a catalyst if the reactants themselves absorb light.
Nature of reactants
Any reaction in the domain of photogeochemistry, either observed in the environment or studied in the laboratory, may be broadly classified according to the nature of the materials involved.
Reactions among naturally occurring compounds. Photogeochemistry, both observational and exploratory, is concerned with reactions among materials known to occur naturally, as this reflects what happens or may happen on Earth.
Reactions in which one or more of the reactants are not known to occur naturally. Studies of reactions among materials related to naturally occurring materials may contribute to understanding of natural processes. These complementary studies are relevant to photogeochemistry in that they illustrate reactions that may have a natural counterpart. For example, it has been shown that soils, when irradiated, can generate reactive oxygen species and that clay minerals present in soils can accelerate the degradation of synthetic chemicals; it may therefore be postulated that naturally occurring compounds are similarly affected by sunlight acting on soil. The conversion of N2 to NH3 has been observed upon irradiation in the presence of the iron titanate Fe2Ti2O7. While such a compound is not known to occur naturally, it is related to ilmenite (FeTiO3) and pseudobrookite (Fe2TiO5), and can form upon heating of ilmenite; this may imply a similar reaction with N2 for the naturally occurring minerals.
Photogeochemical catalysts
Direct catalysts
Direct photogeochemical catalysts act by absorbing light and subsequently transferring energy to reactants.
Semiconducting minerals
The majority of observed photogeochemical reactions involve a mineral catalyst. Many naturally occurring minerals are semiconductors that absorb some portion of solar radiation. These semiconducting minerals are frequently transition metal oxides and sulfides and include abundant, well-known minerals such as hematite (Fe2O3), magnetite (Fe3O4), goethite and lepidocrocite (FeOOH), and pyrolusite (MnO2). Radiation of energy equal to or greater than the band gap of a semiconductor is sufficient to excite an electron from the valence band to a higher energy level in the conduction band, leaving behind an electron hole (h+); the resulting electron-hole pair is called an exciton. The excited electron and hole can reduce and oxidize, respectively, species having suitable redox potentials relative to the potentials of the valence and conduction bands. Semiconducting minerals with appropriate band gaps and appropriate band energy levels can catalyze a vast array of reactions, most commonly at mineral-water or mineral-gas interfaces.
Organic compounds
Organic compounds such as "bio-organic substances" and humic substances are also able to absorb light and act as catalysts or sensitizers, accelerating photoreactions that normally occur slowly or facilitating reactions that might not normally occur at all.
Indirect catalysts
Some materials, such as certain silicate minerals, absorb little or no solar radiation, but may still participate in light-driven reactions by mechanisms other than direct transfer of energy to reactants.
Production of reactive species
Indirect photocatalysis may occur via the production of a reactive species which then participates in another reaction. For example, photodegradation of certain compounds has been observed in the presence of kaolinite and montmorillonite, and this may proceed via the formation of reactive oxygen species at the surface of these clay minerals. Indeed, reactive oxygen species have been observed when soil surfaces are exposed to sunlight. The ability of irradiated soil to generate singlet oxygen was found to be independent of the organic matter content, and both the mineral and organic components of soil appear to contribute to this process. Indirect photolysis in soil has been observed to occur at depths of up to 2 mm due to migration of reactive species; in contrast, direct photolysis (in which the degraded compound itself absorbs light) was restricted to a "photic depth" of 0.2 to 0.4 mm. Like certain minerals, organic matter in solution, as well as particulate organic matter, may act as an indirect catalyst via formation of singlet oxygen which then reacts with other compounds.
Surface sensitization
Indirect catalysts may also act through surface sensitization of reactants, by which species sorbed to a surface become more susceptible to photodegradation.
True catalysis
Strictly speaking, the term "catalysis" should not be used unless it can be shown that the number of product molecules produced per number of active sites is greater than one; this is difficult to do in practice, although it is often assumed to be true if there is no loss in the photoactivity of the catalyst for an extended period of time. Reactions that are not strictly catalytic may be designated "assisted photoreactions". Furthermore, phenomena that involve complex mixtures of compounds (e.g. soil) may be hard to classify unless complete reactions (not just individual reactants or products) can be identified.
Experimental approaches
The great majority of photogeochemical research is performed in the laboratory, as it is easier to demonstrate and observe a particular reaction under controlled conditions. This includes confirming the identity of materials, designing reaction vessels, controlling light sources, and adjusting the reaction atmosphere. However, observation of natural phenomena often provides initial inspiration for further study. For example, during the 1970s it was generally agreed that nitrous oxide (N2O) has a short residence time in the troposphere, although the actual explanation for its removal was unknown. Since N2O does not absorb light at wavelengths greater than 280 nm, direct photolysis had been discarded as a possible explanation. It was then observed that light would decompose chloromethanes when they were absorbed on silica sand, and this occurred at wavelengths far above the absorption spectra for these compounds. The same phenomenon was observed for N2O, leading to the conclusion that particulate matter in the atmosphere is responsible for the destruction of N2O via surface-sensitized photolysis. Indeed, the idea of such a sink for atmospheric N2O was supported by several reports of low concentrations of N2O in the air above deserts, where there is a high amount of suspended particulate matter. As another example, the observation that the amount of nitrous acid in the atmosphere greatly increases during the day lead to insight into the surface photochemistry of humic acids and soils and an explanation for the original observation.
Photogeochemical reactions
The following table lists some reported reactions that are relevant to photogeochemical study, including reactions that involve only naturally occurring compounds as well as complementary reactions that involve synthetic but related compounds. The selection of reactions and references given is merely illustrative and may not exhaustively reflect current knowledge, especially in the case of popular reactions such as nitrogen photofixation for which there is a large body of literature. Furthermore, although these reactions have natural counterparts, the probability of encountering optimal reaction conditions may be low in some cases; for example, most experimental work concerning CO2 photoreduction is intentionally performed in the absence of O2, since O2 almost always suppresses the reduction of CO2. In natural systems, however, it is uncommon to find an analogous context where CO2 and a catalyst are reached by light but there is no O2 present.
Reactions in the nitrogen cycle
Reactions in the carbon cycle
Other reactions, including coupled cycles
References
Geochemistry
Photochemistry | Photogeochemistry | [
"Chemistry"
] | 3,506 | [
"nan"
] |
47,664,987 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Density%20meter | A density meter (densimeter) is a device which measures the density of an object or material. Density is usually abbreviated as either or . Typically, density either has the units of or . The most basic principle of how density is calculated is by the formula:
Where:
= the density of the sample.
= the mass of the sample.
= the volume of the sample.
Many density meters can measure both the wet portion and the dry portion of a sample. The wet portion comprises the density from all liquids present in the sample. The dry solids comprise solely of the density of the solids present in the sample.
A density meter does not measure the specific gravity of a sample directly. However, the specific gravity can be inferred from a density meter. The specific gravity is defined as the density of a sample compared to the density of a reference. The reference density is typically of that of water. The specific gravity is found by the following equation:
Where:
= the specific gravity of the sample.
= the density of the sample that needs to be measured.
= the density of the reference material (usually water).
Density meters come in many varieties. Different types include: nuclear, coriolis, ultrasound, microwave, and gravitic. Each type measures the density differently. Each type has its advantages and drawbacks.
Density meters have many applications in various parts of various industries. Density meters are used to measure slurries, sludges, and other liquids that flow through the pipeline. Industries such as mining, dredging, wastewater treatment, paper, oil, and gas all have uses for density meters at various points during their respective processes.
Different types of density meter
Coriolis
Coriolis density meters, also known as mass flow meters or inertial flow meters, work on the principle of vibration to measure phase shifts in the vibration of a bent thin walled tube. The bent thin walled tube is rotated around a central axis. When there is no mass in the bent section, the tube remains untwisted. However, when the density inside the bent section increases, the inbound flow portion of the bent pipe drags behind the out flow portion. This twisting causes phase shifts which result in changes in the resonant frequency of the thin walled tube. Therefore, the resonant frequency is directly affected by the density. Higher density media causes a larger Coriolis effect if the volumetric flow rate is constant.
Flowing media causes a frequency and a phase shift of the bent pipe, which are proportional to the mass flow rate of the sample.
Coriolis meters measure the mass flow of the system. They do not measure the volumetric flow. However, a volumetric flow can be inferred from the mass flow measurement.
These measurements are restricted to small diameters for flow tubes. However, this measurement technique results in high accuracy and high repeatability. Coriolis meters also have a fast response time.
Coriolis meters need to be calibrated for temperature and pressure. The zero points for these values are used to calibrate the system. Coriolis meters cannot be calibrated while in use. The span difference is used to see how temperature and pressure have changed.
Nuclear
Nuclear density meters work on the principle of measuring gamma radiation. Gamma radiation is emitted from a source. This source is typically caesium-137 (half-life: ~30 years). The radiation is seen by a scintillator device. The radiation is converted into flashes of light. The number of flashes of light is counted. Radiation that is absorbed by the mass is not seen by the scintillator device. Therefore, the density of the media is inversely proportional to the radiation captured and seen by the scintillator.
Nuclear density meters are limited in scope to what is seen by the gamma radiation beam. The sample size is a single, thin column with small longitudinal length.
Nuclear equipment requires certified and licensed staff in order to operate the instruments.
Microwave
Microwave density meters have various ways to measure what solids are in the sample. All microwave meters measure microwaves but some use different methods such as measuring the microwave propagation speed change, amplitude reduction, time of flight, single phase difference, or dual phase shift. Each technique has certain accuracies.
Some microwave meters use a ceramic probe that is directly inserted into the sample. This allows the meter to have direct contact to the sample in question. However, this limits the types of slurries and sludges that can flow through the pipe line. Abrasive slurries with particulates can damage the sensor probe.
Microwave meters are also limited to liquids with unvarying dielectric constants. The percentage of solids of the slurry affects the dielectric constant for the entire sample. Typically, percent solids greater than 20% result in large errors. Similar inconsistencies happen with large pipe
diameters.
Microwave meters are very good at detecting dissolved solids. Homogeneous solutions are easily seen by microwave meters. This makes them a fit for applications where the solution is consistent and non-abrasive.
Ultrasonic
Ultrasonic density meters work on various principles to calculate the density. One of the methods is the transit-time principle (also known as the time of flight principle). With this technique, a sensor is typically installed in the pipe, which has an ultrasonic transmitter and an ultrasonic receiver in one construction. The ultrasonic density meter calculates the sonic velocity by using the known distance between the transmitter and receiver and the measured transit time. The measuring instrument can now calculate the density, as it is dependent on the sound velocity.
Another method that is utilized in ultrasonic meters is the envelope energy average method. This method is based on not only the amplitude of the signal but also the shape of the signal. These packets of information are called envelopes.
Doppler ultrasonic meters measure the suspension flow where the concentration of solids in the slurry is above 100ppm and the particles that are suspended are larger than 100 microns in diameter. However, the Doppler method only works on concentrations of less than 10% solids.
Compensations
Temperature
Temperature affects the density of fluids. In most cases, an increase in temperature indicates that the density of the media will decrease. This indicates that temperature and density are inversely proportional to each other. Temperature also affects the meters themselves. Mass flow meters have different resonant frequencies at different temperatures.
Pressure
Pressure changes the rigidity of the mass flow tube. Pressure affects the rigidity of gravimetric meters.
Vibration
Vibration from plant noise can be filtered out. Vibration is apparent in microwave, ultrasonic, gravimetric, and Coriolis meters. Vibration causes these types of meters to accumulate error
Damage
Coriolis meters have compensations from pitting, cracking, coating, erosion, and corrosion. These damages affect the way that the tube resonates. These changes affect the baseline. Compensations cannot be made dynamically. These damages typically cause offsets that can be added to the existing calibration factors that will ensure that a consistent reading is still acquired.
References | Density meter | [
"Physics",
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 1,446 | [
"Density",
"Density meters",
"Physical quantities",
"Measuring instruments"
] |
47,665,036 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonzalo%20Tancredi | Gonzalo Tancredi (born 8 March 1963) is an Uruguayan astronomer and full professor in the Department of Astronomy at the University of the Republic in Montevideo, Uruguay. He is an active member of the International Astronomical Union (IAU) and investigator at Los Molinos Observatory.
His 2010 evaluation of potential dwarf planets was considered by the IAU, though never acted on. The Themistian asteroid 5088 Tancredi has been named after him.
Definition of planet
In 2006, Tancredi was one of a number of dissenters at the IAU's meeting to establish the first definition of "planet." As an alternative to the IAU's draft proposal, which had included Pluto, its moon Charon and Ceres among the planets, Tancredi with his Uruguayan colleague Julio Ángel Fernández proposed a definition where they reserved the term "planet" only for those objects in the Solar System which had cleared their neighbourhoods of planetesimals, describing those objects which had not cleared their orbits yet retained a spherical shape as "planetoids." The IAU's final definition incorporated much of Fernández and Tancredi's proposal, though the objects were christened "dwarf planets."
References
External links
Gonzalo Tancredi – Departamento de Astronomía, Instituto de Física, Facultad de Ciencias, Montevideo, URUGUAY
www.fisica.edu.uy – Curriculum Vitae
1963 births
Living people
Uruguayan astronomers
Academic staff of the University of the Republic (Uruguay) | Gonzalo Tancredi | [
"Astronomy"
] | 314 | [
"Astronomers",
"Astronomer stubs",
"Astronomy stubs"
] |
47,665,532 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillium%20singorense | Penicillium singorense is a species of fungus in the genus Penicillium which was isolated from house dust in the city Songkhla in Thailand.
References
singorense
Fungi described in 2014
Fungus species | Penicillium singorense | [
"Biology"
] | 46 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
47,665,681 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillium%20sizovae | Penicillium sizovae is an anamorph species of fungus in the genus Penicillium which produces agroclavine-I and epoxyagroclavine-I.
References
Further reading
sizovae
Fungi described in 1968
Fungus species | Penicillium sizovae | [
"Biology"
] | 59 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
47,666,123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal%20of%20Integer%20Sequences | The Journal of Integer Sequences is a peer-reviewed open-access academic journal in mathematics, specializing in research papers about integer sequences.
It was founded in 1998 by Neil Sloane. Sloane had previously published two books on integer sequences, and in 1996 he founded the On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences (OEIS). Needing an outlet for research papers concerning the sequences he was collecting in the OEIS, he founded the journal. Since 2002 the journal has been hosted by the David R. Cheriton School of Computer Science at the University of Waterloo, with Waterloo professor Jeffrey Shallit as its editor-in-chief. There are no page charges for authors, and all papers are free to all readers. The journal publishes approximately 50–75 papers annually.
In most years from 1999 to 2014, SCImago Journal Rank has ranked the Journal of Integer Sequences as a third-quartile journal in discrete mathematics and combinatorics. It is indexed by Mathematical Reviews and Zentralblatt MATH.
References
External links
Mathematics journals
Open access journals
Academic journals established in 1998
English-language journals
Irregular journals | Journal of Integer Sequences | [
"Mathematics"
] | 221 | [
"Sequences and series",
"Integer sequences",
"Mathematical structures",
"Recreational mathematics",
"Mathematical objects",
"Combinatorics",
"Numbers",
"Number theory"
] |
47,666,505 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostaglandin%20D2%20receptor | {{DISPLAYTITLE:Prostaglandin D2 receptor}}
The prostaglandin D2 (PGD2) receptors are G protein-coupled receptors that bind and are activated by prostaglandin D2. Also known as PTGDR or DP receptors, they are important for various functions of the nervous system and inflammation. They include the following proteins:
Prostaglandin D2 receptor 1 (DP1) -
Prostaglandin D2 receptor 2 (DP2) -
Structure
The PTGDR gene that encodes the prostaglandin D2 receptor in humans is found on the long arm of chromosome 14 at 14q22.1 and consists of four exons. A 1995 molecular cloning study of the prostaglandin D2 receptor derived from humans found that the corresponding cDNA encoded for a protein with 359 amino acids and molecular mass of 40,276 daltons. The receptor is a heterotrimeric G protein-coupled receptor, containing seven rhodopsin-like transmembrane domains, an extracellular NH2 terminus, and an intracellular COOH terminus.
The receptor contains a few structural sites at which it can interact with other molecules. For instance, there are three possible sites for N-glycosylation at the Asn-10, Asn-90, and Asn-297 residues. Protein kinase C can also phosphorylate the prostaglandin D2 receptor at two sites in the first and second cytoplasmic loops as well as at six sites in the COOH terminus.
Signal transduction pathway
A 2014 journal article described that the PGD2 receptor signaling pathway begins with the binding of prostaglandin D2. After PDG2 binds to the extracellular ligand site on the receptor, the Gs alpha subunit is activated. Activation of the Gs alpha subunit prompts activation of the enzyme adenylate cyclase, which is located on the cell membrane. Adenylate cyclase then catalyzes the change from ATP to cyclic AMP, or cAMP. The result of the PDG2 receptor signaling pathway is a rise in levels of second messenger cAMP, which can proceed to perform other tasks depending on the activated cell.
However, several other researchers make distinctions between the two prostaglandin D2 receptor subtypes and their G protein-coupled receptor pathways. They describe that the binding of PDG2 to PTGDR1 activates the Gs alpha subunit, resulting in the subsequent increase of cAMP. This stimulation of cAMP also involves activation of Protein Kinase A and influx of calcium ions through membrane channels. In contrast, the binding of PDG2 to PTGDR2 instead activates the Gi alpha subunit, decreasing cAMP levels and increasing intracellular calcium ion levels through inositol phosphate. These distinctions in signal transduction pathways mediate the different effects of these PDG2 receptor subtypes.
Disease relevance
Inflammation: PTGDR1 signaling results in many non-inflammatory effects, such as inhibition of dendritic cell and Langerhans cell migration and eosinophil apoptosis. PTGDR2 mediates several pro-inflammatory effects, including the stimulation of TH2 cells, ILC2, and eosinophils.
Asthma: Activation of PTGDR2 amplifies an inflammation cascade by upregulating the expression and release of type 2 cytokines through TH2 cells, ILC2 cells, and eosinophils. These type 2 cytokines lead to symptoms like airway inflammation, increased mucus production, and mucus metaplasia, which are found in asthma conditions. Increase in PTGDR1 signal transduction results in vasodilation, which can promote the migration and likelihood of survival for inflammatory cell types.
Neurodegeneration: A 2018 study induced the prostaglandin D2 signaling pathway in mice via PTGDR2 to determine the impact on Parkinson's Disease-like pathology. The researchers observed that the mice with PG treatment developed loss of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta, motor deficits, and other progressive disease-like symptoms. They also discovered PGD2 receptors on dopaminergic cells but not on microglia.
See also
Eicosanoid receptor
Prostaglandin E2 receptor
References
External links
Eicosanoids
G protein-coupled receptors | Prostaglandin D2 receptor | [
"Chemistry"
] | 918 | [
"G protein-coupled receptors",
"Signal transduction"
] |
47,666,687 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostaglandin%20E2%20receptor | {{DISPLAYTITLE:Prostaglandin E2 receptor}}
The prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) receptors are G protein-coupled receptors that bind and are activated by prostaglandin E2. They are members of the prostaglandin receptors class of receptors and include the following Protein isoforms:
Prostaglandin E2 receptor 1 (EP1) -
Prostaglandin E2 receptor 2 (EP2) -
Prostaglandin E2 receptor 3 (EP3) -
Prostaglandin E2 receptor 4 (EP4) -
Research
An antagonist of a prostaglandin E2 receptor has been shown to serve as an affective contraceptive for female macaques while unaffecting their menstrual cyclicity as well as hormonal patterns. The exact reason behind the reduced amount of successful pregnancies of primates during the study is unclear due a number of possibilities that may affect such result.
Inhibition of the prostaglandin EP4 receptor has been shown to inhibit tumor growth, angiogenesis, lymphangiogenesis, and metastasis.
Prostaglandin E2 and its effect on inflammation
Prostaglandins are derived from the parent molecule arachidonic acid. The synthesis of prostaglandins can be blocked by anti-inflammatory drugs such as ibuprofen. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) block the synthesis of cyclooxygenases (COX) which in turn produce prostaglandins. Prostaglandins (PG) are the result of an enzyme cascade pathway that includes two enzymes cyclooxygenase and PG synthase. Prostaglandin E2 is produced by PGE synthase via the activation of EP1-4 receptors. Prostaglandin E2 is associated with the development of vascular diseases that lead to inflammation in the body. In the human body, PGE2 is involved in the control of the vascular smooth muscle, cell migration, and the division of a cell into two daughter cells. The process of producing two daughter cells via cell division is called cell proliferation.
See also
Prostaglandin receptors
Prostaglandin
References
External links
Eicosanoids
G protein-coupled receptors | Prostaglandin E2 receptor | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 481 | [
"Biotechnology stubs",
"Signal transduction",
"Biochemistry stubs",
"G protein-coupled receptors",
"Biochemistry"
] |
47,666,980 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boletus%20separans | Boletus separans is a species of bolete fungus in the family Boletaceae. It was described as new to science in 1873 by American mycologist Charles Horton Peck. In 1998, Roy Halling and Ernst Both transferred the bolete to the genus Xanthoconium. Molecular phylogenetic analysis published in 2013 shows that it is more closely related to Boletus sensu stricto than to Xanthoconium.
The species is a choice edible mushroom.
See also
List of Boletus species
List of North American boletes
References
External links
separans
Edible fungi
Fungi described in 1873
Fungi of North America
Taxa named by Charles Horton Peck
Fungus species | Boletus separans | [
"Biology"
] | 138 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
47,667,222 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodactina%20incarnata | Rhodactina incarnata is a species of secotioid fungus in the family Boletaceae. It is found in the sandy soil of dry, Dipterocarpaceae-dominated forests in Chiang Mai, northern Thailand. The fungus was described as new to science in 2006, becoming the second species in genus Rhodactina. The specific epithet incarnata, derived from the Latin for "flesh-colored," refers to the fruitbody color.
References
External links
Boletaceae
Fungi described in 2006
Fungi of Asia
Secotioid fungi
Fungus species | Rhodactina incarnata | [
"Biology"
] | 119 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
47,668,294 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xanthoconium%20chattoogaense | Xanthoconium chattoogaense is a species of bolete fungus in the genus Xanthoconium. Described as new to science in 1987, it is found in North Carolina, where it grows on sandy soil under Quercus alba, Quercus rubra, Acer rubrum, and Rhododendron maximum. The specific epithet refers to the Chattooga River, close to which the type collection was found.
See also
List of North American boletes
References
External links
Boletaceae
Fungi described in 1987
Fungi of the United States
Fungi without expected TNC conservation status
Fungus species | Xanthoconium chattoogaense | [
"Biology"
] | 124 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
47,668,333 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xanthoconium%20montaltoense | Xanthoconium montaltoense is a species of bolete fungus in the genus Xanthoconium. Described as new to science in 1987, it is found in Pennsylvania, where it grows on soil under Betula lenta and Tsuga canadensis. The specific epithet montaltoense refers to Mont Alto campus of Pennsylvania State University, close to the type locality.
See also
List of North American boletes
References
External links
Boletaceae
Fungi described in 1987
Fungi of the United States
Fungi without expected TNC conservation status
Fungus species | Xanthoconium montaltoense | [
"Biology"
] | 114 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
47,668,350 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xanthoconium%20montanum | Xanthoconium montanum is a species of bolete fungus in the genus Xanthoconium. Described as new to science in 1987, it is found in North Carolina, where it grows on sandy soil under Pinus strobus, Tsuga canadensis, and Rhododendron maximum. The specific epithet montanum refers to the location of the type collection, in the mountains of southwestern North Carolina.
See also
List of North American boletes
References
External links
Boletaceae
Fungi described in 1987
Fungi of the United States
Fungi without expected TNC conservation status
Fungus species | Xanthoconium montanum | [
"Biology"
] | 122 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
47,668,419 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xanthoconium%20purpureum | Xanthoconium purpureum is a species of bolete fungus in the genus Xanthoconium. It was described as new to science in 1962 by Wally Snell and Esther Dick in 1962. It is found in eastern North America, where it fruits under oak, sometimes in oak-pine forests.
See also
List of North American boletes
References
External links
Boletaceae
Fungi described in 1962
Fungus species | Xanthoconium purpureum | [
"Biology"
] | 88 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
47,668,926 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid%E2%80%93liquid%20critical%20point | A liquid–liquid critical point (or LLCP) is the endpoint of a liquid–liquid phase transition line (LLPT); it is a critical point where two types of local structures coexist at the exact ratio of unity. This hypothesis was first developed by Peter Poole, Francesco Sciortino, Uli Essmann and H. Eugene Stanley in Boston to obtain a quantitative understanding of the huge number of anomalies present in water.
Near a liquid–liquid critical point, there is always a competition between two alternative local structures. For instance, in supercooled water, two types of local structures have been predicted: a low-density local configuration (LD) and a high-density local configuration (HD), so above the critical pressure, the liquid is composed by a majority of HD local structure, while below the critical pressure a higher fraction of LD local configurations is present. The ratio between HD and LD configurations is determined according to the thermodynamic equilibrium of the system, which is often governed by external variables such as pressure and temperature.
The liquid–liquid critical point theory can be applied to several liquids that possess the tetrahedral symmetry. The study of liquid–liquid critical points is an active research area with hundreds of articles having been published, though only a few of these investigations have been experimental since most modern probing techniques are not fast and/or sensitive enough to study them.
References
Critical phenomena
Phase transitions
Ice | Liquid–liquid critical point | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry",
"Materials_science",
"Mathematics"
] | 295 | [
"Physical phenomena",
"Phase transitions",
"Critical phenomena",
"Phases of matter",
"Condensed matter physics",
"Statistical mechanics",
"Matter",
"Dynamical systems"
] |
47,669,007 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grote%E2%80%93Hynes%20theory | Grote–Hynes theory is a theory of reaction rate in a solution phase. This rate theory was developed by James T. Hynes with his graduate student Richard F. Grote in 1980.
The theory is based on the generalized Langevin equation (GLE). This theory introduced the concept of frequency dependent friction for chemical rate processes in solution phase. Because of inclusion of the frequency dependent friction instead of constant friction, the theory successfully predicts the rate constant including where the reaction barrier is large and of high frequency, where the diffusion over the barrier starts decoupling from viscosity of the medium. This was the weakness of Kramer's rate theory, which underestimated the reaction rate having large barrier with high frequency.
References
Physical chemistry | Grote–Hynes theory | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry"
] | 155 | [
"Physical chemistry",
"Applied and interdisciplinary physics",
"Physical chemistry stubs",
"nan"
] |
76,148,547 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unexpected%20red%20theory | The unexpected red theory is a design theory asserting that incorporating red-colored home accessories can enhance interior design. Coined by Taylor Migliazzo Simon, a designer based in Williamsburg, Brooklyn, the theory first attained popularity on the social media platform TikTok in January 2024, and eventually received widespread coverage across various design magazines.
Critical analysis and reception
Design journalists and publications have created listicles to highlight interior spaces, such as houses and hotels, that reflect the theory.
In Real Simple, journalist Morgan Noll wrote that "red is one of the most visible colors in the color spectrum so it has a strong ability to grab attention and attract the eye."
In The Daily Telegraph, Sophie Robinson, a designer, criticized that “you can’t just add red to any room – it’s just not that simple. It can look jarring.”
References
Design
Interior design
Internet culture
2020s fads and trends
2024 neologisms
2020s neologisms | Unexpected red theory | [
"Engineering"
] | 195 | [
"Design stubs",
"Design"
] |
76,148,894 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russula%20californiensis | Russula californiensis is a species of gilled mushroom. It is endemic to California in North America. First described by Gertrude Simmons Burlingham in 1936, R. californiensis is usually found in fall and winter in association with Monterey pine and bishop pine. The cap is semi-viscid when wet, and coral to brown in color, with creamy splotches possibly developing as it ages. The stipe stains gray or black. Similar-looking mushrooms with potential geographical overlap include Russula sanguinaria and Russula queletii.
See also
Russula cremoricolor
List of Russula species
References
californiensis
Fungi of North America
Fungus species
Fungi described in 1936 | Russula californiensis | [
"Biology"
] | 145 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
76,149,757 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vibrational%20solvatochromism | Vibrational solvatochromism refers to changes in the vibrational frequencies of molecules due to variations in the solvent environment. Solvatochromism is a broader term that describes changes in the electronic or vibrational properties of a molecule in response to changes in the solvent polarity or composition. In the context of vibrational solvatochromism, researchers study how the vibrational spectra of a molecule, which represent the different vibrational modes of its chemical bonds, are influenced by the properties of the solvent.
Understanding vibrational solvatochromism helps researchers to characterize molecular environments and study molecular dynamics in different solvents and biological environments.
Dielectric continuum model
By considering the intermolecular interaction of the solute molecule with a dielectric continuum solvent, one can obtain a general relationship between the vibrational frequency and intermolecular interaction potential. This relationship is given by the sum of three contributions: (1) Coulombic term describing an interaction between the permanent dipole moment of the molecule and electric field, (2) induction term describing interaction with the induced dipole moment, (3) electric field-correction term which arises from the change of the electric field along the normal coordinate of the vibration. When we consider only the linear terms with respect to the Onsagar reaction field, , the frequency shift for the jth normal mode can be given as
where and are the effective gas-phase and solvent-induced vibrational dipole moment, respectively. Despite the limited validity due to the approximate nature of the dielectric continuum solvent model, researchers still often use this theory for vibrational solvatochromism, especially when a more refined model is challenging to implement.
Electrostatic Effect: Distributed Multipole Analysis
The solvent electric field experienced by a given solute molecule in solution is highly nonuniform in space. For a realistic description of vibrational solvatochromism, one should consider the local electric potential created by surrounding solvent molecules. Assuming that the solute-solvent intermolecular interaction potential can be fully described by the distributed charges, dipoles, and high-order multipoles interacting with solvent electric potential and its gradients, it was shown that the vibrational solvatochromic frequency shift is given as
Here, the vibrational solvatochromic charge (), dipole (), quadrupole (), and octupole () terms can be determined using any distributed multipole expansion method.[5] The above Equation can be interpreted as a type of vibrational spectroscopic map.
Quantum chemistry calculations conducted for various IR probes have revealed that terms up to vibrational solvatochromic quadrupoles are essential for adequately describing the vibrational frequency shift.
Electrostatic Effect: Semiempirical Approaches
The vibrational frequency shift, denoted as , for the jth normal mode is defined as the difference between the actual vibrational frequency of the mode in a solution and the frequency in the gas phase.
An early approach aimed to express the solvation-induced vibrational frequency shift in terms of the solvent electric potentials evaluated at distributed atomic sites on the target solute molecule. This method involves calculating the solvent electric potentials at these specific solute sites through the utilization of atomic partial charges from surrounding solvent molecules. The vibrational frequency shift of the solute molecule, denoted as , for the jth vibrational mode with an atomic configuration of the solvent molecules can be represented as
Here, represents the vibrational frequency of the jth normal mode in solution, signifies the vibrational frequency in the gas phase, denotes the number of distributed sites on the solute molecule, denotes the solvent electric potential at the kth site of the solute molecule, and are the parameters to be determined through least-square fitting to a training database comprising clusters containing a solute and multiple solvent molecules. This method provides a means to quantify the impact of solvation on the vibrational frequencies of the solute molecule.
Another widely used model for characterizing vibrational solvatochromic frequency shifts involves expressing the frequency shift in terms of solvent electric fields evaluated at distributed sites on the target solute molecule. This model is represented by the equation:
Here, is the mth Cartesian component of the solvent electric field at the kth site on the solute molecule, and represent parameters to be determined through least-square fitting to a training database of clusters containing a solute and multiple solvent molecules. This approach provides a framework for quantifying the influence of solvent electric fields on the vibrational frequencies of the solute molecule.
General solute-solvent interaction effects
Buckingham developed the general theory describing the vibrational frequency shifts of a spatially localized normal mode in solution based on the intermolecular interaction potential. Cho later generalized this theory to any arbitrary normal mode. Solvation-induced vibrational frequencies and the resulting new set of normal modes of the solute molecule in solution can be directly obtained by diagonalizing the Hessian matrix derived from an effective Hamiltonian for the solute in the presence of a molecular environment. In the limiting case that the vibrational couplings of the normal mode of interest with other vibrational modes are relatively weak, the vibrational frequency shift is given by
where and are the electric anharmonicity (EA) and mechanical anharmonicity (MA), respectively, defined as
and
where is the cubic anharmonic constant. There exist cases in which the weak coupling approximation cannot be acceptable, for example, when normal modes are coupled and delocalized. In those cases, an additional term describing the mode coupling contribution to the frequency shift should be included.
See also
Vibrational spectroscopic map
References
Infrared spectroscopy | Vibrational solvatochromism | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry"
] | 1,160 | [
"Infrared spectroscopy",
"Spectroscopy",
"Spectrum (physical sciences)"
] |
76,149,815 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics%20Forums | Physics Forums is a question and answer Internet forum that allows users to ask, answer and comment on grade-school through graduate-level science questions. In addition, Physics Forums hosts the Insights Blog which is a collaborative blog sourced from verified experts on the community.
Authors of scientific papers have used Physics Forums to write popular explanations of their research. In turn, this forum entries have been referenced by popular science news websites. Notable members and blog authors past and present include John C. Baez, Urs Schreiber, Antony Garrett Lisi. Physics Forums entries have also been cited in scientific papers.
History
Physics Forums was started as a school project in the spring of 2001 by Greg Bernhardt.
Physics Forums entered content partnerships with Scientific American magazine in 2005.
Awards
Physics Forums won the 2010 “People’s Choice” award for best Q&A online physics community by physics.org.
As of 2023, Physics Forums is ranked 8th on “Aelieve's List of 20 Best Physics Websites”.
See also
MathOverflow
Stack Exchange
nLab
PhysicsOverflow
References
Physics education
Physics websites
Question-and-answer websites
Internet properties established in 2001 | Physics Forums | [
"Physics"
] | 232 | [
"Applied and interdisciplinary physics",
"Physics education"
] |
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